articles

Indefinite article: a and an

1. With countable nouns when the referent is unknown. So, we'll use it the first
time we refer to someone or something in a story, news item, letter, etc.
A woman who fell 10 metres from High Peak was lifted to safety by a
helicopter. The woman fell while climbing.
2. To say someone's job, or what they do.
My brother is a doctor.
George is a student.
3. Used generically, that is, to say something about the whole group of a kind.
A cow gives milk (= All cows give milk)
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/determiners-and-quantifiers/indefinite-article-and

Definite article: the

1. When the referent is known (see example above).

2. Because there's only one of a kind or in a place.
The President is travelling to the Middle East next month.
The moon revolves around the earth.
We live in a small town near the church.
3. Used generically, that is, to say something about the whole group of a kind.
The dog is man's best friend. (= dogs)
The heart pumps blood around the body (=hearts)
4. Musical instruments
He can play the piano, the flute and the banjo.
5. To refer to a system or service:
How long does it take on the train?
The National Health System in Britain is not as good as in Spain.

6. With adjectives like rich, poor, elderly, unemployed to talk about groups of
people:
Life can be very hard for the poor.
I think the rich should pay more taxes.
She works for a group to help the elderly.
7. With names.
Countries whose names include words like kingdom, states or republic:
the United Kingdom; the United States; the Peoples Republic of China.
Countries which have plural nouns as their names:
the Netherlands; the Philippines
Geographical features, such as mountain ranges, groups of islands, rivers,
seas, oceans and canals
the Himalayas; the Canaries; the Mediterranean; the Atlantic Ocean;
the Amazon; the Panama Canal.
Newspapers: The Guardian, The Times, The Washington Post
Well known buildings or works of art:
the Taj Mahal; the Mona Lisa; the Sunflowers (but 'Guernica')
Organisations: the United Nations; the European Union
Families: the Obamas, the Joneses, the Kardasians
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/determiners-and-quantifiers/definite-article

Zero article

1. to talk about plural and uncountable nouns or when talking about things in
general:
I'm terrified of heights; I hate cheese; Smartphones are people's favourite
device
2. Before countries, towns, streets, languages and single mountains:
I'm from China; I've climbed Mount Everest; She speaks French.
3. Before some places and with some forms of transport:
at home; at school; in hospital; in jail; by car; on foot
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/radio/specials/1113_gramchallenge30/

Collocations
A collocation is a natural, frequent combination of two or more words in a
language. These combinations just sound "right"
For example, in English we say Give me a kiss, whereas in Catalan we say
Fes-me un pet.
It would sound completely unnatural to say
Make me a kiss in English or Dona'm un pet in Catalan. Collocations
cannot be translated literally.
Some of the most common types are:
adverb + adjective: completely satisfied; environmentally friendly; fully
aware; painfully slow; widely believed; irresistably attractive; avidly read;
unseasonably cold; astronomically high; seriously injured
adjective + noun: spare time; red with anger; green with envy; a white lie;
poor quality; detailed information
noun + noun: a surge of anger; a bunch of flowers, a flock of birds; card
holder; chocolate milk; garlic clove; computer file; panic attack; freedom of
choice
noun + verb: time goes by; crime doesn't pay; consequences follow; profits
grow; pain intensifies
verb + noun: commit suicide; give a presentation; save time; take a chance;
keep calm; pay cash; break the ice; do business; make progress; go mad;
take your time; treat an injury
verb + expression with preposition: burst into tears; run out of money;
bear in mind; abide by the rules; drop out of school
verb + adverb: shine brightly; whisper softly; keep quiet; talk loudly; sleep
soundly; vaguely remember; totally forget

https://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/collocations.htm
http://oxforddictionary.so8848.com/

contrast connectors
Sentence connectors are express the relationship between ideas. Using
connectors we make our language more varied and sophisticated. To show the
contrast between two ideas we can use the following sentence connectors.
But, although, despite the fact that, however, nevertheless, despite, in spite
of, yet
BUT occurs in the middle of the sentence.
His rope was thin but it was strong.
He is fat but he runs fast.

