TRANSDUCERS

Instrumentation System
Three Major Elements
1. An Input Device
2. A signal Conditioning or Processing
Device
3. An Output Device

Instrumentation System
cont..
The input device receives the quantity under
measurement and delivers a proportional
electrical signal to the signal conditioning device.
Here the signal is modified, amplified or filtered to
a format that is acceptable to the output device.
The output device maybe a:
1. Simple indicating Meter
2. An oscilloscope
3. A Magnetic Tape Recorder
4. A Computer

WHAT IS A TRANSDUCER ?
A transducer is a device which transforms a nonelectrical physical quantity (i.e. temperature, sound or
light) into an electrical signal (i.e. voltage, current,
capacity)

In other word it is a device that is capable of

converting the physical quantity into a proportional
electrical quantity such as voltage or current.

Pressure

Voltage

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSDUCERS

Transducer contains two parts that are

closely related to each other i.e. the
sensing element and transduction
element.
The sensing element is called as the
sensor. It is device producing measurable
response to change in physical conditions.
The transduction element convert the
sensor output to suitable electrical form.

Alternating Definitions
6

Definition: Technically
A device that converts one energy form to
another (eg, mechanical to electrical).
Any device or component that converts an input
signal of one form to an output signal of another
form
An element or device which receives information
in the form of one quantity and converts it to
information in the same or an other quantity or
form.
A device for translating the magnitude of one
quantity into another quantity.

Selecting a Transducer

Selecting an appropriate transducer is the first

and most fundamental step to obtain accurate
results.
A number of questions should be asked before
an appropriate transducer is selected, for
example,
a)

b)

c)

What is the physical quantity that needs to be

measured?
Which transducer principle can be used to
measure this physical quantity?
What accuracy is required for the measurement?

Selecting a transducer
cont..

First questions can be answered by

determining the type and range of the
transducer.
Second question requires that the input
and output characteristic of the
transducer must be compatible with the
recording or measurement system.
Proper transducer is selected by the
addition of accuracy tolerance.

TRANSDUCERS SELECTION FACTORS

1.

2.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to produce

detectable output.
Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the range requirement
and have a good resolution over the entire range.
Accuracy: High accuracy is assured.
Cross sensitivity: It has to be taken into account when measuring
mechanical quantities. There are situation where the actual quantity is
being measured is in one plane and the transducer is subjected to variation
in another plan.
Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input-output
relationship as described by the transfer function so as to avoid errors.
Operating Principle: The transducer are many times selected on the
basis of operating principle used by them. The operating principle used

7.

8.

9.

10.

Transient and frequency response : The transducer

should meet the desired time domain specification like peak
overshoot, rise time, setting time and small dynamic error.
Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input
impedance and low output impedance to avoid loading
effects.
Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that
the transducer selected to work under specified
environmental conditions maintains its input- output
relationship and does not break down.
Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer
should be minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and
highly sensitive to desired signals.

Reduction in Measurement Error

Use in-place system calibration with correction

performed in the data reduction
Simultaneously monitoring the environment and
correcting the data accordingly
Artificially controlling the environment to
minimize possible errors
Artificially controlling the environment means
physically moving the transducer to more
favorable position or providing the required
isolation from the environment by a heater
enclosure, vibration isolation, or similar means.

CLASSIFICATION OF
TRANSDUCERS

Analog and digital transducers.

Primary and secondary transducer.
Transducers and inverse
transducers.
On the basis of transduction
principle
used.
Active and Passive Transducers

ANALOG AND DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS

Transducers ,on the basis of nature of output signal, may be classified into analog and digital transducers.

Analog transducers converts input signal into

output signal, which is a continuous function of
time such as THERMISTOR ,strain gauge, LVDT ,
thermocouple etc.
Digital transducers converts input signal into
the output signal in the form of pulses e.g. it
gives discrete output. These transducers are
becoming more popular nowadays because of
advantages associated with digital measuring
instruments and also due to the fact that digital
signals can be transmitted over a long distance
without causing much distortion due to

PRIMARY TRANSDUCERS

transducers on the basis of methods of applications, may be classified into

primary and secondary transducers.

When the input signal is directly sensed by

the transducers and physical phenomenon
is converted into the electrical form directly
then such a transducer is called the primary
transducer.
For example: A THERMISTOR used for the
measurement of temperature fall I this
category. The THERMISTOR senses the
temperature directly and causes the change
in resistor with the change in temperature.

