Introduction of Computers

Bassu Stationery and Computer Services
KKK Tukuyu, Mbeya Tanzania
AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER STUDIES
Prepared By:
Bassu, J.N
Contacts: 0754 553 303
June, 2014
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION OF COMPUTERS ............................................................................................................. 1
1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Definition and parts of computer ................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Definition of computer ............................................................................................................ 1
1.1.2 Physical parts of a computer ................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Classification of computers ............................................................................................................ 2
(a) Classification according to size and processing power ................................................................. 2
(b) Classification according to purpose ............................................................................................. 5
(c) Classifications according to functionality ..................................................................................... 5
1.3 Historical development of computers ............................................................................................ 5
1.3.1 Abacus .................................................................................................................................... 5
1.3.2 Napiers bones ........................................................................................................................ 5
1.3.3 Slide rule ................................................................................................................................. 6
1.3.4 La Pascaline machine .............................................................................................................. 6
1.3.5 Weaving loom ......................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.6 The Analytical engine .............................................................................................................. 6
1.3.7 Electronic computers .............................................................................................................. 7
1.4 Computer Laboratory and Computer Uses ..................................................................................... 9
1.4.1 Computer Laboratory .............................................................................................................. 9
1.4.2 Computer Uses ..................................................................................................................... 10
1.5 Basic Computer Hands-on Skills ................................................................................................... 11
1.5.1 Booting up a computer.......................................................................................................... 11
1.5.2 The computer Keyboard ........................................................................................................ 11
1.5.3 Mouse................................................................................................................................... 13
COMPUTER SYSTEMS............................................................................................................................. 14
2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 14
2.1 Computer hardware .................................................................................................................. 14
2.1.1 Input devices ......................................................................................................................... 14
2.1.2 Central processing unit (CPU) ................................................................................................ 20
2.1.3 Output devices ...................................................................................................................... 26
2.1.4 Secondary storage ................................................................................................................. 31
2.1.5 Basic Computer Setup ........................................................................................................... 35
2.2 Computer Software...................................................................................................................... 37
2.2.1 System software ................................................................................................................... 37
2.2.2 Application Software ............................................................................................................. 37
2.3 Relationship between Hardware and Software ............................................................................ 38
2.4 Criteria for selecting computer system ......................................................................................... 38
2.4.1 Hardware consideration ........................................................................................................ 38
2.4.2 Software considerations ........................................................................................................ 40
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OPERATING SYSTEMS ............................................................................................................................ 42

3.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 42
3.1 Features, Objectives and Characteristics of an operating system .................................................. 42
3.1.1 Operating System is a program with following features: ........................................................ 42
3.1.2 Objectives of Operating System: ........................................................................................... 42
3.1.3 Characteristics of Operating System ...................................................................................... 42
3.2 Role, structure, resources and functions of an operating system .................................................. 43
3.2.1 Role of an operating system .................................................................................................. 43
3.2.2 Structure of an operating system .......................................................................................... 43
3.2.3 Resources managed by an operating system ......................................................................... 44
3.2.4 Functions of an operating system .......................................................................................... 44
3.3 Types of operating systems ........................................................................................................ 44
3.3.1 Classification according to size of computer .......................................................................... 44
3.3.2 Classification according to tasks ............................................................................................ 46
3.3.3 Classification according to number of users ........................................................................... 46
3.3.4 Classification according to user-interface .............................................................................. 46
3.3.5 Factors to consider when choosing an operating system ....................................................... 47
3.4 How an operating system organizes information.......................................................................... 48
3.4.1 Folders .................................................................................................................................. 48
3.4.2 Drives.................................................................................................................................... 48
3.4.3 Files ...................................................................................................................................... 49
3.5 Managing files and folders using windows ................................................................................... 49
3.5.1 Windows explorer ................................................................................................................. 49
3.5.2 Creating folders..................................................................................................................... 50
3.5.3 Creating files ......................................................................................................................... 50
3.5.4 Renaming files and folders .................................................................................................... 51
3.5.6 Copying and moving files and folders .................................................................................... 51
3.5.7 Searching for files and folders ............................................................................................... 51
3.6 Managing storage devices using Windows ................................................................................... 51
3.6.1 Formatting drives .................................................................................................................. 52
3.6.2 Scanning a drive for problems ............................................................................................... 52
3.6.3 Defragmenting a disk ............................................................................................................ 53
3.6.4 Scanning for malware............................................................................................................ 53
3.6.5 Disk compression .................................................................................................................. 53
3.6.6 Backing up data ..................................................................................................................... 54
3.6.7 Using a startup disk ............................................................................................................... 54
3.6.8 Partitioning a disk ................................................................................................................. 54
3.7 Installation and configuration of an operating system .................................................................. 54
3.8 Troubleshooting and fixing problems ........................................................................................... 55
3.8.1 Invalid system disk ................................................................................................................ 55
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3.8.2 Missing operating system ...................................................................................................... 55

3.8.3 Corrupted system registry ..................................................................................................... 55
3.8.4 Failure to load the GUI desktop ............................................................................................. 55
3.8.5 Windows protection error ..................................................................................................... 55
3.8.6 Runtime problems................................................................................................................. 55
MEMORY UNITS AND NUMBER SYSTEM ................................................................................................ 56
4.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 56
4.1 Memory Units .............................................................................................................................. 56
4.2 Number System ........................................................................................................................... 57
4.2.1 Decimal Number System ....................................................................................................... 57
4.2.2 Binary Number System.......................................................................................................... 57
4.2.3 Octal Number System ........................................................................................................... 58
4.2.4 Hexadecimal Number System ................................................................................................ 58
4.3 Number Conversion ..................................................................................................................... 58
4.3.1 Decimal to Other Base System .............................................................................................. 59
4.3.2 Other base system to Decimal System ................................................................................... 59
4.3.3 Other Base System to Non-Decimal System ........................................................................... 59
4.3.4 Shortcut method - Binary to Octal ......................................................................................... 60
4.3.5 Shortcut method - Octal to Binary ......................................................................................... 60
4.3.6 Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal ............................................................................. 61
4.3.7 Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary ............................................................................. 61
DATA AND INFORMATION ..................................................................................................................... 62
5.1 What is data? ............................................................................................................................... 62
5.2 Information ................................................................................................................................. 62
5.2.1 What is Information? ............................................................................................................ 62
5.2.2 Authentication of Information ............................................................................................... 63
5.2.3 Why do we need information? .............................................................................................. 63
5.2.4 Relationship between Data, Information and Knowledge ...................................................... 63
5.3 Data Processing Cycle .................................................................................................................. 63
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 65
iii \\ An Introduction to Computer Studies, By Instructor Bassu\\
INTRODUCTION OF COMPUTERS
Chapter 1
Outline
1.0
Introduction
1.1
Definition and parts of a computer
1:2
Classifications of computers
1:3
Historical developments of computers
1.4
Computer laboratory and computers uses
1.5
Basic computer hands-on skills
_____________________________________________________________________________________
1.0 Introduction
The 20th century saw the birth of one of the most important tool widely in use today called a computer.
Since then, there have been dynamic changes in the way we behave, work, communicate and related to
each other due to this tool.
1.1 Definition and parts of computer

1.1.1 Definition of computer
A computer can be defined as an electronic device that accepts user input (data) and processes it under
the influence of a set of instruction referred to as programs to produce the desired output (information).
Data are the raw facts that may include alphabets, numbers and symbols which may not make much
meaning to the user.
Programs are a set of computer instructions that enable the computer hardware to accomplish a task.
Information is the processed data which makes meaning to user and which can form a basis for decision
making.
Characteristics of a Computer
It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well defined manner

It can execute a prerecorded set of instructions (a program)
It can quickly store and retrieve large amount of data
How Does a Computer Know what to do?

It must be given a detailed list of instructions, called a computer program or software that tells it exactly
what to do.
Before processing a specific job, the computer program corresponding to that job must be stored in
memory.
Once the program is stored in memory the computer can start the operation by executing the program
instructions one after the other.
Why do we need computers?
Storage: It can store vast amount of data in its main memory and auxiliary memory systems and
retrieve amount that the user wants in few seconds.
Accuracy: The accuracy of a computer system is very high otherwise wrongly programmed it will
give wrong results (GIGO).
Versatility: They are flexible, multipurpose, multi-programmed machines hence capable of
performing activities ranging from simple to complex calculations.
Diligence: It doesnt get tired; it can do a repetitive task many times without errors.
Reliability (low failure rate): Failures are usually due to human error, one way or another.
Speed: Computers can calculate at very high speed. A microcomputer can execute millions
instruction per second over and over again without mistakes.
Ability to communicate with other computers. This is possible via network connections.
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1.1.2 Physical parts of a computer

A typical computer, commonly referred to as a Personal Computer (PC) or a desktop computer, consists
of system unit and peripheral devices.
System unit: The part that houses the brain of the computer (the central processing unit),
motherboard, main memory and drives.
Peripheral devices: Devices connected via ports to the CPU of a computer e.g. drives, input and
output device.
Figure 1.1 shows two types of personal computers commonly used today.
Fig. 1.1: Desktop Personal Computers
1.2 Classification of computers

Computers can be classified in many ways. However, the three most common methods of classification
are by:
Physical size and processing power.
Purpose
Functionality
(a) Classification according to size and processing power
When classified by physical size and processing power, computers can either be supercomputers,
mainframe computers or microcomputers.
Supercomputers
Supercomputers (fig. 1.2) have the following characteristics:
The largest in physical size.
Greatest processing power.
Fastest processor speed.
Largest memory capacity.
Fig. 1.2: Supercomputers

Supercomputers are mainly found in large research stations and are used to control complex operations
and perform complex calculations. Typical application areas are in space science, nuclear physics and
aerodynamics.
Mainframe computers
Mainframe computers (fig.1.3) have the following characteristics:
Smaller than supercomputers.
Slower than supercomputers.
Smaller memory capacity than supercomputer.
Cheaper than supercomputers.
Fig. 1.3: A Mainframe computer

Mainframe computers are mostly used in large businesses as network servers. A typical application area
is banking where they are used to provide online data of customer accounts to branch offices across a
geographical region. However, their high cost and inability to upgrade has made them unpopular.
Minicomputers
A minicomputer (fig. 1.4), also referred to as a small scale mainframe, is a cheaper alternative to the
mainframe computers. Minicomputers have the following characteristics:
Smaller than mainframe computers.
Low processing power than mainframe computers.
Low memory capacity than mainframe computer.
Cheaper than mainframe computer.
Fig. 1.4: A Minicomputer

Minicomputers are used as cheaper alternatives to mainframe. They are used to automate processes in
manufacturing industries on the production line. Minicomputers are also used as autopilots in airplanes.
Microcomputers
Microcomputers, also known as Personal Computers (PC), are the smallest in size, cheapest and slowest
compared to the other three types. They are called microcomputers because their processor is very tiny
(size of a thumbnail). Fig. 1.5 shows an illustration of a microprocessor of a microcomputer.
Fig. 1.5: Microprocessor of a Microcomputer

Microcomputers are further classified into three categories namely:
(i) Desktop computers
Desktop computers are the most common because they are relatively cheaper than other
microcomputers. They are called desktop computers because they are usually placed on a table or desk.
(See Fig. 1.1).
(ii) Notebook (laptop) computers
Notebook computers, also known as laptops, are portable PCs. They are more expensive compared to
desktop PCs. Fig. 1.6 shows some notebook PCs.
Fig. 1.6: Notebook PCs

(iii) Palmnote and pocket computers
Palmnote and pocket computers are the smallest PCs. They are so small that they can fit into the pocket.
Examples of Palmnote or pocket PCs include personal digital assistants (PDAs) and modern smart
phones.
Fig. 1.7: Pocket PCs

(b) Classification according to purpose

Regardless of size, a computer can be classified as either special purpose (dedicated) or general
purpose.
Special purpose computers
Special purpose computers are designed to perform a single task only or a few related tasks. Examples
are calculators, routers and robots.
General purpose computers
General purpose computers can be programmed by the user to perform many tasks such as word
processing, desktop publishing, multimedia applications, accounting, etc.
(c) Classifications according to functionality
Computers can also be classified according to the type of data they can process. The three types of
computers according to functionality are:
Analog computers
Analog computers process data that is continuous in nature. This type of data is called analog data.
Examples of analog data include speed, temperature, volume and weight.
Digital computers
Digital computers process data that is discrete in nature. This type of data is called digital data. Digital
data changes from one value to another without a time transition. It is usually represented using two
states, on represented by 1 and off represented by 0.
Hybrid computers
Computers that process both analog and digital data are known as hybrid computers. A good example is
a modem.
1.3 Historical development of computers

Historical development of computers can be traced back to the time when humans were struggling to
invent tools that could simplify mathematical calculation. The following are some of the tools invented
for this purpose.
1.3.1 Abacus
An abacus was a Chinese counting instrument which dates back to 3000 BC. The abacus has bead like
parts that move along rods. Fig. 1.8 shows an illustration of an abacus.
Fig. 1.8 An Abacus

