theillustrationsintendedforthefirstsixbooksofthework;the

noteshadnotbeenarrangedorcompleted,thoughmanyofthemwere
outlinedinthemanuscript,ortheintentiontoinsertthemindicated.
Theseveralbooksofthetranslation,sofarasitwascompleted,had
beenreadtoalittlegroupoffriends,consistingofProfessorsSheldon
andKittredge,andmyself,andhadreceivedourcriticism,whichhad,at
times,beenutilizedintherevisionofthework.
AfterthedeathofProfessorMorgan,inspiteofmyobviousincompetency
fromatechnicalpointofview,Iundertook,attherequestofhis
family,tocompletethetranslation,andtoseethebookthroughthe
press.Imust,therefore,assumeentireresponsibilityforthe
translationofthetenthbook,beginningwithchapterthirteen,and
furtherresponsibilityfornecessarychangesmadebymeintheearlier
partofthetranslation,changeswhich,innocase,affectanytheory
heldbyProfessorMorgan,butwhichinvolvemainlytheadoptionof
simplerformsofstatement,orthecorrectionofobviousoversights.
ThetextfollowedisthatofValentineRoseinhissecondedition
(Leipzig,1899),andthevariationsfromthistextare,withafew
exceptionswhichareindicatedinthefootnotes,inthenatureofa
returntotheconsensusofthemanuscriptreadings.
Theillustrationsinthefirstsixbooksarebelievedtobe
substantiallyinaccordwiththewishesofProfessorMorgan.The
suggestionsforillustrationsinthelaterbookswereincomplete,and
didnotindicate,inallcases,withsufficientdefinitenesstoallow
themtobeexecuted,thechangesfromconventionalplansanddesigns
intendedbythetranslator.Ithas,therefore,beendecidedtoinclude
inthispartoftheworkonlythoseillustrationswhichareknownto
havehadthefullapprovalofProfessorMorgan.Theoneexceptionto
thisprincipleisthereproductionofaroughmodeloftheRamof
Hegetor,constructedbymeonthebasisofthemeasurementsgivenby
VitruviusandAthenaeus.
Itdoesnotseemtomenecessaryorevenadvisabletoenterintoalong
discussionastothedateofVitruvius,whichhasbeenassignedto
variousperiodsfromthetimeofAugustustotheearlycenturiesofour
era.ProfessorMorgan,inseveralarticlesinthe_HarvardStudiesin
ClassicalPhilology_,andinthe_ProceedingsoftheAmericanAcademy_,
allofwhichhavebeenreprintedinavolumeof_AddressesandEssays_
(NewYork,1909),upheldthenowgenerallyacceptedviewthatVitruvius
wroteinthetimeofAugustus,andfurnishedconclusiveevidencethat
nothinginhislanguageisinconsistentwiththisview.Inrevisingthe
translation,Imetwithonebitofevidenceforadatebeforetheendof
thereignofNerowhichIhaveneverseenadduced.Inviii,3,21,the
kingdomofCottiusismentioned,thenamedepending,itistrue,onan
emendation,butonewhichhasbeenuniversallyacceptedsinceitwas
firstproposedin1513.ThekingdomofCottiuswasmadeintoaRoman
provincebyNero(cf.Suetonius,_Nero_,18),anditisinconceivable
thatanyRomanwritersubsequentlyreferredtoitasakingdom.
Itdoesseemnecessarytoaddafewwordsabouttheliterarymeritsof
Vitruviusinthistreatise,andaboutProfessorMorgan'sviewsastothe
generalprinciplestobefollowedinthetranslation.
Vitruviuswasnotagreatliterarypersonage,ambitiousashewasto
appearinthatcharacter.AsProfessorMorganhasaptlysaid,"hehas
allthemarksofoneunusedtocomposition,towhomwritingisapainful
task."Inhishandthemeasuringrodwasafarmightierimplementthan
thepen.Histurgidandpompousrhetoricdisplaysitselfinthe
introductionstothedifferentbooks,wherehisexaggeratedeffortto
introducesomesemblanceofstyleintohiscommonplacelecturesonthe
nobleprincipleswhichshouldgoverntheconductofthearchitect,or
intotheprosaiclistsofarchitectsandwritersonarchitecture,is
everywhereapparent.Eveninthemoretechnicalportionsofhiswork,a
likeconsciouseffortmaybedetected,and,atthesametime,alackof
confidenceinhisabilitytoexpresshimselfinunmistakablelanguage.
Heavoidsperiodicsentences,usesonlythesimplersubjunctive

constructions,repeatstheantecedentinrelativeclauses,and,not
infrequently,adoptsaformallanguagecloselyakintothatof
specificationsandcontracts,thestylewithwhichhewas,naturally,
mostfamiliar.Heendseachbookwithabriefsummary,almostaformula,
somewhatlikeasighofrelief,inwhichthereaderunconsciously
shares.Attimeshismeaningisambiguous,notbecauseofgrammatical
faults,whicharecomparativelyfewandunimportant,butbecause,when
hedoesattemptaperiodicsentence,hebecomesinvolved,andfindsit
difficulttoextricatehimself.
SomeofthesepeculiaritiesandcruditiesofexpressionProfessorMorgan
purposelyimitated,becauseofhisconvictionthatatranslationshould
notmerelyreproducethesubstanceofabook,butshouldalsogiveas
clearapictureaspossibleoftheoriginal,ofitsauthor,andofthe
workingofhismind.Thetranslationisintended,then,tobefaithful
andexact,butitdeliberatelyavoidsanyattempttotreatthelanguage
ofVitruviusasthoughitwereCiceronian,ortogiveafalseimpression
ofconspicuousliterarymeritinaworkwhichisdestituteofthat
quality.Thetranslatorhad,however,theutmostconfidenceinthe
sincerityofVitruviusandintheseriouspurposeofhistreatiseon
architecture.
Tothosewhohaveliberallygiventheiradviceandsuggestionsin
responsetorequestsfromProfessorMorgan,itisimpossibleformeto
makeadequateacknowledgment.Theirnumberissogreat,andmyknowledge
oftheindebtednessinindividualcasesissosmall,thateachmustbe
contentwiththethoughtofthefullandgenerousacknowledgmentwhich
hewouldhavereceivedhadProfessorMorganhimselfwrittenthis
preface.
PersonallyIamunderthegreatestobligationstoProfessorH.L.
Warren,whohasfreelygivenbothassistanceandcriticism;toProfessor
G.L.Kittredge,whohasreadwithmemostoftheproof;totheSyndics
oftheHarvardUniversityPress,whohavemadepossiblethepublication
ofthework;andtothemembersoftheVisitingCommitteeofthe
DepartmentoftheClassicsandtheclassmatesofProfessorMorgan,who
havegenerouslysuppliedthenecessaryfundsfortheillustrations.
ALBERTA.HOWARD.

CONTENTS
BOOKI
PREFACE3
THEEDUCATIONOFTHEARCHITECT5
THEFUNDAMENTALPRINCIPLESOFARCHITECTURE13
THEDEPARTMENTSOFARCHITECTURE16
THESITEOFACITY17
THECITYWALLS21
THEDIRECTIONSOFTHESTREETS;WITHREMARKSONTHEWINDS24
THESITESFORPUBLICBUILDINGS31
BOOKII
INTRODUCTION35

THEORIGINOFTHEDWELLINGHOUSE38
ONTHEPRIMORDIALSUBSTANCEACCORDINGTOTHEPHYSICISTS42
BRICK42
SAND44
LIME45
POZZOLANA46
STONE49
METHODSOFBUILDINGWALLS51
TIMBER58
HIGHLANDANDLOWLANDFIR64
BOOKIII
INTRODUCTION69
ONSYMMETRY:INTEMPLESANDINTHEHUMANBODY72
CLASSIFICATIONOFTEMPLES75
THEPROPORTIONSOFINTERCOLUMNIATIONSANDOFCOLUMNS78
THEFOUNDATIONSANDSUBSTRUCTURESOFTEMPLES86
PROPORTIONSOFTHEBASE,CAPITALS,ANDENTABLATUREINTHE
IONICORDER90
BOOKIV
INTRODUCTION101
THEORIGINSOFTHETHREEORDERS,ANDTHEPROPORTIONSOFTHE
CORINTHIANCAPITAL102
THEORNAMENTSOFTHEORDERS107
PROPORTIONSOFDORICTEMPLES109
THECELLAANDPRONAOS114
HOWTHETEMPLESHOULDFACE116
THEDOORWAYSOFTEMPLES117
TUSCANTEMPLES120
CIRCULARTEMPLESANDOTHERVARIETIES122
ALTARS125
BOOKV
INTRODUCTION129
THEFORUMANDBASILICA131
THETREASURY,PRISON,ANDSENATEHOUSE137

THETHEATRE:ITSSITE,FOUNDATIONS,ANDACOUSTICS137
HARMONICS139
SOUNDINGVESSELSINTHETHEATRE143
PLANOFTHETHEATRE146
GREEKTHEATRES151
ACOUSTICSOFTHESITEOFATHEATRE153
COLONNADESANDWALKS154
BATHS157
THEPALAESTRA159
HARBOURS,BREAKWATERS,ANDSHIPYARDS162
BOOKVI
INTRODUCTION167
ONCLIMATEASDETERMININGTHESTYLEOFTHEHOUSE170
SYMMETRY,ANDMODIFICATIONSINITTOSUITTHESITE174
PROPORTIONSOFTHEPRINCIPALROOMS176
THEPROPEREXPOSURESOFTHEDIFFERENTROOMS180
HOWTHEROOMSSHOULDBESUITEDTOTHESTATIONOFTHE
OWNER181
THEFARMHOUSE183
THEGREEKHOUSE185
ONFOUNDATIONSANDSUBSTRUCTURES189
BOOKVII
INTRODUCTION195
FLOORS202
THESLAKINGOFLIMEFORSTUCCO204
VAULTINGSANDSTUCCOWORK205
ONSTUCCOWORKINDAMPPLACES,ANDONTHEDECORATIONOF
DININGROOMS208
THEDECADENCEOFFRESCOPAINTING210
MARBLEFORUSEINSTUCCO213
NATURALCOLOURS214
CINNABARANDQUICKSILVER215
CINNABAR(_continued_)216
ARTIFICIALCOLOURS.BLACK217
BLUE.BURNTOCHRE218

WHITELEAD,VERDIGRIS,ANDARTIFICIALSANDARACH219
PURPLE219
SUBSTITUTESFORPURPLE,YELLOWOCHRE,MALACHITEGREEN,AND
INDIGO220
BOOKVIII
INTRODUCTION225
HOWTOFINDWATER227
RAINWATER229
VARIOUSPROPERTIESOFDIFFERENTWATERS232
TESTSOFGOODWATER242
LEVELLINGANDLEVELLINGINSTRUMENTS242
AQUEDUCTS,WELLS,ANDCISTERNS244
BOOKIX
INTRODUCTION251
THEZODIACANDTHEPLANETS257
THEPHASESOFTHEMOON262
THECOURSEOFTHESUNTHROUGHTHETWELVESIGNS264
THENORTHERNCONSTELLATIONS265
THESOUTHERNCONSTELLATIONS267
ASTROLOGYANDWEATHERPROGNOSTICS269
THEANALEMMAANDITSAPPLICATIONS270
SUNDIALSANDWATERCLOCKS273
BOOKX
INTRODUCTION281
MACHINESANDIMPLEMENTS283
HOISTINGMACHINES285
THEELEMENTSOFMOTION290
ENGINESFORRAISINGWATER293
WATERWHEELSANDWATERMILLS294
THEWATERSCREW295
THEPUMPOFCTESIBIUS297
THEWATERORGAN299
THEHODOMETER301

CATAPULTSORSCORPIONES303
BALLISTAE305
THESTRINGINGANDTUNINGOFCATAPULTS308
SIEGEMACHINES309
THETORTOISE311
HEGETOR'STORTOISE312
MEASURESOFDEFENCE315
NOTEONSCAMILLIIMPARES320
INDEX321

LISTOFILLUSTRATIONS
CARYATIDESFROMTREASURYOFCNIDIANS,DELPHI6
CARYATIDESOFERECHTHEUM,ATHENS6
CARYATIDINVILLAALBANI,ROME6
CARYATIDES7
PERSIANS9
CONSTRUCTIONOFCITYWALLS23
TOWEROFTHEWINDS,ATHENS26
DIAGRAMOFTHEWINDS29
DIAGRAMOFDIRECTIONSOFSTREETS30
VITRUVIUS'BRICKBOND44
TRAVERTINEQUARRIES,ROMANCAMPAGNA49
EXAMPLEOFOPUSINCERTUM,CIRCULARTEMPLE,TIVOLI51
OPUSRETICULATUM,THERMAEOFHADRIAN'SVILLA,TIVOLI52
EXAMPLEOFOPUSRETICULATUM,DOORWAYOFSTOAPOECILE,HADRIAN'S
VILLA52
MAUSOLEUMATHALICARNASSUS,RESTORED54
CLASSIFICATIONOFTEMPLESACCORDINGTOARRANGEMENTSOFCOLONNADES76
HYPAETHRALTEMPLEOFVITRUVIUSCOMPAREDWITHPARTHENONAND
TEMPLEOFAPOLLONEARMILETUS77
CLASSIFICATIONOFTEMPLESACCORDINGTOINTERCOLUMNIATION79
EUSTYLETEMPLEOFVITRUVIUSCOMPAREDWITHTEMPLEOFTEOS81
VITRUVIUS'RULESFORDIAMETERANDHEIGHTOFCOLUMNSCOMPARED
WITHACTUALEXAMPLES83
DIMINUTIONOFCOLUMNSINRELATIONTODIMENSIONSOFHEIGHT85

ENTASISOFCOLUMNS87
FRAGIOCONDO'SIDEAOF"SCAMILLIIMPARES"89
IONICORDERACCORDINGTOVITRUVIUSCOMPAREDWITHORDEROF
MAUSOLEUMATHALICARNASSUS91
COMPARISONOFIONICORDERACCORDINGTOVITRUVIUSWITHACTUAL
EXAMPLESANDWITHVIGNOLA'SORDER95
BASILICAATPOMPEII104
CORINTHIANCAPITALOFVITRUVIUSCOMPAREDWITHMONUMENTS105
VITRUVIUS'DORICORDERCOMPAREDWITHTEMPLEATCORIANDTHEATRE
OFMARCELLUS111
VITRUVIUS'TEMPLEPLANCOMPAREDWITHACTUALEXAMPLES115
VITRUVIUS'RULEFORDOORWAYSCOMPAREDWITHTWOEXAMPLES119
TUSCANTEMPLEACCORDINGTOVITRUVIUS121
CIRCULARTEMPLE,TIVOLI123
MAISONCARREE,NIMES123
PLANOFTEMPLE,TIVOLI123
PLANOFTEMPLEOFVESTA,ROME123
PLANOFCIRCULARTEMPLEACCORDINGTOVITRUVIUS124
FORUM,TIMGAD131
FORUM,POMPEII133
PLANOFBASILICA,POMPEII134
VITRUVIUS'BASILICA,FANO135
ROMANTHEATREACCORDINGTOVITRUVIUS147
THEATREATASPENDUS149
THEATREPORTICOACCORDINGTOVITRUVIUS152
TEPIDARIUMOFSTABIANBATHS,POMPEII157
APODYTERIUMFORWOMEN,STABIANBATHS,POMPEII157
STABIANBATHS,POMPEII158
PALAESTRA,OLYMPIA,ANDGREEKPALAESTRAACCORDINGTOVITRUVIUS161
PLANSOFHOUSES,POMPEII176
PLANOFHOUSEOFSILVERWEDDING,POMPEII177
PLANOFTYPICALROMANHOUSE178
PERISTYLEOFHOUSEOFTHEVETTII,POMPEII179
PLANOFHOUSEOFTHEVETTII,POMPEII179
PLANOFVILLARUSTICA,NEARPOMPEII183
PLANOFVITRUVIUS'GREEKHOUSE186

PLANOFGREEKHOUSE,DELOS187
PLANOFGREEKHOUSEDISCOVEREDATPERGAMUM188
RETAININGWALLS191
CONSTRUCTIONOFTHEANALEMMA271
CONSTRUCTIONOFWATERSCREW295
WATERSCREW296
HEGETOR'SRAMANDTORTOISE312
1.FromsixteenthcenturyMS.
2.FrommodelbyA.A.Howard.
*****

VITRUVIUS
*****

BOOKI

PREFACE
1.Whileyourdivineintelligenceandwill,ImperatorCaesar,were
engagedinacquiringtherighttocommandtheworld,andwhileyour
fellowcitizens,whenalltheirenemieshadbeenlaidlowbyyour
invinciblevalour,weregloryinginyourtriumphandvictory,whileall
foreignnationswereinsubjectionawaitingyourbeckandcall,andthe
Romanpeopleandsenate,releasedfromtheiralarm,werebeginningtobe
guidedbyyourmostnobleconceptionsandpolicies,Ihardlydared,in
viewofyourseriousemployments,topublishmywritingsandlong
consideredideasonarchitecture,forfearofsubjectingmyselftoyour
displeasurebyanunseasonableinterruption.
2.ButwhenIsawthatyouweregivingyourattentionnotonlytothe
welfareofsocietyingeneralandtotheestablishmentofpublicorder,
butalsototheprovidingofpublicbuildingsintendedforutilitarian
purposes,sothatnotonlyshouldtheStatehavebeenenrichedwith
provincesbyyourmeans,butthatthegreatnessofitspowermight
likewisebeattendedwithdistinguishedauthorityinitspublic
buildings,IthoughtthatIoughttotakethefirstopportunitytolay
beforeyoumywritingsonthistheme.Forinthefirstplaceitwasthis
subjectwhichmademeknowntoyourfather,towhomIwasdevotedon
accountofhisgreatqualities.Afterthecouncilofheavengavehima
placeinthedwellingsofimmortallifeandtransferredyourfather's
powertoyourhands,mydevotioncontinuingunchangedasIremembered
himinclinedmetosupportyou.AndsowithMarcusAurelius,Publius
Minidius,andGnaeusCornelius,Iwasreadytosupplyandrepair
ballistae,scorpiones,andotherartillery,andIhavereceivedrewards
forgoodservicewiththem.Afteryourfirstbestowaloftheseuponme,
youcontinuedtorenewthemontherecommendationofyoursister.
3.OwingtothisfavourIneedhavenofearofwanttotheendofmy
life,andbeingthuslaidunderobligationIbegantowritethiswork
foryou,becauseIsawthatyouhavebuiltandarenowbuilding

extensively,andthatinfuturealsoyouwilltakecarethatourpublic
andprivatebuildingsshallbeworthytogodowntoposteritybythe
sideofyourothersplendidachievements.Ihavedrawnupdefiniterules
toenableyou,byobservingthem,tohavepersonalknowledgeofthe
qualitybothofexistingbuildingsandofthosewhichareyettobe
constructed.ForinthefollowingbooksIhavedisclosedallthe
principlesoftheart.

CHAPTERI
THEEDUCATIONOFTHEARCHITECT
1.Thearchitectshouldbeequippedwithknowledgeofmanybranchesof
studyandvariedkindsoflearning,foritisbyhisjudgementthatall
workdonebytheotherartsisputtotest.Thisknowledgeisthechild
ofpracticeandtheory.Practiceisthecontinuousandregularexercise
ofemploymentwheremanualworkisdonewithanynecessarymaterial
accordingtothedesignofadrawing.Theory,ontheotherhand,isthe
abilitytodemonstrateandexplaintheproductionsofdexterityonthe
principlesofproportion.
2.Itfollows,therefore,thatarchitectswhohaveaimedatacquiring
manualskillwithoutscholarshiphaveneverbeenabletoreacha
positionofauthoritytocorrespondtotheirpains,whilethosewho
reliedonlyupontheoriesandscholarshipwereobviouslyhuntingthe
shadow,notthesubstance.Butthosewhohaveathoroughknowledgeof
both,likemenarmedatallpoints,havethesoonerattainedtheir
objectandcarriedauthoritywiththem.
3.Inallmatters,butparticularlyinarchitecture,therearethesetwo
points:thethingsignified,andthatwhichgivesititssignificance.
Thatwhichissignifiedisthesubjectofwhichwemaybespeaking;and
thatwhichgivessignificanceisademonstrationonscientific
principles.Itappears,then,thatonewhoprofesseshimselfan
architectshouldbewellversedinbothdirections.Heought,therefore,
tobebothnaturallygiftedandamenabletoinstruction.Neithernatural
abilitywithoutinstructionnorinstructionwithoutnaturalabilitycan
maketheperfectartist.Lethimbeeducated,skilfulwiththepencil,
instructedingeometry,knowmuchhistory,havefollowedthe
philosopherswithattention,understandmusic,havesomeknowledgeof
medicine,knowtheopinionsofthejurists,andbeacquaintedwith
astronomyandthetheoryoftheheavens.
4.Thereasonsforallthisareasfollows.Anarchitectoughttobean
educatedmansoastoleaveamorelastingremembranceinhistreatises.
Secondly,hemusthaveaknowledgeofdrawingsothathecanreadily
makesketchestoshowtheappearanceoftheworkwhichheproposes.
Geometry,also,isofmuchassistanceinarchitecture,andinparticular
itteachesustheuseoftheruleandcompasses,bywhichespeciallywe
acquirereadinessinmakingplansforbuildingsintheirgrounds,and
rightlyapplythesquare,thelevel,andtheplummet.Bymeansof
optics,again,thelightinbuildingscanbedrawnfromfixedquarters
ofthesky.Itistruethatitisbyarithmeticthatthetotalcostof
buildingsiscalculatedandmeasurementsarecomputed,butdifficult
questionsinvolvingsymmetryaresolvedbymeansofgeometricaltheories
andmethods.
5.Awideknowledgeofhistoryisrequisitebecause,amongthe
ornamentalpartsofanarchitect'sdesignforawork,therearemanythe
underlyingideaofwhoseemploymentheshouldbeabletoexplainto
inquirers.Forinstance,supposehimtosetupthemarblestatuesof
womeninlongrobes,calledCaryatides,totaketheplaceofcolumns,
withthemutulesandcoronasplaceddirectlyabovetheirheads,hewill
givethefollowingexplanationtohisquestioners.Caryae,astatein
Peloponnesus,sidedwiththePersianenemiesagainstGreece;laterthe

Greeks,havinggloriouslywontheirfreedombyvictoryinthewar,made
commoncauseanddeclaredwaragainstthepeopleofCaryae.Theytook
thetown,killedthemen,abandonedtheStatetodesolation,andcarried
offtheirwivesintoslavery,withoutpermittingthem,however,tolay
asidethelongrobesandothermarksoftheirrankasmarriedwomen,so
thattheymightbeobligednotonlytomarchinthetriumphbutto
appearforeverafterasatypeofslavery,burdenedwiththeweightof
theirshameandsomakingatonementfortheirState.Hence,the
architectsofthetimedesignedforpublicbuildingsstatuesofthese
women,placedsoastocarryaload,inorderthatthesinandthe
punishmentofthepeopleofCaryaemightbeknownandhandeddowneven
toposterity.
[Illustration:Photo.H.B.WarrenCARYATIDESOFTHEERECHTHEUMAT
ATHENS]
[Illustration:CARYATIDESFROMTHETREASURYOFTHECNIDIANSATDELPHI]
[Illustration:Photo.AndersonCARYATIDESNOWINTHEVILLAALBANIAT
ROME]
[Illustration:CARYATIDES(FromtheeditionofVitruviusbyFra
Giocondo,Venice,1511)]
6.LikewisetheLacedaemoniansundertheleadershipofPausanias,sonof
Agesipolis,afterconqueringthePersianarmies,infiniteinnumber,
withasmallforceatthebattleofPlataea,celebratedaglorious
triumphwiththespoilsandbooty,andwiththemoneyobtainedfromthe
salethereofbuiltthePersianPorch,tobeamonumenttotherenownand
valourofthepeopleandatrophyofvictoryforposterity.Andthere
theyseteffigiesoftheprisonersarrayedinbarbariancostumeand
holdinguptheroof,theirpridepunishedbythisdeservedaffront,
thatenemiesmighttrembleforfearoftheeffectsoftheircourage,
andthattheirownpeople,lookinguponthisensampleoftheirvalour
andencouragedbythegloryofit,mightbereadytodefendtheir
independence.Sofromthattimeon,manyhaveputupstatuesofPersians
supportingentablaturesandtheirornaments,andthusfromthatmotive
havegreatlyenrichedthediversityoftheirworks.Thereareother
storiesofthesamekindwhicharchitectsoughttoknow.
7.Asforphilosophy,itmakesanarchitecthighmindedandnot
selfassuming,butratherrendershimcourteous,just,andhonest
withoutavariciousness.Thisisveryimportant,fornoworkcanbe
rightlydonewithouthonestyandincorruptibility.Lethimnotbe
graspingnorhavehismindpreoccupiedwiththeideaofreceiving
perquisites,butlethimwithdignitykeepuphispositionbycherishing
agoodreputation.Theseareamongthepreceptsofphilosophy.
Furthermorephilosophytreatsofphysics(inGreek[Greek:physiologia])
whereamorecarefulknowledgeisrequiredbecausetheproblemswhich
comeunderthisheadarenumerousandofverydifferentkinds;as,for
example,inthecaseoftheconductingofwater.Foratpointsofintake
andatcurves,andatplaceswhereitisraisedtoalevel,currentsof
airnaturallyforminonewayoranother;andnobodywhohasnotlearned
thefundamentalprinciplesofphysicsfromphilosophywillbeableto
provideagainstthedamagewhichtheydo.SothereaderofCtesibiusor
Archimedesandtheotherwritersoftreatisesofthesameclasswillnot
beabletoappreciatethemunlesshehasbeentrainedinthesesubjects
bythephilosophers.
8.Music,also,thearchitectoughttounderstandsothathemayhave
knowledgeofthecanonicalandmathematicaltheory,andbesidesbeable
totuneballistae,catapultae,andscorpionestotheproperkey.Forto
therightandleftinthebeamsaretheholesintheframesthrough
whichthestringsoftwistedsinewarestretchedbymeansofwindlasses
andbars,andthesestringsmustnotbeclampedandmadefastuntilthey
givethesamecorrectnotetotheearoftheskilledworkman.Forthe
armsthrustthroughthosestretchedstringsmust,onbeingletgo,
striketheirblowtogetheratthesamemoment;butiftheyarenotin
unison,theywillpreventthecourseofprojectilesfrombeingstraight.

