Cairo University

Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

Fluid Mechanics
Laboratory Manual

Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

2010 2011

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

Table of Contents
Description of the Hydraulic Bench 3
1.

Weir Experiment (Rectangular and Triangular)... 5

2.

Impact of Jet .... .9

3.

Flow through Sharp Edged Orifice .13

4.

Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration ..18

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

The Hydraulics Bench

The standard Hydraulics Bench is used for all the laboratory experiments carried out during this
course. The Bench has a closed water circulating system to facilitate mobility. Water is stored in an
enclosed tank at the bottom of the bench then pumped up to the experimental setup situated on top of
the bench from which water flows into the upper tank. The upper tank has a drain controlled by a plug
to collect and gauge the water in the upper tank after which water is drained to the bottom tank. The
volume of water collected in the upper tank (in liters) can be measured using the graduated scale fixed
at the side of the Hydraulics Bench. The switch of the water pump and the control valve that regulates
the amount of water that flows to the experimental setup are at the front side of the Hydraulics Bench
(Please see the attached photographs).

Pump
Switch

Scale of
the volume
(liter)

Control
Valve

Plug and sink

to drain water
to the lower
tank
Upper tank of
the bench

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

Scale of
the volume
(liter)

Pump
Switch

Control
Valve

Plug and sink to

drain water to the
lower tank
Upper
tank of the
bench

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

1. Weir Experiment (Rectangular and Triangular)

Objectives of the Experiment

1. To demonstrate the flow over different weir types.
2. To calculate the coefficient of discharge for different weir types.
3. To study the variation and dependence of the relevant parameters.

Theory
For the rectangular weir:

For the triangular weir:

where Cd
B
H

=
=
=
=
=

8

. tan . 2 g .H 2
15
2
5

2
Q = C d . .B. 2g .H 2
3

Q = Cd .

Coefficient of discharge
width of the rectangular weir (3 cm)
head above the weir crest or apex
angle of the triangular weir
acceleration of gravity

Experimental Setup

Point
Gauge
Stilling
Baffle
Open
Channel

Weir Plate
(V-notch)

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

1. The rectangular or triangular weir plate is attached to the regular Hydraulic Bench as shown
in the photographs.
2. A stopwatch, a hook or a point gauge are also needed with the experiment.

Procedures and Readings

1. Make sure that the Hydraulic Bench is leveled.
2. Set the Vernier on the point gauge to a datum reading by placing the tip of the gauge on the
crest or the apex of the weir. Take enough care not damage the weir plate and the point
gauge.
3. Put the point gauge half way between the stilling baffle plate and the weir plate.
4. Allow water to flow into the experimental setup and adjust the minimum flow rate by
means of the control valve to have atmospheric pressure all around water flowing over the
weir. Increase the flow rate incrementally such that the head above the weir crest increases
around 1 cm for each flow rate increment
5. For each flow rate, wait until steady condition is attained then measure and record the head
(H) above the weir.
6. For each flow rate, measure and record the initial and final volumes in the collecting tank
and the time required to collect that volume. For each flow rate, take 3 different readings of
the volumes and time and record the averages.

Calculations and Results Interpretation

A. Rectangular weir:
Fill the following table of observations
Reading

Crest level
(C.L.) (mm)

Water level
(W.L.)(mm)

Initial volume
(I.V.) (liter)

1
2
3
4
5

Final volume
(F.V.) (liter)

Time (T)
(sec)

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

Fill the following table of results

Reading

Volume = F.V.-I.V.
(liter)

H = C.L.W.L. (cm)

Time
(sec)

Q= volume/time

Log Q

Log H

H1.5

Cd

(cm3/s)

1
2
3
4
5
Plot Q against H, Q against H1.5, log Q against log H, Cd against H, and obtain the Cd from the slopes
of the two linear graphs. Compare the three obtained values of the Cd

B. Triangular weir:
Fill the following table of observations
Reading

Crest level
(C.L.) (mm)

Water level
(W.L.)(mm)

Initial volume
(I.V.) (liter)

Final volume
(F.V.) (liter)

Time (T)
(sec)

1
2
3
4
5
Fill the following table of results
Reading

Volume = F.V.-I.V.
(liter)

H = C.L.W.L. (cm)

Time
(sec)

Q= volume/time

Log Q

Log H

H2.5

Cd

(cm3/s)

1
2
3
4
5
Plot Q against H, Q against H5/2, Log Q against Log H, Cd against H, and obtain the Cd from the slopes
of the two linear graphs. Compare the three obtained values of the Cd

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

Suggestions for Conclusions and Comments

1. Is Cd constant? Give comments.
2. Can the Q-H relation be described by an empirical formula? If so, assume the relation
is in the form of Q = kH n and find the constants k and n.

