Air Pollution (QA)

AIR POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTION
WHAT IS AIR POLLUTION ?
This occurs when the air contains gases,

dust, fumes or odour in harmful amounts.
That is, amounts which could be harmful to
the health or comfort of humans and
animals or which could cause damage to
plants and materials.
AIR POLLUTION
FACTORS AFFECTING AIR POLLUTION

Emissions (traffic, industrial, domestic)
Geography (terrain)
Weather conditions (rain, winds,
humidity)
Season
Time of day
Population density
Indoor vs outdoor
AIR POLLUTION
NATURAL AIR POLLUTION

Forest fires
Volcanoes
Dust storms
Pollen
Radioactive decay
AIR POLLUTION
MAN-MADE AIR POLLUTION

Vehicle emissions
Waste disposal
Power plants
Factories
Cookers
Fuel
WHAT ARE THOSE IMPORTANT POLLUTANTS

CRITERIA POLLUTANTS !!!!!
AIR POLLUTION
CRITERIA POLLUTANTS: EPA STANDARD

Nitrogen Dioxide: NO2
Brownish gas originates from combustion (N 2 in air
is oxidized); NOx sum of NO, NO2, other oxides of
N
Ozone: Ground level O3
Primary constituent of urban smog
Reaction of VOC + NOx in presence of heat +sun
light
Carbon Monoxide: CO
Product of incomplete combustion
AIR POLLUTION
CRITERIA POLLUTANTS: EPA STANDARD

Lead: Pb
tetraethyl lead anti knock agent in
gasoline
Particulate Matter: PM10 (PM 2.5)
Small particles (size mentioned along with)
Sulfur Dioxide: SO2
formed when fuel (coal, oil) containing S is
burned and metal smelting
precursor to acid rain along with NOx
AIR POLLUTION
CRITERIA POLLUTANTS: EMISSION IN US
AIR POLLUTION
CRITERIA POLLUTANTS
Number of People Living in
Counties with Air Quality
Concentrations Above the
Level
of the NAAQS in 1999
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POLLUTANTS: SOURCES
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AIR POLLUTION
POLLUTANTS: SOURCES
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AIR POLLUTION
POLLUTANTS: SOURCES/TRANSPORT
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AIR POLLUTION
OLLUTANTS: SOURCES
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AIR POLLUTION
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AIR POLLUTION
TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION

Primary Air Pollutant
Harmful substance; emitted directly into the
atmosphere
Secondary Air Pollutant
Harmful substance formed when a primary air
pollutant reacts with substances normally
found in the atmosphere in the atmosphere or
with other air pollutants
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AIR POLLUTION
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AIR POLLUTION

Aerosols
Particulates solid phase
Dust, Ash, Fumes
Solid and liquid
Smoke (from combustion),
Coastal aerosols
Liquid
Aggregate gases (sulfate,
nitrate)
Gases
COx, SOx, NOx, PAH,
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AIR POLLUTION
COMBUSTION POLLUTANTS
VOCs, NOx,
N-organics, Haloorganics
Metals, CO
Sources
Tobacco, Power plants
Incinerators,
Automobiles
Industry
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AIR POLLUTION
IMPACT
Greenhouse effect
Ozone depletion
Acidification
Smog formation
Eutrophication
HUMAN HEALTH
Ecosystem health
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HEALTH EFFECTS
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AIR POLLUTION: HEALTH

EFFECTS
Including pulmonary, cardiac,

vascular, and neurological
impairments.
Vary greatly from person to person.
High-risk groups such as the elderly,
infants,
pregnant
women,
and
sufferers from chronic heart and lung
diseases are more susceptible to air
pollution.
Children are at greater risk because
they are generally more active
outdoors and their lungs are still
developing.
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EFFECTS
Exposure to air pollution can cause both acute (shortterm) and chronic (long-term) health effects.
Acute effects are usually immediate and often
reversible when exposure to the pollutant ends. Some
acute health effects include eye irritation, headaches,
and nausea.
Chronic effects are usually not immediate and tend not
to be reversible when exposure to the pollutant ends.
Some chronic health effects include decreased lung
capacity and lung cancer resulting from long-term
exposure to toxic air pollutants
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EFFECTS
RESPIRATORY PROBLEMS
Both gaseous and particulate air
pollutants can have negative
effects on the lungs.
Solid particles can settle on the
walls of the trachea, bronchi, and
bronchioles.
Continuous breathing of polluted
air can slow the normal cleansing
action of the lungs and result in
more particles reaching the lower
portions of the lung.
Damage to the lungs can inhibit
this process and contribute to
bronchitis, emphysema, and
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Table 1: Sources, Health and Welfare Effects for Criteria Pollutants.

Pollutant
Description
Sources
Health Effects
Welfare Effects
Carbon
Monoxide
(CO)
Colorless, odorless
gas
Motor vehicle exhaust,

indoor sources include
kerosene or wood burning
stoves.
Headaches, reduced mental

alertness, heart attack,
cardiovascular diseases,
impaired fetal development,
death.
Contribute to the formation of

smog.
Sulfur Dioxide
(SO2)
Colorless gas that

dissolves in water
vapor to form acid,
and interact with other
gases and particles in
the air.
Coal-fired power plants,

petroleum refineries,
manufacture of sulfuric acid
and smelting of ores
containing sulfur.
Eye irritation, wheezing, chest

tightness, shortness of
breath, lung damage.

acid rain, visibility impairment,
plant and water damage,
aesthetic damage.
Nitrogen
Dioxide (NO2)
Reddish brown, highly

reactive gas.
Motor vehicles, electric

utilities, and other
industrial, commercial, and
residential sources that
burn fuels.
Susceptibility to respiratory
infections, irritation of the lung
and respiratory symptoms
(e.g., cough, chest pain,
difficulty breathing).

smog, acid rain, water quality
deterioration, global warming,
and visibility impairment.
Ozone (O3)
Gaseous pollutant
when it is formed in
the troposphere.
Vehicle exhaust and certain

other fumes. Formed from
other air pollutants in the
presence of sunlight.
Eye and throat irritation,

coughing, respiratory tract
problems, asthma, lung
damage.
Plant and ecosystem damage.
Lead (Pb)
Metallic element
Metal refineries, lead

smelters, battery
manufacturers, iron and
steel producers.
Anemia, high blood pressure,

brain and kidney damage,
neurological disorders,
cancer, lowered IQ.
Affects animals and plants,

affects aquatic ecosystems.
Particulate
Matter (PM)
Very small particles of

soot, dust, or other
matter, including tiny
droplets of liquids.
Diesel engines, power

plants, industries,
windblown dust, wood
stoves.
Eye irritation, asthma,

bronchitis, lung damage,
cancer, heavy metal
poisoning, cardiovascular
effects.
Visibility impairment,
atmospheric deposition,
aesthetic damage.
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Table-2: Sources, Effects of Air Pollutants on Vegetables

Pollutants
Sources
Effects on Vegetables
Aldehydes
Photochemical reactions
The upper portions of Alfalfa etc. will be affected to Narcosis

if 250 ppm of aldehydes is present for 2 hrs duration.
Ozone (O3)
Photochemical reaction of hydrocarbon

and nitrogen oxides from fuel
combustion, refuse burning, and
evaporation from petroleum products.
All ages of tobacco leaves, beans, grapes, pine, pumpkins

and potato are affected. Fleck, stipple, bleaching, bleached
spotting, pigmentation, growth suppression, and early
abscission are the effects.
Peroxy Acetyl
Nitrate (PAN)
The sources of PAN are the same as

ozone
Young spongy cells of plants are affected if 0.01 ppm of PAN

is present in the ambient air for more than 6 hrs.
Nitrogen dioxide
(NO2)
High temperature combustion of coal, oil,

gas, and gasoline in power plants and
internal combustion engines.
Irregular, white or brown collapsed lesion on intercostals

tissue and near leaf margin. Suppressed growth is observed
in many plants.
Ammonia & Sulfur

dioxide
Thermal power plants, oil and petroleum

refineries.
Bleached spots, bleached areas between veins, bleached

margins, chlorosis, growth suppression, early abscission,
and reduction in yield and tissue collapse occur.
Chlorine (Cl2)
Leaks in chlorine storage tanks,

hydrochloric acid mists.
If 0.10 ppm is present for at least 2 hrs, the epidermis and

mesophyll of plants will be affected.
Hydrogen fluoride,
Silicon
tetrafluoride
Phosphate rock processing, aluminum

industry, and ceramic works and
fiberglass manufacturing.
Epidermis and mesophyll of grapes, large seed fruits, pines

and fluorosis in animals occur if 0.001 ppm of HF is present
for 5 weeks.
Pesticides &
Herbicides
Agricultural operations
Defoliation, dwarfing, curling, twisting, growth reduction and

killing of plants may occur.
Particulates
Cement industries, thermal power plants,

blasting, crushing and processing
industries.
Affects quality of plants, reduces vigor & hardness and

interferences with photosynthesis due to plugging leaf
stomata and blocking of light.
Mercury (Hg)
Processing of mercury containing ores,

burning of coal and oil.
Greenhouse crops, and floral parts of all vegetations are

affected; abscission and growth reduction occur in most of
the plants.
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AIR POLLUTION
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AIR POLLUTION
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AIR POLLUTION
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UNIT CONVERSION
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AIR POLLUTION
UNIT CONVERSION
There are two systems of unit in common:
Mass per unit volume: usually g m-3. The mass of
pollutant is expressed as a ratio to the volume of air.
Since the volume of a given parcel of air is dependent
upon the temperature and pressure at the time of
sampling, the pollutant concentration expressed in
these units should, strictly speaking, specify the
conditions at the time of sampling.
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AIR POLLUTION
UNIT CONVERSION
T=absolute temperature (K);

P=atmospheric pressure (hPa)
( Remember that Celsius + 273 =
Kelvin)
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AIR POLLUTION
UNIT CONVERSION
Volume mixing ratio: usually ppm - parts per million
(10-6); or ppb - parts per billion (10-9); or ppt - parts
per trillion (10-12). This is expressed as the ratio of
its (pollutant) volume if segregated pure, to the
volume of the air in which it is contained.
Ideal gas behavior is assumed and thus the
concentration is not dependent upon temperature
and pressure as these affect both the pollutant and
the air to the same extent. As a consequence of the
gas laws, a gas present at a volume mixing ratio of 1
ppm is not only 1 cm3 per 10-6 cm3 of polluted air, it is
also 1 molecule per 10-6 molecules and has a partial
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pressure of one millionth of the atmospheric
AIR POLLUTION
UNIT CONVERSION
Since NOX consists partly of NO and NO2, the
volume fraction in air ppb equates to a different air
concentration in g m-3 depending on the ratio of
NO to NO2. For this reason air concentrations of
NOX are normally expressed as g NOX-NO2 m-3. i.e.
all references assume that NOX is in the form of
NO2.
Some pollutants (e.g. sulphate, nitrate) are present
as particles in the air and the concept of a volume
mixing ratio of gases is not obviously applicable.
Their concentrations are normally expressed only
in g m-3 units.
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AIR POLLUTION
UNIT CONVERSION
Kg ha-1 year-1 to kilo equivalents ha-1 year-1
The unit eq (a keq is 1000 eq) refers to molar
equivalent of potential acidity resulting from e.g.
sulphur, oxidised and reduced nitrogen, as well as
base cations.
For example:
1 keq N ha-1 yr-1 is equal to 14 kg N ha-1 yr-1 and
1 keq S ha-1 yr-1 is equal to 16 kg S ha-1 yr-1.
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AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
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AIR POLLUTION
37
CYCLONES
AIR POLLUTION: CONTROL

EQUIPMENT
Principle
The particles are removed by the application of a

centrifugal force. The polluted stream is forced into a
vortex. The motion of the gas exerts a centrifugal
force on the particles, and they get deposited on the
inner surface of the cyclones
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EQUIPMENT
CYCLONES: CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION

The gas enters the inlet, and is
forced into a spiral.
At the bottom, the gas
reverses direction and flows
upwards.
To prevent particles in the
incoming stream from
contaminatingthe clean gas, a
vortex finder is provided to
separate them. The cleaned
gas flows out through the
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CYCLONES

EQUIPMENT
ADVANTAGES
Cyclones have a low capital cost
Reasonable high efficiency for specially designed

cyclones.
They can be used under almost any operating condition.
Cyclones can be constructed of a wide variety of

materials.
There are no moving parts, so there are no maintenance

requirements.
DISADVANTAGES
They can be used for small particles
High pressure drops contribute to increased costs of

operation.
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CYCLONES

EQUIPMENT
41

EQUIPMENT
Problem
A cyclone with a flow rate of 150 m3/min has an

efficiency of 80%. Estimate the efficiency if the
flow rate is doubled.
Q1 = 150 m3/min
Q2 = 300 m3/min
Pt1 = 100% - 80% = 20%
Pt2/Pt1 = (Q1/Q2)0.5
Final Efficiency = 1- Pt2
= 86%
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SETTLING CHAMBERS

EQUIPMENT
Settling chambers use the force of

gravity to remove solid particles.
The gas enters a chamber where
the velocity of the gas is reduced.
Large particles drop out of the gas
and are recollected in hoppers.
Because settling chambers are
effective in removing only larger
particles, they are used in
conjunction with a more efficient
control device.
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FABRIC FILTERS

EQUIPMENT
Principle
The filters retain particles larger
than the mesh size
Air and most of the smaller
particles flow through. Some of the
smaller particles are retained due
to interception and diffusion.
The retained particles cause a
reduction in the mesh size.
The primary collection is on the
layer of previously deposited
particles.
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FABRIC FILTERS

EQUIPMENT
Fabric Filter
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FABRIC FILTERS

EQUIPMENT
The equation for fabric filters is based on Darcys

law for flow through porous media.
Fabric filtration can be represented by the
following equation:
S = K e + K sw
Where,
S = filter drag, N-min/m3 S = P/V
Ke = extrapolated clean filter drag, N-min/m3
Ks = slope constant. Varies with the dust, gas and
fabric, N-min/kg-m
W= Areal dust density = L V t
L = dust loading (g/m3), V = velocity (m/s)
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FABRIC FILTERS

EQUIPMENT
47

EQUIPMENT
Problem
Estimate the values of Ke and Ks for the filter

drag model:
Time (min)
10
15
20
25
30
Filter P (Pa)
330
490
550
600
640
700
Limestone dust loading L = 1.00 g/m3

Fabric Area A = 1.00 m2
Air flow rate Q = 0.80 m3/min
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EQUIPMENT
Solution
Calculate the air velocity
Air velocity= 0.80 (m3/min)/1.00 m2

=0.80 m/min
S = P/V
412.5 612.5 687.5 750
800
875
W = LVt
20
24
12
16
Determine Ke and Ks graphically

Ke = 470 N-min/m3 Ks = 0.563 N-min/g-m
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FABRIC FILTERS

EQUIPMENT
Total pressure drop
Pf
Pressure drop due to the fabric
Pp
Pressure drop due to the particulate layer
Ps
Pressure drop due to the bag house structure
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FABRIC FILTERS

EQUIPMENT
ADVANTAGES
Very high collection efficiency

They can operate over a wide range of volumetric flow rates
The pressure drops are reasonably low
Fabric Filter houses are modular, and can be pre-assembled
at the factory
DISADVANTAGES
Fabric Filters require a large floor area.

The fabric is damaged at high temperature.
Ordinary fabrics cannot handle corrosive gases.
Fabric Filters cannot handle moist gas streams
A fabric filtration unit is a potential fire hazard
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DARCYS EQUATION

EQUIPMENT
Pf Pressure drop N/m2

Pp Pressure drop N/m2
Df
Depth of filter in the direction of flow (m)
Dp
Depth of particulate layer in the direction of flow (m)
Gas viscosity kg/m-s

V superficial filtering velocity m/min
K f, K p
60
Permeability (filter & particulate layer m 2)
Conversion factor /min
V = Q/A
Qvolumetric gas flow rate m3/min
A cloth area m2
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DUST LAYER

EQUIPMENT
L Dust loading kg/m3

t time of operation min
L
Bulk density of the particulate layer kg/m3
P = Pf + Pp
Filter Drag S = P/V

Areal dust density W = LVt
S= k1+k2W
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Problem

EQUIPMENT
Estimate the net cloth area for a shaker bag house

that must filter 40,000 cfm of air with 10 grams of
flour dust per cubic foot of air. Also specify the
number of components to be used and calculate
the total number of bags required if each bag is 8
feet long and 0.5 feet in diameter. The maximum
filtering velocity for flour dust is 2.5 ft/min.
54

EQUIPMENT
Solution
Calculate total area and number of components required.

A = Q/V
Calculate the area of each bag.
A = (d) l
Calculate the total number of bags required.
Number of bags required = Total area / Area per bag
= 1270 bags
Number of compartments
4000 sq. ft. / compartment
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EQUIPMENT
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR/ESP
Electrostatic Charging of Dust Particles
Cutaway of Electrostatic Precipitator

56
ESP PRINCIPLE

EQUIPMENT
The particles in a polluted gas are charged by passing them

through an electric field
The charged particles are led through collector plates
The collector plates have charges opposite to that on the
particles
The particles are attracted to these plates and are thus
removed from the gas steam
CONSTRUCTION/OPERATION
Charging Electrodes in the form of thin wires are placed in
the path of the influent gas.
The charging electrodes generate a strong electric field,
which charges the particles as they flow through it.
The collector plates get deposited with the particles. the
particles are occasionally removed either by rapping or by
57
ESP PRINCIPLE

EQUIPMENT
The efficiency of removal of particles by an

Electrostatic Precipitator is given by
= fractional collection efficiency

w = drift velocity, m/min.
A = available collection area, m2
Q = volumetric flow rate m3/min
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MIGRATION VELOCITY

EQUIPMENT
Where,
q = charge (Columbus)
Ep = collection field intensity (volts/m)
r = particle radius (m)
= dynamic viscosity of gas (Pa-S)
c = Cunningham correction factor
59

EQUIPMENT
CUNNINGHAM CORRECTION FACTOR
where,
T = absolute temperature (k)
dp = diameter of particle (m)
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Problem

EQUIPMENT
An ESP is designed to treat 50,000 m 3/min with

97 % efficiency. Assuming an effective drift
velocity of 2.5 m/min, calculate the required
plate area and the number of plates. The plate
size is 10 m by 5 m (height by length).
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EQUIPMENT
Solution
Efficiency of an Electrostatic Precipitator is given by
A =-[ (Q/w)*ln(1- )]
A = 70,000 m2
Number of plates = total area/plate area
= 1400
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EQUIPMENT
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR/ESP
ADVANTAGES
Very high efficiency, generally of the order of 99.5-99.9%.
Since the ESPs act on the particles and not on the air, they can
handle higher loads with lower pressure drops.
They can operate at higher temperatures.
Operating costs are generally low.
DISADVANTAGES
The initial capital costs are high.
Although they can be designed for a variety of operating
conditions, they are not very flexible to changes in the operating
conditions, once installed.
Particulate with high resistivity may go uncollected .
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WET SCRUBBERS
Aeromix Wet Scrubber

EQUIPMENT
64
WET SCRUBBERS

EQUIPMENT
Floating Bed Wet Scrubber

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WET SCRUBBERS

EQUIPMENT
Principle
Wet scrubbers are used for removal of particles which have a
diameter of the order of 0.2 mm or higher.
Wet scrubbers work by spraying a stream of fine liquid droplets
on the incoming stream.
The droplets capture the particles
The liquid is subsequently removed for treatment.
Construction/Operation
A wet scrubber consists of a rectangular or circular chamber in
which nozzles are mounted.
The nozzles spray a stream of droplets on the incoming gas
stream
The droplets contact the particulate matter, and the particles
get sorbed.
The droplet size has to be optimized.
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WET SCRUBBERS

EQUIPMENT
( CONTD..)
Smaller droplets provide better cleaning, but are more
difficult to remove from the cleaned stream.
The polluted spray is collected.
Particles are settled out or otherwise removed from the
liquid.
The liquid is recycled.
Wet scrubbers are also used for the removal of gases
from the air streams
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WET SCRUBBERS

EQUIPMENT
Efficiency
where,
k = Scrubber coefficient (m3 of gas/ m3 of liquid)
R = Liquid-to-gas flow rate (QL/QG)
= internal impaction parameter
Internal impaction parameter
where,
c = Cunningham correction factor
p = particle density (kg/m3)
Vg = speed of gas at throat (m/sec)
dp = diameter of particle (m)
dd = diameter of droplet (m)
= dynamic viscosity of gas, (Pa-S)
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WET SCRUBBERS

EQUIPMENT
ADVANTAGES
They can handle incoming streams at high temperature,
thus removing the need for temperature control
equipment.
Can handle high particle loading.
Loading fluctuations do not affect the removal efficiency.
Manage explosive gases with little risk.
Gas adsorption and dust collection are done in one unit.
Corrosive gases and dusts are neutralized.
DISADVANTAGES
High potential for corrosive problems
Effluent scrubbing liquid poses a water pollution problem.
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CYCLONE SPRAY CHAMBERS

EQUIPMENT
These scrubbers combine a cyclone with a spray

nozzle.
The added centrifugal force permits good
separation of the droplets, hence a smaller
droplet size can be used.
Cyclone spray chambers provide up to 95%
removal of particles > 5 micron.
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ORIFICE SCRUBBERS

EQUIPMENT
The gas is impacted onto a layer of the scrubbing liquid.

The gas passes through the liquid, thus removing
almost all the particulate matter, and a large portion of
the probable gases.
After coming out of the liquid, the gas is passed
through baffles to remove the liquid droplets.
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IMPINGMENT SCRUBBERS

EQUIPMENT
In Impingement scrubbers, the gas impacts a layer

of liquid/froth through a perforated tray.
Passing through this layer removes the particulate
matter.
The wet gas stream is then passed through a mist
collector.
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VENTURI SCRUBBERS

EQUIPMENT
The polluted gas is led in to the

chamber at high inlet velocities.
At the inlet throat, liquid at low
pressure is added to the gas
stream
This increases the relative
velocity between the gas and
the droplets, thus increasing
the efficiency of removal.
Efficiencies of the range of 95%
for particles larger than 0.2 mm
have been obtained.
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VENTURI SCRUBBERS

EQUIPMENT
Absolute Pressure Drop
= pressure drop ( cm of water)
Ug
= gas velocity (cm/s)
Qt
= liquid volume flow rate
Qg
= gas volume flow rate

74

EQUIPMENT
Problem
Water is introduced into the throat of a venturi

scrubber. The air velocity through the scrubber is
550 fps and the liquid to gas ratio is 8.5 gal/1000
actual ft3. Determine the pressure drop?
Absolute pressure drop is given by
p = 4.8
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HYDROCARBON
CONTROL
76

EQUIPMENT
GENERAL METHODS: INCINERATION/AFTER BURNING

Direct flame incineration
Thermal incineration
Catalytic incineration
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Problem

EQUIPMENT
Calculate the removal efficiency of a burner if the

concentration of HC was reduced from 1300 ppm to 100 ppm.
Removal Efficiency of the burner

Efficiency = (initial concentration final
concentration)/ initial concentration
Efficiency of the burner = 92.3%
78
VOC INCINERATORS

EQUIPMENT
79

EQUIPMENT
VOC INCINERATORS
Principle
VOC incinerators thermally oxidize the

effluent stream, in the presence of excess air.
The complete oxidation of the VOC results in
the formation of carbon monoxide and water.
The reaction proceeds as follows:
CxHy + ( x + y/4 ) O2 -> CO2 + (y/2)

Operation
H2O
The most important parameters in the design

and operation of an incineration system are
what are called the
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VOC INCINERATORS: THREE Ts

Temperature
The reaction kinetics are very sensitive to temperature
The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction
Timing
A certain time has to be provided for the reaction to proceed
Turbulence
Turbulence promotes mixing between the VOC's and oxygen
Proper mixing helps the reaction to proceed to completion in
the given time.
81
VOC INCINERATORS
82
VOC INCINERATORS
83
VOC INCINERATORS
The various methods for incineration are:

Elevated fires, for concentrated streams
Direct thermal oxidation, for dilute streams
Catalytic oxidation, for dilute streams.
84
Problem
In a workshop a mixture of chemicals were released,
Benzene 3000 ppm
Toluene 1000 ppm
Methane 2000 ppm
Calculate the lower exposure limit (LEL) of the mixture
LEL by volume for each chemical
Benzene 1.4 %
Toulene 1.27 %
Methane 5.00%
85
Solution
LEL of a mixture:
Xi - Volume of i component in the mixture
Xm - Volume of mixture
LELi - LEL of i component
LELmix = [3000/(6000*1.4) + 1000/(6000*1.27) + 2000/

(6000*5)]-1
= 1.79%
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GASES/VAPOURS
CONTROL
87
GASES CONTROL

EQUIPMENT
The most common method for controlling gaseous pollutants

is the addition of add-on control devices to recover or destroy
a pollutant.
There are four commonly used control technologies for
gaseous pollutants:
Absorption,
Adsorption,
Condensation, and
Incineration (combustion)
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ABSORPTION
The removal of one or more
selected components by
absorption is probably the
most important operation in
the control of gaseous
pollutant emissions.
Absorption is a process in
which a gaseous pollutant is
dissolved in a liquid.
Water is the most commonly
used absorbent liquid.
As the gas stream passes
through the liquid, the liquid
absorbs the gas, in much the
same way that sugar is

EQUIPMENT
Typical Packed Column

Diagram
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ABSORPTION

EQUIPMENT
Absorbers are often referred to as scrubbers, and

there are various kinds of absorption equipment.
The main types of gas absorption equipment
include spray towers, packed columns, spray
chambers, and venture scrubbers.
In general, removal efficiencies are grater than 95
%. One potential problem with absorption is the
generation of waste-water, which converts an air
pollution problem to a water pollution problem.
90
ADSORPTION

EQUIPMENT
When a gas or vapor is brought into contact

with a solid, part of it is taken up by the solid.
The molecules that disappear from the gas
either enter the inside of the solid, or remain
on the outside attached to the surface. The
former is termed absorption (or dissolution)
and the latter adsorption.
Common industrial adsorbents are activated
carbon, silica gel, and alumina, because they
have enormous surface areas per unit weight.
Activated carbon is the universal standard for
purification and removal of trace organic
contaminants from liquid and vapor streams.
91
ADSORPTION

EQUIPMENT
Carbon adsorption systems are either regenerative or nonregenerative.

Regenerative system usually contains more than one
carbon bed. As one bed actively removes pollutants,
another bed is being regenerated for future use.
Non-regenerative systems have thinner beds of activated
carbon. In a non-regenerative adsorber, the spent carbon
is disposed of when it becomes saturated with the
pollutant.
Regenerative Carbon
Adsorption System
Non-Regenerative
Carbon Adsorption
System
92
ADSORPTION TOWERS

EQUIPMENT
CONSTRUCTION/OPERATION
Adsorption towers consist of cylinders packed with the adsorbent.
The adsorbent is supported on a heavy screen
Since adsorption is temperature dependent, the flue gas is
temperature conditioned.
Vapor monitors are provided to detect for large concentrations in
the effluent. Large concentrations of the pollutant in the effluent
indicate that the adsorbent needs to be regenerated.
ADVANTAGES
Very low concentrations of pollutants can be removed.
Energy consumption is low.
Do not need much maintenance.
Economically valuable material can be recovered during
regeneration.
93
CONDENSATION

EQUIPMENT
It is the process of converting a gas or vapor to liquid.

Any gas can be reduced to a liquid by lowering its
temperature and/or increasing its pressure.
They are typically considered as pretreatment devices.
They can be used ahead of absorbers, absorbers, and
incinerators to reduce the total gas volume to be
treated by more expensive control equipment.
Condensers used for pollution control are contact
condensers and surface condensers.
94
CONDENSATION
Contact condenser, the gas
comes into contact with cold
liquid.
In a surface condenser, the
gas contacts a cooled surface
in which cooled liquid or gas
is circulated, such as the
outside of the tube.
Removal efficiencies range
from 50% to more than 95%,
depending on design and
applications.

EQUIPMENT
Contact condenser
95
Surface condenser
INCINERATION

EQUIPMENT
Incineration, also known as combustion, is most used

to control the emissions of organic compounds from
process industries.
This control technique refers to the rapid oxidation of
a substance through the combination of oxygen with
a combustible material in the presence of heat.
When combustion is complete, the gaseous stream is
converted to carbon dioxide and water vapor.
Equipment used to control waste gases by
combustion can be divided in three categories:
Direct combustion or flaring,
Thermal incineration and
Catalytic incineration.
96
DIRECT COMBUSTOR

EQUIPMENT
In Direct combustor air and all the combustible

waste gases react at the burner. Complete
combustion must occur instantaneously since
there is no residence chamber.
A flare can be used to control almost any emission
stream containing volatile organic compounds.
The efficiency of a flare is about 98 %.
97
THERMAL INCINERATORS

EQUIPMENT
In thermal incinerators the combustible

waste gases pass over or around a burner
flame into a residence chamber where
oxidation of the pollutant gases is
completed.
The efficiencies are of the order 99 %.
Thermal incinerator general case

98
CATALYTIC INCINERATORS

EQUIPMENT
Catalytic incinerators are very similar to

thermal incinerators. The main difference is
that after passing through the flame area,
the gases pass over a catalyst bed.
A catalyst promotes oxidation at lower
temperatures, thereby reducing fuel costs.
Efficiencies are greater than 95 %.
99
AIRQUALITY MODELLING
100
AIR POLLUTION
MODELLING
Air Quality Models are mathematical
formulations that include parameters that
affect pollutant concentrations.
They are used to
Evaluate compliance with NAAQS and other
regulatory requirements
Determine extent of emission reductions
required
Evaluate sources in permit applications
101
AIR POLLUTION
MODELLING TYPES
Meteorological
Model
Emission
Model
Chemical
Model
Temporal and spatial emission rates

Topography
Chemical Transformation
Pollutant Transport
Equilibrium between Particles and gases
Vertical Mixing
Source
Dispersion
Model
Receptor
Model
AIR POLLUTION
MODELLING TYPES
Emission Model
Estimates temporal and spatial emission rates based on
activity level, emission rate per unit of activity and
meteorology
Meteorological Model
Describes transport, dispersion, vertical mixing and
moisture in time and space
Chemical Model
Describes transformation of directly emitted particles
and gases to secondary particles and gases; also
estimates the equilibrium between gas and particles for
volatile species
103
AIR POLLUTION
MODELLING TYPES
Source Dispersion Model
Uses the outputs from the previous models to
estimate concentrations measured at receptors;
includes mathematical simulations of transport,
dispersion, vertical mixing, deposition and
chemical models to represent transformation.
Receptor Model
Infers contributions from different primary source
emissions or precursors from multivariate
measurements taken at one ore more receptor
sites.
104
AIR POLLUTION
MODELLING CLASSIFICATION
Developed for a number of pollutant types and
time periods
Short-term models for a few hours to a few days;
worst case episode conditions
Long-term models to predict seasonal or annual
average concentrations; health effects due to
exposure
Classified by
Non-reactive models pollutants such as SO2 and
CO
Reactive models pollutants such as O3, NO2, etc.
105
AIR POLLUTION
MODELLING TYPES
Classified by coordinate system
used
Grid-based
Region divided into an array of cells
Used to determine compliance with
NAAQS
Trajectory
Follow plume as it moves downwind
Classified by level of
sophistication
Screening: simple estimation use
preset, worst-case meteorological
conditions to provide conservative
106
AIR POLLUTION
FIXED-BOX MODELS
The city of interest is assumed to be
rectangular.
The goal is to compute the air pollutant
concentration in this city using the general
material balance equation.
107
AIR POLLUTION
FIXED-BOX MODELS: ASSUMPTIONS

1. Rectangular city. W and L are the dimensions, with
one side parallel to the wind direction.
2. Complete mixing of pollutants up to the mixing
height H. No mixing above this height.
3. The pollutant concentration is uniform in the whole
volume of air over the city (concentrations at the
upwind and downwind edges of the city are the
same).
4. The wind blows in the x direction with velocity u ,
which is constant and independent of time,
location, & elevation.
108
AIR POLLUTION
FIXED-BOX MODELS: ASSUMPTIONS

5. The concentration of pollutant in the air entering the
city is constant and is equal to b (for background
concentration).
6. The air pollutant emission rate of the city is Q (g/s).
The emission rate per unit area is q = Q/A (g/s.m2). A
is the area of the city (W x L). This emission rate is
assumed constant.
7. No destruction rate (pollutant is sufficiently longlived)
109
AIR POLLUTION
FIXED-BOX MODELS: GENERAL MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION

Accumulation rate =
rates out)
(destruction rate)
(all flow rates in) (all flow

+ (creation rate)
Destruction rate = zero (from assumptions)

Accumulation rate = zero (since flows are independent
of time and therefore steady state case since nothing is
changing with time)
Q can be considered as a creation rate or as a flow into
the box through its lower face. Lets say a flow through
lower face.
110
AIR POLLUTION
FIXED-BOX MODELS: GENERAL MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION

0 = (all flow rates in) (all flow rates
out)
0=uWH
qLb + q W L u W H c
c b
uH
The
equation
indicates
that the
concentration
Where
c is the
concentration
in upwind
the
is
added
to the concentrations produced by the city.
entire
city
To find the worst case, you will need to know the wind
speed, wind direction, mixing height, and upwind
(background) concentration that corresponds to this
worst case.
111
Problem
A city has the following description: W = 5 km, L = 15 km,
u = 3 m/s, H = 1000 m. The upwind, or background,
concentration of CO is b = 5 g/m3. The emission rate per
unit area is q = 4 x 10-6 g/s.m2. what is the concentration
c of CO over the city?
qL
c b
uH
g
6
15000 m
4 10
2
5 g
s.m
c 3
3 m/s 1000 m
m
= 25 g/m3
112
AIR POLLUTION
FIXED-BOX MODELS: COMMENTS

The fixed-box models does not distinguish
between area sources and point sources.
Both sources are combined in the q value. We
know that raising the release point of the
pollutant will decrease the ground-level
concentration.
The fixed-box models predict concentrations for
only one specific meteorological condition, but
that conditions vary over the year.
113
AIR POLLUTION

1) Hanna (1971) suggested a modification that
allows one to divide the city into subareas and
apply a different value of q to each.
(since
variation of q from place to place can be obtained;
q is low in suburbs and much higher in industrial
areas).
2) Changes in meteorological conditions can be
taken into account by
a.
determine the frequency distribution of

various values of wind direction, u, and of H
114
b. Compute the concentration for each value
AIR POLLUTION
c. Multiply the concentrations obtained in step

b by the frequency and sum to find the
annual average
Annual
Average
Concentration
concentration
for that
over all meteorologies
meteorology
frequency of
occurrence of that
meteorology
115
Problem
For the city in example 6.1, the meteorological
conditions described (u = 3 m/s, H = 1000 m)
occur 40 percent of the time. For the remaining
60 percent, the wind blows at right angles to
the direction shown in Fig. 6.1 at velocity 6 m/s
and the same mixing height. What is the annual
average concentration of carbon monoxide in
this city?
First we need to compute the concentration
resulting from each meteorological condition
and then compute the weighted average.
For u = 3 m/s and H = 1000 m c = 25 g/m3
116
Solution
g
5000 m
4 10
2
5 g
s.m
c
For u = 6 m/s and H = 1000 m

6 m/s 1000 m
m3
g
c 8.33 3
m
Annual
concentration
for that
over all meteorologies
meteorolog
y
frequency of
Average
occurrence of that
Concentration
meteorolog
y
Annual
g
g
g
Average 25 3 0.4 8.33 3 0.6 15 3
m
m
m
Concentration
117
AIR POLLUTION
GUASSIAN PLUME MODELS

Plume spread and shape vary in response to
meteorological conditions
118
AIR POLLUTION

Z
Q
u
119
AIR POLLUTION
GUASSIAN PLUME MODELS: ASSUMPTIONS
Steady-state conditions (constant source emission

strength)
Wind speed, direction and diffusion characteristics of the
plume are constant.
Conservation of mass, i.e. no chemical transformations take
place
Wind speeds are >1 m/sec.
Limited to predicting concentrations > 50 m downwind
120
AIR POLLUTION

The general equation to calculate the steady state
concentration of an air contaminant in the ambient air
resulting from a point source is given
by: 2
2
1 y
Q
zH
C x, y , z
exp
2
2
2 y z u
2
y
z
Where;
c(x,y,z) = mean concentration of diffusing substance at a point (x,y,z)

[kg/m3]
x=
downwind distance [m],
y
y= crosswind distance [m],
z
z = vertical distance above ground [m],
Q = contaminant emission rate [mass/s],
= lateral dispersion coefficient function [m],
= vertical dispersion coefficient function [m],

= mean wind velocity in downwind direction [m/s],
H = effective stack height [m].
121
AIR POLLUTION
GUASSIAN PLUME MODELS: A AND F LEVELS
A to F are levels of atmospheric stability.

Explanation:
For a clear & hot summer morning with low wind
speed, the sun heats the ground and the ground
heats the air near it. Therefore air rises and mixes
pollutants well.
Unstable atmosphere and large y & z values
On a cloudless winter night, ground cools by
radiation to outer space and therefore cools the
air near it. Hence, air forms an inversion layer.
Stable atmosphere and inhibiting the dispersion
of pollutants and therefore small 122y & z values
AIR POLLUTION
GUASSIAN PLUME MODELS: STABILITY CLASSES

Table 3-1 Wark,
Warner & Davis
Table 6-1 de
Nevers
123
AIR POLLUTION
DISPERSON COEFFICIENTS: HORIZONTAL / VERTICAL
124
AIR POLLUTION
GUASSIAN DISPERSON EQUATION

If the emission source is at ground level with
no effective plume rise then
1 y2 z2
Q
C x, y , z
exp 2 2
y z u
2
z
y
Plume Rise
H is the sum of the physical stack height
and plume rise.
H hplume rise hactual stack
125
AIR POLLUTION
GUASSIAN DISPERSON EQUATION
Vs D
Ts Ta
3
1.5 2.68 10 PD
h
u
Ts
= the
plum rise in m
This equation is only correcth
for
Vs = stack exit velocity
dimensions shown.
in m/s
D = stack diameter in
m
u = wind speed in m/s
P
=
pressure
in
millibarsclasses other
needed for stability
Ts
=
stack
gas
temperature in K
B classes: multiply
result by
Ta
= theatmospheric
temperate126
in K
Correction is
than C:
For A and
1.1 or1.2
For D, E, and F classes: multiply the result by
Problem
Q = 20 g/s of SO2 at Height H
u = 3 m/s,
At a distance of 1 km, y = 30 m, z = 20 m (given)
Required: (at x = 1 km)
a) SO2 concentration at the center line of the plume
b) SO2 concentration at a point 60 m to the side of
and 20 m below the centerline
127
127
Solution
y2
Q
( z H )2

c
exp
2
2
2 u y z
2 z
2 y
a) At the centerline
y 0,
z - H 0 e0 1
Q
20 (g/s)
c
.00177 g/m 3 1770 g/m 3

2u y z 2 (3 m/s)(30 m)(20 m)
b) At a point 60m to the side and 20 m below the CL

y 60 m,
z - H - 20 m

20 (g/s)
60 2
( 20) 2
c
exp
2
2
2 (3 m/s)(30 m)(20 m)
2
(
30
)
2
(
20
)
(1770 g/m 3 )(0.0818) 145 g/m 3

128
AIR POLLUTION
CHEMICAL MASS BALANACE MODELS

A receptor model for assessing source
apportionment using ambient data and source
profile
data.
ASSUMPTIONS
Composition of source emissions is constant over period of
time,
Chemicals do not react with each other,
All sources have been identified and have had their emission
characterized, including linearly independent of each other,
The number of source category (j) is less than or equal to
the number of chemical species (i) for a unique solution to
these equations, and
The measurement uncertainties are random, uncorrelated,
and normally distributed (EPA, 1990).
129
AIR POLLUTION
CHEMICAL MASS BALANACE MODELS: PRINCIPLE

Mass at a receptor site is a linear
combination of the mass contributed from
each of a number of individual sources;
Mass and chemical compositions of source
emissions are conserved from the time of
emission to the time the sample is taken.
Cij = (aikSkj)
Cij is the concentration of species ith in the

sample jth measured at the receptor site:
aik is the mass fraction of the species in the
emission from source kth, and
Skj is the total mass contribution from source kth
in the jth sample at the receptor site.
130
AIR POLLUTION
Problem
Total Pb concentration (ng/m3) measured at the
site: a linear sum of contributions from
independent source types such as motor vehicles,
incinerators, smelters, etc
PbT = Pbauto + Pb incin. + Pbsmelter +
Next consider further the concentration of
airborne lead contributed by a specific source. For
example, from automobiles in ng/m3, Pbauto, is the
product of two cofactors: the mass fraction
(ng/mg) of lead in automotive particulate
emissions,
aPb,
and
the
total
mass
auto,
concentration (mg/m3) of automotive emission to
the atmosphere, Sauto
131
TO BE CONTINUED WITH FURTHER/OWN ASSIGNMENTS
132
133

EQUIPMENT
Dimensions of a Standard
Cyclone
134

EQUIPMENT
135
Problem

EQUIPMENT
Design of Cyclone
Body diameter = 0.75 m
Flow rate = 2.75 m3/s
p = 1600 kg/m3
g = 1.1 kg/m3
= 2.5*10-5 kg/m-s
High throughput
H = 0.8 * body diameter
W = 0.35 * body diameter
Lb = 1.7 * body diameter
Lc = 2.0 * body diameter
136

EQUIPMENT
Solution
Inlet Velocity = Q/A
= 17.46 m/s
Number of effective turns
Ne = (Lb + Lc/2)/H
Ne = 3.375
Diameter of particle
137
GUASSIAN PLUME MODEL: DETAILED
138
DERIVATION
Distribution of pollutant concentration c in the flow field (velocity vector u ux, uy, uz)
in PBL can be generally described by Reynolds equation in the form:
c

c

c

c
(u )c x
z
y
t
x
x y
y z
z
x , y , z
are turbulent diffusion

coefficients for each spatial
directions
The inercial or advection term is

non-linear - it contains the product
of unknown parameters u and c:
(u )c u x
c
c
c
uy
uz
x
y
z
The Reynolds equation can be

solved only numerically (along with
other three equations describing
the components of the flow velocity
vector).
139
DERIVATION
Gaussian model is simplified - does not include a transport in complex flow fields.
The model describes only smoke plume drift by constant velocity along a linear path.
Derivation of this model, therefore, does not take into account the nonlinear
advection term and based on equation involving only the turbulent dispersion.
c

c

c

c
z
(u )c x
y
t
x
x y
y z
z
c
c

c

c
x
z
y
t x
x y
y z
z
x y z is the equation
For constant and isotropic turbulent dispersion
simply in the form:
c
2c 2c 2c
c
c 2 2 2
x
y
z
t
This simplified spherically symmetric diffusion equation has an analytical solution in the
form of a concentration function of two variables (t, r)
Q
r2
c (r , t )
exp
32
4
t
8 t
Q is mass flow of pollutant (g/s)

r is distance from the centre (from
source)
140
DERIVATION
Analytical solutions - the spherically symmetric function of time and distance from the
source is expressed by the graph:
It is obvious that the concentration is high but
rapidly decreasing with increasing distance
from the center in a short time t1 after the
pulse emission of pollutant from the source.
Concentration after a longer time t2 is lower
with slow decline.
To derive the model of plume is necessary to establish transport - a shift from the source
in the direction of the x-axis. We can simple define:
y 2 velocity
r x uisx t constant
z2
of u
drifting
flow
x
2
12
141
DERIVATION
We have the function of pollutant concentration including the shift in the x-axis:
x u xt 2 y 2 z 2
Q
c (r , t )
exp
32
4 t
8 t
u x t3
t1
t2
t1
t3
t2
t3
Plume model is obtained by integrating over all states in the time t
x u xt y 2 z 2
ux y 2 z 2
Q
Q
dt
c ( x, y , z )
exp
exp
32
t
4
x
4
x
8
142
DERIVATION
Resulting formula after integration (and neglect of small terms) expresses the timeindependent 3D field of spatial distribution of pollutant concentration corresponding
to smoke plume.
ux y 2 z 2
Q
c ( x, y , z )
exp
4x
4 x
The anisotropy of turbulent dispersion can be re-introduced for the y and z-axes:
yz
ux y 2
ux z 2
Q
exp
c ( x, y , z )
exp
4 x
x
4 y z x
y
z
The relations for dispersion parameters corresponding to Gaussian standard

deviations are finally introduced.
2 y x
ux
, z
2 z x
ux
143
DERIVATION
The resulting formula of Gaussian smoke plume model is:
2
2
Q
y
z
c ( x, y , z )
exp 2 exp 2
2
2 u x y z
y
2 z
The fraction in the formula

expresses the concentration in the
plume axis. By dimensions is:
Q
mg s
mg m 3
2 u x y z m s m m
The exponential terms represent a

lateral dispersion in the y and zaxes, they are dimensionless and
can have values in the interval (0,1)
144
APPLICATION
In practical applications, z does not mean the distance from the axis of plume but
represents the height difference between the ground level at the source and at the
reference point (point where the pollutant concentration is calculated).
2
Q
y
c ( x, y , z )
exp 2
2
2 y z u
y
z h 2
z h 2
exp
. exp
2
2
2 z
2 z
The reflection of pollutant from the ground at the level of source is also included in
the formula.
h - is effective height of
the source (stack).
145
APPLICATION
The second possibility is the inclusion of pollutant reflection from the ground level at
the reference point.
This approach is appropriate to calculate the concentration of the pollutant in
reference points on the plateau.
2
z h 2
Q
y
c ( x, y , z )
exp 2 . exp
2
y z u
2
y
z
146
APPLICATION
Both approaches for calculating of pollutant reflection from the ground can be
included continuously by a factor theta.
2
z h 2
z h 2
Q
y
1 exp
1 exp
c
exp
2
2
2
2. y z u
2 z
2 z
y
This factor is calculated as

the ratio of vertical surfaces
defined at the junction
between the source and the
reference point as shown.
A1
A2
A2 (rectangle)
A1
Reference
point
Theta factor can have values

in the interval (0,1)
147
APPLICATION
y , z
The dispersion parameters

are dependent on the length of the plume xaxis. They are calculated based on the stability classification of the atmosphere by
the tabulated parameters ay, az and by, bz.
y ay x
by
z az xb
148

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AIR POLLUTION

WHAT IS AIR POLLUTION ?

This occurs when the air contains gases,

FACTORS AFFECTING AIR POLLUTION

NATURAL AIR POLLUTION

MAN-MADE AIR POLLUTION

WHAT ARE THOSE IMPORTANT POLLUTANTS

CRITERIA POLLUTANTS: EPA STANDARD

CRITERIA POLLUTANTS: EPA STANDARD

CRITERIA POLLUTANTS: EMISSION IN US

TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION

TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION

TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION

AIR POLLUTION: HEALTH

Including pulmonary, cardiac,

AIR POLLUTION: HEALTH

AIR POLLUTION: HEALTH

Table 1: Sources, Health and Welfare Effects for Criteria Pollutants.

Motor vehicle exhaust,

Headaches, reduced mental

Contribute to the formation of

Colorless gas that

Coal-fired power plants,

Eye irritation, wheezing, chest

Contribute to the formation of

Reddish brown, highly

Motor vehicles, electric

Contribute to the formation of

Vehicle exhaust and certain

Eye and throat irritation,

Plant and ecosystem damage.

Metal refineries, lead

Anemia, high blood pressure,

Affects animals and plants,

Very small particles of

Diesel engines, power

Eye irritation, asthma,

Table-2: Sources, Effects of Air Pollutants on Vegetables

The upper portions of Alfalfa etc. will be affected to Narcosis

Photochemical reaction of hydrocarbon

All ages of tobacco leaves, beans, grapes, pine, pumpkins

The sources of PAN are the same as

Young spongy cells of plants are affected if 0.01 ppm of PAN

High temperature combustion of coal, oil,

Irregular, white or brown collapsed lesion on intercostals

Ammonia & Sulfur

Thermal power plants, oil and petroleum

Bleached spots, bleached areas between veins, bleached

Leaks in chlorine storage tanks,

If 0.10 ppm is present for at least 2 hrs, the epidermis and

Phosphate rock processing, aluminum

Epidermis and mesophyll of grapes, large seed fruits, pines

Defoliation, dwarfing, curling, twisting, growth reduction and

Cement industries, thermal power plants,

Affects quality of plants, reduces vigor & hardness and

Processing of mercury containing ores,

Greenhouse crops, and floral parts of all vegetations are

T=absolute temperature (K);

AIR POLLUTION: CONTROL

The particles are removed by the application of a

AIR POLLUTION: CONTROL

CYCLONES: CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION

AIR POLLUTION: CONTROL

Cyclones have a low capital cost