[Illustration:PERSIANS
(FromtheeditionofVitruviusbyFraGiocondo,Venice,1511)]
9.Intheatres,likewise,therearethebronzevessels(inGreek[Greek:
echeia])whichareplacedinnichesundertheseatsinaccordancewith
themusicalintervalsonmathematicalprinciples.Thesevesselsare
arrangedwithaviewtomusicalconcordsorharmony,andapportionedin
thecompassofthefourth,thefifth,andtheoctave,andsoonupto
thedoubleoctave,insuchawaythatwhenthevoiceofanactorfalls
inunisonwithanyofthemitspowerisincreased,anditreachesthe
earsoftheaudiencewithgreaterclearnessandsweetness.Water
organs,too,andtheotherinstrumentswhichresemblethemcannotbe
madebyonewhoiswithouttheprinciplesofmusic.
10.Thearchitectshouldalsohaveaknowledgeofthestudyofmedicine
onaccountofthequestionsofclimates(inGreek[Greek:klimata]),
air,thehealthinessandunhealthinessofsites,andtheuseof
differentwaters.Forwithouttheseconsiderations,thehealthinessofa
dwellingcannotbeassured.Andasforprinciplesoflaw,heshouldknow
thosewhicharenecessaryinthecaseofbuildingshavingpartywalls,
withregardtowaterdrippingfromtheeaves,andalsothelawsabout
drains,windows,andwatersupply.Andotherthingsofthissortshould
beknowntoarchitects,sothat,beforetheybeginuponbuildings,they
maybecarefulnottoleavedisputedpointsforthehouseholdersto
settleaftertheworksarefinished,andsothatindrawingupcontracts
theinterestsofbothemployerandcontractormaybewisely
safeguarded.Forifacontractisskilfullydrawn,eachmayobtaina
releasefromtheotherwithoutdisadvantage.Fromastronomywefindthe
east,west,south,andnorth,aswellasthetheoryoftheheavens,the
equinox,solstice,andcoursesofthestars.Ifonehasnoknowledgeof
thesematters,hewillnotbeabletohaveanycomprehensionofthe
theoryofsundials.
11.Consequently,sincethisstudyissovastinextent,embellishedand
enrichedasitiswithmanydifferentkindsoflearning,Ithinkthat
menhavenorighttoprofessthemselvesarchitectshastily,without
havingclimbedfromboyhoodthestepsofthesestudiesandthus,nursed
bytheknowledgeofmanyartsandsciences,havingreachedtheheights
oftheholygroundofarchitecture.
12.Butperhapstotheinexperienceditwillseemamarvelthathuman
naturecancomprehendsuchagreatnumberofstudiesandkeepthemin
thememory.Still,theobservationthatallstudieshaveacommonbond
ofunionandintercoursewithoneanother,willleadtothebeliefthat
thiscaneasilyberealized.Foraliberaleducationforms,asitwere,
asinglebodymadeupofthesemembers.Those,therefore,whofrom
tenderyearsreceiveinstructioninthevariousformsoflearning,
recognizethesamestamponallthearts,andanintercoursebetweenall
studies,andsotheymorereadilycomprehendthemall.Thisiswhatled
oneoftheancientarchitects,Pytheos,thecelebratedbuilderofthe
templeofMinervaatPriene,tosayinhisCommentariesthatan
architectoughttobeabletoaccomplishmuchmoreinalltheartsand
sciencesthanthemenwho,bytheirownparticularkindsofworkandthe
practiceofit,havebroughteachasinglesubjecttothehighest
perfection.Butthisisinpointoffactnotrealized.
13.Foranarchitectoughtnottobeandcannotbesuchaphilologianas
wasAristarchus,althoughnotilliterate;noramusicianlike
Aristoxenus,thoughnotabsolutelyignorantofmusic;norapainterlike
Apelles,thoughnotunskilfulindrawing;norasculptorsuchaswas
MyronorPolyclitus,thoughnotunacquaintedwiththeplasticart;nor
againaphysicianlikeHippocrates,thoughnotignorantofmedicine;nor
intheothersciencesneedheexcelineach,thoughheshouldnotbe
unskilfulinthem.For,inthemidstofallthisgreatvarietyof
subjects,anindividualcannotattaintoperfectionineach,becauseit
isscarcelyinhispowertotakeinandcomprehendthegeneraltheories
ofthem.

14.Still,itisnotarchitectsalonethatcannotinallmattersreach
perfection,butevenmenwhoindividuallypractisespecialtiesinthe
artsdonotallattaintothehighestpointofmerit.Therefore,if
amongartistsworkingeachinasinglefieldnotall,butonlyafewin
anentiregenerationacquirefame,andthatwithdifficulty,howcanan
architect,whohastobeskilfulinmanyarts,accomplishnotmerelythe
featinitselfagreatmarvelofbeingdeficientinnoneofthem,but
alsothatofsurpassingallthoseartistswhohavedevotedthemselves
withunremittingindustrytosinglefields?
15.Itappears,then,thatPytheosmadeamistakebynotobservingthat
theartsareeachcomposedoftwothings,theactualworkandthetheory
ofit.Oneofthese,thedoingofthework,ispropertomentrainedin
theindividualsubject,whiletheother,thetheory,iscommontoall
scholars:forexample,tophysiciansandmusicianstherhythmicalbeat
ofthepulseanditsmetricalmovement.Butifthereisawoundtobe
healedorasickmantobesavedfromdanger,themusicianwillnot
call,forthebusinesswillbeappropriatetothephysician.Sointhe
caseofamusicalinstrument,notthephysicianbutthemusicianwillbe
themantotuneitsothattheearsmayfindtheirduepleasureinits
strains.
16.Astronomerslikewisehaveacommongroundfordiscussionwith
musiciansintheharmonyofthestarsandmusicalconcordsintetrads
andtriadsofthefourthandthefifth,andwithgeometriciansinthe
subjectofvision(inGreek[Greek:logosoptikos]);andinallother
sciencesmanypoints,perhapsall,arecommonsofarasthediscussion
ofthemisconcerned.Buttheactualundertakingofworkswhichare
broughttoperfectionbythehandanditsmanipulationisthefunction
ofthosewhohavebeenspeciallytrainedtodealwithasingleart.It
appears,therefore,thathehasdoneenoughandtosparewhoineach
subjectpossessesafairlygoodknowledgeofthoseparts,withtheir
principles,whichareindispensableforarchitecture,sothatifheis
requiredtopassjudgementandtoexpressapprovalinthecaseofthose
thingsorarts,hemaynotbefoundwanting.Asformenuponwhomnature
hasbestowedsomuchingenuity,acuteness,andmemorythattheyareable
tohaveathoroughknowledgeofgeometry,astronomy,music,andthe
otherarts,theygobeyondthefunctionsofarchitectsandbecomepure
mathematicians.Hencetheycanreadilytakeuppositionsagainstthose
artsbecausemanyaretheartisticweaponswithwhichtheyarearmed.
Suchmen,however,arerarelyfound,buttherehavebeensuchattimes;
forexample,AristarchusofSamos,PhilolausandArchytasofTarentum,
ApolloniusofPerga,EratosthenesofCyrene,andamongSyracusans
ArchimedesandScopinas,whothroughmathematicsandnaturalphilosophy
discovered,expounded,andlefttoposteritymanythingsinconnexion
withmechanicsandwithsundials.
17.Since,therefore,thepossessionofsuchtalentsduetonatural
capacityisnotvouchsafedatrandomtoentirenations,butonlytoa
fewgreatmen;since,moreover,thefunctionofthearchitectrequiresa
traininginallthedepartmentsoflearning;andfinally,sincereason,
onaccountofthewideextentofthesubject,concedesthathemay
possessnotthehighestbutnotevennecessarilyamoderateknowledgeof
thesubjectsofstudy,Irequest,Caesar,bothofyouandofthosewho
mayreadthesaidbooks,thatifanythingissetforthwithtoolittle
regardforgrammaticalrule,itmaybepardoned.Foritisnotasavery
greatphilosopher,norasaneloquentrhetorician,norasagrammarian
trainedinthehighestprinciplesofhisart,thatIhavestrivento
writethiswork,butasanarchitectwhohashadonlyadipintothose
studies.Still,asregardstheefficacyoftheartandthetheoriesof
it,IpromiseandexpectthatinthesevolumesIshallundoubtedlyshow
myselfofveryconsiderableimportancenotonlytobuildersbutalsoto
allscholars.

CHAPTERII

THEFUNDAMENTALPRINCIPLESOFARCHITECTURE
1.ArchitecturedependsonOrder(inGreek[Greek:taxis]),Arrangement
(inGreek[Greek:diathesis]),Eurythmy,Symmetry,Propriety,and
Economy(inGreek[Greek:oikonomia]).
2.Ordergivesduemeasuretothemembersofaworkconsidered
separately,andsymmetricalagreementtotheproportionsofthewhole.
Itisanadjustmentaccordingtoquantity(inGreek[Greek:posotes]).
BythisImeantheselectionofmodulesfromthemembersofthework
itselfand,startingfromtheseindividualpartsofmembers,
constructingthewholeworktocorrespond.Arrangementincludesthe
puttingofthingsintheirproperplacesandtheeleganceofeffect
whichisduetoadjustmentsappropriatetothecharacterofthework.
Itsformsofexpression(Greek[Greek:ideai])arethese:groundplan,
elevation,andperspective.Agroundplanismadebytheproper
successiveuseofcompassesandrule,throughwhichwegetoutlinesfor
theplanesurfacesofbuildings.Anelevationisapictureofthefront
ofabuilding,setuprightandproperlydrawnintheproportionsofthe
contemplatedwork.Perspectiveisthemethodofsketchingafrontwith
thesideswithdrawingintothebackground,thelinesallmeetinginthe
centreofacircle.Allthreecomeofreflexionandinvention.Reflexion
iscarefulandlaboriousthought,andwatchfulattentiondirectedtothe
agreeableeffectofone'splan.Invention,ontheotherhand,isthe
solvingofintricateproblemsandthediscoveryofnewprinciplesby
meansofbrilliancyandversatility.Thesearethedepartmentsbelonging
underArrangement.
3.Eurythmyisbeautyandfitnessintheadjustmentsofthemembers.
Thisisfoundwhenthemembersofaworkareofaheightsuitedtotheir
breadth,ofabreadthsuitedtotheirlength,and,inaword,whenthey
allcorrespondsymmetrically.
4.Symmetryisaproperagreementbetweenthemembersofthework
itself,andrelationbetweenthedifferentpartsandthewholegeneral
scheme,inaccordancewithacertainpartselectedasstandard.Thusin
thehumanbodythereisakindofsymmetricalharmonybetweenforearm,
foot,palm,finger,andothersmallparts;andsoitiswithperfect
buildings.Inthecaseoftemples,symmetrymaybecalculatedfromthe
thicknessofacolumn,fromatriglyph,orevenfromamodule;inthe
ballista,fromtheholeorfromwhattheGreekscallthe[Greek:
peritretos];inaship,fromthespacebetweenthetholepins[Greek:
(diapegma)];andinotherthings,fromvariousmembers.
5.Proprietyisthatperfectionofstylewhichcomeswhenaworkis
authoritativelyconstructedonapprovedprinciples.Itarisesfrom
prescription[Greek:(thematismo)],fromusage,orfromnature.From
prescription,inthecaseofhypaethraledifices,opentothesky,in
honourofJupiterLightning,theHeaven,theSun,ortheMoon:forthese
aregodswhosesemblancesandmanifestationswebeholdbeforeourvery
eyesintheskywhenitiscloudlessandbright.Thetemplesof
Minerva,Mars,andHercules,willbeDoric,sincethevirilestrengthof
thesegodsmakesdaintinessentirelyinappropriatetotheirhouses.In
templestoVenus,Flora,Proserpine,SpringWater,andtheNymphs,the
Corinthianorderwillbefoundtohavepeculiarsignificance,because
thesearedelicatedivinitiesandsoitsratherslenderoutlines,its
flowers,leaves,andornamentalvoluteswilllendproprietywhereitis
due.TheconstructionoftemplesoftheIonicordertoJuno,Diana,
FatherBacchus,andtheothergodsofthatkind,willbeinkeepingwith
themiddlepositionwhichtheyhold;forthebuildingofsuchwillbean
appropriatecombinationoftheseverityoftheDoricandthedelicacyof
theCorinthian.
6.Proprietyarisesfromusagewhenbuildingshavingmagnificent
interiorsareprovidedwithelegantentrancecourtstocorrespond;for
therewillbenoproprietyinthespectacleofanelegantinterior
approachedbyalow,meanentrance.Or,ifdentilsbecarvedinthe

corniceoftheDoricentablatureortriglyphsrepresentedintheIonic
entablatureoverthecushionshapedcapitalsofthecolumns,theeffect
willbespoiltbythetransferofthepeculiaritiesoftheoneorderof
buildingtotheother,theusageineachclasshavingbeenfixedlong
ago.
7.Finally,proprietywillbeduetonaturalcausesif,forexample,in
thecaseofallsacredprecinctsweselectveryhealthyneighbourhoods
withsuitablespringsofwaterintheplaceswherethefanesaretobe
built,particularlyinthecaseofthosetoAesculapiusandtoHealth,
godsbywhosehealingpowersgreatnumbersofthesickareapparently
cured.Forwhentheirdiseasedbodiesaretransferredfromanunhealthy
toahealthyspot,andtreatedwithwatersfromhealthgivingsprings,
theywillthemorespeedilygrowwell.Theresultwillbethatthe
divinitywillstandinhigheresteemandfindhisdignityincreased,all
owingtothenatureofhissite.Therewillalsobenaturalproprietyin
usinganeasternlightforbedroomsandlibraries,awesternlightin
winterforbathsandwinterapartments,andanorthernlightforpicture
galleriesandotherplacesinwhichasteadylightisneeded;forthat
quarteroftheskygrowsneitherlightnordarkwiththecourseofthe
sun,butremainssteadyandunshiftingalldaylong.
8.Economydenotesthepropermanagementofmaterialsandofsite,as
wellasathriftybalancingofcostandcommonsenseintheconstruction
ofworks.Thiswillbeobservedif,inthefirstplace,thearchitect
doesnotdemandthingswhichcannotbefoundormadereadywithoutgreat
expense.Forexample:itisnoteverywherethatthereisplentyof
pitsand,rubble,fir,clearfir,andmarble,sincetheyareproducedin
differentplacesandtoassemblethemisdifficultandcostly.Where
thereisnopitsand,wemustusethekindswashedupbyriversorbythe
sea;thelackoffirandclearfirmaybeevadedbyusingcypress,
poplar,elm,orpine;andotherproblemswemustsolveinsimilarways.
9.AsecondstageinEconomyisreachedwhenwehavetoplanthe
differentkindsofdwellingssuitableforordinaryhouseholders,for
greatwealth,orforthehighpositionofthestatesman.Ahouseintown
obviouslycallsforoneformofconstruction;thatintowhichstreamthe
productsofcountryestatesrequiresanother;thiswillnotbethesame
inthecaseofmoneylendersandstilldifferentfortheopulentand
luxurious;forthepowersunderwhosedeliberationsthecommonwealthis
guideddwellingsaretobeprovidedaccordingtotheirspecialneeds:
and,inaword,theproperformofeconomymustbeobservedinbuilding
housesforeachandeveryclass.

CHAPTERIII
THEDEPARTMENTSOFARCHITECTURE
1.Therearethreedepartmentsofarchitecture:theartofbuilding,the
makingoftimepieces,andtheconstructionofmachinery.Buildingis,in
itsturn,dividedintotwoparts,ofwhichthefirstistheconstruction
offortifiedtownsandofworksforgeneraluseinpublicplaces,and
thesecondistheputtingupofstructuresforprivateindividuals.
Therearethreeclassesofpublicbuildings:thefirstfordefensive,
thesecondforreligious,andthethirdforutilitarianpurposes.Under
defencecomestheplanningofwalls,towers,andgates,permanent
devicesforresistanceagainsthostileattacks;underreligion,the
erectionoffanesandtemplestotheimmortalgods;underutility,the
provisionofmeetingplacesforpublicuse,suchasharbours,markets,
colonnades,baths,theatres,promenades,andallothersimilar
arrangementsinpublicplaces.
2.Allthesemustbebuiltwithduereferencetodurability,
convenience,andbeauty.Durabilitywillbeassuredwhenfoundationsare
carrieddowntothesolidgroundandmaterialswiselyandliberally

selected;convenience,whenthearrangementoftheapartmentsis
faultlessandpresentsnohindrancetouse,andwheneachclassof
buildingisassignedtoitssuitableandappropriateexposure;and
beauty,whentheappearanceoftheworkispleasingandingoodtaste,
andwhenitsmembersareindueproportionaccordingtocorrect
principlesofsymmetry.

CHAPTERIV
THESITEOFACITY
1.Forfortifiedtownsthefollowinggeneralprinciplesaretobe
observed.Firstcomesthechoiceofaveryhealthysite.Suchasite
willbehigh,neithermistynorfrosty,andinaclimateneitherhotnor
cold,buttemperate;further,withoutmarshesintheneighbourhood.For
whenthemorningbreezesblowtowardthetownatsunrise,iftheybring
withthemmistsfrommarshesand,mingledwiththemist,thepoisonous
breathofthecreaturesofthemarshestobewaftedintothebodiesof
theinhabitants,theywillmakethesiteunhealthy.Again,ifthetown
isonthecoastwithasouthernorwesternexposure,itwillnotbe
healthy,becauseinsummerthesouthernskygrowshotatsunriseandis
fieryatnoon,whileawesternexposuregrowswarmaftersunrise,ishot
atnoon,andateveningallaglow.
2.Thesevariationsinheatandthesubsequentcoolingoffareharmful
tothepeoplelivingonsuchsites.Thesameconclusionmaybereached
inthecaseofinanimatethings.Forinstance,nobodydrawsthelight
forcoveredwineroomsfromthesouthorwest,butratherfromthe
north,sincethatquarterisneversubjecttochangebutisalways
constantandunshifting.Soitiswithgranaries:grainexposedtothe
sun'scoursesoonlosesitsgoodquality,andprovisionsandfruit,
unlessstoredinaplaceunexposedtothesun'scourse,donotkeep
long.
3.Forheatisauniversalsolvent,meltingoutofthingstheirpowerof
resistance,andsuckingawayandremovingtheirnaturalstrengthwith
itsfieryexhalationssothattheygrowsoft,andhenceweak,underits
glow.Weseethisinthecaseofironwhich,howeverharditmay
naturallybe,yetwhenheatedthoroughlyinafurnacefirecanbeeasily
workedintoanykindofshape,andstill,ifcooledwhileitissoftand
whitehot,ithardensagainwithameredipintocoldwaterandtakeson
itsformerquality.
4.Wemayalsorecognizethetruthofthisfromthefactthatinsummer
theheatmakeseverybodyweak,notonlyinunhealthybuteveninhealthy
places,andthatinwintereventhemostunhealthydistrictsaremuch
healthierbecausetheyaregivenasoliditybythecoolingoff.
Similarly,personsremovedfromcoldcountriestohotcannotendureit
butwasteaway;whereasthosewhopassfromhotplacestothecold
regionsofthenorth,notonlydonotsufferinhealthfromthechange
ofresidencebutevengainbyit.
5.Itappears,then,thatinfoundingtownswemustbewareofdistricts
fromwhichhotwindscanspreadabroadovertheinhabitants.Forwhile
allbodiesarecomposedofthefourelements(inGreek[Greek:
stoicheia]),thatis,ofheat,moisture,theearthy,andair,yetthere
aremixturesaccordingtonaturaltemperamentwhichmakeupthenatures
ofallthedifferentanimalsoftheworld,eachafteritskind.
6.Therefore,ifoneoftheseelements,heat,becomespredominantinany
bodywhatsoever,itdestroysanddissolvesalltheotherswithits
violence.Thisdefectmaybeduetoviolentheatfromcertainquarters
ofthesky,pouringintotheopenporesintoogreatproportiontoadmit
ofamixturesuitedtothenaturaltemperamentofthebodyinquestion.
Again,iftoomuchmoistureentersthechannelsofabody,andthus

introducesdisproportion,theotherelements,adulteratedbytheliquid,
areimpaired,andthevirtuesofthemixturedissolved.Thisdefect,in
turn,mayarisefromthecoolingpropertiesofmoistwindsandbreezes
blowinguponthebody.Inthesameway,increaseordiminutionofthe
proportionofairoroftheearthywhichisnaturaltothebodymay
enfeebletheotherelements;thepredominanceoftheearthybeingdueto
overmuchfood,thatofairtoaheavyatmosphere.
7.Ifonewishesamoreaccurateunderstandingofallthis,heneedonly
considerandobservethenaturesofbirds,fishes,andlandanimals,and
hewillthuscometoreflectupondistinctionsoftemperament.Oneform
ofmixtureispropertobirds,anothertofishes,andafardifferent
formtolandanimals.Wingedcreatureshavelessoftheearthy,less
moisture,heatinmoderation,airinlargeamount.Beingmadeup,
therefore,ofthelighterelements,theycanmorereadilysoarawayinto
theair.Fish,withtheiraquaticnature,beingmoderatelysuppliedwith
heatandmadeupingreatpartofairandtheearthy,withaslittleof
moistureaspossible,canmoreeasilyexistinmoistureforthevery
reasonthattheyhavelessofitthanoftheotherelementsintheir
bodies;andso,whentheyaredrawntoland,theyleavelifeandwater
atthesamemoment.Similarly,thelandanimals,beingmoderately
suppliedwiththeelementsofairandheat,andhavinglessofthe
earthyandagreatdealofmoisture,cannotlongcontinuealiveinthe
water,becausetheirportionofmoistureisalreadyabundant.
8.Therefore,ifallthisisaswehaveexplained,ourreasonshowingus
thatthebodiesofanimalsaremadeupoftheelements,andthese
bodies,aswebelieve,givingwayandbreakingupasaresultofexcess
ordeficiencyinthisorthatelement,wecannotbutbelievethatwe
musttakegreatcaretoselectaverytemperateclimateforthesiteof
ourcity,sincehealthfulnessis,aswehavesaid,thefirstrequisite.
9.Icannottoostronglyinsistupontheneedofareturntothemethod
ofoldtimes.Ourancestors,whenabouttobuildatownoranarmypost,
sacrificedsomeofthecattlethatwerewonttofeedonthesite
proposedandexaminedtheirlivers.Iftheliversofthefirstvictims
weredarkcolouredorabnormal,theysacrificedothers,toseewhether
thefaultwasduetodiseaseortheirfood.Theyneverbegantobuild
defensiveworksinaplaceuntilaftertheyhadmademanysuchtrials
andsatisfiedthemselvesthatgoodwaterandfoodhadmadetheliver
soundandfirm.Iftheycontinuedtofinditabnormal,theyarguedfrom
thisthatthefoodandwatersupplyfoundinsuchaplacewouldbejust
asunhealthyforman,andsotheymovedawayandchangedtoanother
neighbourhood,healthfulnessbeingtheirchiefobject.
10.Thatpasturageandfoodmayindicatethehealthfulqualitiesofa
siteisafactwhichcanbeobservedandinvestigatedinthecaseof
certainpasturesinCrete,oneachsideoftheriverPothereus,which
separatesthetwoCretanstatesofGnosusandGortyna.Therearecattle
atpastureontherightandleftbanksofthatriver,butwhilethe
cattlethatfeednearGnosushavetheusualspleen,thoseontheother
sidenearGortynahavenoperceptiblespleen.Oninvestigatingthe
subject,physiciansdiscoveredonthissideakindofherbwhichthe
cattlechewandthusmaketheirspleensmall.Theherbistherefore
gatheredandusedasamedicineforthecureofspleneticpeople.The
Cretanscallit[Greek:hasplenon].Fromfoodandwater,then,wemay
learnwhethersitesarenaturallyunhealthyorhealthy.
11.Ifthewalledtownisbuiltamongthemarshesthemselves,provided
theyarebythesea,withanorthernornortheasternexposure,andare
abovetheleveloftheseashore,thesitewillbereasonableenough.For
ditchescanbedugtoletoutthewatertotheshore,andalsointimes
ofstormstheseaswellsandcomesbackingupintothemarshes,where
itsbitterblendpreventsthereproductionsoftheusualmarsh
creatures,whileanythatswimdownfromthehigherlevelstotheshore
arekilledatoncebythesaltnesstowhichtheyareunused.Aninstance
ofthismaybefoundintheGallicmarshessurroundingAltino,Ravenna,
Aquileia,andothertownsinplacesofthekind,closebymarshes.They
aremarvellouslyhealthy,forthereasonswhichIhavegiven.

