THE UNIVERSITY OF GAZIANTEP, FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICSENGINEERING

AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS (EEE 352) LABORATORY, EXPERIMENT 02

INPUT-OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON MATHEMATICAL

OPERATIONS USED IN CONTROL SYSTEMS
1. Aim of the experiment
Obtain Input-Output characteristic of common mathematical operations used in both continuous and
discrete time control systems.
2. Input-Output characteristic of mathematical operations commonly used in control systems
Figure 1 shows a simple system that is function of time t, input r(t) Rr and the state variable
x(t)Rn, g(t,x.r). It has two inputs; r(t) is actual input and x(0) is initial value (condition) of the state
variable x(t) and has an output y(t)Rm.
x(0)
rt)

System
g(t,x.r)

y(t)

Figure 1: A simple system

The systems are naturally nonlinear, g(t,x.r) and modelled by a finite number of coupled first order
ordinary differential equations;
(1)
x(t ) g (t , x, r ), x R n
and the output is
y(t ) h(t , x, r ), x R m
(2)
If the system depends on the state variable, x(t), only then
x (t ) g ( x)
(3)
For the simplicity the systems are generally linearized for a selected point. The mathematical model
of the system at the selected point and its nearby can be represented by the linear differential
equation, the state model;
x (t ) Ax(t ) Br (t )
A R nn , B R nr
(4)
y(t ) Cx(t ) Dr (t ) C R mn , D R mr
or by the transfer function.
Transfer Function: The transfer function of a linear system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace
transform of the output (response function) L[y(t)]=Y(s) to the Laplace transform of the input
(driving function) L[r(t)]=R(s) under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero, x(0) = 0,
Figure 2.
Y (s)
Lg ( x) G(s )
(5)
x(0)=0
R( s) x ( 0 ) 0
U(s)

System
G(s)

Y(s)

Figure 2: Transfer function of a simple system

Exp.02:1

Input-Output characteristic: The characteristic of a system is the mathematical relationship between two
variables that are related. Generally the relationship between the input r(t) and output of a system y(t) is
needed and called Input-Output characteristic. The input-output characteristic is related to the transfer
function if the input has a small signal and applied at the selected point, origin.

However the characteristic of the mathematical operation used in control systems given in Figure 3
may be linear or nonlinear.
r(t)

Mathematical
operation

y(t)

Figure 3: A block of mathematical operation

3. Mathematical operations commonly used in control systems

Summing and Differential Amplifiers: The most common operations used in the control systems
are the summation of two or more signals, Figure 4 (a), and differentiation of two signals, Figure 4
(b).
A

e = yr - yb

yr
D=A+B+C

(a)

yb

(b)

Figure 4: Block diagrams of (a) Summing operation, (b) Differential operation.

The output of summing operation in Figure 4 (a) sums the three inputs, A, B, C. The output of
differential amplifier in Figure 4 (b) is proportional to the difference between two inputs,
e(t ) yr (t ) yb (t ) .
Comparator: The input-output characteristic of the comparator with and without hysteresis are
given in Figure 5 (a) and (b) respectively.
hysteresis
off
A
B

on
+
_
Comparator

+M
Vi

V0

Vi

V0

-M
(a)

(b)

Figure 5: Characteristic of comparator: (a) ideal (without) (b) with hysteresis.

The gain of a comparator is very high, so that only a very small difference between the two inputs
will cause the output to saturate at a voltage near to the supply voltage, with either polarity, M. The
comparator therefore has two possible output voltage states:
1. with input voltage A more positive than B, the output is a maximum positive, +M.
2. with input voltage A more negative than B, the output is a maximum negative, -M.
Exp.02:2

Integrator: An integrator operation is given in Figure 6. The output signal Vo of the integrator block
is equal to the input signal Vin multiplied by the factor, 1/ Ti;

Vo (t )

1
Vin (t )dt
Ti

(6)

where Ti is time constant of the integrator. The transfer function of integrator action is

Vin ( s)
1

Vo ( s) Ti s

(7)

The output signal Vo contains incremental addition until reach a constant value known Wind-up. The
supply voltage of the operational amplifier that used in the integrator is proportional to the wind-up.
In order to discharge, the integrator usually has reset button. The time constant of an integrator
usually equals to the 1/4 or 1/5 of the time to reaches the steady sate value of the wind-up.
Reset button
Vin

1
Ti s
Integrator

Vo
Wind-up

Figure 6: Block Diagram of Integrator Circuit.

