The Internet

UNIT 1

THE INTERNET

Structure
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6

Introduction
Objectives
Classification of Networks
Networking Models
What is Packet Switching?
Accessing the Internet
Internet Protocols
1.6.1
1.6.2

1.7

1.12
1.13
1.14

1.0

16
17
18
21

Domain Name System

SMTP and Electronic Mail
Http and World Wide Web
Usenet and Newgroups
FTP
Telnet

Internet Tools
1.12.1
1.12.2

14

Structure of Internet Servers Address

Address Space

How does the Internet Work?

Intranet & Extranet
Internet Infrastructure
Protocols and Services on Internet
1.11.1
1.11.2
1.11.3
1.11.4
1.11.5
1.11.6

5
6
6
7
10
10
12

Internet Protocol (IP)

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Internet Address
1.7.1
1.7.2

1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11

Page No.

27

Search Engines
Web Browser

Summary
Solutions/ Answers

28
28

INTRODUCTION

The Internet is worldwide computer network that interconnects, million of computing

devices throughout the world. Most of these devices are PCs, and servers that store
and transmit information such as web pages and e-mail messages. Internet is
revolutionizing and enhancing the way we as humans communicate, both locally and
around the globe. Everyone wants to be a part of it because the Internet literally puts
a world of information and a potential worldwide audience at your fingertips.
The Internet evolved from the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency) to
which other networks were added to form an inter network. The present Internet is a
collection of several hundred thousand of networks rather than a single network.
From there evolved a high-speed backbone of Internet access for sharing these of
networks. The end of the decade saw the emergence of the World Wide Web, which
heralded a platform-independent means of communication enhanced with a pleasant
and relatively easy-to-use graphical interface.
World Wide Web is an example of an information protocol/service that can be
used to send and receive information over the Internet. It supports:
x
x
x

Multimedia Information (text, movies, pictures, sound, programs . . . ).

HyperText Information (information that contains links to other information
resources).
Graphic User Interface (so users can point and click to request information
instead of typing in text commands).

The World Wide Web model follows Cient/Server software design. A service that
uses client/server design requires two pieces of software to work: Client Software,
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Scripting Languages

which you use to request information, and Server Software, which is an

Information Provider.
The server software for the World Wide Web is called an HTTP server (or
informally a Web server). Examples are Mac HTTP, CERN HTTP, and NCSA
HTTP. The client software for World Wide Web is called a Web browser. Examples
are: Netscape, and Internet Explorer.

1.1

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit students should be able to:

x
x
x
x
x
x

1.2

Make classification of networks;

understand two types of networking models;
understand the concept of packet switching;
understand how to access to the internet;
list the services available on Internet; and
understand how does the Internet works.

CLASSIFICATION OF NETWORKS

There are different approaches to the classification of compute Networks. One such
classification is based on the distance approach. In this section we will discuss such
networks.
The networks can be classified into LAN, MAN and WAN networks. Here, we
describe them into brief to understand the difference between the types of network.
Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN is a privately - owned computer networks confined to small geographical area,
such as an office or a factory widely used to connect office PCs to share information
and resources. In a Local area network two or more computers are connected by same
physical medium, such as a transmission cable. An important characteristic of Local
Area networks is speed. i.e. they deliver the data very fast compared to other types of
networks with typical data transmission speed are 10-100 Mbps.
A wide variety of LANs have been built and installed, but a few types have more
recently become dominant. The most widely used LAN system is the Ethernet
system. Intermediate nodes (i.e. repeaters, bridges and switches) allow LANs to be
connected together to form larger LANs. A LAN may also be connected to another
LAN or to WANs and MANs using a router.
In summary, a LAN is a communications network, which is:
x
x
x

local (i.e. one building or group of buildings)

controlled by one administrative authority
usually high speed and is always shared

LAN allows users to share resources on computers within an organization.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A MAN, basically a bigger versions of a LAN is designed to extend over an entire
city. It may be single network such as a cable television network, or it may be a
means of connecting a number of LANs into a large network so that resources may be
shared for example, a company can use a MAN to connect the LANs in all of its
offices throughout a city.

The Internet

A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter. Many MANs

cover an area the size of a city, although in some cases MANs may be as small as a
group of buildings
The MAN, its communications links and equipment are generally owned by either a
consortium of users or by a single network provider who sells the service to the users.
This level of service provided to each user must therefore be negotiated with the
MAN operator, and some performance guarantees are normally specified.
A MAN often acts as a high-speed network to allow sharing of regional resources
(similar to a large LAN). It is also frequently used to provide a shared connection to
other networks using a link to a WAN.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
The term Wide Area Network (WAN) usually refers to a network, which covers a
large geographical area, and use communications subnets (circuits) to connect the
intermediate nodes. A major factor impacting WAN design and performance is a
requirement that they lease communication subsets from telephone companies or
other communications carriers. Transmission rates are typically 2 Mbps, 34 Mbps,
155 Mbps, 625 Mbps (or sometimes considerably more). The basic purpose of the
subnet is to transmit message from one end to another end through intermediate
nodes.
In most WAN a subnet consists of two types of elements: (i) Transmission lines (ii)
Switching element.
Transmission lines also called channels move about from one machine to another
machine. The basic purpose of the switching element is to select the outgoing path for
forwarding the message.
Numerous WANs have been constructed, including public switched networks, large
corporate networks, military networks, banking networks, stock brokerage networks,
and airline reservation networks. A WAN is wholly owned and used by a single
company is often referred to as an enterprises network.

1.3

NETWORKING MODELS

There are two types of networking models available: OSI reference Model and the
TCP/IP Network Model for the design of computer network system. In this section
we shall look at these models.
OSI (Open System Interconnection) Networking Model
An open system is a model that allows any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture. The purpose of the OSI model is to open
communication between different devices without requiring changes to the logic of
the underlying hardware and software.
The OSI model is not a protocol, it is a model for understanding and designing a
network architecture that is inter- operable, flexible and robust.
The OSI model has a seven-layered architecture. These are:

Application layer
Presentation layer
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Scripting Languages

Session layer
Transport Layer
Network layer
Data link layer
Physical Layer
Figure 1: OSI Model

Physical layer: the physical layer is concerned with sending raw bits between the
source and destination nodes over a physical medium. The source and destination
nodes have to agree on a number of factors.
Signal encoding: how are the bits 0 and 1 to be represented?
Medium: what is the medium used and its properties?
Bit synchronization: is the transmission synchronous or asynchronous?
Transmission type: whether the transmission is serial or parallel?
Transmission mode: is the transmission simplex, half-duplex or full duplex?
Topology: what is the network topology i.e. star, mesh, ring or bus?
Data link layer: the data link layer is responsible for transmitting a group of bits
between the adjacent nodes. The group of bits is known as frame. The network layer
passes a data unit to the data link layer and data link layer adds the header
information to this data unit. The data link layer performs the following functions:
x
x
x
x
x
x

Addressing: Headers and trailers are added containing the physical addresses
of the adjacent nodes and removed on a successful delivery.
Framing: Grouping of/bits received from the network layer into manageable
units called frame
Flow control: to regulate the amount of data that can be sent to the receiver.
Media access control (MAC): who decide who can send data, when and how
much.
Synchronization: this layer also contains bits to synchronize the timing to
know the bit interval to recognize the bit correctly.
Error control: it incorpoprates the CRC to ensure the correctness of the frame.
Node to node delivery: its also responsible for error-free delivery of the entire
frame/packet to the next adjacent node.

Network layer: The network layer is responsible for routing a packet within the
subnet that is, from source to destination nodes across multiple nodes in the same
network or across multiple networks. This layer also ensures the successful delivery
of a packet to the destination node. The network layer performs the following
functions:
x
x
x

Routing: To find the optimal route

Congestion control: which is based on two approaches (i) Increase on the
resources (ii) Decrease the word
Accounting and billing

Transport layer: this layer is the first end-to-end layer. Header of the transport layer
contains information that helps send the message to the corresponding layer at the
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The Internet

destination node. The message is broken into packets and may travel through a
number of intermediate nodes. This layer takes care of error control and flow control
both at the source and destination for the entire message. The responsibilities of the
transport layer are:
x
x
x

Host-to-host message delivery

Flow Control
Segmentation and reassembly

Session layer: the main functions of this layer are to establish, maintain and
synchronize the interaction between two communication hosts. It makes sure that
once a session is established it must be closed gracefully. It also checks and
establishes connections between the hosts of two different users. The session layer
also decides whether both users can send as well as receive data at the same time or
whether only one host can send and the other can receive. The responsibilities of
session layer are:
x
x
x

Sessions and sub sessions: this layer divides a session into sub session for
avoiding retransmission of entire message by adding the checkpoint feature.
Synchronization: this layer decides the order in which data needs to be passed
to the transport layer.
Dialog control: this layer also decides which user application sends data and at
what point of time and whether the communication is simplex, half duplex or
full duplex.
Session closure: this layer ensures that the session between the hosts is closed
gracefully.

Presentation layer: when two hosts are communicating with each other they might
use different coding standards and character sets for representing data internally. This
layer is responsible for taking care of such differences. This layer is responsible for:
x
x
x

Data encryption and decryption for security

Compression
Translation

Application layer: its the topmost layer in the OSI model, which enables the user to
access the network. This layer provides user interface for network applications such
as remote login, World Wide Web and FTP. The responsibilities of the application
layer are:
x
x
x
x

File access and transfer

Mail services
Remote login
World Wide Web

TCP/IP Networking Model

TCP/IP is an acronym for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. TCP/ IP
is a collection of protocols, applications and services. TCP/IP protocol were
developed prior to the OSI model therefore its layers do not match with the OSI
model.
The TCP/IP protocol suit is made of the five layers: Physical, data link, network,
transport & application. The first four layers provide physical standards network
interface, internetworking and transport mechanism whereas the last layer comprises
of the functionalities of the three topmost layers in the OSI model.

1.4

WHAT IS A PACKET SWITCHING?

Scripting Languages

End systems are connected together by communication links. There are many types
of communication links, which are made of different types of physical media,
including fiber optics, twisted pair, coaxial cable and radio links. Different links can
transmit data at different rates. The link transmission rate is often called the
bandwith of the link, which is typically measured in bits/second. The highest the
bandwith, the more is the capacity of the channel. End systems are not usually
directly attached to each other via a single communication link. Instead, they are
indirectly connected to each other through intermediate switching devices known as
routers. A router takes a chunk of information arriving on one of its incoming
communication links and forwards that chunk of information on one of its outgoing
communication links. In the jargon of computer networking, the chunk of
information is called a packet. The path that the packet takes from the sending end
system, through a series of communication links and routers, to the receiving end
system is known as a route or path through the network. Rather than providing a
dedicated path between communicating end systems, the Internet uses a technique
known as packet switching that allows multiple communicating end systems to share
a path, or parts of a path, at the same time. Similar to a router, there is another
special machine called gateways used in the network that allows different networks to
talk to the Internet, which uses TCP/IP.
Packet switching is used to avoid long delays in transmitting data over the network.
Packet switching is a technique, which limits the amount of data that a computer can
transfer on each turn. Packet switching allows many communications to proceed
simultaneously. Each packet contains a header that specifies the computer to which
the packet should be delivered and the destination is specified using computers
address. Computers that share access to a network take turns in sending packets. On
each turn, a given computer sends one packet. IP uses this packet switching concept
to deliver messages on the Internet If the destination address does not exist on the
local network, it is the responsibility of that networks router to route the message
one step closer to its destination. This process continues until the destination machine
claims the message packet.

1.5

ACCESSING THE INTERNET

Before we can use the Internet, we have to gain access to it. This access is achieved
in one of several ways, which we will discuss in this section. Above all, the Internet
is a collection of networks that are connected together through various protocols and
hardware.
Dial-up Connection: one of the commonest ways of connection to Internet is
through dial up connection using a modem and a telephone line. Using these you can
connect to a host machine on the Internet. Once connected the telecommunications
software allows you to communicate with the Internet host. When the software runs it
uses the modem to place a telephone call to a modem that connects to a computer
attached to the Internet.
The SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) or PPP (Point to Point Protocol): two
protocols; serial line interface protocol (SLIP) and the point-to-point protocol
(PPP), allow a user to dial into the Internet. They convert the normal telephone data
stream into TCP/IP packets and send them to the network. With these, the user
becomes a peer station on the Internet and has access to all of the Internets facilities.
Internet Service Providers
As mentioned earlier, nobody truly owns the Internet, but it is maintained by a group
of volunteers interested in supporting this mode of information interchange. Central
to this control is the Internet service provider (ISP) which is an important component
in the Internet system. Each ISP is a network of routers and communication links.
The different ISPs provide a variety of different types of network access to the end
systems, including 56 Kbps dial-up modem access, residential broadband access such
10

The Internet

as cable modem or DSL, high-speed LAN access, and wireless access. ISPs also
provide Internet access to content providers, connecting Web sites directly to the
Internet. To allow communication among Internet users and to allow users to access
worldwide Internet content, these lower-tier ISPs are interconnected through national
and international upper-tier ISPs, such as Sprint. An upper-tier ISP consists of highspeed routers interconnected with high-speed fiber-optic links. Each ISP network,
whether upper-tier or lower-tier, is managed independently, runs the IP protocol (see
below), and conforms to certain naming and address conventions.
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) Service
The whole idea of ISDN is to digitize the telephone network to permit the
transmission of audio, video and text over existing telephone lines. The purpose of
the ISDN is to provide fully integrated digital services to users.
The use of ISDN for accessing the Internet has breathed new life into the ISDN
service. ISDNs slow acceptance was due mostly to a lack of a need for its
capabilities. Being a digital interface, ISDN has provided a means for accessing web
sites quickly and efficiently. In response to this new demand, telephone companies
are rapidly adding ISDN services.
The ISDN standard defines three channels types, each with the different transmission
rate: bearer channel (B), data channel (D) and hybrid channel (H) (see the following
table)
Channel
B
D
H

Data Rate (Kbps)

64
16, 64
384, 1536, 1920

The B channel is defined at a rate of 64 Kbps. It is the basic user channel and can
carry any type of digital information in full duplex mode as long as the required
transmission does not exceed 64 kbps. A data channel can be either 16 or 64 kbps
depending on the needs of the user used to carry control signals for B channels.
Of the two basic rate B channels, one is used to upload data to the Internet and one to
download from the Internet. The D Channel assists in setting up connection and
maintaining flow control. There are three ways ISDN can be used to interface to the
Internet, by using a modem, adaptor, or bridge/router. ISDN modems and adaptors
limit access to a single user. Both terminate the line into an ISDN service. The
difference between them is that the ISDN modem takes the Internet traffic and pushes
it through the computer serial port, while, the faster ISDN adaptor connects directly
to the computers buses.
ISDN bridge/routers allow for local network connections to be made through ISDN
to the Internet. The ISDN termination is made into an Ethernet-type LAN so that
multiple users can achieve access to the Net through a single access address.
Transfer rates between user and the Internet are between 56 and 128 Kbps.

Direct ISP Service through Leased Line

The most costly method of accessing the Internet is to use leased lines that connect
directly to the ISP. This will increase access rate to anywhere between 64 K and 1.5
Mbps, depending on the system in use. Equipment called data service units (DSU)
and channel service units (CSU) are set up in pairs, one pair at the customer site and
the other at the ISP site. There is no phone dialing required since the connection is
direct. Also the only protocol needed to complete the access is TCP/IP, for much the
same reason. Depending on the transfer rate required and the distance between the
sites, cabling between them can be made with fiber optic cables or unshielded
twisted-pair (UTP) copper wire.
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Scripting Languages

Cable Modem
One more way of accessing the Internet currently being developed is the use of cable
modems. These require that you subscribe to a cable service and allow you two-way
communication with the Internet at rates between 100K and 30 Mbps. The cable
modem performs modulation and demodulation like any other modem, but it also has
a tuner and filters to isolate the Internet signal from other cable signals. Part of the
concern for use of the cable modem is to formulate LAN adapters to allow multiple
users to access the Internet. A medium access control (MAC) standard for sending
data over cable is being formulated by the IEEE 802.14 committee.

1.6

INTERNET PROTOCOLS

A communication protocol is an agreement that specifies a common language two

computers use to exchange messages. For example, a protocol specifies the exact
format and meaning of each message that a computer can send. It also specifies the
conditions under which a computer should send a given message and how a computer
should respond when a message arrives. Different types of protocols are used in
Internet such as IP and TCP. A computer connected to the Internet needs both TCP
and IP software. IP provides a way of transfering a packet from its source to
destination and TCP handles the lost datagrams and delivery of datagrams. Together,
they provide a reliable way to send data across the Internet. We discuss about these
protocols in brief in the following section.

1.6.1 Internet Protocol (IP)

The Internet protocol specifies the rules that define the details of how computers
communicate. It specifies exactly how a packet must be formed and how a router
must forward each packet on toward its destination. Internet Protocol (IP) is the
protocol by which data is sent from one computer to another on the Internet. Each
computer (known as a host) on the Internet has at least one IP address that uniquely
identifies it from all other computers on the Internet. When sending or receiving data,
the message gets divided into little chunks called packet. Each of these packets
contains both the senders Internet address and the receivers address. The packet that
follows the IP specification is called an IP datagram. The Internet sends an IP
datagram across a single network by placing it inside a network packet. For network
the entire IP datagram is data. When the network packet arrives at the next computer,
the computer opens the packet and extracts the datagram. The receiver examines the
destination address on the datagram to determine how to process it. When a router,
determines that the datagram must be sent across another network, the router creates
a new network packet, encloses the datagram inside the packet and sends the packet
across another network toward its destination. When a packet carrying a datagram
arrives at its final destination, local software on the machine opens the packet and
processes the datagram. Because a message is divided into a number of packets a
different route can send each packet across the Internet. Packets can arrive in a
different order than the order they were sent in. The Internet Protocol just delivers
them. It's up to another protocol, the Transmission Control Protocol to put them back
in the right order. IP is a connectionless protocol, which means that there is no
established connection between the end points that are communicating. Each packet
that travels through the Internet is treated as an independent unit of data without any
relation to any other unit of data. In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
communication model, IP is in layer 3, the Networking Layer.

1.6.2 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP makes the Internet reliable. TCP solves many problems that can occur in a
packet switching system. TCP provide the following facilities:
x
x
12

TCP eliminates duplicate data.

TCP ensures that the data is reassembled in exactly the order it was sent

The Internet

x
x

TCP resends data when a datagram is lost.

TCP uses acknowledgements and timeouts to handle problem of loss.

The main features of TCP are:

Reliability: TCP ensures that any data sent by a sender arrives at the destination as it
was sent. There cannot be any data loss or change in the order of the data. Reliability
at the TCP has four important aspects:
x
x
x
x

Error Control
Loss control
Sequence control
Duplication control

Connection-oriented: TCP is connection-oriented. Connection-oriented means a

connection is established between the source and destination machines before any
data is sent i.e. a connection is established and maintained until such time as the
message or messages to be exchanged by the application programs at each end have
been exchanged. The connections provided by TCP are called Virtual Connections. It
means that there is no physical direct connection between the computers.
TCP is used along with the Internet Protocol to send data in the form of message
units between computers over the Internet. While IP takes care of handling the actual
delivery of the data, TCP takes care of keeping track of the individual units of data
(called Packet) that a message is divided into for efficient routing through the
Internet. TCP provides for a reliable, connection-oriented data transmission channel
between two programs. Reliable means that data sent is guaranteed to reach its
destination in the order sent or an error will be returned to the sender.
For example, when an HTML file is sent to someone from a Web server, the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) program layer in that server divides the file
into one or more packets, numbers the packets, and then forwards them individually.
Although each packet has the same destination IP address, it may get routed
differently through the network. At the other end (the client program in our
computer), TCP reassembles the individual packets and waits until they have arrived
to forward them as a single file.
TCP is responsible for ensuring that a message is divided into the packets that IP
manages and for reassembling the packets back into the complete message at the
other end. In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communication model, TCP is
in layer 4, the Transport Layer.

Check Your Progress 1

1.

State whether True or False:

a)
b)
c)
d)

e)
2.
3.

1.7

Internet is a Global network and is managed by a profit-oriented

organization.
TCP does not control duplication of packets.
For logging in to Internet you must have an account on its host machine.
A router is used at the network layer.
Internet provides only one-way communication.

What are the different layers in the TCP/IP networking Model?

Describe the facilities provided by the TCP?

INTERNET ADDRESS
13

Scripting Languages

Addresses are essential for virtually everything we do on the Internet. The IP in

TCP/IP is a mechanism for providing addresses for computers on the Internet.
Internet addresses have two forms:
x
x

Person understandable which is expressed as words

Machine understandable which is expressed as numbers

The following can be a typical person understandable address on Internet:

VVS @ ignou.ac.in
VVS is an username which in general is the name of the Internet account. This name
is same as the one, which you may use when logging into the computer on which you
have your Internet account. Logging in is the process of gaining access to your
account on a computer, which is shared by several users. Your Internet account is
created on it.
@ Connect who with where:
.ignou is a subdomain (could be several in each could be separated by (dot). Last one
is referred to a domain).
.edu is a domain top or what part in It refers to where part which is a country
code.

1.7.1 Structure of Internet Servers Address

The structure of an Internet servers address keyed into a clients software is as
follows:
http://www.microsoft.com
Where:
http is the communication protocol to be used
www is the notation for World Wide Web
.Microsoft is the registered domain Name associated with the IP address of an
Internet Server.
.com the server provides commercial services to clients who connect to it.
To help to speed up access, its IP address can be directly represented in form of
numbers. 127.57.13.1 instead of the domain name, microsoft.com. In this case no
name resolution needs to take place.
An Internet address is a unique 32-bit number that is typically expressed as four 8-bit
octets, with each octet separated by a period. Each of the octets can take on any
number from 0 through 255.
Hosts, Domains and Subdomains
Hosts are in general, individual machines at a particular location. Resources of a host
machine is normally shared and can be utilized by any user on Internet. Hosts and
local networks are grouped together into domains, which then are grouped together
into one more larger domains. For an analogy a host computer is considered as an
apartment building in a housing complex and your account is just an apartment in it.
Domain may be an apartment complex, a town or even a country. Sub-domains may
correspond to organizations such as IGNOU. India comes under a large domain.
IN. Computers termed as name servers contain database of Internets host addresses.
They translate word addresses or persons understandable into numeric equivalents.
Let us see another example of Internet address:
http://www.ignou.ac.in
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The Internet

What does it all mean? Actually to the ISP server, very little. The server wants to see
something quite different. It wants to see a 32-bit number as an Internet address.
Something like this equivalent decimal grouping:
198.168.45.249
The Internet addresses, known as universal resources locators (URL), are translated
from one form to the other using an address resolution protocol. The first address is
in the form we are most used to and that user use to access an Internet site. In this
example, the address is for a website, identified by the hypertext transfer protocol
(http), which controls access to web pages. Following http is a delimiter sequence, ://,
and identification for the world wide web (www).
The domain name, ignou.ac follows www and identifies the general site for the
web.(dot) edu is one example of a domain top, which is a broad classification of web
users. Other common domain tops are:
.com for commerce and businesses
.gov for government agencies
.mil for military sites
.org for all kinds of organizations.
Lastly, in this example is a country code, again preceded by a dot. Here we are using
in for the India, which is the default country.
Addresses may be followed by subdomains separated by dots or slashes (/) as needed.
These addresses are translated into a 32-bit (4 decimal numeric groups) address
shown as for http:// www.ignou.ac.in we will further discuss this topic in the next
section.

1.7.2 Address Space

Internet addresses are divided into five different types of classes. The classes were
designated A through E. class A address space allows a small number of networks but
a large number of machines, while class C allows for a large number of networks but
a relatively small number of machines per network. The following figure lists five
address classes used in classical network addresses.

0
0031
0

1 0

8
Network

11 1 0

11 1 1 0

24

32

Host

Network

11 0

16

Class A

Host

Network

Class B

Host

Multicast address

Reserved for future use

Class C

Class D

Class E

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Scripting Languages
Figure 2: The IP Address Structure

Regardless of the class of address space assigned, organizations assigned a particular

class of address will not utilize the entire address space provided. This is especially in
the case of class A and Class B address allocation schemes.
Ports
A port is an additional 16-bit number that uniquely identifies the particular service on
any given machine on the Internet. Port numbers are 16 bit wide, therefore each
computer on the Internet has a maximum number of 216 or 65,536 ports. The
particular application is identified by its unique port number in the same way that a
specific television station has a unique channel number.
Port numbers are divided into three ranges:
x
x
x

Well-known ports are those from 0 through 1,023.

Registered ports are those from 1,024 through 49,151.
Dynamic and private ports are those from 49,152 through 65,535.

Well-known ports, those ranging from 0 through 1,023 are where most common
services on the Internet are residing. These ports are controlled and assigned by the
Internet Assigned Number Authority (IANA) and on most systems can be used only
by system (root) processes or by programs executed by privileged users.

1.8

HOW DOES THE INTERNET WORK?

As discussed in the previous section every computer connected to the Internet has a
unique address. Let's say your IP address is 1.2.3.4 and you want to send a message
to the computer with the IP address 5.6.7.8. The message you want to send is "Hello
computer 5.6.7.8! Let's say you've dialed into your ISP from home and the message
must be transmitted over the phone line. Therefore the message must be translated
from alphabetic text into electronic signals, transmitted over the Internet, and then
translated back into alphabetic text. How is this accomplished? Through the use of a
protocol stack. Every computer needs one to communicate on the Internet and it is
usually built into the computer's operating system (i.e. Windows, Unix, etc.). The
protocol stack used on the Internet is refered to as the TCP/IP protocol stack, which
was discussed in section 1.3.
If we were to follow the path that the message "Hello computer 5.6.7.8!" took from
our computer to the computer with IP address 5.6.7.8, it would happen something like
this:

Figure 3: Environment of the Packet Flow

1.
2.

16

The message would start at the top of the protocol stack on your computer and
work it's way downward.
If the message to be sent is long, each stack layer that the message passes
through may break the message up into smaller chunks of data. This is because
data sent over the Internet (and most computer networks) are sent in

The Internet

3.

4.
5.

6.

7.
8.

9.

1.9

manageable chunks. On the Internet, these chunks of data are known as

packets.
The packets would go through the Application Layer and continue to the TCP
layer. Each packet is assigned a port number, which is used by program on the
destination computer to receive the message because it will be listening on a
specific port.
After going through the TCP layer, the packets proceed to the IP layer. This is
where each packet receives it's destination address, 5.6.7.8.
Now that our message packets have a port number and an IP address, they are
ready to be sent over the Internet. The hardware layer takes care of turning our
packets containing the alphabetic text of our message into electronic signals
and transmitting them over the phone line.
On the other end of the phone line your ISP has a direct connection to the
Internet. The ISPs router examines the destination address in each packet and
determines where to send it. Often, the packet's next stop is another router.
More on routers and Internet infrastructure later.
Eventually, the packets reach computer 5.6.7.8. Here, the packets start at the
bottom of the destination computer's TCP/IP stack and work upwards.
As the packets go upwards through the stack, all routing data that the sending
computer's stack added (such as IP address and port number) is stripped from
the packets.
When the data reaches the top of the stack, the packets have been re-assembled
into their original form, "Hello computer 5.6.7.8!"

INTRANET AND EXTRANET

Intranets are basically small Internets. They use the same network facilities that
the Internet does, but access is restricted to a limited sphere. For instance, a company
can set up an intranet within the confines of the company itself. Access can be tightly
controlled and limited to authorized employees and staff. There is no connection to
the Internet or any other outside network. Functions like web sites, file uploads and
downloads, and e-mail is available on intranets within the confines of the network.
Since frivolous sites are no longer available, there is no employee time lost due to
accessing them. There is, of course, the limitation of the networking area. The very
benefit of restricting access to all of the facilities available on the Internet also restricts
communication to other desirable locations. This is where the extranet steps in.
An extranet is network that connects a number of intranets into a truly mini-Internet
Access is extended to all the intranets connected through the extranet, but, again, not
to the Internet. Extranets requires a constant Internet connection and a hypertext
transfer protocol (http) server.
Extranets can also be used to connect an intranet to the Internet so that remote offsite
access can be made into a companys intranet by an authorized individual. This can
facilitate through an extranet.
Basically, it uses passwords and smart cards to log in to a gateway server that checks
the requesters security credentials. If the user checks out, he or she is allowed access
into the companys intranet structure.
A number of URL address are set aside for intranet and extranet use. Essentially
because intranets are self-contained networks, the same set of addresses can be used
by all intranets without conflict. Extranet addresses are designed to recognize the
intranets they connect and correctly preface each intranet address with an identifier.
This allows two interconnected intranets to retain the same set of address values and
keep them from being mistaken. One class A address, ranging from 10.0.0.0 to
10.255.255.255 is reserved for intranet usage. Again, since an intranet is a selfcontained system, it only needs one class A network to designate the main network.
Subnetworks use reserved class B and class C addresses. There are 16 class B
addresses, from 172.16.0.0 ti 172.31.255.255 and 256 class C addresses, which range
from 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255.
17

Scripting Languages

1.10

INTERNET INFRASTRUCTURE

So now you know how packets travel from one computer to another over the Internet.
But what's in-between? What actually makes up the Internet infrastructure or
backbone?

NSP

NSP

NSP

Figure 4: Internet Backbone

The Internet backbone is made up of many large networks, which interconnect with
each other. These large networks are known as Network Service Providers or NSPs.
These networks peer with each other to exchange packet traffic. Each NSP is
required to connect to Network Access Points or NAPs. At the NAPs, packet traffic
may jump from one NSP's backbone to another NSP's backbone. NSPs also
interconnect at Metropolitan Area Exchanges or MAEs. MAEs serve the same
purpose as the NAPs but are privately owned. NAPs were the original Internet
interconnects points. Both NAPs and MAEs are referred to as Internet Exchange
Points or IXs. NSPs also sell bandwidth to smaller networks, such as ISPs and
smaller bandwidth providers. Below is a picture showing this hierarchical
infrastructure.
This is not a true representation of an actual piece of the Internet. The above figure is
only meant to demonstrate how the NSPs could interconnect with each other and
smaller ISPs. None of the physical network components are shown in this figure. This
is because a single NSP's backbone infrastructure is a complex drawing by itself.
Most NSPs publish maps of their network infrastructure on their web sites and can be
found easily. To draw an actual map of the Internet would be nearly impossible due
to it's size, complexity, and ever changing structure.
The Internet Routing Hierarchy
So how do packets find their way across the Internet? Does every computer
connected to the Internet know where the other computers are? Do packets simply get
'broadcast' to every computer on the Internet? The answer to both the preceeding
questions is 'no'. No computer knows where any of the other computers are, and
packets do not get sent to every computer. The information used to get packets to
their destinations is contained in routing tables kept by each router connected to the
Internet.
Routers are packet switches. A router is usually connected between networks to
route packets between them. Each router knows about it's sub-networks and which IP
18

The Internet

addresses they use. The router usually doesn't know what IP addresses are 'above' it.
Examine the figure below. The black boxes connecting the backbones are routers.
The larger NSP backbones at the top are connected at a NAP. Under them are several
sub-networks, and under them, more sub-networks. At the bottom are two local area
networks with computers attached.