ALTHOUGH is followed by a clause (subject+verb) and it can appear at the

beginning or in the middle of the sentence
Although I wasn't feeling well, I went to work.
I went to work although I wasn't feeling well.

THOUGH is a more colloquial alternative to ALTHOUGH. It is often used in

spoken English and, unlike although, it can also occur at the end of the
sentence.
Though she's quite small, she's very strong.
I really enjoyed your lecture, though there were some parts I didnt
understand
The Savoy is a very nice hotel. Its a bit expensive, though

EVEN THOUGH is used like although. It's slightly stronger (more emphasis)
Even though I wasn't feeling well, I went to work.
I went to work even though I wasn't feeling well.

IN SPITE OF and DESPITE express the contrast between two parts of the
sentence, like although, but they are followed by a noun phrase or a gerund
(ing-form)
We went out in spite of the rain.
She failed the exam despite working very hard.

HOWEVER contrasts two sentences (the previous and the following), so it

usually occurs after a full stop (.) or semi-colon (;) and is typically followed by
a comma. It can also be uses at the end of a sentence preceded by a comma.
It can also be found in other positions less frequently.
He says that he is a socialist. However, he owns three houses and four luxury
cars.
This is one solution to the problem. There are others, however.
My dog is very obedient. Sometimes, however, it will run wild and ignore my
orders.

NEVERTHELESS is used like however in but it is formal in style. It is not used

at the end of the sentence.
There was little chance of success. Nevertheless, we didnt give up.

YET can also be used to express contrast beween two sentences. When used
in this way it follows a full stop, a semi-colon or a comma.
The priceof the house was low, yet no one wanted to buy it.

http://www.multimedia-english.com/grammar/how-to-express-contrast-40

Inversions
Inversion means putting the verb before the subject. The normal order of
words is reversed, generally for emphasis or special effect. It makes a
sentence sound striking or unusual. It also sounds quite formal.
Sentences with inversion are less common in everyday English. In a sentence
with no special effect or emphasis, the normal order of words is retained.
Normal order: I have never seen such a beautiful rose.
Inversion: Never have I seen such a beautiful rose.
In written English, as well as in a very formal style, inversion can be used in
the following cases :
1. After negative adverbial expressions
Under no circumstances can we accept credit cards.
At no time did she say she would come.
Not until I heard my name did I believe I had won the race.
2. After 'seldom', 'rarely', 'never', and 'little'
Seldom have I seen such a beautiful view.
Rarely did he pay anyone a compliment.
Never before had I felt so happy.
Little did he imagine how dangerous it would be.
3. After 'hardly', 'scarcely', 'no sooner', when one thing happens after another.
Hardly had I begun to speak when I was interrupted.
Scarcely had we started our meal when the phone rang.
No sooner had I arrived than they all started to argue.
4. After adverbial expressions beginning with 'only' and 'not only'
Only after the meeting did I realize the importance of the subject.
Only when the plane landed safely did he calm down.
Not only was the car slow, it was also very uncomfortable.
5. Conditionals with inversions
In conditional sentences we can sometimes replace the 'if' with an inversion:
Had I known it would be so difficult I would never have enrolled.
6. After exclamations with 'here' and 'there'
Here comes the winner!
There goes all our money!
http://fullspate.digitalcounterrevolution.co.uk/efl-advanced-grammar/