Example (V-notch experiment)

H = C.L. - W.L.
(cm)
2
2.3
2.5
2.8

volume
(lit)
5
5
5
5

time
(sec.)
76
53
41
32

Q
(cm3/s)
65.79
94.34
121.95
156.25

2.5

H
5.66
8.02
9.88
13.12

2/5

Q
5.34
6.16
6.83
7.54

180.00
160.00

slope = 11.974

140.00
120.00
Q

100.00
80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00
H^2.5

Cd = slope*15/(8* tan . 2 g ) = 0.507
2

8.00

10.00

12.00

14.00

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

2. Impact of Jet
Objective of the Experiment
To demonstrate and investigate the validity of theoretical expressions for the calculation of the
force exerted by a jet on objects of various shapes.

Theory
From momentum principle,
Fy = Q( v v. cos )

where

For flat plate (90),

For 120 plate,

For hemispherical target 180,

FLAT PLATE

90

v=

Q
A

Q2
A
Q2
Fy = 3
2A
Q2
Fy = 2
A

Fy =

HEMISPHERE

120 DEG CONE

Experimental Setup
1. The impact of jet apparatus is placed above the regular Hydraulic Bench as shown in the
photographs.
2. A stopwatcher.

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

Weight pan
Water
bubble
level

Pointer
(spirit level)

Target Plate
From
Pump

Glass
housing

Nozzle

Weights

Plates with
different shapes

Procedures and Readings

1. Remove the stop plate and transparent casing to measure the nozzle diameter and place the
flat plate (90) on the rod attached to the weight pan. Then, reassemble the apparatus.
2. Connect the inlet pipe of the apparatus to the outlet of the Hydraulic Bench.
3. Level the base of the apparatus using the bubble balance.
4. Screw down the top plate to datum on the spirit level.
5. Adjust the level gauge to suit datum on the weight pan.
6. Add masses to the weight pan. Allow water to flow in the experiment and adjust the flow
by the control valve of the Hydraulic Bench so that the pan will be re-adjacent to the level
gauge.
7. Before taking readings the weight pan should be oscillated upwards and downwards and
rotated to minimize the effect of friction.
8. Take the readings of the initial and final volumes and the time of accumulation.
9. Record the masses on the weight pan.
10. Repeat the experiment for different masses on the weight pan.

10

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

11. Repeat the previous steps with different shapes of plates (120 and the hemispherical
target).

Calculations and Results Interpretation

For each plate, fill the following table of observations
Reading

Mass on weight
pan
M (gm)

Initial volume
(I.V.) (liter)

Final volume
(F.V.) (liter)

Time (T)
(sec)

1
2
3
4
5
Nozzle Diameter = 8 mm
g = 9.81 m/s2

Fill the following table of results

Reading

Mass on weight
pan
M (gm)

Volume =
F.V.-I.V.
(liter)

Time
(sec)

1
2
3
4
5
Plot mass M on weight pan with Q2
From the analysis, verify that the slope of the graphs should be:

Flat plate
=
gA

120 plate
= 1.5
gA

Hemispherical target = 2
gA
Calculate the Coefficient of Impact = (Fact / Fcalculated)

11

Q= volume/time

(cm3/s)

Q2

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

Suggestions for Conclusions and Comments

1. Comment on the coefficient of impact.
2. Comment on the results of the computed slope and the shape of the target plate.

Example (flat plate)

m (gm)
280
230
180
130

V (lit)
5
5
5
5

T (sec)
13
14
16
20

Q
(cm3/s)
384.6154
357.1429
312.5
250

147929
127551
97656.25
62500

300
250

solpe = 0.0019

200
150
100
50
0
0

20000

40000

60000

80000
Q^2

=0.0202
gA

slope = 0.0019

12

100000

120000

140000

160000

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

3. Flow through Sharp Edged Orifice.

Objective of the Experiment
1. To study the path of water jets issuing from orifices.
2. To determine the coefficients of discharge, velocity and contraction from a sharp-edged
circular orifice.
3. To study the variation and dependence of the relevant parameters.

Theory
The coefficient of discharge Cd is the ratio of the actual discharge Q act to the theoretical discharge Qth.
The theoretical discharge is given by the following relationship where A is the area of the orifice and H
is the total head on the orifice centerline and the actual discharge can be measured.

Q th = A 2gH

&

Cd =

Qa
< 1.0
Q th

The Path of the jet from the orifice is given by the following equation where x is the horizontal
distance, y is the vertical distance and v is the flow velocity from the orifice.

x = vact t

&

y = 0 . 50 g
y = 0.50 g

cv =

y = 0.50 gt 2

v 2 act
x2

c v * 2 gH
x

2* y* H

13

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

Experimental Setup

Scale

Paper

Constant
head tank
Pointers
(thin pins)

Metal piece
for over flow

Orifice

The regular Hydraulic Bench is used in this experiment

1. The orifice plate apparatus is placed above the regular Hydraulic Bench as shown in the
photographs.
2. A stopwatch is needed.
3. The adjustable stainless steel overflow pipe near the top of the tank is used to adjust the
level of water in the tank.