1.3.2 Napiers bones
Napiers bones was developed by John Napier, a Scottish mathematician in the 17th century to help in
counting. It is made up of marked strips of wood or bone, placed side by side to each other. Fig. 1.9
shows a Napier bones counting machine.
Fig. 1.9 Napiers bones

1.3.3 Slide rule
A slide rule, inverted by William Oughtred in 17th century, is a tool that can be used to perform
arithmetic operations. Fig. 1.10 shows Oughtreds slide rule.
Fig. 1.10 Slide Rule

1.3.4 La Pascaline machine
La Pascaline counting machine (Fig. 1.11) was made by Blaise Pascal in the 17th century. The machine
could add and subtract numbers.
Fig. 1.11 Pascaline machine

1.3.5 Weaving loom
In early 19thcentury, Joseph Jacquard built a weaving loom which could be programmed using punched
cards to pick out threads and weave them into patterns. This idea of using punched cards to control
patterns helped later inventors to develop calculating machines that could follow simple instruction. Fig.
1.12 shows an illustration of a weaving loom.
Fig. 1.12 The first Weaving loom

1.3.6 The Analytical engine
Charles Babbage, an English mathematician designed a machine that could calculate a long series of
numbers and print the outcome. He called it the difference engine. Later in 1832, he improved the
design of the machine by incorporating the idea of programming using punched cards. He called the
machine analytical engine. However, the analytical engine was never constructed. The analytical engine
is recognized as the first real computer and Babbage as the father of computing. Fig. 1.13 shows the
design of the analytical engine.
Fig. 1.13 The design of the analytical engine

1.3.7 Electronic computers
Early computers have been around since the late 1800s. Early computers were very large, filling a
building.
The forerunner of todays computers appeared in the 1960s, and one of the first users was in the
business sector. E.g. J. Lyons used a computer for the ordering of food for the many tearooms that
he operated.
The transistors and further advances in electronics resulted in the development of smaller, faster
and cheaper computers.
The development of the integrated circuit (IC) where millions of circuits could be held in a single
chip, the size of your finger nail, has finally led to computers becoming widespread in business and
in the homes (for study, for communication or for entertainment).
It took several years after Babbage designed the analytical engine to come up with an electronic
computer. The age of modern electronic computers can be traced back to 1951.
Electronic computers are classified into five generations depending on the technology used to develop
them:
(a) First generation computers (1951 1957)
This generation of computers used electronic tubes made of glass known as vacuum tubes or thermionic
values (Fig. 1.14)
Fig. 1.14 Vacuum Tubes

Characteristics of first generation computers:
Emitted a lot of heat.
Were very large in size.
Consumed a lot of power.
Were difficult to program, use and maintain.
Used magnetic drum memories.
Electronic numeric integrator and calculator (ENIAC) and Electronic discrete variable automatic
computer (EDVAC) are examples of first generation computers. Fig. 1.5 shows a picture of the ENIAC
computer.
Fig. 1.5 The ENIAC computer

(b) Second generation computers (1958 1963)
Second generation computers used transistors. Transistors are small electronic components that
transfer electronic signals across a resistor.
Characteristics of the second generation computers:
Emitted less heat compared to the first generation computers.
Were smaller than first generation computers.
Were difficult to program, use and maintain.
Relied on magnetic core memories.
Examples of second generation computers include IBM 1401, 1BM 7070, and UNIVAC 1107. Fig. 1.16
shows a picture of UNIVAC 1107.
Fig. 1.16 The UNIVAC 1107 computer

(c) Third generation computers (1964 1969)
Third generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs). An integrated circuit is a small chip made of
silicon.
Characteristics of third generation computers:
Emitted less heat.
Were smaller in size.
Were easier to program, use and maintain.
Examples of third generation computers include IBM 360 and ICL 19000 series.
(d) Fourth generation computers (1970 1990)
Fourth generation computers used very large scale integrated circuits (VLSI) or the microprocessor.
A microprocessor is made up of millions of transistors etched on a silicon chip. It is used on digital
devices such as watches, calculators and microcomputers.
Characteristics of fourth generation computers:
Emit very little heat.
Are very smaller in size.
Are very easy to use and maintain.
Examples of fourth generation computers include IBM 370, IBM 4300 and Burroughs 7700.
(e) Fifth generation computers (1991 - )
This is the current generation and is sometimes referred to as the connected generation.
Characteristics of fifth generation computers:

Use artificial intelligence.
Massive connectivity to internet and intranet.
Superior hardware and software products that is small in size.
Emit negligible heat.
Examples of fifth generation computers include portable computers, artificial intelligence and natural
language processing systems.
1.4 Computer Laboratory and Computer Uses

1.4.1 Computer Laboratory
A computer laboratory, simply referred to as a computer lab, is a special room set aside and prepared
specifically for safe installation and use of computers.
Safety precaution and practices
Just like any other science laboratory, the computer laboratory should be set up with safety precaution
in mind. Measures should be put in place to protect the machines from theft or destruction and the
users from accidents.
The laboratory users must be aware of the correct behaviour and safety rules that they should observe
in order to avoid accidents, danger or injury.
Computer laboratory safety measures can be dived into two:
Those that are meant to protect computers.
Those that are meant to protect the users.
(a) Measures that protect computers
Burglar proofing the room: This involves fitting grills on doors, windows and the roof to deter forceful entry
into the computer room. Installing an intrusion detection alarm system and employing security guards
also increases the level of security alertness against theft of computers and their accessories.
Installing fire prevention and control equipment such as smoke detectors and fire extinguishers: The
recommended extinguishers are gaseous type and should be non-liquid/non-powder based. This is
because liquids may cause rusting and corrosion of computer components. On the other hand, powder
particles may increase friction and wear off moving parts. The particles can also cause disk to crash.
Providing stable power supply by installing surge protectors, power extension cables, uninterruptible power
supply (UPS) for each computers and power backup generator.
Installing lightning arrestors on the computers room.
The room should be well laid out with enough space for movement. The computers should be placed on stable,
wide enough desks to avoid accidentally knocking them down. Cables should be laid out in trunks away
from user paths to avoid stumbling on them.
Dust and dump proofing the computer room. Dust can be controlled by fitting good window curtains and an air
conditioning system that filters dust particles from the air entering the room. Also, the computers
should be covered with dust covers when not in use.
On the other hand, dampness or humidity in the laboratory can be controlled by using dehumidifiers.
High humidity leads to rusting of the metallic parts of a computer.
Cables and power sockets should be well insulated and of the correct power rating to avoid short circuits that
can damage computer components.
The users should not eat or drink in the computer laboratory. Food particle may fall in moving computer parts
like the keyboard and clog them while liquids may pour into electrical circuits and cause short circuits.
(b) Measure that protect the user

All cables should be insulated to avoid the danger of electric shock to the users.
Cables should be laid away from user paths to avoid tripping on them.
Providing standard furniture to avoid poor posture during machine use which may lead to strain injury and limb fatigue.
The table should be of the right height relative to the seat to provide comfortable hand positioning. The
seat should have an upright backrest and should be high enough to allow the eyes of the user to be at
the same level with the top of the screen.
Providing antiglare screens (light filters) and adjustable screen to avoid eye strain and fatigue caused by
over bright cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors. However, modern flat panel displays such as the liquid
crystal display (LCD) do not strain the eye hence need not be fitted with antiglare screen.
The room should be properly ventilated to avoid dizziness caused by lack of adequate oxygen and to allow the
computers to cool.
The walls of the computer room should not be painted with over bright reflective oil paints and the screens should
face away from the window to avoid glare caused by bright backgrounds.
Overcrowding in the computer room is not allowed. This may cause suffocation.
Running and playing in the computer room is not allowed.
1.4.2 Computer Uses
Computers have become important tools in our day-to-days operations. Some of the areas where
computers are used include:Retail stores to perform stock management and control.
Offices to prepare and print office documents
Banks to keep client account details and issue cash transaction services at the automated teller machine
(ATM)
Industries to perform automated manufacturing process control such as controlling robots on an
assembly line.
Hospitals to keep patient records and control functionality of highly specialized machine life support
systems.
Transport industry to perform traffic control at airports and on roads in busy towns.
Communication to facilitate sending and receiving of messages on the internet. Computers also control
many telecommunications equipment.
Law enforcement agencies to perform biometric mapping activities like fingerprint matching and store
forensic information.
Education to provide e-learning environments for learners which make teaching and learning an
enjoyable experience.
Home to prepare domestic documents like budgets and in communication.
Entertainment industry to generate and edit computer graphics in movies and games.
Libraries to keep electronic catalogues and track book circulation.
Military to design weapons and control flight.
Research institution to process and analyse data.
1.5 Basic Computer Hands-on Skills

In order to appreciate what a computer can do, it is important that you learn how to safely turn it on
and off as well as use the keyboard and mouse more effectively.
1.5.1 Booting up a computer
Once you turn the computer, you many hear the sound of the cooler fan running. After a few seconds,
lines of text start to scroll on the screen. This is referred to as power-on-self test (POST). POST checks on
the existing storage, basic input and output devices. If any of these devices has a problem, the process
may stop or halt and error message is displayed on the screen.
POST is accomplished by a special firmware program called the basic input output system (BIOS) which is
held in a ROM chip mounted on the motherboard.
After POST, the computer reads some instructions such as the current time and date from a special
memory known as the complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS). CMOS is powered by a dry
cell that mostly resembles that of a digital watch. If the cell is down, the computer would always
required the user to enter the current time and date.
Lastly, the operating system is read from the hard disk and loaded to the memory in a process called
booting. In Microsoft Windows, once the operating system is successfully loaded, a user-interface called
desktop such as the one shown in Fig. 1.17 is displayed.
Fig. 1.17 Windows Desktop

1.5.2 The computer Keyboard
The keyboard such as the one shown in Fig. 1.18 is the most widely used component to instruct and
enter data into the computer.
Fig. 1.18 A typical computer keyboard

Keyboard layout
The keys on a traditional keyboard shown in Fig. 1.18 can be classified into five groups:
Function keys: These are labeled F1 to F12. They are mainly used as shortcut to specialized operations in
application programs. For example, in most programs, F1 is used to invoke the on line help.
Typing keys: Their layout resembles that of a typewriter. It consists of letters of the alphabet, A to Z, tab,
Caps lock, 0 9, special characters =, /, \, backspace, enter and spacebar.
Numeric keyboard: They consists of mainly numeric characters 0 9, Num lock, arithmetic operators (/, - ,
+) and Enter. This section is used to inter numeric data.
Navigation and editing keys: They are used to control the cursor or pointer and edit text. The keys are
located between typing keys and the numeric keypad. The include delete (Del), Insert (Ins), Home, page
up/ page down, End and arrow keys.
Special PC operation keys: They are used mostly in combination with other keys as shortcuts to commands.
Special PC keys are Ctrl, Alt, Shift and Esc. On some keyboards, you may also find Windows, internet and
shortcut keys.
Typing skills
When using the keyboard, place your fingers on the home keys which are A, S, D, F and space bar for the
left hand and semi- colon (;), L,K,J, and spacebar for the right hand. The thumbs always rest on the space
bar. Fig. 1.19 shows hands resting on the home keys.
Fig. 1.19 Hands resting on the home keys

1.5.3 Mouse
The mouse got its name from its shape and long interface cable which makes it look like the biological
mouse. However, this similarity is vanishing out because of wireless technology which is doing away
with the cable. A typical mouse has a ball at its bottom that rotates when the mouse is moved. At the
top are two buttons and an optional scroll wheel. Fig. 1.20 shows the top of an ordinary mouse also
called mechanical mouse.
Fig. 1.20 A Mechanical Mouse

Mouse skills
The following are some mouse use techniques that can be performed with a standard mouse:Clicking: Clicking simply means pressing the default button (left) once. This selects a command or an
item.
Double clicking: Double clicking is to press the default button twice in rapid succession. This executes a
command such as opening an application.
Drag and drop: Drag and drop involves holding down the default mouse button and then moving the
selected item to a new location on the screen then releasing the button.
Right clicking: Right clicking involves pressing the right mouse button. This action displays the shortcut
menu.
Note: some mice have a scroll wheel which can be used to scroll up the screen in an application.
COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Chapter 2
Outline
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Introduction
Computer Hardware
Computer Software
Relationship between Hardware and Software
Criteria for selecting a computer system
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.0 Introduction
Basically, a computer is made up of two main components, namely hardware and software. However a
computer cannot work on its own without human intervention hence the term computer system.
A computer system is a collection of three components namely hardware, software and liveware that
work together to receive, process, manage and present information in a meaningful format.
Hardware: These are physical or tangible components that make up a computer.

Software: Refers to sets of instructions that direct a computer on what to do. They are mainly
classified into two categories namely system software and application software.
Liveware: Refers to the human being. It is the user who dictates what task he/she wants the
computer to perform. However, in this chapter, emphasis is on the hardware and software
components.
2.1 Computer hardware

Computer hardware is classified into four categories namely input devices, central processing unit,
output device and storage devices.
2.1.1 Input devices
Input devices convert user input which is in human language form into machine language that a
computer can process. Input devices can be classified according to the methods they use to enter data
namely: keying, pointing, scanning devices and other technologies used to capture data.
(a) Keying devices
Keying or typing is the most common way to input data. A keying device converts typed numbers, letters
and special characters into machine readable form before processing takes place. Some common types
of keying devices include:
(i) Traditional keyboards
The tradition keyboard is a full sized rigid keyboard (discussed in chapter 1, see Fig. 1.18)
(ii) Flexible keyboard
A flexible keyboard (Fig. 2.1) is a more portable type of keyboard that can be folded and packed into a
bag.
Fig. 2.1: Flexible Keyboard

(iii) Ergonomic keyboard

An ergonomic keyboard (Fig. 2.2) is specially designed to provide comfort and alleviate wrist strain.
Fig. 2.2: Ergonomic keyboards

(iv) Keypad
A keypad is a miniature keyboard used on portable devices such as PDAs, laptops and mobile phones.
Fig. 2.3 shows a keypad of a PDA.
Fig. 2.3 Keypad of a PDA

(v) Braille keyboard
Braille keyboard (Fig. 2.4) is an accessibility option for the blind. It consists of keys identified by raised
dots.
Fig. 2.4: Braille keyboard

(b) Pointing devices
Pointing devices control a pointer or cursor on the screen. They are mostly used on computers running
graphical user interface (GUI) operating systems such as Microsoft Windows. Some examples of
pointing devices include mouse, track ball, joystick, light pen and stylus.
(i) Mouse
Generally, there are three types of mice available in the market namely mechanical, optical and
cordless.
Mechanical mouse
A mechanical mouse has a ball underneath, two buttons and an optional scroll wheel.
The optical mouse
The optical mouse has a pointing device (Fig. 2.5) that uses light emitting diode (LED), an optical sensor
and digital signal processing (DSP) in place of the traditional mouse ball and electromechanical
transducer.
Some Uses of the Mouse:
i. It lets you quickly position the cursor on the screen without
using a cursor-movement key
ii. Choose commands from easy-to-use menus and dialog box
iii. Create graphics such as freehand drawing
Fig. 2.5: An optical mouse
Cordless mouse
Cordless or wireless mouse (Fig. 2.6) is a battery powered mouse that uses radio or infrared waves
instead of being physically connected to the system unit.
Fig. 2.6: A Wireless Mouse

(ii) Trackball
A trackball (fig 2.7) works just like a mouse only that its ball is located at the top. Instead of moving the
device on a flat surface, the user instead rotates the ball using a finger. Some computer keyboards come
with an integrated trackball hence no need for a mouse.
Fig. 2.7: Different types of Trackball mice

(iii) Joystick
A joystick (Fig. 2.8) is a specialized pointing device used for playing games. The user controls game
actions by varying the pressure, speed and direction of the joystick. Command buttons are used to issue
command or trigger actions.
Fig. 2.8: Joysticks

(iv) Light pen and stylus
A light pen is a light-sensitive pointing device. It operates by identifying a pixel on the screen hence
pointing to the current location. A stylus on the other hands is used on touch sensitive device such as
PDA screens that recognize a handwritten text. Fig. 2.9 shows a light pen and application of a stylus.
Fig. 2.9: A Light pen and a stylus (in use on PDA)

(c) Scanning devices
Scanning means capturing data from an object and converting it into digital format. There are two types
of scanners namely optical and magnetic scanners.
(i) Optical scanners
Optical scanners capture data using optical or light technology. A light beam passes over an object and
the image is analysed by specialized software. Some examples of optical scanners include:
Optical mark recognition
Optical mark recognition (OMR) devices such as the one shown in Fig 2.10 detect marks made on piece
of paper using ink or a soft pencil, by passing an infrared beam of light over them. The position of the
mark relative to a fixed point of reference is analysed to determine whether it is in the required place.
Fig. 2.10 OMR scanners

OMRs are used to mark multiple choice questions, analyse responses to structured questionnaires and
select correct number combinations from lottery tickets.
Optical bar recognition
The optical bar code recognition (OBR) scanners are used to capture data coded as lines of varying
thickness known as bar codes or Universal Product Code (UPC). Bar codes are most common on
consumer products and contain information such as country of manufacture, manufacturer and the
product code. Bar codes do not have the price details because prices vary from one place to another.
The two common types of bar code scanners are the hand held wand and desktop bar code reader. Fig.
2.11 shows an illustration of a wand bar code reader and bar codes.
Fig. 2.11 A wand bar code reader and bar codes

Optical character recognition
An optical character recognition (OCR) such as the one shown in Fig. 2.12 is the most advanced type of
scanner that works like the human eye. It is used to read typewritten, computer printed, or handwritten
characters and transform the images into a soft copy that can be manipulated using a word processor.
Today an OCR comes as integrated feature of more advanced scanners called flat-bed scanner. Flat bed
scanners are used to capture pictures and real objects.
Fig. 2.12: OCRs

(ii) Magnetic scanners
Magnetic scanners are used to capture data written using magnetic ink or coded onto a magnetic strip.
The two common types of magnetic scanners are:
Magnetic ink character recognition
Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) devices are used to read characters written using magnetic
ink. An example of an MICR is the cheque reader (Fig. 2.13) used in banks.
Fig. 2.13: Cheque readers

Magnetic card reader
A magnetic card reader is used to read data coded on a magnetic strip on a plastic card such as the one
used on an automated teller machine (ATM) shown in fig. 2.14 and credit card reader.
Fig. 2.14: ATMs

(d) Voice input
Data can be entered directly into a computer using voice input devices such as microphones. A
microphone is attached to a sound card which has an analog-digital converter. Speech recognition
software allows the user to issue commands using natural language. Fig. 2.15 shows a desktop
microphone.
Fig. 2.15: A Microphone and a Headphone

An emerging trend in voice input is the inclusion of voice tag in cell phones that allows the user to simply
store and dial contacts.
(e) Touch screen
Touch screen (Fig. 2.16) works by allowing the user to touch the screen in order to select an item. The
screen consists of infrared light crisscrossing behind it. When the user touches a location on the screen,
the finger interrupts the infrared light and the command touched is executed.
Fig. 2.16: Touch Screen

(f) Digitizers
A digitizer, also known as graphic tablet, is made up of flat surface and allows the user to draw an image
using a stylus (Fig. 2.17). The image drawn does not appear on the tablet but on the computer screen.
The digitizer is used for tracing highly detailed engineering and architectural drawings and design.
Fig. 2.17: A graphic tablet

(g) Digital cameras
Digital cameras capture data the same way as other cameras do but the images are stored in digital
form. Pictures are stored on a memory card instead of a film.
The digital image taken can be streamed directly into a computer, uploaded to internet using a webcam
or directly printed using a special photo printer. Figure 2.18 (a) shows as a still digital camera and Fig.
2.18 (b) a video digital camera.
(a) Digital Camera
(b) Video Digital Camera

Fig. 2.18: Digital cameras
(h) MODEM (Modulator/Demodulator)

A modem is a piece of equipment that connects two or more computers together by means of a
telephone line so that information can go from one to the other. Or
A modem is a device that allows computer information to be transmitted and received over a telephone
line.
The transmitting modem translates digital computer data into analog signals that can be carried
over a phone line. The receiving modem translates the analog signals back to digital form.
Modem compression is a technique used to reduce the number of characters transmitted without
losing data content. The transmitting modem compresses the data and the receiving computer or
modem decompresses the data back to its original state
2.1.2 Central processing unit (CPU)
Central processing unit (CPU) also referred to as the processor is the central part of the computer where
data processing takes place. It is regarded as the brain of the computer.
As mentioned earlier, the CPU of a microcomputer also referred to as microprocessor, is a tiny chip
etched into a silicon chip. It is mounted onto a board known as the motherboard or system board as
shown in Fig. 2.19.
Fig. 2.19: A motherboard (and other parts)

Regardless of size, a processor consists of three functional elements namely control unit, arithmetic and
logic unit and main memory (primary storage)
(a) Control unit
The control unit is responsible for controlling all the activities in a computer. Within the CPU, the control
unit interprets instructions fetched from the main memory and send control signals to the arithmetic
and logic unit instructing it on how to execute the instructions. Fig. 2.20 is a block diagram showing the
role of the control unit in the CPU. The control unit does not carry out any actual data processing
operations. Functions of this unit are: It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer.
It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them and directs the operation of the
computer.
It communicates with Input/ Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
It does not process or store data.
(b) Arithmetic and logic unit
The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic and logical operations on data as directed by the
control unit. Data to be executed by the ALU is temporarily held in special purpose memories located
inside the processor called registers.
The Arithmetic and Logic unit consists of two subsections namely; Arithmetic section and Logic Section
ARITHMETIC SECTION
The function of Arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above
operations.
LOGIC SECTION
The function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching and
merging of data.
(c) Main memory

The main memory stores data and instructions that are directly accessible to the processor. It is also
known as internal storage unit or memory unit or primary storage. Its size affects the speed, power and
capability of the computer. The functions of main memory are: It stores all the data to be processed and the instructions required for processing.
It stores intermediate results of processing.
It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.
Fig. 2.20: Functional elements of the CPU

The two types of main memory are random access memory (RAM) and read only memory (ROM).
(i) Random Access Memory (RAM)
Random access memory (RAM) mostly referred to as working storage is a volatile, temporary storage
that holds data entered into the computer for processing. RAM is volatile means data stored in it is lost
when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power
system (UPS) is often used with computers.
Since access time in RAM is independent of the address to the word that is, each storage location inside
the memory is as easy to reach as other location & takes the same amount of time. We can reach into
the memory at random & extremely fast but can also be quite expensive. RAM is small, both in terms of
its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
There are two types of RAM namely static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM).
(1) Static RAM
Static RAM (SRAM) is a fast type of memory mostly found inside a microprocessor. Due to its efficiency
SRAM is used on special purpose memories known as cache memory (discussed later).
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power remains applied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not
have to be refreshed on a regular basis. Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips
than DRAM for the same amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher.
Characteristics of Static RAM:
Faster access by the CPU.
Its content does not require refreshment.
It has long data lifetime
Used as cache memory
Large in size.
Expensive.
High power consumption
(2) Dynamic RAM

DRAM (shown in Fig. 2.21) is a relatively slower type of RAM compared to SRAM. The term dynamic
refers to the tendency for the stored charge to leak away, even with constant power supply. For this
reason, DRAM requires periodic recharging referred to as refreshment to maintain its data storage.
Refreshment is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred
times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells. These cells are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM:
Requires constant refreshment to avoid losing its content.
Offers slower access time compared to SRAM (Slower as compared to SRAM)
It has short data lifetime
Used as RAM
Lesser in size
Less expensive
Cheaper compared to SRAM.
Less power consumption
Fig. 2.21: A DRAM module

There are several types of DRAMs with each release promising better performance. Some commonly
available DRAMs include:
I.
Fast page mode (FPM) which is rarely used today. It operates at a lower speed of between 60 ns
and 70 ns.
II.
Extended data out (EDO) is an improvement on FPM. It performs more than one task at a time.
When one piece of data is being sent to the processor, another is being retrieved from the RAM
module. EDO RAM operates at about 50 ns.
III.
Extended correcting code (ECC) is a special type of DRAM that corrects errors and is mainly used on
servers.
IV. Synchronous dynamic RAM (SDRAM) is about twice as fast as EDO RAM because it is able to run at
the speed of the system bus up to 100 133MHz.
V.
Rambus dynamic RAM (RDRAM) gets its name from the company that developed it, Rambus, Inc.
The memory uses a special Rambus channel that has a data transfer rate of 800MHz.
VI. Double-data rate (DDR) RAM is a faster DRAM with double the rate of speed at which SDRAM can
transfer data to the processor.
VII. Video RAM (VRAM) is a specialized type of memory that is used only with video adapters. The
video adapter is one of the computers busiest components, so VRAM is used to keep up with video
requirements.
VIII. Window RAM (WRAM) is a faster version of video memory. The term window refers to its ability
to retrieve large blocks (Windows) of data at one time.
Dynamic RAM is packaged in such a way that they have contact pins that connect to the system bus via
the memory bank slots. Depending on the type of a PC you are using, if you open its system unit or
memory chamber of the laptop, you may find any of the following DRAM packages:
Dual-inline Packages (DIP) is attached directly into sockets on the system board. Newer memory
modules are actually small cards with DIP chips on one or both sides. These cards fit upright into
slots on the system board and are held in place by clips that prevent loosening.
Single inline memory module (SIMM) memory was available in 30- and 72-connector
configurations. Older Pentium computers included slots for both SIMM types. However, these types
have been phased out.
Dual Inline memory module (DIMM) is new than the SIMM and is typically used in Pentium,
Pentium II and Pentium III computers. The Rambus Inline memory module (RIMM) is designed
specifically for use with Rambus memory. RIMMs look just like DIMMs but have 184 connectors.
Small Outline DIMM (SoDIMM) is a memory module frequently used in laptop computers. The
physical size is much smaller than DIMMs. The most common pin configurations are 72- and 144-pin
modules.
MicroDIMM is half the size of a SoDIMM and allows for higher density of storage. It is designed
primarily for portable computers.
(ii) Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM stands for Read Only Memory, the memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it.
This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during
manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions as are required to start a computer when electricity is first
turned on, this operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chip (such as the one shown in Fig. 2.22) are
not only used in the computers but also in other electronic items like washing machines and microwave
ovens.
Fig. 2.22: A ROM chip

ROM is mainly used to store firmware from hardware manufacturers. Firmware is a chip with
instructions in it.
Characteristics of ROM include:
Cannot write new data or instruction.
It is non-volatile hence permanent.
The contents cannot be modified.
There are several types of ROM. These include:
I.
Mask ROM: This kind of ROM is written once at the time of manufacture and cannot be changed
afterwards.
II.
Programmable ROM (PROM): This can be written only once by the user after which it cannot be
changed again. After programming, it assumes the characteristics of mask ROM. The user buys a
blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM programmer. Inside the PROM chip
there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once
and is not erasable.
III. Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM): This is a special type of ROM that can be erased and
reprogrammed again by exposing it to ultra violet light.
IV. Electrically erasable programmable ROM (EEPROM): This is programmed and erased electrically
under software control and can support selective modification of its contents. It can be erased and
reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming takes about 4 to 10 ms
(milliseconds). By selective modification means that any location can be selectively erased and
programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip.
Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but slow. A BIOS chip found on a microcomputers
motherboard is an example of EEPROM.
Advantages of ROM:
Non-volatile in nature
These cannot be accidentally changed
Cheaper than RAMs
Easy to test
More Reliable than RAMs
These are static and do not require refreshing
Its contents are always known and can be verified
SPECIAL PURPOSE MEMORIES
Some other types of memories are embedded in a microprocessor in order to enhance its processing
speed. These memories include buffers, registers and cache memory.
Cache memory
Cache memory (pronounced as cash) is a fast type of RAM. There are three types of cache memory
namely:
I. Level 1 also known as primary cache located inside the microprocessor
II. Level 2 also known as external cache that may be inside the microprocessor or mounted on the
motherboard.
III. Level 3 is the latest type of cache that works with level 2 caches to optimise system performance.
Buffers
Buffers are special memories that are found in input/output devices. Input data is held in the input
buffer while processed data is held in output buffer. For example, computer printers have buffers where
they can store massive documents sent by the CPU for printing hence freeing the CPU to perform other
urgent tasks as the printer continues to print in the background.
Registers
Registers are high speed memory location capable of holding only one piece of data item at time.
Registers are located inside the CPU. They hold data and instructions just before or after processing in
the ALU. Some types of registers include:
I. Program counter (PC) holds the memory address of the instruction to be fetched next.
II. Instruction register (IR) holds the instruction that is currently being processed.
III. Accumulator (AC) holds the results of the last processing step of the ALU.
IV. Address register (AR) holds the address of the next piece of data to be fetched for processing.
V. Storage resister (SR) holds a piece of data that is on its way to and from the CPU.
TYPES OF PROCESSORS
From programmers point of view, there are two types of processors. These are complex instruction set
computers (CISC) and reduced instruction set computers (RISC).
I.
Complex instruction set computers (CISC) design is made up of complex instructions microcode into
the processor. This design was popularized by Intel Corporation and is widely used on Pentium
processors. Other manufactures such as AMD and Cyrix who produce Intel compatible chips use the
same technology. Some example s of CISC includes Intel Pentium and AMD Athlon.
II. Reduced instruction set computers (RISC) design, on the other hand, uses fewer instructions set
than CISC hence it is less costly. Motorola and Sun Microsystems companies are the main
manufacturers of RISC processors. Motorola produced PowerPC is used on Apple Macintosh while
Sun produces SPARC used on servers.
MICROPROCESSORS AND THEIR CLOCK SPEEDS
Today, the microprocessor market is dominated by Intel Corporation. However, there are other Intel
competitors such as Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), Cylix, Sun Microsystems and Motorola.
Over time, these manufacturers have released a number of processor models. Each release sees an
improvement in processing speed which is measured in Hertz (Hz) using a system clock. Table 2.1 gives a
summary of some microprocessors and their speeds.
Processor
Intel 8086
Intel 8088
Intel 80186
Intel 80286
Intel 80386
Intel 80486
Pentium
Year
1978
1979
1980
1982
1985 1990
1990
1993
Manufacturer
Intel
Intel
Intel
Intel
Intel
Intel
Intel
Pentium Pro
1995
AMD K5
Pentium MMX
Pentium II
AMD K6
Cyrix 6x86
Pentium III
AMD Athron
AMD Duron
Pentium 4
Intel Core 2
Duo
AMD Athron
Dual Core
1995
1997
1997
1997
1997
1999
1999
2000
Nov. 2000
Intel
Used on servers
AMD
Intel
Intel
AMD
Cyrix
Intel
AMD
AMD
Intel
2006
Intel
2005
AMD
Speed and remark

5 MHz 10MHz
Similar to 8086
25MHz
6 12.5MHz
16 33MHz
Upgradable
60, 66, 75, 90, 100, 120, 133, 150, 166 and
200MHz
150, 166, 180 and 200MHz
75, 90, 100 and 116MHz
166, 200 and 233MHz with MMX technology.
Plugged on to Single-edge contact (SEC)
166 266MHz
150, 166 0r 187MHz
450MHz to 1.13GHz
500MHz to 2.33GHz
600MHz to 1.8GHz
1.4GHz to 3.2GHz
> 1.6GHz x 2
> 2.0GHz x 2
Table 2.1: Microprocessors

2.1.3 Output devices
Output devices make it possible for the user to get processed information from the computer. The most
common types of output data include text, pictures, sound and video. Output devices be classified into
two categories, namely softcopy output devices and hardcopy output devices.
(a) Softcopy output devices
Softcopy can be defined as output that can be seen or heard but cannot be touched. Examples of
softcopy output devices include monitor, sound output devices and LCD projectors.
(i) Monitors
A monitor, also known as visual display unit (VDU) or the screen, is used to display information in the
form of text, pictures and video, enabling the user to monitor what is going on in the computer. The
monitor forms images from tiny dots, called pixels, which are arranged in a rectangular form. The
sharpness of the image depends upon the number of the pixels.
There are three common types of monitors namely cathode ray tube (CRT), liquid crystal display (LCD)
and gas plasma display monitors. LDCs and gas plasma displays are generally referred to as flat-panel
display. Fig. 2.24 shows an example of a CTR and a flat-panel display.
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power
requirement compare to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current
uses for flat-panel displays include calculators, videogames, monitors, laptop computer, graphics
display.
Fig. 2.24 CTR and flat-panel monitors

Some of the terms associated with computer display include:
Pixel (picture elements) are tiny dots which are used to form the images displayed on the screen. In a
colour monitor, a pixel has the three primary colours namely red, green and blue.
Colour depth refers to number of colours which can be displayed by a pixel. It is measured in bits.
Resolution: This is the number of pixels per inch on the screen usually given in dots per inch (dpi) or bits.
The higher the resolution, the more the number of pixels per inch, hence the clearer the images.
Video adapter: The monitor is connected to the system unit through the video port to a video adapter.
The video adapter determines the resolution and clarity of the monitor. Examples of video adapters
include:
I.
Colour graphics adapter (CGA) displays text and images up to 16 colours.
II. Enhanced graphics adapter (EGA) was an improvement of CGA but also displays in 16 colours.
III. Video graphics array (VGA) displays text and graphics and video using 256 colours.
IV. Super video graphics array (SVGA) displays text and graphics using more than 16 million colours. It
has a minimum resolution of 800 600 pixels.
V. Extended graphics array (XGA) has a resolution of up to 1024 768 pixels. It is popular with 17 and
19 inch monitors.
VI. Super extended graphics array (SXGA) has a resolution of 1280 1024 pixels and is popular with 19
and 21 inch monitors.
VII. Ultra extended graphics array (UXGA) is the latest and has the highest standard.
Refresh rate: Since CRTs cannot hold an image for a long time, image in the video RAM is used to refresh
the one on the screen as long as necessary. If a screen has a low refresh rate, images tend to flicker
hence causing eyestrain. Display size is measured in inches as the diagonal length of the screen
measured from top right to bottom left.
Cathode ray tube monitors
A cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor consists of a long glass tube with an electron gun on one end and a
screen on the other end. The screen is coated with tiny phosphorus dots that illuminate red, green and
blue to make a pixel.
The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated
pixel to form whole character, such as the letter e - in the word help. A finite number of characters can
be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series of character boxes - fixed
location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying
80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
There are two types of CRTs namely Invar and Trinitron.
In the invar type, pixels are placed horizontally while in the Trinitron type, pixels are placed in a vertical
grid.
There are some disadvantages of CRT:

Large in Size
High Power consumption
Liquid crystal display (LCD) monitors
The liquid crystal display (LCD) monitors are made of special liquid crystals. Unlike CRTs, LCDs are less
bulky, consume less power and have little effect on eyes. Due to this reason, LCD monitors are gradually
replacing the CRT monitors as desktop computers.
There are two types of LCD monitors namely passive matrix and active matrix.
In passive matrix, LCDs create images by scanning the entire screen. This type of LCD requires little
power but has poor clarity. On the other hand, active matrix displays are made using thin film transistors
(TFTs). These displays consume more power than passive matrix but offer better clarity.
Gas plasma displays
Gas plasma displays resemble LCDs but use gas instead of liquid. They contain millions of pixels that are
illuminated by charged neon gas. Unlike LCDs, images displayed on gas plasma do not suffer from angle
distortion. For this reason this technology is becoming more popular. It is currently used in producing
high definition TVs (HDTV) with large screen used in homes and entertainment places.
(ii) Sound output devices
Examples of sound output devices include speakers (Fig.2.25) and headphones. Some computers come
with inbuilt speakers hence there is no need to connect external ones. An external speaker should be
connected to sound card through the jacks on the system unit or on a multimedia monitor.
Fig. 2.25: Speakers

(iii) LCD projectors
LCD projectors (Fig. 2.26) are used to display output from a computer on plain white screen like a wall or
whiteboard. It is a creative way of presenting computer output to an audience. This technology is
gradually replacing the traditional overhead projectors.
Fig. 2.26: An LCD projector

(b) Hardcopy output devices
Hardcopy can be defined as tangible output that can be seen and touched. An example of hardcopy is a
printout. Three commonly used hardcopy output devices are printers, plotters and facsimile (fax).
(i) Printers
Printers can generally be classified into two main categories namely impact and non- impact printers.
Impact printers
Impact printers print using striking mechanism. This means that they strike the paper in order to form an
imprint on it. Impact printers are cheaper to run and print for long periods without breaking down.
They, however, produce low quality printouts.
Characteristics of Impact Printers:
Very low consumable costs

Impact printers are very noisy
Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
Two examples of impact printers are dot matrix and daisywheel printers.
A dot matrix printer (Fig. 2.27a) has a set of pins which strikes on an ink ribbon placed over the paper.
A daisywheel printer (Fig. 2.27b) has a removable flower-like wheel consisting of spokes with embossed
characters. When printing, the wheel is rotated to align the required character and then hit with a
hammer. However these printers are no longer in the market.
(a) Dot matrix printer
(b) Daisy wheel printer

Fig. 2.27: Impact printers
Non-impact printers
Non-printers are faster and produce less noise than the impact printers. They print using ink, thermal or
laser mechanisms.
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers:
Faster than impact printers.
They are not noisy.
High quality.
Support many fonts and different character size.
There are four types of non-impact printers namely inkjet, thermal, laser printers and photo printers.
I.
Inkjet printers (Fig. 2.28) print by spraying tiny ink droplets onto a paper to create an image. They
make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes
available. A colour inkjet printer may have two cartridges, one for black and a tricolor that contains
cyan, magenta and yellow (CMY) compartments. The cartridge has nozzles that do the actual
spraying of ink on the paper.
Inkjet printers are cheaper and produce better quality printouts. They are, however, slow as
compare to laser printers and more expensive to run due to the high cost of replacing the cartridges.
Another drawback is that, an inkjet printout easily gets smudged when water drops on it.
Fig. 2.28: An Inkjet Printer

II. Thermal printers (Fig. 2.29) work by heating solid ink which is normally in wax or resin form to
melting point then transferring it onto the paper to form characters. Thermal printers are mostly
used in point of sale terminals to print receipts and bar codes. Thermal printers produce high quality
printouts. They are, however, more expensive to purchase and run.
Fig. 2.29: A thermal printer

III. Laser printers (Fig. 2.30) operate by shining a laser beam to create an image on a rotating drum. As
the beam hits the drum, it ionizes some regions which attract ink toner particles. The toner is then
fused onto a piece of paper. Laser printers are every fast compared to the other two. They are also
cheaper to run and produce printouts of high quality. They are, however, more expensive than the
others.
Fig. 2.30: Laser printer

IV. Photo printers (Fig. 2.31) are special purpose printers designed to print photographs.
Fig. 2.31 Photo printers

(ii) Plotters
A plotter (Fig. 2.32) is used for printing wide format printouts mainly photographs, maps and
architectural designs.
Fig. 2.32: A Plotter

2.1.4 Secondary storage
Secondary storage, also referred to as auxiliary storage device, is so called because unlike primary
storage, it is not directly accessible by the CPU. However, it offers long term storage for data and
information. Secondary storage devices can be classified into two ways by:
a) Portability as removable and fixed
b) Technology used to store and retrieve data (magnetic, optical, magneto-optical and solid state.)
(a) Removable magnetic storage
Magnetic storage media use magnetic technology to store data. The process involves organizing minute
atomic level magnets called dipoles to represent data on the medium. Data is read and written into the
media using a device known as drive. Examples of removable magnetic media include: magnetic tapes
and floppy disk.
Magnetic tapes
A Magnetic tape is made using a thin ribbon of Mylar (plastic) coated with a thin layer of magnetic
material composed of iron oxide. The tape may be housed inside a plastic (Fig. 2.33) as a cassette or
coiled around an open wheel.
Fig. 2.33: Magnetic tape

Floppy disks
A floppy disk is so called because of its flexible disk platter. An outer jacket protects the Mylar coated
with iron oxide that stores data. The floppy disk is inserted inside a floppy drive which has a read/write
that runs over the magnetized sports. Fig. 2.34 (a) showed the front of a floppy disk. A floppy disk has
concentric circles called tracks in which data is written. The tracks are further divided into units called
sectors as shown in Fig. 2.34 (b).
(a) Front and rear of a floppy disk

(b) Imaginary tracks and sectors
Fig. 2.34: Structure of a floppy disk
Caring for magnetic media
To avoid accidental loss of data or information held on magnetic media, the following rules must be
observed:
1. Do not expose magnetic media to strong magnetic fields. This would disorient the magnetic dipoles
causing erasure of the recorded data.
2. Do not expose magnetic media to excessive heat. Heat energy leads to loss of magnetic strength in
materials; hence magnetically recorded data can easily get lost.
3. Do not drop magnetic media on the ground because the impact weakness magnetism.
4. Do not bend or fold magnetic media or put heavy weights on them to avoid breaking or damaging
them.
5. Do not touch the magnetic surfaces.
6. Do not remove media from the drive when it is still being accessible by the compute because this may
result in data loss.
(b) Removable magneto-optical storage
Magneto-optical media stores data both magnetically and optically. This is achieved by heating the
media to about 149oC using a precise laser beam which then guides a magnetic head to write on the
heated area.
Heating disorients the magnetic dipoles in the area and enables the magnetic head to rearrange them in
a new pattern that represents the data being written. Reading is done using a laser beam which can
detect the polarization of the magnetic dipoles on the media. Some examples of magneto-optical media
are the Zip and Jaz disks, HiFD and LS-120 superdisk.
(i) Zip disk
The zip disk is a special type of a disk which can hold data of up to 750MB. It is stable, inexpensive and
easy to work with. Zip disks are read using a zip drive which may be internal. Fig. 2.35 shows a zip disk in
an external drive.
(a) Zip disk
(b) Zip disk and zip disk drive

Fig. 2.35: Zip disk and drive
(ii) Jaz disk

Jaz disks (Fig. 2.36) resemble zip disks in every sense only that they have a larger storage capacity of up
to 2 GB. They are also read using an internal or external drive.
Fig. 2.36: A Jaz Disk

(iii) High capacity floppy disk
High capacity floppy disk simply known as HiFD disk stores up to 200 MB of data. HiFD drive can also
read the 1.44 MB floppy disk.
(iv) Laser servo 120 super disks
Laser servo 120 super disks simply known as LS-120 superdisk can store up to 240 MB. LS-120 drive can
also read the 1.44MB floppy disk.
(c) Removable optical storage
Optical storage media are so called because data is written and read from them using a laser beam. Fig.
2.37 shows an example of an optical disk.
Fig. 2.37: An optical disk

There are various types of optical disks depending on the format used to store data. The most common
include:
(i) Compact disks (CD): This is made of a small plastic disk with a reflective aluminum coating on one
side. CDs can store data of approximately 700MB. There are three common types of CDs namely
read only, recordable and rewritable CDs.
I.
Compact disk read only memory (CD-ROM): As the name suggests contains data that can only
be read but cannot be written on.
II. Compact disk recordable (CD-R): They are coated with special dye which changes colour to
represent data when burned using a laser beam. Once data is burned on a CD-R, it becomes a
read only. Both the CD-ROM and the CD-R are generally known as write once read many
(WORM) disks.
III. Compact disk rewritable (CD-RW): Unlike a CD-R, the CD-RW disk can be erased and rewritten
more than once. Because of this, it is also called a compact disk erasable (CD-E). It is also coated
with special dye which allows rewriting.
(ii) Digital versatile disk (DVD): Digital versatile disks resemble CD-ROMs in every aspect only that they
can store more data. For example, a typical DVD can store approximately 17 GB. Just like CDs, there
are three common types of DVDs namely read only, recordable and rewritable DVDs.
(d) Solid state storage devices

Solid state storage is a kind of nonvolatile storage media that employs integrated circuits rather than
mechanical, magnetic or optical technology. They are regarded as solid state because they do not have
moving parts but everything is electronic as is the case of RAM or EEPROM. Some examples of solid
state devices include flash disks and memory cards shown in Fig. 2.38.
Fig. 2.38: Solid state storage devices

The advantages of solid state storage over the other removable media is that they are noiseless since
they have no mechanical parts, they offer faster access to store data, and they are very small hence
more portable.
(e) Fixed magnetic storage
A hard disk, also known as hard drive, is an example of fixed storage. However, this is not absolutely the
case because some hard disks are removable. It is called a hard disk because it is made up of metallic
disk platters (Fig. 2.39) housed in a protective metal case. The read/write head moves just above the
surface of the rapidly rotating disk to read or write data.
Most computers hard disks are connected to motherboard via channel called controller. Some of the
controllers in use are: integrated drive electronic (IDE), enhanced IDE or AT attachment (ATA).
Fig. 2.39: Hard disk

Structure of a hard disk
Just like the floppy disk, a hard disk is made up of tracks and sectors. It has more than one platter
stacked on top of each other to form a cylinder as shown in Fig. 2.40.
Some of the advantages of the hard disk over the other storage media is that they store very large
volumes of data and offer faster data access.
Fig. 2.40: Cylinders of disk platters

Care of the hard disk
Just like other magnetic media, care should be taken to avoid loss of data due to crashing.
Keep the hard disk away from smoke and dust.
Switch off the computer using the correct procedure.
2.1.5 Basic Computer Setup
Basic computer setup involves connecting the basic parts such as monitor, keyboard, mouse and
speakers to the system unit. Once you setup the computer, you can connect it to the mains power
supply.
Power supply unit and adapter
Though computers are connected to AC power outlet, internal components require DC power. Desktop
PCs use power supply unit while portable computers use adapters to convert AC and DC. Fig. 2.41 (a)
shows a power supply unit while Fig. 2.41 (b) shows an AC/DC adapter.
(a) Power supply unit
(b) AC/DC adapter

Fig. 2.41: Power supply
Connecting main components

The main input/output components are connected to the system unit wirelessly or by cables through
ports.
A port is a connection point on your computer where you can connect devices that pass data into and
out of a computer. For example, a printer is typically connected to a parallel port (also called an LPT
port), and a modem is typically connected to a serial port (also called a COM port). Fig. 2.42 shows some
ports in a computer.
Fig. 2.42: Ports

There are various types of ports. These include serial, parallel connection, universal serial bus, PS/2,
video, firewire, infrared and Bluetooth ports.
I.
Serial ports: Also known as COM (communication) port or RS232 port, support transmission of data
one bit at a time. Serial ports are used for devices which do not require high speed transmission
such as mice and modems. A serial port that enables data transfer rates of 12 Mbps is called USB
port.
II. Parallel connection ports: Unlike a serial port, a parallel port, commonly referred to as LPT,
transmits more than one bit at a time. This results in faster data transfer than in serial port
connection.
III. Universal serial bus (USB): This is a special serial port that has become the standard connectivity for
most of the peripheral devices. It can be used to connect as many as 127 peripheral devices to a
computer.
A USB (universal serial bus) is an external bus that supports Plug and Play installation. Using USB,
you can connect and disconnect devices without shutting down or restarting your computer. You
can use a single USB port to connect up to 127 peripheral devices (using a USB hub), including
speakers, telephones, CD-ROM drives, joysticks, tape drives, keyboards, scanners, and cameras. A
USB port is usually located on the back of your computer near the serial port or parallel port.
There are two types of USBs namely low speed USB (1.1) and a relatively faster high speed USB
(2.0).
Plug and Play is a set of specifications developed by Intel that allows a computer to automatically
detect and configure a device (a plug and play device) and installs the appropriate device drivers.
A Non-Plug and Play device is a piece of equipment, such as a printer, modem, or game controller,
which requires manual configuration of hardware settings before it can be used. Non-Plug and Play
devices are becoming increasingly rare as manufacturers stop producing them in favour of Plug and
Play devices. Non-Plug and Play typically applies to older pieces of equipment.
IV. PS/2 ports: PS/2 connectors, also known as mini-DIN connectors, get their names from Deutche
Industrinom which is Germany standard. An example of PS/2 port is where PS/2 mouse and
keyboard are connected.
V. Video port: A video port is where monitor is connected to LCD projectors. It is shaped like a letter D
with 15 pins and colour coded in blue.
VI. Firewire port: Firewire or IEEE 1394 has the same features as the USB but transmits data faster than
USB. It is mostly used for streaming video from a digital video camera.
VII. Infrared and Bluetooth: These are both wireless connectivity. Infrared, also referred to as infrared
data association (IrDA), uses the infrared waves to transmit data. Infrared (IR) is light that is beyond
red in the colour spectrum. While the light is not visible to the human eye, infrared transmitters and
receivers (infrared devices) can send and receive infrared signals (communicate using infrared light).
Infrared-enabled devices must be at a line of sight of infrared rays in order to transmit data.
Bluetooth, on the other hand, broadcast a radio signal within the surrounding. Any Bluetoothenabled device when turned on will be detected.
2.2 Computer Software

As mentioned earlier, the term computer software refers to a set of instructions that direct a computer
on what to do. Software can be classified into two broad categories namely system Software and
application software.
2.2.1 System software
System software performs the fundamental operations that avail the computers resources to user
applications. There are four types of system software namely operating systems, utility programs
networking software and firmware.
(a) Operating systems
An operating system is a program that manages the computer hardware resources and controls the
execution of application programs. Some examples of operating systems include Microsoft windows,
Linux and MacOS.
(b) Utility programs
Utility software, also called service programs, are special programs used to enhance performance of the
system. System level utilities optimise system performance while application level utilities help in the
smooth running of application software. For example, the zebugger program automatically launches to
try and help an application to recover from an exception.
(c) Networking software
Networking software enables computer and other peripheral devices connected on a network to
communicate and share resources.
2.2.2 Application Software
These are programs that are designed to meet user-specific needs. Application software can be
classified according to purpose and acquisition.
(a) Classification according to purpose
Classified according to purpose, an application software can be either a general purpose or specialpurpose software. General purpose software such as word processors, spreadsheets, database and
presentation software are packaged and made available for general use.
On the other hand, special purpose applications such as desktop publishing, video editing and photo
editing software are used to carry out specialized tasks.
(b) Classification according to acquisition

Classification according to acquisition, an application software can be either in-house developed or an
off-the-shelf software. In-house developed software are tailored to meet specific needs within the
organization.
On the other hand, vendor off-the-shelf software is developed and packaged for sale. Off-the-shelf
packages are widely used because:
It takes less time to assess company needs, buy and install them.
They are less expensive to acquire and maintain.
They are readily available for almost any task.
They are thoroughly tested before being released hence less chances of errors.
However, there are some drawbacks of off-the-shelf packages such as:
They may have some features not need by the user which may take extra storage.
They may require the user to change its processes and hardware for compatibility which may in turn
be expensive.
2.3 Relationship between Hardware and Software
Mutually dependent. Both of them must work together to make computer produce a useful output.
Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the hardware
Hardware is a one time expense.
Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
Different software can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software is its 'soul'. Both are complimentary to
each other.
2.4 Criteria for selecting computer system

Before acquiring computer hardware and software there is need to consider a number of factors.
2.4.1 Hardware consideration
There are a number of factors one needs to put into consideration before acquiring computer hardware
and accessories. Fig 2.43 shows three different types of computers that may be chosen.
Desktop PC
Notebook PC
Apple iMac
Fig. 2.43: Types of microcomputers
Some important factors you need to put into consideration include:

(a) Processor (CPU) types and speed

The price of a computer is dictated by the type of microprocessor installed and its clock speed. Currently
the models available on microcomputers include the Pentium, Celeron, AMD Athlon and Cyrix. Consider:
Frequency (GHz) - This determines speed of the processor. More the speed, better the CPU.
Cores - Today's CPUs come with more than one core, which is like having more than one CPU in the
computer. Programs which can take advantage of multi-core environment will run faster on such
machines.
Brand - Intel or AMD. Both are equivalent. Intel is in lead.
Cache - Higher the L1, L2 cache, better the CPU performance
Recommended - Intel Core i3 i3-3225 3.30 GHz Processor
(b) Memory capacity
Memory capacity dictates the operating system and the application that can run efficiently on the
computer.
RAM is considered as Computer Memory as performance of a computer is directly proportional to its
memory and processor.
Today's software and operating system requires high memory.
Today commonly used RAM is DDR3 which operates at 1066Mhz
As per Windows 7, 1 GB is the minimum RAM required to function properly.
Recommended - 4 GB
(c) Hard Drive
Hard disk is used for storage purpose. The higher the capacity, the more data you can save in it.
Now-a-day's computer are equipped with 500GB which can be extended to 2TB.
Most hard drives in desktop computers operate at the standard performance speed of 7200RPM.
Recommended - 500GB
(d) Optical Drive (CD / DVD / Blu-ray)
Optical drive is the drive on a computer which is responsible

to CD, DVD and Blu-ray disks.
Now-a-days, DVD burners are industry standards.
DVD Burner can burn CD, DVD and play them.
DVD Burners are cheaper than Blu-ray drives.
Blu-ray drives can play HD movies but are costlier
component.
Recommended - DVD Burner.
(e) Display
Flat-panel display monitors are becoming more popular and are gradually replacing the traditional CRT
monitors.
Size - It is the diagonal size of the LCD screen. The larger the area, the bigger the picture screen. A
bigger picture is preferable for movie watching and gaming. It will increase productivity as well.
Resolution - This is the number of pixels on the screen. For example, 24-inch display is 1920x1200
(width by length) and 22-inch display which is 1680x1050. High resolution provides better picture
quality and a nice gaming experience.
Inputs - Now-a-days monitors can accept inputs from cable as well as apart from computer. They
also can have USB ports.
Stand - Some monitors provides adjustable stands but some may not.
Recommended - 24 Inch LCD
(f) Warranty
The hardware bought must have a warranty cover and must be guaranteed for a specific period of time.
In most cases, the longer the warranty, the better the hardware.
(g) Cost
The cost of the components must be considered. A good market survey would enable purchase of
genuine components at a reasonable cost.
(h) Compatibility and upgradability
The hardware bought must be compatible across platforms and easily upgradable.
(i) Special needs
The hardware must be able to take care of the special need of the user. If the user is physically
challenged, special hardware may be required.
(j) Portability
Portable computers are ideal for people who do not take most of their time in an office. However, these
are expensive.
(k) Other considerations
Other considerations include available ports, wireless connectivity, multimedia and the system unit
form factor (whether tower type or desktop).
2.4.2 Software considerations
There are a number of factors that may need to be put into consideration before acquiring system or
application software. (Fig 2.43) shows three off-the-shelf software products.
Some important factors need to be put into consideration. They include:
(a) Authenticity
Authenticity of software must be considered to avoid purchasing pirated software. Authenticity is
established by having the manufactures certificate of authenticity.
(b) Documentation
Software documentation includes user manuals, troubleshooting and installation guides as well as
online help. A good software product must be accompanied with this documentation.
(c) User needs
Before purchasing a software product or engaging in developing one, one should analyse the users
needs.
(d) Reliability
Good software must be reliable and secure.
(e) User-friendly
The graphical user-interface has made modern software that are more user-friendly. However, GUIbased software may be difficult to use.
(f) Cost
Software tend to be more expensive that hardware. The cost of acquiring a software product must be
carefully considered before acquiring it against the benefits that it is likely to bring. It is not also
advisable to go for products which are freely available on the internet because some of them may be
malicious programs.
However, you may go for Free and Open Source Software (FOSS), which are now-a-days increasing in
their importance since most of them are not attached by malwares (like viruses, Trojan and worms).
(g) Compatibility and upgradability

A software product must be compatible with the existing hardware, operating system or application
programs and should be readily upgradable.
For example:
Operating System
Operating System is the main software of the computer as everything will run on it in one form or
other.
There are primarily three choices: Windows, Linux, Apple OS X.
Linux is free but people generally do not use it for home purpose.
Apple OS X works only on Apple Desktops.
Windows 7 is very popular among desktop users.
Most of the computer comes pre-equipped with Windows 7 Starter edition.
Windows 8 is recently introduced and is available in market.
Windows 7 and Windows 8 come under multiple versions from starter, home basic, home premium,
professional, ultimate and enterprise editions.
As edition version increases, their features list and price increases.
Recommended - Windows 7 Home Premium.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Chapter 3
Outline
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
Introduction
Features, Objectives and Characteristics of an operating system
Role, structure, resources and function of an operating system
Types of operating systems
How an operating system organizes information
Managing files and folders using windows
Managing storage devices using windows
Installation and configuration of an operating system
Troubleshooting and fixing problems

_____________________________________________________________________________________
3.0 Introduction
As mentioned earlier, an operating system is the main program that controls and manages the
computers hardware and software resources. Some examples of operating systems include Microsoft
windows, Macintosh operating system (MacOS), Linux, FreeBSD, Sun Solaris, VSE/ESA, zOS and those
embedded on PDAs and cell phones.
3.1 Features, Objectives and Characteristics of an operating system

3.1.1 Operating System is a program with following features:
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software and the computer
hardware.
It is an integration set of specialised programs that are used to manage overall resources and
operations of the computer.
It is specialised software that controls and monitors the execution of all other programs that reside in
the computer, including application programs and other system software.
3.1.2 Objectives of Operating System:
Making a computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner

To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users
To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users and making it easier for the users to
access and use other resources.
Manage the resources of a computer system.
Keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, according for resource using
and mediating conflicting requests from different programs and users.
The efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs
3.1.3 Characteristics of Operating System
Memory Management -- It keeps tracks of primary memory i.e. what part of it are in use by whom,
what part are not in use etc. Allocates the memory when the process or program requests it.
Processor Management -- Allocate the processor (CPU) to a process. Deallocate processor when
processor is no longer required.
Device Management -- Keep tracks of all devices. This is also called I/O controller. Decides which
process gets the device when and for how much time.
File Management -- Allocates the resources. De-allocates the resource. Decides who gets the
resources.
Security -- By means of passwords & similar other techniques, preventing unauthorized access to
programs & data.
Job accounting -- Keeping track of time & resources used by various jobs and/or users.
Control over system performance -- Recording delays between request for a service & from the
system.
Interaction with the operators -- The interaction may take place via the console of the computer in
the form of instructions. Operating System acknowledges the same, do the corresponding action and
inform the operation by a display screen.
Error-detecting aids -- Production of dumps, traces, error messages and other debugging and errordetecting methods.
Coordination between other software and users -- Coordination and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer systems.
3.2 Role, structure, resources and functions of an operating system

3.2.1 Role of an operating system
An operating system acts as the interface between the user applications and the computer hardware as
illustrated in Fig. 3.1
Fig. 3.1: The role of an operating system

3.2.2 Structure of an operating system
In order to control the interactions between various system resources, an operating system may consist
of a complicated set of layers with the lowest being the hardware and the highest being the user
application as shown in Fig. 3.2. The kernel is the core of an operating system. It is responsible for
managing the communication between hardware and software resources. The outer part of an
operating system the user uses to interact with the operating system is called the shell or the userinterface.
Fig. 3.2: Layered structure

3.2.3 Resources managed by an operating system

Processor: It is the operating system which determines which task (process) will be executed first.
Memory: The operating system determines which task (process) remains in the main memory and which
one will be temporarily suspend to the virtual memory.
Input/output devices and ports: The operating system allocates requests from applications to
input/output devices. It also ensures smooth data transfer between the various input/output devices.
Secondary storage devices: The operating system manages the storage and retrieval of data from
backing storage.
Communication devices: The operating system manages various communications devices and provides
an environment within which communication protocols operate. Protocol refers to the rules that govern
communication between devices on a network.
3.2.4 Functions of an operating system
Job scheduling: The operating system kernel schedules or determines which task will use what
resources at what time. Some tasks will be given priority over others due to the nature of request.
This is referred to as interrupt handling.
Interrupt handling: An interrupt is a break from the sequential processing of a task or program by
transferring control to a new process that requests to be executed.
Resource control and allocation: The operating system maintains a set of queues made up of the
processes waiting for a particular resource. Using the round robin technique, each process on the
queue is given access to a resource in turn.
Input/ Output management: The operating system uses special software called device drivers to
manage and communicate with input/output devices such as keyboard, mouse, display, sound output
devices, printers and scanners.
Memory management: The operating system divides the main memory into partitions. If the
partitions are of fixed size, they are called pages and the operating system knows exactly on which
page a process or data is currently held.
At any one time, not all the pages of a process may be held in the virtual memory. Virtual memory is
an image of main memory created on secondary storage devices like the hard disk in order to allow
programs that are too large to fit in RAM to be executed.
Error handling: The operating system performs error checking on hardware, software and data. It
may suggest solutions to problems that are identified.
Job sequencing: The operating system arranges tasks to be processed in a particular order and
clocks them in and out of the processor.
Security: Modern operating systems implement security policies such that unauthorised users cannot
get access to a computer or network resource.
3.3 Types of operating systems

There are several types of operating systems. These operating systems can be classified according to:
Size of a computer.
Number of tasks.
Number of users.
User interface.
3.3.1 Classification according to size of computer
(a) Embedded operating systems
Embedded operating systems are those used on hand held devices such as mobile phones and PDAs.
Some examples are Microsoft Windows CE, Linux, PalmOS and Symbian OS. Fig 3.3 shows a pocket PC
running on Windows CE operating system.
Fig. 3.3: Pocket PC running on Windows CE

(b) Desktop and network operating system
Some operating systems are meant for home users and are cheaper and easier to use. Such operating
systems are generally referred to as desktop or stand-alone operating systems. Examples are Windows
XP, Windows 7 and Windows 8.
On the other hand, network operating systems (NOS) are used on servers and client computers.
Examples of NOS include Windows 2000, XP and Vista, Novell Netware, UNIX and Linux etc. Fig 3.4
shows seven clients connected to a server.
Fig. 3.4: Client/ Server network

(c) Operating systems used on large computers
There are some specialized operating systems used on mainframes and supercomputers. For example,
IBM VSE/ESA and zOS are used on mainframe computers. Fig 3.5 shows IBM zSeries 900 computer that
runs on VSE/ESA and zOS.
Fig. 3.5: IBM zSeries 900

3.3.2 Classification according to tasks

(a) Single task operating systems
Single task operating systems run only one program at a time. Examples of such operating systems are
the early version of Microsoft disk operating system (MS DOS) and PC DOS.
(b)Multitasking operating systems
Multitasking operating systems, also referred to as multiprogramming operating systems, allow more
than one program to run apparently at the same time. The CPU switches between various running
applications, making it appear as if they are running at the same time. Examples are UNIX, Novell
Netware, Microsoft Windows and Linux.
3.3.3 Classification according to number of users
(a) Single-user operating systems
Single user operating systems are designed to be used by one person at a time. Examples are MS DOS,
PC DOS, Windows 7 and Linux.
(b) Multi-user operating systems
Multi-user operating systems allow more than one user to access system resources apparently at the
same time. These are mostly NOS and large computers operating systems. Examples are Microsoft
NT/2000/2003 Server, Linux, Solaris, zOS and VSE/ESA.
3.3.4 Classification according to user-interface
The human-computer interface or simply user-interface is the interaction that enables communication
to take place between the user and the computer. The three types of operating systems according to
user-interface are command-line, menu driven and graphical user-interface (GUI) operating systems.
(a) Command-line user interface
Command-line user interface operating systems lets the user type a command at the command prompt.
The computer reads the typed command from the command line and executes it. Examples of
command-line OS are MS DOS, UNIX and OS/2. Fig 3.6 shows the MS DOS interface.
Fig. 3.6: Command-line interface

Command-line operating systems have become unpopular because it is difficult to remember the
commands, they cannot process complex graphics and they hardly make use of emerging hardware and
software technologies.
(b) Menu driven operating systems
Menu driven operating systems were developed to address the shortcomings of command-line
interface. The user simply chooses commands from a list of menu options. Most ATM machines (Fig 3.7)
use menu driven interface. An example of a menu driven interface is the DOS editor screen (Fig 3.8) that
came with later versions of MS DOS.
Fig. 3.7: An ATM
Fig. 3.8: The MS DOS editor screen
(c) Graphical user-interface operating system

Graphical user-interface (GUI) is the latest effort to make the user-interface more user-friendly. Beside
menus, GUI makes use of rectangular frames called windows, graphical objects called icons and most
commands are executed using a point device. These features are given an acronym WIMP which stands
for windows, icons, menus and pointer. Some examples of GUI operating systems include Microsoft
windows, MacOS and Linux. Fig 3.9 shows the MacOS desktop.
Icons
Fig. 3.9: Windows 7 desktop
Window
3.3.5 Factors to consider when choosing an operating system

The type of an operating system you go for depends on a number of factors. These include:
The hardware configuration of the computer such as the memory capacity, processor speed and hard
disk capacity.
The type of computer in terms of size and make. For example, some earlier Apple computers would
not run on Microsoft operating system.
The application software intended for the computer.
User-friendliness of the operating system.
The documentation available.
The cost of the operating system.
Reliability and security provided by the operating system.
The number of processors and hardware it can support.
The number of users it can support.
3.4 How an operating system organizes information

Although most operating systems differ in terms of user-interface, they basically handle information the
same way. The factors that dictate how information is to be organized are:
1. Rapid access: The organization method should allow quick access to store data.
2. Ease of update: The organization method should allow ease of update and the operating system
must be able to keep a record of the date of modification.
3. Economy of storage: The organization method should use the least storage possible because
memory is a scarce resource.
4. Simplicity of maintenance: The organization method should enable quick navigation through the file
system and make it easy for it to be maintained.
5. Reliability: The file organization method must be reliable.
Most operating systems organize information in a three-tier hierarchy:
Drive
Folders and subfolders,
Files.
Fig. 3.10 shows how information is organized by a GUI operating system on drive C:
Fig. 3.10: How an operating system organises information

3.4.1 Folders
A folder or directory is a named storage location where related files can be stored. All folders or
directories originate from a special directory called the root directory or folder. The root directory is
represented by a back slash. A folder may be subdivided into smaller units called subfolders.
3.4.2 Drives
The operating system views storage media or devices as drives. The user can access either a physical or
logical drive to store their data. Drives may be given labels as letters AZ to identify them. Table 3.1
gives a summary of how Microsoft operating systems identify drives.
Storage location
Floppy drive
A and B
Drive
Hard disk
Optical drives
C, D, E, F
D, E, F, G
Other removable
D, E, , Z
Network drive
Logical drives D Z
Remarks
If a computer has two floppy drives, one will be assigned letter A
and the other B
If a computer has 4 hard drives, they will be assigned letters C F
If a computer has one hard disk and three or more CD/DVD drives,
they will take up any letters between D and Z
If a computer does not have an optical drive, any removable drive
attached to the computer can take any letter between D and Z
In a networked environment, network drives can take up letters D
to Z depending on the number of physical drives installed or
attached
Table 3.1
3.4.3 Files
A file is a collection of related data given a unique name for ease of access, manipulation and storage on
a backing storage. Every file has the following details:
1. A unique name and an optional extension. The name and extension are separated by a period (.) e.g.
JUNE.doc. In this case the file name is JUNE and the extension is doc. Extensions are used to identify
the type of file, for example:
Doc is a word processor file,
Txt is a plain text file,
Sys is a system file.
2. The size, date and time the file was created or modified.
Types of Files
Types are tree types of files namely system, application and data files. System files contain information
that is critical for the operation of the computer. Application files hold programs that are executable.
Data files contain user specific data. Table 3.2 shows some files extension and whether it is a system,
application or data file.
Extension
File type
Description
.doc
Data
A Microsoft Word document file (Word 97-2003 document)
.docx
Data
A Microsoft Word document file (Word 2007- document)
.txt
Data
A plain text file created using notepad or any text editor
.tif
Data
A graphic file created using applications such as Adobe Photoshop
.exe
Application file
The file that launches a particular application, e.g. Winword.exe,
PM70.exe, etc
.bat
System file
File containing a series of commands loaded during boot up
.sys
System file
System files that perform fundamental operations in a computer
Table 3.2
3.5 Managing files and folders using windows

Although there are different types of operating systems, most of them have common features. With
knowledge in one, you can easily learn how to use another. In this tutorial, we shall look at how to
manage files and folders using Microsoft windows.
3.5.1 Windows explorer
To manage files and folders, you need to display the windows explorer using the start menu.
To display the explorer using the start menu:
1. Click start
2. In the search bar, type windows explorer (Fig. 3.11)
Fig. 3.11: Windows explorer command
Fig. 3.12: Windows explorer window
3.5.2 Creating folders

Creating folders in the explorer window:
1. Open the drive where the folder is to be created.
2. Click the button named New folder (Fig.3.13)
3. Replace the temporary New folder name with your choice.
4. Press Enter
Click this button
Fig. 3.13: Creating a folder

3.5.3 Creating files
To create a file in the explorer window:
1. Open the drive or folder where the file is to be created.
2. Right click on any empty part of the window, point to New.
3. Choose a file type from the list of file type (see Fig. 3.14)
4. Replace the temporary file name with your choice.
5. Press Enter.
Fig. 3.14: Creating a File

6. Double click the file icon to start the application. The application window will be displayed.
7. Add information into the file and save it.
3.5.4 Renaming files and folders

In the explorer window:
1. Open the drive where the folder is located.
2. Right click the file or folder to be renamed.
3. On the shortcut menu, click Rename.
4. Replace the current folder/file name with a different name.
5. Press Enter.
3.5.5 Deleting files and folders
In the explorer window:
1. Open the drive where the folder is located.
2. Right click the file or folder to be deleted.
3. On the shortcut menu, click Delete.
4. A message is displayed asking you to confirm the deletion.
5. Click Yes.
6. Files and folders deleted from the hard disk are sent to the Recycle bin.
Note: Files and folders deleted from removable drives such as diskettes and flash disks are not held in the
recycle bin but are completely lost.
3.5.6 Copying and moving files and folders
To copy is to create a duplicate while to move is to transfer a file or folder to a new location.
To copy a file or folder:
1. Right click the file or folder.
2. On the shortcut menu, click Copy.
3. Open the drive or folder where you want to place a copy.
4. Right click an empty space, and then click Paste.
To move a file or folder:
1. Right click the file or folder.
2. On the shortcut menu, click Cut.
3. Open the drive or folder where you want to move the file/folder.
4. Right click an empty space, and then click Paste.
3.5.7 Searching for files and folders
In case you are not sure where you stored a file or folder, use the search menu.
1. Click start
2. In the search bar, write the name of the file or folder to search.
3. Press enter.
Note: This applies to Windows 7, 8 and some versions of Linux
3.6 Managing storage devices using Windows

Microsoft Windows provides the user with storage media management utilities such as disk formatting,
scandisk, compression agent, disk defragmenter and backup utilities.
Since Windows do not come with Antivirus software, you need to install third party antivirus software.
3.6.1 Formatting drives

Formatting means writing tracks and sectors on a disk to make it ready for data storage. Other storage
devices which are not disks can also be formatted to create a file system on them.
To format a drive
1. Double click My computer icon.
2. Right click the drive to format.
3. On the Shortcut menu, click Format.
4. In the Format dialog box (Fig. 3.16), specify the capacity, file system and label.
5. Click Start.
Fig. 3.15: Formatting a drive

3.6.2 Scanning a drive for problems
Scan disk is a special utility that enables the user to scan a storage device for physical and directory
storage problems.
To scan a drive:
1. Right click the device ion in My computer Window then select Properties.
2. In the Properties dialog (Fig. 3.16), select the Tools tab.
3. Under the Tools tab, click Check now.
4. In dialog box, select a fix disk option then click Start.
Fig. 3.16: Scandisk dialog box

3.6.3 Defragmenting a disk

A single file may have several pieces (fragments) scattered in several non contiguous sectors on a disk.
The read/write head has to move back and forth over the disk surface to retrieve the fragmented parts
of the file. To avoid this, the file should be defragmented. These scattered parts are re-assembled on a
contiguous part using the defragmentation.
To defragment a disk:
1. In My computer Window, right click the drive.
2. From the shortcut menu, click properties.
3. In the properties dialog box, click Tools tab.
4. Click Defragment now. Disk defragmenter of Fig. 3.17 window is displayed.
5. Select the volume to defragment.
Fig. 3.17: Disk defragmenter window

3.6.4 Scanning for malware
Malicious programs, simply referred to as malware, are harmful programs deliberately intended to make
a computer fail or malfunction. Three common types of malicious programs are viruses, Trojan horses
and worms. A computer must be installed with the latest antivirus program such as Escan, Norton,
McAfee, Kaspersky and AVG.
To scan for malware
1. In My computer window, right click the drive you wish to scan.
2. From the shortcut menu, click Scan with <antivirus name>
3. The scan process is initialized.
4. Heal, delete or quarantine the infected files.
3.6.5 Disk compression
Disk compression dramatically increases available free space by compressing files. However, this result
in reduced performance and therefore it is not recommended unless your computer cannot
accommodate a large capacity disk:
To compress a disk:
1. In My computer Window, right-click the drive.
2. Click properties, then the General tab.
3. Check Compress drive to save disk space.
4. Click OK. Another dialog box is displayed.
5. Click OK to apply changes.
3.6.6 Backing up data

Backing up data is the process of making copies of the data on a separate disk or location. This prevents
complete loss of data in case the current storage location fails, gets lost or is destroyed.
To back up data from a hard disk:
1. In My computer Window, right click the hard drive.
2. From the Shortcut menu, click properties.
3. In the properties dialog box, click Tools tab.
4. Click Backup Now.
5. The backup wizard guides you through the process.
3.6.7 Using a startup disk
A startup disk is a diagnostic disk or disks used for minimal bootup in case a computer fails to load an
operating system. Windows 98 and Me have one startup disk while Windows 2000 and XP have 4
startup disks. With Windows 2000, you can also use a rescue disk if you created one.
3.6.8 Partitioning a disk
Partitioning a disk means dividing it into several volumes called logical drives. If you plan to install more
than one operating systems, each should be installed on its own partition. Each partition is treated as a
separate drive and will be assigned a drive letter.
Microsoft Windows 98/Me operating systems allows a maximum of one primary and one extended
partition on a single physical drive while Windows 2000/XP/7 allow up to 4 partitions during installation,
but after installation, you can create additional partitions.
Choosing a file system
Before partitioning a disk, you need to decide how files are stored on each partition. The following file
systems are used on Windows operating systems:
File allocation table (FAT) is primarily used in MS DOS and Windows 95.
File Allocation Table 32 bit (FAT32) is primarily used in Windows 98 and Me.
New Technology File System (NTFS) is primarily used in Windows NT, 2000, XP, 2003, Vista and
Windows 7.
3.7 Installation and configuration of an operating system

Before installing an operating system, read the manual, Readme or html file provide in disk that comes
with the operating system. The documentation contains details of the minimum hardware requirements
a computer must meet. Table 3.3 gives a summary of minimum or recommended system requirements.
Installing Windows operating systems has largely become an automatic process. We shall look at how to
install Windows XP (only slight differences occur in the new version of windows).
Installing Windows XP
The two methods of installing XP are:
Upgrade from a previous Windows version.
Clean installation.
Since upgrading from a previous Windows version is relatively simple, we shall look at clean installation,
done on a new computer that comes without an operating system.
Clean installation
To perform clean installation, the computer BIOS should be setup so that the computer boots from a
CD/DVD. During POST, press the key(s) that display BIOS set-up. In the BIOS setup, change the boot
sequence so that the computer boots from CD/DVD first.
To start the installation process:
1. Insert the CD/DVD ROM into the CD/DVD drive.
2. Turn on the computer. The installation process proceeds from the booting steps to the CD/DVD
initialization phase.
3. Partition and format the drive into either NTFS file system.
4. Windows XP copies all the file into the hard disk.
5. Windows XP will reboot and take you through the installation process
6. Accept the end user license agreement (EULA) then product key. Invalid key activation may display
unauthorized product key message.
7. Configure network settings if the computer is on a network. Windows XP will successfully be
installed and you may be required to setup user accounts and connect to the Internet for updates.
3.8 Troubleshooting and fixing problems

Windows operating systems may fail to boot or function properly due to hardware, malware, improper
installation or missing system files. Some of the causes of boot or runtime errors include:
3.8.1 Invalid system disk
Invalid system disk error may occur if the drive configured as the active partition no longer contains
essential systems files required to load the operating system. Make sure the active partitions are
selected as the startup drive or reinstall the operating system.
3.8.2 Missing operating system
Missing system files such as CONFIG.SYS, HIMEM.SYS and autoexec.bat may result in boot failure. If the
files have been deleted, reinstall the operating system or start up the computer using a startup or
rescue disk and try to copy the files into the system subfolder of Windows folder.
3.8.3 Corrupted system registry
Registry is the Windows database that keeps details about all system and application programs installed
in the computer. If the registry is corrupted, the computer may fail to boot. Repair the registry using
emergency repair disk or restore the registry backup if you created one. If all these fail, reinstall the
operating system.
3.8.4 Failure to load the GUI desktop
Failure to load the GUI may be due to infection by malware, missing or corrupted display drivers. If the
system can start in safe mode, scan for viruses or located the malfunctioning device in the device
manager and disable it.
3.8.5 Windows protection error
Windows protection error is displayed during startup before the GUI is loaded. It occurs when the 32-bit
virtual drive fails to load. Restart the computer in safe mode. If the OS loads properly, use the device
manager to reinstall corrupted or missing drivers.
3.8.6 Runtime problems
Run-time problems may be characterized by the systems failure to respond to commands. This
behaviour is commonly referred to as hanging. Use the restart keys Ctrl + Alt + Delete to display the
Task Manager and try to close the non-responding applications. If this fails, shutdown the computer and
turn it on again.
Note: For more information on troubleshooting and fixing an operating system related problems, read
the online help and support utility.
MEMORY UNITS AND NUMBER SYSTEM

Chapter 4
Outline
4.0
Introduction
4.1
Memory Units
4.2
Number system
4.3
Number conversion
_____________________________________________________________________________________
4.0 Introduction
A bit (binary digit) is the smallest unit of information handled by a computer. One bit expresses a 1 or a
0 in a binary numeral, or a true or false logical condition. A group of 8 bits makes up a byte, which can
represent many types of information, such as a letter of the alphabet, a decimal digit, or other
character.
A byte is a unit of data that typically holds a single character, such as a letter, a digit, or a punctuation
mark. Some single characters can take up more than one byte.
A double-byte character is a set of characters in which each character is represented by two bytes.
Some languages, such as Japanese, Chinese, and Korean, require double-byte character sets.
4.1 Memory Units

Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. The storage capacity is
expressed in terms of Bytes.
Following are the main memory storage units:
Few higher storage units are following:
4.2 Number System

When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as computers can
understand only numbers. A computer can understand positional number system where there are only a
few symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values depending on the position they
occupy in the number. A value of each digit in a number can be determined using:
The digit
The position of the digit in the number
The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number of digits available in the
number system).
4.2.1 Decimal Number System
The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal number
system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the successive positions
to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands and so on. Each position
represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal number 1234 consists of the digit
4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands position,
and its value can be written as:
(1 x 1000) + (2 x 100) + (3 x 10) + (4 x 1)
(1 x 103) + (2 x 102) + (3 x 101) + (4 x 100)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234
As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following number systems
which are frequently used in computers:
4.2.2 Binary Number System

Characteristics
Uses two digits, 0 and 1.
Also called base 2 number system
Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 20
Last position in a binary number represents an x power of the base (2). Example 2x where x
represents the last position - 1.
EXAMPLE:
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Note: 101012 is normally written as 10101.

4.2.3 Octal Number System

Characteristics
Uses eight digits; 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 80
Last position in an octal number represents an x power of the base (8). Example 8x where x
EXAMPLE:
Octal Number: 125708
Note: 125708 is normally written as 12570.

4.2.4 Hexadecimal Number System
Characteristics
Uses 10 digits and 6 letters; 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F.
Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15.
Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example 160
Last position in a hexadecimal number represents an x power of the base (16). Example 16x where x
EXAMPLE:
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
Note: 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.
4.3 Number Conversion

There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from one base to
another. We'll demonstrate here the following:
Decimal to Other Base System
Other Base System to Decimal
Other Base System to Non-Decimal
Shortcut method - Binary to Octal
Shortcut method - Octal to Binary
Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal
Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary
4.3.1 Decimal to Other Base System

Steps
Step 1 - Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.
Step 2 - Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of new base
number.
Step 3 - Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
Step 4 - Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base number.
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the most significant digit (MSD) of the new base number.
EXAMPLE:
Decimal Number: 2910
Calculating Binary Equivalent:
As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that the first
remainder becomes the least significant digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes the most significant
digit (MSD).
Decimal Number: 2910 = Binary Number: 111012.
4.3.2 Other base system to Decimal System
Steps
Step 1 - Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the position of the
digit and the base of the number system).
Step 2 - Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the corresponding columns.
Step 3 - Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in decimal.
EXAMPLE:
Binary Number: 111012 = Decimal Number: 2910

4.3.3 Other Base System to Non-Decimal System
Steps
Step 1 - Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).
Step 2 - Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.
EXAMPLE:
Octal Number: 258
STEP 1: CONVERT TO DECIMAL
Octal Number: 258 = Decimal Number: 2110

STEP 2: CONVERT DECIMAL TO BINARY
Decimal Number: 2110 = Binary Number: 101012

Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012
4.3.4 Shortcut method - Binary to Octal
Steps
Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).
Step 2 - Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.
EXAMPLE:
Calculating Octal Equivalent:
Binary Number: 101012 = Octal Number: 258

4.3.5 Shortcut method - Octal to Binary
Steps
Step 1 - Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary number (the octal digits may be treated as
decimal for this conversion).
Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary number.
EXAMPLE:
Octal Number: 258
Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012

4.3.6 Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal

Steps
Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).
Step 2 - Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.
EXAMPLE:
Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent:
Binary Number: 101012 = Hexadecimal Number: 1516

4.3.7 Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary
Steps
Step 1 - Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary number (the hexadecimal digits may be
treated as decimal for this conversion).
Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single binary number.
EXAMPLE:
Hexadecimal Number: 1516
Hexadecimal Number: 1516 = Binary Number: 101012
DATA AND INFORMATION

Chapter 5
Outline
5.1
What is data?
5.2
Information
5.3
Data Processing Cycle
_____________________________________________________________________________________
5.1 What is data?

Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts or instruction in a formalized manner which
should be suitable for communication, interpretation or processing by human or electronic machine.
Data is represented with the help of characters like alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or special characters
(+,-, /, *, <, >, = etc).
Fig. 5.1: Data

The primary purpose of computer systems in most business is to transform data into information that
can be used by people to make decisions, sell products and perform a variety of other activities. Data
comes in many forms such as numbers, words and symbols. On its own it is not useful.
For example:
What could these numbers stand for?
20, 30, 45, 36, 23, 50, 26, 48, 63, 75
These are raw facts since they have no meaning attached to them. Therefore, data is meaningless until it
is processed. The processing could be having a calculation, sorting, interpretation, conversion or
grouping the data in a certain way.
20, 30, 45, are just data since they dont give meaning. But if the numbers were 20 boys, 30 girls and a
45 years old man in a certain village then they are information that can be understood.
5.2 Information
5.2.1 What is Information?
Information is organised or classified data so that it has some meaningful values to the receiver.
Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based. For the decision to be
meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following characteristics:
Timely - Information should be available when required.
Accuracy - Information should be accurate.
Completeness - Information should be complete.
Fig. 5.2: Information

5.2.2 Authentication of Information
Some information is open or free for everyone to access or get like those information in newspapers,
magazines, etc. All confidential information which needs a kind of restriction from accessing is called
authentic information.
There are three different types of information that can be used for authentication:
1. Something you know: Examples, PIN number, Password or examination number, etc
2. Something you have: Examples, driver license, school/college identity card, bank card, etc
3. Something you are: Examples, Palm prints, Finger prints, Retina (eye) scan, etc
5.2.3 Why do we need information?
For making budgets and financial control: You need to have information on requirements, plans,
costs and income in order to make budget.
To ensure effective and efficient decision-making leading to prosperity of the organization.
Information helps for condensing decision making process. In order to make decision on various
issues, we need investigation in which we need to get information from different sources, then make
experiments, researches and make breakdown of the information gained. You can know weakness
areas for resetting the planning, goals, objectives, policy and rules.
A way to learn how things are done: Helps people to get meaning, knowledge, instructions,
communication and mental stimulus on various issues.
A method of making things better and a means to achieving goals: Information can give us detailed
analysis on various current events, public opinions and immediate coverage of an event
5.2.4 Relationship between Data, Information and Knowledge

Data is the lowest level of abstraction/construct to be followed by information and lastly knowledge as
the highest stage.
Data is processed so as to get useful information. A body of information which is well organised within a
particular subject/ discipline constitutes knowledge. Knowledge is the collection of meaningful
information which one knows as realities and retains as facts.
5.3 Data Processing Cycle

Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machine to increase their
usefulness and add values for particular purpose. Data processing consists of basic steps input,
processing and output. These three steps constitute the data processing cycle.
Fig. 5.3: Data Processing Cycle
Input - In this step the input data are prepared in some convenient form for processing. The form will
depend on the processing machine. For example, when electronic computers are used, the input data
could be recorded on any one of several types of input medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes and so
on.
Processing - In this step input data are changed to produce data in a more useful form. For example,
pay-checks may be calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales for the month may be
calculated from the sales orders.
Output -Here the result of the proceeding processing step are collected. The particular form of the
output data depends on the use of the data. For example, output data may be pay-checks for
employees.
Fig. 5.4: Data Processing Station
REFERENCES
Bill Ball, B and Smoogen, S (1998). Sams Teach Yourself LINUX in 24 Hours. Indiana: Sams Publishing
and Red Hat Press
Computer Driving Certificate-SAUT Iringa. CDC Module 1: Concepts of Information Technology (IT)
Training Manual
Computer Driving Certificate-SAUT Iringa. CDC Module 2: Using the Computer and Managing Files
Training Manual
Computer Hope. Computer dictionary, terms, and glossary. Retrieved on 4th
http://www.computerhope.com/jargon.htm
May 2014 from
Flynn, R (2002). Computer sciences: Software and Hardware VOLUME2. New York: Macmillan
Goodwill Community Foundation. Computer Basics. Retrieved on 10th
http://www.gcflearnfree.org/computerbasics
February 2014 from
Home and Learn. Computer Tutorials for Beginners. Retrieved on 1st May 2014 from
http://www.homeandlearn.co.uk/BC/BeginnersComputing.html
Karbo, M (1998). A complete illustrated Guide to the PC Hardware. Retrieved 15th April 1999 from
www.mkdata.dk
Mburu, S and Chemwa, G (2008). Gateway Secondary Revision: Computer Studies. Nairobi: Longhorn
Publishers (K) Ltd
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AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER STUDIES

OPERATING SYSTEMS ............................................................................................................................ 42

3.8.2 Missing operating system ...................................................................................................... 55

iii \\ An Introduction to Computer Studies, By Instructor Bassu\\

1.1 Definition and parts of computer

It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well defined manner

How Does a Computer Know what to do?

1.1.2 Physical parts of a computer

Fig. 1.1: Desktop Personal Computers

1.2 Classification of computers

Fig. 1.2: Supercomputers

Fig. 1.3: A Mainframe computer

Fig. 1.4: A Minicomputer

Fig. 1.5: Microprocessor of a Microcomputer

Fig. 1.6: Notebook PCs

Fig. 1.7: Pocket PCs

(b) Classification according to purpose

1.3 Historical development of computers

Fig. 1.8 An Abacus

Fig. 1.9 Napiers bones

Fig. 1.10 Slide Rule

Fig. 1.11 Pascaline machine

Fig. 1.12 The first Weaving loom

Fig. 1.13 The design of the analytical engine

Fig. 1.14 Vacuum Tubes

Fig. 1.5 The ENIAC computer

Fig. 1.16 The UNIVAC 1107 computer

Characteristics of fifth generation computers:

1.4 Computer Laboratory and Computer Uses

(b) Measure that protect the user

10 \\ An Introduction to Computer Studies, By Instructor Bassu\\

1.5 Basic Computer Hands-on Skills

Fig. 1.17 Windows Desktop

11 \\ An Introduction to Computer Studies, By Instructor Bassu\\

Fig. 1.18 A typical computer keyboard

Fig. 1.19 Hands resting on the home keys

Fig. 1.20 A Mechanical Mouse

13 \\ An Introduction to Computer Studies, By Instructor Bassu\\

Hardware: These are physical or tangible components that make up a computer.

2.1 Computer hardware

Fig. 2.1: Flexible Keyboard

(iii) Ergonomic keyboard

Fig. 2.2: Ergonomic keyboards

Fig. 2.3 Keypad of a PDA

Fig. 2.4: Braille keyboard

Fig. 2.6: A Wireless Mouse

Fig. 2.7: Different types of Trackball mice

16 \\ An Introduction to Computer Studies, By Instructor Bassu\\

Fig. 2.8: Joysticks

Fig. 2.9: A Light pen and a stylus (in use on PDA)

Fig. 2.10 OMR scanners

Fig. 2.11 A wand bar code reader and bar codes

Fig. 2.12: OCRs

Fig. 2.13: Cheque readers

18 \\ An Introduction to Computer Studies, By Instructor Bassu\\

Fig. 2.14: ATMs

Fig. 2.15: A Microphone and a Headphone

Fig. 2.16: Touch Screen

Fig. 2.17: A graphic tablet

(a) Digital Camera

(b) Video Digital Camera

(h) MODEM (Modulator/Demodulator)