Differentiator: A simple differentiator is shown in Figure 7 (a).

(a)
(b)
Figure 7: A simple differentiator with RC circuits.

The waveforms of Figure 7 (a) plotted in Figure 7 (b) shows initially the capacitor is uncharged and
there is no voltage across the resistor. When the input voltage suddenly rises to a positive value the
capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously so the full applied voltage appears across the
resistor. Current flows the capacitor charges. As the voltage rises across the capacitor it must fall
across the resistor, until the capacitor is fully charged. The time taken for this will depend on the
Exp.02:3

size of the resistor (controlling the charging current) and the size of the capacitor (how much charge
is needed to raise the capacitor voltage).
One time constant, Td = RC, is the time it would take for the capacitor to fully charge to the applied
voltage if the initial current could be maintained. Obviously the current must reduce as the voltage
across the resistor reduces, so the rate of charge falls away. In theory it never reaches full charge.
However, for all practical purposes full charge is reached after 4 or 5 time constants.
The output of a derivative action is;
1 Vin (t )
Vo (t )
(8)
Td t
The transfer function of integrator action is
Vin (s )
1

(9)
Vo ( s) Ti s
The output of a derivative action with respect to a square input signal is depicted in Figure 8.
Vin

Vin

10

15

20

t (sec)

Vo

Td s

Vo

Differentiator
0

10

15

20

t (sec)

Figure 8: The differentiator output for square wave input.

Sample and Hold: Some of operations given above cannot be used directly for discrete time control
systems and they need to be discretized. A control system contains practically both continuous and
discrete time signals. The continuous time signals are converted into digital form by the analog-todigital (A/D) converters where as discrete time signals are converted into continuous time signal by
digital-to-analog (D/A) converters. The standard D/A converters are often designed in such a way
that the old value is held constant for a sampling time T until a new conversion T is ordered.
In the control system applications, reconstruction continuous time signals from discrete time signals
done by Zero-Order Hold (ZOH) satisfied Shannon reconstruction ( i.e. Nyquist sampling theorem).
Figure 9 shows a Zero Order Hold block with its equivalent Laplace transform.
Vi

Zero Order Hold

ZOH

Vo

Vi* (s)

Vi (s)
T

(1 e Ts )
Gzoh (s)
s

V0 (s)

Figure 9: A Zero-Order Hold block.

As seen from input-output characteristic of ZOH hold depicted in Figure 10 the instantaneous value
of the input signal until next sampling time and hold the new value of the input signal.
Exp.02:4

Vi input

Vi
Vo

Vo output
T
0

t (sec)

Figure 10: The output of Zero-Order Hold.

There is an error between input and output and can be minimized by using higher order hold
circuits. However adding high order circuits causes instability problem. Therefore the ZOH is
commonly used in control system application.
4. Pre-Lab Problems to be solved and submitted BEFORE the lab
Problem 1. Classify linear and nonlinear characteristic of the mathematical operations discussed in
the manual. Explain the reasons.
Problem 2. Obtain the transfer function and the pulse transfer function of the ZOH circuit?

R=2
ei
i

i=x2

L=1
C=2

ec=x1

System Output

System Input

Problem 3. Consider circuit in Figure 11 where ei and ec are input and output respectively. Assume
ec(0)=-2 Volts and i(0)=1 Amperes obtain the transfer function of the circuit?

Figure: 11

Problem 4. Consider circuit in Figure 11 and assume ec(0)=-2 Volts and i(0)=1 Amperes obtain the
state space model of the circuit?
Problem 5. Consider circuit in Figure 11 where ei and ec are input and output respectively. Assume
ec(0)=-2 Volts and i(0)=1.
Write an M-Function to model and M-Function solve the state space model obtained for Problem 4.
and Plot x(t) for the time frame 0 t 5 sec.