mixed conditionals
They are a type of unreal conditionals. They are called 'mixed' because they
mix syntactic patterns of the second and third conditionals.
There are typically two tyes of mixed conditionals
1. The most common combination is when we have a type 3 conditional in the
if-clause (if + past perfect) followed by a type 2 conditional (would +
infinitive) in the main clause.
Here we are contrasting an imagined or real event in the past with the present
result of that.
If she'd taken reasonable precautions, she wouldn't be pregnant now.
If he hadn't run after the car thief and suffered a heart attack, he'd probably
be alive today.
2. A less common possibility is when we have a type 2 conditional in the ifclause (if + past simple) followed by a type 3 conditional (would've + past
participle) in the main clause.
Here we are describing present circumstances in relation to a previous past
event.
If you weren't such a poor dancer, you would've got a job in that musical.
If she had enough money, she could have done this trip to Hawaii.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/learnit/learnitv344.shtml

modal verbs: obligation and necessity: must, have to, need

OBLIGATION is expressed basically with the modals must and have to.
1. You must come home before midnight.
2. You have to come home before midnight.
The difference between 1 and 2 is little. Must conveys the meaning of a rule or
strong duty. Have to, on the other hand, has a more sympathetic tone, less
imperative.
However, when used with the first person, must denotes a self-imposed
obligation, whereas have to is more an external obligation.
I must go now, I have to get up early tomorrow.
I have to go now, my train leaves in 20 minutes.
In everyday usage, must and have to are often used interchangeably, with
little difference.
LACK OF OBLIGATION is expressed with don't have to.
You don't have to come so early, you can come later if you want.
NECESSITY is expressed with need, which can be conjugated both as a modal
(formal) and as a normal verb. So we can say:
You needn't come = You don't need to come
Have to can also be used to express necessity:
I need to talk to you = I have to talk to you
When used in the past whe can have two different patterns with need:
1. You needn't have come so early, we don't open until 12.
2. I didn't need to tell, someone had already done.
In 1 the meaning is 'you have come but it was not necessary'
In 2 it is 'I didn't need to tell her and I didn't because someone else had'.
PROHIBITION is mainly expressed with mustn't, can't and not allowed to
You can't/mustn't/are not allowed to smoke in here
https://freeenglishlessonplans.com/2014/05/05/modals-of-obligation-necessity-and-prohibition-pictionary/

prefer, would rather, had better

PREFER can take different patterns
prefer something to something else:
I prefer dogs to cats.
I prefer reading to watching television.
(would) prefer to do something rather than do something else
She would prefer to come with you rather than stay here.
prefer someone to do something
I'd prefer you to tell her
(would) prefer (that) someone does something
I (would) prefer that you tell her
WOULD RATHER means prefer and it follows basically two patterns:
would rather + infinitive without to
1. I'd rather stay (than go out)
would rather + someone + simple past
2. I'd rather you stayed (than left)
In 1 the subject of would rather and the subject of stay is the same.
In 2 the subjects are different
HAD BETTER means should, but a bit more focused on the present situation.
I'd better go now, it's getting late.
The negative form is had better not
You'd better not tell him, he'll get really angry.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/learnit/learnitv107.shtml

Wish, if only
We use past tense forms to talk about wishes:
1. We use past tense modals would and could to talk about wishes for the
future:
I dont like my work. I wish I could get a better job.
Thats a dreadful noise. I wish it would stop*.
I always have to get home early. I wish my parents would let me stay out
later.
* When wish is followed by 'would' it often indicates you are annoyed by
something.
2. We use past tense forms to talk about wishes for the present:
I dont like this place. I wish I lived in somewhere more interesting.
These seats are very uncomfortable. I wish we were travelling first class.
Everyone wishes they had more free time.
John wishes he wasnt so busy.
I wish it wasnt so cold.

3. We use the past perfect to talk about past regrets.

I wish I had worked harder when I was at school.
Mary wishes she had listened to what her mother told her.
I wish I hadnt spent so much money last month.