14

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

15

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

Procedures and Readings

1. Turn on the pump of the hydraulic bench and allow water into the constant head tank to
build up above the orifice. Wait until steady condition is achieved.
2. You can control the level of the water into the constant head tank by pulling up and down
the adjustable stainless steel overflow pipe as shown in the photograph.
3. Measure the head (H) above the orifice using the graduated scale.
4. By setting the thin pins so that they just touch the issuing water jet, draw the path of the
water jet on the given graph paper.
5. Measure and record the initial and final volumes and the time of accumulation for each
reading of head (H).
6. Repeat the previous steps for at least four more different heads (H) by changing the position
of the adjustable stainless steel overflow pipe.

Calculations and Results Interpretation

For each reading of head (H), fill the following table of observations
Initial

Final

Point(1) Point(2) Point(3) Point(4) Point(5) Point(6) H (cm) volume volume

(liter)
X(cm)
Y(cm)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Calculate the theoretical flow rate using the measured head and the area of the orifice.
Calculate the actual flow using the volume and time recorded.
Calculate the coefficient of discharge Cd.
draw x2-y relationship and determine the coefficient of velocity
Repeat the above mentioned steps for various values of measured head
Plot Qa against (H)0.5
Comment on the graphs and on the slope of each graph.
Is the coefficients of the orifice is constant with change of water head

16

(liter)

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

Example
point
1
X (cm)
Y (cm)
2
X
2
0.5
Cv = (X /4YH)

5
0.2
25
0.88

point
2
10
0.7
100
0.94

point
3
15
1.5
225
0.97

point
4
20
1.8
400
1.18

point
5
25
4.2
625
0.96

point
6
30
5.7
900
0.99

H
(mm)

V (lit)

400

T (sec)
150

Dorifice = 6mm
vth = (2gH)0.5 =

280.14

cm/sec

Qact = V/T =
Qth = aorifice * vth =

46.67
79.17

cm3/s
cm3/s

Cd = Qact/Qth =

0.589

0.5

Cv = (X /4YH)
2=
SLOPE = 4HCv
Cv =
Cc = Cd/Cv =

158.28
0.995
0.592

1000
900
800

slope = 158.28
700

X^2

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0

17

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

4. Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration

Objective of the Experiment
1. To demonstrate the variation of the pressure along a converging-diverging pipe section.
2. To verify the Bernoullis Theorem.

Theory

v2
p
+
+ Z = constant.
For ideal flow at any section on the pipe,

2 g g
In the experimental setup, the pipe is horizontal (i.e. Z = constant). Therefore along the pipe,
v2
p
+
= constant
2 g g

Experimental Setup

Air
inlet
Control
Valve

Water
Manometer

From the
Pump
To the
Venturi
Air
bubble

Glass
Venturimeter

The Bernoullis experimental setup is placed on the top of the regular Hydraulic Bench.

18

Pitot
Tube

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Irrigation and Hydraulics Department

Fluid Mechanics
2nd Year Civil Engineering
2010 - 2011

Procedures
1. Level the Bernoullis experimental apparatus on the Hydraulic Bench by adjusting the
screw legs.
2. Switch on the pump and open the flow control valve to fill the entire apparatus and
manometers with water. Ensure that no air is entrapped in the apparatus or any of the
manometers by opening the air valve at the right end of the air chamber connecting the top
ends of the manometers. Make sure to close the air valve again.
3. Adjust the flow rate into the experiment by the flow control value in the apparatus.
4. To make visible the water levels in the manometers, connect and work the hand air pump at
the air inlet (shown in the photograph) to raise the air pressure in the air chamber, thus
pushing the manometer columns down into the glass tubes.
5. Carefully adjust both flow control valves in the apparatus and in the Hydraulic Bench to
provide the combination of flow rate and pressure within the pipe such that the pressure
difference between the highest and the lowest manometer levels is reasonable.
6. Observe the variation of the scale readings of the water levels in each manometer tube.
7. Push the stainless steel probe (pitot-tube) at the right end of the horizontal transparent
section of the pipe into the tapered portion of the pipe. Position its end at stations adjacent
to the manometer openings in the pipe one station at a time. For each position, observe the
corresponding scale reading of the manometer to the probe. Compare the pitot-tube reading
to the manometer reading connected to the same position.
8. Repeat the previous steps with different flow rates at high and low static pressure for
different combinations of valve opening.

19