E. . . . . . . . . . . .
.CHAPTER
1Underground
Mim'ng Methods
and
ApplicatiomHans
Hondo*
Futures reserves?
_______________________________________RGUR
EI.1 The undon!(Ifoand mine-tBaeic
infmefructnm1.2 DEFINITION DF TEMMSTo
better understand the material presented herein, some of
themore common mining terms are defined in the
following para-graphs. Figure 1.1 further darifies some
of the terms.Adit: Horizontal or nearly horizontal
entrance to a mine.Back: Roof or overhead surface
of an undergroundexcavation.Chute : Loading
arrangement that utilizes gravity to movematerial from a
higher level to a lower level.Cone: Funnel-shaped
excavation located at the top of araise used to collect
rock from the area above.
,
bias(
________________________________Mining a narrow
vein with steep dip
=NHLnGUREI6
loading
Shrlnheffe
stogiesh
aroseout
150 m
250 m 2
5
0
m
250 m
_______________________________________FIGURE
1.9
Sublevel open stoninga A raise from the haulage level passing
FIGUREI.10 longhoie rig with slide positioning, remote
athrough theundercut
Undergraund
Mining
Methads
andto provide access
General gold,
Mine Canadaof
l3esign Coneiderations
to the main
level above
control, andtabe camusei, Wiiliems
ore, known as9
Appilaatians
andventilation to the slope.The development of the bottom section
crown pillars, are also left to support mine work-ings above the
of the
scope can besimplified
the same
way as for Bighole
sublevelproducing stopes.Enlarging stope dimensions influences mining
RGUREI.11
6ighele inepeo
etepiog1.3.6
stoping-the
fingerraises
are (Figures
deleted, 1.11-1.13)
and the is
cross-cuts
are
StoflfngBighole
sloping
a scaled-up
efficiency.Miners therefore aim for the largest possible slopes. The
developed
drawpointloading.Drilling
and blasting
carried
variantfor
ofsublevel
open sloping in which
longer are
blastholes
stabilityof the rock mass is a limiting factor to be considered
out aswith
overhead
stoping.The
rough
pilemm)
of ore
the stope
prevents
largerdiameters
(140
to 165
areinused.
The holes
arewhenselecting
sizes ofcrew
slopes
pillars. Sublevel
slopingand
is
requires athetrained
forand
successful
blast results
the use
of mechanizedequipment.
Standard practice
is to use air-leg
normallydrilled
using the in-the-hole
(!TH) technique.
Holeusedfor
mining necessary
mineral deposits
with of
following
characteristics:s
recordsare
to keep track
the blasting
progress in
rock depths
drills andstoper
traditional
ore the
handling
in
mayreachdrillers.The
100 m, which
is double
lengthsystem
that can
Steepeach
dip-the
inclination
footwallfrom
mustslopes
exceedthe
angle the
of
hole.The
ore ofis the
mucked
through
shrinkage
stopingentails
direct dumping
of patterns
ore into are
ran similar
cars from
be drilled
withtophammer
rigs. Blast
torepose,e
Stable
rock
in
both
the
hanging
wall
and
the
footwall.
E.
undercut usingremote-controlled LHDs or recovered by a
chutes
below
thefinger
raises.open
Shovel
loaders
more effective in
those
used
insublevel
sloping
Theare140-mm-diameter
Competent
ore and
host rock,. E. the
Regular
boundaries.Sublevel
drawpoint
systemunderneath
stopeore
as in
sublevel groping.
conjunctionwith
a drawpoint
loading
stoping
blasthole breaks
arock slice
4 msystem.Shrinkage
thick with a 6-m
toedriftsThe
for longhole
drilling
are prepared
inside theore body
between
gropes may
ormay
not be backfilled.VCR
ruining
is
was spacing.The
a common advantage
and important
methodstoping
inthe as
dayscompared
when few
of bighole
tomain applicable
levels. These
strategically
locatedsince
are the
points
in are
conditions
similar
to thosethese
inwhich
sublevel
machines
were employed
undergroundmining.
Its advantage
sublevelsloping
is theinscale
factor. The ITH-drilled
holes areis
from open
whichgroping
the longhole
rig drills
pattern.simplerwith
The drill pattern
is used.
VCR theblast
is technically
lTfl
the fact
that the
ore couldaccuracy
be dumpeddirectly
into cars
through
the
straight,
anddrilling
can be exploited.
For
instance,
specifies
where
blastholes
are
tobe
collared
and
the
depth
and holes
angle
drilling compared to tophammer drining.
ITH
chutes,
eliminating
hand-loading.This
is of
importance
today,
vertical
spacingsbetween
sublevels
canlittle
be extended
from
40of each
hole, all of
whichmust
be set with
great precision
to achieve
arestraight,
and
hole deviations
are minimal.