12.Butmarshesthatarestagnantandhavenooutletseitherbyrivers
orditches,likethePomptinemarshes,merelyputrefyastheystand,
emittingheavy,unhealthyvapours.Acaseofatownbuiltinsuchaspot
wasOldSalpiainApulia,foundedbyDiomedeonhiswaybackfromTroy,
or,accordingtosomewriters,byElpiasofRhodes.Yearafteryear
therewassickness,untilfinallythesufferinginhabitantscamewitha
publicpetitiontoMarcusHostiliusandgothimtoagreetoseekand
findthemaproperplacetowhichtoremovetheircity.Withoutdelayhe
madethemostskilfulinvestigations,andatoncepurchasedanestate
neartheseainahealthyplace,andaskedtheSenateandRomanpeople
forpermissiontoremovethetown.Heconstructedthewallsandlaidout
thehouselots,grantingonetoeachcitizenforameretrifle.This
done,hecutanopeningfromalakeintothesea,andthusmadeofthe
lakeaharbourforthetown.TheresultisthatnowthepeopleofSalpia
liveonahealthysiteandatadistanceofonlyfourmilesfromtheold
town.

CHAPTERV
THECITYWALLS
1.Afterinsuringontheseprinciplesthehealthfulnessofthefuture
city,andselectinganeighbourhoodthatcansupplyplentyoffood
stuffstomaintainthecommunity,withgoodroadsorelseconvenient
riversorseaportsaffordingeasymeansoftransporttothecity,the
nextthingtodoistolaythefoundationsforthetowersandwalls.Dig
downtosolidbottom,ifitcanbefound,andlaythemtherein,goingas
deepasthemagnitudeoftheproposedworkseemstorequire.Theyshould
bemuchthickerthanthepartofthewallsthatwillappearabove
ground,andtheirstructureshouldbeassolidasitcanpossiblybe
laid.
2.Thetowersmustbeprojectedbeyondthelineofwall,sothatan
enemywishingtoapproachthewalltocarryitbyassaultmaybeexposed
tothefireofmissilesonhisopenflankfromthetowersonhisright
andleft.Specialpainsshouldbetakenthattherebenoeasyavenueby
whichtostormthewall.Theroadsshouldbeencompassedatsteep
points,andplannedsoastoapproachthegates,notinastraightline,
butfromtherighttotheleft;forasaresultofthis,therighthand
sideoftheassailants,unprotectedbytheirshields,willbenextthe
wall.Townsshouldbelaidoutnotasanexactsquarenorwithsalient
angles,butincircularform,togiveaviewoftheenemyfrommany
points.Defenceisdifficultwheretherearesalientangles,becausethe
angleprotectstheenemyratherthantheinhabitants.
3.Thethicknessofthewallshould,inmyopinion,besuchthatarmed
menmeetingontopofitmaypassoneanotherwithoutinterference.In
thethicknessthereshouldbesetaveryclosesuccessionoftiesmade
ofcharredolivewood,bindingthetwofacesofthewalltogetherlike
pins,togiveitlastingendurance.Forthatisamaterialwhichneither
decay,northeweather,nortimecanharm,buteventhoughburiedinthe
earthorsetinthewateritkeepssoundandusefulforever.Andsonot
onlycitywallsbutsubstructuresingeneralandallwallsthatrequire
athicknesslikethatofacitywall,willbelonginfallingtodecay
iftiedinthismanner.
4.Thetowersshouldbesetatintervalsofnotmorethanabowshot
apart,sothatincaseofanassaultuponanyoneofthem,theenemymay
berepulsedwithscorpionesandothermeansofhurlingmissilesfromthe
towerstotherightandleft.Oppositetheinnersideofeverytowerthe
wallshouldbeinterruptedforaspacethewidthofthetower,andhave
onlyawoodenflooringacross,leadingtotheinteriorofthetowerbut
notfirmlynailed.Thisistobecutawaybythedefendersincasethe
enemygetspossessionofanyportionofthewall;andiftheworkis

quicklydone,theenemywillnotbeabletomakehiswaytotheother
towersandtherestofthewallunlessheisreadytofaceafall.
5.Thetowersthemselvesmustbeeitherroundorpolygonal.Square
towersaresoonershatteredbymilitaryengines,forthebatteringrams
poundtheiranglestopieces;butinthecaseofroundtowerstheycan
donoharm,beingengaged,asitwere,indrivingwedgestotheir
centre.Thesystemoffortificationbywallandtowersmaybemade
safestbytheadditionofearthenramparts,forneitherrams,nor
mining,norotherengineeringdevicescandothemanyharm.
[Illustration:CONSTRUCTIONOFCITYWALLS
(FromtheeditionofVitruviusbyFraGiocondo,Venice,1511)]
6.Therampartformofdefence,however,isnotrequiredinallplaces,
butonlywhereoutsidethewallthereishighgroundfromwhichan
assaultonthefortificationsmaybemadeoveralevelspacelying
between.Inplacesofthiskindwemustfirstmakeverywide,deep
ditches;nextsinkfoundationsforawallinthebedoftheditchand
buildthemthickenoughtosupportanearthworkwithease.
7.Thenwithinthissubstructurelayasecondfoundation,farenough
insidethefirsttoleaveampleroomforcohortsinlineofbattleto
takepositiononthebroadtopoftherampartforitsdefence.Having
laidthesetwofoundationsatthisdistancefromoneanother,build
crosswallsbetweenthem,unitingtheouterandinnerfoundation,ina
comblikearrangement,setliketheteethofasaw.Withthisformof
construction,theenormousburdenofearthwillbedistributedinto
smallbodies,andwillnotliewithallitsweightinonecrushingmass
soastothrustoutthesubstructures.
8.Withregardtothematerialofwhichtheactualwallshouldbe
constructedorfinished,therecanbenodefiniteprescription,because
wecannotobtaininallplacesthesuppliesthatwedesire.Dimension
stone,flint,rubble,burntorunburntbrick,usethemasyoufind
them.Foritisnoteveryneighbourhoodorparticularlocalitythatcan
haveawallbuiltofburntbricklikethatatBabylon,wheretherewas
plentyofasphalttotaketheplaceoflimeandsand,andyetpossibly
eachmaybeprovidedwithmaterialsofequalusefulnesssothatoutof
themafaultlesswallmaybebuilttolastforever.

CHAPTERVI
THEDIRECTIONSOFTHESTREETS;WITHREMARKSONTHEWINDS
1.Thetownbeingfortified,thenextstepistheapportionmentofhouse
lotswithinthewallandthelayingoutofstreetsandalleyswith
regardtoclimaticconditions.Theywillbeproperlylaidoutif
foresightisemployedtoexcludethewindsfromthealleys.Coldwinds
aredisagreeable,hotwindsenervating,moistwindsunhealthy.Wemust,
therefore,avoidmistakesinthismatterandbewareofthecommon
experienceofmanycommunities.Forexample,Mytileneintheislandof
Lesbosisatownbuiltwithmagnificenceandgoodtaste,butits
positionshowsalackofforesight.Inthatcommunitywhenthewindis
south,thepeoplefallill;whenitisnorthwest,itsetsthemcoughing;
withanorthwindtheydoindeedrecoverbutcannotstandaboutinthe
alleysandstreets,owingtotheseverecold.
2.Windisaflowingwaveofair,movinghitherandthither
indefinitely.Itisproducedwhenheatmeetsmoisture,therushofheat
generatingamightycurrentofair.Thatthisisthefactwemaylearn
frombronzeeolipiles,andthusbymeansofascientificinvention
discoveradivinetruthlurkinginthelawsoftheheavens.Eolipiles
arehollowbronzeballs,withaverysmallopeningthroughwhichwater

ispouredintothem.Setbeforeafire,notabreathissuesfromthem
beforetheygetwarm;butassoonastheybegintoboil,outcomesa
strongblastduetothefire.Thusfromthisslightandveryshort
experimentwemayunderstandandjudgeofthemightyandwonderfullaws
oftheheavensandthenatureofwinds.
3.Byshuttingoutthewindsfromourdwellings,therefore,weshallnot
onlymaketheplacehealthfulforpeoplewhoarewell,butalsointhe
caseofdiseasesdueperhapstounfavourablesituationselsewhere,the
patients,whoinotherhealthyplacesmightbecuredbyadifferentform
oftreatment,willherebemorequicklycuredbythemildnessthatcomes
fromtheshuttingoutofthewinds.Thediseaseswhicharehardtocure
inneighbourhoodssuchasthosetowhichIhavereferredaboveare
catarrh,hoarseness,coughs,pleurisy,consumption,spittingofblood,
andallothersthatarecurednotbyloweringthesystembutbybuilding
itup.Theyarehardtocure,first,becausetheyareoriginallydueto
chills;secondly,becausethepatient'ssystembeingalreadyexhausted
bydisease,theairthere,whichisinconstantagitationowingtowinds
andthereforedeteriorated,takesallthesapoflifeoutoftheir
diseasedbodiesandleavesthemmoremeagreeveryday.Ontheother
hand,amild,thickair,withoutdraughtsandnotconstantlyblowing
backandforth,buildsuptheirframesbyitsunwaveringsteadiness,and
sostrengthensandrestorespeoplewhoareafflictedwiththese
diseases.
4.Somehaveheldthatthereareonlyfourwinds:Solanusfromdueeast;
Austerfromthesouth;Favoniusfromduewest;Septentriofromthe
north.Butmorecarefulinvestigatorstellusthatthereareeight.
ChiefamongsuchwasAndronicusofCyrrhuswhoinproofbuiltthemarble
octagonaltowerinAthens.Ontheseveralsidesoftheoctagonhe
executedreliefsrepresentingtheseveralwinds,eachfacingthepoint
fromwhichitblows;andontopofthetowerhesetaconicalshaped
pieceofmarbleandonthisabronzeTritonwitharodoutstretchedin
itsrighthand.Itwassocontrivedastogoroundwiththewind,always
stoppingtofacethebreezeandholdingitsrodasapointerdirectly
overtherepresentationofthewindthatwasblowing.
5.ThusEurusisplacedtothesoutheastbetweenSolanusandAuster:
AfricustothesouthwestbetweenAusterandFavonius;Caurus,or,as
manycallit,Corus,betweenFavoniusandSeptentrio;andAquilobetween
SeptentrioandSolanus.Such,then,appearstohavebeenhisdevice,
includingthenumbersandnamesofthewindandindicatingthe
directionsfromwhichparticularwindsblow.Thesefactsbeingthus
determined,tofindthedirectionsandquartersofthewindsyourmethod
ofprocedureshouldbeasfollows.
6.Inthemiddleofthecityplaceamarbleamussium,layingittrueby
thelevel,orelseletthespotbemadesotruebymeansofruleand
levelthatnoamussiumisnecessary.Intheverycentreofthatspotset
upabronzegnomonor"shadowtracker"(inGreek[Greek:skiatheras]).
Ataboutthefifthhourinthemorning,taketheendoftheshadowcast
bythisgnomon,andmarkitwithapoint.Then,openingyourcompasses
tothispointwhichmarksthelengthofthegnomon'sshadow,describea
circlefromthecentre.Intheafternoonwatchtheshadowofyourgnomon
asitlengthens,andwhenitoncemoretouchesthecircumferenceof
thiscircleandtheshadowintheafternoonisequalinlengthto
thatofthemorning,markitwithapoint.
[Illustration:THETOWEROFTHEWINDSATATHENS]
7.Fromthesetwopointsdescribewithyourcompassesintersectingarcs,
andthroughtheirintersectionandthecentreletalinebedrawntothe
circumferenceofthecircletogiveusthequartersofsouthandnorth.
Then,usingasixteenthpartoftheentirecircumferenceofthecircle
asadiameter,describeacirclewithitscentreonthelinetothe
south,atthepointwhereitcrossesthecircumference,andputpoints
totherightandleftonthecircumferenceonthesouthside,repeating
theprocessonthenorthside.Fromthefourpointsthusobtaineddraw
linesintersectingthecentrefromonesideofthecircumferencetothe

other.Thusweshallhaveaneighthpartofthecircumferencesetout
forAusterandanotherforSeptentrio.Therestoftheentire
circumferenceisthentobedividedintothreeequalpartsoneachside,
andthuswehavedesignedafigureequallyapportionedamongtheeight
winds.Thenletthedirectionsofyourstreetsandalleysbelaiddown
onthelinesofdivisionbetweenthequartersoftwowinds.
8.Onthisprincipleofarrangementthedisagreeableforceofthewinds
willbeshutoutfromdwellingsandlinesofhouses.Forifthestreets
runfullinthefaceofthewinds,theirconstantblastsrushinginfrom
theopencountry,andthenconfinedbynarrowalleys,willsweepthrough
themwithgreatviolence.Thelinesofhousesmustthereforebedirected
awayfromthequartersfromwhichthewindsblow,sothatastheycome
intheymaystrikeagainsttheanglesoftheblocksandtheirforcethus
bebrokenanddispersed.
9.Thosewhoknownamesforverymanywindswillperhapsbesurprisedat
oursettingforththatthereareonlyeight.Remembering,however,that
EratosthenesofCyrene,employingmathematicaltheoriesandgeometrical
methods,discoveredfromthecourseofthesun,theshadowscastbyan
equinoctialgnomon,andtheinclinationoftheheaventhatthe
circumferenceoftheearthistwohundredandfiftytwothousandstadia,
thatis,thirtyoneonemillionfivehundredthousandpaces,and
observingthataneighthpartofthis,occupiedbyawind,isthree
millionninehundredandthirtyseventhousandfivehundredpaces,they
shouldnotbesurprisedtofindthatasinglewind,rangingoversowide
afield,issubjecttoshiftsthiswayandthat,leadingtoavarietyof
breezes.
10.SoweoftenhaveLeuconotusandAltanusblowingrespectivelytothe
rightandleftofAuster;LibonotusandSubvesperustotherightand
leftofAfricus;Argestes,andatcertainperiodstheEtesiae,oneither
sideofFavonius;CirciasandCorusonthesidesofCaurus;Thraciasand
GallicusoneithersideofSeptentrio;SupernasandCaeciastotheright
andleftofAquilo;Carbas,andatacertainperiodtheOrnithiae,on
eithersideofSolanus;whileEurocirciasandVolturnusblowonthe
flanksofEuruswhichisbetweenthem.Therearealsomanyothernames
forwindsderivedfromlocalitiesorfromthesquallswhichsweepfrom
riversordownmountains.
11.Then,too,therearethebreezesofearlymorning;forthesunon
emergingfrombeneaththeearthstrikeshumidairashereturns,andas
hegoesclimbinguptheskyhespreadsitoutbeforehim,extracting
breezesfromthevapourthatwastherebeforethedawn.Thosethatstill
blowonaftersunriseareclassedwithEurus,andhenceappearstocome
theGreekname[Greek:euros]asthechildofthebreezes,andtheword
for"tomorrow,"[Greek:aurion],namedfromtheearlymorningbreezes.
SomepeopledoindeedsaythatEratosthenescouldnothaveinferredthe
truemeasureoftheearth.Whethertrueoruntrue,itcannotaffectthe
truthofwhatIhavewrittenonthefixingofthequartersfromwhich
thedifferentwindsblow.
[Illustration:DIAGRAMOFTHEWINDS(FromtheeditionofVitruviusby
FraGiocondo,Venice,1511)]
12.Ifhewaswrong,theonlyresultwillbethattheindividualwinds
mayblow,notwiththescopeexpectedfromhismeasurement,butwith
powerseithermoreorlesswidelyextended.Forthereadier
understandingofthesetopics,sinceIhavetreatedthemwithbrevity,
ithasseemedbesttometogivetwofigures,or,astheGreekssay,
[Greek:schemata],attheendofthisbook:onedesignedtoshowthe
precisequartersfromwhichthewindsarise;theother,howbyturning
thedirectionsoftherowsofhousesandthestreetsawayfromtheir
fullforce,wemayavoidunhealthyblasts.LetAbethecentreofa
planesurface,andBthepointtowhichtheshadowofthegnomonreaches
inthemorning.TakingAasthecentre,openthecompassestothepoint
B,whichmarkstheshadow,anddescribeacircle.Putthegnomonback
whereitwasbeforeandwaitfortheshadowtolessenandgrowagain
untilintheafternoonitisequaltoitslengthinthemorning,

touchingthecircumferenceatthepointC.ThenfromthepointsBandC
describewiththecompassestwoarcsintersectingatD.Nextdrawaline
fromthepointofintersectionDthroughthecentreofthecircletothe
circumferenceandcallitEF.Thislinewillshowwherethesouthand
northlie.
[Illustration]
13.Thenfindwiththecompassesasixteenthpartoftheentire
circumference;thencentrethecompassesonthepointEwheretheline
tothesouthtouchesthecircumference,andsetoffthepointsGandH
totherightandleftofE.Likewiseonthenorthside,centrethe
compassesonthecircumferenceatthepointFonthelinetothenorth,
andsetoffthepointsIandKtotherightandleft;thendrawlines
throughthecentrefromGtoKandfromHtoI.ThusthespacefromGto
HwillbelongtoAusterandthesouth,andthespacefromItoKwillbe
thatofSeptentrio.Therestofthecircumferenceistobedivided
equallyintothreepartsontherightandthreeontheleft,thoseto
theeastatthepointsLandM,thosetothewestatthepointsNand
O.Finally,intersectinglinesaretobedrawnfromMtoOandfromL
toN.Thusweshallhavethecircumferencedividedintoeightequal
spacesforthewinds.Thefigurebeingfinished,weshallhaveatthe
eightdifferentdivisions,beginningatthesouth,theletterGbetween
EurusandAuster,HbetweenAusterandAfricus,NbetweenAfricusand
Favonius,ObetweenFavoniusandCaurus,KbetweenCaurusand
Septentrio,IbetweenSeptentrioandAquilo,LbetweenAquiloand
Solanus,andMbetweenSolanusandEurus.Thisdone,applyagnomonto
theseeightdivisionsandthusfixthedirectionsofthedifferent
alleys.

CHAPTERVII
THESITESFORPUBLICBUILDINGS
1.Havinglaidoutthealleysanddeterminedthestreets,wehavenext
totreatofthechoiceofbuildingsitesfortemples,theforum,andall
otherpublicplaces,withaviewtogeneralconvenienceandutility.If
thecityisonthesea,weshouldchoosegroundclosetotheharbouras
theplacewheretheforumistobebuilt;butifinland,inthemiddle
ofthetown.Forthetemples,thesitesforthoseofthegodsunder
whoseparticularprotectionthestateisthoughttorestandfor
Jupiter,Juno,andMinerva,shouldbeontheveryhighestpoint
commandingaviewofthegreaterpartofthecity.Mercuryshouldbein
theforum,or,likeIsisandSerapis,intheemporium:ApolloandFather
Bacchusnearthetheatre:Herculesatthecircusincommunitieswhich
havenogymnasianoramphitheatres;Marsoutsidethecitybutatthe
trainingground,andsoVenus,butattheharbour.Itismoreovershown
bytheEtruscandivinersintreatisesontheirsciencethatthefanesof
Venus,Vulcan,andMarsshouldbesituatedoutsidethewalls,inorder
thattheyoungmenandmarriedwomenmaynotbecomehabituatedinthe
citytothetemptationsincidenttotheworshipofVenus,andthat
buildingsmaybefreefromtheterroroffiresthroughthereligious
ritesandsacrificeswhichcallthepowerofVulcanbeyondthewalls.
AsforMars,whenthatdivinityisenshrinedoutsidethewalls,the
citizenswillnevertakeuparmsagainsteachother,andhewilldefend
thecityfromitsenemiesandsaveitfromdangerinwar.
2.Ceresalsoshouldbeoutsidethecityinaplacetowhichpeopleneed
nevergoexceptforthepurposeofsacrifice.Thatplaceshouldbeunder
theprotectionofreligion,purity,andgoodmorals.Propersitesshould
besetapartfortheprecinctsoftheothergodsaccordingtothenature
ofthesacrificesofferedtothem.
Theprinciplegoverningtheactualconstructionoftemplesandtheir
symmetryIshallexplaininmythirdandfourthbooks.InthesecondI

havethoughtitbesttogiveanaccountofthematerialsusedin
buildingswiththeirgoodqualitiesandadvantages,andtheninthe
succeedingbookstodescribeandexplaintheproportionsofbuildings,
theirarrangements,andthedifferentformsofsymmetry.

BOOKII

INTRODUCTION
1.Dinocrates,anarchitectwhowasfullofconfidenceinhisownideas
andskill,setoutfromMacedonia,inthereignofAlexander,togoto
thearmy,beingeagertowintheapprobationoftheking.Hetookwith
himfromhiscountrylettersfromrelativesandfriendstotheprincipal
militarymenandofficersofthecourt,inordertogainaccesstothem
morereadily.Beingpolitelyreceivedbythem,heaskedtobepresented
toAlexanderassoonaspossible.Theypromised,butwereratherslow,
waitingforasuitableopportunity.SoDinocrates,thinkingthatthey
wereplayingwithhim,hadrecoursetohisownefforts.Hewasofvery
loftystatureandpleasingcountenance,finelyformed,andextremely
dignified.Trusting,therefore,tothesenaturalgifts,heundressed
himselfinhisinn,anointedhisbodywithoil,setachapletofpoplar
leavesonhishead,drapedhisleftshoulderwithalion'sskin,and
holdingaclubinhisrighthandstalkedforthtoaplaceinfrontof
thetribunalwherethekingwasadministeringjustice.
2.Hisstrangeappearancemadethepeopleturnround,andthisled
Alexandertolookathim.Inastonishmenthegaveorderstomakewayfor
himtodrawnear,andaskedwhohewas."Dinocrates,"quothhe,"a
Macedonianarchitect,whobringstheeideasanddesignsworthyofthy
renown.IhavemadeadesignfortheshapingofMountAthosintothe
statueofaman,inwhoselefthandIhaverepresentedaveryspacious
fortifiedcity,andinhisrightabowltoreceivethewaterofallthe
streamswhichareinthatmountain,sothatitmaypourfromthebowl
intothesea."
3.Alexander,delightedwiththeideaofhisdesign,immediately
inquiredwhethertherewereanyfieldsintheneighbourhoodthatcould
maintainthecityincorn.Onfindingthatthiswasimpossiblewithout
transportfrombeyondthesea,"Dinocrates,"quothhe,"Iappreciate
yourdesignasexcellentincomposition,andIamdelightedwithit,but
Iapprehendthatanybodywhoshouldfoundacityinthatspotwouldbe
censuredforbadjudgement.Forasanewbornbabecannotbenourished
withoutthenurse'smilk,norconductedtotheapproachesthatleadto
growthinlife,soacitycannotthrivewithoutfieldsandthefruits
thereofpouringintoitswalls,norhavealargepopulationwithout
plentyoffood,normaintainitspopulationwithoutasupplyofit.
Therefore,whilethinkingthatyourdesigniscommendable,Iconsider
thesiteasnotcommendable;butIwouldhaveyoustaywithme,because
Imeantomakeuseofyourservices."
4.Fromthattime,Dinocratesdidnotleavetheking,butfollowedhim
intoEgypt.ThereAlexander,observingaharbourrenderedsafeby
nature,anexcellentcentrefortrade,cornfieldsthroughoutallEgypt,
andthegreatusefulnessofthemightyriverNile,orderedhimtobuild
thecityofAlexandria,namedaftertheking.ThiswashowDinocrates,
recommendedonlybyhisgoodlooksanddignifiedcarriage,cametobeso
famous.Butasforme,Emperor,naturehasnotgivenmestature,agehas
marredmyface,andmystrengthisimpairedbyillhealth.Therefore,
sincetheseadvantagesfailme,Ishallwinyourapproval,asIhope,by
thehelpofmyknowledgeandmywritings.
5.Inmyfirstbook,IhavesaidwhatIhadtosayaboutthefunctions

ofarchitectureandthescopeoftheart,aswellasaboutfortified
townsandtheapportionmentofbuildingsiteswithinthefortifications.
Althoughitwouldnextbeinordertoexplaintheproperproportionsand
symmetryoftemplesandpublicbuildings,aswellasofprivatehouses,
IthoughtbesttopostponethisuntilafterIhadtreatedthepractical
meritsofthematerialsoutofwhich,whentheyarebroughttogether,
buildingsareconstructedwithdueregardtotheproperkindofmaterial
foreachpart,anduntilIhadshownofwhatnaturalelementsthose
materialsarecomposed.Butbeforebeginningtoexplaintheirnatural
properties,Iwillprefixthemotiveswhichoriginallygaveriseto
buildingsandthedevelopmentofinventionsinthisfield,followingin
thestepsofearlynatureandofthosewriterswhohavedevoted
treatisestotheoriginsofcivilizationandtheinvestigationof
inventions.Myexpositionwill,therefore,followtheinstructionwhich
Ihavereceivedfromthem.