IF ONLY sometimes conveys the meaning that the speaker is more resigned.
I wish I could talk to her!
If only I could talk to her! (here nothing can be done to change the situation).
If only is not used to talk about things we would like to change, especially
things we find annoying:
I wish it would rain. The garden really needs some water.
I wish youd give up smoking. its really bad for you.

https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/wishes-and-hypotheses

Rather
Intensifying function of rather
- With adjectives and adverbs
When used this way it has the meaning of 'to a considerable degree' and has a
meaning similar to quite, pretty or fairly. But rather often is found in negative
contexts or in contexts indicating something unexpected or surprising. So it
often collocates with adjectives like unpleasant, alarming, awkward,
disappointing; dull, boring, unexciting; odd, unusual.
He was dressed in a rather dull dinner suit.
After all the positive reviews I'd heard, I found his latest film rather
disappointing.
She's got a rather dominating mother.
- With noun phrases
With a/an.
The room was rather a mess.
When it modifies a noun phrase with an adjective and an indefinite article the
word order may be a + rather+ adjective, or rather a + adjective. Rather a is
more common in written style.
That's a rather silly question
It was rather a boring party
- With verbs, esp. enjoy, hope, like, want.
I rather hoped she would come.
Rather + comparison and too
I ate rather more than I should have
He addressed me rather too rudely.
Would rather for expressing preference
Would rather + infinitive to means 'would prefer'.
Whe two alternatives are stated, it is used with than
I'd rather stay (than go)
I'd rather read a book than a professional magazine

I'd rather not smoke in front of them.

When it is used with past time reference, would rather is followed by infinitive
have (without to) + -ed participle.
We would rather have rented a house, but there were only flats available.
If the reference is for someone or something else to do something, then a past
tense is used.
I'd rather you left immediately.
'May I go on?' 'I'd rather you didn't.'
Would you rather she came to see me?
When the reference is past time, the past perfect is used:
You'd rather he hadn't come to your birthday party, would you?
Rather than
It is used to link words, phrases or clauses where one is preferred to the other.
It occurs commonly in mid position between the two compared items, but it
can alsao be used in front position.
The people would be a lot fitter if they didn't have a car because they'd have
to walk to places rather than just get the car to go round the corner shop.
Rather than angry, it made him frightened.
Or rather
It is often used for self correction, or when you think of a better word than the
one you just said:
The music, or rather noise, from the party upstairs went on all night.

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/rather

Prepositions and adverbs Chief meanings in phrasals

AWAY
1. At a distance (from), not near.
be away, stay away, keep away
Keep away or else I'll call the police.
2. To another place, to a distance.
run away, fly away, drive away, pass away, swim away, walk away, carry
away, move away, take away, push away, throw away
3. In a different direction.
Look away, turn away
Paul turned away in disgust
4. Used to express disappearance, loss, or destruction.
Boil away, burn away, melt away, wash away, eat away, cut away, fade away
Rust has eaten the iron away
He washed away the stain
DOWN
1. From higher to lower position.
Climb down, come down, go down, march down, bend down, knock down,
press down, push down, etc
She pulled the blind down.
His dog was knocked down by a fast car.
2. To a reduced or weaker state, sometimes signifying completion or
destruction.
Boil down, break down, burn down, cut down, die down, shoot down, ...
The whole building was burnt down.
The storm has now died down.
3. Used with certain verbs with the general meaning of put in writing.
Enter down, mark down, note down, write down
Inspector Brown noted down all the facts the witness gave.
IN
1. With verbs of movement to mean 'enter'.
Go in, climb in, drive in, run in, rush in, stagger in, roll in, sneak in, ...
He walked in without saying a word.
2. With vebs and a direct object to mean 'cause, help, invite to enter'
Allow in, ask in, bring in, invite in, let in, order in, send in, ....
Don't let them in.
3. With certain verbs to mean 'penetrate or cause to penetrate'
drive in, set in, sink in
The importance of the information gradually sank in