5. Construction of the experiment

5.1 The Inputs-output Characteristic of Summing Amplifiers:
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 12. Set the variable resistors to their central positions and
Switch ON the power supply.

Exp.02:5

Table 1:
A
+1
+2
-3
+3
-3.5
+5

Input
B
+1
+1
+4
+5
+2.7
+6

C
+1
+3
+2
+4
-1.4
+1

Output
D

Figure 12: Experiment set up for characteristic of summing amplifiers.

Adjust the controls of the three resistors to vary the input voltages to the summing amplifier. Note
that variation of any of the input voltages affects the output voltage (multimeter V2). You will find
that increasing the input voltages will increase the output voltage up to a certain maximum
(saturation), after which any further increase of input does not increase the output any more.
Determine this maximum (saturation) output voltage. Saturation output voltage is =
V
Using multimeter V1, set the Summing Amplifier input voltages to the values indicated in the first
row of Table 1. Record the expected output voltage and the measured output voltage (multimeter
V2) to complete Table 1.
5.2 The Inputs-output Characteristics of a Differential Amplifier:
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 13 and switch ON the power supply. Set the voltages at
inputs A and B of the Differential Amplifier to -3V on each input.
Table 2:
Input
A
B
-3
-3
+1
+1
+2
+4
0
+3
+4.2 +2.2
+2
-3
-2.7 +3.6

Output
VA- VB

Figure 13: Experiment set up for characteristic of differential amplifiers.

Record the expected output voltage and the measured output voltage (multimeter V2) to complete Table 2.

Two differential amplifier circuits are provided DIGIAG1750 unit, the second being labelled
"Instrumentation Amplifier". This has the same characteristic as the differential amplifier, but has an
improved common mode gain and it presents the same input impedance at each input.
Exp.02:6

5.3 The Inputs-output Characteristics of a Comparator

Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 14. Ensure that the Comparator HYSTERESIS switch is set to
OFF. Set the controls of both resistors fully counter clockwise. Switch ON the power supply. The
voltage at input B will be 0V, that at A will be -5V and the output will be approximately -12V.
Gradually rotate the control of the 10k resistor clockwise, making the voltage at input A (VA) less
negative. Note the voltage at which the output voltage switches polarity with VA rising (VR). Record
the value of VR in Table 3. Record also in Table 3 the Comparator output saturation voltage above
threshold with VA rising. Continue to increase input VA and observe the effect on the output voltage
above switching.

Figure 14: Experiment set up for comparator.

Reduce VA and note the value at which the output voltage switches back to a negative value with
VA falling (VF). Note the value of the comparator output saturation voltage below threshold with
VA falling.
Repeat the procedure with input B set to +4V, noting the switching voltages at input A. The
comparator output voltage values will not alter so there is no need to record them. Enter your
measured value of the threshold voltage VA when the voltage at the B input VB=+4V.
Table 3:
No
Hysteresis
VA rising
(VR)
VA falling
(VF)

Output
Saturation
Voltage

VB=0V
VA

VB= +4V
VA

Table 4:
With
Hysteresis

Output
Saturation
Voltage

VB=0V
VA

VB= +4V
VA

VA rising
(VR)
VA falling
(VF)

Set the HYSTERESIS switch in the ON position and repeat the procedure for voltage settings at the B
input of 0V and +4V to complete Table 4.
5.4 The Inputs-output Characteristic of Integrator Circuits:
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 15, with both voltmeters set to the 20V range. Set the Integrator time
constant switch to 1s. Switch ON the power supply and set the input voltage (voltmeter V1) to 1V.

Exp.02:7

Figure 15: Experiment set up for integrator.