The charging
of
and the
drawbacks-that
is, themethod
is m
labor
working
m with
sublevel openstoping
to 60
withintensive,
bighole stoping.
a successful
blast.Drawpoints
below
bottom
theblastholes
is complex,are
andexcavated
techniques
mustthe
bestope
mastered
by
conditions
aredamage
difficulttoanddangerous,
and
Risks of
rockstructures productivity
is a factor to isbelimited,
considered
for safemucking
LHDs,
which may
be combined
with trucks
or
thechargingwith
team.
The powerful
VCR
charges involve
higher
the bulk
oreremains
storedisused.1.3.7
in the slope for
a long period
of
whenof the
bighole
sloping
Vertical
Crater
railcars
forfordamaging
longer transport.
Different layouts
for undercut
risks
the surrounding
rock than
sublevel drawopen
timehaveresulted
in crater
the replacement
of mining
shrinkage
groping
by
RetreatVertical
retreat (VCR)
(Figures
1.14,
pointsstoping.1.3.8
are used. The trough-shaped
bottom is typicallyaccessed
Cut-anSFiII stope
StapingCut-and-fill
mining
othermethods.
Sublevel
stoping,
vertical
retreat
stoping,
1.15, and1.16) is a method originally developed by thethrough
loading1.17
driftsand
at regular
spacings.Developing
the set ofslices,
drifts
(Figures
1.18) removes
ore in hori-zontal
sublevelcaving,
cut-and-fifl mining
methodsVCR
that usually
Canadian and
miningcompany
INCO.areToday,
is anand drawpoints
anadvancingupward.
extensive and costly
starting fromunderneath
the bottomthestope
undercutisand
Ore
can beapplied
under
similar
conditions.Shrinkage
established
mining
methodused
by mines allgroping
over theremains,
worldprocedure.
A simpler
layout and
isgaining
as an alternative
is drilled
and blasted
muckinispopularity
loaded andremoved
from
however,
as one
of the steeplydipping
methodsthat can
a the conventional draw-point-and-muck-out system. Here, the
that have
competent,
ore be
andpracticed
host rock.with
VCRto
the stope. When the stope has been mined out,voids are
minimum
of investment
in machineryand
yet in
is which
still notpowerful
entirely
is based
on the crater
blastingtechnique
loading
level is with
integratedwith
the undercut.
Mucking
out is done
backfilled
hydraulic sand
tailings or
waste rock.The
fill
dependent
on charges
manual are
capacity.1.3.5
Sublevel Open
explosive
placed inlarge-diameter
holes Step|HgIn
and fired.directly
on the
slopebottom
the open
The LHD
works
serves
both
to support inside
the stope
walls stope.
and provide
aworking
sublevel
stoping
(Figures
and 1.10),
is recoveredin
the openstope
and, forwhen
safety
is is
operated
by radio
Part open
of the
blasted
ore 1.9
remains
inthe ore
slope
over theinsideplatform
for equipment
thereasons,
next slice
mined.Cut-andopenproduction
slopes normally
being mined.
Slopesthe
areoften
RGURE
1.13
Blghole
drill
rig
with
automatic
cootrole
sod
by
anoperator
based
inside
the
access
drift.Sublevel
stoping
cycle,backfilled
serving asafter
temporary
supportfor
slopecontrol
fill mining is used in steeply dipping ore bodies instrata
large,walls.The
particularly
in the vertical
direction. The
ore body
isdivided
lo/ 50
m long
holee,
Mount
Charlotte,
AuetraliaThe
requires
a regular
shape
of stopes
and
oreboundaries.
Inside
thehighdrill
sequence
of development
of VCR
slopes
ise Atubecaroueel
having
good-to-moderate
stability
and
comparatively
into separate
stopes.
Between slopes,
oreore
sections
setaside for
ore
Ingrade
a everything
stopeore.
block It
is drilled
with
drill rigs
the
pattern,
qualifies
as
ore.ITH
Inlarger
ore posi-tioned
bodies,than
theinarea
haulage drift
is excavated
along the
body atarethedrawpoint
provides
the
FIGURE
1.14 VCR
mining, better
primaryselectivity
stofmsFIGURE
pillars
to
support
the
hanging
wall.
Pillars
are
normallyshaped
as
RGURE
1.15
ITH
drilling,
165
mm
blast
holes,
INCO,
onercut.
Holes
are drilled
untilVCR
theybreak
through
into the
between
the hanging
walldownward
and thefootwall
is divided
into
modules
level,e A drawpoint loading arrangement is created
alternativesublevel
groping
and
mining
techniques.
1.16 VCR mining, recovery of secondary stopes
vertical
beams
across
the oreThe
body.
Horizontal
Canadaare
placed
a specified
distance
above
thesections
free surface.