CHAPTERI
THEORIGINOFTHEDWELLINGHOUSE
1.Themenofoldwerebornlikethewildbeasts,inwoods,caves,and
groves,andlivedonsavagefare.Astimewenton,thethicklycrowded
treesinacertainplace,tossedbystormsandwinds,andrubbingtheir
branchesagainstoneanother,caughtfire,andsotheinhabitantsofthe
placewereputtoflight,beingterrifiedbythefuriousflame.Afterit
subsided,theydrewnear,andobservingthattheywereverycomfortable
standingbeforethewarmfire,theyputonlogsand,whilethuskeeping
italive,broughtupotherpeopletoit,showingthembysignshowmuch
comforttheygotfromit.Inthatgatheringofmen,atatimewhen
utteranceofsoundwaspurelyindividual,fromdailyhabitstheyfixed
uponarticulatewordsjustasthesehadhappenedtocome;then,from
indicatingbynamethingsincommonuse,theresultwasthatinthis
chancewaytheybegantotalk,andthusoriginatedconversationwithone
another.
2.Thereforeitwasthediscoveryoffirethatoriginallygaveriseto
thecomingtogetherofmen,tothedeliberativeassembly,andtosocial
intercourse.Andso,astheykeptcomingtogetheringreaternumbers
intooneplace,findingthemselvesnaturallygiftedbeyondtheother
animalsinnotbeingobligedtowalkwithfacestotheground,but
uprightandgazinguponthesplendourofthestarryfirmament,andalso
inbeingabletodowitheasewhatevertheychosewiththeirhandsand
fingers,theybeganinthatfirstassemblytoconstructshelters.Some
madethemofgreenboughs,othersdugcavesonmountainsides,andsome,
inimitationofthenestsofswallowsandthewaytheybuilt,made
placesofrefugeoutofmudandtwigs.Next,byobservingtheshelters
ofothersandaddingnewdetailstotheirowninceptions,they
constructedbetterandbetterkindsofhutsastimewenton.
3.Andsincetheywereofanimitativeandteachablenature,theywould
dailypointouttoeachothertheresultsoftheirbuilding,boastingof
thenoveltiesinit;andthus,withtheirnaturalgiftssharpenedby
emulation,theirstandardsimproveddaily.Atfirsttheysetupforked
stakesconnectedbytwigsandcoveredthesewallswithmud.Othersmade
wallsoflumpsofdriedmud,coveringthemwithreedsandleavestokeep
outtherainandtheheat.Findingthatsuchroofscouldnotstandthe
rainduringthestormsofwinter,theybuiltthemwithpeaksdaubedwith
mud,theroofsslopingandprojectingsoastocarryofftherainwater.
4.ThathousesoriginatedasIhavewrittenabove,wecanseefor
ourselvesfromthebuildingsthataretothisdayconstructedoflike
materialsbyforeigntribes:forinstance,inGaul,Spain,Portugal,and
Aquitaine,roofedwithoakshinglesorthatched.AmongtheColchiansin
Pontus,wherethereareforestsinplenty,theylaydownentiretrees
flatonthegroundtotherightandtheleft,leavingbetweenthema

spacetosuitthelengthofthetrees,andthenplaceabovethese
anotherpairoftrees,restingontheendsoftheformerandatright
angleswiththem.Thesefourtreesenclosethespaceforthedwelling.
Thenuponthesetheyplacesticksoftimber,oneaftertheotheronthe
foursides,crossingeachotherattheangles,andso,proceedingwith
theirwallsoftreeslaidperpendicularlyabovethelowest,theybuild
uphightowers.Theinterstices,whichareleftonaccountofthe
thicknessofthebuildingmaterial,arestoppedupwithchipsandmud.
Asfortheroofs,bycuttingawaytheendsofthecrossbeamsandmaking
themconvergegraduallyastheylaythemacross,theybringthemupto
thetopfromthefoursidesintheshapeofapyramid.Theycoverit
withleavesandmud,andthusconstructtheroofsoftheirtowersina
rudeformofthe"tortoise"style.
5.Ontheotherhand,thePhrygians,wholiveinanopencountry,have
noforestsandconsequentlylacktimber.Theythereforeselectanatural
hillock,runatrenchthroughthemiddleofit,digpassages,andextend
theinteriorspaceaswidelyasthesiteadmits.Overittheybuilda
pyramidalroofoflogsfastenedtogether,andthistheycoverwithreeds
andbrushwood,heapingupveryhighmoundsofearthabovetheir
dwellings.Thustheirfashioninhousesmakestheirwintersverywarm
andtheirsummersverycool.Someconstructhovelswithroofsofrushes
fromtheswamps.Amongothernations,also,insomeplacesthereare
hutsofthesameorasimilarmethodofconstruction.Likewiseat
Marseilleswecanseeroofswithouttiles,madeofearthmixedwith
straw.InAthensontheAreopagusthereistothisdayarelicof
antiquitywithamudroof.ThehutofRomulusontheCapitolisa
significantreminderofthefashionsofoldtimes,andlikewisethe
thatchedroofsoftemplesortheCitadel.
6.Fromsuchspecimenswecandrawourinferenceswithregardtothe
devicesusedinthebuildingsofantiquity,andconcludethattheywere
similar.
Furthermore,asmenmadeprogressbybecomingdailymoreexpertin
building,andastheiringenuitywasincreasedbytheirdexterityso
thatfromhabittheyattainedtoconsiderableskill,theirintelligence
wasenlargedbytheirindustryuntilthemoreproficientadoptedthe
tradeofcarpenters.Fromtheseearlybeginnings,andfromthefactthat
naturehadnotonlyendowedthehumanracewithsensesliketherestof
theanimals,buthadalsoequippedtheirmindswiththepowersof
thoughtandunderstanding,thusputtingallotheranimalsundertheir
sway,theynextgraduallyadvancedfromtheconstructionofbuildingsto
theotherartsandsciences,andsopassedfromarudeandbarbarous
modeoflifetocivilizationandrefinement.
7.Then,takingcourageandlookingforwardfromthestandpointof
higherideasbornofthemultiplicationofthearts,theygaveuphuts
andbegantobuildhouseswithfoundations,havingbrickorstone
walls,androofsoftimberandtiles;next,observationandapplication
ledthemfromfluctuatingandindefiniteconceptionstodefiniterules
ofsymmetry.Perceivingthatnaturehadbeenlavishinthebestowalof
timberandbountifulinstoresofbuildingmaterial,theytreatedthis
likecarefulnurses,andthusdevelopingtherefinementsoflife,
embellishedthemwithluxuries.ThereforeIshallnowtreat,tothebest
ofmyability,ofthethingswhicharesuitabletobeusedinbuildings,
showingtheirqualitiesandtheirexcellencies.
8.Somepersons,however,mayfindfaultwiththepositionofthisbook,
thinkingthatitshouldhavebeenplacedfirst.Iwillthereforeexplain
thematter,lestitbethoughtthatIhavemadeamistake.Beingengaged
inwritingacompletetreatiseonarchitecture,Iresolvedtosetforth
inthefirstbookthebranchesoflearningandstudiesofwhichit
consists,todefineitsdepartments,andtoshowofwhatitiscomposed.
HenceIhavetheredeclaredwhatthequalitiesofanarchitectshould
be.Inthefirstbook,therefore,Ihavespokenofthefunctionofthe
art,butinthisIshalldiscusstheuseofthebuildingmaterialswhich
natureprovides.Forthisbookdoesnotshowofwhatarchitectureis
composed,buttreatsoftheoriginofthebuildingart,howitwas

fostered,andhowitmadeprogress,stepbystep,untilitreachedits
presentperfection.
9.Thisbookis,therefore,initsproperorderandplace.
Iwillnowreturntomysubject,andwithregardtothematerialssuited
totheconstructionofbuildingswillconsidertheirnaturalformation
andinwhatproportionstheirelementaryconstituentswerecombined,
makingitallclearandnotobscuretomyreaders.Forthereisnokind
ofmaterial,nobody,andnothingthatcanbeproducedorconceivedof,
whichisnotmadeupofelementaryparticles;andnaturedoesnotadmit
ofatruthfulexplorationinaccordancewiththedoctrinesofthe
physicistswithoutanaccuratedemonstrationoftheprimarycausesof
things,showinghowandwhytheyareastheyare.

CHAPTERII
ONTHEPRIMORDIALSUBSTANCEACCORDINGTOTHEPHYSICISTS
1.FirstofallThalesthoughtthatwaterwastheprimordialsubstance
ofallthings.HeraclitusofEphesus,surnamedbytheGreeks[Greek:
skoteinos]onaccountoftheobscurityofhiswritings,thoughtthatit
wasfire.DemocritusandhisfollowerEpicurusthoughtthatitwasthe
atoms,termedbyourwriters"bodiesthatcannotbecutup,"or,by
some,"indivisibles."TheschoolofthePythagoreansaddedairandthe
earthytothewaterandfire.Hence,althoughDemocritusdidnotina
strictsensenamethem,butspokeonlyofindivisiblebodies,yethe
seemstohavemeantthesesameelements,becausewhentakenby
themselvestheycannotbeharmed,noraretheysusceptibleof
dissolution,norcantheybecutupintoparts,butthroughouttime
eternaltheyforeverretainaninfinitesolidity.
2.Allthingsthereforeappeartobemadeupandproducedbythecoming
togetheroftheseelements,sothattheyhavebeendistributedbynature
amonganinfinitenumberofkindsofthings.HenceIbelieveditright
totreatofthediversityandpracticalpeculiaritiesofthesethingsas
wellasofthequalitieswhichtheyexhibitinbuildings,sothat
personswhoareintendingtobuildmayunderstandthemandsomakeno
mistake,butmaygathermaterialswhicharesuitabletouseintheir
buildings.

CHAPTERIII
BRICK
1.Beginningwithbricks,Ishallstateofwhatkindofclaytheyought
tobemade.Theyshouldnotbemadeofsandyorpebblyclay,oroffine
gravel,becausewhenmadeofthesekindstheyareinthefirstplace
heavy;and,secondly,whenwashedbytherainastheystandinwalls,
theygotopiecesandbreakup,andthestrawinthemdoesnothold
togetheronaccountoftheroughnessofthematerial.Theyshouldrather
bemadeofwhiteandchalkyorofredclay,orevenofacoarsegrained
gravellyclay.Thesematerialsaresmoothandthereforedurable;they
arenotheavytoworkwith,andarereadilylaid.
2.BricksshouldbemadeinSpringorAutumn,sothattheymaydry
uniformly.ThosemadeinSummeraredefective,becausethefierceheat
ofthesunbakestheirsurfaceandmakesthebrickseemdrywhileinside
itisnotdry.Andsotheshrinking,whichfollowsastheydry,causes
cracksinthepartswhichweredriedbefore,andthesecracksmakethe
bricksweak.Brickswillbemostserviceableifmadetwoyearsbefore

using;fortheycannotdrythoroughlyinlesstime.Whenfreshundried
bricksareusedinawall,thestuccocoveringstiffensandhardensinto
apermanentmass,butthebrickssettleandcannotkeepthesameheight
asthestucco;themotioncausedbytheirshrinkingpreventsthemfrom
adheringtoit,andtheyareseparatedfromtheirunionwithit.Hence
thestucco,nolongerjoinedtothecoreofthewall,cannotstandby
itselfbecauseitissothin;itbreaksoff,andthewallsthemselves
mayperhapsberuinedbytheirsettling.ThisissotruethatatUtica
inconstructingwallstheyusebrickonlyifitisdryandmadefive
yearspreviously,andapprovedassuchbytheauthorityofamagistrate.
3.Therearethreekindsofbricks.First,thekindcalledinGreek
Lydian,beingthatwhichourpeopleuse,afootandahalflongandone
footwide.TheothertwokindsareusedbytheGreeksintheir
buildings.Ofthese,oneiscalled[Greek:pentadoron],theother
[Greek:tetradoron].[Greek:Doron]istheGreekfor"palm,"forin
Greek[Greek:doron]meansthegivingofgifts,andthegiftisalways
presentedinthepalmofthehand.Abrickfivepalmssquareiscalled
"pentadoron";onefourpalmssquare"tetradoron."Publicbuildingsare
constructedof[Greek:pentadora],privateof[Greek:tetradora].
4.Withthesebrickstherearealsohalfbricks.Whentheseareusedin
awall,acourseofbricksislaidononefaceandacourseof
halfbricksontheother,andtheyarebeddedtothelineoneachface.
Thewallsarebondedbyalternatecoursesofthetwodifferentkinds,
andasthebricksarealwayslaidsoastobreakjoints,thislends
strengthandanotunattractiveappearancetobothsidesofsuchwalls.
[Illustration:VITRUVIUS'BRICKBONDACCORDINGTOREBER]
InthestatesofMaxiluaandCallet,inFurtherSpain,aswellasin
PitaneinAsiaMinor,therearebrickswhich,whenfinishedanddried,
willfloatonbeingthrownintowater.Thereasonwhytheycanfloat
seemstobethattheclayofwhichtheyaremadeislikepumicestone.
Soitislight,andalsoitdoesnot,afterbeinghardenedbyexposure
totheair,takeuporabsorbliquid.Sothesebricks,beingofthis
lightandporousquality,andadmittingnomoistureintotheirtexture,
mustbythelawsofnaturefloatinwater,likepumice,nomatterwhat
theirweightmaybe.Theyhavethereforegreatadvantages;fortheyare
notheavytouseinbuildingand,oncemade,theyarenotspoiledbybad
weather.

CHAPTERIV
SAND
1.Inwallsofmasonrythefirstquestionmustbewithregardtothe
sand,inorderthatitmaybefittomixintomortarandhavenodirtin
it.Thekindsofpitsandarethese:black,gray,red,andcarbuncular.
Ofthesethebestwillbefoundtobethatwhichcrackleswhenrubbedin
thehand,whilethatwhichhasmuchdirtinitwillnotbesharpenough.
Again:throwsomesanduponawhitegarmentandthenshakeitout;if
thegarmentisnotsoiledandnodirtadherestoit,thesandis
suitable.
2.Butiftherearenosandpitsfromwhichitcanbedug,thenwemust
siftitoutfromriverbedsorfromgravelorevenfromtheseabeach.
Thiskind,however,hasthesedefectswhenusedinmasonry:itdries
slowly;thewallcannotbebuiltupwithoutinterruptionbutfromtime
totimetheremustbepausesinthework;andsuchawallcannotcarry
vaultings.Furthermore,whenseasandisusedinwallsandtheseare
coatedwithstucco,asaltyefflorescenceisgivenoutwhichspoilsthe
surface.
3.Butpitsandusedinmasonrydriesquickly,thestuccocoatingis

permanent,andthewallscansupportvaultings.Iamspeakingofsand
freshfromthesandpits.Forifitliesunusedtoolongafterbeing
takenout,itisdisintegratedbyexposuretosun,moon,orhoarfrost,
andbecomesearthy.Sowhenmixedinmasonry,ithasnobindingpoweron
therubble,whichconsequentlysettlesanddowncomestheloadwhichthe
wallscannolongersupport.Freshpitsand,however,inspiteofallits
excellenceinconcretestructures,isnotequallyusefulinstucco,the
richnessofwhich,whenthelimeandstrawaremixedwithsuchsand,
willcauseittocrackasitdriesonaccountofthegreatstrengthof
themixture.Butriversand,thoughuselessin"signinum"onaccountof
itsthinness,becomesperfectlysolidinstuccowhenthoroughlyworked
bymeansofpolishinginstruments.

CHAPTERV
LIME
1.Sandanditssourceshavingbeenthustreated,nextwithregardto
limewemustbecarefulthatitisburnedfromastonewhich,whether
softorhard,isinanycasewhite.Limemadeofclosegrainedstoneof
thehardersortwillbegoodinstructuralparts;limeofporousstone,
instucco.Afterslakingit,mixyourmortar,ifusingpitsand,inthe
proportionsofthreepartsofsandtooneoflime;ifusingriveror
seasand,mixtwopartsofsandwithoneoflime.Thesewillbethe
rightproportionsforthecompositionofthemixture.Further,inusing
riverorseasand,theadditionofathirdpartcomposedofburntbrick,
poundedupandsifted,willmakeyourmortarofabettercompositionto
use.
2.Thereasonwhylimemakesasolidstructureonbeingcombinedwith
waterandsandseemstobethis:thatrocks,likeallotherbodies,are
composedofthefourelements.Thosewhichcontainalargerproportion
ofair,aresoft;ofwater,aretoughfromthemoisture;ofearth,hard;
andoffire,morebrittle.Therefore,iflimestone,withoutbeing
burned,ismerelypoundedupsmallandthenmixedwithsandandsoput
intothework,themassdoesnotsolidifynorcanitholdtogether.But
ifthestoneisfirstthrownintothekiln,itlosesitsformerproperty
ofsoliditybyexposuretothegreatheatofthefire,andsowithits
strengthburntoutandexhausteditisleftwithitsporesopenand
empty.Hence,themoistureandairinthebodyofthestonebeingburned
outandsetfree,andonlyaresiduumofheatbeingleftlyinginit,if
thestoneisthenimmersedinwater,themoisture,beforethewatercan
feeltheinfluenceofthefire,makesitswayintotheopenpores;then
thestonebeginstogethot,andfinally,afteritcoolsoff,theheat
isrejectedfromthebodyofthelime.
3.Consequently,limestonewhentakenoutofthekilncannotbeasheavy
aswhenitwasthrownin,butonbeingweighed,thoughitsbulkremains
thesameasbefore,itisfoundtohavelostaboutathirdofitsweight
owingtotheboilingoutofthewater.Therefore,itsporesbeingthus
openedanditstexturerenderedloose,itreadilymixeswithsand,and
hencethetwomaterialscohereastheydry,unitewiththerubble,and
makeasolidstructure.

CHAPTERVI
POZZOLANA
1.Thereisalsoakindofpowderwhichfromnaturalcausesproduces
astonishingresults.ItisfoundintheneighbourhoodofBaiaeandin
thecountrybelongingtothetownsroundaboutMt.Vesuvius.This

substance,whenmixedwithlimeandrubble,notonlylendsstrengthto
buildingsofotherkinds,butevenwhenpiersofitareconstructedin
thesea,theysethardunderwater.Thereasonforthisseemstobethat
thesoilontheslopesofthemountainsintheseneighbourhoodsishot
andfullofhotsprings.Thiswouldnotbesounlessthemountainshad
beneaththemhugefiresofburningsulphuroralumorasphalt.Sothe
fireandtheheatoftheflames,cominguphotfromfarwithinthrough
thefissures,makethesoiltherelight,andthetufafoundthereis
spongyandfreefrommoisture.Hence,whenthethreesubstances,all
formedonasimilarprinciplebytheforceoffire,aremixedtogether,
thewatersuddenlytakeninmakesthemcohere,andthemoisturequickly
hardensthemsothattheysetintoamasswhichneitherthewavesnor
theforceofthewatercandissolve.
2.Thatthereisburningheatintheseregionsmaybeprovedbythe
furtherfactthatinthemountainsnearBaiae,whichbelongstothe
Cumaeans,thereareplacesexcavatedtoserveassweatingbaths,where
theintenseheatthatcomesfromfarbelowboresitswaythroughthe
earth,owingtotheforceofthefire,andpassingupappearsinthese
regions,thusmakingremarkablygoodsweatingbaths.Likewisealsoitis
relatedthatinancienttimesthetidesofheat,swellingand
overflowingfromunderMt.Vesuvius,vomitedforthfirefromthe
mountainupontheneighbouringcountry.Hence,whatiscalled
"spongestone"or"Pompeianpumice"appearstohavebeenreducedby
burningfromanotherkindofstonetotheconditionofthekindwhichwe
see.
3.Thekindofspongestonetakenfromthisregionisnotproduced
everywhereelse,butonlyaboutAetnaandamongthehillsofMysiawhich
theGreekscallthe"BurntDistrict,"andinotherplacesofthesame
peculiarnature.Seeingthatinsuchplacestherearefoundhotsprings
andwarmvapourinexcavationsonthemountains,andthattheancients
tellusthattherewereoncefiresspreadingoverthefieldsinthose
veryregions,itseemstobecertainthatmoisturehasbeenextracted
fromthetufaandearth,bytheforceoffire,justasitisfrom
limestoneinkilns.
4.Therefore,whendifferentandunlikethingshavebeensubjectedto
theactionoffireandthusreducedtothesamecondition,ifafter
this,whileinawarm,drystate,theyaresuddenlysaturatedwith
water,thereisaneffervescenceoftheheatlatentinthebodiesof
themall,andthismakesthemfirmlyuniteandquicklyassumethe
propertyofonesolidmass.
TherewillstillbethequestionwhyTuscany,althoughitaboundsinhot
springs,doesnotfurnishapowderoutofwhich,onthesameprinciple,
awallcanbemadewhichwillsetfastunderwater.Ihavetherefore
thoughtbesttoexplainhowthisseemstobe,beforethequestionshould
beraised.
5.Thesamekindsofsoilarenotfoundinallplacesandcountries
alike,norisstonefoundeverywhere.Somesoilsareearthy;others
gravelly,andagainpebbly;inotherplacesthematerialissandy;ina
word,thepropertiesofthesoilareasdifferentandunlikeasarethe
variouscountries.Inparticular,itmaybeobservedthatsandpitsare
hardlyeverlackinginanyplacewithinthedistrictsofItalyand
TuscanywhichareboundedbytheApennines;whereasacrosstheApennines
towardtheAdriaticnonearefound,andinAchaeaandAsiaMinoror,in
short,acrossthesea,theverytermisunknown.Henceitisnotinall
theplaceswhereboilingspringsofhotwaterabound,thatthereisthe
samecombinationoffavourablecircumstanceswhichhasbeendescribed
above.Forthingsareproducedinaccordancewiththewillofnature;
nottosuitman'spleasure,butasitwerebyachancedistribution.
6.Therefore,wherethemountainsarenotearthybutconsistofsoft
stone,theforceofthefire,passingthroughthefissuresinthestone,
setsitafire.Thesoftanddelicatepartisburnedout,whilethehard
partisleft.Consequently,whileinCampaniatheburningoftheearth
makesashes,inTuscanythecombustionofthestonemakescarbuncular

sand.Bothareexcellentinwalls,butoneisbettertousefor
buildingsonland,theotherforpiersundersaltwater.TheTuscan
stoneissofterinqualitythantufabutharderthanearth,andbeing
thoroughlykindledbytheviolentheatfrombelow,theresultisthe
productioninsomeplacesofthekindofsandcalledcarbuncular.
[Illustration:TRAVERTINEQUARRIESONTHEROMANCAMPAGNA
1.2.Ancientquarries.3.Asimilarmodernquarry.
Thetopoftherockshowstheoriginalgroundlevel.Thepresentground
levelshowsthedepthtowhichtherockhasbeenremoved.]