SECONDARY TRANDUCERS

When the input signal is sensed first by some

detector or sensor and then its output being of
some form other than input signal is given as input
to a transducer for conversion into electrical from,
them such a transducer falls in the category of
secondary transducers.
For example , in case of pressure measurement ,
bourdon tube is a primary sensor which converts
pressure first into displacement, then the
displacement is converted into an output voltage
by an LVDT. In this case LVDT is a secondary
transducer.

INVERSE TRANSDUCERS

It is a device that converts an electrical

quantity into a non electrical quantity .it
is a precision actuator having an
electrical input and a low power non
electrical output.
For example a piezoelectric crystal and
translational and angular moving coil
elements can be employed as inverse
transducers. A most useful application of
inverse transducers is in feed back
measuring systems.

Transducer parameters
17

Transducer operating characteristics are

usually defined by a number of
parameters.
Some of the main parameters to be
considered are:

Sensitivity Range
Span
Linearity
Hysteresis Accuracy
Precision (Reproducibility, Repeatability)
And others.

Hysteresis
A transducer should
produce the same
output whether the
value has been
reached due to a
continually
increasing input or a
continually
decreasing input.

18

Accuracy
19

Precision (Reproducibility, Repeatability)

20

Sensitivity
21

Range
22

The highest and lowest values that the

transducer is designed to measure.
E.g. A Temperature transducer may have a
range of 50 C to +50 C

Span
23

The difference between the upper and

lower values the transducer is designed to
measure.

E.g. A Temperature transducer that has a

range of 50 C to +50 C has a span of
100 C

Linearity
24

Linearity refers to the change in output

compared to the change in input. If the
change in output is proportional to the
change in input, the transducer is said to
be linear.

Units we need to know.

25

26

Measuring temperature
27

ON THE BASIS OF TRANSDUCTION

PRICIPLE USED

Resistive Transducers.
Capacitive Transducers.
Inductive Transducers.
Voltage and current Generating
Transducers.

ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS

Transducers on the basis of methods of energy conversion used, may be classified into active and passive transducers.

Self generating type transducers i.e

the transducers which develop their
output in the form of electrical
voltage or current without any
auxiliary source.

Normally such transducers give very small output, therefore, use of

amplifier becomes essential.
For example TACHO generators used for measurements of angular
velocity, thermocouples used for measurement of temperature,
piezoelectric crystal used for measurement of force.

CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS

PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS

Transducers in which electrical parameters i.e

resistance, inductance or capacitance changes
with the change in input signal, are called the
passive transducers. These transducers require
external power source for energy conversion.
In such transducers electrical parameters i.e
resistance inductance or capacitance causes a
change in voltage ,current or frequency of the
external power source.
For example resistive capacitive inductive
transducers.

CLASSIFICATION OF PASSIVE
TRANSDUCERS

STRAIN GUAGE

The Strain Gauge is an

example of a passive
transducer that uses
electrical resistance
variation in wires to
sense the strain
produced by a force on
the wire. It is a very
versatile detector and
transducer for
measuring weight,
pressure, mechanical
force or displacement.

Strain gauge: how they look

like
The construction of a bonded strain
gauge shows a fine wire looped back
and forth on a mounting plate, which
is usually cemented to the element

Sensitivity of Strain Gage

Sensitivity
of a strain gage is described
in terms of a characteristic called Gage
Factor, K, defined as the unit change of
resistance per unit change of length.

Gage Factor K =

FROM THE EQUATION OF

RESISTANCE,

R = resistance
= specific resistance of the conductor material
L = the length of the conductor in meters
A = the area of the conductor in square meters
When a strain produced by a force is applied on the wires, L
increase and A decrease.

Example

A resistance strain gage with a gage

factor of 2 is fastened to a steel member
subjected to a stress of 1,050kg/cm2.
The modulus of elasticity of steel is
approximately 2.1X106kg/cm2. Calculate
change in Resistance R, of strain gage
element due to the applied stress.