Holes
undercut.
holes
are
preferredwherever
possible.
alongHence,
strikeVertical
and
mined
asprimary
and secondary
underneaththe
stope,e
stope
is undercut,e
An overcut
cut-and-fillis
preferred
for ore stopes.
bodies
havingHole
an
_______________________________________FIGUREI.12
aregrouped
that charges
will beand
at charging.
the same elevation and
diameters
vary
from
140
to
165
mm,although
holes
205
mm in
accesssso
is excavated
for drilling
irregular
andMount
scat-tered
mineralization.
6lghole
sampleshape
pattern,
Charlotte,
Australia Cut-and-fill
depth.First, the hole depth is measured. Then the hole is blocked at
diameter
haveselective
been triedmining,
in a fewmines.
Forrecovery
165-mm-diameter
holes,
allows
sepa-rate
of high-grade
theproper height. Explosive charges are lowered, and the hole
a holesections,
pattern of
4
by
4
m
istypical.Holes
are
charged
from
and the leaving of low-graderock behind the
in
isstemmed with sand and water placed on top of the charge. Adjaonercut
using powerful
chargescontained
in a short
section
of blast
gropes.The
development
for cut-and-fill
mining
includesa
A
cent explosive charges aid in breaking the rock, normally loos-ening
hole. These
crater
charges
haulage
drive
along the footwall of the ore body at themain
a 3-m slice of ore that falls into the void below. Charging
leveln Undercutting the slope area with drains for water,
16
_______________________________________FIGURE
1.19
tongwafl mlning in soft mck (coal seam)Hydraulic sandfifl is often used
with cut-and-fill mining. Thefill-deslimed sand tailings from the mine's
dressing plant-ismixed with water to 60% to 70% solids and distributed
_______________________________________nGURE 1.17 Miningto stopesvia a network of pipes. Before fiUing, stopes are prepared
bybarricading entries, and drainage tubes are laid out on the floor.The
wlth cut end NH
sand fills the stope to almost its full height. As a harder ml isrequired on
the surface, cement is added in the last pour. Whenthe water has drained,
the fill surface is smooth and compact. Itforms a good base for mobile
machines while mining the nextslice of ore.Cut-and-fill mining is a
versatile method and preferred bymines that require the capability of
mining selected ore pocketsand adaptability to variations in the rock
mass~1.3.9 longwall MiningLongwall mining applies to thin-bedded
deposits of uniformthickness and large horizontal extent. Typical deposits
are repre-sented by coal seams, potash layers, or conglomerate reefs
minedby the South African gold mining companies. Longwall
miningapplies to both hard and soft rock as the working area along
themining face can be artificially supported where the hanging walltends
to collapse.The longwall mining method extracts ore along a straightfront
having a large longitudinal extension. The stoping areaclose to the face is
kept open to provide space for personnel andmining equipment. The
hanging wall may be allowed to subsideat some distance behind the
working face.Development of longwall mines involves the excavation of
_______________________________________FIGURE
IlG
anetwork of haulage drifts for access to production areas andtransport of
Face drilling In cut enclfill stopea A spiral ramp in the footwall with
ore to shaft stations. As the mineralized zone extendsover a large area,
access drive to theundercut,. E. A raise connecting to levels above for
haulage drifts are accompanied with parallelexcavations to ventilate mine
ventilation andfilling material.Modem cut-and-fill mines drill the slope
workings. Haulage drifts areusually arranged in regular patterns and
face with a jumbo.The face appears to be a wall across the stope with
excavated in the deposititself. The distance between two adjacent
an open slot atthe bottom above the fill. The face is drUled with
haulage drifts deter-mines the length of the longwall face.Longwall
breasting holes,charged, and blasted. The slot underneath provides
mining (Figure 1.19) is a common method forextracting coal, trona, and
space intowhich the blasted rock can expand.The driU pattern can be
potash from seams of various thick-ness. It can be mechanized almost to
modified before each round tofollow variations in ore boundaries.
perfection. The soft materialdoes not require drilling and blasting, but
Sections with low-grade oreare left in place or separated while
can be cut loosemechanicaUy. Special machines shaped as cutting plows
mucking out. Mining can bediverted from the planned stope
orrotating drums with cutters mu back and forth along the faces,each
boundaries to recover pockets ofminerals in the host rock.A smooth ml
time cutting a fresh slice of the seam. The coal or mineralfalls onto a
surface and controHed fragmentation are idealfor LIfDs. Tramming
chain conveyor that carries the mineral to the haulage
distances inside the slope to the ore pass areconvenient for LHD
cycles. Ore passes made from steel segmentswelded to form a large
tube can be positioned inside the stope,by-passing layers of sandfill.
The ore pass can also consist of araise excavated in rock close to the
stope-ramp access.
Underground
Applicatians
Mining
Methods
11
and
_______________________________________FIGURE
Longwoll mining in gold reef
1.20
12