4. In an inward direction.
bend in, curve in, move in, point in, turn in, ....
His left foot turned in as he walked.
5. With certain verbs to mean 'visit'.
call in, drop in, look in, pop in, ....
We dropped in to see how John was.
OFF
1. No longer on, separated, detached
break off, come off, fall off, wear off, kick off, peel off, shake off, tear off
A button has dropped off
He took out the chocolate and broke off a piece for me.
2. Away
drive off, hurry off, run off, sail off, walk off, ...
3. With certain verbs to mean 'remove'
Take off, strip off, pull off
Please take your coat off.
He pulled off his gloves.
4. With certain verbs to mean 'disappear', or to express completion
clear off, die off, wear off, finish off, wipe off
The pain has now worn off.
She rubbed off the chalk mark
5. Disconnect
put off, shut off, switch off, turn off
He turned off the fan.
OVER
1. Finished, completed. Used with this meaning chiefly with the verb to be.
Is the storm over yet?
The meeting was over by seven o'clock
2. Across, from one side to another.
come over, crawl over, cross over, pass over, reach over, step over, walk over,
bring over, hand over, throw over, ...
He saw us and drove over.
3. Thoroughly, carefully. Used with some verbs to mean 'inspect or consider'.
go over, look over, read over, talk over, think over, ...
He looked the car over before he decide to buy it.
4. To suggest movement over a short distance.
come over, bring over, fetch over
Bring your friends over.
http://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/prepositerm.htm

The Unreal past

The past tense is sometimes used in English to refer to an unreal situation. So,
although the verb tense is in the past, we are actually talking about something
that didn't happen. This is often the case in conditional sentences when we are
talking about a hypothetical situation that might exist now or at any time. We
call this use of the past tense "the unreal past".

The unreal past is used after conditional words and expressions like if,
supposing, suppose, if only, what if, imageine; after the verb to wish;
and after the expression I'd rather and it's (high) time
Supposing you had a chance to meet Obama, what would you ask him?
What if we painted the room yellow?
If you went to the movies, I would babysit.
If only I had more money, I could go to the movies too.
These expressions can also introduce hypothetical situations in the past and
then they are followed by the past perfect.
What if you had stepped on my phone?
Supposing I had given that man my money.

I'd rather and it's high time are also followed by the unreal past. The verb
is in the past tense, but the situation is in the present. When we want to talk
about a course of action we would prefer someone else to take, we use I'd
rather + past tense.
I'd rather you stayed with me.
He'd rather she didn't come with us.
It's high time you paid that bill.
It's high time I went home.

You can use just the infinitive after 'it's time':

It's time to finish

http://www.edufind.com/english-grammar/unreal-past/

Both, either, neither, all, none

We use both, either and neither to refer to two people or things.

BOTH
Both = the two; that one AND the other one; this one AND that one
Both can be used as a pronoun to refer to two things that we have already
mentioned.
A: Do you want the blue shirt or the red one?
B: Ill buy both (= the blue shirt AND the red shirt = both shirts)

Both + Adjective + and + Adjective

Hes both tall and handsome.
Im both happy and confused at the same time!
I have had a long, hard day and Im both tired and hungry.

Both + Noun + and + Noun

Both can be used with a singular noun + and + singular noun
She speaks both English and Arabic.
They have both a cat and a dog.

We can also use Both + plural noun

She speaks both languages.

Both of + determiner + plural noun

You need Both of before a determiner (my, his, these, the etc.) and a plural
noun.
Both of my friends arrived late to class.
Both of the wheels wobble too much.

When we use Both (without of), we drop the article the.

Both of the parents were nervous.
Both parents were nervous.
Both of + Object Pronoun
When using Both with an object pronoun (me, you, him, her, it, us them), we
need the preposition OF before that pronoun.
He has invited both of us.
Ill take both of them.
Verb + Object pronoun + both
We can use both after an object pronoun
I hope they invite us both (= I hope they invite both of us)
Do you need them both? (= Do you need both of them)

www.grammar.cl/english/both-either-neither.htm

ALL, NONE
We use all and none to refer to more than two people or things
We were all dancing
All of us were really happy.
All the people came.
All my friends were there

None of us has/have seen him

None of my classmates failed the exam
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/none