NAP/
routers

My Computer
1.2.3.4
Figure 5: Routes Connecting in Network

When a packet arrives at a router, the router examines the IP address put there by the
IP protocol layer on the originating computer. The router checks it's routing table. If
the network containing the IP address is found, the packet is sent to that network. If
the network containing the IP address is not found, then the router sends the packet
on a default route, usually up the backbone hierarchy to the next router. Hopefully the
next router will know where to send the packet. If it does not, again the packet is
routed upwards until it reaches a NSP backbone. The routers connected to the NSP
backbones hold the largest routing tables and here the packet will be routed to the
correct backbone, where it will begin its journey 'downward' through smaller and
smaller networks until it finds it's destination.
Domain Names and Address Resolution
But what if you don't know the IP address of the computer you want to connect to?
What if you need to access a web server referred to as www.anothercomputer.com?
How does your web browser know where on the Internet this computer lives? The
answer to all these questions is the Domain Name Service or DNS. The DNS is a
distributed database, which keeps track of computer's names and their corresponding
IP addresses on the Internet.
Many computers connected to the Internet host part of the DNS database and the
software that allows others to access it. These computers are known as DNS servers.
No DNS server contains the entire database; they only contain a subset of it. If a DNS
server does not contain the domain name requested by another computer, the DNS
server re-directs the requesting computer to another DNS server.

19

Scripting Languages

DRDO

ISRO

Reliance

TATA

BARC

Bharti
Figure 6: DNS Hierarchy

The Domain Name Service is structured as a hierarchy similar to the IP routing

hierarchy. The computer requesting a name resolution will be re-directed 'up' the
hierarchy until a DNS server is found that can resolve the domain name in the
request. Figure 6 illustrates a portion of the hierarchy. At the top of the tree are the
domain roots. Some of the older, more common domains are seen near the top. What
is not shown are the multitude of DNS servers around the world which form the rest
of the hierarchy.
When an Internet connection is setup (e.g. for a LAN or Dial-Up Networking in
Windows), one primary and one or more secondary DNS servers are usually specified
as part of the installation. This way, any Internet applications that need domain name
resolution will be able to function correctly. For example, when you enter a web
address into your web browser, the browser first connects to your primary DNS
server. After obtaining the IP address for the domain name you entered, the browser
then connects to the target computer and requests the web page you wanted.

1.11

PROTOCOLS AND SERVICES ON INTERNET

To work with Internet and to utilize its facilities we use certain tools. For example,
Telnet is a tool, which is utilized for logging on remote computers on the Internet. Let
us briefly discuss about some of the important tools and services.

1.11.1

Domain Name System

Domain name is a name given to a network for ease of reference. Domain refers to a
group of computers that are known by a single common name. Somebody has to
transfer these domain names into IP addresses. It is decided on the physical location
of the web server as well as where the domain name is registered. Some generic
domain names are:
Domain name
Com
Edu
Gov
Mil
Org

Description
Commercial organization
Educational organization
Government organization
Military group
Non-profit organization

Thus, humans use domain names when referring to computers on the Internet,
whereas computers work only with IP addresses, which are numeric. DNS was
developed as a distributed database. The database contains the mappings between the
domain names and IP addresses scattered across different computers. This DNS was
consulted whenever any message is to be sent to any computer on the Internet. DNS
is based on the creation of the hierarchical domain based naming architecture, which
is implemented as a distributed database. It is used for mapping host names and email
20

The Internet

addresses to IP addresses. Each organization operates a domain name server that

contains the list of all computers in that organization along with their IP addresses.
When an application program needs to translate a computers name into the
computers IP address, the application becomes a client of the DNS. It contacts a
domain name server and sends the server an alphabetic computer name then the
server returns the correct IP address. The domain name system works like a directory.
A given server does not store the names and addresses of all possible computers in
the Internet. Each server stores the name of the computers at only one company or
enterprise.

1.11.2

SMTP and Electronic Mail

One of the very useful things about Internet is that it allows you almost instantly
exchange of electronic message (e-mail) across the worlds. E-mail is a popular way
of communication on the electronic frontier. You can E-mail to your friend or a
researcher or anybody for getting a copy of a selected paper. Electronic mail system
provides services that allowed complex communication and interaction. E-mail
provide the following facilities:
x
x
x
x
x

Composing and sending/receiving a message.

Storing/forwarding/deleting/replying to a message.
Sending a single message to more than one person.
Sending text, voice, graphics and video.
Sending a message that interacts with other computer programs.

Another commonly used Internet service is electronic mail. E-mail uses an

application level protocol called Simple Mail Transfer Protocol or SMTP. SMTP is
also a text-based protocol, but unlike HTTP, SMTP is connection oriented. SMTP is
also more complicated than HTTP.
When you open your mail client to read your e-mail, this is what typically happens:
1.

2.
3.
4.

5.

The mail client (Netscape Mail, Lotus Notes, Microsoft Outlook, etc.) opens a
connection to it's default mail server. The mail server's IP address or domain
name is typically setup when the mail client is installed.
The mail server will always transmit the first message to identify itself.
The client will send an SMTP HELO command to which the server will
respond with a 250 OK message.
Depending on whether the client is checking mail, sending mail, etc. the
appropriate SMTP commands will be sent to the server, which will respond
accordingly.
This request/response transaction will continue until the client sends an SMTP
QUIT command. The server will then say goodbye and the connection will be
closed.

Similarly, when you send an e-mail message your computer sends it to an SMTP
server. The server forwards it to the recipients mail server depending on the email
address. The received message is stored at the destination mail server until the
addressee retrieves it. To receive E-mail a user Internet account includes an electronic
mailbox. A message sent for you is received at your Internet host computer, where it
is stored in your electronic mailbox. As soon as you login into your Internet account,
one of the first things you should do is to check your mailbox.
Senders Computer
computer

e-mail
Client

recipients

e-mail
Server

21

Scripting Languages

TCP/IP used to transfer message

Figure 7: An e-mail transfer across the Internet uses two programs: client and server

E-mail system follows the client-server approach to transfer messages across the
Internet. When a user sends an E-mail message a program on the senders computer
becomes a client. It contacts an e-mail server program on the recipients computer
and transfers a copy of the message. Some of the mail programs those exist on
Internet are UCB mail, Elm, Pine etc. However, one thing, which you must
emphasize while selecting a mail program, is the user friendliness of that program.
Through E-mail on Internet you can be in direct touch of your friend and colleagues.
Mailing lists on Internet
Another exciting aspect about the E-mail is that you can find groups of people who
share your interests-whether you are inclined toward research, games or astronomy.
E-mail provides a mechanism for groups of people who have shared interests to
establish and maintain contact. Such interest groups are referred to as mailing lists
(lists for short). After all they are mailing lists of the members e-mail addresses. You
can subscribe to any of such lists. You will receive copies of all the mail sent to the
list. You can also send mail to al subscribers of the list.

1.11.3

Http and World Wide Web

One of the most commonly used services on the Internet is the World Wide Web
(WWW). The application protocol that makes the web work is Hypertext Transfer
Protocol or HTTP. Do not confuse this with the Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML). HTML is the language used to write web pages. HTTP is the protocol that
web browsers and web servers use to communicate with each other over the Internet.
It is an application level protocol because it sits on top of the TCP layer in the
protocol stack and is used by specific applications to talk to one another. In this case
the applications are web browsers and web servers.
HTTP is a connectionless text based protocol. Clients (web browsers) send requests
to web servers for web elements such as web pages and images. After the request is
serviced by a server, the connection between client and server across the Internet is
disconnected. A new connection must be made for each request. Most protocols are
connection oriented. This means that the two computers communicating with each
other keep the connection open over the Internet. HTTP does not however. Before an
HTTP request can be made by a client, a new connection must be made to the server.
When you type a URL into a web browser, this is what happens:
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.

22

If the URL contains a domain name, the browser first connects to a domain
name server and retrieves the corresponding IP address for the web server.
The web browser connects to the web server and sends an HTTP request (via
the protocol stack) for the desired web page.
The web server receives the request and checks for the desired page. If the page
exists, the web server sends it. If the server cannot find the requested page, it
will send an HTTP 404 error message. (404 means 'Page Not Found' as anyone
who has surfed the web probably knows.)
The web browser receives the page back and the connection is closed.
The browser then parses through the page and looks for other page elements it
needs to complete the web page. These usually include images, applets, etc.
For each element needed, the browser makes additional connections and HTTP
requests to the server for each element.
When the browser has finished loading all images, applets, etc. the page will be
completely loaded in the browser window.

The Internet

Most Internet protocols are specified by Internet documents known as a Request For
Comments or RFCs. RFCs may be found at several locations on the Internet.
WWW is an Internet navigation tool that helps you to find and retrieve information
links to other WWW pages. The WWW is a distributed hypermedia environment
consisting of documents from around the world. The documents are linked using a
system known as hypertext, where elements of one document may be linked to
specific elements of another document. The documents may be located on any
computer connected to the Internet. The word document is not limited to text but
may include video, graphics, databases and a host of other tools.
The World Wide Web is described as a wide area hypermedia information initiative
among to give universal access to large universe of documents. World Wide Web
provides users on computer networks with a consistent means to access a variety of
media in a simplified fashion. A popular software program to search the Web is
called Mosaic, the Web project has modified the way people view and create
information. It has created the first global hypermedia network.
Once again the WWW provides an integrated view of the Internet using clients and
servers. As discussed earlier, clients are programs that help you seek out information
while servers are the programs that find information to the clients. WWW servers are
placed all around the Internet.
The operations of the Web mainly rely on hypertext as its means of interacting with
users. But what is hypertext? Hypertext as such is the same as regular text that is it
can be written, read, searched or edited; however, hypertext contains connections
within the text to other documents. The hypertext links are called hyperlinks. These
hyperlinks can create a complex virtual web of connections.
Hypermedia is an advanced version of hypertext documents as it contains links not
only to other pieces of text but also to other forms of media such as sounds, images
and movies. Hypermedia combines hypertext and multimedia.

1.11.4

Usenet and Newsgroups

In Internet there exists another way to meet people and share information. One such
way is through Usenet newsgroups. These are special groups set up by people who
want to share common interests ranging from current topics to cultural heritages.
These are currently thousands of Usenet newsgroups.
The Usenet can be considered as another global network of computers and people,
which is interwined with the Internet. However, Usenet does not operate interactively
like the Internet, instead Usenet machines store the messages sent by users. Unlike
mail from mailing lists, the news articles do not automatically fill your electronic
mailbox. For accessing the information on newsnet, one needs a special type of
program called a newsreader. This program help in retrieving only the news you want
from Usenet storage site and display it on your terminal. Usenet is like living thing,
New newsgroups gets added, the groups which have too much traffic get broken up
into smaller specialized groups, the groups even can dissolve themselves. However,
all of this occurs based on some commonly accepted rules and by voting. For Usenet,
there is no enforcement body; it entirely depends on the cooperation of its computers
owners and users.
The newsgroups are really meant fro interaction of people who share your interests.
You can post your own questions as well as your answers to the questions of others,
on the Usenet. One thing, which is worth mentioning here, is that when one is
interacting wit people on Internet certain mannerism should be adopted. These rules
are sometimes called netiquette. In a face-to-face conversation you can always see
a persons facial gestures and hand movements and can ascertain whether he is
23

Scripting Languages

teasing or is being sarcastic or sometimes even lying. However, in on-line interaction

one cannot see the person one is interacting with. The rules of netiquette may help to
compensate some of these limitations of this on-line environment.

1.11.5

FTP

FTP (File Transfer Protocol), a standard Internet protocol, is the simplest way to
exchange files between computers on the Internet. Like the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), which transfers displayable Web pages and
related files, FTP is an application protocol that uses the Internet's TCP/IP protocols.
FTP is commonly used to transfer Web page files from their creator to the computer
that acts as their server for everyone on the Internet. It's also commonly used to
downloading programs and other files to the computer from other servers. However,
for such transfer you need an account name on a host and the password. The FTP
program will make connection with the remote host, which will help you to browse
its directories and mark files for transfer. However, you cannot look at the contents of
a file while you are connected via FTP. You have to transfer the copy and then look
at it once it is on your own account.
FTP includes many commands but only few are used to retrieve a file. A user needs
to understand the three basic commands to connect to remote computer, retrieve a
copy of file and exit the FTP program. The commands with their meanings are:

Command
Open
get
bye

Purpose
connect to a remote computer
retrieve a file from the computer
terminate the connection and leave the FTP program

Transferring a file via FTP requires two participants: an FTP client program and FTP
server program. The FTP client is the program that we run on our computers. The
FTP server is the program that runs on the huge mainframe somewhere and stores
tens thousands of files. It is similar to an online library of files. The FTP client can
download (receive) or upload (send) files to the FTP server. Using Web browser you
can download the files but you can not upload the files. FTP applications will help
you to upload the files to the web sites, which you are maintaining.
FTP only understands two basic file formats. It classifies each file either as a text file
or a binary file. A text file contains a sequence of characters collected into lines.
Although computers used ASCII encoding for text files, FTP includes commands to
translate between ASCII and other character encoding. FTP uses the classification
binary file for all nontext files. The user must specify binary for any file that
contains:
x
x
x
x
x

A computer program
Audio data
A graphic or video image
A spreadsheet
A document from a word processor
A compressed file

FTP service compress files to reduce the total amount of disk space the files require.
Before transferring a file user must tell FTP that the file contains ASCII text or
nontext file. FTP assumes to perform ASCII transfers unless the user enters the
binary command.
There are many FTP programs that you can download from the Internet. Windows
has its own command line based FTP program. To execute it, select Run from
Windows taskbar and type FTP and press enter. By typing open command you can
connect to any ftp server. To connect to FTP server you must have a login name and
24

The Internet

the password. Most of the FTP servers allow anonymous connections. In this case
username is anonymous and password is your e-mail address.
Another important FTP program, which is available as a shareware, is WSFTP. Using
this window based program it is easier to maintain your web site.

1.11.6

Telnet

TELNET stands for TErminal NETwork. Telnet is both a TCP/IP application and a
protocol for connecting a local computer to a remote computer. Telnet is a program
that allows an Internet host computer to become a terminal of another host on the
Internet. Telnet is the Internet remote login service. Telnet protocol specifies exactly
how a remote login interacts. The standard specifies how to client contacts the server
and how the server encodes output for transmission to the client. To use the Telnet
service, one must invoke the local application program and specify a remote machine.
The local program becomes a client, which forms a connection to a server on the
remote computer. The client passes keystrokes and mouse movements to the remote
machine and displays output from the remote machine on the users display screen.
Telnet provides direct access to various services on Internet. Some of these services
are available on your host, but Telnet is especially useful when these services are not
available on your host. For example, if you want to use graphical interfaces designed
by other users then Telnet, allows you to access their hosts and use their new
interfaces. Similarly, whenever someone creates a useful service on his host, Telnet
allows you to access this valuable information resource. This tools Is especially
useful for accessing public services such as library card catalogues, the kind of
databases available on the machine etc. You can also log into any catalogue service
of a library and use it.
The working of TELNET
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

6.

7.

8.

The commands and characters are sent to the operating system on the common
server computer.
The local operating system sends these commands and characters to a TELNET
client program, which is located on the same local computer.
The TELNET client transforms the characters entered by the user to an agreed
format known as Network Virtual Terminal (NVT) characters and sends them
to the TCP/IP protocol stack of the server computer. NVT is the common
device between the client and server.
The commands and text are first broken into TCP and then IP packets and are
sent across the physical medium from the local client computer to the server.
At the server computers end, the TCP/IP software collects all the IP packets,
verifies their correctness and reconstructs the original command and handover
the commands or text to that computer operating system.
The operating system of the server computer hands over these commands or
text to the TELNET server program, which is executing on that remote
computer.
The TELNET server program on the remote server computer then transforms
the commands or text from the NVT format to the format understood by the
remote computer. The TELNET cannot directly handover the commands or text
to the operating system so TELNET hands over the commands/text to the
Psuedo-terminal driver.
The Pseudo-terminal driver program then hands over the commands or text to
the operating system of the remote computer, which then invokes the
application program on the remote server.

The working of the TELNET is extremely simple. Suppose you are working as a
faculty member of Indira Gandhi National Open University. You have a typical
account FACULTY-1 on the IGNOU computer, which is one of the hosts of the
Internet. You are selected for academic exchange scholarship to USA. You will get a
user account in U.S.A. However, all your colleagues know only your IGNOU
25

Scripting Languages

account. Thus, using Telnet you can always log on to your account in India for mail
your papers for using programs etc.
There are many databases available on the Internet. You can explore these databases
using Telnet. There are going to be many Internet services yet to be created. Every
year and better means of accessing the treasures of the Internet is appearing in which
Telnet is the key for accessing.

Check Your Progress 2

1.

State whether True or False:

a)
b)
c)

2.
3.
4.

E-mail can be used to send text, pictures and movies.

Usenet facility is same as that of mailing list facility.
Anonymous FTP allows viewing and retrieving a file from the archieve of
a host without having an account on that machine.
d) Telnet is used for remote login.
e) An Internet address is a 16-bit number.
f) Each computer on the Internet has a maximum number of 216 or 65,536
ports.
What is an Internet address?
What is FTP?
What is Telnet?

1.12

INTERNET TOOLS

In this section we shall look at two software tools available on the Internet.

1.12.1

Search Engines

Search Engines are programs that search the web. Web is a big graph with the pages
being the nodes and hyperlinks being the arcs. Search engines collect all the
hyperlinks on each page they read, remove all the ones that have already been
processed and save the rest. The Web is then searched breadth-first, i.e. each link on
page is followed and all the hyperlinks on all the pages pointed to are collected but
they are not traced in the order obtained. Automated search is the service that is
provided by Search engines. An automated search service allows an individual to find
information that resides on remote computers. Automated search systems use
computer programs to find web pages that contain information related to a given
topic. It allows to locate:
x
x
x

Web pages associated with a particular company or individual

Web pages that contain information about a particular product.
Web pages that contain information about a particular topic.

The results of an automated search can be used immediately or stored in a file on disk
to use it later. The results of a search are returned in the form of a web page that has a
link to each of the items that was found. Automated search is helpful when a user
wants to explore a new topic. The automated search produces a list of candidate
pages that may contain information. The user reviews each page in the list to see
whether the contents are related to topic or not. If so, the user records the location or
if not user moves on to the page in the list. Search mechanisms uses a similar method
of search as in the telephone book i.e. before any user invoke the search mechanism a
computer program contacts computers on the Internet, gathers a list of available
information, sorts the list and then stores the result on a local disk on the computer
that runs a search server. When a user invokes a search, the user client program that
contacts the server. The client sends a request that contains the name the user entered.
When the request arrives at the server, it consults the list of file names on its local
disk and provides the result.

1.12.2
26

Web Browser

The Internet

A Web browser is software program that allows you to easily display Web pages and
navigate the Web. The first graphical browser, Mosaic, was developed in Illinois at
the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA). Each browser
displays Web-formatted documents a little differently. As with all commercial
software, every program has its own special features.
The two basic categories of Web browser are:
x
Text-only browsers: A text-only browser such as Lynx allows you to view
Web pages without showing art or page structure. Essentially, you look at ASCII text
on a screen. The advantage of a text-only browser is that it displays Web pages very
fast. There's no waiting for multimedia downloads.
x
Graphical browsers: To enjoy the multimedia aspect of the Web, you must
use a graphical browser such as Netscape Navigator or NCSA Mosaic. Graphical
browsers can show pictures, play sounds, and even run video clips. The drawback is
that multimedia files, particularly graphics, often take a long time to download.
Graphical browsers tend to be significantly slower than their text-only counterparts.
And this waiting time can be stretched even further with slow connections or heavy
online traffic.
Many different browsers are available for exploring the Internet. The two most
popular browsers are Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer. Both of
these are graphical browsers, which means that they can display graphics as well as
text.

Check Your Progress 3

1.

State whether True or False

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

1.13

Surfing means that you are sending for specific information on Internet.
HTML is used for creating home page for World Wide Web.
Hypermedia is same as Hypertext.
Netscape these days is one of the widely used browser.
Windows 95 provides software for browsing Internet.
Hypertext documents contain links to other documents.

SUMMARY

This unit describes the basic concepts about an Internet. Internet is a network of
networks where lot of information is available and is meant to be utilized by you. No
one owns the Internet. It consists of a large number of Interconnected autonomous
networks that connect millions of computers across the world. The unit describes the
various tools available on the Internet and the various services provided by the
Internet to users. In this unit we have talked about the Electronic mail Usenet and
newsgroups, FTP, Telnet and search engines. We also describe the use of frequently
asked questions. The unit also describes the importance of Internet addresses.
Addresses are essential for virtually everything we do on the Internet. There are many
services available on the Internet for document retrieval. For browsing the Internet
there are many browsers available such as Gopher and World Wide Web. Both of
these browsers are easy to use and most popular browsing mechanisms on the
Internet.

1.14

SOLUTIONS/ ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1

1.

True or false
a)
b)

False
False
27

Scripting Languages

c)
d)
e)
2.

The TCP/IP networking model has five layers, which are:

x
x
x
x
x

3.

True
True
False

The Physical Layer

The Data link Layer
The Network Layer
The Transport Layer
The Application layer

Transmission Control protocol provide various facilities which include:

x
x
x
x

TCP eliminates duplicate data.

TCP ensures that the data is reassembled in exactly the order it was sent
TCP resends data when a datagram is lost.
TCP uses acknowledgements and timeouts to handle problem of loss.

Check Your Progress 2

1.

True or false
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

2.

True
True
True
True
False
True

Addresses are essential for virtually everything we do on the Internet. The IP in

TCP/IP is a mechanism for providing addresses for computers on the Internet.
Internet addresses have two forms:
x
x

Person understandable which expressed as words

Machine understandable which reexpressed as numbers

Internet addresses are divided into five different types of classes. The classes
were designated A through E. class A address space allows a small number of
networks but a large number of machines, while class C allows for a large
number of networks but a relatively small number of machines per network.
3.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol), a standard Internet protocol. It is the simplest

way to exchange files between computers on the Internet. FTP is an application
protocol that uses the Internet's TCP/IP protocols. FTP is commonly used to
transfer Web page files. Transferring a file via FTP requires two participants:
an FTP client program and FTP server program. The FTP client is the program
that we run on our computers. The FTP server is the program that runs on the
huge mainframe somewhere and stores tens thousands of files.

4.

Telnet is both a TCP/IP application and a protocol for connecting a local

computer to a remote computer. Telnet is the Internet remote login service.
Telnet protocol specifies exactly how a remote login interacts. The standard
specifies how to client contacts the server and how the server encodes output
for transmission to the client. To use the Telnet service, one must invoke the
local application program and specify a remote machine.

Check Your Progress 3

1.

28

True or false

The Internet

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

False
True
False
False
True
True

29

Scripting Languages

UNIT 2

INTRODUCTION TO HTML

Structure
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3

Introduction
Objectives
What is HTML?
Basic Tags of HTML
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3

2.4

2.0

30
30
31
32

HTML Tag
TITLE Tag
BODY Tag

Formatting of Text
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.4.4
2.4.5

2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8

Page No.

34

Headers
Formatting Tags
PRE Tag
FONT Tag
Special Characters

Working with Images

META Tag
Summary
Solutions/ Answers

41
43
45
46

INTRODUCTION

You would by now have been introduced to the Internet and the World Wide Web
(often just called the Web) and how it has changed our lives. Today we have access to
a wide variety of information through Web sites on the Internet. We can access a Web
site if we have a connection to the Internet and a browser on our computer. Popular
browsers are Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator and Opera. When you
connect to a Web site, your browser is presented with a file in a special format by the
Web server on the remote computer. The contents of the file are stored in a special
format using Hyper Text Markup Language, often called HTML This format is
rendered, or interpreted, by the browser and you then see the page of the web site
from your computer.
HTML is one language in a class of markup languages, the most general form of
which is Standard Generalized Markup Language, or SGML. Since SGML is
complex, HTML was invented as a simple way of creating web pages that could be
easily accessed by browsers. HTML is a special case of SGML.
HTML consists of tags and data. The tags serve to define what kind of data follows
them, thereby enabling the browser to render the data in the appropriate form for the
user to see. There are many tags in HTML, of which the few most important ones are
introduced in this unit. HTML files usually have the extension .htm or .html.
If you want to create Web pages, you need a tool to write the HTML code for the
page. This can be a simple text editor if you are hand-coding HTML. You also have
sophisticated HTML editors available that automate many (though not all) of the tasks
of coding HTML. You also need a browser to be able to render your code so that you
can see the results.

2.1

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you should be able to learn:

30

x basic concepts of HTML;

x basic tags of HTML;
x how to control text attributes such as the font;

C
h
e
t
a
b
l
e
o
f
c
o
n
t
e
n
t
s
s
h
o
u
l
d
b
e
u
p
d
a
t
e
d

x how to work with images in HTML; and

x significance of Meta Tag

Introduction to
HTML

The unit covers only the simpler concepts of HTML and does not by any means deal
with the subject comprehensively.

2.2

WHAT IS HTML?

As indicated earlier, HTML stands for HyperText Markup Language. HTML provides a
way of displaying Web pages with text and images or multimedia content. HTML is not
a programming language, but a markup language. An HTML file is a text file containing
small markup tags. The markup tags tell the Web browser, such as Internet Explorer or
Netscape Navigator, how to display the page. An HTML file must have an htm or html
file extension. These files are stored on the web server. So if you want to see the web
page of a company, you should enter the URL (Uniform Resource Locator), which is
the web site address of the company in the address bar of the browser. This sends a
request to the web server, which in turn responds by returning the desired web page.
The browser then renders the web page and you see it on your computer.
HTML allows Web page publishers to create complex pages of text and images that
can be viewed by anyone on the Web, regardless of what kind of computer or browser
is being used. Despite what you might have heard, you dont need any special
software to create an HTML page; all you need is a word processor (such as Microsoft
Word) and a working knowledge of HTML. Fortunately, the basics of HTML are easy
to master. However, you can greatly relieve tedium and improve your productivity by
using a good tool. A simple tool is Microsoft FrontPage that reduces the need to
remember and type in HTML tags. Still, there can always be situations where you are
forced to handcode certain parts of the web page.
HTML is just a series of tags that are integrated into a document that can have text,
images or multimedia content. HTML tags are usually English words (such as
blockquote) or abbreviations (such as p for paragraph), but they are distinguished
from the regular text because they are placed in small angle brackets. So the paragraph
tag is <p>, and the blockquote tag is <blockquote>. Some tags dictate how the page
will be formatted (for instance, <p> begins a new paragraph), and others dictate how
the words appear (<b> makes text bold). Still others provide information - such as the
title - that doesnt appear on the page itself. The first thing to remember about tags is
that they travel in pairs. Most of the time that you use a tag - say <blockquote> - you
must also close it with another tag - in this case, </blockquote>. Note the slash - / before the word blockquote; that is what distinguishes a closing tag from an
opening tag.
The basic HTML page begins with the tag <html> and ends with </html>. In between,
the file has two sections - the header and the body.
The header - enclosed by the <head> and </head> tags - contains information about a
page that will not appear on the page itself, such as the title. The body - enclosed by
<body> and </body> - is where the action is. Everything that appears on the page is
contained within these tags.
HTML pages are of two types:
x Static

x Dynamic
Static Pages
Static pages, as the name indicates, comprise static content (text or images). So you
can only see the contents of a web page without being able to have any interaction
with it.

31

Scripting Languages

Dynamic Pages
Dynamic pages are those where the content of the web page depend on user input. So
interaction with the user is required in order to display the web page. For example,
consider a web page which requires a number to be entered from the user in order to
find out if it is even or odd. When the user enters the number and clicks on the
appropriate button, the number is sent to the web server, which in turn returns the
result to the user in an HTML page.

2.3

BASIC TAGS OF HTML

Let us now look at tags in more detail. A <TAG> tells the browser to do something.
An ATTRIBUTE goes inside the <TAG> and tells the browser how to do it. A tag
can have several attributes. Tags can also have default attributes. The default value is
a value that the browser assumes if you have not told it otherwise. A good example is
the font size. The default font size is 3. If you say nothing the size attribute of the font
tag will be taken to have the value 3.
Consider the example shown in Fig. 2.1. Type the code specified in the figure in a text
editor such as notepad and save it as fig1.html. To render the file and see your page
you can choose one of two ways: 1) Find the icon of the html file you just made
(fig1.htm) and double click on it. Or- 2) In Internet Explorer, click on File/Open File
and point to the file (fig1.htm).

Figure 2.1: A Simple Web Page

<HTML>
<!- - This is a comment - - >
<HEAD>
<TITLE> IGNOU
</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
This is my first web page.
</BODY>
</HTML>

2.3.1 HTML Tag

32

As shown in Figure.2.1, <HTML> is a starting tag. To delimit the text inside, add a
closing tag by adding a / to the starting tag. Most but not all tags have a closing tag.
It is necessary to write the code for an HTML page between <HTML> and </HTML>.
Think of tags as talking to the browser or, better still, giving it instructions. What you
have just told the browser is 'this is the start of an HTML document' (<HTML>) and
'this is the end of an HTML document' (</HTML>). Now you need to put some matter
in between these two markers.

Every HTML document is segregated into a HEAD and BODY. The information
about the document is kept within <HEAD> tag. The BODY contains the page
content.

Introduction to
HTML

2.3.2 TITLE Tag

The only thing you have to concern yourselves with in the HEAD tag (for now) is the
TITLE tag.
The bulk of the page will be within the BODY tag, as shown in Figure.2.1.
<HEAD>
<TITLE> IGNOU </TITLE>
</HEAD>
Here the document has been given the title IGNOU. It is a good practice to give a title
to the document created.
What you have made here is a skeleton HTML document. This is the minimum
required information for a web document and all web documents should contain these
basic components. Secondly, the document title is what appears at the very top of the
browser window.