CHAPTERVII
STONE
1.Ihavenowspokenoflimeandsand,withtheirvarietiesandpoints
ofexcellence.Nextcomestheconsiderationofstonequarriesfromwhich
dimensionstoneandsuppliesofrubbletobeusedinbuildingaretaken
andbroughttogether.Thestoneinquarriesisfoundtobeofdifferent
andunlikequalities.Insomeitissoft:forexample,intheenvirons
ofthecityatthequarriesofGrottaRossa,Palla,Fidenae,andofthe
Albanhills;inothers,itismedium,asatTivoli,atAmiternum,orMt.
Soracte,andinquarriesofthissort;instillothersitishard,asin
lavaquarries.Therearealsonumerousotherkinds:forinstance,in
Campania,redandblacktufas;inUmbria,Picenum,andVenetia,white
tufawhichcanbecutwithatoothedsaw,likewood.
2.Allthesesoftkindshavetheadvantagethattheycanbeeasily
workedassoonastheyhavebeentakenfromthequarries.Undercover
theyplaytheirpartwell;butinopenandexposedsituationsthefrost
andrimemakethemcrumble,andtheygotopieces.Ontheseacoast,too,
thesalteatsawayanddissolvesthem,norcantheystandgreatheat
either.Buttravertineandallstoneofthatclasscanstandinjury
whetherfromaheavyloadlaiduponitorfromtheweather;exposureto
fire,however,itcannotbear,butsplitsandcrackstopiecesatonce.
Thisisbecauseinitsnaturalcompositionthereisbutlittlemoisture
andnotmuchoftheearthy,butagreatdealofairandoffire.
Therefore,itisnotonlywithouttheearthyandwateryelements,but
whenfire,expellingtheairfromitbytheoperationandforceofheat,
penetratesintoitsinmostpartsandoccupiestheemptyspacesofthe
fissures,therecomesagreatglowandthestoneismadetoburnas
fiercelyasdotheparticlesoffireitself.
3.TherearealsoseveralquarriescalledAnicianintheterritoryof
Tarquinii,thestonebeingofthecolourofpeperino.Theprincipal
workshopslieroundthelakeofBolsenaandintheprefectureof
Statonia.Thisstonehasinnumerablegoodqualities.Neithertheseason
offrostnorexposuretofirecanharmit,butitremainssolidand
laststoagreatage,becausethereisonlyalittleairandfireinits
naturalcomposition,amoderateamountofmoisture,andagreatdealof
theearthy.Henceitsstructureisofclosetextureandsolid,andsoit
cannotbeinjuredbytheweatherorbytheforceoffire.
4.Thismaybestbeseenfrommonumentsintheneighbourhoodofthetown
ofFerentowhicharemadeofstonefromthesequarries.Amongthemare
largestatuesexceedinglywellmade,imagesofsmallersize,andflowers
andacanthusleavesgracefullycarved.Oldastheseare,theylookas
freshasiftheywereonlyjustfinished.Bronzeworkers,also,make
mouldsforthecastingofbronzeoutofstonefromthesequarries,and
finditveryusefulinbronzefounding.Ifthequarrieswereonlynear
Rome,allourbuildingsmightwellbeconstructedfromtheproductsof
theseworkshops.

5.Butsince,onaccountoftheproximityofthestonequarriesof
GrottaRossa,Palla,andtheothersthatarenearesttothecity,
necessitydrivesustomakeuseoftheirproducts,wemustproceedas
follows,ifwewishourworktobefinishedwithoutflaws.Letthestone
betakenfromthequarrytwoyearsbeforebuildingistobegin,andnot
inwinterbutinsummer.Thenletitlieexposedinanopenplace.Such
stoneashasbeendamagedbythetwoyearsofexposureshouldbeusedin
thefoundations.Therest,whichremainsunhurt,haspassedthetestof
natureandwillendureinthosepartsofthebuildingwhichareabove
ground.Thisprecautionshouldbeobserved,notonlywithdimension
stone,butalsowiththerubblewhichistobeusedinwalls.
[Illustration:Photo.Moscioni
EXAMPLEOFOPUSINCERTUM.THECIRCULARTEMPLEATTIVOLI]

CHAPTERVIII
METHODSOFBUILDINGWALLS
1.Therearetwostylesofwalls:"opusreticulatum,"nowusedby
everybody,andtheancientstylecalled"opusincertum."Ofthese,the
reticulatumlooksbetter,butitsconstructionmakesitlikelytocrack,
becauseitsbedsandbuildsspreadoutineverydirection.Ontheother
hand,intheopusincertum,therubble,lyingincoursesandimbricated,
makesawallwhich,thoughnotbeautiful,isstrongerthanthe
reticulatum.
2.Bothkindsshouldbeconstructedofthesmalleststones,sothatthe
walls,beingthoroughlypuddledwiththemortar,whichismadeoflime
andsand,mayholdtogetherlonger.Sincethestonesusedaresoftand
porous,theyareapttosuckthemoistureoutofthemortarandsoto
dryitup.Butwhenthereisabundanceoflimeandsand,thewall,
containingmoremoisture,willnotsoonloseitsstrength,fortheywill
holdittogether.Butassoonasthemoistureissuckedoutofthe
mortarbytheporousrubble,andthelimeandsandseparateand
disunite,therubblecannolongeradheretothemandthewallwillin
timebecomearuin.
3.Thiswemaylearnfromseveralmonumentsintheenvironsofthecity,
whicharebuiltofmarbleordimensionstone,butontheinsidepacked
withmasonrybetweentheouterwalls.Inthecourseoftime,themortar
haslostitsstrength,whichhasbeensuckedoutofitbytheporousness
oftherubble;andsothemonumentsaretumblingdownandgoingto
pieces,withtheirjointsloosenedbythesettlingofthematerialthat
boundthemtogether.
4.Hewhowishestoavoidsuchadisastershouldleaveacavitybehind
thefacings,andontheinsidebuildwallstwofeetthick,madeofred
dimensionstoneorburntbrickorlavaincourses,andthenbindthemto
thefrontsbymeansofironclampsandlead.Forthushiswork,beingno
mereheapofmaterialbutregularlylaidincourses,willbestrong
enoughtolastforeverwithoutaflaw,becausethebedsandbuilds,all
settlingequallyandbondedatthejoints,willnotlettheworkbulge
out,norallowthefallofthefacewallswhichhavebeentightly
fastenedtogether.
5.Consequently,themethodofconstructionemployedbytheGreeksis
nottobedespised.Theydonotuseastructureofsoftrubblepolished
ontheoutside,butwhenevertheyforsakedimensionstone,theylay
coursesoflavaorofsomehardstone,and,asthoughbuildingwith
brick,theybindtheuprightjointsbyinterchangingthedirectionof
thestonesastheylieinthecourses.Thustheyattaintoaperfection
thatwillenduretoeternity.Thesestructuresareoftwokinds.Oneof
themiscalled"isodomum,"theother"pseudisodomum."

6.Awalliscalledisodomumwhenallthecoursesareofequalheight;
pseudisodomum,whentherowsofcoursesdonotmatchbutrununequally.
Bothkindsarestrong:first,becausetherubbleitselfisofclose
textureandsolid,unabletosuckthemoistureoutofthemortar,but
keepingitinitsmoistconditionforaverylongperiod;secondly,
becausethebedsofthestones,beinglaidsmoothandleveltobegin
with,keepthemortarfromfalling,and,astheyarebondedthroughout
theentirethicknessofthewall,theyholdtogetherforaverylong
period.
7.Anothermethodisthatwhichtheycall[Greek:emplekton],usedalso
amongusinthecountry.Inthisthefacingsarefinished,buttheother
stonesleftintheirnaturalstateandthenlaidwithalternatebonding
stones.Butourworkmen,intheirhurrytofinish,devotethemselves
onlytothefacingsofthewalls,settingthemuprightbutfillingthe
spacebetweenwithalotofbrokenstonesandmortarthrowninanyhow.
Thismakesthreedifferentsectionsinthesamestructure;two
consistingoffacingandoneoffillingbetweenthem.TheGreeks,
however,donotbuildso;butlayingtheirstoneslevelandbuilding
everyotherstonelengthwiseintothethickness,theydonotfillthe
spacebetween,butconstructthethicknessoftheirwallsinonesolid
andunbrokenmassfromthefacingstotheinterior.Further,at
intervalstheylaysinglestoneswhichrunthroughtheentire
thicknessofthewall.Thesestones,whichshowateachend,arecalled
[Greek:diatonoi],andbytheirbondingpowerstheyaddverygreatlyto
thesolidityofthewalls.
[Illustration:Photo.Moscioni
OPUSRETICULATUMFROMTHETHERMAEOFHADRIAN'SVILLAATTIVOLI]
[Illustration:Photo.Moscioni
EXAMPLEOFOPUSRETICULATUMFROMTHEDOORWAYOFTHESTOAPOECILE.VILLA
OFHADRIANATTIVOLI]
8.Onewhoinaccordancewiththesenoteswilltakepainsinselecting
hismethodofconstruction,maycountuponhavingsomethingthatwill
last.Nowallsmadeofrubbleandfinishedwithdelicatebeautynosuch
wallscanescaperuinastimegoeson.Hence,whenarbitratorsare
chosentosetavaluationonpartywalls,theydonotvaluethematwhat
theycosttobuild,butlookupthewrittencontractineachcaseand
then,afterdeductingfromthecostoneeightiethforeachyearthatthe
wallhasbeenstanding,decidethattheremainderisthesumtobepaid.
Theythusineffectpronouncethatsuchwallscannotlastmorethan
eightyyears.
9.Inthecaseofbrickwalls,however,nodeductionismadeprovided
thattheyarestillstandingplumb,buttheyarealwaysvaluedatwhat
theycosttobuild.Henceinsomestateswemayseepublicbuildingsand
privatehouses,aswellasthoseofkings,builtofbrick:inAthens,
forexample,thepartofthewallwhichfacesMt.Hymettusand
Pentelicus;atPatras,thecellaeofthetempleofJupiterandHercules,
whicharebrick,althoughontheoutsidetheentablatureandcolumnsof
thetempleareofstone;inItaly,atArezzo,anancientwall
excellentlybuilt;atTralles,thehousebuiltforthekingsofthe
dynastyofAttalus,whichisnowalwaysgrantedtothemanwhoholdsthe
statepriesthood.InSparta,paintingshavebeentakenoutofcertain
wallsbycuttingthroughthebricks,thenhavebeenplacedinwooden
frames,andsobroughttotheComitiumtoadorntheaedileshipofVarro
andMurena.
10.ThenthereisthehouseofCroesuswhichthepeopleofSardishave
setapartasaplaceofreposefortheirfellowcitizensinthe
retirementofage,a"Gerousia"fortheguildoftheeldermen.At
Halicarnassus,thehouseofthatmostpotentkingMausolus,though
decoratedthroughoutwithProconnesianmarble,haswallsbuiltofbrick
whicharetothisdayofextraordinarystrength,andarecoveredwith

stuccosohighlypolishedthattheyseemtobeasglisteningasglass.
Thatkingdidnotusebrickfrompoverty;forhewaschokefullof
revenues,beingrulerofallCaria.
11.Asforhisskillandingenuityasabuilder,theymaybeseenfrom
whatfollows.HewasbornatMelassa,butrecognizingthenatural
advantagesofHalicarnassusasafortress,andseeingthatitwas
suitableasatradingcentreandthatithadagoodharbour,hefixed
hisresidencethere.Theplacehadacurvaturelikethatoftheseatsin
atheatre.Onthelowesttier,alongtheharbour,wasbuilttheforum.
Abouthalfwayupthecurvingslope,atthepointwherethecurved
crossaisleisinatheatre,abroadwidestreetwaslaidout,inthe
middleofwhichwasbuilttheMausoleum,aworksoremarkablethatitis
classedamongtheSevenWondersoftheWorld.Atthetopofthehill,in
thecentre,isthefaneofMars,containingacolossalacrolithicstatue
bythefamoushandofLeochares.Thatis,somethinkthatthisstatueis
byLeochares,othersbyTimotheus.Attheextremerightofthesummitis
thefaneofVenusandMercury,closetothespringofSalmacis.
12.Thereisamistakenideathatthisspringinfectsthosewhodrinkof
itwithanunnaturallewdness.Itwillnotbeoutofplacetoexplain
howthisideacametospreadthroughouttheworldfromamistakeinthe
tellingofthetale.Itcannotbethatthewatermakesmeneffeminate
andunchaste,asitissaidtodo;forthespringisofremarkable
clearnessandexcellentinflavour.ThefactisthatwhenMelasand
ArevaniascametherefromArgosandTroezenandfoundedacolony
together,theydroveouttheCariansandLeleganswhowerebarbarians.
Thesetookrefugeinthemountains,and,unitingthere,usedtomake
raids,plunderingtheGreeksandlayingtheircountrywasteinacruel
manner.Later,oneofthecolonists,tomakemoney,setupa
wellstockedshop,nearthespringbecausethewaterwassogood,and
thewayinwhichhecarrieditonattractedthebarbarians.Sothey
begantocomedown,oneatatime,andtomeetwithsociety,andthus
theywerebroughtbackoftheirownaccord,givinguptheirroughand
savagewaysforthedelightsofGreekcustoms.Hencethiswateracquired
itspeculiarreputation,notbecauseitreallyinducedunchastity,but
becausethosebarbariansweresoftenedbythecharmofcivilization.
[Illustration:THEMAUSOLEUMATHALICARNASSUSASRESTOREDBYFRIEDRICH
ADLER]
13.ButsinceIhavebeentemptedintogivingadescriptionofthis
fortifiedplace,itremainstofinishmyaccountofit.Correspondingto
thefaneofVenusandthespringdescribedabove,whichareonthe
right,wehaveontheextremelefttheroyalpalacewhichkingMausolus
builtthereinaccordancewithaplanallhisown.Totherightit
commandsaviewoftheforum,theharbour,andtheentirelineof
fortifications,whilejustbelowit,totheleft,thereisaconcealed
harbour,hiddenunderthewallsinsuchawaythatnobodycouldseeor
knowwhatwasgoingoninit.Onlythekinghimselfcould,incaseof
need,giveordersfromhisownpalacetotheoarsmenandsoldiers,
withouttheknowledgeofanybodyelse.
14.AfterthedeathofMausolus,hiswifeArtemisiabecamequeen,and
theRhodians,regardingitasanoutragethatawomanshouldberulerof
thestatesofallCaria,fittedoutafleetandsalliedforthtoseize
uponthekingdom.WhennewsofthisreachedArtemisia,shegaveorders
thatherfleetshouldbehiddenawayinthatharbourwithoarsmenand
marinesmusteredandconcealed,butthattherestofthecitizensshould
taketheirplacesonthecitywall.AftertheRhodianshadlandedatthe
largerharbourwiththeirwellequippedfleet,sheorderedthepeopleon
thewalltocheerthemandtopromisethattheywoulddeliverupthe
town.Then,whentheyhadpassedinsidethewall,leavingtheirfleet
empty,Artemisiasuddenlymadeacanalwhichledtothesea,broughther
fleetthusoutofthesmallerharbour,andsosailedintothelarger.
Disembarkinghersoldiers,shetowedtheemptyfleetoftheRhodiansout
tosea.SotheRhodiansweresurroundedwithoutmeansofretreat,and
wereslainintheveryforum.

15.SoArtemisiaembarkedherownsoldiersandoarsmenintheshipsof
theRhodiansandsetforthforRhodes.TheRhodians,beholdingtheirown
shipsapproachingwreathedwithlaurel,supposedthattheir
fellowcitizenswerereturningvictorious,andadmittedtheenemy.Then
Artemisia,aftertakingRhodesandkillingitsleadingmen,putupin
thecityofRhodesatrophyofhervictory,includingtwobronze
statues,onerepresentingthestateoftheRhodians,theotherherself.
HerselfshefashionedintheactofbrandingthestateoftheRhodians.
InlatertimestheRhodians,labouringunderthereligiousscruplewhich
makesitasintoremovetrophiesoncetheyarededicated,constructeda
buildingtosurroundtheplace,andthusbytheerectionofthe"Grecian
Station"covereditsothatnobodycouldseeit,andorderedthatthe
buildingbecalled"[Greek:abaton]."
16.Sincesuchverypowerfulkingshavenotdisdainedwallsbuiltof
brick,althoughwiththeirrevenuesandfrombootytheymightoftenhave
hadthemnotonlyofmasonryordimensionstonebutevenofmarble,I
thinkthatoneoughtnottorejectbuildingsmadeofbrickwork,
providedthattheyareproperly"topped."ButIshallexplainwhythis
kindofstructureshouldnotbeusedbytheRomanpeoplewithinthe
city,notomittingthereasonsandthegroundsforthem.
17.Thelawsofthestateforbidthatwallsabuttingonpublicproperty
shouldbemorethanafootandahalfthick.Theotherwallsarebuilt
ofthesamethicknessinordertosavespace.Nowbrickwalls,unless
twoorthreebricksthick,cannotsupportmorethanonestory;certainly
notiftheyareonlyafootandahalfinthickness.Butwiththe
presentimportanceofthecityandtheunlimitednumbersofits
population,itisnecessarytoincreasethenumberofdwellingplaces
indefinitely.Consequently,asthegroundfloorscouldnotadmitofso
greatanumberlivinginthecity,thenatureofthecasehasmadeit
necessarytofindreliefbymakingthebuildingshigh.Inthesetall
pilesrearedwithpiersofstone,wallsofburntbrick,andpartitions
ofrubblework,andprovidedwithfloorafterfloor,theupperstories
canbepartitionedoffintoroomstoverygreatadvantage.The
accommodationswithinthecitywallsbeingthusmultipliedasaresult
ofthemanyfloorshighintheair,theRomanpeopleeasilyfind
excellentplacesinwhichtolive.
18.Ithasnowbeenexplainedhowlimitationsofbuildingspace
necessarilyforbidtheemploymentofbrickwallswithinthecity.When
itbecomesnecessarytousethemoutsidethecity,theyshouldbe
constructedasfollowsinordertobeperfectanddurable.Onthetopof
thewalllayastructureofburntbrick,aboutafootandahalfin
height,underthetilesandprojectinglikeacoping.Thusthedefects
usualinthesewallscanbeavoided.Forwhenthetilesontheroofare
brokenorthrowndownbythewindsothatrainwatercanleakthrough,
thisburntbrickcoatingwillpreventthecrudebrickfrombeing
damaged,andthecornicelikeprojectionwillthrowoffthedropsbeyond
theverticalface,andthusthewalls,thoughofcrudebrickstructure,
willbepreservedintact.
19.Withregardtoburntbrick,nobodycantelloffhandwhetheritisof
thebestorunfittouseinawall,becauseitsstrengthcanbetested
onlyafterithasbeenusedonaroofandexposedtobadweatherand
timethen,ifitisgooditisaccepted.Ifnotmadeofgoodclayorif
notbakedsufficiently,itshowsitselfdefectivetherewhenexposedto
frostsandrime.Brickthatwillnotstandexposureonroofscannever
bestrongenoughtocarryitsloadinawall.Hencethestrongestburnt
brickwallsarethosewhichareconstructedoutofoldroofingtiles.
20.Asfor"wattleanddaub"Icouldwishthatithadneverbeen
invented.Themoreitsavesintimeandgainsinspace,thegreaterand
themoregeneralisthedisasterthatitmaycause;foritismadeto
catchfire,liketorches.Itseemsbetter,therefore,tospendonwalls
ofburntbrick,andbeatexpense,thantosavewith"wattleanddaub,"
andbeindanger.And,inthestuccocovering,too,itmakescracksfrom
theinsidebythearrangementofitsstudsandgirts.Fortheseswell
withmoistureastheyaredaubed,andthencontractastheydry,and,by

theirshrinking,causethesolidstuccotosplit.Butsincesomeare
obligedtouseiteithertosavetimeormoney,orforpartitionsonan
unsupportedspan,thepropermethodofconstructionisasfollows.Give
itahighfoundationsothatitmaynowherecomeincontactwiththe
brokenstoneworkcomposingthefloor;forifitissunkinthis,it
rotsincourseoftime,thensettlesandsagsforward,andsobreaks
throughthesurfaceofthestuccocovering.
Ihavenowexplainedtothebestofmyabilitythesubjectofwalls,and
thepreparationofthedifferentkindsofmaterialemployed,withtheir
advantagesanddisadvantages.Next,followingtheguidanceofNature,I
shalltreatoftheframeworkandthekindsofwoodusedinit,showing
howtheymaybeprocuredofasortthatwillnotgivewayastimegoes
on.