Solution

Sol:

= ===5*

The sensitivity of strain gage,

K, for constantan is 2.
=K=2*5*= 0.1

THERMISTOR

ATHERMISTORis a type ofresistorwhoseresistancevaries

significantly withtemperature. Semi-conductor thermistors have a
Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC). i.e. as temperature
increases, the resistance decreases.
The word is acontraction ofthermalandresistor. Thermistors
are widely used asinrush current limiters, temperaturesensors, selfresetting over current protectors, and self-regulatingheating

Thermistors

Thermistors are made

from semi-conductor
materials.
Semi-conductor
thermistors have a
Negative Temperature
Coefficient (NTC). i.e.
as temperature
increases, the
resistance decreases.

Revision 01

39

Thermistor construction

Thermistors come
in a variety of sizes
and shapes.
Beads, disks, rods
and probes are
some of the more
common styles.

Revision 01

40

Thermistors

(Cont)
Like RTDs,
thermistors are
often enclosed in a
housing suitable for
either contact or
non-contact
applications in
industry.

Revision 01

41

THERMOCOUPLE
.

As the junction temperature increases a small voltage is created in

the loop. The voltage produced at the junction of the dissimilar
metals is due to a phenomenon called the Seebeck Effect.
The higher the temperature at the junction, the greater the voltage
produced by that junction.
The relationship between voltage and temperature is constant and
therefore will graph as a linear line.

PROS AND CONS

Pros
They are inexpensive.
They are rugged and reliable.
They can be used over a wide
temperature range.
Cons
low output voltage
low sensitivity
non-linearity
electrical connections

Linear Variable
Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
Passive inductive transducers require
an external source of power.
The Differential transformer is a
passive inductive transformer, well
known as Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT).
It consists basically of a primary winding
and two secondary windings, wound over
a hollow tube and positioned so that the
primary is between two of its
An iron core slides within the tubesecondaries.
and
therefore
affects the magnetic coupling between the
primary and two secondaries.
When the core is in the centre , the
voltage
induced in the two secondaries is equal.
When the core is moved in one direction
of centre, the voltage induced in one

ADVANTAGES

It has high accuracy and good stability.

Easy to fabricate and install.
The transfer characteristics is linear.
Input is directly proportional to output.
They can withstand high temperature.
It consume very less power.
It has low hysteresis loss and good repeatability.
Rugged construction.
Its output is very high.

DISADVANTAGES

LVDT is proof to errors due to

temperature.
For getting the appreciable differential
output relatively large displacement is
required .
LVDT is sensitive to straight magnetic
fields.
The dynamic response is limited for LVDT
due to mass of core.

Optical devices
47

Many measurement and control systems

utilise light and light-intensity as a way
of detecting other physical properties.
Using direct or reflected light can
provide an ideal non-contact sensing
mechanism.

Photoelectric
Transducers
Photoelectric transducers are devices that
produce an electrical variation in response to a
change in light intensity, or produce a light
intensity variation due to a change in applied
electrical energy. Photoelectric transducers
operate in three classifications, they are:

Photoconductive,
Photovoltaic,
Photoemissive.

Photoconductive
The photoconductive device is a semiconductor cell
which produces a change in its resistance in
response to a change in light intensity.
The three most common photoconductive
transducers are the
Light Dependant Resistor (LDR),
Phototransistor
Photodiode.

LIGHT DEPENDANT
RESISTOR

51

Light dependant resistors

LDRS
The LDR is a
semiconductor
device.
Its resistance is
dependant on
the light
intensity that
falls on the
device.
Revision 01

Light dependant resistors

As the light
intensity increases,
the resistance of
the LDR decreases.
The LDR is a nonlinear device with
resistance ranging
from about 10 M
in complete
darkness to 100
in full sunlight.
52

Phototransistor

The phototransistor is
a three-layer
semiconductor device
with a light-sensitive
collector-base p-n
junction.
The current flowing
through the collector
emitter circuit will be
controlled by the
amount of light falling
on the collector-base
junction.

53

As light intensity increases, the base-collector

junction resistance of the phototransistor
decreases. This decrease in resistance
increases the base current that in turn
increases the flow of collector current.
The relationship between light intensity and
current flow is generally constant and
therefore will graph as a linear line. These
linear transfer characteristics are shown
below.