2.3.3 BODY Tag

If you have a head, you need a body. All the content to be displayed on the web page
has to be written within the body tag. So whether text, headlines, textbox, checkbox
or any other possible content, everything to be displayed must be kept within the
BODY tag as shown in Figure 2.1.
Whenever you make a change to your document, just save it and hit the
Reload/Refresh button on your browser. In some instances just hitting the
Reload/Refresh button doesnt quite work. In that case hit Reload/Refresh while
holding down the SHIFT key.
The BODY tag has following attributes:
a. BGCOLOUR: It can be used for changing the background colour of the page. By
default the background colour is white.
b. BACKGROUND: It is used for specifying the image to be displayed in the
background of the page.
c. LINK: It indicates the colour of the hyperlinks, which have not been visited or
clicked on.
d. ALINK: It indicates the colour of the active hyperlink. An active link is the one
on which the mouse button is pressed.
e. VLINK: It indicates the colour of the hyperlinks after the mouse is clicked on it.
f. TEXT: It is used for specifying the colour of the text displayed on the page.
Consider the following example:
<HTML>
<TITLE> IGNOU</TITLE>
<BODY
BGCOLOUR="#1234567"
Welcome to IGNOU
</BODY>

TEXT = #FF0000>

33

Scripting Languages

</HTML>

Figure 2.2: A Web Page with a Background Colour

The values specified for BGCOLOUR and TEXT tags indicate the colour of the
background of the page and that of the text respectively. These are specified in
hexadecimal format. The range of allowable values in this format is from #000000
to #FFFFFF. The# symbol has to precede the value of the colour so as to indicate
to the browser that has to be interpreted as a hexadecimal value. In this six digit value,
the first two digits specify the concentration of the colour red, the next two digits
specify the concentration of the colour green and the last two digits specify the
concentration of the colour blue. So the value is a combination of the primary colours
red, green and blue and that is why it is called RGB colour. If we specify the value
#FF0000, the colour appears to be red.#000000 gives black and #FFFFFF gives
the colour white. You also have the option of specifying the colour by giving its
name, like:
<BODY TEXT = WHITE>.
You can also specify a background image instead. (Note that the image should be in
the same folder as your HTML file. More on this below).
<HTML>
<BODY BACKGROUND="swirlies.gif">
Welcome to INDIA
</BODY>
</HTML>

Figure 2.3: A Web Page with an Image in the Background

2.4

FORMATTING OF TEXT

Text formatting, in other words presenting the text on an HTML page in a desired
manner, is an important part of creating a web page. Let us understand how we can
lay out of text controls its appearance on a page.

2.4.1 Headers
34

Headers are used to specify the headings of sections or sub-sections in a document.

Depending on the desired size of the text, any of six available levels (<H1> to <H6>)
of headers can be used. Figure 2.4 shows the usage and varying size of the rendered
text depending upon the tag used.

Introduction to
HTML

<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> IGNOU</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<CENTER>
<H1> Header Level 1</H1>
<H2> Header Level 2</H2>
<H3> Header Level 3</H3>
<H4> Header Level 4</H4>
<H5> Header Level 5</H5>
<H6> Header Level 6</H6>
</CENTER>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Figure 2.4: Rendering of the Six Header Levels

There is no predefined sequence for using the different levels of the header tags nor
any restrictions on which one can be used. So the user has the option of using any
level of header tag anywhere in the document. If you want to center text on a page,
use the CENTER tag. The text written between <CENTER> and </CENTER> tag
gets aligned in the center of the HTML page. As seen in Figure 2.4, the maximum size
of the text is displayed using the <H1> tag. So the size goes in decreasing order with
the increasing order of the level (i.e. From <H1> to <H6>).

2.4.2 Formatting Tags

Let us now look at some more tags that can be used to format text. These are all given
in the example shown in Figure 2.5.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> IGNOU</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<B> IGNOU </B>
provides several <I> programmes </I>
in the <B><I>Computer </I></B> stream.
<P>
One of the <I> programmes </I> is <B><U> MCA</U></B>
</P>
<B>MCA </B> stands for <TT> Master Of Computer Applications </TT>
<BR>

35

Scripting Languages

<S>For MCA</S> <B> IGNOU </B> is considered to be one of the premier

universities.
<BR>
<STRONG>IGNOU</STRONG> believes in <STRONG><EM>
Quality</EM></STRONG> education
<BR>
<P>
According to <CITE> IGNOU, </CITE> <B> MCA<B> is one of its best
programmes offering convenient timings to the student so that s/he can pursue the
course while working at a job.
</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
For convenience all the courses offered by IGNOU can be seen on its website. A
student has also been provided the flexibility of seeing all the information regarding
admission to the next semester, examination result etc. on its website.
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<HR NOSHADE>
<B> IGNOU contact details are :
<ADDRESS>
IGNOU, <BR>
MAIDAN GARHI, <BR>
NEW DELHI 110 068 <BR>
Website : www.ignou.ac.in
</ADDRESS>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Figure 2.5: An Example showing Various Formatting Tags.

a. BOLD: The text can be displayed in boldface by writing it in between the <B> and
</B> tags.
b. ITALICS: It starts with <I> and ends with </I> tag. It is used to display the text in
italics.
c. UNDERLINE: It is used for underlining the text to be displayed. The <U> tag is
used for this purpose. These tags can be nested. So in order to see the text in
boldface, in italics and underlined, it should be placed between the <B><I><U>
and </U></I></B> tags. Note that the closing tags are written in reverse order,
because any tag used within some other tag should be closed first.
d. PARAGRAPH: If you want to display the text in the form of paragraphs, then the
<P> tag should be used.

36

e. TT: The <TT> tag is used for displaying text in a fixed width font similar to that
of a typewriter.

f. STRIKE: If you want the text to be marked with a strikethrough character, place it
within the <S> and </S> tags.

Introduction to
HTML

g. STRONG: There are certain text-based browsers that do not render the text as
boldfaced. So you can use the <STRONG> tag instead of the <B> tag. This
displays the text to stand out in the most appropriate manner for the browser.
h. EM: Just as the <STRONG> tag corresponds to the <B> tag, the <EM> can be
used instead of the <I> tag. The reason for using it is the same as for the
<STRONG> tag. The <EM> tag is used for emphasizing the text in the manner
most appropriate to the browser.
i. BR: This tag is used for inserting a line break. The text written after the <BR> tag
is displayed from the beginning of the next line onwards. This tag does not need a
corresponding terminating tag.
j. HR: This tag puts a horizontal line on the page. It has the following attributes:
x

x
x
x

ALIGN: It is used for aligning the line on the page. The possible values of this
attribute are LEFT, RIGHT, and CENTER. It is useful when the width of the
line is less than the width of the page.
NOSHADE: This attribute is used to prevent any shading effect.
SIZE: It is used for specifying the thickness of the line.
WIDTH: You can set the width of a line using this attribute. The value can be
specified either in pixels or as a percentage of the width of the page, e.g., <HR
WIDTH = 30%>.

k. BLOCKQUOTE: This tag indents the left margin of the text. It is used for
displaying the text as quoted text as shown in Figure 2.5.
l. ADDRESS: This tag, as shown in Figure 2.5, displays the text in italics.
m. CITE: The text placed in between the <CITE> and </CITE> tags is rendered in
italics by the browser.

2.4.3 PRE Tag

This tag is used to present the text exactly as written in the code, including whitespace
characters. It is terminated by a </PRE> tag. Consider the example shown in Figure
2.6 to understand how this tag works.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>IGNOU</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<PRE>
IGNOU also offers a virtual campus. Studying through the virtual campus is a new
concept in the field of education and this is the first such experiment in India.
While studying through the virtual campus mode, students have access to the
following learning resources and experiences:
x Satellite based interactive tele-conferencing sessions.
x Viewing recorded video sessions.
x Computer based tutorials on CD-ROM.
Printed booklets for specific

37

Scripting Languages

</PRE>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Figure 2.6: Presenting Preformatted Text

As shown in Figure 2.6, the format of the text presented in the browser remains the
same as written in the code.
If we do not use the <PRE> tag, the browser condenses the white space when
presenting the text on the web page.

2.4.4 FONT Tag

HTML provides the flexibility of changing the characteristics of the font such as size,
colour etc. Every browser has a default font setting that governs the default font name,
size and colour. Unless you have changed it, the default is Times New Roman 12pt
with the colour being black. Now with IE 6.0 (Internet Explorer) you can specify font
names other than the default, such as ARIAL and COMIC SANS. Consider the
example shown in Figure 2.7.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> IGNOU </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY BGCOLOUR="#FFFFFF">
<CENTER>
Welcome to <FONT SIZE=6>INDIA </FONT><BR>
Welcome to <FONT FACE = ARIAL SIZE=6>INDIA </FONT><BR>
Welcome to <FONT FACE = ARIAL SIZE=6 COLOUR = BLUE>INDIA
</FONT><BR>
</CENTER>
</BODY>
</HTML>

38

Introduction to
HTML

Figure 2.7: Using the FONT Tag

Let us look at the syntax of the <FONT> tag with its different attributes.
<FONT FACE = name SIZE = n colour = #RGB >
The attributes are:
a. FACE: This attribute is used to change the font style. Its value should be given as
the name of the desired font. But the font name specified must be present in the
system, otherwise the default-name is used by the browser. The font will only
display if the user has that font installed on the computer. Arial and Comic Sans
MS are pretty widely distributed with Microsoft Windows. So if you are using a
Microsoft supplied operating system, these are likely to be available on your
computer. In Figure 2.7, you see an example of the Arial font being used.
b. SIZE: Font can be displayed in any of the 7 sizes:
Tiny
1

Small

Regular

Extra
Medium
4

Large

Real Big

Largest

c. COLOUR: With this attribute you can change the desired font colour. The values
can be specified either by using the hexadecimal format as already described, i.e.,
#RGB, or by the name of the colour. The hex code of the colour has been
explained earlier in this unit. As shown in Figure 2.7, the value of the colour
attribute in the third line has been specified as Blue. So the text present in the
code between the <FONT> and </FONT> tags appears in blue. By default the
colour of the text is black. If we specify the text colour in the <FONT> tag then
this value overrides the colour value, if any, specified in the <BODY> tag.

2.4.5 Special Characters

You have seen that there are certain characters that have special meaning in HTML
code. For example, the < and > characters delimit tags. If you want to display
such characters on the web page, you have to take care that the characters are not
interpreted and are displayed literally. To display the < character, it can be
specified as &lt. The & interprets the lt as the < symbol and displays it. But
now what if you want to display the & symbol itself? Simply writing & in the code
will not display it. But first, let us see how to display some special characters.
Consider the example shown in Figure 2.8 and also look at Table 2.1.
<HTML>
<BODY BGCOLOUR=s#FFFFFF>
This is &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
Used for&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; blank space.
<BR>
&lt; is the Less Than symbol <BR>
&gt; is the Greater Than symbol <BR>

39

Scripting Languages

&amp; is the ampersand symbol <BR>

&quot; is the quotation mark symbol <BR>
&agrave; is small a, grave accent symbol <BR>
&Agrave; is capital a, grave accent symbol <BR>
&ntilde; is small n, tilde symbol <BR>
&Ntilde; is capital n, tilde symbol <BR>
&uuml; is the umlaut small u symbol <BR>
&Uuml; is the umlaut <BR>
&#144; is the symbol Delta<BR>
&#188; is the quarter symbol <BR>
&#189;is the hay symbol <BR>
</BODY>
</HTML>

C
l
e
a
s
e
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
t
h
i
s
t
o
s
h
o
... [1]w
C
l
e
a
s
e

Figure 2.8: Entering Special Characters

The special characters shown in Figure 2.8 are some of the most frequently used
characters displayed on web pages. Each of the special characters can be displayed by
using its character sequence after the &. These can be seen in the following Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Displaying Special Characters

Special Character

Character Symbol

Description

<
>
&

&lt;
&gt;
&amp;
&quot;
&nbsp;
&agrave;
&Agrave;
&ntilde;
&Ntilde;
&uuml;
&Uuml;
&#144;
&#188;
&#189;

Less-than symbol
Greater-than symbol
Ampersand
Quotation Mark
Blank space
small a, grave accent
capital A, grave accent
small n, tilde
capital N, tilde
umlaut small u
umlaut capital U
delta
One Fourth
Half

40

The browser will display your text in a steady stream unless you tell it to do so
otherwise with line breaks. It will reduce any amount of white space to a single space.
If you want more spaces, you must use the space character (&nbsp;). If you hit Return
(or Enter) while you are typing, the browser will interpret that as a space unless there
is already a space there.

c
o
r
r
e
c
t
t
h
i
s
t
o
s
... [2]h
C
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a
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o
m
i
t
t
h
e
d
e
l
t
a
s
y
... [3]m

Consider another example, which shows how to display multiple blank lines. Code a
space character with a line break for each blank line you want.

Introduction to
HTML

<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>IGNOU</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY BGCOLOUR="#FFFFFF">
Welcome to <BR>
&nbsp;<BR>
&nbsp;<BR>
&nbsp;<BR>
&nbsp;<BR>
&nbsp;<BR>INDIA
</BODY>
</HTML>

Check Your Progress 1

Describe yourself on a web page and experiment with colours in BGCOLOUR,
TEXT, LINK, VLINK, and ALINK. Try out different fonts and sizes and also the
other tags you have studied so far, such as the <PRE> tag, as well.

Check Your Progress 2

Add the following information to the web page that you created above.
Job: Software Engineer
The requirement for the job is that the person should be B.E./M.E/M.C.A. having an
aggregate score of 70% or above. The job is project based, so it would be for year
only initially. of the salary would be deducted towards income tax, PF and other
statutory deductions.

2.5

WORKING WITH IMAGES

Let us now make our web pages more exciting by putting in images.

You specify an image with the <IMG> (image) tag. Earlier in this unit, displaying the
images on a page was explained using the BACKGROUND attribute of the <BODY>
tag, which displays the image as the background image. Background images make the
page heavy and hence the page takes a considerable amount of time to load. But the
<IMG>tag can be used for displaying an image with the desired height and width. Let
us look at an example (Figure 2.9).
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>IGNOU</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY BGCOLOUR="#FFFFFF">
<IMG SRC="image.gif" WIDTH=130 HEIGHT=101 ALT = "IMAGE IS
TURNED OFF" ALIGN = "BOTTOM" BORDER = 2> This text is placed at the
middle of the image.

41

Scripting Languages

</BODY>
</HTML>

Figure 2.9: Displaying Images on a Web Page

Let us take a look at the syntax of the <IMG> tag:

<IMG SRC = FILENAME.GIF WIDTH = value HEIGHT = value ALT =
alternate text BORDER = value ALIGN = value>
a. SRC: This attribute specifies the pathname to the source file that contains the
image. The value in the above example, "image.gif", means that the browser will
look for the image named image.gif in the same folder (or directory) as the html
document itself.
b. WIDTH: This is used for specifying the desired width of the image.
c. HEIGHT: This is used for specifying the desired height of the image.
d. BORDER: An important attribute of the IMG tag is BORDER. This attribute
specifies the width of the border of the image. By default it is 0, i.e. there is no
border. As shown in Figure 2.9 the image image.gif has been given a border 2
pixel wide. The following code gives a wider border to the above image.
<BODY BGCOLOUR="#FFFFFF">
<IMG SRC="image.gif" WIDTH=130 HEIGHT=101 BORDER=10>
</BODY>
e. ALT: Another IMG attribute that is important is ALT. ALT is sort of a substitute
for the image that is displayed or used when the user is using a browser that does
not display images. Someone may be using a text only browser, he may have
image loading turned off for speed or he may be using a voice browser (a browser
where the web page is read out). In those cases, that ALT attribute could be very
important to your visitor as it could be used (given the proper text) to describe the
image that is not on the screen.

Check Your Progress 3

Create your own background with a paint program using the following steps:
x Create a small graphic with the paint program.
x Save it as a .jpg or .gif file in the same subdirectory (or folder) that you are
keeping the html page that you have been creating.
42

x Create a simple HTML file with a background, and put the name of your .jpg or

.gif file after the BACKGROUND attribute. (Note: You can easily create the
simple html file by copying the html tags above from this web page and pasting
them into your new html file. Be sure to substitute the name of your .jpg or .gif file
for image.gif).

Introduction to
HTML

x Save the simple html file that you have just created and open it with your web
browser. What do you see? When you are finished, return to this page and
continue.

2.6

META TAG

You might be aware of, and perhaps may have used, search engines such as Google to
look for web pages on a topic of interest. The META Tag comes in useful if you want
your web page to be easily locatable by search engines. When you enter a search
string, the search engine shows web pages containing that string, provided the web
page has used those in META tag appropriately. The search engine interacts with the
META tag of the HTML page in order to find the required string. Information inside a
Meta element should be such as to describe the document. Consider the following
example (Figure 2.10).
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>IGNOU</TITLE>
<META NAME="author" CONTENT="IGNOU">
<META NAME="description " CONTENT="This website shows you the
different courses offered by
IGNOU">
<META NAME="keywords " CONTENT=" Website, different courses offered,
IGNOU,mca,bca">
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<P>
The meta attributes of this document identify the author and courses offered.
</P>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Figure 2.10: Using the META Tag

Meta tags have two attributes:

a. NAME: This attribute is used for identifying the type of META tag you are
including.
b. CONTENT: This attribute is used to specify the keywords that the search engine
catalogs.
Consider the following code of the example shown in Figure 2.10.

43

Scripting Languages

<META NAME= description CONTENT="This website shows you the different

courses offered by IGNOU">
The CONTENT attribute provides the list of words in the form of a sentence to the
search engine. So if someone searches for one of the keywords listed by you in the
META tag, then your web site would also appear in the result of the search. It is
useful to include META tags that include as many keywords as possible. This makes
the web page more likely to show up in a search.
You can also specify keywords by separating them by commas as shown in the
following code fragment of Figure 2.10.
<META NAME= keywords CONTENT= Website, different courses offered,
IGNOU,mca,bca>
You can use either of the methods of specifying the META tag as convenient.
Consider another example shown in Figure 2.11. This example demonstrates how to
redirect a user if your site address has changed.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>IGNOU</TITLE>
<META HTTP-EQUIV="Refresh"
CONTENT="5;URL=http://www.ignou.ac.in">
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<P>
Sorry! We have moved! The new URL is: www.ignou.ac.in
</p>
<p>
You will be redirected to the new address in five seconds.
</p>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Figure 2.11: Redirecting a User if the Site has Moved

Consider the following code of Figure 2.11

<META HTTP-EQUIV= Refresh CONTENT=5;URL=http://www.ignou.ac.in>

44

It indicates to the browser that the page has to be refreshed in 5 seconds with the new
URL http://www.ignou.ac.in. So when the user sees this page by specifying its
original URL,the browser is redirected to the webpage www.ignou.ac.in after five
seconds. This type of redirection is useful when you want that a user accessing your
old website should automatically be redirected to the new website address.

Now let us consider an example that makes use of almost all the tags explained so far.

Introduction to
HTML

Case Study: Design a single page web site for a store listing the products and services
offered. The store sells computers and related products. The site should contain
images explaining the products graphically.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> SOLVED CASE STUDY FOR HTML </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY LINK="#0000ff" VLINK="#800080">
<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
<B><I><U><FONT SIZE=5><P ALIGN="CENTER">ABC Products</P> </FONT>
</B></O></I><P>ABC store sells the latest in computers and computer products.
Besides, we also stock stationery.</P>
<P ALIGN="CENTER"><HR></P>
<B><U><P>Product 1.</P>
</U></B><P><IMG SRC="Image1.gif" WIDTH=127 HEIGHT=102></P>
<P>This is a notebook. It has 200 pages. Each page has three columns with a heading
for date, name and address. Its cost is Rs. 100 only.</P>
<P ALIGN="CENTER"><HR></P>
<B><U><P>Product 2.</P>
</U></B><P><IMG SRC="Image2.gif" WIDTH=127 HEIGHT=102></P>
<P>This is a computer. It has 512 MB RAM with a 2.3 GHz processor and an 80 GB
HDD. Its cost is Rs. 30,000 only. It is pre-loaded with Windows 2003. You can buy
Microsoft Office software too from us.</P></BODY>
</HTML>

Check Your Progress 4

Design a single page web site for a university containing a description of the courses
offered. It should also contain some general information about the university such as
its history, the campus, its unique features and so on. The site should be coloured and
each section should have a different colour.

2.7

SUMMARY

In this unit we have learnt how to create simple HTML pages. The contents of the
page have to be written within the BODY tag. The HEAD tag includes the title of the
document. An important part of displaying a page is the proper formatting of the text.
There exist many tags to do this job. The headers of the sections and sub-sections of
the document can be displayed using the header tags (<H1> to <H6>). The <P> tag is
used to demarcate a paragraph. The <B>, <I> and <U> tags are used to mark the text
as bold, italics and underlined respectively. The <STRONG> and <EM> tags are used
to emphasize the text in bold and italics. The <BLOCKQUOTE> tag indents the left
margin of the text. The <ADDRESS> tag displays the text in italics. Any text placed
between the <CITE> and </CITE> tags, is rendered in italics by the browser. You can
display the text exactly as written in the code using the <PRE> tag. The size, colour
and the type of the font can be specified using the <FONT> tag. The <IMG> tag is
used for inserting images in the document. We have also looked at the very useful
<META> tag. This tag is used to redirect the users to other pages, and to provide
information about the page.

References: INTERNET & WORLD WIDE WEB BY DEITEL, DEITEL & NIETO
HANDS ON HTML BY GREG ROBERTSON

45

Scripting Languages

2.8

SOLUTIONS/ ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1

1.

<HTML>
<HEAD>
</HEAD>
<BODY LINK="#0000ff" VLINK="#ffff99" BGCOLOUR="#FFFFFF">
<B><FONT SIZE=4><FONT FACE="Arial, sansserif">Ram</FONT></FONT></B></P>
<B><U><FONT SIZE=3><FONT FACE="Arial,
sans-serif">Qualification</FONT></FONT></U></B></P>
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif"><B>Title</B></FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif"><B>Authority</B></FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif"><B>Division
%</B></FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif"><B>Year </B></FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<BR>
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">10</FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">CBSE Board</FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">60.00%</FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">1994</FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<BR><FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">12 </FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">CBSE Board</FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

46

<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">67.00%</FONT>

&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">1996</FONT>

&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<BR><FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">B.E.</FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&
nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp

Introduction to
HTML

<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">Delhi University</FONT>

&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&
nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp
<FONT FACE="Courier, monospace">I</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial, sansserif">
Division</FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&
nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&nbsp;&n
bsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">1999</FONT>
<BR><BR><B><U><FONT SIZE=3><FONT FACE="Arial, sansserif">Personal
Details</FONT></FONT></U></B>
<PRE>
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">
Father's Name: Mr. Shyam mehta
Date of Birth: 23 Jan, 1976. </FONT>
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">
Address: A2-81b, East Of kailash,New Delhi.
Tel: 29090909,9220101010</FONT>
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">
Email: ram@hotmail.com
Sex: Male
Marital Status: Single
Interests and activities: Troubleshooting hardware and software problems.
</FONT>
</PRE>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Check Your Progress 2

2.

<HTML>
<HEAD>
</HEAD>
<BODY LINK="#ffff00" VLINK="#ffff99" BGCOLOUR="#ffffff">
<PRE>
<U><B><FONT FACE="Times New Roman, serif">Job: Software Engineer
</FONT></B></U>
<FONT FACE="Times New Roman, serif">
The requirement for the job is that the person should be B.E./M.E/M.C.A having
an aggregate score of 70% or above. The job is project based, so it would be for
year only initially. of the salary would be deducted towards income tax, PF
and other statutory deductions.
</PRE>
<B><FONT SIZE=4><FONT FACE="Arial, sans-

Comment: Please correct the solution

to reflect the pre-formatted text as
amended in the question.

47

Scripting Languages

serif">Ram</FONT></FONT></B></P>
<B><U><FONT SIZE=3><FONT FACE="Arial,
sans-serif">Qualification</FONT></FONT></U></B></P>
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif"><B>Title</B></FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif"><B>Authority</B></FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif"><B>Division
%</B></FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif"><B>Year </B></FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<BR>
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">10</FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">CBSE Board</FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">60.00%</FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">1994</FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<BR><FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">12 </FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">CBSE Board</FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">67.00%</FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">1996</FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<BR><FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">B.E.</FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&
nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp

48

<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">Delhi University</FONT>

&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&
nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp

Introduction to
HTML

<FONT FACE="Courier, monospace">I</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial, sansserif">

Division</FONT>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&
nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&nbsp;&n
bsp;&nbsp;&nbsp&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">1999</FONT>
<BR><BR><B><U><FONT SIZE=3><FONT FACE="Arial, sansserif">Personal
Details</FONT></FONT></U></B>
<PRE>
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">
Father's Name : Mr. Shyam mehta
Date of Birth : 23 Jan,1976. </FONT>
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">
Address: A2-81b, East Of kailash,New Delhi.
Tel.: 29090909,9220101010</FONT>
<FONT FACE="Arial, sans-serif">
Email: ram@hotmail.com
Sex : Male
Marital Status : Single
Interests and activities : Troubleshooting hardware and software problems.
</FONT>
</PRE>
</FONT>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Check Your Progress 3

1.

<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>IGNOU</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY BGCOLOUR="#FFFFFF">
<IMG SRC="abc.jpg" WIDTH=130 HEIGHT=101 ALT = " IMAGE IS
TURNED OFF" ALIGN = "MIDDLE" BORDER = 2> This text is placed at the
middle of the image.
</BODY>
</HTML>

Comment: This solution does not

reflect an answer to the question. There
the image was to form the page
background, for instance. Please amend
the solution.

Check Your Progress 4

1.

<HTML>
<HEAD>
</HEAD>
<BODY LINK="#0000ff" VLINK="#800080" BGCOLOUR="#ff6600">
<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
<B><I><U><FONT SIZE=4><P ALIGN="CENTER">IGNOU</P>
</I></U></FONT><FONT SIZE=2><P>I</B>ndira <B>G</B>andhi
<B>N</B>ational <B>O</B>pen University is a very old and reputed

49

Scripting Languages

University. IGNOU offers various types of courses that are both academic and
technical. </P>
<P>&nbsp;</P>
</FONT><FONT SIZE=4 COLOUR="#0000ff"><P>Master in Computer
Applications</P>
</FONT><FONT COLOUR="#0000ff"><P>This course has 6 semesters and the
total duration is 3 years. The maximum duration allowed for completing the
course is 7 years. The fee per semester is Rs 5000 </FONT> </P>
<FONT SIZE=4 COLOUR="#00ff00"><P>Bachelor in Computer
Applications</P>
</FONT><FONT COLOUR="#00ff00"><P>This course has 6 semesters and the
total duration is 3 years. The maximum duration allowed for completing the
course is 6 years. The fee per semester is Rs 3000</P>
</FONT><FONT SIZE=4 COLOUR="#ff0000"><P>Bachelor in Information
Technology</P>
</FONT><FONT COLOUR="#ff0000"><P>This course has 6 semesters and the
total duration is 3 years. The maximum duration allowed for completing the
course is 5 years. The fee per semester is Rs 10,000.</P></FONT></BODY>
</HTML>

50

Page 40: [1] Comment

milind

Please correct this to show a small a with a grave accent.

Page 40: [2] Comment

milind

Please correct this to show a small n with a tilde.

Page 40: [3] Comment

milind

Please omit the delta symbol if it is not displaying correctly.

Advanced HTML

UNIT 3

ADVANCED HTML

Structure

Page No.

3.0
3.1
3.2

Introduction
Objectives
Links

3.3

Lists

51
51
52

Anchor tag

53

3.3.1 Unordered Lists

3.3.2 Ordered Lists
3.3.3 Definition Lists

3.4

Tables

55

3.4.1 TABLE, TR and TD Tags

3.4.2 Cell Spacing and Cell Padding
3.4.3 Colspan and Rowspan

3.5

Frames

60

3.5.1 Frameset
3.5.2 FRAME Tag
3.5.3 NOFRAMES Tag

3.6

Forms
3.6.1
3.6.2
3.6.3
3.6.4
3.6.5
3.6.6
3.6.7

3.7

Some Special Tags

3.7.1
3.7.2
3.7.3
3.7.4
3.7.5
3.7.6
3.7.7

3.8
3.9

3.0

66
FORM and INPUT Tag
Text Box
Radio Button
Checkbox
SELECT Tag and Pull Down Lists
Hidden
Submit and Reset

71

COLGROUP
THEAD, TBODY, TFOOT
_blank, _self, _parent, _top
IFRAME
LABEL
Attribute for <SELECT>
TEXTAREA

Summary
Solutions/ Answers

79
80

INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit you have learned the basics of HTML. After learning about how
to make static web pages, let us now learn how to develop Interactive Web sites. A
good web site should be interactive and easy to use and understand. Of course, very
simple web sites that merely need to present some static information may not provide
for user input. Interactive web sites are those that are capable of taking input from
the user and presenting the output on the basis of the inputs given. To be able to do
so, you will need more HTML features than have been covered so far. Features like
Links, Lists, Tables, Input controls will allow you to create sophisticated web pages
that respond dynamically to user input. HTML provides all these features using
different tags such as A, UL, OL, INPUT, FRAMESET and others, that you will
study in this unit. Besides the tags themselves you will also learn about their common
attributes.

3.1

OBJECTIVES

This unit will enable you to create sophisticated, interactive web pages. After going
through this unit you will be able to learn:
x
x

links using ANCHOR tag;

ordered, unordered and definition Lists;
51

Scripting Languages

x
x
x

3.2

tables;
frames to divide a web page into different parts; and
forms for accepting user input.

LINKS

Hyperlinks, or links are one of the most important characteristics of web pages. A
link moves us from the current page to a destination that is specified in the HTML
page.
URL Stands for Universal Resource Locator. A URL is just an address that tells the
browser precisely where on the Internet the resource is to be found. The process of
parsing the URL and actually connecting to the resource can be somewhat complex
and does not concern us here.

3.2.1 Anchor Tag

The Anchor tag is used to create links between different objects like HTML pages,
files, web sites etc. It is introduced by the characters <A> and terminated by </A>.
HREF is the most common attribute of the ANCHOR tag. It defines the destination of
the link.
<HTML>

<HEAD>
<TITLE>IGNOU</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF">
Go to <A HREF="http://www.ignou.ac.in/">IGNOU!</A>
</BODY>
</HTML>

As shown in Figure 3.1, the text IGNOU present between the <A> and </A> tags
becomes the hyperlink. On clicking anywhere on this hyperlink, the browser would
attempt to connect to the given URL and the website http://www.ignou.ac.in would
open, if possible. An email link can be specified in the same way. We just have to
specify the email address instead of a page address as the value of HREF as shown in
the following code. On clicking on the link, the default mail program on the users
computer opens up with a To: address as specified in the hyperlink. You can then
type your message and send e-mail to that address.
<BODY BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF">
Send me <A HREF="mailto:forrest@bubbagump.com">mail</A>
</BODY>
It is also possible to make an image a link if desired. This is done using the <IMG>
tag. Consider the following example.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>IGNOU</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF">
Go to <A HREF="http://ignou.ac.in/"><IMG SRC="image.gif" WIDTH=130
HEIGHT=101></A>
</BODY>
</HTML>
52

Advanced HTML

So in the example shown in Figure 3.2, the image becomes the link. When the user
clicks on the image, the web site http://www.ignou.ac.in opens up, if possible.

Check Your Progress 1

1.

Create a web page that provides links to five different web pages or to entirely
different web sites.

2.