CHAPTERIX
TIMBER
1.TimbershouldbefelledbetweenearlyAutumnandthetimewhen
Favoniusbeginstoblow.ForinSpringalltreesbecomepregnant,and
theyareallemployingtheirnaturalvigourintheproductionofleaves
andofthefruitsthatreturneveryyear.Therequirementsofthat
seasonrenderthememptyandswollen,andsotheyareweakandfeeble
becauseoftheirloosenessoftexture.Thisisalsothecasewithwomen
whohaveconceived.Theirbodiesarenotconsideredperfectlyhealthy
untilthechildisborn;hence,pregnantslaves,whenofferedforsale,
arenotwarrantedsound,becausethefetusasitgrowswithinthebody
takestoitselfasnourishmentallthebestqualitiesofthemother's
food,andsothestrongeritbecomesasthefulltimeforbirth
approaches,thelesscompactitallowsthatbodytobefromwhichitis
produced.Afterthebirthofthechild,whatwasheretoforetakento
promotethegrowthofanothercreatureisnowsetfreebythedelivery
ofthenewborn,andthechannelsbeingnowemptyandopen,thebodywill
takeitinbylappingupitsjuices,andthusbecomescompactand
returnstothenaturalstrengthwhichithadbefore.
2.Onthesameprinciple,withtheripeningofthefruitsinAutumnthe
leavesbegintowitherandthetrees,takinguptheirsapfromtheearth
throughtheroots,recoverthemselvesandarerestoredtotheirformer
solidtexture.Butthestrongairofwintercompressesandsolidifies
themduringthetimeabovementioned.Consequently,ifthetimberis
felledontheprincipleandatthetimeabovementioned,itwillbe
felledattheproperseason.
3.Infellingatreeweshouldcutintothetrunkofittothevery
heart,andthenleaveitstandingsothatthesapmaydrainoutdropby
dropthroughoutthewholeofit.Inthiswaytheuselessliquidwhichis
withinwillrunoutthroughthesapwoodinsteadofhavingtodieina
massofdecay,thusspoilingthequalityofthetimber.Thenandnot
tillthen,thetreebeingdraineddryandthesapnolongerdripping,
letitbefelledanditwillbeinthehigheststateofusefulness.
4.Thatthisissomaybeseeninthecaseoffruittrees.Whenthese
aretappedatthebaseandpruned,eachatthepropertime,theypour
outfromtheheartthroughthetapholesallthesuperfluousand
corruptingfluidwhichtheycontain,andthusthedrainingprocessmakes
themdurable.Butwhenthejuicesoftreeshavenomeansofescape,they
clotandrotinthem,makingthetreeshollowandgoodfornothing.
Therefore,ifthedrainingprocessdoesnotexhaustthemwhiletheyare
stillalive,thereisnodoubtthat,ifthesameprincipleisfollowed
infellingthemfortimber,theywilllastalongtimeandbevery
usefulinbuildings.
5.Treesvaryandareunlikeoneanotherintheirqualities.Thusitis

withtheoak,elm,poplar,cypress,fir,andtheotherswhicharemost
suitabletouseinbuildings.Theoak,forinstance,hasnotthe
efficacyofthefir,northecypressthatoftheelm.Norinthecaseof
othertrees,isitnaturalthattheyshouldbealike;buttheindividual
kindsareeffectiveinbuilding,someinoneway,someinanother,owing
tothedifferentpropertiesoftheirelements.
6.Tobeginwithfir:itcontainsagreatdealofairandfirewithvery
littlemoistureandtheearthy,sothat,asitsnaturalpropertiesare
ofthelighterclass,itisnotheavy.Hence,itsconsistencebeing
naturallystiff,itdoesnoteasilybendundertheload,andkeepsits
straightnesswhenusedintheframework.Butitcontainssomuchheat
thatitgeneratesandencouragesdecay,whichspoilsit;anditalso
kindlesfirequicklybecauseoftheairinitsbody,whichissoopen
thatittakesinfireandsogivesoutagreatflame.
7.Thepartwhichisnearesttotheearthbeforethetreeiscutdown
takesupmoisturethroughtherootsfromtheimmediateneighbourhoodand
henceiswithoutknotsandis"clear."Buttheupperpart,onaccountof
thegreatheatinit,throwsupbranchesintotheairthroughtheknots;
andthis,whenitiscutoffabouttwentyfeetfromthegroundandthen
hewn,iscalled"knotwood"becauseofitshardnessandknottiness.The
lowestpart,afterthetreeiscutdownandthesapwoodofthesame
thrownaway,issplitupintofourpiecesandpreparedforjoiner's
work,andsoiscalled"clearstock."
8.Oak,ontheotherhand,havingenoughandtospareoftheearthy
amongitselements,andcontainingbutlittlemoisture,air,andfire,
lastsforanunlimitedperiodwhenburiedinundergroundstructures.It
followsthatwhenexposedtomoisture,asitstextureisnotlooseand
porous,itcannottakeinliquidonaccountofitscompactness,but,
withdrawingfromthemoisture,itresistsitandwarps,thusmaking
cracksinthestructuresinwhichitisused.
9.Thewinteroak,beingcomposedofamoderateamountofallthe
elements,isveryusefulinbuildings,butwheninamoistplace,it
takesinwatertoitscentrethroughitspores,itsairandfirebeing
expelledbytheinfluenceofthemoisture,andsoitrots.TheTurkey
oakandthebeech,bothcontainingamixtureofmoisture,fire,andthe
earthy,withagreatdealofair,throughthisloosetexturetakein
moisturetotheircentreandsoondecay.Whiteandblackpoplar,aswell
aswillow,linden,andtheagnuscastus,containinganabundanceof
fireandair,amoderateamountofmoisture,andonlyasmallamountof
theearthy,arecomposedofamixturewhichisproportionatelyrather
light,andsotheyareofgreatservicefromtheirstiffness.Although
onaccountofthemixtureoftheearthyinthemtheyarenothard,yet
theirloosetexturemakesthemgleamingwhite,andtheyareaconvenient
materialtouseincarving.
10.Thealder,whichisproducedclosebyriverbanks,andwhichseems
tobealtogetheruselessasbuildingmaterial,hasreallyexcellent
qualities.Itiscomposedofaverylargeproportionofairandfire,
notmuchoftheearthy,andonlyalittlemoisture.Hence,inswampy
places,alderpilesdrivenclosetogetherbeneaththefoundationsof
buildingstakeinthewaterwhichtheirownconsistencelacksandremain
imperishableforever,supportingstructuresofenormousweightand
keepingthemfromdecay.Thusamaterialwhichcannotlastevenalittle
whileaboveground,enduresforalongtimewhencoveredwithmoisture.
11.OnecanseethisatitsbestinRavenna;forthereallthe
buildings,bothpublicandprivate,havepilesofthissortbeneath
theirfoundations.Theelmandtheashcontainaverygreatamountof
moisture,aminimumofairandfire,andamoderatemixtureofthe
earthyintheircomposition.Whenputinshapeforuseinbuildingsthey
aretoughand,havingnostiffnessonaccountoftheweightofmoisture
inthem,soonbend.Butwhentheybecomedrywithage,orareallowedto
losetheirsapanddiestandingintheopen,theygetharder,andfrom
theirtoughnesssupplyastrongmaterialfordowelstobeusedinjoints
andotherarticulations.

12.Thehornbeam,whichhasaverysmallamountoffireandofthe
earthyinitscomposition,butaverygreatproportionofairand
moisture,isnotawoodthatbreakseasily,andisveryconvenientto
handle.Hence,theGreekscallit"zygia,"becausetheymakeofityokes
fortheirdraughtanimals,andtheirwordforyokeis[Greek:zyga].
Cypressandpinearealsojustasadmirable;foralthoughtheycontain
anabundanceofmoisturemixedwithanequivalentcomposedofallthe
otherelements,andsoareapttowarpwhenusedinbuildingsonaccount
ofthissuperfluityofmoisture,yettheycanbekepttoagreatage
withoutrotting,becausetheliquidcontainedwithintheirsubstances
hasabittertastewhichbyitspungencypreventstheentranceofdecay
orofthoselittlecreatureswhicharedestructive.Hence,buildings
madeofthesekindsofwoodlastforanunendingperiodoftime.
13.Thecedarandthejunipertreehavethesameusesandgood
qualities,but,whilethecypressandpineyieldresin,fromthecedar
isproducedanoilcalledcedaroil.Booksaswellasotherthings
smearedwiththisarenothurtbywormsordecay.Thefoliageofthis
treeislikethatofthecypressbutthegrainofthewoodisstraight.
ThestatueofDianainthetempleatEphesusismadeofit,andsoare
thecofferedceilingsboththereandinallotherfamousfanes,because
thatwoodiseverlasting.ThetreegrowschieflyinCrete,Africa,and
insomedistrictsofSyria.
14.Thelarch,knownonlytothepeopleofthetownsonthebanksofthe
riverPoandtheshoresoftheAdriatic,isnotonlypreservedfrom
decayandthewormbythegreatbitternessofitssap,butalsoit
cannotbekindledwithfirenorigniteofitself,unlesslikestoneina
limekilnitisburnedwithotherwood.Andeventhenitdoesnottake
firenorproduceburningcoals,butafteralongtimeitslowlyconsumes
away.Thisisbecausethereisaverysmallproportionoftheelements
offireandairinitscomposition,whichisadenseandsolidmassof
moistureandtheearthy,sothatithasnoopenporesthroughwhichfire
canfinditsway;butitrepelstheforceoffireanddoesnotlet
itselfbeharmedbyitquickly.Further,itsweightwillnotletit
floatinwater,sothatwhentransporteditisloadedonshipboardoron
raftsmadeoffir.
15.Itisworthwhiletoknowhowthiswoodwasdiscovered.Thedivine
Caesar,beingwithhisarmyintheneighbourhoodoftheAlps,andhaving
orderedthetownstofurnishsupplies,theinhabitantsofafortified
strongholdthere,calledLarignum,trustinginthenaturalstrengthof
theirdefences,refusedtoobeyhiscommand.Sothegeneralorderedhis
forcestotheassault.Infrontofthegateofthisstrongholdthere
wasatower,madeofbeamsofthiswoodlaidinalternatingdirections
atrightanglestoeachother,likeafuneralpyre,andbuilthigh,so
thattheycoulddriveoffanattackingpartybythrowingstakesand
stonesfromthetop.Whenitwasobservedthattheyhadnoother
missilesthanstakes,andthatthesecouldnotbehurledveryfarfrom
thewallonaccountoftheweight,ordersweregiventoapproachandto
throwbundlesofbrushwoodandlightedtorchesatthisoutwork.These
thesoldierssoongottogether.
16.Theflamessoonkindledthebrushwoodwhichlayaboutthatwooden
structureand,risingtowardsheaven,madeeverybodythinkthatthe
wholepilehadfallen.Butwhenthefirehadburneditselfoutand
subsided,andthetowerappearedtoviewentirelyuninjured,Caesarin
amazementgaveordersthattheyshouldbesurroundedwithapalisade,
builtbeyondtherangeofmissiles.Sothetownspeoplewerefrightened
intosurrendering,andwerethenaskedwherethatwoodcamefromwhich
wasnotharmedbyfire.Theypointedtotreesofthekindunder
discussion,ofwhichthereareverygreatnumbersinthatvicinity.And
so,asthatstrongholdwascalledLarignum,thewoodwascalledlarch.
ItistransportedbywayofthePotoRavenna,andistobehadinFano,
Pesaro,Ancona,andtheothertownsinthatneighbourhood.Iftherewere
onlyareadymethodofcarryingthismaterialtoRome,itwouldbeof
thegreatestuseinbuildings;ifnotforgeneralpurposes,yetatleast
iftheboardsusedintheeavesrunningroundblocksofhousesweremade

ofit,thebuildingswouldbefreefromthedangeroffirespreading
acrosstothem,becausesuchboardscanneithertakefirefromflamesor
fromburningcoals,norignitespontaneously.
17.Theleavesofthesetreesarelikethoseofthepine;timberfrom
themcomesinlonglengths,isaseasilywroughtinjoiner'sworkasis
theclearwoodoffir,andcontainsaliquidresin,ofthecolourof
Attichoney,whichisgoodforconsumptives.
Withregardtothedifferentkindsoftimber,Ihavenowexplainedof
whatnaturalpropertiestheyappeartobecomposed,andhowtheywere
produced.Itremainstoconsiderthequestionwhythehighlandfir,as
itiscalledinRome,isinferior,whilethelowlandfirisextremely
usefulinbuildingssofarasdurabilityisconcerned;andfurtherto
explainhowitisthattheirbadorgoodqualitiesseemtobeduetothe
peculiaritiesoftheirneighbourhood,sothatthissubjectmaybe
clearertothosewhoexamineit.

CHAPTERX
HIGHLANDANDLOWLANDFIR
1.ThefirstspursoftheApenninesarisefromtheTuscanseabetween
theAlpsandthemostdistantbordersofTuscany.Themountainrange
itselfbendsroundand,almosttouchingtheshoresoftheAdriaticin
themiddleofthecurve,completesitscircuitbyextendingtothe
straitontheothershore.Hence,thissideofthecurve,sloping
towardsthedistrictsofTuscanyandCampania,liesbaskinginthesun,
beingconstantlyexposedtothefullforceofitsraysallday.Butthe
furtherside,slopingtowardstheUpperSeaandhavinganorthern
exposure,isconstantlyshroudedinshadowydarkness.Hencethetrees
whichgrowonthatside,beingnourishedbythemoisture,notonly
themselvesattaintoaverylargesize,buttheirfibretoo,filledfull
ofmoisture,isswollenanddistendedwithabundanceofliquid.When
theylosetheirvitalityafterbeingfelledandhewn,thefibreretains
itsstiffness,andthetreesastheydrybecomehollowandfrailon
accountoftheirporosity,andhencecannotlastwhenusedinbuildings.
2.Buttreeswhichgrowinplacesfacingthecourseofthesunarenot
ofporousfibrebutaresolid,beingdrainedbythedryness;forthesun
absorbsmoistureanddrawsitoutoftreesaswellasoutoftheearth.
Thetreesinsunnyneighbourhoods,therefore,beingsolidifiedbythe
compacttextureoftheirfibre,andnotbeingporousfrommoisture,are
veryuseful,sofarasdurabilitygoes,whentheyarehewnintotimber.
Hencethelowlandfirs,beingconveyedfromsunnyplaces,arebetter
thanthosehighlandfirs,whicharebroughtherefromshadyplaces.
3.Tothebestofmymatureconsideration,Ihavenowtreatedthe
materialswhicharenecessaryintheconstructionofbuildings,the
proportionateamountoftheelementswhichareseentobecontainedin
theirnaturalcomposition,andthepointsofexcellenceanddefectsof
eachkind,sothattheymaybenotunknowntothosewhoareengagedin
building.Thusthosewhocanfollowthedirectionscontainedinthis
treatisewillbebetterinformedinadvance,andabletoselect,among
thedifferentkinds,thosewhichwillbeofuseintheirworks.
Therefore,sincethepreliminarieshavebeenexplained,thebuildings
themselveswillbetreatedintheremainingbooks;andfirst,asdue
orderrequires,Ishallinthenextbookwriteofthetemplesofthe
immortalgodsandtheirsymmetricalproportions.

BOOKIII

INTRODUCTION
1.ApolloatDelphi,throughtheoracularutteranceofhispriestess,
pronouncedSocratesthewisestofmen.Ofhimitisrelatedthathesaid
withsagacityandgreatlearningthatthehumanbreastshouldhavebeen
furnishedwithopenwindows,sothatmenmightnotkeeptheirfeelings
concealed,buthavethemopentotheview.Ohthatnature,followinghis
idea,hadconstructedthemthusunfoldedandobvioustotheview!Forif
ithadbeenso,notmerelythevirtuesandvicesofthemindwouldbe
easilyvisible,butalsoitsknowledgeofbranchesofstudy,displayed
tothecontemplationoftheeyes,wouldnotneedtestingby
untrustworthypowersofjudgement,butasingularandlastinginfluence
wouldthusbelenttothelearnedandwise.However,sincetheyarenot
soconstructed,butareasnaturewilledthemtobe,itisimpossible
formen,whilenaturalabilitiesareconcealedinthebreast,toforma
judgementonthequalityoftheknowledgeoftheartswhichisthus
deeplyhidden.Andifartiststhemselvestestifytotheirownskill,
theycannever,unlesstheyarewealthyorfamousfromtheageoftheir
studios,orunlesstheyarealsopossessedofthepublicfavourandof
eloquence,haveaninfluencecommensuratewiththeirdevotiontotheir
pursuits,sothatpeoplemaybelievethemtohavetheknowledgewhich
theyprofesstohave.
2.Inparticularwecanlearnthisfromthecaseofthesculptorsand
paintersofantiquity.Thoseamongthemwhoweremarkedbyhighstation
orfavourablyrecommendedhavecomedowntoposteritywithanamethat
willlastforever;forinstance,Myron,Polycletus,Phidias,Lysippus,
andtheotherswhohaveattainedtofamebytheirart.Fortheyacquired
itbytheexecutionofworksforgreatstatesorforkingsorfor
citizensofrank.Butthosewho,beingmenofnolessenthusiasm,
naturalability,anddexteritythanthosefamousartists,andwho
executednolessperfectlyfinishedworksforcitizensoflowstation,
areunremembered,notbecausetheylackeddiligenceordexterityin
theirart,butbecausefortunefailedthem;forinstance,Teleasof
Athens,ChionofCorinth,MyagerthePhocaean,PharaxofEphesus,Boedas
ofByzantium,andmanyothers.ThentherewerepainterslikeAristomenes
ofThasos,PolyclesandAndronofEphesus,TheoofMagnesia,andothers
whowerenotdeficientindiligenceorenthusiasmfortheirartorin
dexterity,butwhosenarrowmeansorillluck,orthehigherpositionof
theirrivalsinthestruggleforhonour,stoodinthewayoftheir
attainingdistinction.
3.Ofcourse,weneednotbesurprisedifartisticexcellencegoes
unrecognizedonaccountofbeingunknown;butthereshouldbethe
greatestindignationwhen,asoften,goodjudgesareflatteredbythe
charmofsocialentertainmentsintoanapprobationwhichisamere
pretence.Nowif,asSocrateswished,ourfeelings,opinions,and
knowledgegainedbystudyhadbeenmanifestandcleartosee,popularity
andadulationwouldhavenoinfluence,butmenwhohadreachedthe
heightofknowledgebymeansofcorrectanddefinitecoursesofstudy,
wouldbegivencommissionswithoutanyeffortontheirpart.However,
sincesuchthingsarenotplainandapparenttotheview,aswethink
theyshouldhavebeen,andsinceIobservethattheuneducatedrather
thantheeducatedareinhigherfavour,thinkingitbeneathmetoengage
withtheuneducatedinthestruggleforhonour,Iprefertoshowthe
excellenceofourdepartmentofknowledgebythepublicationofthis
treatise.
4.Inmyfirstbook,Emperor,Idescribedtoyoutheart,withits
pointsofexcellence,thedifferentkindsoftrainingwithwhichthe
architectoughttobeequipped,addingthereasonswhyheoughttobe
skilfulinthem,andIdividedupthesubjectofarchitectureasawhole
amongitsdepartments,dulydefiningthelimitsofeach.Next,aswas
preeminentandnecessary,Iexplainedonscientificprinciplesthe
methodofselectinghealthysitesforfortifiedtowns,pointedoutby

geometricalfiguresthedifferentwindsandthequartersfromwhichthey
blow,andshowedtheproperwaytolayoutthelinesofstreetsandrows
ofhouseswithinthewalls.HereIfixedtheendofmyfirstbook.In
thesecond,onbuildingmaterials,Itreatedtheirvariousadvantagesin
structures,andthenaturalpropertiesofwhichtheyarecomposed.In
thisthirdbookIshallspeakofthetemplesoftheimmortalgods,
describingandexplainingtheminthepropermanner.

CHAPTERI
ONSYMMETRY:INTEMPLESANDINTHEHUMANBODY
1.Thedesignofatempledependsonsymmetry,theprinciplesofwhich
mustbemostcarefullyobservedbythearchitect.Theyaredueto
proportion,inGreek[Greek:analogia].Proportionisacorrespondence
amongthemeasuresofthemembersofanentirework,andofthewholeto
acertainpartselectedasstandard.Fromthisresulttheprinciplesof
symmetry.Withoutsymmetryandproportiontherecanbenoprinciplesin
thedesignofanytemple;thatis,ifthereisnopreciserelation
betweenitsmembers,asinthecaseofthoseofawellshapedman.
2.Forthehumanbodyissodesignedbynaturethattheface,fromthe
chintothetopoftheforeheadandthelowestrootsofthehair,isa
tenthpartofthewholeheight;theopenhandfromthewristtothetip
ofthemiddlefingerisjustthesame;theheadfromthechintothe
crownisaneighth,andwiththeneckandshoulderfromthetopofthe
breasttothelowestrootsofthehairisasixth;fromthemiddleof
thebreasttothesummitofthecrownisafourth.Ifwetaketheheight
ofthefaceitself,thedistancefromthebottomofthechintothe
undersideofthenostrilsisonethirdofit;thenosefromtheunder
sideofthenostrilstoalinebetweentheeyebrowsisthesame;from
theretothelowestrootsofthehairisalsoathird,comprisingthe
forehead.Thelengthofthefootisonesixthoftheheightofthebody;
oftheforearm,onefourth;andthebreadthofthebreastisalsoone
fourth.Theothermembers,too,havetheirownsymmetricalproportions,
anditwasbyemployingthemthatthefamouspaintersandsculptorsof
antiquityattainedtogreatandendlessrenown.
3.Similarly,inthemembersofatemplethereoughttobethegreatest
harmonyinthesymmetricalrelationsofthedifferentpartstothe
generalmagnitudeofthewhole.Thenagain,inthehumanbodythe
centralpointisnaturallythenavel.Forifamanbeplacedflatonhis
back,withhishandsandfeetextended,andapairofcompassescentred
athisnavel,thefingersandtoesofhistwohandsandfeetwilltouch
thecircumferenceofacircledescribedtherefrom.Andjustasthehuman
bodyyieldsacircularoutline,sotooasquarefiguremaybefoundfrom
it.Forifwemeasurethedistancefromthesolesofthefeettothetop
ofthehead,andthenapplythatmeasuretotheoutstretchedarms,the
breadthwillbefoundtobethesameastheheight,asinthecaseof
planesurfaceswhichareperfectlysquare.
4.Therefore,sincenaturehasdesignedthehumanbodysothatits
membersaredulyproportionedtotheframeasawhole,itappearsthat
theancientshadgoodreasonfortheirrule,thatinperfectbuildings
thedifferentmembersmustbeinexactsymmetricalrelationstothe
wholegeneralscheme.Hence,whiletransmittingtoustheproper
arrangementsforbuildingsofallkinds,theywereparticularlycareful
todosointhecaseoftemplesofthegods,buildingsinwhichmerits
andfaultsusuallylastforever.
5.Further,itwasfromthemembersofthebodythattheyderivedthe
fundamentalideasofthemeasureswhichareobviouslynecessaryinall
works,asthefinger,palm,foot,andcubit.Thesetheyapportionedso
astoformthe"perfectnumber,"calledinGreek[Greek:teleion],and
astheperfectnumbertheancientsfixeduponten.Foritisfromthe

numberofthefingersofthehandthatthepalmisfound,andthefoot
fromthepalm.Again,whiletenisnaturallyperfect,asbeingmadeup
bythefingersofthetwopalms,Platoalsoheldthatthisnumberwas
perfectbecauseteniscomposedoftheindividualunits,calledbythe
Greeks[Greek:monades].Butassoonaselevenortwelveisreached,the
numbers,beingexcessive,cannotbeperfectuntiltheycometotenfor
thesecondtime;forthecomponentpartsofthatnumberarethe
individualunits.
6.Themathematicians,however,maintainingadifferentview,havesaid
thattheperfectnumberissix,becausethisnumberiscomposedof
integralpartswhicharesuitednumericallytotheirmethodof
reckoning:thus,oneisonesixth;twoisonethird;threeisonehalf;
fouristwothirds,or[Greek:dimoiros]astheycallit;fiveisfive
sixths,called[Greek:pentamoiros];andsixistheperfectnumber.As
thenumbergoesongrowinglarger,theadditionofaunitabovesixis
the[Greek:ephektos];eight,formedbytheadditionofathirdpartof
six,istheintegerandathird,called[Greek:epitritos];theaddition
ofonehalfmakesnine,theintegerandahalf,termed[Greek:
hemiolios];theadditionoftwothirds,makingthenumberten,isthe
integerandtwothirds,whichtheycall[Greek:epidimoiros];inthe
numbereleven,wherefiveareadded,wehavethefivesixths,called
[Greek:epipemptos];finally,twelve,beingcomposedofthetwosimple
integers,iscalled[Greek:diplasios].
7.Andfurther,asthefootisonesixthofaman'sheight,theheight
ofthebodyasexpressedinnumberoffeetbeinglimitedtosix,they
heldthatthiswastheperfectnumber,andobservedthatthecubit
consistedofsixpalmsoroftwentyfourfingers.Thisprincipleseems
tohavebeenfollowedbythestatesofGreece.Asthecubitconsistedof
sixpalms,theymadethedrachma,whichtheyusedastheirunit,consist
inthesamewayofsixbronzecoins,likeour_asses_,whichtheycall
obols;and,tocorrespondtothefingers,dividedthedrachmainto
twentyfourquarterobols,whichsomecalldichalcaotherstrichalca.
8.Butourcountrymenatfirstfixedupontheancientnumberandmade
tenbronzepiecesgotothedenarius,andthisistheoriginofthename
whichisappliedtothedenariustothisday.Andthefourthpartofit,
consistingoftwoassesandhalfofathird,theycalled"sesterce."But
later,observingthatsixandtenwerebothofthemperfectnumbers,
theycombinedthetwo,andthusmadethemostperfectnumber,sixteen.
Theyfoundtheirauthorityforthisinthefoot.Forifwetaketwo
palmsfromthecubit,thereremainsthefootoffourpalms;butthepalm
containsfourfingers.Hencethefootcontainssixteenfingers,andthe
denariusthesamenumberofbronze_asses_.
9.Therefore,ifitisagreedthatnumberwasfoundoutfromthehuman
fingers,andthatthereisasymmetricalcorrespondencebetweenthe
membersseparatelyandtheentireformofthebody,inaccordancewitha
certainpartselectedasstandard,wecanhavenothingbutrespectfor
thosewho,inconstructingtemplesoftheimmortalgods,haveso
arrangedthemembersoftheworksthatboththeseparatepartsandthe
wholedesignmayharmonizeintheirproportionsandsymmetry.