Press and hold the RESET button. This sets the output voltage to 0V. Release the RESET button and
you will note that the output voltage (voltmeter V2) increases and will reach a maximum value after
approximately 12 seconds.
Note this maximum value:
Press the RESET button and release it to allow the output voltage to increase from 0V again. Remove
the Integrator input lead when the voltage reaches approximately 5V. Complete the following
sentence:
Q.1: When the input lead is removed from the Integrator the output voltage:
a) immediately falls to zero b) gradually reduces towards zero
c) remains where it was
d) increases to supply voltage
Replace the input lead and observe the effect on the output voltage and complete the following
sentence:
Q.2: When the input lead is replaced the Integrator output voltage:
a) continues to increase from where it was
b) gradually reduces towards zero
c) starts again from zero
d) immediately jumps up to the supply voltage
The Timer facility of the DIGIAC 1750 Trainer will now be introduced. This allows you to
accurately determine the time taken to reach any given voltage. The system will be made entirely
automatic by using another facility of signal conditioning circuits, the Comparator.
Construct the circuit of Figure 16. Note that the supply voltage to the variable resistors has been
changed to +12V and the non-inverting input of the Comparator is taken to a positive reference
voltage, the value of which is determined by the setting of the 10k slide resistor.

Figure 16: Experiment set up for integrator to accurately determine the time taken to reach any
given voltage.
Exp.02:8

If this is set to 10V, then the Comparator will give a high output until the output of the Integrator
(which is connected to the inverting input of the Comparator) exceeds 10V, when the Comparator
output will go low.
While the Comparator output is high, the Timer is enabled and will count in hundredths of a second.
The moment the output of the Integrator goes above the Comparator reference voltage (in this case
10V) the Comparator output goes low and stops the Timer.
Switch ON the power supply and adjust the input voltage to 1V. Ignore the Timer function for the
moment. Press the Integrator RESET button and, using the second hand of a clock or watch, note the
time after releasing it that the Integrator output voltage reaches 10V as indicated on the Moving Coil
Meter.
This enables the circuit time constant to be determined. The input voltage is 1V. The output voltage
should reach 1V after one time constant and should reach 10V after 10 time constants. The time
constant can therefore be determined by dividing the time taken by 10. Record the results in row 1
of Table 5. Switch the Timer to TIME and FREE RUN. If necessary press RESET to zero the display.
Table 5:
Referenc
Calculated
Switched
Input
Number of
Time taken
e
time
time
Voltage
time constants
to reach ref.
voltage
constant
constant
(i)
(iii)
(iv)
(ii)
(v)
1
1s
1V
10 V
10
s
s
2
100 ms
1V
10 V
s
ms
3
100 ms
0.2 V
5V
s
ms
4
10 s
5V
2V
s
s
Press the Timer RESET to zero the display. Re-adjust the Integrator input voltage to 1V, set the time
constant to 100ms and VERY BRIEFLY press its RESET button. You must not hold the RESET
button down or the Timer will be counting too soon. Observe the effect on the Timer. This will
count up from zero until the output voltage of the Integrator exceeds the reference voltage applied to
the Comparator. The display will be in hundredths of a second. For example, a display of 487
represents 4.87 seconds.
Move the digital multimeter to terminal B of the 10k slide resistor and adjust the reference voltage
to 10V.
Press the Timer RESET to zero the display. Re-adjust the Integrator input voltage to 1V, set the time
constant to 100ms and VERY BRIEFLY press its RESET button. You must not hold the RESET
button down or the Timer will be counting too soon. Observe the effect on the Timer. This will
count up from zero until the output voltage of the Integrator exceeds the reference voltage applied to
the Comparator. The display will be in hundredths of a second. For example, a display of 487
represents 4.87 seconds.
Repeat the test a few times to become familiar with the action. Zero the Timer each time. Record the
result in row 2 of Table 5. Calculate the time constant as follows:
The number of time constants is the reference voltage divided by the applied voltage:
(iii) = (ii) (i) =
The calculated time constant is the time taken to reach the reference voltage divided by the number
of time constants:
(v) = (iv) / (iii) =
Exp.02:9