Write HTML code for the following page (the underlined text is linked to
another file called link_text)

3.3

LISTS

Lists are used when the data are to be mentioned in the form of points like: causes of
a particular issue, list of items etc. Lists break up the monotony of a long paragraph
and direct the readers attention to the essential parts.
Lists are segregated into three types, namely Ordered lists, Unordered lists and
Definition lists.

3.3.1 Unordered Lists

First, we will build an unordered list. Sometimes, these lists are also called bulleted
lists. These lists are characterized by list items that do not have numbers. They are
used when the points in the list have no particular order. They are delimited by the
<UL> and </UL> tags. Each point in the list is delimited by the <LI> and </LI> tags.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>IGNOU</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF">
What I want for Id
<UL>
<LI>a big red truck</LI>
<LI>an aeroplane that flies</LI>
<LI> a nice soft toy</LI>
<LI>a drum set</LI>
<LI>a Walkman</LI>
<LI> extra pocket money</LI>
</UL>

Comment: Better give an example that

an Indian reader will relate to.

53

Scripting Languages

</BODY>
</HTML>
The syntax of the <UL> tag is:
<UL TYPE=""> where TYPE= "DISC", "SQUARE" or "CIRCLE".
<LI> </LI>
</UL>
The bullet appearance can be changed to be round (a dark circle), a disc or a circle
depending on the value of the TYPE attribute. As shown in the Figure 3.3, the list of
items are included within the <UL> and </UL> tags. Each list item must be preceded with
a <LI> tag.

3.3.2 Ordered Lists

Lists having numbered items are known as ordered lists. They are used when the
items in the list have a natural order. They can also be used when the number of
items in the list needs to be known at a glance. To make an ordered list, simply
change the <UL> tag to <OL>.
<HTML>

<HEAD>
<TITLE>IGNOU</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF">
What I want for my birthday
<OL>
<LI>a big red truck</LI>
<LI>a toy train</LI>
<LI>a Barbie doll</LI>
<LI>a drum set</LI>
<LI>binoculars</LI>
<LI>a months extra pocket money</LI>
</OL>
</BODY>
</HTML>
The syntax of the <OL> tag is:
<OL TYPE="" START=""> where TYPE= "1", "a", "A", "i", "I" and START is the
first item number.
<LI> </LI>
</OL>
The type of the numbering format desired should be specified as the value of the
TYPE attribute. The possible types are shown above in the syntax. The numbering
starts from the START attributes value.

3.3.3 Definition Lists

Another type of list is a definition list. Definition lists have a heading and the text
appears below that.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>IGNOU</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF">
<DL>
<DT>10th Amendment </DT>

54

Advanced HTML

<DD>The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor
prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the
people.
</DD>
</DL>
</BODY>
</HTML>

A definition list is introduced by the <DL> tag and terminated by </DL>. The
Definition heading should be specified between the <DT> and </DT> tags. The
Definition should be specified between <DD> and </DD> tags.

Check Your Progress 2

1. Design a web page that looks similar to following page:

3.4

TABLES

In this section you will see how to put tables in your web documents. It is not that a
table is simply a combination of rows and columns. If you have ever seen any table in
an attractive web page you might be interested to learn how they make good use of
the <TABLE> and related tags.

3.4.1 Table, TR and TD Tags

Three tags form the essential ingredients for creating a table.
TABLE: This is the main tag. It tells the browser that a table follows. It has
attributes like size and border width.
TR: A TableRow defines a horizontal row that consists of TableData cells.
TD: This tag specifies an individual block or cell in a table row.
Thus a table is made up of rows, which in turn are made up of cells.

<--This---

----is----

----a----

---Table--- ---Row-->
Cell

You are now ready to create some tables! We must stress that if you want to learn
how to make quality HTML documents, then you would be spending your time well
55

Scripting Languages

if you teach yourself the tags. In our opinion the best HTML editors to use for
beginners are text-based editors. These editors will force you to code HTML
yourself. They dont attempt to do it for you. Once you are an expert, you can use
other tools to improve your productivity so that you do not have to handcode your
pages.
Now let us start creating tables. The following example shows some tables with
different attributes.
<HTML>

<HEAD>
<TITLE> IGNOU</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<!- - Table with border = 5 - - >
First: Table with border = 5
<TABLE BORDER=5>
<TR>
<TD>Ajay</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
<!- - Table with width = 50%- - >
Second: Table with width = 50%
<TABLE BORDER=3 WIDTH=50%>
<TR>
<TD>Ajay</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
<!- - Table with width = 50 - - >
Third: Table with width = 50
<TABLE BORDER=1 WIDTH=50>
<TR>
<TD>Ajay</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
<!- - Table with height = 75 and align = center and valign=top - - >
Fourth: Table with height = 75 and align = center and valign=top <TABLE BORDER=3 WIDTH=100 HEIGHT=75>
<TR>
<TD ALIGN=CENTER>Ajay</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
<!- - Table with an image- - >
Fifth: Table with an image
<TABLE BORDER=3>
<TR>
<TD ALIGN=LEFT VALIGN=MIDDLE><IMG SRC="image1.gif"
WIDTH=32
HEIGHT=32></TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
<!- - A complete Table with different sized columns- - >
Sixth: A complete Table with different sized columns
<TABLE BORDER=3 WIDTH=300 HEIGHT=75>
<TR>
<TD WIDTH=60%>Ajay</TD>
<TD WIDTH=20%>Ramesh</TD>
<TD WIDTH=20%>Vijay</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
56

Advanced HTML

<TD>Pankaj</TD>
<TD>Vikas</TD>
<TD>Rohan</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Figure 3.1: Tables with Different Attributes.

In the first table the BORDER attribute is given a value of 5. The default is no border
i.e. border = 0.

Comment: This output cannot come

from the code given earlier. From where
are First:, Second: etc coming?

When no sizes are specified, the table is only as big as it needs to be, as shown in the
first and third table in Figure 3.6. Specifying a table size is easy. Let us reduce the
table size to 50% of the browser window as has been done in the second example.
See the output in the second table in Figure 3.6. As you can see in the example there
are two ways to specify the table width. Each style has its uses.
You can also change the height of a table. The fourth table in Figure 3.6 shows the
effect of the changed height.
You can control where in the cell the data will appear. For this purpose we use the
ALIGN attribute. In the fourth table in Figure 3.6, we have used a center alignment.
Similarly, right and left can be used for right and left alignment respectively. The
default value is ALIGN=left. This is the value that the browser assumes if you have
not told it otherwise.
You can also control where data will appear vertically in a cell. For this purpose you
specify the VALIGN attribute. In the fourth table, we have used the value center.
You can also use top or bottom. Images can also be placed and manipulated in a table
data cell. In the folder that contains the document with the HTML code, substitute an
IMG tag for text. This is shown in the fifth table. You can also include size attributes
with all your image tags. We will not go into the details here, but doing so makes it
easier for the browser to display the table and avoids any nasty little surprises while
resizing the browser window, for instance.
Now, let us look at multiple rows. Suppose three more friends from across the street
see what is going on and want to be in your table. We think we will give them their
own row. Each row can be assigned a different width for its columns. In the sixth
table we have used 60/20/20 as the relative percentage widths of the three columns.
The last table shows how to create a table with multiple rows and columns. The
WIDTH attributes in the first row carry over to the second row.
57

Scripting Languages

3.4.2 Cell Spacing and Cell Padding

Next let us look at a couple of attributes called CELLPADDING and
CELLSPACING. Both are part of the <TABLE> tag. CELLPADDING is the
amount of space between the border of the cell and the contents of the cell. The
default value for this attribute is 1. This is so that any text in the cells does not appear
to be sticking to the border. However, you can specify a value of 0 if you wish.
The CELLSPACING attribute has a somewhat different meaning. It determines the
spacing between adjacent cells. Its default value is 2. The following example shows
these and some other important attributes of the <TABLE> tag.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> IGNOU</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
First: Table with cellspacing and cellpadding
<TABLE BORDER=3 CELLSPACING=7 CELLPADDING=7>
<TR>
<TD>Ajay</TD>
<TD>Vijay</TD>
<TD>Rohan</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>Pankaj</TD>
<TD>Vikas</TD>
<TD>Sanjay</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
Second: Table with colspan
<TABLE BORDER=1>
<TR>
<TD COLSPAN=2>Ajay</TD>
<TD>Vijay</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>Vikas</TD>
<TD>Pankaj</TD>
<TD>Rohan</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
Third: Table with rowspan
<TABLE BORDER=1>
<TR>
<TD ROWSPAN=2>Ajay</TD>
<TD>Vijay</TD>
<TD>Rohan</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>Pankaj</TD>
<TD>Deepak</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
Fourth :Table with rowspan and colspan
<TABLE BORDER=1>
<TR>
<TD ROWSPAN=2>Ajay</TD>
<TD COLSPAN=2>Vijay</TD>
58

Advanced HTML

</TR>
<TR>
<TD>Pankaj</TD>
<TD>Rohan</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
Fifth: Table with strong tag and a link in cell's data
<TABLE BORDER=1>
<TR>
<TD COLSPAN=3
ALIGN=CENTER><STRONG><AHREF="http://IGNOU.org/">Ajay</STRO
NG>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>Vijay</TD>
<TD>Vikas</TD>
<TD>Pankaj</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Figure 3.2: Some Important Attributes of the Table Tag Family

The first table in Figure 3.7 illustrates cellspacing and cellpadding.

3.4.3 Colspan and Rowspan

Now let us see how to work with COLSPAN (Column Span) and ROWSPAN (Row
Span).
If we want the cell containing Ajay in Figure 3.7 to be extended to the next cell as
well and make that area part of it own, we can use the COLSPAN attribute. This
amounts to merging the two cells into one. Those of you who are familiar with
spreadsheets such as Microsoft Excel will recognize this as similar to its merge
cells feature. As you may have guessed, <ROWSPAN> is just like <COLSPAN>.
The second table in Figure 3.7 shows COLSPAN, the third table shows ROWSPAN
and the fourth table shows an example featuring both COLSPAN and ROWSPAN.

Check Your Progress 3

1.

Design a web page that has 5 equal columns. The table should look the same in
all screen resolutions.

59

Scripting Languages

2.

3.5

Make out a brief bio-data of yours and code it as an HTML Page. You can
consider using tables to show your academic history.

FRAMES

Now let us understand how to make frames for web documents. The intelligent use of
frames can give your pages a cleaner look and make them easier to navigate.
The basic concept goes like this: Each frame is a regular, complete HTML document.
If you wanted to lay out your page into two frames placed side by side, then you
would put one complete HTML document in the left frame and another complete
HTML document in the right frame. In addition you need to write a third HTML
document. This MASTER PAGE contains the <FRAME> tags that specify what goes
where. Dividing a page into frames is actually quite simple.
There are only two major frame tags that you need to learn: <FRAMESET> and
<FRAME>. The easiest way to explain them is to start making some frames. As an
aspiring computer professional, you would be well advised to learn the HTML tags in
detail. Do not use HTML editors unless you know HTML, just as you would not let
a child use a calculator unless she already knows her arithmetic well. Once you have
a thorough grasp of HTML, you can then save labour by using different tools. The
tools might not offer the flexibility that you can get through handcoding HTML. So
they should be used judiciously. Of course, this advice is not meant for lay persons
who want to make web pages.
We will now need a few HTML documents. We will give each document a name.
Create a new folder somewhere and create the first HTML file as One.htm. Now
make another html document. Save this in the same folder as Two.htm. Now do the
same for Three, Four, Five, and Six. Save them just like the others. You should now
have a folder that contains 6 complete standalone HTML documents.

3.5.1 Frameset
Now make a master page in which you write the following code.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>My Frame Page -- The Master Page</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<FRAMESET>
</FRAMESET>
</HTML>
Now, save it in your folder (with all the other files) as index.htm. If you try to open
it with your browser now it will be blank. All you have done so far is make a title.
Now let us start defining just how things are going to look. Tell the browser to split
the main window into 2 columns, each occupying 50% of the window.
<FRAMESET COLS="50%,50%">
</FRAMESET>
This will still give a blank output as you have not specified what goes into the
windows. We have one more thing to do before our code displays some output.

3.5.2 Frame Tag

As you can guess, this tag is used for placing an HTML file in the frame created. We
must now tell the browser what to put in each frame.

60

Comme
heck
out the
code
for all
the
FRAM
ES
related
exampl
es. Do
we
need a
<BOD
Y> tag?

Advanced HTML

<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>My Frame Page- The Master Page</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<FRAMESET COLS="50%,50%">
<FRAME SRC="One.htm">
<FRAME SRC="Two.htm">
</FRAMESET>
</HTML>
You also need to note here that <FRAMESET> is a container tag, and <FRAME>
is not. A container tag has an opening <TAG> and a closing </TAG>. So notice that
the <FRAME> tag has no delimiter to terminate it. Everything is in its attributes.
The <FRAMESET> tag does all the dividing of the page into different windows. It
also has attributes that specify how to divide them up. Can we divide the page into
more than 2 pieces? Yes, just make sure that you specify a page to occupy each
section or the browser will get confused. Look at the code and the output in Figure
3.10.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>My Frame Page- The Master Page</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<FRAMESET COLS="20%,20%,20%,20%,20%">
<FRAME SRC="One.htm">
<FRAME SRC="Two.htm">
<FRAME SRC="Three.htm">
<FRAME SRC="Four.htm">
<FRAME SRC="Five.htm">
</FRAMESET>
</HTML>

Figure 3.3: A Web Page with Five Frames

It is only a small step to making the frames all of different sizes. Just make sure your
arithmetic is correct and that the percentages you specify add up to 100, or the
browser will come up with its own interpretation.
If we divide the page into ROWS instead of COLS we get a different layout.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>My Frame Page- The Master Page</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<FRAMESET ROWS="10%,20%,30%,15%,25%">
<FRAME SRC="One.htm">
<FRAME SRC="Two.htm">
<FRAME SRC="Three.htm">
<FRAME SRC="Four.htm">
61

Scripting Languages

<FRAME SRC="Five.htm">
</FRAMESET>
</HTML>

Let us now take another example with only 2 frames. We can specify 50 to indicate
that number of pixels instead of 50%. We can also use * instead of a number. The *
means whatever is left over.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>My Frame Page- The Master Page</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<FRAMESET COLS="50,*">
<FRAME SRC="One.htm">
<FRAME SRC="Two.htm">
</FRAMESET>
</HTML>

When you use frames you have to be very careful to code properly to ensure that all
viewers are able to look at reasonably consistent views. Let us suppose that you
make a frame 100 pixels wide on the left and 100 pixels wide on the right. If some
users are running an 800 u 600 screen they see the middle area as 600 pixels wide.
Other users may have a screen set at 640 u 480. What do they see? The middle area
for them is only 440 pixels wide. So if you use any absolute dimensions in your
<FRAMESET> tags you should have at least one * that will produce an elastic
frame. That way everything will look at least reasonably good. If you do not do that,
your page might need to scroll on one resolution and not on another. As far as
possible you might want to avoid absolute values in your frames and work on relative
numbers so that things get taken care of automatically by the browser.
We can have more than one leftover frame and specify a size relationship between
them. Try it yourself and see the result.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>My Frame Page- The Master Page</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<FRAMESET COLS="50,*,2*">
<FRAME SRC="One.htm">
<FRAME SRC="Two.htm">
<FRAME SRC="Three.htm">
</FRAMESET>
</HTML>
The above code means: Make 3 frames. Make the first 50 pixels wide. Divide the rest
between frames 2 and 3. But make frame 3 twice as big as frame 2. Put One.html/ in
the first frame, Two.html/ in the second and Three.html/ in the third.
It is important to note that everything is done in order. The first <FRAME> is
displayed according to the first size attribute in the <FRAMESET> tag (50/One), the
second frame with the second (*/Two) and the third frame with the third attribute set
(2*/Three).

Frames inside other frames

62

Comme
his is
not
clear.
The
proble
m is
more
likely
with
absolut
e
number
s where
50
pixels
might
be a
good
size on
a 640 X
480
screen
but
might
be
miniscu
le on a
1600 X
1200
screen.

Advanced HTML

Here we will discuss how to divide frames into different frames i.e. how to put
horizontal frames in a vertical one and vice-versa. Here we are going to divide a
frame in half horizontally.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>My Frame Page- The Master Page</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<FRAMESET COLS="50,*,2*">
<FRAME SRC="One.htm">
<FRAME SRC="Two.htm">
<FRAMESET ROWS="50%,50%">
<FRAME SRC="Three.htm">
<FRAME SRC="Four.htm">
</FRAMESET>
</FRAMESET>

Here the frame three is at the top and Four at the bottom. This has been done just to
illustrate how to achieve the effect and is not meant to suggest that you actually
divide up your pages like this. Too many frames on a page do not look good. A good
rule of thumb is not to have more than 3 frames on your page. If you can, avoid
frames altogether.

3.5.3 Noframes Tag

The <NOFRAMES> tag can be used for those browsers that are not able to interpret
<FRAME> tags. Although most, if not all, of your visitors will be able to see frames,
there is still a small number of such browsers and there still are many users around
who do not have the latest in equipment. To address as wide an audience as possible,
you could write a no-frames version of your page.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>My Frame Page- The Master Page</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<FRAMESET COLS="50,*,2*">
<FRAMESET ROWS="50,*,*">
<FRAME SRC="One.htm">
<FRAME SRC="Five.htm">
<FRAME SRC="Six.htm">
</FRAMESET>
<FRAME SRC="Two.htm">
<FRAMESET ROWS="50%,50%">
<FRAME SRC="Three.htm">
<FRAME SRC="Four.htm">
</FRAMESET>
</FRAMESET>
<BODY><NOFRAMES> your browser does not handle frames! </NOFRAMES>
</BODY>
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Scripting Languages

</HTML>

Figure 3.4: Putting in a NOFRAMES Version

Put your non-frames page down between the <NOFRAMES> tags. If someone is
using an old browser, it will skip everything above and come straight down here.
Frames-capable browsers will ignore what is between the <NOFRAMES> tags.
We can also put images in the frames. Let us see how to put in world.gif as an
example.
<FRAME SRC="world.gif" WIDTH=146 HEIGHT=162>
The scrollbars that you see can be specified as YES, NO or AUTO. YES means the
window gets scrollbars - whether they are needed or not. NO means there will be no
scrollbars. AUTO is the default. If scrollbars are needed, they appear while if they
are not needed they stay conveniently out of the way. So let us see how to get rid of
our scrollbars.
<FRAME SRC="world.gif" WIDTH=146 HEIGHT=162 SCROLLING=NO>
You would notice a problem with this code. The image is not in the right frame. The
next two attributes deal with margins. The browser automatically gives each frame
some empty space around its contents. This is normally useful for aesthetic purposes.
You can control the size of these margins by using MARGINWIDTH and
MARGINHEIGHT. They control the left and right and top and bottom margins
respectively. We will set them both to 1. (1 is the minimum)
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>My Frame Page- The Master Page</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<FRAMESET COLS="146,*">
<FRAMESET ROWS="162,*">
<FRAME SRC="world.gif" WIDTH=146 HEIGHT=162 SCROLLING=NO
MARGINWIDTH=1 MARGINHEIGHT=1>
<FRAME SRC="One.htm">
</FRAMESET>
<FRAME SRC="Two.htm">
</FRAMESET>

3.6

64

FORMS

Comme
lease
check
out all
the
code
for
FRAM
ES by
running
it
exactly
as it
appears
.

Advanced HTML

Now let us get a grip on how to add interactivity to your web documents by way of
the <FORM> tag. With this tag you can add to your web pages a guestbook, order
forms, surveys, get feedback or put in any other form that you wish.

3.6.1 FORM and INPUT Tag

A good way to learn about forms is to use your notepad editor and create a new
HTML document. Save it as form1.htm in some folder somewhere. You might want
to create a separate folder for learning this tag. Start up your browser. Use it to open
form1.html and run Notepad and the browser side by side. This way you can create
your pages and almost instantaneously see the results of your work. Remember to hit
the refresh button on your browser.
Next we must tell the browser where to send the data we gather and how to send it.
There are two ways you can do this.
1)

You can send the data to a cgi script or use some other mechanism for
processing, or

2)

You can have the data emailed to you. The first option is outside the scope of
discussion of this unit.
The second, or mailto, form should have the following attributes in the
<FORM> tag.

Note: Microsoft's Internet Explorer 3.0 does not support mailto forms. When you try
to submit the information, the new mail message window pops up. It does support
forms sent to a CGI script.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Welcome to IGNOU </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<FORM METHOD=POST ACTION="mailto:xxx@xxx.xxx"
ENCTYPE="application/x-www-form-urlencoded">
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>
The line containing the mailto keyword in the Figure 3.17 is very important. The only
thing you have to do is specify your email address after mailto: The rest must be
written exactly as shown. The words FORM, METHOD, POST and ACTION do not
have to be capitalized but there must be a space between every two attributes,
between FORM and METHOD, between POST and ACTION, and between the email address and ENCTYPE.
Some mail programs are capable of converting the data without needing a separate
program. You may want to try this method first. Just remove the instruction
ENCTYPE="application/x-www-form-urlencoded" and in its place use
ENCTYPE="text/plain".
The following example shows a general form that includes some of the commonly
used controls.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Welcome to IGNOU </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<FORM METHOD=POST>

65

Scripting Languages

Text box with name, value and size attributes

<INPUT TYPE=TEXT NAME="ADDRESS" VALUE="44 XYZ" SIZE=10>
<BR>Text box with password and maxlength
<INPUT TYPE=PASSWORD MAXLENGTH=10>
<BR>Radio button with default checked<BR>
Who is your best friend?<BR>
<INPUT TYPE=RADIO NAME="BEST FRIEND" VALUE="Ajay" CHECKED>
Ajay <BR>
<INPUT TYPE=RADIO NAME="BEST FRIEND" VALUE="Rohan"> Rohan
<BR>
<INPUT TYPE=RADIO NAME="BEST FRIEND" VALUE="Tarun"> Tarun<P>
<BR>Checkbox<BR>
<INPUT TYPE=CHECKBOX NAME="AJAY" VALUE="YES"> Ajay <BR>
<INPUT TYPE=CHECKBOX NAME="Rohan" VALUE="YES"> Rohan <BR>
<INPUT TYPE=CHECKBOX NAME="BU" VALUE="YES"> Bunty<P>
<BR>Drop down list<BR>
<SELECT NAME="BEST FRIEND" SIZE=4>
<OPTION VALUE="Ajay">Ajay
<OPTION VALUE="Rohan">Rohan
<OPTION VALUE="Tarun">Tarun
<OPTION VALUE="Gagan">Gagan
<OPTION VALUE="Harish">Harish
<OPTION VALUE="Manjit">Manjit
</SELECT>
</FORM>
</HTML>

Figure 3.5: A Web Page with a Form

3.6.2 Text Box

The <INPUT> tag is used to indicate where user input is expected. It has different
attributes, of which the TYPE attribute is used to specify the kind of input that is to
be provided. The most common value of this attribute of the <INPUT> tag is TEXT.
As shown in Figure 3.18, every INPUT needs a NAME. When the user types in his
address (for example 1234 ABC), it will become the input's value and be paired with
NAME so the end result after running it through the Mailto Formatter will be
ADDRESS=1234 ABC.

66

Advanced HTML

We can, if we want, type in a VALUE.

<INPUT TYPE=TEXT NAME="ADDRESS" VALUE="44 XYZ">
This will automatically pair the value 44 XYZ with the name ADDRESS, unless the
user changes it. Take care to use quotes as specified in the example.
We can specify the size of the text input box.
<INPUT TYPE=TEXT NAME="ADDRESS" VALUE="44 XYZ" SIZE=10>
The default value is 20. You already know that the default value is the value that the
browser assumes if you have not told it otherwise.
Go ahead and remove VALUE="44 XYZ".
If we want, we can specify how many characters a user can input.
Experiment with this and try to input more than 10 characters! The MAXLENGTH
attribute is used to restrict the number of characters to be entered in the textbox.
<INPUT TYPE=TEXT NAME="ADDRESS" SIZE=20 MAXLENGTH=10>
Very similar to the TYPE=TEXT is the TYPE=PASSWORD. It is exactly the same,
except that for security it displays *** instead of the actual input. The text entered as
password would not be echoed on the page. So you can use this whenever you want
to accept a password or some other sensitive information from the user.
<INPUT TYPE=PASSWORD>
Remember that each <INPUT> must have a NAME, that gives the name of the
field.
<INPUT TYPE=PASSWORD NAME="USER PASSWORD">
The SIZE, VALUE, and MAXLENGTH attributes work here also just as they do
with TEXT

3.6.3 Radio Button

Radio buttons are used when only one out of the group of options is to be chosen.
In the example code we have put a line break after each button.
Each of the Radio Buttons must be assigned a VALUE and you must label each
button. The code given in Figure 3.18 illustrates this. You can also modify these
labels with other HTML tags if you wish.
This takes care of the basics of your radio buttons. You can tidy things up by adding
a statement above the buttons, and if you want choose a default selection (optional).
To choose a default selection you need to add CHECKED with the appropriate
radio button. The user of course can only choose one option. The choice will be
returned to you as the name/value pair BEST FRIEND=Ajay (or whatever the user
picks).

3.6.4 Checkbox
Checkboxes are used when one or more out of the group of options is to be chosen.
Building Check boxes is very similar to radio buttons. Figure 3.18 illustrates the use
of Checkbox.
The user can choose any number such as 1, 2, none or all of the options. The choices
will be returned to you as the name/value pairs
Ajay=YES
Tarun=YES
(or whatever the user chooses. If nothing, nothing will be returned to you)

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Scripting Languages

The following is code for making a table containing different options for 3 different
questions. Try it yourself and see the result.
<CENTER>
<TABLE WIDTH=600 BORDER=1 CELLSPACING=1><TR>
<TD WIDTH=199>
Which of these guys are your friends?<BR>
<INPUT TYPE=CHECKBOX NAME="Friend?..Ajay" VALUE="YES"> Ajay
<BR>
<INPUT TYPE=CHECKBOX NAME="Friend?..Rohan" VALUE="YES"> Rohan
<BR>
<INPUT TYPE=CHECKBOX NAME="Friend?..Tarun" VALUE="YES">
Tarun<BR>
<INPUT TYPE=CHECKBOX NAME="Friend?..BU" VALUE="YES"> Bunty<P>
</TD>
<TD WIDTH=200>
Which of these guys would you lend money to?<BR>
<INPUT TYPE=CHECKBOX NAME="Lend money?...Ajay" VALUE="YES">
Ajay <BR>
<INPUT TYPE=CHECKBOX NAME="Lend money?...Rohan" VALUE="YES">
Rohan <BR>
<INPUT TYPE=CHECKBOX NAME="Lend money?...Tarun" VALUE="YES">
Tarun<BR>
<INPUT TYPE=CHECKBOX NAME="Lend money?...BU" VALUE="YES">
Bunty<P>
</TD>
<TD WIDTH=199>
Which of these guys would you trust with your sister?<BR>
<INPUT TYPE=CHECKBOX NAME="Date sister?...Ajay" VALUE="YES"> Ajay
<BR>
<INPUT TYPE=CHECKBOX NAME="Date sister?...Rohan" VALUE="YES">
Rohan <BR>
<INPUT TYPE=CHECKBOX NAME="Date sister?...Tarun" VALUE="YES">
Tarun<BR>
<INPUT TYPE=CHECKBOX NAME="Date sister?...BU" VALUE="YES">
Bunty<P>
</TD>
</TR></TABLE>
</CENTER>

Figure 3.6: A Form on a Web Page with Checkboxes

3.6.5 SELECT Tag and Pull Down Lists

The next type of input is a Pull Down List. With this type you have to use
<SELECT> instead of <INPUT> and it also has a closing tag. This control is used
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Advanced HTML

when we have a long list of items to be displayed. The user can also choose any item.
All we have to do to turn it into a Scrolling List is to add a SIZE attribute to the
<SELECT> tag. The SIZE is simply how many options show in the window.

3.6.6 Hidden
Yet another type of input is HIDDEN input.
<INPUT TYPE=HIDDEN NAME="FORMNAME" VALUE="Friend Form
1">
A HIDDEN input is a name/value pair that is returned to you but does not show up
anywhere on the web page. The hidden input above is needed for use with the mailto
Formatter (MTF). It is how MTF recognizes the forms it has to parse.
Suppose you were a company trying to generate leads for a new product. You have a
standard form for gathering information that has name, company, phone, products
interested in, etc. The only problem is there are 6 slightly different versions of the
form in 6 different places. You need to know what is coming from where. What to
do?
You could add a HIDDEN input to your forms like this:
<HTML>
<BODY>
<FORM METHOD=POST>
<INPUT TYPE=HIDDEN NAME="FORMNAME" VALUE="Version 1"> ...for the
first version
<INPUT TYPE=HIDDEN NAME="FORMNAME" VALUE="Version 2"> ...for the
second version
<INPUT TYPE=HIDDEN NAME="FORMNAME" VALUE="Version 3"> ...for the
third version
</FORM>
</HTML>
By the way, it doesn't matter what the name/value pair in the hidden input is (or any
input for that matter).
<INPUT TYPE=HIDDEN NAME="E" VALUE="Mc^2"> HIDDEN inputs are
also useful for cgi scripts. For example, many Internet Service Providers have a script
you can have your forms sent to. It then sends the form back to you properly
formatted. The hidden input can be used to tell the cgi script who you are, where to
send the parsed data, and so on.

3.6.7 Submit and Reset

Submit and Reset are special types of input buttons. Submit is used to send the data to
the server and Reset clears/resets the form.
<INPUT TYPE=SUBMIT>
<INPUT TYPE=RESET>
We can easily change what the buttons say.
<INPUT TYPE=SUBMIT VALUE="Send it off!"><BR>
<INPUT TYPE=RESET VALUE="Clear the form!"><P>
If necessary, the SUBMIT button can also have a NAME. You would need this if, for
whatever reason, you had more than one SUBMIT button.

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Scripting Languages

Check Your Progress 4

Create a Web page similar to the following:

3.7

SOME SPECIAL TAGS

We now look at some new tags that have been added to HTML in the latest versions.

3.7.1 COLGROUP
<COLGROUP> defines a group of columns in the table and allows you to set the
properties of those columns. <COLGROUP> goes immediately after the <TABLE>
tag and before any <TR>. <COLGROUP> works very much like <COL>, but you
should note that <COLGROUP> requires both an opening and a closing tag.
<TABLE BORDER=1 CELLPADDING=4 RULES=GROUPS FRAME=BOX>
<COLGROUP></COLGROUP>
<COLGROUP SPAN=3></COLGROUP>

3.7.2 THEAD, TBODY, TFOOT

<THEAD>, <TBODY>, and <TFOOT> form groups of rows. <THEAD> indicates
that a group of rows are the header rows at the top of the table. <TBODY> indicates
that a group of rows are body rows. <TFOOT> indicates that a group of rows are the
footer rows at the bottom of the table.
The most popular use for these three tags, which are currently only recognized by
MSIE 4 and up, is to put borders between groups of rows instead of between every
two rows. For example, suppose you have a table in which you want borders around
the top row, the bottom row, and around the entire block of rows in between. You
could do that with the following code. Note that in addition to <THEAD>,
<TBODY>, and <TFOOT> you also must use <TABLE RULES=GROUPS>. The
following example shows the use of these tags:
<HTML>
<BODY>
<TABLE CELLPADDING=6 RULES=GROUPS FRAME=BOX>
<THEAD>
<TR> <TH>Weekday</TH> <TH>Date</TH> <TH>Manager</TH>
<TH>Qty</TH> </TR>
</THEAD>
<TBODY>
70

Comme
his
code
fragme
nt does
not at
all
explain
the tag.
Please
give a
more
informa
tive
exampl
e

Advanced HTML

<TR> <TD>Mon</TD> <TD>09/11</TD> <TD>Komal</TD> <TD>639</TD>

</TR>
<TR> <TD>Tue</TD> <TD>09/12</TD> <TD>Lovely</TD> <TD>596</TD>
</TR>
<TR> <TD>Wed</TD> <TD>09/13</TD> <TD>Rohan</TD> <TD>1135</TD>
</TR>
<TR> <TD>Thu</TD> <TD>09/14</TD> <TD>Suresh</TD> <TD>1002</TD>
</TR>
<TR> <TD>Fri</TD> <TD>09/15</TD> <TD>Rohan</TD> <TD>908</TD>
</TR>
<TR> <TD>Sat</TD> <TD>09/16</TD> <TD>Lovely</TD> <TD>371</TD>
</TR>
<TR> <TD>Sun</TD> <TD>09/17</TD> <TD>Suresh</TD> <TD>272</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY>
<TFOOT><TR> <TH ALIGN=LEFT COLSPAN=3>Total</TH> <TH>4923</TH>
</TR></TFOOT>
</TABLE>
</HTML>

Figure 3.7: Using the THEAD, TBODY and TFOOT Tags

3.7.3 _blank, _self, _parent, _top

These all are attributes of the <A> tag. The following example explains each of these
attributes.
<HTML>
<BODY>
<UL>
<LI>TARGET = "_blank"</LI>
<A HREF="newwindow.html" TARGET="_blank">a new window</A> <BR>
<LI> TARGET = "_self"</LI>
go to <A HREF="selftarget.html" TARGET="_self">next</A> page<BR>
<LI>TARGET = "_top"</LI>
<A HREF="selftarget.html" TARGET="_top">top</A><BR>
</UL>

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Scripting Languages

</HTML>

Figure 3.8: Attributes of the <A> Tag

x TARGET = "_blank"
"_blank" opens the new document in a new window. Run the code given in Figure
3.22 and check how it works. This value does not require the use of any frames.
"_blank" is popular in web pages which are devoted to links to "other resources on
the net". By opening a new window for each resource, the user has a sense of a
"main" page (the list of resources) and "secondary" pages (each individual resource).
Also, the web site providing the link does not risk being supplanted by a link that it
has provided.
Note: Some versions of MSIE do not support "_BLANK"
x TARGET = "_self"
"_self" puts the new document in the same window and frame as the current
document. "_self" works the same as if you had not used TARGET at all. For an
example see Figure 3.22.
x TARGET = "_parent"
"_parent" is used in a situation where a frameset file is nested inside another frameset
file. A link in one of the inner frameset documents which uses "_parent" will load the
new document where the inner frameset file had been.
If the current document's frameset file does not have any "parent", then "_parent"
works exactly like "_top": the new document is loaded in the full window. Note that
"_parent" does not work in a frameset, which is merely nested inside another frameset
in the same frameset file.
x TARGET = "_top"
"_top" loads the linked document in the topmost frame, that is, the new page fills the
entire window.
Refer to Figure 3.22.

3.7.4 IFRAME
<IFRAME> is an HTML 4.0 addition to the frames toolbox. Currently only MSIE
supports <IFRAME>. Unlike frames created using <FRAMESET> and <FRAME>,
<IFRAME> creates a frame that sits in the middle of a regular non-framed web page.
<IFRAME> works like <IMG>, only instead of putting a picture on the page, it puts
another web page.
For example, suppose within the same directory as this page there is a file called
"hello.html". This code puts hello.html into an inline frame:

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Advanced HTML

<IFRAME SRC="hello.html" WIDTH=450 HEIGHT=100>

If you can see this, your browser does not understand IFRAME. However, we'll still
link <A HREF="hello.html">link</A> you to the file.
</IFRAME>
which gives us this inline frame:
Heres what the code means:
IFRAME
The name of the <IFRAME> tag
SRC="hello.html"
The URL of the document to show in the inline frame.
WIDTH=450 HEIGHT=100
The dimensions of the inline frame.
If you can see this, your browser doesn't understand IFRAME. However, we'll still
<A HREF="hello.html">link</A> you to the file.
Code between <IFRAME> and </IFRAME> is not displayed by browsers that
understand <IFRAME>. Browsers that do not understand <IFRAME> will display
this code (because they don't know how to ignore it).
You can do most of the things with <IFRAME> that you can do with regular frames,
including setting the frame border, internal margins, and setting information on scroll
bars. You can use the attribute so that you can set links to the target frame.

3.7.5 <LABEL>
<LABEL>, an HTML 4.0 element supported by MSIE and Netscape 6, defines a set
of text that is associated with a particular form element. For example, the code below
indicates that the phrase "send more information" is associated with the moreinfo
checkbox because the checkbox is within the <LABEL> element:
<HTML>
<BODY>
<LABEL FOR="moreinfo">
send more information
<INPUT NAME="moreinfo" TYPE=CHECKBOX ID="moreinfo">
</LABEL>
</HTML>

The FOR attribute is required in the above example. The value of FOR should be the
same as the value of ID in the form field that the label applies to.
You can also associate a <LABEL> with a field that is not within its contents using
the FOR attribute.

3.7.6 Attribute for <SELECT>

TABINDEX = integer
TABINDEX is supported by MSIE 4.x and higher and Netscape 6.
Normally, when the user tabs from field to field in a form (in a browser that allows
tabbing, not all browsers do) the tab order is the order in which the fields appear in
the HTML code.

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Scripting Languages

However, sometimes you want the tab order to flow a little differently. In that case,
you can number the fields using TABINDEX. The tabs then flow in order from the
one with the lowest TABINDEX to the highest.
The code below illustrates this:
<HTML>
<BODY>
<TABLE BORDER CELLPADDING=3 CELLSPACING=5
BGCOLOR="#FFFFCC">
<TR>
<TD>name: <INPUT NAME="realname" TABINDEX=1></TD>
<TD ROWSPAN=3>comments<BR>
<TEXTAREA COLS=25 ROWS=5
TABINDEX=4></TEXTAREA></TD></TR>
<TR> <TD>email: <INPUT NAME="email" TABINDEX=2></TD></TR>
<TR> <TD>department: <SELECT NAME="dep" TABINDEX=3>
<OPTION VALUE="">...
<OPTION VALUE="mkt">Marketing
<OPTION VALUE="fin">Finance
<OPTION VALUE="dev">Development
<OPTION VALUE="prd">Production</SELECT></TD></TR>
</TABLE>
</HTML>

TABINDEX can also be used with <A>, <INPUT>, <TEXTAREA>, and

<BUTTON>.

3.7.7 TEXTAREA
<TEXTAREA> indicates a form field where the user can enter large amounts of text.
In most respects, <TEXTAREA> works like an <INPUT> field. It can have a name
and a default value. It has to be noticed that <TEXTAREA> is a container tag, so it
has a start tag and an ending tag.
In its simplest form, <TEXTAREA> requires the NAME, COLS and ROWS
attributes, and nothing between <TEXTAREA ...> and </TEXTAREA>. Look at the
code fragment shown below
<FORM ACTION="../cgi-bin/mycgi.pl" METHOD=POST>
your comments:<BR>
<TEXTAREA NAME="comments" COLS=40 ROWS=6></TEXTAREA>
<P><INPUT TYPE=SUBMIT VALUE="submit">
</FORM>
gives us this form:

74

Comme
he
browser
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has
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the
three
code
fragme
nts. It
would
be
better
to make
it clear
that
they are
fragme
nts and
are not
complet
e code
that
will run
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.

Advanced HTML

your comments:
The matter between <TEXTAREA ...> and </TEXTAREA> are used as the default
value

Comment: Maybe you would like this

sentence to be inside a <PRE> tag.

<FORM ACTION="../cgi-bin/mycgi.pl">
your response:<BR>
<TEXTAREA NAME="comments" COLS=40 ROWS=6>
Kamal said
: I think it's a great idea
: but it needs more thought
</TEXTAREA>
<P><INPUT TYPE=SUBMIT VALUE="submit">
</FORM>
gives us your response:

Figure 3.10: Using the TEXTAREA Tag

The contents are interpreted as text only; HTML markup is ignored. Theoretically the
user can type unlimited amounts of text into the textarea field. In practice the browser
sets a limit that is usually no more than 32 K. If you want users to send in their latest
novel, consider using some file upload mechanism.
Case Study: Suppose your boss has asked you to create a Web page from which
customers can order computer equipment. You need to collect the customers name,
address, phone number, age, credit card information, and what the customer wants to
order.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>ComputoRama Order Form</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<FORM ACTION="mailto:mail@abc.com" METHOD=POST>
<TABLE BORDER="2" CELLPADDING="1">
<TR>
<TD ROWSPAN="2">Who Are You?</TD>
<TD><INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="FirstName" SIZE=2></TD>
<TD><INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="MiddleInitial" SIZE=1></TD>
<TD><INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="LastName" SIZE=2></TD>
<TD><INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="Age" SIZE=3></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><FONT SIZE="-2">First Name</FONT></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="-2">MI</FONT></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="-2">Last Name></TD>
75

Scripting Languages

<TD><FONT SIZE="-2">Age</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD ROWSPAN="3">How Do We Contact You?</TD>
<TD COLSPAN="4" VALIGN="TOP">Street Address: <TEXTAREA
name="StreetAddress" rows=2 cols=3></TEXTAREA></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD COLSPAN="2">City: <INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="City"
SIZE=20></TD>
<TD COLSPAN="2">State: <INPUT TYPE="text" NAME= "State"
SIZE=2></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD COLSPAN="2">ZIP Code: <INPUT TYPE="text"
NAME="ZIPCode"
SIZE=10></TD>
<TD COLSPAN="2">Daytime Phone
(<INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="Phone1" SIZE=3>)
<INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="Phone2" SIZE=3><INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="Phone3" SIZE=4></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>Credit Card
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="CreditCardType" VALUE="Visa"
CHECKED>Visa
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="CreditCardType"
VALUE="MasterCard">M/C</TD>
<TD COLSPAN="2" ALIGN="CENTER">
<INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="CreditCardNumber1" SIZE=4>
<INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="CreditCardNumber2" SIZE=4>
<INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="CreditCardNumber3" SIZE=4>
<INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="CreditCardNumber4"
SIZE=4></TD>
<TD COLSPAN="2">Expiration Date:
<INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="ExpirationMonth" SIZE=2>/
<INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="ExpirationYear" SIZE=2></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>Merchandise</TD>
<TD COLSPAN=4><SELECT MULTIPLE NAME="Merchandise"
SIZE=1>
<OPTION SELECTED> HAL-47 <OPTION> Banana9
<OPTION> High Res Monitor <OPTION> Low Res Monitor
<OPTION> Deluxe Keyboard <OPTION> Regular Keyboard
<OPTION> Laser Printer <OPTION> Inkjet Printer <OPTION>
Dot Matrix Printer
<OPTION> Mouse <OPTION> Trackball
<OPTION> Scanner
</SELECT></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD ALIGN=CENTER COLSPAN="5">
<H1>Thank You For Your Order!</H1>
</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
<CENTER>
<INPUT TYPE="submit" VALUE="Ship It!"> <INPUT TYPE="reset"
VALUE="Clear Entries">
76

Advanced HTML

</CENTER>
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Check Your Progress 4

Suppose you are asked to design a registration form for members of a web site.
Registration information will include hobbies, interests, assets owned by the member
etc. Create the following Web page.(Case study)

3.8

SUMMARY

In this unit we have learned some important and advanced topics of HTML. You
should now be able to develop interactive Web pages also. We have discussed ways
of linking to different locations in a Web site. We have learned about lists that allow
us to develop Web pages with elementary data. Lists can be of three types i.e.
Ordered Lists, Unordered Lists and Definition Lists. We all know how important a
table is in any document -- from someones bio data to a Chief Executives report a
table is the simplest way to understand the information. If we display the data in
paragraph form then it would look unorganized and would be difficult to
comprehend. On the other hand, a table presents all the data at a glance. We have also
seen how frames are used to divide a page into multiple sections. For example if we
want to create a Web page that contains information on three different topics, then we
could use frames.
One of the most important points in Web pages is the interaction with the end user.
For creating interactive Web pages we use Forms. In a form we can have different
controls like Text box, Radio buttons, check box, drop down lists etc. All these
controls allow us to interact with the user accept inputs from the user. In the final
section we have learned about some of the recently introduced tags that are available
in the latest version of HTML.

3.9

SOLUTIONS/ ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1

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Scripting Languages

1.

Following is the code to design a Web page that provides links to five different
Web sites.

<HTML>
<TITLE> Link to five different Web sites </title>
<BODY>
Web site 1 <A HREF="http://www.hotmail.com/">Hotmail</A>
Web site 2 <A HREF="http://www.google.com/">google</A>
Web site 3 <A HREF="http://www.astalavista.com/">altavista</A>
Web site 4 <A HREF="http://www.education.com/">education</A>
Web site 5 <A HREF="http://www.computer.com/">computer</A>
</BODY>
</HTML>
2.

Following is the code for the given page

<HTML>
<HEAD>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<B><FONT SIZE=5><P>GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS</P>
</FONT><P>So, you want to make a Web page</P></B> LESSONS:
<P><A HREF="../../makapage/introduction.htm">Introduction</A></P>
<P><A HREF="../../makapage/lesson01.html">Lesson 1</A>: getting started, saving
as html <BR>
<A HREF="../../makapage/lesson02.html">Lesson 2</A>: backgrounds, bold, italic,
font &amp; fontsize <BR>
<A HREF="../../makapage/lesson03.html">Lesson 3</A>: basic formatting, line
breaks, inserting images <BR>
<A HREF="../../makapage/lesson04.html">Lesson 4</A>: links, images, thumbnails,
anchors <BR>
<A HREF="../../makapage/lesson05.html">Lesson 5</A>: lists, more formatting,
horizontal rules, comments <BR>
<A HREF="../../makapage/lesson06.html">Lesson 6</A>: more resources <BR>
<A HREF="../../makapage/picker/index.html">Color Picker</A> <BR>
<A HREF="../../makapage/dafonts/master.html">Handy Dandy Font Viewer</A> <A HREF="../../makapage/dafonts/index.html">(intro)</A> <BR>
<A HREF="../../makapage/special.html">Special Characters</A> <BR>
<A HREF="../../makapage/upload.html">Upload your page to the Web</A> </P>
<P>&nbsp;</P>
<FONT SIZE=2><P> </P></FONT></BODY>
</HTML>

Check Your Progress 2

Code of the given page
<HTML>
<HEAD>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<P> Following are the key to success: </P>
<UL>
<LI><img src = arrow.gif>
Devotion </LI>
<LI><img src = arrow .gif>
Hardwork </LI>
<LI><img src =arrow.gif>
Smart work </LI>
</UL>
<P> Following are the key to success: </P>
<OL>
78

Comme
he
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g all
the
options
are on
the
same
physica
l line.
Could
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Advanced HTML

<LI> Devotion </LI>

<LI> Hardwork </LI>
<LI> Smartwork </LI>
</OL>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Check Your Progress 3

1.

Following is the code for a Web page that has 5 equal columns.

<HTML>
<HEAD>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=3 BORDERCOLOR="#000000">
<TR><TD WIDTH="20%">
<P>Column 1</TD>
<TD WIDTH="20%">
<P>Column 1</TD>
<TD WIDTH="20%">
<P>Column 1</TD>
<TD WIDTH="20%">
<P>Column 1</TD>
<TD WIDTH="20%">
<P>Column 1</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
<P> </P></BODY>
</HTML>
2.

Design your Bio-Data in HTML Page.

<HTML>
<HEAD>
</HEAD>
<BODY>

Comment: Better use tables to show

the academic history.

<B><U><P>Qualifications</P></B></U>
<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><B>X &amp; XII</B> from CBSE Board.</P>
<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><B>BCOM (PASS)</B> from Delhi University in
1999.</P>
<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><B>O Level</B> from DOEACC Society India in
2000.</P>
<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><B>MCP </B>(Microsoft Certified Professional) in 2001
in Analyzing Requirements and Defining Solutions Architecture with
<U>93.9%</U>.</P>
<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><B>CIC</B> (Certificate In Computing) from Indira
Gandhi National Open University with <U>Ist Division</U>. </P>
<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><B>PGDCA</B> (Post Graduate Diploma in Computer
Applications) from IGNOU with <U>Ist Division</U>.</P>
<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><B>ADCA </B>(Advance Diploma in Computer
Applications) from IGNOU with <U>Ist Division</U>.</P>
<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><B>MCA </B>from Indira Gandhi National Open
University with <U>Ist Division</U>. </P>
<B><U><P>Languages Known</P>
<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></B></U>C including data structures, C++ including data
structure, MS COBOL 4.5, MS FORTRAN 77, Assembly using MASM, Unix Shell
Programming,<FONT SIZE=5> </FONT>HTML, Corman Common LISP, Visual
Basic 6.0.</P>
<B><U><P>Personal Details</P>
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Scripting Languages

</B></U><P>Name
ABC</P>
<P>Fathers Name<B>&#9;</B>XYZ&#9;</P>
<P>Date of Birth<B>&#9;</B>23<SUP>rd</SUP> Jan,1979.&#9;</P>
<P>Address<B>&#9;</B>A-2, East Of Kailash, New Delhi.&#9;</P>
<P>Tel.<B>&#9;</B>29090909</P>
<P>Email<B>&#9;</B>ram@hotmail.com</P>
<P>Sex<B>&#9;</B>Male&#9;</P>
<P>Marital Status<B>&#9;</B>Single</P>
<B><U><P>Interests and activities</P>
</B></U><P>Troubleshooting hardware and software problems.&#9;</P>
<B><U><P>Additional Assets</P>
</B></U><P>Hard work, devotion and curiosity to learn and adapt to new
environments.&#9;</P>
<FONT SIZE=2><P>&nbsp;</P>
</FONT><B><P>Date:</B><FONT SIZE=2>
<B> (RAM)</P>
<P>Place:</P></B></FONT></BODY>
</HTML>

Check Your Progress 4

<head>
<title>IGNOU SSO</title>
<META HTTP-EQUIV="expires" CONTENT="Sat, 15 Mar 2003 23:59:59 GMT">
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1">
<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css">
</head>
<body>
<form name= "theForm" action= "/suggest/emailRegistrationServlet" method=POST
onsubmit="return validate()">
<input type="Hidden" name="successURL"
value="http://email.IGNOU.com/success.html">
<input type="Hidden" name="pageTitle" value="IGNOU Email">
<input type="Hidden" name="sourceChannel" value="Email">
<table border=0 cellpadding=0 width="100%">
<tbody>
<tr bgcolor=#8fbc8f>
<td colspan=3 align=center><b class="tdw">&nbsp;IGNOU Email</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor=#0066cc>
<td colspan=3><b>&nbsp;<font color="#FFFFFF"><span >ACCOUNT
INFORMATION</span></font></b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=center width="31%" class="td"> IGNOU ID: </td>
<td valign=center width="43%"> <input name=username> <span >*</span>
</td>
<td bgcolor=#f0f0f0 width="26%" class="td1">Use only letters, numbers,
dot(.), minus(-) or the underscore (_) .No spaces or special characters
please.<br> <span >If you choose your IGNOU ID as xyz,
your e-mail will be xyz@IGNOU.com.</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height=42 width="31%" class="td">Password:</td>
<td height=42 width="43%"> <input name=password type=password>
<span>*</span></td>
<td bgcolor=#f0f0f0 rowspan=2 width="26%" class="td1">Must be at least
three (3) characters long, may contain numbers (0-9) , upper and lowercase
letters (A-Z, a-z) and underscore(_) but no spaces or special characters.
Make sure it is difficult for others to guess! </td>
80

Advanced HTML

</tr>
<tr>
<td width="31%" class="td">Re-Enter Password:</td>
<td width="43%"> <input name=confirmPassword type=password> <span
>*</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="31%" class="td">Security Queston:</td>
<td width="43%"> <input name=secretQus> <span >* </span></td>
<td bgcolor=#f0f0f0 rowspan=2 width="26%" class="td1">Just in case you
forget your password, we'll verify your identity by asking you this
question. Choose a question only you know the answer to and that has
nothing to do with your password whatsoever.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height=2 width="31%" class="td">Your Answer:</td>
<td height=2 width="43%"> <input name=secretAns> <span >*</span>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="31%" class="td">Alternative Email</td>
<td width="43%"> <input maxlength=100 name=altEmail size=35>
&nbsp;&nbsp;<span >(optional)
</span></td>
<td bgcolor=#f0f0f0 width="26%" class="td1"> This will help you to retrieve
your IGNOU ID <br>
and password in case you forget it. </td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor=#0066cc>
<td colspan=3><b class="tdw">&nbsp;<font color="#FFFFFF"><span
class="tdb">PERSONAL
INFORMATION</span></font></b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="31%" class="td">First Name:</td>
<td width="43%"> <input name=firstName
document.theform.firstname.focus();>
<input type=hidden name=frmURL>
<input type=hidden name="education" value="u">
<span >* </span></td>
<td width="26%">&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="31%" class="td">Middle Name:</td>
<td width="43%"> <input name=MiddleName> </td>
<td width="26%">&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="31%" class="td">Last Name:</td>
<td width="43%"> <input name=lastName> <span >*</span> </td>
<td width="26%">&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="31%" class="td">Date of Birth</td>
<td width="43%"> <font face="MS Sans Serif" size=2>
<select name="date">
<option selected><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">date</font></option>
<option value="01"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">01</font></option>
81

Scripting Languages

<option value="02"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">02</font></option>

<option value="03"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans
serif">03</font></option>
<option value="04"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">04</font></option>
<option value="05"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">05</font></option>
<option value="06"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">06</font></option>
<option value="07"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">07</font></option>
<option value="08"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">08</font></option>
<option value="09"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">09</font></option>
<option value="10"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">10</font></option>
<option value="11"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">11</font></option>
<option value="12"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">12</font></option>
<option value="13"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">13</font></option>
<option value="14"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">14</font></option>
<option value="15"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">15</font></option>
<option value="16"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">16</font></option>
<option value="17"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">17</font></option>
<option value="18"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">18</font></option>
<option value="19"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">19</font></option>
<option value="20"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">20</font></option>
<option value="21"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">21</font></option>
<option value="22"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">22</font></option>
<option value="23"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">23</font></option>
<option value="24"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">24</font></option>
<option value="25"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">25</font></option>
<option value="26"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">26</font></option>
<option value="27"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">27</font></option>
<option value="28"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">28</font></option>
<option value="29"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">29</font></option>
<option value="30"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">30</font></option>
<option value="31"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">31</font></option>
82

Advanced HTML

</select>
<select name="month">
<option selected><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">month</font></option>
<option value="01"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">01</font></option>
<option value="02"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">02</font></option>
<option value="03"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">03</font></option>
<option value="04"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">04</font></option>
<option value="05"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">05</font></option>
<option value="06"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">06</font></option>
<option value="07"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">07</font></option>
<option value="08"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">08</font></option>
<option value="09"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">09</font></option>
<option value="10"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">10</font></option>
<option value="11"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">11</font></option>
<option value="12"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sansserif">12</font></option>
</select>
<select
size=1 name=year>
<option selected>year</option>
<option value="1970">1970</option>
<option value="1971">1971</option>
<option value="1972">1972</option>
<option value="1973">1973</option>
<option value="1974">1974</option>
<option value="1975">1975</option>
<option value="1976">1976</option>
<option value="1977">1977</option>
<option value="1978">1978</option>
<option value="1979">1979</option>
<option value="1980">1980</option>
<option value="1981">1981</option>
<option value="1982">1982</option>
<option value="1983">1983</option>
<option value="1984">1984</option>
<option value="1985">1985</option>
<option value="1986">1986</option>
<option value="1987">1987</option>
<option value="1988">1988</option>
<option value="1989">1989</option>
<option value="1990">1990</option>
<option value="1991">1991</option>
<option value="1992">1992</option>
<option value="1993">1993</option>
<option value="1994">1994</option>
<option value="1995">1995</option>
<option value="1996">1996</option>
<option value="1997">1997</option>
83

Scripting Languages

<option value="1998">1998</option>
<option value="1999">1999</option>
<option value="2000">2000</option>
<option value="2001">2001</option>
<option value="2002">2002</option>
</select>
</font><span > *</span> </td>
<td rowspan=5 align="center"> <font face=arial size=2 color=red><b>Accounts
not accessed for a <br>
consecutive period of 120 days or<br>
more may be deactivated without<br>
any prior intimation. All data in such<br>
mailboxes will be lost. IGNOU will<br>
have no liability for the same.</b> </font> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height=25 width="31%" class="td">Marital Status </td>
<td height=25 width="43%"> <select name=maritalStatus size=1 id="select">
<option selected value="">[Select one]</option>
<option value="S">Single</option>
<option value="M">Married</option>
</select> <span >*</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="31%" class="td">Gender</td>
<td width="43%"> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
size=2>
<select size=1 name=gender>
<option value=""
selected>[Select one]</option>
<option value=M>Male</option>
<option
value=F>Female</option>
</select>
</font> <span >*</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height=35 width="31%" class="td">Pincode </td>
<td height=35 width="43%"> <span class=td1r>
<input name=pin size=10 maxlength=15 onKeyPress="if (event.keyCode <
45 || event.keyCode > 57) event.returnValue = false;">
</span> <span >*</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height=24 width="31%" class="td">Country:</td>
<td height=24 width="43%"> <select name="country" size=3>
<option value="in">Select One
<option value="us">United States of America
<option value="bs">Bahamas
<option value="bh">Bahrain
<option value="bd">Bangladesh
<option value="bb">Barbados
<option value="by">Belarus
<option value="be">Belgium
<option value="bz">Belize
<option value="bj">Benin
<option value="bm">Bermuda
<option value="bt">Bhutan
<option value="cv">Cape Verde
<option value="zm">Zambia
84

Advanced HTML

<option value="zw">Zimbabwe </select> <span >* </span></td>

</tr>
<tr>
<td height=27 width="31%" class="td"> Education </td>
<td height=27 width="43%"> <select name=education id="select2">
<option selected value="">[Select One]</option>
<option value=Grad_Post_Prof>Graduate/Post GraduateProfessional</option>
<option value=Grad_Post_Gen>Graduate/Post Graduate-General</option>
<option value=SomeColl>SomeCollege but not Graduate</option>
<option value=SSC_HSC>SSC/HSC</option>
<option value=5to9>School 5-9 Years</option>
<option value=lessthan4>School upto 4 years</option>
</select> <span >* </span></td>
<td height=27 width="26%">&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height=2 width="31%" class="td">Annual Income </td>
<td height=2 width="43%"> <select name=incomeGroup size=1 id="select3"
style="HEIGHT: 22px; WIDTH: 190px">
<option selected value="">[Select one]</option>
<option value=0to1>Rs 1 Lakh &amp; below</option>
<option value=1to3>Rs 1 Lakh -2.99 Lakhs</option>
<option value=3to5>Rs 3 - 4.99 Lakhs</option>
<option value=5to10>Rs 5 - 9.99 Lakhs</option>
<option value=mysterious>a mysterious sum of money</option>
<option value=morethan10>above Rs 10 Lakhs</option>
</select> <span > * </span></td>
<td height=2 width="26%">&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<TR>
<TD width="31%"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
size=2>City:</FONT></TD>
<TD colSpan=2> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif" size=2>
<SELECT name=city>
<option value="" selected>[Select One] </option>
<option value="Ahmedabad">Ahmedabad </option>
<option value="Bangalore">Bangalore </option>
<option value="Patna">Patna </option>
<option value="Noida">NOIDA </option>
<option value="Pune">Pune </option>
<option value="Surat">Surat </option>
<option value="Varanasi">Varanasi </option>
<option value="Vishakapatnam">Vishakapatnam</option>
</SELECT>
</FONT> <FONT color=#ff0000 face=Arial size=1>*</FONT> </TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height=35><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
size=2>State:</FONT></TD>
<TD height=35>
<INPUT maxLength=100 name=state size=35>
<FONT color=#ff0000 face=Arial size=1>*</FONT>
</TD>
<td height=2>&nbsp;</td>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height=25><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
size=2>Occupation</FONT></TD>
85

Scripting Languages

<TD height=25>
<SELECT name=occupation size=1 style="HEIGHT: 22px; WIDTH: 190px">
<option value="" selected>[Select one]</option>
<option value="Artist">Artist</option>
<option value="Social worker">Social worker</option>
<option value="Student">Student</option>
<option value="Teacher/Administrator">Teacher / Administrator</option>
<option value="Unemployed/Between_jobs">Unemployed / Between
jobs</option>
<option value="No_Work">What ? me work</option>
<option value="Others">others</option>
</SELECT> <font color=#ff0000 face=Arial size=1>*</font> </TD>
<TD height=25>&nbsp; </TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height=29><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"
size=2>Industry</FONT></TD>
<TD height=29>
<SELECT name=industry>
<OPTION selected value="">[Select one]</OPTION>
<OPTION value=Sales>Sales</OPTION>
<OPTION value=Marketing>Marketing</OPTION>
<OPTION value=Production>Production</OPTION>
<OPTION value="Self_Employed">Self Employed</OPTION>
<OPTION value=Student>Student</OPTION>
<OPTION value=Others>Others</OPTION>
</SELECT> <font color=#ff0000 face=Arial size=1>*</font> </TD>
<TD height=29>&nbsp;</TD>
</TR>
</table>
</form>
</body>
</html>

86

Scripting Languages

UNIT 4

INTRODUCTION TO JAVASCRIPT

Structure
4.0
4.1
4.2

Introduction
Objectives
JavaScript Variables and Data Types
4.2.1
4.2.2

4.3
4.4

4.6
107

Dialog Boxes
Alert Boxes
Confirm Boxes
Prompt Boxes

Javascript with HTML

4.7.1
4.7.2

4.8

97

Functions
Executing Deferred Scripts
Objects

Messagebox in Javascript
4.6.1
4.6.2
4.6.3
4.6.4

4.7

94

Conditional Statements
Loop Statements

Object-Based Programming
4.5.1
4.5.2
4.5.3

90
90
91

Declaring Variables
Data Types

Statements and Operators

92
Control Structures
4.4.1
4.4.2

4.5

Page No.

