chapter 42

diffusion isn't efficient

two types of circulatory systems, open and closed
all circulatory systems have three main parts, circulatory fluid, blood vessels, and
muscular pump
the heart powers circulation by elevating hydrostatic pressure (blood pressure)
open circulatory system: in most insects, no distinction between blood and
interstitial fluid, also called hemolymph. Hemolymph is pumped into
interconnected system of sinuses, which are spaces surrounding the organs.
closed circulatory system: blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from
interstitial fluid.
open circulatory systems have less blood pressure, which uses less energy. They
also take less energy to build.
Closed systems are more effective at transporting fluid to meet high demands.
cardiovascular system: present in humans. Heart has two atria that receive
blood traveling back to heart, and ventricles, which pump blood out.
arteries, veins, capillaries are three main kinds of blood vessels. Arteries carry blood
away from heart and into arterioles, small vessels that convey blood to capillaries.
Capillaries lie in capillary beds, and are small vessels where chemicals and gases
are diffused.
Veins return blood to the heart.
Fish
two heart chambers, one ventricle and one atrium
ventricle to gill (gill circulation), gas exchange in capillaries
gills to other parts of body (systematic circulation), gas exchange
Amphibians
three chambered heart, two atria and one ventricle
blood from ventricle split into pulmocutaneous circuit and systemic circuit
pulmocutaneous circuit leads to capillaries in the lungs
systemic circuit supplies organs
some mixing of oxygen-rich and poor blood
called double circulation
Reptiles (except birds)
double circulation with pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit
less mixing of blood
mammals and birds
ventricle divided into left and right
no mixing of bloods
uses more energy but delivers more oxygen
42.2

cardiac cycle: one complete sequence of pumping and filling of the heart
systole: contraction phase
diastole: relaxation phase
atrioventricular (AV) valve: located between atria and ventricles, two in total
semilunar valves: located at the two exits of the heart, aorta and pulmonary
artery
region of heart called the sinoatrial (SA) node, or pacemaker, controls the rate
of the heart, located in the wall of the right atrium
myogenic heart: pacemaker is made of special tissue and located inside the heart
neurogenic heart: pacemaker located outside of the heart
atrioventricular node (AV node): located in the wall between the right atrium
and right ventricle, delays signal from pacemaker to allow atrium to completely
empty
42.3
endothelium lines the lumen of all blood vessels, a single layer of cells that
provides a smooth surface and minimizes resistance to flow of blood
capillaries are thin and composed of only endothelium and basement membrane,
facilitates exchange of substances
arteries have thicker middle and outer layers
blood moves through veins mainly through muscle action
two ways blood flow to capillaries is controlled: arteries reduce their diameter by
constricting smooth muscle; precapillary sphincters located at entrance to capillary
beds
lost fluid from capillaries return to blood via the lymphatic system
fluid enters by diffusing into tiny lymph capillaries, fluid is called lymph
lymph nodes filter the lymph and attack foreign bacteria and viruses
42.4
blood consists of several kinds of cells suspended in liquid called plasma, which
makes up 55% of blood
plasma is 90% water, contains inorganic salts in the form of ions (electrolytes), and
buffers the blood pH
plasma proteins act as buffers, maintain osmotic balance, and contribute to
viscosity
red blood cells: transport oxygen and CO2, also known as erythrocytes
white blood cells: defense of body, also known as leukocytes. Five main types,
monocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, and lymphocytes
platelets: fragments of cells involved in clotting
hemoglobin: an iron-containing protein that transports oxygen
all three originate from stem cells located in the red marrow of bones
when not enough oxygen is being received, body secretes hormone EPO which
stimulates production of erythrocytes

fibrinogen: an inactive form of sealant, plasma protein converts it to fibrin, which

aggregates in threads and creates blood clots
LDLs: low density lipoproteins, or bad cholesterol, creates plaques
HDLs: high density lipoproteins, good cholesterol, reduces deposition of cholesterol
atherosclerosis: thinning of blood vessels due to plaque buildup, increases risk of
stroke or heart attack
hypertension: high blood pressure
heart attack: death of cardiac muscle tissue after blood flow is blocked
stroke: death of nervous tissue in brain, after blood flow is blocked
42.5
parts of body where gases are exchanged are called respiratory surface
all gas exchange occurs via diffusion
gills: outfoldings of the body surface suspended in water; easy to keep surface
moist, but water carries low concentration of oxygen
ventilation: increasing rate of flow of respiratory medium over the surface to
increase oxygen uptake
countercurrent exchange: blood flows in gills counter to the current of water,
making uptake of oxygen efficient
tracheal system in insects is made of multiple air tubes, with largest tubes
opening to outside
large insects use rhythmic body movements to compress and expand tracheal
system like bellows
lungs: restricted to one location, with circulatory system bringing oxygen to cells
have spongy texture
larynx: upper part of respiratory tract, tips upwards and allows epiglottis to close
over windpipe when eating. Exhaled air rushes over two vocal chords that vibrate
air passes into trachea, or windpipe. Forks into two bronchi, one leading to each
lung, then branches into finer tubes called bronchioles
at tips, dead ends into alveoli, clusters of air sacs where gas exchange occurs
42.6
positive pressure breathing: muscles lower floor of oral cavity, drawing in air
through nostrils, then constrict and force air down trachea
negative pressure breathing: pulls air instead of pushing it into lungs, due to
contraction of rib muscles and diaphram
volume of air inhaled and exhaled is called tidal volume
main control regions for breathing located in medulla oblongata and pons
sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries monitor gas concentrations in blood
high carbon dioxide levels lows pH level
42.7
respiratory pigments circulate with blood, inside of specialized cells. Binds
oxygen.

hemocyanin: type of respiratory pigment, has copper as binding component, colors

blood blue
hemoglobin: consists of four subunits, each with cofactor containing iron, can carry
four oxygen molecules at once
Bohr shift: drop in pH lowers affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen