Biological

Biological Weapons
Threat
Proliferation Prevention
Reduction
Program
Program

Introduction to Data Presentation

TRNEPI-00152

Learning objectives

Define different types of variables

Create and interpret one and two variable
tables
Create and interpret a line graph
Create and interpret one and two variable bar
charts
Describe when to use each type of table,
graph, and chart

Why organize data?

Many records
Look for trends and relationships
Get familiar with data before analysis
Catch errors
Communicate findings to others

How to organize data

Identify what type of data you have

Determine what you need to communicate with
the data
Summarize using tables, graphs, and/or charts

Variable: definition
What is observed or measured in the way people
differ
Examples:

age
height
hair color
smoking

Types of Variables
Variable
Qualitative
or categorical

Nominal
(not ordered)
e.g. ethnic
group

Ordinal
(ordered)
e.g. response
to treatment

Quantitative
measurement

Discrete
Continuous
(count data) (real-valued)
e.g. number
e.g. height
of admissions
6

Types of Variables
Categorical
Nominal
Sex
M
M
F
M
F
F
M
M
F
M
F
F
M
M

Nationality
Yemen
Jordan
Yemen
Jordan
Sudan
Yemen
Sudan
Iran
Jordan
Iran
Yemen
Sudan
Iran
Yemen

Quantitative

Ordinal
Status
Mild
Moderate
Severe
Mild
Moderate
Mild
Moderate
Severe
Severe
Mild
Moderate
Moderate
Mild
Severe

Discrete
Children
1
1
2
3
1
1
2
3
2
2
1
1
1
2

Continuous
Weight
56.4
47.8
59.9
13.1
25.7
23.0
30.0
13.7
15.4
52.5
26.6
38.2
59.0
57.9
7

Why Does it Matter?

Categorical and quantitative variables are statistically

summarized and presented in different ways

Variable Type

Data Presentation

Quantitative

Graphs, Tables

Categorical

Charts, Tables

Biological
Biological Weapons
Threat
Proliferation Prevention
Reduction
Program
Program

Tables

Tables: Characteristics

Data is arranged in rows and columns

Presentation is simple and self-explanatory

Title
Label each row and column
Show totals for rows and columns
Include units of measure (yrs, mg/dl)
Explain codes in footnote

1
0

Simple Frequency Distribution

1
1

Determining Class Intervals

The intervals must be mutually exclusive and

encompass all data.
For preliminary analysis a large number of
intervals (4-8) is used. These intervals can then
be consolidated.
Use standard or frequently applied intervals (for
instance, up to the age of 19, 20-24 years, 25-29
years, etc.).
A category must be provided to accommodate
unknown values (for instance age unknown.)

1
2

Two Variable Table

1
3

Format for 2 X 2 Table

1
4

Format for 2 X 2 Table

Follow-up status among diabetic and
nondiabetic white men NHANES, 1982-1984
Dead

Alive

Diabetic

100

89

189

Non-diabetic

811

2340

3151

911

2429

3340

Total

Total

1
5

Biological
Biological Weapons
Threat
Proliferation Prevention
Reduction
Program
Program

Graphs and Charts

Charts and Graphs: Advantages

Easier to understand and interpret

Get a good feel for the data before formal
analysis
Reveal patterns in data

Used to generate hypothesis

1
7

Graphs: Types

Arithmetic-scale line graphs

In-set graphs
Histograms
Frequency Polygons
Cumulative Frequency Curve
Scatter diagram

1
8

Graphs
Title

1
9

Types of Variables
Dependent
Describe outcome of interest
Examples: Dead, cancer, ill

Independent
May cause or contribute to variation of the
dependent variable
Not influenced by dependent variable
Examples: Time, age, packs of cigarettes, cholesterol
levels

2
0

Arithmetic-Scale Line Graph

Incidence of Hepatitis A, United States,
1952-1993

Rate /100,000

40

30

20

10

1950

1960

1970
Year

1980

1990

Source: CDC, National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System

2
1

Arithmetic-Scale Line Graph:

Characteristics

Method of choice for plotting rates over time

Set distance on graph represents same quantity
anywhere on the axis
Horizontal graph x:y ratio is 5:3

Y-axis should start with 0

Determine largest value of Y needed to plot
Round off that number and divide into
intervals

2
2

Arithmetic-Scale Line Graph

50.0

Registered Death Rates by Age

and Year, 1996-2000

45.0

Rate per 1000 population

40.0
35.0
30.0
25.0

1996

20.0

1997
1998

15.0

1999

10.0

2000

5.0
0.0

Age Categories (Years)

2
3

Inset Graph
50.0
45.0

Rate per 1000 population

40.0
35.0
30.0
25.0

Registered Death Rates by Age

and Year, 1996-2000
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0

1996

20.0

1997
1998

15.0

1999

10.0

2000

5.0
0.0

Age Categories (Years)

2
4

Inset Graph: Characteristics

A magnified portion of the larger, or host,

graph

Can see data in better detail

Smaller graph is inset into the larger

graph
Variables remain the same

Independent data points do not change (e.g.

age categories will remain in 5-year
segments)

2
5

Histograms
Frequency of measles by week of onset
Dec 6, 2000 to May 16, 2001

2
6

Histograms: characteristics

Graph of the frequency distribution of a

continuous variable

Columns are adjoining

Area of each column is proportional to number

of observations in that interval

2
7

March 13

March 14
Onset (3-hour periods)
2
8

2
9

Histograms using continuous data

3
0

Frequency Polygon
Example of a Frequency Polygon

3
1

Frequency Polygon: Characteristics

Graph of entire frequency distribution of a

continuous variable
Number of events in interval plotted at
midpoint of interval
Straight line connects points
Useful to compare two or more
distributions on the same axis

3
2

Frequency Polygon
Relative frequency of serum cholesterol
level by age

3
3

Cumulative Frequency

Percent infected with HBV

Cumulative incidence of hepatitis B virus infection

by duration of high-risk behavior
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

IV Drug Users

5
6
7
Years at Risk

Homosexual Men

10

11

12

Heterosexuals - multiple parters

3
4

Scatter Diagram
Relationship between age in years and heavy
metal X exposure

3
5

Charts: Types

Appropriate for categorical data

Bar charts

Simple
Grouped
Stacked

Pie charts

3
6

Simple Bar Chart

Annual Death Rates by Govornorate, 1996-2000
MAANN
AJLON
KARAK

Govornaorate

BALQA
IRBID
TAFEL
MADAB
MAFRQ
JARAS
AMMAN
ZARQA
AQABA
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Rate per 100,000 population

3
7

Bar Charts: Characteristics

Display data from one-variable table

Each variable is represented by a bar
Bars are proportional to the number of events
Can be presented vertically or horizontally

3
8

Vertical Bar Chart

Qualitative Ordinal Variable

Cases

Distribution of Cases by Clinical Status

Clinical Status
3
9

Grouped Bar Chart

Frequency

Treatment completion and cure of disease X

in various racial groups, 1994-2000

Race
4
0

Grouped Bar Chart: Characteristics

Illustrate data from two variable or three

variable tables
Bars within groups are usually adjoining
Bars between groups have a space
Limit number of bars within group to less than
four

4
1

Stacked Bar Chart

Cases

Cases of malaria in a region, 1992-1996

Time
4
2

Pie Chart

4
3

Geographic Distribution of Hepatitis A Virus

Infection

Anti-HAV Prevalence
High
Intermediate
Low
Very Low

4
4

4
5

Selecting the Right Presentation Method

(1)
Type of Graph or Diagram

Application

Arithmetic Scale Graph

Data or indicator trends over time.

Inset Graph

View a larger image of a portion of the

host
graph

Histogram
1.Frequency distribution for a
continuous variable.
2. Number of cases during an epidemic
(epidemic curve) or over time.

4
6

Selecting the Right Presentation

Method (2)
Type of Graph or Diagram

Application

Frequency Polygons

Frequency distribution of a continuous

variable for displaying components

Cumulative Frequency Curve

Display cumulative frequency of a

quantitative variable

Scatter Plot

Plot the relationship between 2 variables

looking for any correlation.

Simple Bar Charts

Compare the size or frequency of

different categories of the same
variable.

4
7

Selecting the Right Presentation

Method (3)
Type of Graph or Diagram
Grouped Bar Chart

Stacked Bar Chart

Application
Compare the sizes or frequencies of
different categories across 2-4 data
sets

Compare totals and display

component parts for several data
groups

Pie Chart
Display parts of a whole

4
8

Selecting the Right Presentation

Method (4)
Type of Graph or Diagram

Application

Spot Map

Display locations of cases or

occurrences

Area Map

Display occurrences or indicators as

they correspond to geographic
divisions

4
9

Summary

Tables, charts, and graphs are effective

tools for organizing, summarizing, and
communicating data

In order to effectively communicate data,

the correct presentation method must be
selected

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0