109

Events
Event Handlers

Forms

112

Forms Array

4.9 Summary
4.10 Solutions/ Answers
4.11 Further Readings

4.0

119
120
129

INTRODUCTION

JavaScript is the programming language of the Web. It is used mainly for validating
forms. JavaScript and Java can be related to each other. There exist many other
differences between the two. The client interprets JavaScript, whereas in Java, one can
execute a Java file only after compiling it. JavaScript is based on an object model. In
this unit you will learn how to write JavaScript code and insert them into your HTML
documents, and how to make your pages more dynamic and interactive.
Besides basic programming constructs and concepts, you will also learn about Objectbased programming in JavaScript. We will also discuss some commonly used objects,
message boxes and forms. One of the most important parts of JavaScript is Event
handling that will allow you to write Event-driven code.

4.1

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you would be able to learn and use the following
features of the JavaScript:
x
x
x
x
x
90

Operators;
Loop constructs;
Functions;
Objects such as Math object, Date object;
Input and output boxes;

x
x
x

4.2

Event handlers;
Form object; and
Form array.

Introduction to
JavaScript

JAVASCRIPT VARIABLES AND DATATYPES

Let us first see the skeleton of a JavaScript file.

<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>IGNOU </TITLE>
<SCRIPT LANGUAGE = JavaScript>
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
</BODY>
</HTML>
JavaScript code should be written between the <SCRIPT> and </SCRIPT> tags. The
value LANGUAGE = JavaScript indicates to the browser that Javascript code has
been used in the HTML document. It is a good programming practice to include the
Javascript code within the <HEAD> and </HEAD> tags.
Now let us start with variables. Variables store and retrieve data, also known as
"values". A variable can refer to a value, which changes or is changed. Variables are
referred to by name, although the name you give them must conform to certain rules.
A JavaScript identifier, or name, must start with a letter or underscore ("_");
subsequent characters can also be digits (0-9). Because JavaScript is case sensitive,
letters include the characters "A" through "Z" (uppercase) and the characters "a"
through "z" (lowercase). Typically, variable names are chosen to be meaningful and
related to the value they hold. For example, a good variable name for containing the
total price of goods orders would be total_price.

4.2.1 Declaring Variables

You can declare a variable with the var statement:
var strname = some value
You can also declare a variable by simply assigning a value to the variable. But if you
do not assign a value and simply use the variable then it leads to an error.
Strname = some value
You assign a value to a variable like this:
var strname = "Hello"
Or like this:
strname = "Hello"
The variable name is on the left hand side of the expression and the value you want to
assign to the variable is on to the right side. Thus the variable "strname" shown above
gets the value "Hello" assigned to it.
Life span of variables
When you declare a variable within a function, the variable can be accessed only
within that function. When you exit the function, the variable is destroyed. These

91

Scripting Languages

variables are called local variables. You can have local variables with the same name
in different functions, because each is recognized only by the function in which it is
declared.
If you declare a variable outside a function, all the functions on your page can access it.
The lifetime of these variables starts when they are declared, and ends when the page is
closed.

4.2.2 Data Types

A value, the data assigned to a variable, may consist of any sort of data. However,
JavaScript considers data to fall into several possible types. Depending on the type of
data, certain operations may or may not be allowed on the values. For example, you
cannot arithmetically multiply two string values. Variables can be of these types:
Data Types

Description
3 or 7.987 are the examples of Integer and floating-point numbers.

Number

Integers can be positive, 0, or negative; Integers can be expressed in decimal

(base 10), hexadecimal (base 16), and octal (base 8). A decimal integer literal
consists of a sequence of digits without a leading 0 (zero). A leading 0 (zero) on
an integer literal indicates it is in octal; a leading 0x (or 0X) indicates
hexadecimal. Hexadecimal integers can include digits (0-9) and the letters a-f
and A-F. Octal integers can include only the digits 0-7.

A floating-point number can contain either a decimal fraction, an "e" (uppercase

or lowercase), that is used to represent "ten to the power of" in scientific
notation, or both. The exponent part is an "e" or "E" followed by an integer,
which can be signed (preceded by "+" or "-"). A floating-point literal must have
at least one digit and either a decimal point or "e" (or "E").
Boolean True or False. The possible Boolean values are true and false. These are special
values, and are not usable as 1 and 0. In a comparison, any expression that
evaluates to 0 is taken to be false, and any statement that evaluates to a number
other than 0 is taken to be true.
"Hello World! Strings are delineated by single or double quotation marks.
String
(Use single quotes to type strings that contain quotation marks.)
MyObj = new Object();
Object
Not the same as zero no value at all. A null value is one that has no value and
Null
means nothing.
Undefined A value that is undefined is a value held by a variable after it has been created,
but before a value has been assigned to it.

4.3

92

STATEMENTS AND OPERATORS

Assignment Operators
Operator
Functionality
Example/Explanation
=
Sets one value equal to another
counter=0 Sets the counter to equal
the number 0
+=
Shortcut for adding to the current value. clicks += 2 Sets the variable named
counter to equal the current value plus
two.
-=
Shortcut for subtracting from the current clicks -= 2 Sets the variable named
value.
counter to equal the current value
minus two.
*=
Shortcut for multiplying the current value. clicks *= 2 Sets the variable named
counter to equal the current value
multiplied by two.
/=
Shortcut for dividing the current value.
clicks /= 2 Sets the variable named
counter to equal the current value
divided by two.

Comparison Operators
Description: The comparison operators compare two items and return a value of "true"if the
condition evaluates to true, else they return false.

Introduction to
JavaScript

Operator
Functionality
==
Returns a true value if the items are the same

Example/Explanation
Counter == 10 Returns the
value "true" if the counter's
value is currently equal to the
number 10
!=
Returns a true value if the items are not the same Counter != 10 Returns the
value "true" if the counter's
value is any value except the
number 10
>
Returns a true value if the item on the left is greater counter>10 Returns the
than the item on the right
value "true" if the counter's
value is larger than the
number 10
>=
Returns a true value if the item on the left is equal counter>=10 Returns the
to or greater than the item on the right
value "true" if the counter's
value is equal to or larger
than the number 10
<
Returns a true value if the item on the left is less
counter<10 Returns the
than the item on the right
value "true" if the counter's
value is smaller than the
number 10
<=
Returns a true value if the item on the left is equal counter<=10 Returns the
to or less than the item on the right
value "true" if the counter's
value is equal to or less than
the number 10
Computational Operators
Description: The computational operators perform a mathematical function on a value or
values, and return a single value.
Operator
Functionality
+
Adds two values together
Subtracts one value from
another
*
Multiplies two values
/

++X

X++

--X

X--

Example/Explanation
counter+2 Returns the sum of the counter plus 2
counter-2 Returns the sum of the counter minus
2
counter*10 Returns the result of the variable
times 10
Divides the value on the left by counter/2 Divides the current value of the
the one on the right and returns counter by 2 and returns the result
the result
Increments the value, and then ++counter Looks at the current value of the
returns the result
counter, increments it by one, and then returns
the result. If the counter has a value of 3, this
expression returns the value of 4.
Returns the value, and then
counter++ Returns the value of the counter, then
increments the value
increments the counter. If the counter has a value
of 3, this expression returns the value of 3, then
sets the counter value to 4.
Decreases the value, and then --counter Looks at the current value of the
returns the result
counter, decreases it by one, and then returns the
result. If the counter has a value of 7, this
expression returns the value of 6.
Returns the value, and then
counter-- Returns the value of the counter, then
decreases the value
decreases the counter value. If the counter has a
value of 7, this expression returns the value of 7,
then sets the counter value to 6.

Logical Operators
Description: The logical operators evaluate expressions and then return a true or false value
based on the result.

93

Scripting Languages

Operator

&&

||

4.4

Functionality
Example/ Explanation
Looks at two expressions and returns a If day = 'friday' && date=13 then
value of "true" if the expressions on the alert("Are You Superstitious?")
left and right of the operator are both Compares the value of the day and the
true
value of the date. If it is true that today is
a Friday and if it is also true that the date
is the 13th, then an alert box pops up with
the message "Are You Superstitious?"
Looks at two expressions and returns a if day='friday'&&date=13 then
value of "true" if either one -- but not alert("Are You Superstitious?") else if
both -- of the expressions are true.
day='friday'||date=13 then alert("Aren't
you glad it isn't Friday the 13th?")
Compares the value of the day and the
value of the date. If it is true that today is
a Friday and if it is also true that the date
is the 13th, then an alert box pops up with
the message "Are You Superstitious?" If
both are not true, the script moves onto
the next line of code... Which compares
the value of the day and the value of the
date. If either one -- but not both -- is
true, then an alert box pops up with the
message "Aren't you glad it isn't Friday
the 13th?"

CONTROL STRUCTURES

JavaScript supports the usual control structures:

x
x

The conditionals if, if...else, and switch;

The iterations for, while, do...while, break, and continue;

4.4.1 Conditional Statements

Very often when you write code, you want to perform different actions for different
decisions. You can use conditional statements in your code to do this.
In JavaScript we have three conditional statements:
x
x
x

if statement - use this statement if you want to execute a set of code when a
condition is true
if...else statement - use this statement if you want to select one of two sets of
code to execute
switch statement - use this statement if you want to select one of many sets of
code to execute

if( myVariable == 2 ) {
myVariable = 1;
} else {
myVariable = 0;
}
If the value of myVariable in Figure 4.1 is 2 then the first condition evaluates to true
and the value of myVariable is set to 1. If it is anything other than 2 then the else part
gets executed.
Now let us see an example of a nested if statement in Figure 4.2.
if ( myVariable == 2 ) {
myVariable = 1;
94

} else {
If (myVariable == 5 ) {
myVariable = 3;
} else {
myVariable = 4;
}
}

Introduction to
JavaScript

Switch Statement
If there exist multiple conditions, the switch statement is recommended. This is
because only one expression gets evaluated based on which control directly jumps to
the respective case.
switch(myVar) {
case 1:
//if myVar is 1 this is executed
case 'sample':
//if myVar is 'sample' (or 1, see the next paragraph)
//this is executed
case false:
//if myVar is false (or 1 or 'sample', see the next paragraph)
//this is executed
default:
//if myVar does not satisfy any case, (or if it is
//1 or 'sample' or false, see the next paragraph)
//this is executed
}
As shown in Figure 4.3, depending on the value of myvar, the statement of the
respective case gets executed. If a case is satisfied, the code beyond that case will also
be executed unless the break statement is used. In the above example, if myVar is 1,
the code for case 'sample', case false and default will all be executed as well.

4.4.2 Loop Statements

Comment: Please be consistent. If one

value is in quotes, it is better to put the
others in quotes as well.

A loop is a set of commands that executes repeatedly until a specified condition is

met. JavaScript supports two loop statements: for and while. In addition, you can use
the break and continue statements within loop statements. Another statement, for...in,
executes statements repeatedly but is used for object manipulation.
x

For Statement

A for loop repeats until a specified condition evaluates to false. The JavaScript for
loop is similar to the Java and C for loops. A for statement looks as follows:

Comment: Please be careful about

upper and lower case especially in
JavaScript.

for ([initial-expression]; [condition]; [increment-expression]) {

Statements
}
When a for loop executes, the following sequence of operations occur:
The initializing expression initial-expression, if any, is executed. This expression
usually initializes one or more loop counters, but the syntax allows an expression
of any degree of complexity.
2. The condition expression is evaluated. If the value of condition is true, the loop
statements execute. If the value of condition is false, the loop terminates.
3. The update expression increment-expression executes.
4. The statements get executed, and control returns to step 2. Actually the syntax

1.

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Scripting Languages

provides for a single statement; when enclosed in braces { and }, any number
of statements are treated as a single statement.
The following function contains a for loop that counts the number of selected options
in a scrolling list (a select object that allows multiple selections). The for loop declares
the variable i and initializes it to zero. It checks that i is less than the number of
options in the select object, performs the succeeding if statement, and increments i by
one after each pass through the loop.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>IGNOU </TITLE>
<SCRIPT LANGUAGE = JavaScript>
function howMany(selectObject) {
var numberSelected=0
for (var i=0; i < selectObject.options.length; i++) {
if (selectObject.options[i].selected==true)
numberSelected++
}
return numberSelected
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<FORM NAME="selectForm">
<P><B>Choose some music types, then click the button below:</B>
<BR><SELECT NAME="musicTypes" MULTIPLE>
<OPTION SELECTED> R&B
<OPTION> Jazz
<OPTION> Blues
<OPTION> New Age
<OPTION> Classical
<OPTION> Opera
</SELECT>
<P><INPUT TYPE="button" VALUE="How many are selected?"
onClick="alert ('Number of options selected: ' +
howMany(document.selectForm.musicTypes))">
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>
x

While Statement

The while statement defines a loop that iterates as long as a condition remains true. In
the following example the control waits until the value of a text field becomes "go":

while (Document.Form1.Text1.Value != "go") {Statements }

In a while loop the condition is evaluated first before executing the statements.
x For In Statement
This is a different type of loop, used to iterate through the properties of an object or
the elements of an array. For example consider the following statement that loops
through the properties of the Scores object, using the variable x to hold each property
in turn:
For (x in Scores) {Statements}
x

96

Break Statement

The break statement is used for terminating the current While or For loop and then
transferring program control to the statement just after the terminated loop. The

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following function has a break statement that terminates the while loop when i
becomes equal to 3, and then returns the value 3 * x.

Introduction to
JavaScript

function testBreak(x) {
var i = 0
while (i < 6) {
if (i == 3)
break
i++
}
return i*x

Comment: The example could be

slightly more realistic why would one
want to terminate at 3?

Continue Statement

A continue statement terminates execution of the block of statements in a while or for

loop and continues execution of the loop with the next iteration. In contrast to the
break statement, continue does not terminate the execution of the loop entirely.
Instead,
x
x

In a while loop, it jumps back to the condition.

In a for loop, it jumps back to the increment-expression.

The following example shows a While loop with a continue statement that executes
when the value of i becomes equal to three. Thus, n takes on the values one, three,
seven, and twelve.
i=0
n=0
while (i < 5) {
i++
if (i == 3) continue
n += i
}

4.5

OBJECT-BASED PROGRAMMING

JavaScript is a very powerful object-based (or prototype-based) language. JavaScript

is not a full-blown OOP (Object-Oriented Programming) language, such as Java, but it
is an object-based language. Objects not only help you better understand how
JavaScript works, but in large scripts, you can create self-contained JavaScript
objects, rather than the procedural code you may be using now. This also allows you
to reuse code more often.

4.5.1 Functions
Functions are the central working units of JavaScript. Almost all the scripting code
uses one or more functions to get the desired result. If you want your page to provide
certain a user-defined functionality, then functions are a convenient way of doing so.
Therefore it is important that you understand what a function is and how it works.
First let us understand the basic syntax of a function; then we look at how to call it.
After that you must know how to pass arguments and why you need to do this.
Finally, you have to know how to return a value from a function. The following code

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Scripting Languages

shows the implementation of a function.

function example(a,b)
{
number += a;
alert('You have chosen: ' + b);
}
The function made above can be called using the following syntax.
Example(1,'house')
In fact, when you define the function Example, you create a new JavaScript command
that you can call from anywhere on the page. Whenever you call it, the JavaScript
code inside the curly brackets {} is executed.
Calling the Function
You can call the function from any other place in your JavaScript code. After the
function is executed, the control goes back to the other script that called it.
alert('Example 1: the House');
example(1,'house');
(write more code)
So this script first generates an alert box, then calls the function and after the function
is finished it continues to execute the rest of the instructions in the calling code.
Arguments
You can pass arguments to a function. These are variables, either numbers or strings,
which are used inside the function. Of course the output of the function depends on
the arguments you give it.
In the following example we pass two arguments, the number 1 and the string 'house':
example(1,'house');
When these arguments arrive at the function, they are stored in two variables, a and b.
You have to declare these in the function header, as you can see below.
function example(a,b)
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>IGNOU </TITLE>
<SCRIPT Language = "JavaScript">
function example(a, b)
{
var number;
number += a ;
alert('You have chosen: ' + b);
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<FORM NAME="selectForm">
<P><B>Click the button below:</B>
<BR>
<P><INPUT TYPE="button" VALUE="Click" onClick="example(1,house)">
</FORM>
</BODY>

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Introduction to
JavaScript

</HTML>

Figure 4.1: Using Functions

It adds 1 to number and displays You have chosen: house. Of course, if you call the
function like example (5,'palace'), then it adds 5 to number and displays You have
chosen: palace. The output of the function depends on the arguments you give it.
Returning a value
One more thing a function can do is to return a value. Suppose we have the following
function:
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>IGNOU </TITLE>
<SCRIPT Language = "JavaScript">
function calculate(a,b,c)
{
d = (a+b) * c;
return d;
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language = "JavaScript">
var x = calculate(4,5,9);
var y = calculate((x/3),3,5);
alert('calculate(4,5,9) = ' +x + ' and ' + ' calculate((x/3),3,5) = ' + y);
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>

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Scripting Languages

Figure 4.2: Using a Function that Returns a Value

The function shown in Figure 4.8 calculates a number from the numbers you pass to
it. When it is done it returns the result of the calculation. The function passes the
result back to the function that called it. When the function executes the return
statement, control goes back to the calling program without executing any more code
in the function, if there is any.
The calling of the function is done using the following two statements in the figure:
var x = calculate(4,5,9);
var y = calculate((x/3),3,5);
It means that you have declared a variable x and are telling JavaScript to execute
calculate( ) with the arguments 4, 5 and 9 and to put the returned value (81) in x. Then
you declare a variable y and execute calculate( ) again. The first argument is x/3,
which means 81/3 = 27, so y becomes 150.Of course you can also return strings or
even Boolean values (true or false). When using JavaScript in forms, you can write a
function that returns either true or false and thus tells the browser whether to submit a
form or not.

4.5.2 Executing Deferred Scripts

Deferred scripts do not do anything immediately. In order to use deferred commands,
you must call them from outside the deferred script. There are three ways to call
deferred scripts:
x From immediate scripts, using the function mechanism
x By user-initiated events, using event handlers
x By clicking on links or image-map zones that are associated with the script
Calling Deferred Code from a Script
A function is a deferred script because it does not do anything until an event, a
function, a JavaScript link, or an immediate script calls it. You have probably noticed
that you can call a function from within a script. Sometimes you are interested in
calling a function from the same script, and in other cases you might want to call it
from another script. Both of these are possible.
Calling a function from the same script is very simple. You just need to specify the
name of the function, as demonstrated in Figure 4.9.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>Calling deferred code from its own script</TITLE>
<SCRIPT LANGUAGE="JavaScript">
<!-makeLine(30)
function makeLine(lineWidth) {
document.write("<HR SIZE=" + lineWidth + ">")
}
makeLine(10)
// -->
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
</BODY>
</HTML>
100

Introduction to
JavaScript

4.5.3 Objects
A JavaScript object is an instance of datatype. Object is given a unique name and the
collection of properties of the corresponding object may be accessed using the dot
syntax. As a quick introduction to the concept of JavaScript objects, here is the code
that creates an instance of an object called myObj:
var myObj = new Object();
myObj.business = "Voice and Data Networking"; myObj.CEO = "IGNOU";
myObj.ticker = "CSCO";

Comment: Please put in a short

description of the contents of myObj;

After having run that code (in a scope situation that allowed myObj to be accessed as
required), you could run this...
document.write("My Object ticker symbol is " + myObj.ticker + ".");
...and get a complete sentence in your HTML document.
x Document Object
The document object is a property of the window object. This object is the container
for all HTML HEAD and BODY objects associated within the HTML tags of an
HTML document
Document Object Properties
Property
AlinkColor
BgColor

Cookie
Domain
Embeds
FgColor
FileCreatedDate
fileModifiedDate
lastModified
Layers
LinkColor
Title
URL
VlinkColor

Description
The color of active links
The background color of the web page. It is set in the <BODY> tag.
The following code sets the background color to white.
document.bgColor = "#FFFFFF"
Used to identify the value of a cookie
The domain name of the document server
An array containing all the plugins in a document
The text color attribute set in the <body> tag
Use this value to show when the loaded HTML file was created
Use this value to show the last change date of the HTML file
currently loaded
The date the file was modified last
An array containing all the layers in a document
The color of HTML links in the document. It is specified in the
<BODY> tag.
The name of the current document as described between the header
<TITLE> tags.
The location of the current document
The color of visited links as specified in the <BODY> tag

Document Object Methods

Method
Clear
Close
contextual

elementFromPoint(x, y)
getSelection

Description
This is depreciated
Closes an output stream that was used to create a
document object
It can be used to specify style of specific tags. The
following example specified that text in blockquotes is to
be blue:
document.contextual(document.tags.blockquote).color =
"blue";
Multiple styles may be specified in the contextual
method to set the value of text in a <H3> tag that is
underlined to the color blue, for example.
document.contextual(document.tags.H3,
document.tags.U).color = "blue";
Returns the object at point x, y in the HTML document.
Get the selected text (if any is selected)

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Scripting Languages

open([mimeType])
write(expr1[,expr2...exprN])

writeln(expr1[,expr2...exprN])

Opens a new document object with the optional mime

type.
Add data to a document. Writes the values passed to the
write function to the document. For example
document.write("<H3>") document.writeln("This is a
Header") document.write("</H3>")
Adds the passed values to the document appended with a
new line character.

x Predefined Objects
Let us consider some of the most frequently used predefined objects provided in Javascript.
x Math object
In most applications we need to perform calculations, whether it is accounting
software or scientific software. Programmers are often typecast as good
mathematicians. Every mathematician needs a calculator sometimes, or in the case of
JavaScript, the Math object. If we want to calculate "2.5 to the power of 8" or
"Sin0.9" in your script, then JavaScript's virtual calculator is what you need. The Math
object contains a number of manipulating functions:
The Math object
Methods
Math.abs(x)
Math.acos(x)
Math.asin(x)
Math.atan(x)
Math.atan2(x, y)
Math.ceil(x)
Math.cos(x)
Math.exp(x)

Description
Return absolute value of x
Return arc cosine of x in radians
Return arc sine of x in radians
Return arc tan of x in radians
Counterclockwise angle between x axis and point (x,y)
Rounds a number up
Trigonometric cosine of x (x in radians)
Exponential method ex

Math.floor(x)
Math.log(x)
Math.max(a, b)
Math.min(a, b)
Math.pow(x, y)

Rounds a number down

Natural logarithm of x (base e)
Returns the larger of two values
Returns the smaller of two values
Returns xy

Math.round(x)
Math.sin(x)
Math.sqrt(x)
Math.tan(x)
Properties
Math.E
Math.LN10
Math.LN2
Math.LOG10E
Math.LOG2E
Math.PI

Rounds x to the closest integer

Trigonometric sine of x (x in radians)
Square root of x
Trigonometric tangent of x (x in radians)
Description
Eulers constant ( ~ 2.718)
Natural logarithm of 10 (~ 2.302)
Natural logarithm of 2 (~ 0.693)
Base 10 logarithm of Eulers constant (~
0.0434)
Base 2 logarithm of Eulers constant (~1.442)
The ratio of a circles circumference to its diameter
(~3.141)
Square root of 0.5 ( ~ 0.707)
Square root of 2.0 ( ~ 1.414)

Math.SQRT1_2
Math.SQRT2

Let us have Javascript perform some mathematical calculations:

//calculate e5
Math.exp(5)
//calculate cos(2PI)
Math.cos(2*Math.PI)
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The "with" statement

Introduction to
JavaScript

If you intend to invoke Math multiple times in your script, a good statement to
remember is "with." Using it you can omit the "Math." prefix for any subsequent Math
properties/methods:
with (Math){
var x= sin(3.5)
var y=tan(5)
var result=max(x,y)
}
x Date Object
The Date object is used to work with dates and times.
Creating a Date Instance
You should create an instance of the Date object with the "new" keyword. The
following line of code stores the current date in a variable called "my_date":
var my_date=new Date( )
After creating an instance of the Date object, you can access all the methods of the
object from the "my_date" variable. If, for example, you want to return the date (from
1-31) of a Date object, you should write the following:
my_date.getDate( )
You can also write a date inside the parentheses of the Date( ) object. The following
line of code shows some of the date formats available.
new Date("Month dd, yyyy hh:mm:ss"), new Date("Month dd, yyyy"), new
Date(yy,mm,dd,hh,mm,ss), new Date(yy,mm,dd), new Date(milliseconds)
Here is how you can create a Date object for each of the ways above:
var my_date=new Date("October 12, 1988 13:14:00"), var my_date=new
Date("October 12, 1988"), var my_date=new Date(88,09,12,13,14,00), var
my_date=new Date(88,09,12), var my_date=new Date(500)
x Some Date Methods
Methods
Date( )
GetDate( )
GetDay( )

Explanation
Returns a Date object
Returns the date of a Date object (from 1-31)
Returns the day of a Date object (from 0-6. 0=Sunday,
1=Monday, etc.)
GetMonth( )
Returns the month of a Date object (from 0-11. 0=January,
1=February, etc.)
GetFullYear( ) Returns the year of the Date object (four digits)
GetHours( )
Returns the hour of the Date object (from 0-23)
GetMinutes( ) Returns the minute of the Date object (from 0-59)
GetSeconds( ) Returns the second of the Date object (from 0-59)

Examples:
Date
Returns the current date, including date, month, and year. Note that the getMonth
method returns 0 in January, 1 in February etc. So add 1 to the getMonth method to
display the correct date.
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Scripting Languages

<HTML>
<BODY>
<SCRIPT LANGUAGE="JAVASCRIPT">
var d = new Date()
document.write("date = ")
document.write(d.getDate( ))
document.write(".")
document.write(d.getMonth() + 1)
document.write(".")
document.write(d.getFullYear())
document.write("time = ")
document.write(d.getHours())
document.write(".")
document.write(d.getMinutes() + 1)
document.write(".")
document.write(d.getSeconds())
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Figure 4.3: Using the Date Object

Time
Returns the current time for the timezone in hours, minutes, and seconds as shown in
Figure 5.11. To return the time in GMT use getUTCHours, getUTCMinutes etc.
x Array Object
An Array object is used to store a set of values in a single variable name. Each value
is an element of the array and has an associated index number. You can refer to a
particular element in the array by using the name of the array and the index number.
The index number starts at zero.
You create an instance of the Array object with the "new" keyword.
var family_names=new Array(5)
The expected number of elements goes inside the parentheses, in this case it is 5.
You assign data to each of the elements in the array like this:
family_names[0]="Sharma" family_names[1]="Singh" family_names[2]="Gill"
family_names[3]="Kumar" family_names[4]="Khan"
The data can be retrieved from any element by using the index of the array element
you want:
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Mother=family_names[0] father=family_names[1]

Introduction to
JavaScript

The Most Commonly Used Array Methods

Methods
Explanation
Length
Returns the number of elements in an array. This property is assigned a value
when an array is created
reverse( ) Returns the array reversed
slice( )
Returns a specified part of the array
Sort( )
Returns a sorted array

x History Object
The History object is a predefined JavaScript object which is accessible through the
history property of a window object. The window.history property is an array of URL
strings, which reflect the entries in the History object. The History object consists of
an array of URLs, accessible through the browser's Go menu, which the client has
visited within a window. It is possible to change a window's current URL without an
entry being made in the History object by using the location.replace method. The
History object contains 4 properties and 3 methods as summarized here:
Property
Current
Next
Previous
Length

Summary for History Object

Specifies the URL of the current history entry.
Specifies the URL of the next history entry.
Specifies the URL of the previous history entry.
Reflects the number of entries in the history list.

Method
Summary for History Object
Back( )
Loads the previous URL in the history list.
Forward( ) Loads the next URL in the history list.
Go( )
Loads a URL from the history list.

x Location Object
The Location object is part of a Window object and is accessed through the
window.location property. It contains the complete URL of a given Window object,
or, if none is specified, of the current Window object. Syntax : All of its properties are
strings representing different portions of the URL, which generally takes the
following form:
<protocol>//<host>[:<port>]/<pathname>[<hash>][<search>]
You can create a Location object by simply assigning a URL to the location property
of an object:
Syntax:
Property
Hash
Host
hostname
Href
pathname
Port
protocol

window.location = "file:///C:/Projects"
Description
The hash property is a string beginning with a hash (#), that specifies an
anchor name in an HTTP URL
The host property is a string comprising the hostname and port strings.
The hostname property specifies the server name, subdomain and domain
name (or IP address) of a URL.
The href property is a string specifying the entire URL, and of which all
other link properties are substrings.
The pathname property is a string portion of a URL specifying how a
particular resource can be accessed.
The port property is a string specifying the communications port that the
server uses.
The protocol property is the string at the beginning of a URL, up to and I
ncluding the first colon (:), which specifies the method of access to the
URL.

Comment: Throughout this chapter

there has been little regard for the
correctness of the case of a letter. Please
ensure that the correct case is used unless
the case is not significant. In Javascript,
it usually is significant.

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Scripting Languages

Property
search

Description
The search property is a string beginning with a question mark that
specifies any query information in an HTTP URL.

Some Common Methods

Method
reload
Replace

Description
The reload method forces a reload of the windows current document, i.e.
the one contained in the Location.href
The replace method replaces the current history entry with the specified
URL. After calling the replace method to change the history entry, you
cannot navigate back to the previous URL using the browser's Back
button.

Check Your Progress 1

1. Write a JavaScript code block using arrays and generate the current date in words.
This should include the day, the month and the year.
2. Write JavaScript code that converts the entered text to upper case.
3. Write JavaScript code to validate Username and Password. Username and
Password are stored in variables.
4. Design the following Web page

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4.6

MESSAGEBOX IN JAVASCRIPT

In this section, we cover the topic of dialog boxes. This topic is important for
understanding the way parameters are passed between different windows. This
mechanism is a key component of some of the new capabilities of Internet Explorer
5.5 and 6.0, such as print templates. You use dialog boxes all over. The alert box is
probably the most popular one.

4.6.1 Dialog Boxes

In this the user cannot switch to the window without closing the current window. This
kind of dialog box is referred to as a modal dialog box. You create a modal dialog box
with showModalDialog().
Syntax: showModalDialog (Message)
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<SCRIPT LANGUAGE="JAVASCRIPT">

106

function fnOpenModal(){
window.showModalDialog("test.htm")
}

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</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<FORM NAME = IGNOU>
<INPUT TYPE="button" VALUE="Push Me" onclick="fnOpenModal()">
</BODY>
</HTML>

Introduction to
JavaScript

4.6.2 Alert Boxes

Alert boxes can be utilized for a variety of things, such as to display when an input
field has not been entered properly, to display a message on document open or close,
or to inform someone that they have clicked a link to leave your site. Whatever the
use, the construction is essentially the same.
Syntax : alert(message)
The following example will generate a simple alert box based on clicking either a link
or a form button.
<html>
<title>Codeave.com(JavaScript: Alert Box)</title>
<body bgcolor="#ffffff">
<!-- Example of a form button that will open an alert box -->
<form>
<input type="button" value="Open Alert Box"
onClick='alert("Place your message here... \n Click OK to continue.")'>
</form>
<p>
<!-- Example of a link that will open an alert box -->
<a href='javascript:onClick=alert("Place your message here... \n Click OK to
continue.")'>
Open Alert Box</a>
</body>
</html>

Figure 4.4: Using an Alert Box

4.6.3 Confirm Boxes

The JavaScript confirm alert box differs from a regular alert box in that it provides
two choices to the user, OK and Cancel. Typically, youll see confirmation boxes
utilized on links where the destination is outside the domain of the page you are
currently on or to alert you of potentially objectionable material. The following
example will display a confirmation alert box when either a link or form button is
clicked. Once either OK or Cancel are selected an alert box will follow to display
which was chosen.
<html>

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<body bgcolor="#FFFFFF">
<title>CodeAve.com(JavaScript: Confirm Alert Box)</title>
<script language="JavaScript">
<!-function confirm_entry()
{
input_box=confirm("Click OK or Cancel to Continue");
if (input_box==true)
{
// Output when OK is clicked
alert ("You clicked OK");
}
else
{
// Output when Cancel is clicked
alert ("You clicked cancel");
}
}
-->
</script>
Click <a href="JavaScript:confirm_entry()">here</a>
<p>
<form onSubmit="confirm_entry()">
<input type="submit" >
</form>
</body>
</html>

4.6.4 Prompt Boxes

The prompt box allows the user to enter information. The benefits of using a prompt
are fairly limited and the use of forms would often be preferred (from a user
perspective).
The prompt box title text cannot be changed and the same applies to button text. You
can have 2 lines of text using \n where the new line starts (please note that the opera
browser up to version 7 will only display 1 line of text)
The text entry field is similar to a form input type="text". The 2 buttons are OK and
Cancel. The value returned is either the text entered or null.
The syntax for the prompt is
prompt("your message",""); (script tags omitted)
"your message","" the ,"" holds the default text value "" = empty.

4.7

JAVASCRIPT WITH HTML

4.7.1 Events

108

Events are actions that can be detected by JavaScript. An example would be the
onMouseOver event, which is detected when the user moves the mouse over an
object. Another event is the onLoad event, which is detected as soon as the page is
finished loading. Usually, events are used in combination with functions, so that the
function is called when the event happens. An example would be a function that
would animate a button. The function simply shifts two images. One image that shows
the button in an "up" position, and another image that shows the button in a "down"
position. If this function is called using an onMouseOver event, it will make it look as
if the button is pressed down when the mouse is moved over the image.

4.7.2 Event Handlers

Introduction to
JavaScript

An event handler executes a segment of a code based on certain events occurring

within the application, such as onLoad or onClick. JavaScript event handlers can be
divided into two parts: interactive event handlers and non-interactive event handlers.
An interactive event handler is the one that depends on user interaction with the form
or the document.
For example, onMouseOver is an interactive event handler because it depends on the
user's action with the mouse. An example of a non-interactive event handler is
onLoad, as it automatically executes JavaScript code without the need for user
interaction. Here are all the event handlers available in JavaScript.
x onLoad and onUnload
onLoad and onUnload are mainly used for popups that appear when the user enters or
leaves the page. Another important use is in combination with cookies that should be
set upon arrival or when leaving your pages.
For example, you might have a popup asking the user to enter his name upon his first
arrival to your page. The name is then stored in a cookie. Furthermore, when the
visitor leaves your page a cookie stores the current date. Next time the visitor arrives
at your page, it will have another popup saying something like: "Welcome Ajay, this
page has not been updated since your last visit 8 days ago".
Another common use of the onLoad and onUnload events is in making annoying
pages that immediately open several other windows as soon as you enter the page.

OnFocus and onBlur

The onFocus event handler executes the specified JavaScript code or function on the
occurrence of a focus event. This is when a window, frame or form element is given
the focus. This can be caused by the user clicking on the current window, frame or
form element, by using the TAB key to cycle through the various elements on screen,
or by a call to the window.focus method. Be aware that assigning an alert box to an
object's onFocus event handler will result in recurrent alerts as pressing the 'OK'
button in the alert box will return focus to the calling element or object.
The onFocus event handler uses the Event object properties.
type - this property indicates the type of event.
target - this property indicates the object to which the event was originally sent.
The following example shows the use of the onFocus event handler to replace the
default string displayed in the text box. Note that the first line is HTML code and that
the text box resides on a form called 'myForm'.
Syntax : onfocus = script
<HTML>
<HEAD>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<FORM NAME = "myform" >
<input type="text" name="myText" value="Give me focus" onFocus =
"changeVal()">
</BODY>

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Scripting Languages

<SCRIPT LANGUAGE="JAVASCRIPT">
s1 = new String(myform.myText.value)
function changeVal() {
s1 = "I'm feeling focused"
document.myform.myText.value = s1.toUpperCase()
}
</SCRIPT>
</HTML>

Figure 4.5: Using the onFocus Method

onblur = script
The onBlur event handler executes the specified JavaScript code or function on the
occurrence of a blur event. This is when a window, frame or form element loses focus.
This can be caused by the user clicking outside of the current window, frame or form
element, by using the TAB key to cycle through the various elements on screen, or by
a call to the window.blur method.
The onBlur event handler uses the Event object properties.
type - this property indicates the type of event.
target - this property indicates the object to which the event was originally sent.
The following example shows the use of the onBlur event handler to ask the user to
check that the details given are correct. Note that the first line is HTML code.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<FORM NAME = "myform" >
Enter email address <INPUT TYPE="text" VALUE="" NAME="userEmail"
onBlur=addCheck( )>
</BODY>
<SCRIPT LANGUAGE="JAVASCRIPT">
function addCheck() {
alert("Please check your email details are correct before submitting")
}
</SCRIPT>
</HTML>
110

Introduction to
JavaScript

x OnError
The onError event handler executes the specified JavaScript code or function on the
occurrence of an error event. This happens when an image or document causes an
error during loading. A distinction must be made between a browser error, when the
user types in a non-existent URL, for example, and a JavaScript runtime or syntax
error. This event handler will only be triggered by a JavaScript error, not a browser
error.
Apart from the onError handler triggering a JavaScript function, it can also be set to
onError="null", which suppresses the standard JavaScript error dialog boxes. To
suppress JavaScript error dialogs when calling a function using onError, the function
must return true (Example 2 below demonstrates this).
There are two things to bear in mind when using window.onerror. First, this only
applies to the window containing window.onerror, not any others, and secondly,
window.onerror must be spelt all lower-case and contained within <script> tags; it
cannot be defined in HTML (this obviously does not apply when using onError with
an image tag, as in example 1 below).
The onFocus event handler uses the Event object properties.
type - this property indicates the type of event.
target - this property indicates the object to which the event was originally sent.
The first example suppresses the normal JavaScript error dialogs if a problem arises
when trying to load the specified image, while Example 2 does the same, but applied
to a window, by using a return value of true in the called function, and displays a
customized message instead.
Syntax : Object.onError = [function name]
Example 1
<IMG NAME="imgFaculty" SRC="dodgy.jpg onError="null">
Example 2
<script type="text/javascript" language="JavaScript">
s1 = new String(myForm.myText.value)
window.onerror=myErrorHandler
function myErrorHandler() {
alert('A customized error message')
return true
}
</script>
<body onload=nonexistantFunc( )>

Check Your Progress 2

Design a Web page that displays a welcome message whenever the page is loaded and
an Exit message whenever the page is unloaded.

4.8

FORMS

Each form in a document creates a form object. Since a document can contain more
than one form, Form objects are stored in an array called forms.

4.8.1 Forms Array

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Scripting Languages

Using the forms[ ] array we access each Form object in turn and show the value of its
name property in a message box. Let us have a look at an example that uses the forms
array. Here we have a page with three forms on it.

<HTML>
<HEAD>
<SCRIPT LANGUAGE=JavaScript>
function window_onload()
{
var numberForms = document.forms.length;
var formIndex;
for (formIndex = 0; formIndex < numberForms; formIndex++)
{
alert(document.forms[formIndex].name);
}
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY LANGUAGE=JavaScript onLoad="window_onload()">
<FORM NAME="form1">
<P>This is inside form1</P>
</FORM>
<FORM NAME="form2">
<P>This is inside form2</P>
</FORM>
<FORM NAME="form3">
<P>This is inside form3</P>
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>
Within the body of the page we define three forms. Each form is given a name, and
contains a paragraph of text. Within the definition of the <BODY> tag, the
window_onload( ) function is connected to the window object's onLoad event handler.
<BODY LANGUAGE=JavaScript onLoad="return
window_onload( )">
This means that when the page is loaded, our window_onload() function will be
called. The window_onload( ) function is defined in a script block in the HEAD of the
page. Within this function we loop through the forms[ ] array. Just like any other
JavaScript array, the forms[ ] array has a length property, which we can use to
determine how many times we need to loop. Actually, as we know how many forms
there are, we could just write the number in. However, here we are also demonstrating
the length property, since it is then easier to add to the array without having to change
the function. Generalizing your code like this is a good practice to follow.
The function starts by getting the number of Form objects within the forms array and
stores it in the variable numberForms.
function window_onload( )
{
var numberForms = document.forms.length;
Next we define a variable, formIndex, to be used in our for loop. After this comes the
for loop itself.
112

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var formIndex;
for (formIndex = 0; formIndex < numberForms; formIndex++)
{
alert(document.forms[formIndex].name);
}

Introduction to
JavaScript

Remember that since the indices for arrays start at zero, our loop needs to go from an
index of 0 to an index of numberForms - 1. We do this by initializing the formIndex
variable to zero, and setting the condition of the for loop to formIndex <
numberForms.
Within the for loop's code, we pass the index of the desired form (that is, formIndex)
to document.forms[ ], which gives us the Form object at that array index in the forms
array. To access the Form object's name property, we put a dot at the end and the
name of the property, name.
x Form Object
Form is a property of the document object. This corresponds to an HTML input form
constructed with the FORM tag. A form can be submitted by calling the JavaScript
submit method or clicking the form SUBMIT button. Some of the form properties are:
x Action - This specifies the URL and CGI script file name the form is to be
submitted to. It allows reading or changing the ACTION attribute of the HTML
FORM tag.
x Button An object representing a GUI control.
x Elements - An array of fields and elements in the form.
x Encoding - This is a read or write string. It specifies the encoding method the form
data is encoded in, before being submitted to the server. It corresponds to the
ENCTYPE attribute of the FORM tag. The default is "application/x-www-formurlencoded". Other encoding includes text/plain or multipart/form- data.
x Length - The number of fields in the elements array, that is, the length of the
elements array.
x Method - This is a read or write string. It has the value "GET" or "POST".
x Name - The form name. Corresponds to the FORM Name attribute.
x Password An object representing a password field.
x Radio An object representing a radio button field.
x Reset - An object representing a reset button.
x Select - An object representing a selection list.
x Submit - An object representing a submit button.
x Target - The name of the frame or window to which the form submission response
is sent by the server.
Corresponds to the FORM TARGET attribute.
x Text - An object representing a text field.
x Textarea - An object representing a text area field.
Some of the Form Element Properties are:
x Name It provides access to an elements name attribute. It applies to all form
elements.
x Type Identifies the objects type. It applies to all form elements.
x Value - Identifies the objects value. It applies to all, button, checkbox, hidden,
password, radio, reset, submit, text or textarea.
x Checked - Identifies whether the element is checked. It applies to checkbox and
radio.
x Default checked - Identifies whether the element is checked by default. It applies

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to checkbox and radio.

x Default value Identifies the objects default value. It applies to password, submit
and textarea.
x Length - Identifies the length of a select list. It applies to select.
x Options An array that identifies the options supported by the select list. It applies
to select.
Syntax : <FORM Name = myform Action = mailto:subscribe@abc.com Method
= POST Enctype = multipart/form-data onsubmit = return check( ) >
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<SCRIPT LANGUAGE = javascript>
function check ()
{ if (document.myform.email.value == ) {
alert(please enter your email-id);
return false; }
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
Enter your Email to subscribe : <p>
<FORM Name = myform Action = mailto:subscribe@abc.com Method = POST
Enctype = multipart/form-data onsubmit = return check() >
<Input type = text Name = email>
<Input type = submit value = submit>
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>
The above code is used for obtaining the users email-id. In case the user clicks the
submit button without entering the email-id in the desired text field, he sees a message
box indicating that the email-id has not been entered.

Case Study
Design a Web page with appropriate functionality to accept an order for a fast food
outlet. It should check if the user has entered a valid name and email-id. It should also
calculate the value of the order.

114

<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>Donald Duck</TITLE>
<SCRIPT Language="JavaScript">
var m;
function chk_name()
{
if( document.form1.txt_name.value == "")
{
alert("Please enter your name");
document.form1.txt_name.focus();
}
}
function chk_email()
{
var str = document.form1.txt_email.value ;
var i;

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... [3]n

if ( document.form1.txt_email.value == "")
{
alert("Please enter your Email-ID");
document.form1.txt_email.focus();
}
i = str.indexOf("@");
if ( i< 0)
{
alert ("Please enter a valid Email-Id");
}
}

Introduction to
JavaScript

function mainitem(F1)
{ var z=" ";
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
for(i=0;i<F1.elements[j].length;i++)
{
if (F1.elements[j][i].selected)
{
var y=F1.elements[j].options[i].value;
z=z+"\n"+y;
F1.elements[3].value=z;
}
}
}
m=z;
}
function cal(F1)
{ var d=0;
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
for(i=0;i<F1.elements[j].length;i++)
{
if (F1.elements[j][i].selected)
{
var y=F1.elements[j].options[i].value;
s=new String(y);
var a=s.indexOf(">");
var b=s.substring(a+1,a+3);
c=parseInt(b);
d=d+c;
}
}
}
p="Total cost of the selected items="+d;
m=m+"\n"+p;
F1.elements[3].value=m;
}
function clr(F1)
{
F1.elements[3].value=" ";
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<h2><font color="blue"><center> Welcome to the World renowned online Fast Food
Center </font>

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Scripting Languages

116

<font color="red"> Donald Duck ! </center></font></h2>

<Form name="form1" ACTION = "mailto:dlc@ignou.ac.in" METHOD = POST>
Select the Menu Items of your choice and then click on the Total Cost to find the bill
amount<BR><BR>
<Table >
<TR valign=top ><td>
Major dishes :<BR>
<select name="s1" MULTIPLE onBlur="mainitem(this.form)">
<option value="Onion cheese capsicum Pizza->300" selected> Onion cheese
capsicum Pizza
<option value="Onion mushroom Pizza->200"> Onion mushroom Pizza
<option value="Chicken Tikka Pizza->460"> Chicken Tikka Pizza
<option value="Cheese Pizza->150"> Cheese Pizza
</select>
<BR><BR></td>
<td> </td><td> </td>
<td>
Soups :<BR>
<select name="s2" MULTIPLE onBlur="mainitem(this.form)">
<option value="Tomato Soup->70"> Tomato Soup
<option value="Sweet corn Soup->80">Sweet corn Soup
<option value="Sweet n Sour soup->90">Sweet n Sour soup
<option value="Mixed veg soup->50">Mixed veg soup
</select>
<BR><BR></td>
<td> </td><td> </td>
<td>
Miscellaneous :<BR>
<select name="s3" onBlur="mainitem(this.form)">
<option value=" ">'Desserts'
<option value="Milkshakes->35">Milkshakes
<option value="Soft drinks->20">Soft drinks
<option value="Ice cream sodas->25">Softy
</select>
<BR><BR></td>
<td> </td><td> </td>
</TR>
</Table>
<Table>
<TR valign=top><td>
The items selected form the Menu are :
<TEXTAREA Name="TA1" Rows=10 Cols=50>
</TEXTAREA><BR><BR></td>
<td> </td><td> </td>
<td><BR>
<input type="button" Value="Total Cost" onClick="cal(this.form)">
<input type="button" Value="Clear" onClick="clr(this.form)">
</td>
</TR>
</Table>
<HR noshade>
<h2><font color="red"> Personal Details </center></font></h2>
<Table >
<TR valign=top ><td>
Name:<BR>
<Input Type = "Text" Name = "txt_name" Onblur = "chk_name()">

Introduction to
JavaScript

<BR><BR></td>
<td> </td><td> </td>
<td>
Contact Address :<br>
<TEXTAREA Name="TA2" Rows=3 Cols=10>
</TEXTAREA>
<BR><BR></td>
<td> </td><td> </td>
<td>
Email :<BR>
<Input Type = "Text" Name = "txt_email" Onblur = "chk_email()">
<BR><BR></td>
<td> </td><td> </td>
</TR>
</Table>
<Table>
<TR valign=top ><td>
Phone :<BR>
<Input Type = "Text" Name = "txt_phone">
<BR><BR></td>
<td> </td><td> </td>
<td>
<BR>
<Input Type = "submit" Name = "btnsubmit" Value = "
<BR><BR></td>
<td> </td><td> </td>
</TR>
</Table>
</Form>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Submit

">

Check Your Progress 3

1.

Design the following Web page.

Design the following Web site

117

Scripting Languages

2.

Design the following Web page.

3.
Design the following Web page in such a way that selecting any option from
the radio button displays the appropriate result in the Result box.

4.
Suppose you have an order form that updates automatically each time you
enter or change a quantity, the cost for that item and the total cost are updated. Each
field must be validated. Design the following web page. (Case Study)

4.9

SUMMARY

In this unit we have learned about the major features of JavaScript. Besides normal
programming constructs, datatypes and variables, we have also discussed the most
commonly used objects. These are: Document, Math, Date, History, Location etc. The
Submit and Reset objects are used to submit the information to the server and reset the
information entered, respectively. Finally, we discussed a very important object, the
Form object.

4.10

SOLUTIONS/ ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1

1.

118

<HTML>
<HEAD>

<TITLE> Date validations </TITLE>

<SCRIPT>
var monthNames = new Array(12);
monthNames[0]= "January";
monthNames[1]= "February";
monthNames[2]= "March";
monthNames[3]= "April";
monthNames[4]= "May";
monthNames[5]= "June";
monthNames[6]= "July";
monthNames[7]= "August";
monthNames[8]= "September";
monthNames[9]= "October";
monthNames[10]= "November";
monthNames[11]= "December";

Introduction to
JavaScript

var dayNames = new Array(7);

dayNames[0]= "Sunday";
dayNames[1]= "Monday";
dayNames[2]= "Tuesday";
dayNames[3]= "Wednesday";
dayNames[4]= "Thursday";
dayNames[5]= "Friday";
dayNames[6]= "Saturday";
function customDateString (m_date)
{
var daywords = dayNames[m_date.getDay()];
var theday = m_date.getDate();
var themonth = monthNames[m_date.getMonth()];
var theyear = m_date.getYear();
return daywords + ", " + themonth + " " + theday + ", " + theyear;
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<H1>WELCOME!</H1>
<SCRIPT>
document.write(customDateString( new Date()))
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>
2.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<SCRIPT language="JavaScript">
function checkData(column_data)
{
if (column_data != "" && column_data.value !=
column_data.value.toUpperCase( ))
{
column_data.value = column_data.value.toUpperCase( )
}
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>

Comment: This works, but what is the

second text field for?

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<BODY>
<FORM>
<INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="collector" SIZE=10
onChange="checkData(this)">
<INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="dummy" SIZE=10>
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>
3.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>Password Validation</TITLE>
<SCRIPT language="JavaScript">
<!-var userpassword = new Array(4);
userpassword[0]= "Ajay";
userpassword[1]= "ajay";
userpassword[2]= "Rohan";
userpassword[3]= "rohan";
function checkOut()
{
var flag =0;
var flag1 =0;
var i =0;
var j =0;

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for (x=0; x<document.survey.elements.length; x++)

{
if (document.survey.elements[x].value == "")
{
alert("You forgot one of the required fields. Please try again")
return;
}
}
var user= document.survey.elements[0].value
var password = document.survey.elements[1].value
while(i<=3)
{
if(userpassword[i] == user)
{
j=i;
j++;
if(userpassword[j] == password)
{
flag=1;
break;
}
}
i+=2;
}
if(flag == 0)
{
alert("Please enter a valid user name and password")
return;

}
else
{
alert("Welcome !!\n" +document.forms[0].Username.value);
}

Introduction to
JavaScript

return;
}
//-->
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<FORM ACTION="" method="POST" NAME="survey"
onSubmit="return checkOut(this.form)">
<INPUT TYPE="TEXT" NAME="Username" SIZE="15" MAXLENGTH="15">
User Name
<BR><INPUT TYPE="PASSWORD" NAME="Pasword" SIZE="15">Password
<BR><INPUT TYPE="SUBMIT" VALUE="Submit"><INPUT TYPE="RESET"
VALUE="Start Over">
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>
4.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>Displaying the Date and time in the Browser</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<SCRIPT LANGUAGE="JavaScript">
function begin(form)
{
form_name = form;
time_out=window.setTimeout("display_date()",500)
}
function display_date()
{
form_name.date.value=new Date();
time_out=window.setTimeout("display_date()",1000)
}
function display_clock()
{
document.write('<FONT COLOR=red SIZE=+1><FORM
NAME=time_form><CENTER><BR><BR>Current Date & Time :')
document.write(' <INPUT NAME=date size=19
value=""</FORM></FONT></CENTER>')
begin(document.time_form)
}
display_clock()
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Check Your Progress 2

1.
121

Scripting Languages

<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>Creating and Using User Defined Functions</TITLE>
<SCRIPT LANGUAGE="JavaScript">
var name = "";
function hello( )
{
name = prompt('Enter Your Name:','Name');
alert('Greetings ' + name + ', Welcome to my page!');
}
function goodbye( )
{
alert('Goodbye ' + name + ', Sorry to see you go!');
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY onLoad="hello( );" onUnload="goodbye( );">
<IMG SRC="Images\Pinkwhit.gif ">
</BODY>
</HTML>
Check Your Progress 3
1.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>FORMS</TITLE>
<!-- This code allows to access the Form objects Elements Array //-->
<SCRIPT Language="JavaScript">
function Ver(form1)
{
v=form1.elements.length;
if (form1.elements[3].name=="Button1")
{
alert('First form name : '+document.forms[0].name);
alert('No. of Form elements of ' +document.forms[0].name + ' = '+v);
}
else if (form1.elements[4].name=="Button2")
{
alert('Second form name : '+document.forms[1].name);
alert('No. of Form elements of ' +document.forms[1].name + ' = '+v);
}
for(i=0;i<v;i++)
alert(form1.elements[i].name+ ' is at position '+i);
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>

122

<BODY>
<FORM Name="Survey Form 1">
FIRST FORM: <i><b>Survey Form 1 </b></i><BR><BR>
First Name : <Input Type=Text Name="Text1" Value=""><BR><BR>
<Input Type="radio" Name="Radio1" Value=""> Fresher
<Input Type="radio" Name="Radio1" Value="">
Experienced<BR><BR>
<Input Type="Button" Name="Button1" Value="Click1"
onClick="Ver(form)">
</FORM>

Introduction to
JavaScript

<FORM Name="Survey Form 2">

SECOND FORM: <i><b> Survey Form 2 </b></i><BR><BR>
Name : <Input Type="Text" Name="Text2" Value=""> <BR><BR>
Password : <Input Type="Password" Name="Pass2" Value="">
<BR><BR>
<Input Type="CheckBox" Name="Check1" Value="" > Employed
<Input Type="CheckBox" Name="Check2" Value="" > Studying
<BR><BR>
<Input Type="Button" Name="Button2" Value="Click2"
onClick="Ver(form)">
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>
2.
<HMTL>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>FORMS</TITLE>
<!-- This code checks the Checkbox when the button is clicked //-->
<SCRIPT Language='JavaScript'>
function Chk(f1)
{
f1.Check.checked=true;
alert(" The Checkbox just got checked ");
f1.Check.checked=false;
f1.Radio[0].checked=true;
f1.Radio[1].checked=false;
alert(" The Radio button just got checked ");
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>

<BODY>
<FORM>
Client Name : <Input Type=Text Name="Text" Value=""><BR><BR>

Comment: The desired functionality is

not apparent in this question. It should be
stated explicitly.

123

Scripting Languages

Client Address: <Input Type=Text Name="Text1" Value=""> <BR><BR>

Client E-mail Address :<Input Type=Text Name="Text2"
Value=""><BR><BR>
<Input Type="radio" Name="Radio" Value=""> Male
<Input Type="radio" Name="Radio" Value=""> Female<BR><BR>
<Input Type="CheckBox" Name="Check" Value=""> Employed <BR><BR>
<Input Type="Button" Name="Bt" Value="Set Element Array Value"
onClick="Chk(this.form)">
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>
3.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Working with Radio Buttons </TITLE>
<SCRIPT LANGUAGE="JavaScript">
function calculate(form)
{
if(form.elements[2].checked)
{
form.result.value = form.entry.value * form.entry.value;
}
else
{
form.result.value = form.entry.value * 2;
}
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<FORM >
<CENTER><BR>
<B>Value:</B>
<INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="entry" VALUE=0>
<BR><BR>
<SPACER Size= 190>
<B>Action:<B><BR>
<SPACER Size = 225>
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="action1" VALUE="twice"
onClick="calculate(this.form);">Double<BR>
<SPACER Size = 225>
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="action1" VALUE="square"
onClick="calculate(this.form);">Square <BR><BR>
<B>Result:</B>
<INPUT TYPE=text NAME="result" onFocus = "this.blur();">
</CENTER>
</FORM>

124

</BODY>
</HTML>
4. (Case Study)
<HTML>

Introduction to
JavaScript

Comment: This code keeps saying

Invalid Phone or Invalid Name. This
needs to be corrected.

<HEAD><TITLE>Order Form</TITLE>
<SCRIPT>
// function to calculate the total cost field
function Total()
{ var tot = 0;
tot += (240 * document.order.qty1.value);
tot += (270 * document.order.qty2.value);
tot += (300 * document.order.qty3.value);
tot += (600 * document.order.qty4.value);
document.order.totalcost.value = tot; }
// function to update cost when quantity is changed
function UpdateCost(number, unitcost)
{ costname = "cost" + number; qtyname = "qty" + number;
var q = document.order[qtyname].value;
document.order[costname].value = q * unitcost;
Total();
}
// function to copy billing address to shipping address
function CopyAddress()
{ if (document.order.same.checked)
{ document.order.shipto.value = document.order.billto.value;
}
}
//global variable for error flag
var errfound = false;
//function to validate by length
function ValidLength(item, len)
{ return (item.length >= len); }
//function to validate an email address
function ValidEmail(item)
{ if (!ValidLength(item, 5)) return false;
if (item.indexOf ('@', 0) == -1)
return false;
return true;
}
// display an error alert

125

Scripting Languages

function error(elem, text)

{
// abort if we already found an error
if (errfound) return;
window.alert(text);
elem.select();
elem.focus();
errfound = true;
}
// main validation function
function Validate()
{
errfound = false;
if (!ValidLength(document.order.name1.value,6))
error(document.order.name1,"Invalid Name");
if (!ValidLength(document.order.phone.value,10))
error(document.order.phone,"Invalid Phone");
if (!ValidLength(document.order.billto.value,30))
error(document.order.billto,"Invalid Billing Address");
if (!ValidLength(document.order.shipto.value,30))
error(document.order.shipto,"Invalid Shipping Address");
if (!ValidEmail(document.order.email.value))
error(document.order.email, "Invalid Email Address");
if (document.order.totalcost.value == "")
error(document.order.qty1, "Please Order at least one item.");
if (document.order.payby.selectedIndex != 1)
{
if (!ValidLength(document.order.creditno.value,2))
error(document.order.creditno,"Invalid Credit/Check number");
}
return !errfound; /* true if there are no errors */ }
</SCRIPT> </HEAD>
<BODY>
<H1>Online Cake Order Form</H1>
<FORM NAME="order" onSubmit="return Validate();">
<B>Name:</B>
<INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="name1" SIZE=20>
<B>Phone: </B>
<INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="phone" SIZE=15>
<B>E-mail address:</B>
<INPUT TYPE="text" NAME="email" SIZE=20><BR><BR>
<B>Shipping Address:</B>
<BR>

126

<TEXTAREA NAME="shipto" COLS=40 ROWS=4 onChange="CopyAddress();">

Enter your shipping address here. </TEXTAREA>

Introduction to
JavaScript

<B>Products to Order:</B><BR>
Qty: <INPUT TYPE="TEXT" NAME="qty1" VALUE="0" SIZE=4 onChange =
"UpdateCost(1, 240);">
Cost: <INPUT TYPE="TEXT" NAME="cost1" SIZE=6> (Rs.240 ) Vanilla cake
<BR>
Qty: <INPUT TYPE="TEXT" NAME="qty2" VALUE="0" SIZE=4 onChange =
"UpdateCost(2, 270);">
Cost: <INPUT TYPE="TEXT" NAME="cost2" SIZE=6> (Rs.270 ) Strawberry cake
<BR>
Qty: <INPUT TYPE="TEXT" NAME="qty3" VALUE="0" SIZE=4 onChange =
"UpdateCost(3, 300);">
Cost: <INPUT TYPE="TEXT" NAME="cost3" SIZE=6> (Rs.300 ) Black Forest
cake <BR>
Qty: <INPUT TYPE="TEXT" NAME="qty4" VALUE="0" SIZE=4 onChange =
"UpdateCost(4, 600);">
Cost: <INPUT TYPE="TEXT" NAME="cost4" SIZE=6> (Rs.600 ) Chocolate cake
<HR> <B>Total Cost:</B>
SIZE=8><HR> <B>

<INPUT

TYPE="TEXT"

NAME="totalcost"

Method of Payment</B>:
<SELECT NAME="payby"> <OPTION VALUE="check" SELECTED>
Check or Money Order
<OPTION VALUE="cash">Cash or Cashier's Check
<OPTION VALUE="credit">Credit Card (specify number)
</SELECT><BR> <B>Credit Card or Check Number:</B>:
<INPUT TYPE="TEXT" NAME="creditno" SIZE="20"><BR>
<INPUT TYPE="SUBMIT" NAME="submit" VALUE="Send Your Order">
<INPUT TYPE="RESET" VALUE="Clear Form">
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>

4.11

FURTHER READINGS

1. JavaScript Programmers Reference, Cliff Wootton. Publisher: Wrox Press Inc.

Year 1999.
2. Beginning JavaScript, Paul Wilton. Publisher: Wrox Press Inc. 1st Edition
3. JavaScript: The Definitive Guide, David Flanagan. Publisher: O'Reilly. 4th Edition
2001.
4. The JavaScript Bible, Danny Goodman. Publisher: John Wiley & Sons Inc. Edition
2001.

127

Page 98: [1] Comment

milind

What is number here? Will this code work? In any case the function does not do
anything meaningful. What is the purpose of the argument a here?
Page 106: [2] Comment

milind

Please be accurate. If you do use the replace method but do not change the history entry,
does the statement still hold good?
Page 114: [3] Comment

milind

The solution to the case study does not work correctly. This needs to be taken care of.