Material

Electromagnetic spectrum
wavelengthrange (nm)

Silicon

1901100

Germanium

4001700

Indium gallium arsenide

8002600

Lead(II) sulfide

<10003500

Solar cell

As the light (protons) intensity increases, an imbalance of electrons and holes are
created, which gives an increase to the open circuit potential voltage difference and
therefore a current flow within a circuit. The relationship between light intensity and
open circuit voltage is not constant and therefore will not graph as a linear line

Light Emitting Diode

This LED is a semi conductive P-N junction

enclosed in a coloured case to enhance the
colour of the light output. Silicon is not used
as it produces mainly heat rather than light.

The semi conductive materials used in the

manufacture of LEDs determines the colour
of the emitted light. By using different
materials, such colours as red, yellow, green,
and even invisible light spectrums such as
infra-red can be produced.

Optocouplers
Optocouplers belong to a family of devices
used to electrically isolate circuits.
This isolation may be required to protect
circuits from surge voltages and to filter
certain noise.
Photoelectric transducers are effective in
producing high quality fast responding
Optocouplers which can be used in many
varying applications.
The basic Optocoupler consists of a photo
emissive device, LED, and a photoconductive

Opto-coupler devices
59

Opto-coupler devices

Because LEDs can sense light in addition to

emitting it, construction of symmetrical,
bidirectional opto-isolators is possible. An
optocoupledsolid state relaycontains a
photodiode opto-isolator which drives a power
switch, usually a complementary pair
ofMOSFETs. Aslotted optical switch contains
a source of light and a sensor, but its optical
channel is open, allowingmodulation of light
by external objects obstructing the path of
light or reflecting light into the sensor.

Piezo devices
61

The principle of piezoelectric action has been

known for quite some time. Materials such as
quartz and man made products such as Barium
Titanate and Lead Zirconate demonstrate a
characteristic in that when pressure is applied
over one axis, there tends to be a polarization of
electric charge over the adjacent axis.

Piezo Devices
Whether they are Piezoelectric or Piezoceramic
devices, the application is very wide, almost wherever
we wish to measure pressure you will find these
devices being used. Although not exhaustive, some
examples include;
Pressure switches
Piezoelectric pressure gauges
Djfferential pressure measuring transducers,
and
Sonar transducers
Vibration detectors etc
Ignition devices

Acoustic Transducers
Acoustic transducers are devices that convert a
variation in electrical energy into a change in
mechanical energy, (physical vibrations or
oscillations, ie. sound waves). Or conversely,
convert a variation in sound wave energy into
electrical energy.
Common examples of acoustic transducers are
the:
Acoustic speakers,
Acoustic microphone,
Piezoceramic transducers, and
Magnetostrictive transducers

coil, when current is

applied, is at right
angles to the magnetic
field produced by the
permanent magnet.

Therefore the two fields

attract or repel each
other depending on the
polarity of the signal
current. This attraction
and repulsion causes an
inward or outward
movement of the voice
coil and cone which
results in sound waves
being produced.

The volume and

frequency of the sound
produced is dependant
upon the amplitude and
frequency of the input
signal current.

65

Revision 01

Piezoelectric Buzzer

Piezo electric buzzers and

speakers are used in a wide
variety of applications from
simple low fidelity
applications such as a
warning buzzer to high
fidelity, high frequency audio
speaker applications.
Regardless of the application,
the principle of piezoelectric
operation remains a constant.

Displacement Position And Proximity

Transducers
Float transducers are used in
tank level monitoring
applications. These devices
use a sender that is either a
switch or some form of
resistive device. A
combination of these devices
can be seen in an automotive
application where the switch
is used to indicate tank low
level and the potentiometer
sender provides a
proportional indication of
actual tank level.

Hall Effect Transducers

The Hall Effect describes a condition if current flow in a
conductor being affected by the presence of a magnetic field If
an electric current flows through a conductor in a magnetic field,
the magnetic field exerts a transverse force on the moving
charge carriers which tends to push them to one side of the
conductor. This is most evident in a thin flat conductor. A build
up of charge at the sides of the conductors will balance this
magnetic influence, producing a measurable voltage between
the two sides of the conductor. The presence of this measurable
transverse voltage is called the Hall effect after E. H. Hall who
discovered it in 1879.

Hall effect
Magnetic reed

Revision 01

69

Hall effect devices

Hall effect devices can
be used to:
Measure the velocity of
charged particles in a
magnetic field (flow
meter)
Measure the proximity
of magnetic materials
(Linear displacement)
Detect pulses of
magnetism e.g. as in a
tachometer
Revision 01

70