Add the calculated time constant to Table 5. With the Integrator time constant still at 100ms, change
the input voltage (10k 10-turn resistor) to 0.2V and the reference voltage (10k slide resistor) to
5V and repeat the test and calculation. Remember to zero the Timer each time. Record the results in
rows of Table 5.
Change the Integrator time constant to 10s, the reference voltage (10k slide resistor) to 2V and the
input voltage (10k 10-turn resistor) to 5V and repeat the test. Record the result in row 4 of Table
16.4. Calculate the time constant and add to Table 5.
Compare the computed result with the chosen time constant. What is the wind-up value for the
DIGIAG1750 unit? Notice the integrator output when the integrator input respectively are 1V and
0,5V for time constant 100s. Explain the reason of the difference in arrival time of integral output to
12V.
5.5 The Inputs-output Characteristic of Differentiator:
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 17, with both voltmeters set to the 20V range. Set the time
constant controls of the Integrator and Differentiator to 1s. The Moving Coil Meter is used to
monitor the change of voltage at the Integrator output.
Switch ON the power supply. Set the input voltage to the integrator (voltmeter V1) to 1V. Press and
release the RESET button on the Integrator, and note the output voltage from the Differentiator
(voltmeter V2).
The Integrator output voltage will be changing at 1V/s for approximately 11s and the output from
the Differentiator should remain constant during this time.
Note the output voltage =
V.

Figure 17: Experiment set up for differentiator.

Based on the results complete the following sentence:
Q.3: When the integrator voltage reaches its maximum value the Differentiator output
voltage:
a) falls sharply to zero
b) remains constant at the former value
c) increases to maximum
d) falls slowly to zero
Change to the circuit of Figure 18. Set the function generator to a 30Hz square wave output. Set the
10k slide resistor to mid-way. Switch the oscilloscope timebase to 5ms/div, the Y1 amplifier
(CH.1) to 0.5V/div and Y2 amplifier (CH.2) to 2V/div.

Exp.02:10

Figure 18: Experiment set up for differentiator when signal from function generator is applied.
Set the Differentiator time constant to 10ms and adjust the signal input (function generator
amplitude control and/or 10k slide resistor) to give an input signal (CH.1) of 1Vp-p.
Sketch the two waveforms on the graticule provided with the input at the top:

Figure 19: The input-output waveform sketch of the differentiator.

Compare these waveforms with the theoretical waveforms given in the Figure 7 in previous section.
The Differentiator will almost certainly be loading the function generator output to some extent and
changing the waveform. Remove the lead to the Differentiator input and observe the effect on the
function generator output waveform. This distortion is very common and, as you can see from the
output waveform, does not seriously affect the operation of a differentiator.
Based on the results complete the following sentences:
Q.4: The output waveform from the function generator with the differentiator disconnected is most
like:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Exp.02:11

Q.5: The input-output waveform sketch in Figure 19 is most like:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

5.6 The Inputs-output Characteristic of Zero-Order Hold:

Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 20. Set the function generator output to 40Hz sinewave with
high amplitude. Switch the oscilloscope timebase to 5ms/div, Y1 amplifier (CH.1) to 10V/div (near
the top of the screen) and Y2 amplifier (CH.2) to 2V/div, DC input (near the middle).

Figure 20: Experiment set up for Zero Order Hold-ZOH.

Switch ON the power supply and adjust the amplitude of the signal (function generator amplitude
control and/or 10k wirewound resistor) to give an input of 20Vp-p. If your function generator does
not give 20Vp-p then use the AC Amplifier (GAIN = 10) to boost the signal input. Move CH.1 of the
oscilloscope to the output of the AC Amplifier.
Press and release the SAMPLE button to catch a sample of the input voltage to the circuit. Note that
while the SAMPLE button is pressed, the input signal appears at the output (CH.2 of the
oscilloscope). When released, a random sample is captured and appears as a DC voltage at the
output as indicated by the voltmeter. Try several times and record the results in Table 6.
Table 6:
1

10

Output voltage
Volts

Based on the results complete the following sentence:

Q.6: Is the output truly random?
Yes

No

6. Tasks to be done and given in lab report

Exp.02:12

Task 2.1: Write a conclusion for each experiment to conclude and to discuss the results.
Task 2.2: Consider the results of each experiment and write input-output characteristic of the
mathematical operations in terms of transfer function if exists. If not explain the reason.
Task 2.1: Classify input-output characteristic of mathematical operations as linear and nonlinear.
7. Lab report
The report should log the results from the experiment with your own interpretations, observations
and conclusions. You should try to answer all questions in the manual. Answer the following
questions, and attach a copy of your lab notes to the back as an appendix. The report must be typewritten. Unless otherwise stated, no question should require more than a page to answer.

Exp.02:13