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SECTION 1

HTML (HYPERTEXT MARKUP

LANGUAGE)

HTML (Hypertext
Markup Language)

Structure
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3

1.0

Basics of HTML
How to Create HTML Document?
Steps for Creating a Simple HTML Program
Exercises for Practice in Lab Sessions

BASICS OF HTML

Web pages or materials in the form of hypermedia documents accessed through the
Internet can be located anywhere in the world.
No matter where they originated, most Web documents are created using Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML). HTML is a powerful authoring language and has
different versions like HTML 4.2, HTML 4.0, HTML 3.2, HTML 3.0 and HTML 2.
HTML is used to define document structure and format, with the help of a single tag
or a pair of tags. A tag is a string in the language surrounded by a less than (<) and a
greater than (>) sign. An opening tag does not begin with a slash (/). An ending or
closing tag is a string that begins with a slash (/).
HTML documents format textual information with embedded markup tags that
provide style and structure information. A whole document in HTML begins with
<HTML> and ends with </HTML>.

1.1

HOW TO CREATE AN HTML DOCUMENT?

An HTML document can be created using any HTML editor or text editor like
notepad etc.

1.2

1.

STEPS FOR CREATING A SIMPLE HTML

PROGRAM

Go to Start -> Programs->Accessories->Notepad.

5

Lab Manual

2.

Begin with a document type tag and an <HTML> opening tag. Enter the
following line in your doc.
<HTML>

3.

Indicate that you are beginning the head element of a document by issuing the
<HEAD> opening tag. If a <HEAD> element is included, it must appear within
an <HTML> element. The following line should appear next in your document:
<HEAD>

4.

The <TITLE> element is used to indicate the title of an HTML document.

<TITLE> tags are placed within the head component of a document and the title
is placed between the opening and the closing <TITLE> tags. Add the
following <TITLE> element to your document.
<TITLE>My First Page</TITLE>

5.

To end the head area issue a <HEAD> closing tag.

</HEAD>
Thus the <HEAD> element is nested within the <HTML> element.

6.

At this point the body of the document is developed. A <BODY> opening tag
indicates that this point has been reached. Enter the following line.
<BODY>

7.

In the following example, the body of the document contains a simple text
statement which you can now enter in your file:
Hello World !

8.

A </BODY> closing tag marks the end of the <BODY> element. Similar to the
Head element, the <BODY> element is also completely nested within the
<HTML> element. To end the <BODY> element, issue the closing
corresponding tag in your document.
</BODY>

9.

Finally, terminate the <HTML> tag with </HTML> as shown below:

10.

Save your document as mypage.html

HTML (Hypertext
Markup Language)

11. To view the document open the .html document in the browser.

1.3

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE IN LAB SESSION

SESSION 1
Exercises
1.

Write HTML code to develop a Web page having the background in red and
title My First Page in any other colour.

2.

Create an HTML document giving details of your name, age, telephone number,
address, TLC code & enrolment number aligned in proper order.

3.

Write an HTML code to design a page containing text, in form of paragraphs

giving suitable heading style.

SESSION 2
Exercises
1.

Create a page to show different attributes of Font tag.

2.

Create a page to show different attributes: italics, bold, underline.

3.

Design a page having background colour yellow, giving text colour red and
using all the attributes of font tab.

SESSION 3
Exercises
1.

Write an HTML code to create a Web page of blue color and display links in
red colour.

2.

Write an HTML code to create a Web page that contains an image at its center.

3.

Create a Web page with appropriate content and insert an image towards the left
hand side of the page. When user clicks on the image, it should open another
Web page.
7

Lab Manual

SESSION 4
Exercises
1.

Create a Web page using href attribute of anchor tag & the attribute: alink, vlink
etc.

2.

Create a Web page, wherein when the user clicks on the link it should go to the
bottom of the page.

3.

Write HTML code to create a Web page of pink colour and display a moving
message in red colour.

SESSION 5
Exercises
1.

Create a Web page, showing an ordered list of the names of five of your friends.

2.

Create an HTML document containing a nested list showing the content page of
any book

3.

Create a web page, showing an unordered list of names of five of your friends.

SESSION 6
Exercises
1.

Create a Web page, which should contain a table having two rows and two
columns.

2.

Fill in some dummy data in the table created by you in question 1 of this session.

3.

Create the following table in HTML with Dummy Data

Name of
train

Place

Destination

Train No.

Time
Arrival

Fair
Departure

SESSION 7
Exercises
1.

Create the following table

Colour (White)
RED

2.

GREEN

BLACK

Design an HTML Page having 3 images placed in the following format.

Image 1
Image 2
Image 3

(Hint: Table can be used to align images)

3.

HTML (Hypertext
Markup Language)

Write HTML code to generate the following output:

Weather

DELHI
40

MUMBAI
35

SESSION 8
Exercises
1.

What are HTML Physical style tags and Logical style tags?

2.

Which HTML tag allows you to scroll text on the Web page?

3.

What is the comment tag in HTML?

4.

Design an HTML Page for the Block Introduction of this book: The page
should allow scrolling and the code should contain a comment header with your
name and enrolment number.

SESSION 9
Exercises
1.

What difference does it make if we express the width of a table in percentage or

in pixel value? And how do we set the width of a particular column or cell in a
table?

2.

Write HTML code to generate the following output:

1
5
7
9

3.

Image
10

11

4
6
8
12

Create a Web page that should contain a table having seven rows and four
columns, along with the attributes colspan & rowspan.

SESSION 10
Exercises
1.

What are the different versions of HTML?

2.

List 5 different HTML Editors.

3.

What is the different image formats?

Lab Manual

SECTION 2

ADVANCED HTML

Structure
2.0
2.1

2.0

Advanced Topics of HTML

Exercises for Practice in Lab Sessions

ADVANCED TOPICS OF HTML

HTML is made up of many elements, a lot of which are overlooked. Although you can
develop a Website with the basic knowledge of HTML, to take advantage of many of
the advanced features, and to make pages fully compatible, it is useful to learn some
of the advanced topics of HTML, like:
1.
2.

Frames
Forms

Frame pages are basically an HTML file which break the browser window up into
separate parts or frames. In each frame a different HTML file can be loaded.
The basic idea of an HTML form is the same as that of a paper form. HTML deals
with forms exactly the same way you would with a paper form. There are groups of
items and single items all gathered together in one large form, like a paper form.

2.1

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE IN LAB SESSION

SESSION 1
Exercises
1.

How do you handle the situation when the browser doesnt support frames?

2.

What are inline frames?

3.

Which tag is used to define frames in HTML?

SESSION 2
Exercises
1.

Write an HTML code to develop a Web page having two frames that divide the
Web page into two equal rows.

2.

Write an HTML code to develop a Web page having two frames that divide the
Web page into two equal rows and then divide the second row into two equal
columns.

3.

Write an HTML code to develop a Web page having frames as described in the
above question and then fill each frame with a different background colour.

SESSION 3
Exercises

10

1.

What are the tags used to display information for browsers that do not support
frames?

2.

Write the various attributes of frameset tag and frame tag.

3.

Write a code in HTML to design a page with two frames. The frame should
remain proportionate even when page is resized.

Advanced HTML

SESSION 4
Exercises
1.

Write the code to develop a Web page, as shown below, using frames:

2.

Write the code to make the background colour of each frame in the above
question different.

3.

Create a Web page divided into two equal frames.

SESSION 5
Exercises
1.

Create a Web page having two frames, one containing links and the containing
content of the links. When link is clicked, appropriate contents should be
displayed in Frame 2.

2.

Create a home page for a TLC in following format:

TLC Information
Links

3.

Appropriate Information

Create a Web page using all the attributes of the frame and other tags.

SESSION 6
Exercises
1.

Design a page with a text box called name and a button with label Enter.
When you click on the button another page should open, with the message
Welcome <name>, where name should be equal to the name entered in the
first page.

2.

What are the values of method attribute of the form tag?

3.

Set default value of name text box of question 1 of this session to Victoria.
Add another button called Reset on click of this button name text box should
be set to 100 default value.

SESSION 7
Exercises
1.

Design a form using all input types.

11

Lab Manual

2.

Create a simple form accepting:

Name
Enrolment Number
And Submit button

SESSION 8
Exercises
1.

Design a Web Page, which is like compose page of e-mail

To

Copy
Message:

Send
2.

Which element is used to accept large text inputs from user?

3.

Write a code to create a Web page having radio buttons labeled as name of
colours. Clicking on each radio button should change the colour of the Web
page.

SESSION 9
Exercises
1.

What is the purpose of hidden field?

2.

Create a form accepting the values:

Name
Address
Marks in 10 + 2, Graduation & Post Graduation

3.

Which element is used to display a drop down list box?

SESSION 10
Exercises

12

1.

Design a series of three HTML Pages for ABC. COM each called from the
previous one. Accept Name on the first page. When the user clicks on the enter
button, second page should open. The second page should not display the name
but a Welcome screen with some information about ABC.COM. When the user
will click on the next button it should display the name accepted in page 1 on
page 3.
(Hint: you may use hidden fields)

2.

Create a Web page; divide that page into two frames. In one frame create two
links that will display different HTML forms in the other frame.

SECTION 3

JAVASCRIPT

JavaScript

Structure
3.0
3.1
3.2

3.0

Script Basics
Incorporating JavaScript into a Web Page
Exercises for Practice in Lab Sessions.

JAVASCRIPT BASICS

The World Wide Web (WWW) began as a text-only medium. The first version does
not even have the capability to include graphics on a page.
Todays Web sites include graphics, sound animation, video and sometimes even
useful content! Web scripting languages, such as JavaScript, are one of the easiest
ways to spice up the Web page and to interact with users in new ways, HTML, unlike
which is a simple text markup language, which cant respond to the user, make
decisions, or automate repetitive tasks. Web scripting languages allow you to
combine scripting with HTML to create interactive Web pages.
A script in JavaScript can range from a single line to a full-scale application.
JavaScript was developed by Netscape Communications Corporation, the makers of
the popular Netscape Navigator Web browser. JavaScript was the first Web scripting
language to be introduced, and it is by far the most popular. Here are a few things you
can do with JavaScript:
!
!
!
!
!
!

3.1

Add scrolling or changing messages to the browsers status line.

Validate the contents of a form and make calculations.
Display messages to the user, either as part of a Web page or in alert boxes.
Animate images or create images that change when you move the mouse over
them.
Detect the browser in use and display different content for different browsers.
Detect installed plug-ins and notify the user if a plug-in is required.

INCORPORATING JAVASCRIPT INTO A WEB

PAGE

As you, hopefully, already know, HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is the

language you use to create Web documents. You must have created Hello World!
as given below:
<HTML>
<HEAD><TITLE>My First Page</TITLE></HEAD>
<BODY>
Hello World!
</BODY>
</HTML>
To add JavaScript to a page, youll use a similar tag: <SCRIPT>.
The <SCRIPT> tag tells the browser to start treating the text as a script, and the
</SCRIPT> tag returns to the regularly scheduled HTML as given below. Note that
the file will be stored as .html or .htm.

13

Lab Manual

The output of the above program will be

In this example, we placed the script within the body of the HTML document. There
are actually four different places where you can use scripts:
!
!

14

In the body of the page. In this case, the output of the script is displayed, as part
of the HTML document, when the browser loads the page.
In the header of the page, between the <HEAD> tags. Scripts in the header
arent executed immediately, but can be referred to by other scripts. The header
is often used for functions.

3.2

Within an HTML tag. This is called an event handler and allows the script to
work with HTML elements. Event handlers are one type of script where you
dont need to use the <SCRIPT> tag.
In a separate file entirely JavaScript supports the use of files with the .js
extension containing scripts; these can be included by specifying a file in the
<SCRIPT> tag. This feature works only in Netscape Navigator 3.0 or later and
Internet Explorer 4.0 or later.

JavaScript

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE IN LAB SESSION

SESSION 1
Exercises
1.

How would you write any statement using only one write() or writeln()
command?

2.

Embed JavaScript in HTML document asking users name and then printing
Hello <User_Name>

3.

Create a dialogue box with Welcome to my Website message.

SESSION 2
Exercises
1.

Evaluate the expression:

a.
7+5
b.
7 + 5
c.
7*5
d.
7/5
e.
7%5

2.

Write the segment of Script that would ask the user if he wants a greeting
message and if he does, display a Gif file called Welcome .gif and display
Welcome to Netscape Navigator! in the document window following the Gif

3.

Write the object definition for an object called car with four properties model,
make, year & price.

SESSION 3
Exercises
1.

Write a program to display a multiplication table.

2.

Write a code to create a scrolling text in a text box.

3.

Write a JavaScript code to create a pull down menu box.

SESSION 4
Exercises
1.

Write a program to move a text with mouse pointer.

2.

Write a program to change colour of text randomly.

15

Lab Manual

3.

Create a Web page using two image files, which switch b/w one another as the
mouse pointer moves over the image. Use the On Mouse over and On Mouse
out event handler

SESSION 5
Exercises
1.

Write a JavaScript code to accept radius & display the area of the circle.

2.

Use the date function get Date & set Date to prompt the user for an integer b/w
1 31 & return day of the week it represents.

3.

Display time and print message accordingly e.g., Good Morning in Morning
etc.

SESSION 6
Exercises
1.

Using JavaScript create a digital clock.

SESSION 7
Exercises
1.

Using JavaScript create a calculator.

SESSION 8
Exercises
1.

Create an HTML form that has a number of text boxes. The user fills the
textboxes with data. Write a script that verifies that all textboxes have been
filled. If a text box has been left empty pop up an alert message indicating the
box that has been left empty. When OK button is clicked, set focus to that
specific textbox. If all the textboxes are filled, display thank you.

SESSION 9
Exercises
1.

Create an HTML form that inputs employee details and display the same on the
HTML page.

2.

Write a program, which prompts the user to enter a sum of two numbers and
display whether the answer is correct or incorrect.

SESSION 10
Exercises
1.

Illustrate how the reset button on form functions.

2.

Create a program to check for null or empty string.

SESSION 11
Exercises
1.
16

Create a program to generate a hit counter.

2.

Create a program to verify whether email address provided by the user is valid
or invalid.

JavaScript

SESSION 12
Exercises
1.

Write a program to scroll the text on status bar.

2.

Write a program to create a small window in main window.

SESSION 13
Exercises
1.

The form consists of two multiple choice lists and one single choice list
a. The first multiple choice list displays the major dishes available.
b. The second multiple choice list displays the stocks available.
c. The single choice list displays the miscellaneous (Milkshakes, soft drinks,
softy etc. available)

SESSION 14
Exercises
1.

Create a Web page with two forms, one office copy and one customer copy
when user enters date in customer copy it gets updated in office copy.

SESSION 15
Exercises
1.

Use JavaScript for authentication and verification of the textboxes in the static
site developed by the student in the HTML exercise.

17

Lab Manual

SECTION 4

VBSCRIPT

Structure
4.0
4.1
4.2

4.0

VBScript Basics
Incorporating VBScript into HTML Page
Exercises for Practice in Lab Sessions

VBSCRIPT BASICS

VBScript is a powerful and easy to learn tool that can be used to add interaction to
your Web pages.
The Web browser receives scripts along with the rest of the Web document. The
browser parses and processes the scripts. HTML was extended to include a tag that is
used to incorporate scripts into HTML-the <SCRIPT> tag.

4.1

INCORPORATING VBSCRIPT INTO HTML PAGE

To add scripts into your Web pages <SCRIPT> tag is used. The <SCRIPT> tag
signifies the start of the script section, while </SCRIPT> marks the end. An example
of this is shown below:
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>Working With VBScript</TITLE>
<SCRIPT LANGUAGE="VBScript">
<!-MsgBox "Welcome to my Web page!"
-->
</SCRIPT>
The LANGUAGE attribute of SCRIPT tag specifies the language used for scripting.
Scripts are usually placed at the top of the Web document, in the HEAD. There are
four different places where you can use scripts:
!
!

In the body of the page. In this case, the output of the script is displayed, as part
of the HTML document, when the browser loads the page.
In the header of the page, between the <HEAD> tags. Scripts in the header
arent executed immediately, but can be referred to by other scripts. The header
is often used for functions-groups of VBScript statements that can be used as a
group.
Within an HTML tag. This is called an event handler and allows the script to
work with HTML elements. Event handlers are the one type of script where you
dont need to use the <SCRIPT> tag.
In a separate file entirely.

Not all browsers support scripting languages. To handle such browsers you can
enclose your script in comment tags (<!-- and -->).

4.2

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE IN LAB SESSION

SESSION 1
Exercises
18

1.

Write a programme to display the following on a Web page:

VBScript

Hello <User_Name>
2.

Create a Web page that displays a message box with the message:
Welcome to my Website

3.

Write code to change colour of text randomly.

SESSION 2
Exercises
1.

Write a VBScript code that accepts the length, breadth and height and displays
the area of a rectangle.

2.

Create a programme to generate a hit counter.

SESSION 3
Exercises
1.

Write a programme, which prompts, the user to enter the sum of two numbers
and display whether the answer is correct or incorrect.

2.

Using VBScript, create a calculator.

SESSION 4
Exercises
1.

Create a programme to check for null or empty string.

2.

Create a form that has an e-mail field. Now write VBScript code for validation
of the email address.

SESSION 5
Exercises
1.

List the Mouse and Keyboard events in VBScript.

2.

How do you generate a random number in VBScript?

SESSION 6
Exercises
1.

2.

Create a form in HTML containing the following fields and then perform the
validation of each field using VBScript.
Name
Address
Date of Birth

Email

textbox
textbox
a combo box (one for each, day, month and
year)
textbox

How do you declare variables in VBScript and enlist the various variablesnaming rules.

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Lab Manual

SESSION 7
Exercises
1.

What is the purpose of Option Explicit in VBScript code?

2.

Using an HTML form accept the Principal, Rate of Interest and Time from the
user, validate the three fields and then display the Simple Interest to the user.

SESSION 8
Exercises
1.

Create a programme that accepts the time from the system clock and
accordingly displays a Good Morning, Good Afternoon or Good Evening
message to the user. Use If Then Else statement.

2.

Create the above programme using Select Case.

SESSION 9
Exercises
1.

Write a programme in VBScript that uses For..Next looping statement to create

a Fibonacci series.

2.

Using Do..While loop display the factorial of a number.

SESSION 10
Exercises

20

1.

Write a programme that displays the multiplication of two matrices.

2.

Write a programme that displays the transposition of a matrix.

3.

Write a programme that accepts a number from the user and displays its
factorial only if it is a prime number.

Dreamweaver

SECTION 5

DREAMWEAVER

Structure
5.0
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10

How to Work in Dreamweaver?

How to Save your File?
Menu
Adding Layers to the Timeline and Giving Motion to the Layer.
Inserting Scripts
Inserting External Media in the Web Page
Adding SSI (Server-side include to the Page)
Adding CSS Style to your Page
Adding XML Files to your Page
To Export a Dreamweaver Document as XML File
Exercises for Practice in Lab Sessions.

5.0

HOW TO WORK IN DREAMWEAVER?

Where and how to open Dreamweaver?

Step 1: Click on Start
Step 2: Select Program
Step 3: Select Macromedia Dreamweaver
Step 4: Click on Dreamweaver
You will get the screen as given below:

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Lab Manual

On opening Dreamweaver you will see 3 main windows, (1) Object; which contains
Character, Common, Forms, Frames, Head and Invisible. Many options are available
under these, like under common where you will get, insertion of image, rollover
image, layer, tabular data, horizontal bar, line break, email link, date, flash movie,
fireworks object, shockwave file, generator, plug-ins, active x controls, SSI etc.
under character in which you will find some special character/symbols like , , ,
, etc; under frames where you will find different type/style of frames; under
forms where you will find all the elements of forms, like text box, password box,
radio button, check box, selection box, jump menu, submit & reset button etc. (2)
Properties; which provides the properties of the selected object/item, page properties
etc; (3) Launcher; which contains: Site, Library, HTML Style, CSS Style,
Behaviours, History, HTML Source; On clicking any of the items on the Launcher
the subsequent window opens up.
Before creating your Web page you have to create a Root directory in which all of
your work will be saved. Then in Dreamweaver create a Site and Provide the Root
Directory (which you have created). To do this:
Step 1: Select Site from Launcher window
Step 2: Click on Define Site
Step 3: Click on NEW
Step 4: Give a name under Site Name
Step 5: Select the folder by browsing under Local root folder
Step 6: Click on OK
Step 7: Click on DONE
Now start working on Dreamweaver
Write your text, format the text, insert picture through Object window or by INSERT
-> IMAGE. The Insert Menu provides you all the features available under the Object
window. The modify menu provides you scope to modify the selection properties,
page properties, link, table, frames etc. The Text menu helps to do all the formatting
for the text, like selecting font, font-size, colour, alignment etc.

5.1

HOW TO SAVE YOUR FILE?

Step 1: Click on FILE

Step 2: Click on SAVE
Step 3: Choose the folder in which you want to save
Step 4: Provide a name to the file (with .htm / .html extension)
Step 5: Click on SAVE

5.2

MENU

File Menu: Under it we have New, Save, Save as, Save as template, Import, Export,
Preview in browser etc. options.
Edit Menu: In this menu we have Cut, Copy, Paste, Undo, Redo, Select all, Find,
Replace, Preference etc. options which help us in editing the document.
View Menu: Rulers, Grids, Plugins etc. are available under this.
Insert Menu: It contains almost all the things, which are there, in the Object tool bar.
Modify Menu: Under this we have Page properties, selection properties, Make link,
remove link, link target, table, layer, frameset, library, template, timeline, translate
etc. This menu helps to modify the page by choosing the option as per requirement.
Text Menu: It helps to format the text written in the page by providing details, such
as indent, outdent, list (ol, ul, dl), alignment, font, style, size, size increase, size
22

Dreamweaver

decrease, HTML style, CSS style, colour etc. It also provides the facility to check the
spellings in the page.
Site Menu: This menu contains site files, site map, new site, open site, define site
options.
Window Menu: It contains all the different windows, like object, properties,
launcher, site file, site map, CSS, timeline, history, behaviour, layer, frame, library,
template etc.

5.3 ADDING LAYERS TO THE TIMELINE AND GIVING

MOTION TO THE LAYER
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
Step 5:
Step 6:
Step 7:
Step 8:
Step 9:

5.4
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
Step 5:

5.5

Choose Layer from Common toolbar and draw a layer.

Write the text inside the Layer.
Click on Modify (when the layer is selected)
Click on Timeline
Click on Add layer to timeline.
Modify -> Timeline -> Select Record path to Layer
Drag the layer as per your wish, to define a path.
Tick on Auto Play & Loop (if required)
Open it in the Browser to see the effect.

INSERTING SCRIPTS
Click on Insert
Click on Script
Choose the type of Script
Write the code in Content
To finish, click on OK

INSERTING EXTERNAL MEDIA IN THE WEB PAGE

Step 1: Click on the icon in the object tool bar

Or
Insert -> Media -> Choose the media type to be inserted
Step 2: Find and select the file required (browse)
Step 3: Click on OK

5.6

ADDING SSI (SERVER-SIDE INCLUDE) TO THE

PAGE

Step 1: Click on the icon in the object tool bar

Or
Insert -> SSI
Step 2: Select the file
Step 3: Add the file
Step 4: Provide the URL (where to be attached)
Step 5: Provide information on Relative to the document or to the Site Root
Step 6: Click on OK.

To Show/Hide The SSI Document In The Page

Step 1: Click on Edit
Step 2: Select reference
23

Lab Manual

Step 3: Select Translation

Step 4: Click on SSI
Step 5: For showing the SSI file; choose one of the following options:
a)
in all files
b)
in no files
c)
in files with extension (stm, htm, html, shtm, shtml)
d)
in files matching one of these expressions <!-- #include
Example : <!--#include virtual="/virtual campus/bitmain/result.html" -->
Step 6: Click on OK

5.7

ADDING CSS STYLE TO YOUR PAGE

Step 1: Click on Window Menu

Step 2: Select CSS Styles
Or Click on CSS Styles in the Launcher
Step 3: Click on New to create a new CSS style
Step 4: Choose the Type
a)
Make custom style
b)
Redefine HTML
c)
Use CSS Selection
Step 5: Give a name
Step 6: Click OK
On choosing (a) of step 4 you will get a new screen in which you have to provide the
following details in Category:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

Type: Provide the Font, Size, Style, Weight, Decoration, then click OK
Background: provide a Colour or insert an image, then click OK
Block: Give the alignment style, then click OK
Box: Provide the margin setup of Top, Left, Right & Bottom, then click OK
Border: Provide the width & colour, then click OK
List: Select the list type (OL, UL, DL), then click OK
Positioning: Provide the style, Visibility, Z-index, Placement (Top, Left, Right
& Bottom), click OK.

After providing the details, select the style from the CSS style window. Choose
where to apply this style (body, p, layer etc.), by clicking on Apply button in the CSS
style window.

5.8

ADDING XML FILES TO YOUR PAGE

Step 1: Choose File -> Import XML into Template

Step 2: Select the XML file & click Open
When an XML file is imported, Dreamweaver merges the XML content into the
Template, which is being specified in the XML file and shows the result in the
document window of Dreamweaver. If that specified Template is not found, then
Dreamweaver prompts you to select another Template for use.
The XML file should contain the name of the Template and editable region as XML
tags.

Example:
<doctitle>
<![CDATA[<title>newTemplate</title>]]>
</doctitle>
<Edit-Region>
24

Dreamweaver

<![CDATA[{Edit-Region}]]>
</Edit-Region>
Here doctitle identifies the title of the Template and edit-region identifies the editable
region.
But in a standard Dreamweaver file XML tags use the item name. The above
example (XML tags) is given below in standard Dreamweaver file:
<item name="doctitle">
<![CDATA[ <title>newTemplate</title>]]>
</item>
<item name="Edit-Region">
<![CDATA[{Edit-Region}]]></item>
</item>
Here item name=doctitle identifies the title of the Template and item name=edit
region identifies the editable region.

5.9

TO EXPORT A DREAMWEAVER DOCUMENT AS

XML FILE

Step 1: Choose File -> Open,

Step 2: Select the document that uses a template (and has editable regions)
Step 3: Click Open
Step 4: Choose File -> Export -> Export Editable Regions as XML.
Step 5: In the XML dialog box, choose a tag notation
Step 6: Click OK.
Step 7: Enter a name for the XML file
Step 8: Click Save.
When the document is exported, the generated XML file contains the name of the
Template the document is using and all editable region names.

5.10

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE IN LAB SESSIONS

SESSION 1
Exercises
1.

Design a Home page of your TLC.

2.

Design a Home page for a Toy Company. The page has an image as the
background. Do some attractive text formatting to the text written in the page.

3.

Insert an image in your page. Give a zigzag motion to the image in your page.
(Hint: Using timeline)

SESSION 2
Exercises
1.

2.

Insert an image in a page. In the browser, when you take cursor over it, another
image emerges under it and when you click on the second image, it takes you
to exercise 2 of session 1.
Design a Web page which contains details about your TLC. Give links to a few
options. Also make a link Mail Us. On clicking this, it will open the
compose box for mailing to bit@ignou.ac.in.

25

Lab Manual

SESSION 3
Exercises
1.

Show the course contents of HND in a table.

2.

Design the table as given below and enter some data:

Table 1
Name Age

Personal Table
3.

Phno.

Table 2
Name Address

Table 3
Name
M-1

Address Table

Marks Table

M-2

Total

Include .css file to one of your Web page created earlier.

SESSION 4
Exercises
1.

Design a form as shown below:

2.

a.
b.

Include an SSI file in your document. Show the SSI file in this document.
Include an SSI file in your document. Dont show the SSI file in this
document.

SESSION 5
Exercises

26

1.

Show the course contents of HND in a table using XML and not HTML.

2.

Create a Website that has a questionnaire (any), on submitting, it displays the

inputted data on the other page. You are supposed to use CSS and SSI
(wherever necessary).

Dreamweaver

SESSION 6
Exercises
1.

Create a website that divides the Web page into two unequal frames. In Frame
One, there are two links to two different forms. The forms are validated on
submitting and the result is shown at the bottom of the same page. Use CSS for
formatting.

2.

Design the homepage for IGNOU BIT using XML.

3.

Write Indira Gandhi National Open University, Bachelor of

Information Technology, Name of your TLC, Your Name and Your
Enrollment Number in a Web page. The above written text will overlap each
other. The texts written have different coloured backgrounds. (Hint: Use Zindex)

SESSION 7
Exercises
1.

Design a form, which has a list menu. On selecting any item from that menu it
jumps to the related page. Insert a GO button alongside the list menu.

2.

Using CSS, remake the Website given in Question 2 of Session 1.

SESSION 8
Exercises
1.

Make a Web page to include:

1)
2)
3)
4)

a background image,
set the text colour to blue,
make 2 logos, link them to the IGNOU home page,
set the colour of all other text links black. (Use Hexadecimal
colour values rather than named colours).
Use Cascading Style Sheets to develop the above Web page
2.

Explain the effect of the following HTML Code:

<html>
<head>
<title> Question 2: Session 8</title>
</head>
<body marginwidth="0" marginheigth ="0" topmargin ="0" leftmargin ="0">
<table>
<tr>
<td bgcolor ="#6BA2CC" >
<img src ="image_1.gif">
</td>
<td bgColor ="#6BA2CC" width ='500'> <center>
<b>THE TITLE OF THE WEBSITE </b></center>
</td>
<td bgcolor ="#6BA2CC" align ="right" width ='230' valign ='top'>
<a href="index.asp" style="color:'#134A81'">Home</a> |
<a href="contact_us.asp" style="color:'#134A81'">Contact Us</a> |
<a href="feedback.asp" style="color:'#134A81'">Feedback</a>
<a href="help.asp" style="color:'#134A81'">Help</a>
<input type="text" size ="16" class ="input_box">
<input type="button" value="Search" class ="button">
</td>
</tr>
27

Lab Manual

</table>
<table>
<tr>
<td>
<input type="Button" value="Home">
<input type="Button" value="Contact Us">
<input type="Button" value="Feedback">
<input type="Button" value="Email">
<input type="Button" value="Help">
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
3.

In the above question use gif images instead of buttons.

SESSION 9
Exercises
1.

Develop a Web page with the following enhancements:

!
!
!

A rollover effect, where an image changes if the user places the mouse
over it.
An animation that occurs in response to the user clicking on an image.
A pull-down menu with each option linking to a specific page.

2.

Design a Web page. Integrate images, audio, video and animation all in one
page.

3.

Develop the Question 1: Session 8 using XML

SESSION 10
Exercises

28

1.

Design a website about yourself (minimum 5-7 pages).

2.

Design the home page using Frames. The top frame will contain a Flash
animation file (showing pictures of you from childhood to till date), the left
frame will contain all the links and the right page will contain Welcome to
My Home Page. When clicked on the links the related page will open in the
right frame.