CHAPTERII
CLASSIFICATIONOFTEMPLES
1.Therearecertainelementaryformsonwhichthegeneralaspectofa
templedepends.Firstthereisthetempleinantis,or[Greek:naosen
parastasin]asitiscalledinGreek;thentheprostyle,amphiprostyle,
peripteral,pseudodipteral,dipteral,andhypaethral.Thesedifferent
formsmaybedescribedasfollows.
2.Itwillbeatempleinantiswhenithasantaecarriedoutinfront

ofthewallswhichenclosethecella,andinthemiddle,betweenthe
antae,twocolumns,andoverthemthepedimentconstructedinthe
symmetricalproportionstobedescribedlaterinthiswork.Anexample
willbefoundattheThreeFortunes,inthatoneofthethreewhichis
nearesttheCollinegate.
3.Theprostyleisinallrespectslikethetempleinantis,exceptthat
atthecorners,oppositetheantae,ithastwocolumns,andthatithas
architravesnotonlyinfront,asinthecaseofthetempleinantis,
butalsoonetotherightandonetotheleftinthewings.Anexample
ofthisisthetempleofJoveandFaunusintheIslandoftheTiber.
4.Theamphiprostyleisinallotherrespectsliketheprostyle,buthas
besides,intherear,thesamearrangementofcolumnsandpediment.
5.Atemplewillbeperipteralthathassixcolumnsinfrontandsixin
therear,withelevenoneachsideincludingthecornercolumns.Let
thecolumnsbesoplacedastoleaveaspace,thewidthofan
intercolumniation,allroundbetweenthewallsandtherowsofcolumns
ontheoutside,thusformingawalkroundthecellaofthetemple,as
inthecasesofthetempleofJupiterStatorbyHermodorusinthe
PorticoofMetellus,andtheMariantempleofHonourandValour
constructedbyMucius,whichhasnoporticointherear.
[Illustration:THECLASSIFICATIONOFTEMPLESACCORDINGTOTHE
ARRANGEMENTSOFTHECOLONNADES]
[Illustration:THEHYPAETHRALTEMPLEOFVITRUVIUSCOMPAREDWITHTHE
PARTHENONANDTHETEMPLEOFAPOLLONEARMILETUS]
6.Thepseudodipteralissoconstructedthatinfrontandintherear
thereareineachcaseeightcolumns,withfifteenoneachside,
includingthecornercolumns.Thewallsofthecellainfrontandinthe
rearshouldbedirectlyoveragainstthefourmiddlecolumns.Thusthere
willbeaspace,thewidthoftwointercolumniationsplusthethickness
ofthelowerdiameterofacolumn,allroundbetweenthewallsandthe
rowsofcolumnsontheoutside.ThereisnoexampleofthisinRome,but
atMagnesiathereisthetempleofDianabyHermogenes,andthatof
ApolloatAlabandabyMnesthes.
7.Thedipteralalsoisoctastyleinbothfrontandrearporticoes,but
ithastworowsofcolumnsallroundthetemple,likethetempleof
Quirinus,whichisDoric,andthetempleofDianaatEphesus,plannedby
Chersiphron,whichisIonic.
8.Thehypaethralisdecastyleinbothfrontandrearporticoes.In
everythingelseitisthesameasthedipteral,butinsideithastwo
tiersofcolumnssetoutfromthewallallround,likethecolonnadeof
aperistyle.Thecentralpartisopentothesky,withoutaroof.
Foldingdoorsleadtoitateachend,intheporticoesinfrontandin
therear.ThereisnoexampleofthissortinRome,butinAthensthere
istheoctastyleintheprecinctoftheOlympian.

CHAPTERIII
THEPROPORTIONSOFINTERCOLUMNIATIONSANDOFCOLUMNS
1.Therearefiveclassesoftemples,designatedasfollows:pycnostyle,
withthecolumnsclosetogether;systyle,withtheintercolumniationsa
littlewider;diastyle,moreopenstill;araeostyle,fartherapartthan
theyoughttobe;eustyle,withtheintervalsapportionedjustright.
[Illustration:THECLASSIFICATIONOFTEMPLESACCORDINGTO
INTERCOLUMNIATION]

2.Thepycnostyleisatempleinanintercolumniationofwhichthe
thicknessofacolumnandahalfcanbeinserted:forexample,the
templeoftheDivineCaesar,thatofVenusinCaesar'sforum,andothers
constructedlikethem.Thesystyleisatempleinwhichthethickness
oftwocolumnscanbeplacedinanintercolumniation,andinwhichthe
plinthsofthebasesareequivalenttothedistancebetweentwoplinths:
forexample,thetempleofEquestrianFortunenearthestonetheatre,
andtheotherswhichareconstructedonthesameprinciples.
3.Thesetwokindshavepracticaldisadvantages.Whenthematronsmount
thestepsforpublicprayerorthanksgiving,theycannotpassthrough
theintercolumniationswiththeirarmsaboutoneanother,butmustform
singlefile;thenagain,theeffectofthefoldingdoorsisthrustout
ofsightbythecrowdingofthecolumns,andlikewisethestatuesare
thrownintoshadow;thenarrowspaceinterferesalsowithwalksround
thetemple.
4.Theconstructionwillbediastylewhenwecaninsertthethicknessof
threecolumnsinanintercolumniation,asinthecaseofthetempleof
ApolloandDiana.Thisarrangementinvolvesthedangerthatthe
architravesmaybreakonaccountofthegreatwidthoftheintervals.
5.Inaraeostyleswecannotemploystoneormarbleforthearchitraves,
butmusthaveaseriesofwoodenbeamslaiduponthecolumns.And
moreover,inappearancethesetemplesareclumsyroofed,low,broad,and
theirpedimentsareadornedintheTuscanfashionwithstatuesof
terracottaorgiltbronze:forexample,neartheCircusMaximus,the
templeofCeresandPompey'stempleofHercules;alsothetempleonthe
Capitol.
6.Anaccountmustnowbegivenoftheeustyle,whichisthemost
approvedclass,andisarrangedonprinciplesdevelopedwithaviewto
convenience,beauty,andstrength.Theintervalsshouldbemadeaswide
asthethicknessoftwocolumnsandaquarter,butthemiddle
intercolumniations,oneinfrontandtheotherintherear,shouldbeof
thethicknessofthreecolumns.Thusbuilt,theeffectofthedesign
willbebeautiful,therewillbenoobstructionattheentrance,andthe
walkroundthecellawillbedignified.
[Illustration:THEEUSTYLETEMPLEOFVITRUVIUSCOMPAREDWITHTHETEMPLE
OFTEOS]
7.Theruleofthisarrangementmaybesetforthasfollows.Ifa
tetrastyleistobebuilt,letthewidthofthefrontwhichshallhave
alreadybeendeterminedforthetemple,bedividedintoelevenpartsand
ahalf,notincludingthesubstructuresandtheprojectionsofthe
bases;ifitistobeofsixcolumns,intoeighteenparts.Ifan
octastyleistobeconstructed,letthefrontbedividedinto
twentyfourpartsandahalf.Then,whetherthetempleistobe
tetrastyle,hexastyle,oroctastyle,letoneofthesepartsbetaken,
anditwillbethemodule.Thethicknessofthecolumnswillbeequalto
onemodule.Eachoftheintercolumniations,exceptthoseinthemiddle,
willmeasuretwomodulesandaquarter.Themiddleintercolumniationsin
frontandintherearwilleachmeasurethreemodules.Thecolumns
themselveswillbeninemodulesandahalfinheight.Asaresultof
thisdivision,theintercolumniationsandtheheightsofthecolumns
willbeindueproportion.
8.WehavenoexampleofthisinRome,butatTeosinAsiaMinorthere
isonewhichishexastyle,dedicatedtoFatherBacchus.
TheserulesforsymmetrywereestablishedbyHermogenes,whowasalso
thefirsttodevisetheprincipleofthepseudodipteraloctastyle.He
didsobydispensingwiththeinnerrowsofthirtyeightcolumnswhich
belongedtothesymmetryofthedipteraltemple,andinthiswayhemade
asavinginexpenseandlabour.Hethusprovidedamuchwiderspacefor
thewalkroundthecellabetweenitandthecolumns,andwithout
detractingatallfromthegeneraleffect,ormakingonefeeltheloss
ofwhathadbeenreallysuperfluous,hepreservedthedignityofthe

wholeworkbyhisnewtreatmentofit.
9.Fortheideaofthepteromaandthearrangementofthecolumnsround
atempleweredevisedinorderthattheintercolumniationsmightgive
theimposingeffectofhighrelief;andalso,incaseamultitudeof
peopleshouldbecaughtinaheavyshoweranddetained,thattheymight
haveinthetempleandroundthecellaawidefreespaceinwhichto
wait.Theseideasaredeveloped,asIhavedescribed,inthe
pseudodipteralarrangementofatemple.Itappears,therefore,that
Hermogenesproducedresultswhichexhibitmuchacuteingenuity,and
thatheleftsourcesfromwhichthosewhocameafterhimcouldderive
instructiveprinciples.
[Illustration:VITRUVIUS'RULESFORTHEDIAMETERANDHEIGHTOFCOLUMNS
INTHEDIFFERENTCLASSESOFTEMPLECOMPAREDWITHACTUALEXAMPLES]
10.Inaraeostyletemples,thecolumnsshouldbeconstructedsothat
theirthicknessisoneeighthpartoftheirheight.Inthediastyle,the
heightofacolumnshouldbemeasuredoffintoeightandahalfparts,
andthethicknessofthecolumnfixedatoneoftheseparts.Inthe
systyle,lettheheightbedividedintonineandahalfparts,andone
ofthesegiventothethicknessofthecolumn.Inthepycnostyle,the
heightshouldbedividedintotenparts,andoneoftheseusedforthe
thicknessofthecolumn.Intheeustyletemple,lettheheightofa
columnbedivided,asinthesystyle,intonineandahalfparts,and
letonepartbetakenforthethicknessatthebottomoftheshaft.With
thesedimensionsweshallbetakingintoaccounttheproportionsofthe
intercolumniations.
11.Forthethicknessoftheshaftsmustbeenlargedinproportionto
theincreaseofthedistancebetweenthecolumns.Inthearaeostyle,for
instance,ifonlyaninthortenthpartisgiventothethickness,the
columnwilllookthinandmean,becausethewidthofthe
intercolumniationsissuchthattheairseemstoeatawayanddiminish
thethicknessofsuchshafts.Ontheotherhand,inpycnostyles,ifan
eighthpartisgiventothethickness,itwillmaketheshaftlook
swollenandungraceful,becausetheintercolumniationsaresocloseto
eachotherandsonarrow.Wemustthereforefollowtherulesofsymmetry
requiredbyeachkindofbuilding.Then,too,thecolumnsatthecorners
shouldbemadethickerthantheothersbyafiftiethoftheirown
diameter,becausetheyaresharplyoutlinedbytheunobstructedair
roundthem,andseemtothebeholdermoreslenderthantheyare.Hence,
wemustcounteracttheoculardeceptionbyanadjustmentofproportions.
[Illustration:THEDIMINUTIONOFCOLUMNSINRELATIONTOTHEIRDIMENSIONS
OFHEIGHT]
12.Moreover,thediminutioninthetopofacolumnattheneckingseems
toberegulatedonthefollowingprinciples:ifacolumnisfifteenfeet
orunder,letthethicknessatthebottombedividedintosixparts,
andletfiveofthosepartsformthethicknessatthetop.Ifitisfrom
fifteenfeettotwentyfeet,letthebottomoftheshaftbedividedinto
sixandahalfparts,andletfiveandahalfofthosepartsbethe
upperthicknessofthecolumn.Inacolumnoffromtwentyfeettothirty
feet,letthebottomoftheshaftbedividedintosevenparts,andlet
thediminishedtopmeasuresixofthese.Acolumnoffromthirtyto
fortyfeetshouldbedividedatthebottomintosevenandahalfparts,
and,ontheprincipleofdiminution,havesixandahalfoftheseatthe
top.Columnsoffromfortyfeettofiftyshouldbedividedintoeight
parts,anddiminishtosevenoftheseatthetopoftheshaftunderthe
capital.Inthecaseofhighercolumns,letthediminutionbedetermined
proportionally,onthesameprinciples.
13.Theseproportionateenlargementsaremadeinthethicknessof
columnsonaccountofthedifferentheightstowhichtheeyehasto
climb.Fortheeyeisalwaysinsearchofbeauty,andifwedonot
gratifyitsdesireforpleasurebyaproportionateenlargementinthese
measures,andthusmakecompensationforoculardeception,aclumsyand
awkwardappearancewillbepresentedtothebeholder.Withregardtothe

enlargementmadeatthemiddleofcolumns,whichamongtheGreeksis
called[Greek:entasis],attheendofthebookafigureandcalculation
willbesubjoined,showinghowanagreeableandappropriateeffectmay
beproducedbyit.

CHAPTERIV
THEFOUNDATIONSANDSUBSTRUCTURESOFTEMPLES
1.Thefoundationsoftheseworksshouldbedugoutofthesolidground,
ifitcanbefound,andcarrieddownintosolidgroundasfarasthe
magnitudeoftheworkshallseemtorequire,andthewholesubstructure
shouldbeassolidasitcanpossiblybelaid.Aboveground,letwalls
belaidunderthecolumns,thickerbyonehalfthanthecolumnsareto
be,sothatthelowermaybestrongerthanthehigher.Hencetheyare
called"stereobates";fortheytaketheload.Andtheprojectionsofthe
basesshouldnotextendbeyondthissolidfoundation.Thewallthickness
issimilarlytobepreservedabovegroundlikewise,andtheintervals
betweenthesewallsshouldbevaultedover,orfilledwithearthrammed
downhard,tokeepthewallswellapart.
[Illustration:THEENTASISOFCOLUMNS
1.TheentasisasgivenbyFraGiocondointheeditionof1511.
2.TheentasisfromthetempleofMarsUltorinRomecomparedwith
Vignola'sruleforentasis.]
2.If,however,solidgroundcannotbefound,buttheplaceprovestobe
nothingbutaheapoflooseearthtotheverybottom,oramarsh,then
itmustbedugupandclearedoutandsetwithpilesmadeofcharred
alderorolivewoodoroak,andthesemustbedrivendownbymachinery,
verycloselytogetherlikebridgepiles,andtheintervalsbetweenthem
filledinwithcharcoal,andfinallythefoundationsaretobelaidon
theminthemostsolidformofconstruction.Thefoundationshavingbeen
broughtuptothelevel,thestylobatesarenexttobeputinplace.
3.Thecolumnsarethentobedistributedoverthestylobatesinthe
mannerabovedescribed:closetogetherinthepycnostyle;inthe
systyle,diastyle,oreustyle,astheyaredescribedandarrangedabove.
Inaraeostyletemplesoneisfreetoarrangethemasfarapartasone
likes.Still,inperipterals,thecolumnsshouldbesoplacedthatthere
aretwiceasmanyintercolumniationsonthesidesasthereareinfront;
forthusthelengthoftheworkwillbetwiceitsbreadth.Thosewho
makethenumberofcolumnsdouble,seemtobeinerror,becausethenthe
lengthseemstobeoneintercolumniationlongerthanitoughttobe.
4.Thestepsinfrontmustbearrangedsothatthereshallalwaysbean
oddnumberofthem;forthustherightfoot,withwhichonemountsthe
firststep,willalsobethefirsttoreachthelevelofthetemple
itself.Theriseofsuchstepsshould,Ithink,belimitedtonotmore
thantennorlessthannineinches;forthentheascentwillnotbe
difficult.Thetreadsofthestepsoughttobemadenotlessthanafoot
andahalf,andnotmorethantwofeetdeep.Iftherearetobesteps
runningallroundthetemple,theyshouldbebuiltofthesamesize.
5.Butifapodiumistobebuiltonthreesidesroundthetemple,it
shouldbesoconstructedthatitsplinths,bases,dies,coronae,and
cymatiumareappropriatetotheactualstylobatewhichistobeunderthe
basesofthecolumns.
[Illustration:FRAGIOCONDO'SIDEAOFTHE"SCAMILLIIMPARES"
(FromhiseditionofVitruvius,Venice,1511)]

Thelevelofthestylobatemustbeincreasedalongthemiddlebythe
scamilliimpares;forifitislaidperfectlylevel,itwilllooktothe
eyeasthoughitwerehollowedalittle.Attheendofthebookafigure
willbefound,withadescriptionshowinghowthescamillimaybemade
tosuitthispurpose.

CHAPTERV
PROPORTIONSOFTHEBASE,CAPITALS,ANDENTABLATUREINTHEIONICORDER
1.Thisfinished,letthebasesofthecolumnsbesetinplace,and
constructedinsuchproportionsthattheirheight,includingtheplinth,
maybehalfthethicknessofacolumn,andtheirprojection(calledin
Greek[Greek:ekphora])thesame.[1]Thusinbothlengthandbreadthit
willbeoneandonehalfthicknessesofacolumn.
[Note1:Reading_aequetantam_asinnew_Rose._Codd._sextantem;_
Schn._quadrantem._]
2.IfthebaseistobeintheAtticstyle,letitsheightbesodivided
thattheupperpartshallbeonethirdpartofthethicknessofthe
column,andtherestleftfortheplinth.Then,excludingtheplinth,
lettherestbedividedintofourparts,andoftheseletonefourth
constitutetheuppertorus,andlettheotherthreebedividedequally,
onepartcomposingthelowertorus,andtheother,withitsfillets,the
scotia,whichtheGreekscall[Greek:trochilos].
3.ButifIonicbasesaretobebuilt,theirproportionsshallbeso
determinedthatthebasemaybeeachwayequalinbreadthtothe
thicknessofacolumnplusthreeeighthsofthethickness;itsheight
thatoftheAtticbase,andsotooitsplinth;excludingtheplinth,let
therest,whichwillbeathirdpartofthethicknessofacolumn,be
dividedintosevenparts.Threeofthesepartsconstitutethetorusat
thetop,andtheotherfouraretobedividedequally,onepart
constitutingtheuppertrochiluswithitsastragalsandoverhang,the
otherleftforthelowertrochilus.Butthelowerwillseemtobe
larger,becauseitwillprojecttotheedgeoftheplinth.Theastragals
mustbeoneeighthofthetrochilus.Theprojectionofthebasewillbe
threesixteenthsofthethicknessofacolumn.
[Illustration:THEIONICORDERACCORDINGTOVITRUVIUSCOMPAREDWITHTHE
ORDEROFTHEMAUSOLEUMATHALICARNASSUS
ThedifferencebetweentheRomanandtheGreekrelationofthe
balustersideofthecapitaltotheechinusistobenoted.]
4.Thebasesbeingthusfinishedandputinplace,thecolumnsaretobe
putinplace:themiddlecolumnsofthefrontandrearporticoes
perpendiculartotheirowncentre;thecornercolumns,andthosewhich
aretoextendinalinefromthemalongthesidesofthetempletothe
rightandleft,aretobesetsothattheirinnersides,whichface
towardthecellawall,areperpendicular,buttheiroutersidesinthe
mannerwhichIhavedescribedinspeakingoftheirdiminution.Thus,in
thedesignofthetemplethelineswillbeadjustedwithdueregardto
thediminution.
5.Theshaftsofthecolumnshavingbeenerected,theruleforthe
capitalswillbeasfollows.Iftheyaretobecushionshaped,they
shouldbesoproportionedthattheabacusisinlengthandbreadth
equivalenttothethicknessoftheshaftatitsbottomplusone
eighteenththereof,andtheheightofthecapital,includingthe
volutes,onehalfofthatamount.Thefacesofthevolutesmustrecede
fromtheedgeoftheabacusinwardsbyoneandahalfeighteenthsof
thatsameamount.Then,theheightofthecapitalistobedividedinto
nineandahalfparts,anddownalongtheabacusonthefoursidesof

thevolutes,downalongthefilletattheedgeoftheabacus,lines
called"catheti"aretobeletfall.Then,ofthenineandahalfparts
letoneandahalfbereservedfortheheightoftheabacus,andletthe
othereightbeusedforthevolutes.
6.Thenletanotherlinebedrawn,beginningatapointsituatedata
distanceofoneandahalfpartstowardtheinsidefromtheline
previouslyletfalldownalongtheedgeoftheabacus.Next,letthese
linesbedividedinsuchawayastoleavefourandahalfpartsunder
theabacus;then,atthepointwhichformsthedivisionbetweenthefour
andahalfpartsandtheremainingthreeandahalf,fixthecentreof
theeye,andfromthatcentredescribeacirclewithadiameterequalto
oneoftheeightparts.Thiswillbethesizeoftheeye,andinitdraw
adiameteronthelineofthe"cathetus."Then,indescribingthe
quadrants,letthesizeofeachbesuccessivelyless,byhalfthe
diameteroftheeye,thanthatwhichbeginsundertheabacus,and
proceedfromtheeyeuntilthatsamequadrantundertheabacusis
reached.
7.Theheightofthecapitalistobesuchthat,ofthenineandahalf
parts,threepartsarebelowtheleveloftheastragalatthetopofthe
shaft,andtherest,omittingtheabacusandthechannel,belongsto
itsechinus.Theprojectionoftheechinusbeyondthefilletofthe
abacusshouldbeequaltothesizeoftheeye.Theprojectionofthe
bandsofthecushionsshouldbethusobtained:placeonelegofapair
ofcompassesinthecentreofthecapitalandopenouttheothertothe
edgeoftheechinus;bringthislegroundanditwilltouchtheouter
edgeofthebands.Theaxesofthevolutesshouldnotbethickerthan
thesizeoftheeye,andthevolutesthemselvesshouldbechannelledout
toadepthwhichisonetwelfthoftheirheight.Thesewillbethe
symmetricalproportionsforcapitalsofcolumnstwentyfivefeethigh
andless.Forhighercolumnstheotherproportionswillbethesame,but
thelengthandbreadthoftheabacuswillbethethicknessofthelower
diameterofacolumnplusoneninthpartthereof;thus,justasthe
higherthecolumnthelessthediminution,sotheprojectionofits
capitalisproportionatelyincreasedanditsbreadth[2]is
correspondinglyenlarged.
[Note2:Codd._altitudo_.]
8.Withregardtothemethodofdescribingvolutes,attheendofthe
bookafigurewillbesubjoinedandacalculationshowinghowtheymay
bedescribedsothattheirspiralsmaybetruetothecompass.
Thecapitalshavingbeenfinishedandsetupindueproportiontothe
columns(notexactlylevelonthecolumns,however,butwiththesame
measuredadjustment,sothatintheuppermemberstheremaybean
increasecorrespondingtothatwhichwasmadeinthestylobates),the
ruleforthearchitravesistobeasfollows.Ifthecolumnsareat
leasttwelvefeetandnotmorethanfifteenfeethigh,lettheheightof
thearchitravebeequaltohalfthethicknessofacolumnatthebottom.
Iftheyarefromfifteenfeettotwenty,lettheheightofacolumnbe
measuredoffintothirteenparts,andletoneofthesebetheheightof
thearchitrave.Iftheyarefromtwentytotwentyfivefeet,letthis
heightbedividedintotwelveandonehalfparts,andletoneofthem
formtheheightofthearchitrave.Iftheyarefromtwentyfivefeetto
thirty,letitbedividedintotwelveparts,andletoneofthemform
theheight.Iftheyarehigher,theheightsofthearchitravesaretobe
workedoutproportionatelyinthesamemannerfromtheheightofthe
columns.
9.Forthehigherthattheeyehastoclimb,thelesseasilycanitmake
itswaythroughthethickerandthickermassofair.Soitfailswhen
theheightisgreat,itsstrengthissuckedoutofit,anditconveysto
themindonlyaconfusedestimateofthedimensions.Hencetheremust
alwaysbeacorrespondingincreaseinthesymmetricalproportionsofthe
members,sothatwhetherthebuildingsareonunusuallyloftysitesor
arethemselvessomewhatcolossal,thesizeofthepartsmayseemindue
proportion.Thedepthofthearchitraveonitsundersidejustabovethe

capital,istobeequivalenttothethicknessofthetopofthecolumn
justunderthecapital,andonitsuppermostsideequivalenttothefoot
oftheshaft.
10.Thecymatiumofthearchitraveshouldbeoneseventhoftheheight
ofthewholearchitrave,anditsprojectionthesame.Omittingthe
cymatium,therestofthearchitraveistobedividedintotwelveparts,
andthreeofthesewillformthelowestfascia,four,thenext,and
five,thehighestfascia.Thefrieze,abovethearchitrave,isone
fourthlesshighthanthearchitrave,butiftherearetobereliefs
uponit,itisonefourthhigherthanthearchitrave,sothatthe
sculpturesmaybemoreimposing.Itscymatiumisoneseventhofthe
wholeheightofthefrieze,andtheprojectionofthecymatiumisthe
sameasitsheight.
11.Overthefriezecomesthelineofdentils,madeofthesameheight
asthemiddlefasciaofthearchitraveandwithaprojectionequalto
theirheight.Theintersection(orinGreek[Greek:metope])is
apportionedsothatthefaceofeachdentilishalfaswideasits
heightandthecavityofeachintersectiontwothirdsofthisfacein
width.Thecymatiumhereisonesixthofthewholeheightofthispart.
Thecoronawithitscymatium,butnotincludingthesima,hastheheight
ofthemiddlefasciaofthearchitrave,andthetotalprojectionofthe
coronaanddentilsshouldbeequaltotheheightfromthefriezetothe
cymatiumatthetopofthecorona.
[Illustration:ACOMPARISONOFTHEIONICORDERACCORDINGTOVITRUVIUS
WITHACTUALEXAMPLESANDWITHVIGNOLA'SORDER
A:Showingtheordersreducedtoequallowerdiameters.B:Showingthe
orderstoauniformscale.]
Andasageneralrule,allprojectingpartshavegreaterbeautywhen
theirprojectionisequaltotheirheight.
12.Theheightofthetympanum,whichisinthepediment,istobe
obtainedthus:letthefrontofthecorona,fromthetwoendsofits
cymatium,bemeasuredoffintonineparts,andletoneofthesepartsbe
setupinthemiddleatthepeakofthetympanum,takingcarethatitis
perpendiculartotheentablatureandtheneckingsofthecolumns.The
coronaeoverthetympanumaretobemadeofequalsizewiththecoronae
underit,notincludingthesimae.Abovethecoronaearethesimae(in
Greek[Greek:epaietides]),whichshouldbemadeoneeighthhigherthan
theheightofthecoronae.Theacroteriaatthecornershavetheheight
ofthecentreofthetympanum,andthoseinthemiddleareoneeighth
parthigherthanthoseatthecorners.
13.Allthememberswhicharetobeabovethecapitalsofthecolumns,
thatis,architraves,friezes,coronae,tympana,gables,andacroteria,
shouldbeinclinedtothefrontatwelfthpartoftheirownheight,for
thereasonthatwhenwestandinfrontofthem,iftwolinesaredrawn
fromtheeye,onereachingtothebottomofthebuildingandtheother
tothetop,thatwhichreachestothetopwillbethelonger.Hence,as
thelineofsighttotheupperpartisthelonger,itmakesthatpart
lookasifitwereleaningback.Butwhenthemembersareinclinedto
thefront,asdescribedabove,theywillseemtothebeholdertobe
plumbandperpendicular.
14.Eachcolumnshouldhavetwentyfourflutes,channelledoutinsucha
waythatifacarpenter'ssquarebeplacedinthehollowofafluteand
turned,thearmwilltouchthecornersofthefilletsontherightand
left,andthetipofthesquaremaykeeptouchingsomepointinthe
concavesurfaceasitmovesthroughit.Thebreadthoftheflutesisto
beequivalenttotheenlargementinthemiddleofacolumn,whichwill
befoundinthefigure.
15.Inthesimaewhichareoverthecoronaeonthesidesofthetemple,
lion'sheadsaretobecarvedandarrangedatintervalsthus:Firstone
headismarkedoutdirectlyovertheaxisofeachcolumn,andthenthe

othersarearrangedatequaldistancesapart,andsothatthereshallbe
oneatthemiddleofeveryrooftiling.Thosethatareoverthecolumns
shouldhaveholesboredthroughthemtothegutterwhichreceivesthe
rainwaterfromthetiles,butthosebetweenthemshouldbesolid.Thus
themassofwaterthatfallsbywayofthetilesintothegutterwill
notbethrowndownalongtheintercolumniationsnordrenchpeoplewho
arepassingthroughthem,whilethelion'sheadsthatareoverthe
columnswillappeartobevomitingastheydischargestreamsofwater
fromtheirmouths.
InthisbookIhavewrittenasclearlyasIcouldonthearrangementsof
Ionictemples.InthenextIshallexplaintheproportionsofDoricand
Corinthiantemples.

BOOKIV

INTRODUCTION
1.Ihaveobserved,Emperor,thatmanyintheirtreatisesandvolumesof
commentariesonarchitecturehavenotpresentedthesubjectwith
wellorderedcompleteness,buthavemerelymadeabeginningandleft,as
itwere,onlydesultoryfragments.Ihavethereforethoughtthatit
wouldbeaworthyandveryusefulthingtoreducethewholeofthis
greatarttoacompleteandorderlyformofpresentation,andthenin
differentbookstolaydownandexplaintherequiredcharacteristicsof
differentdepartments.Hence,Caesar,inmyfirstbookIhavesetforth
toyouthefunctionofthearchitectandthethingsinwhichheoughtto
betrained.InthesecondIhavediscussedthesuppliesofmaterialof
whichbuildingsareconstructed.Inthethird,whichdealswiththe
arrangementsoftemplesandtheirvarietyofform,Ishowedthenature
andnumberoftheirclasses,withtheadjustmentspropertoeachform
accordingtotheusageoftheIonicorder,oneofthethreewhich
exhibitthegreatestdelicacyofproportionintheirsymmetrical
measurements.InthepresentbookIshallspeakoftheestablishedrules
fortheDoricandCorinthianorders,andshallexplaintheirdifferences
andpeculiarities.

CHAPTERI
THEORIGINSOFTHETHREEORDERS,ANDTHEPROPORTIONSOFTHECORINTHIAN
CAPITAL
1.Corinthiancolumnsare,exceptingintheircapitals,ofthesame
proportionsinallrespectsasIonic;buttheheightoftheircapitals
givesthemproportionatelyatallerandmoreslendereffect.Thisis
becausetheheightoftheIoniccapitalisonlyonethirdofthe
thicknessofthecolumn,whilethatoftheCorinthianistheentire
thicknessoftheshaft.Hence,astwothirdsareaddedinCorinthian
capitals,theirtallnessgivesamoreslenderappearancetothecolumns
themselves.
2.Theothermemberswhichareplacedabovethecolumns,are,for
Corinthiancolumns,composedeitheroftheDoricproportionsor
accordingtotheIonicusages;fortheCorinthianorderneverhadany
schemepeculiartoitselfforitscornicesorotherornaments,butmay
havemutulesinthecoronaeandguttaeonthearchitravesaccordingto
thetriglyphsystemoftheDoricstyle,or,accordingtoIonic
practices,itmaybearrangedwithafriezeadornedwithsculpturesand

accompaniedwithdentilsandcoronae.
3.Thusathirdarchitecturalorder,distinguishedbyitscapital,was
producedoutofthetwootherorders.Totheformsoftheircolumnsare
duethenamesofthethreeorders,Doric,Ionic,andCorinthian,of
whichtheDoricwasthefirsttoarise,andinearlytimes.ForDorus,
thesonofHellenandthenymphPhthia,waskingofAchaeaandallthe
Peloponnesus,andhebuiltafane,whichchancedtobeofthisorder,in
theprecinctofJunoatArgolis,averyancientcity,andsubsequently
othersofthesameorderintheothercitiesofAchaea,althoughthe
rulesofsymmetrywerenotyetinexistence.
4.Later,theAthenians,inobediencetooraclesoftheDelphicApollo,
andwiththegeneralagreementofallHellas,despatchedthirteen
coloniesatonetimetoAsiaMinor,appointingleadersforeachcolony
andgivingthecommandinchieftoIon,sonofXuthusandCreusa(whom
furtherApolloatDelphiintheoracleshadacknowledgedashisson).
IonconductedthosecoloniestoAsiaMinor,tookpossessionoftheland
ofCaria,andtherefoundedthegrandcitiesofEphesus,Miletus,Myus
(longagoengulfedbythewater,anditssacredritesandsuffrage
handedoverbytheIonianstotheMilesians),Priene,Samos,Teos,
Colophon,Chius,Erythrae,Phocaea,Clazomenae,Lebedos,andMelite.
ThisMelite,onaccountofthearroganceofitscitizens,wasdestroyed
bytheothercitiesinawardeclaredbygeneralagreement,andinits
place,throughthekindnessofKingAttalusandArsinoe,thecityofthe
SmyrnaeanswasadmittedamongtheIonians.
5.Nowthesecities,afterdrivingouttheCariansandLelegans,called
thatpartoftheworldIoniafromtheirleaderIon,andtheretheyset
offprecinctsfortheimmortalgodsandbegantobuildfanes:firstof
all,atempletoPanionionApollosuchastheyhadseeninAchaea,
callingitDoricbecausetheyhadfirstseenthatkindoftemplebuilt
inthestatesoftheDorians.
6.Wishingtosetupcolumnsinthattemple,butnothavingrulesfor
theirsymmetry,andbeinginsearchofsomewaybywhichtheycould
renderthemfittobearaloadandalsoofasatisfactorybeautyof
appearance,theymeasuredtheimprintofaman'sfootandcomparedthis
withhisheight.Onfindingthat,inaman,thefootwasonesixthof
theheight,theyappliedthesameprincipletothecolumn,andreared
theshaft,includingthecapital,toaheightsixtimesitsthicknessat
itsbase.ThustheDoriccolumn,asusedinbuildings,begantoexhibit
theproportions,strength,andbeautyofthebodyofaman.
7.Justsoafterwards,whentheydesiredtoconstructatempletoDiana
inanewstyleofbeauty,theytranslatedthesefootprintsintoterms
characteristicoftheslendernessofwomen,andthusfirstmadeacolumn
thethicknessofwhichwasonlyoneeighthofitsheight,sothatit
mighthaveatallerlook.Atthefoottheysubstitutedthebasein
placeofashoe;inthecapitaltheyplacedthevolutes,hangingdownat
therightandleftlikecurlyringlets,andornamenteditsfrontwith
cymatiaandwithfestoonsoffruitarrangedinplaceofhair,whilethey
broughttheflutesdownthewholeshaft,fallinglikethefoldsinthe
robeswornbymatrons.Thusintheinventionofthetwodifferentkinds
ofcolumns,theyborrowedmanlybeauty,nakedandunadorned,forthe
one,andfortheotherthedelicacy,adornment,andproportions
characteristicofwomen.
8.Itistruethatposterity,havingmadeprogressinrefinementand
delicacyoffeeling,andfindingpleasureinmoreslenderproportions,
hasestablishedsevendiametersofthethicknessastheheightofthe
Doriccolumn,andnineasthatoftheIonic.TheIonians,however,
originatedtheorderwhichisthereforenamedIonic.
Thethirdorder,calledCorinthian,isanimitationoftheslenderness
ofamaiden;fortheoutlinesandlimbsofmaidens,beingmoreslender
onaccountoftheirtenderyears,admitofprettiereffectsintheway
ofadornment.

9.Itisrelatedthattheoriginaldiscoveryofthisformofcapitalwas
asfollows.AfreebornmaidenofCorinth,justofmarriageableage,was
attackedbyanillnessandpassedaway.Afterherburial,hernurse,
collectingafewlittlethingswhichusedtogivethegirlpleasure
whileshewasalive,puttheminabasket,carriedittothetomb,and
laiditontopthereof,coveringitwitharooftilesothatthethings
mightlastlongerintheopenair.Thisbaskethappenedtobeplaced
justabovetherootofanacanthus.Theacanthusroot,presseddown
meanwhilethoughitwasbytheweight,whenspringtimecameroundput
forthleavesandstalksinthemiddle,andthestalks,growingupalong
thesidesofthebasket,andpressedoutbythecornersofthetile
throughthecompulsionofitsweight,wereforcedtobendintovolutes
attheouteredges.
[Illustration:Photo.Sommer
THEBASILICAATPOMPEII]
[Illustration:THECORINTHIANCAPITALOFVITRUVIUSCOMPAREDWITHTHE
MONUMENTS]
10.JustthenCallimachus,whomtheAthenianscalled[Greek:
katatexitechnos]fortherefinementanddelicacyofhisartistic
work,passedbythistombandobservedthebasketwiththetender
youngleavesgrowingroundit.Delightedwiththenovelstyleandform,
hebuiltsomecolumnsafterthatpatternfortheCorinthians,determined
theirsymmetricalproportions,andestablishedfromthattimeforththe
rulestobefollowedinfinishedworksoftheCorinthianorder.
11.Theproportionsofthiscapitalshouldbefixedasfollows.Letthe
heightofthecapital,includingitsabacus,beequivalenttothe
thicknessofthebaseofacolumn.Letthebreadthoftheabacusbe
proportionedsothatdiagonalsdrawnfromonecornerofittotheother
shallbetwicetheheightofthecapitals,whichwillgivetheproper
breadthtoeachfaceoftheabacus.Thefacesshouldcurveinwards,by
oneninthofthebreadthoftheface,fromtheoutsideedgeofthe
cornersoftheabacus.Atthebottomthecapitalshouldbeofthe
thicknessofthetopofthecolumnomittingthecongeandastragal.The
heightoftheabacusisoneseventhoftheheightofthecapital.
12.Omittingtheheightoftheabacus,lettherestbedividedinto
threeparts,ofwhichoneshouldbegiventothelowestleaf.Letthe
secondleafoccupythemiddlepartoftheheight.Ofthesameheight
shouldbethestalks,outofwhichgrowleavesprojectedsoasto
supportthevoluteswhichproceedfromthestalks,andrunouttothe
utmostcornersoftheabacus;thesmallerspiralsbetweenthemshouldbe
carvedjustundertheflowerwhichisontheabacus.Theflowersonthe
foursidesaretobemadeaslargeastheheightoftheabacus.Onthese
principlesofproportion,Corinthiancapitalswillbefinishedasthey
oughttobe.
Thereareotherkindsofcapitalssetuponthesesamecolumnsandcalled
byvariousnames,buttheyhavenopeculiaritiesofproportionofwhich
wecanspeak,norcanwerecognizefromthemanotherorderofcolumns.
Eventheirverynamesare,aswecansee,derivedwithsomechangesfrom
theCorinthian,thecushionshaped,andtheDoric,whosesymmetrical
proportionshavebeenthustransferredtodelicatesculpturesofnovel
form.

CHAPTERII
THEORNAMENTSOFTHEORDERS
1.Sincetheoriginandinventionoftheordersofcolumnshavebeen
describedabove,Ithinkitnotoutofplacetospeakinthesameway

abouttheirornaments,showinghowthesearoseandfromwhatoriginal
elementstheyweredevised.Theupperpartsofallbuildingscontain
timberworktowhichvarioustermsareapplied.Andnotonlyinits
terminologybutactuallyinitsusesitexhibitsvariety.Themainbeams
arethosewhicharelaiduponcolumns,pilasters,andantae;tiebeams
andraftersarefoundintheframing.Undertheroof,ifthespanis
prettylarge,arethecrossbeamsandstruts;ifitisofmoderate
extent,onlytheridgepole,withtheprincipalraftersextendingtothe
outeredgeoftheeaves.Overtheprincipalraftersarethepurlines,
andthenabovetheseandundertherooftilescomethecommonrafters,
extendingsofarthatthewallsarecoveredbytheirprojection.
2.Thuseachandeverydetailhasaplace,origin,andorderofitsown.
Inaccordancewiththesedetails,andstartingfromcarpenter'swork,
artistsinbuildingtemplesofstoneandmarbleimitatedthose
arrangementsintheirsculptures,believingthattheymustfollowthose
inventions.Soitwasthatsomeancientcarpenters,engagedinbuilding
somewhereorother,afterlayingthetiebeamssothattheyprojected
fromtheinsidetotheoutsideofthewalls,closedupthespacebetween
thebeams,andabovethemornamentedthecoronaeandgableswith
carpentryworkofbeautygreaterthanusual;thentheycutoffthe
projectingendsofthebeams,bringingthemintolineandflushwiththe
faceofthewalls;next,asthishadanuglylooktothem,theyfastened
boards,shapedastriglyphsarenowmade,ontheendsofthebeams,
wheretheyhadbeencutoffinfront,andpaintedthemwithbluewaxso
thatthecuttingoffoftheendsofthebeams,beingconcealed,would
notoffendtheeye.Henceitwasinimitationofthearrangementofthe
tiebeamsthatmenbegantoemploy,inDoricbuildings,thedeviceof
triglyphsandthemetopesbetweenthebeams.
3.Later,othersinotherbuildingsallowedtheprojectingprincipal
rafterstorunouttilltheywereflushwiththetriglyphs,andthen
formedtheirprojectionsintosimae.Fromthatpractice,likethe
triglyphsfromthearrangementofthetiebeams,thesystemofmutules
underthecoronaewasdevisedfromtheprojectionsoftheprincipal
rafters.Hencegenerally,inbuildingsofstoneandmarble,themutules
arecarvedwithadownwardslant,inimitationoftheprincipalrafters.
Forthesenecessarilyhaveaslantingandprojectingpositiontoletthe
waterdripdown.TheschemeoftriglyphsandmutulesinDoricbuildings
was,therefore,theimitativedevicethatIhavedescribed.
4.Itcannotbethatthetriglyphsrepresentwindows,assomehave
erroneouslysaid,sincethetriglyphsareplacedatthecornersandover
themiddleofcolumnsplaceswhere,fromthenatureofthecase,there
canbenowindowsatall.Forbuildingsarewhollydisconnectedatthe
cornersifopeningsforwindowsareleftatthosepoints.Again,ifwe
aretosupposethattherewereopenwindowswherethetriglyphsnow
stand,itwillfollow,onthesameprinciple,thatthedentilsofthe
Ionicorderhavelikewisetakentheplacesofwindows.Fortheterm
"metope"isusedoftheintervalsbetweendentilsaswellasofthose
betweentriglyphs.TheGreekscalltheseatsoftiebeamsandrafters
[Greek:opai],whileourpeoplecallthesecavitiescolumbaria
(dovecotes).Hence,thespacebetweenthetiebeams,beingthespace
betweentwo"opae,"wasnamedbythem[Greek:metope].
5.ThesystemoftriglyphsandmutuleswasinventedfortheDoricorder,
andsimilarlytheschemeofdentilsbelongstotheIonic,inwhichthere
arepropergroundsforitsuseinbuildings.Justasmutulesrepresent
theprojectionoftheprincipalrafters,sodentilsintheIonicarean
imitationoftheprojectionsofthecommonrafters.AndsoinGreek
worksnobodyeverputdentilsundermutules,asitisimpossiblethat
commonraftersshouldbeunderneathprincipalrafters.Therefore,if
thatwhichintheoriginalmustbeplacedabovetheprincipalrafters,
isputinthecopybelowthem,theresultwillbeaworkconstructedon
falseprinciples.Neitherdidtheancientsapproveoforemploymutules
ordentilsinpediments,butonlyplaincoronae,forthereasonthat
neitherprincipalnorcommonrafterstailintothefrontsofpediments,
norcantheyoverhangthem,buttheyarelaidwithaslopetowardsthe
eaves.Hencetheancientsheldthatwhatcouldnothappeninthe

originalwouldhavenovalidreasonforexistenceinthecopy.
6.Forinalltheirworkstheyproceededondefiniteprinciplesof
fitnessandinwaysderivedfromthetruthofNature.Thustheyreached
perfection,approvingonlythosethingswhich,ifchallenged,canbe
explainedongroundsofthetruth.Hence,fromthesourceswhichhave
beendescribedtheyestablishedandleftustherulesofsymmetryand
proportionforeachorder.Followingintheirsteps,Ihavespokenabove
ontheIonicandCorinthianstyles,andIshallnowbrieflyexplainthe
theoryoftheDoricanditsgeneralappearance.

CHAPTERIII
PROPORTIONSOFDORICTEMPLES
1.SomeoftheancientarchitectssaidthattheDoricorderoughtnotto
beusedfortemples,becausefaultsandincongruitieswerecausedbythe
lawsofitssymmetry.ArcesiusandPytheossaidso,aswellas
Hermogenes.He,forinstance,aftergettingtogetherasupplyofmarble
fortheconstructionofaDorictemple,changedhismindandbuiltan
IonictempletoFatherBacchuswiththesamematerials.Thisisnot
becauseitisunlovelyinappearanceororiginordignityofform,but
becausethearrangementofthetriglyphsandmetopes(lacunaria)isan
embarrassmentandinconveniencetothework.
2.Forthetriglyphsoughttobeplacedsoastocorrespondtothe
centresofthecolumns,andthemetopesbetweenthetriglyphsoughtto
beasbroadastheyarehigh.Butinviolationofthisrule,atthe
cornercolumnstriglyphsareplacedattheoutsideedgesandnot
correspondingtothecentreofthecolumns.Hencethemetopesnextto
thecornercolumnsdonotcomeoutperfectlysquare,butaretoobroad
byhalfthewidthofatriglyph.Thosewhowouldmakethemetopesall
alike,maketheoutermostintercolumniationsnarrowerbyhalfthewidth
ofatriglyph.Buttheresultisfaulty,whetheritisattainedby
broadermetopesornarrowerintercolumniations.Forthisreason,the
ancientsappeartohaveavoidedtheschemeoftheDoricorderintheir
temples.
3.However,sinceourplancallsforit,wesetitforthaswehave
receiveditfromourteachers,sothatifanybodycarestosettowork
withattentiontotheselaws,hemayfindtheproportionsstatedby
whichhecanconstructcorrectandfaultlessexamplesoftemplesinthe
Doricfashion.
LetthefrontofaDorictemple,attheplacewherethecolumnsareput
up,bedivided,ifitistobetetrastyle,intotwentysevenparts;if
hexastyle,intofortytwo.Oneofthesepartswillbethemodule(in
Greek[Greek:embates]);andthismoduleoncefixed,allthepartsof
theworkareadjustedbymeansofcalculationsbaseduponit.
4.Thethicknessofthecolumnswillbetwomodules,andtheirheight,
includingthecapitals,fourteen.Theheightofacapitalwillbeone
module,anditsbreadthtwoandonesixthmodules.Lettheheightofthe
capitalbedividedintothreeparts,ofwhichonewillformtheabacus
withitscymatium,thesecondtheechinuswithitsannulets,andthe
thirdthenecking.Thediminutionofthecolumnshouldbethesameas
describedforIoniccolumnsinthethirdbook.Theheightofthe
architrave,includingtaeniaandguttae,isonemodule,andofthe
taenia,oneseventhofamodule.Theguttae,extendingaswideasthe
triglyphsandbeneaththetaenia,shouldhangdownforonesixthofa
module,includingtheirregula.Thedepthofthearchitraveonitsunder
sideshouldanswertotheneckingatthetopofthecolumn.Abovethe
architrave,thetriglyphsandmetopesaretobeplaced:thetriglyphs
oneandonehalfmoduleshigh,andonemodulewideinfront.Theyareto
bearrangedsothatoneisplacedtocorrespondtothecentreofeach

cornerandintermediatecolumn,andtwoovereachintercolumniation
exceptthemiddleintercolumniationsofthefrontandrearporticoes,
whichhavethreeeach.Theintervalsinthemiddlebeingthusextended,
afreepassagewillbeaffordedtothosewhowouldapproachthestatues
ofthegods.
[Illustration:VITRUVIUS'DORICORDERCOMPAREDWITHTHETEMPLEATCORI
ANDTHEDORICORDEROFTHETHEATREOFMARCELLUS]
5.Thewidthofthetriglyphshouldbedividedintosixparts,andfive
ofthesemarkedoffinthemiddlebymeansoftherule,andtwohalf
partsattherightandleft.Letonepart,thatinthecentre,forma
"femur"(inGreek[Greek:meros]).Oneachsideofitarethechannels,
tobecutintofitthetipofacarpenter'ssquare,andinsuccession
theotherfemora,oneattherightandtheotherattheleftofa
channel.Totheoutsidesarerelegatedthesemichannels.Thetriglyphs
havingbeenthusarranged,letthemetopesbetweenthetriglyphsbeas
highastheyarewide,whileattheoutercornersthereshouldbe
semimetopesinserted,withthewidthofhalfamodule.
Inthesewaysalldefectswillbecorrected,whetherinmetopesor
intercolumniationsorlacunaria,asallthearrangementshavebeenmade
withuniformity.
6.Thecapitalsofeachtriglypharetomeasureonesixthofamodule.
Overthecapitalsofthetriglyphsthecoronaistobeplaced,witha
projectionoftwothirdsofamodule,andhavingaDoriccymatiumatthe
bottomandanotheratthetop.Sothecoronawithitscymatiaishalfa
moduleinheight.Setoffontheundersideofthecorona,vertically
overthetriglyphsandoverthemiddleofthemetopes,aretheviaein
straightlinesandtheguttaearrangedinrows,sixguttaebroadand
threedeep.Thespacesleft(duetothefactthatthemetopesare
broaderthanthetriglyphs)maybeleftunornamentedormayhave
thunderboltscarvedonthem.Justattheedgeofthecoronaaline
shouldbecutin,calledthescotia.Alltheotherparts,suchas
tympanaandthesimaeofthecorona,aretobeconstructedasdescribed
aboveinthecaseoftheIonicorder.
7.Suchwillbetheschemeestablishedfordiastylebuildings.Butif
thebuildingistobesystyleandmonotriglyphic,letthefrontofthe
temple,iftetrastyle,bedividedintonineteenandahalfparts;if
hexastyle,intotwentynineandahalfparts.Oneofthesepartswill
formthemoduleinaccordancewithwhichtheadjustmentsaretobemade
asabovedescribed.
8.Thus,overeachportionofthearchitravetwometopesandtwo
triglyphs[3]willbeplaced;and,inaddition,atthecornershalfa
triglyphandbesidesaspacelargeenoughforahalftriglyph.Atthe
centre,verticallyunderthegable,thereshouldberoomforthree
triglyphsandthreemetopes,inorderthatthecentreintercolumniation,
byitsgreaterwidth,maygiveampleroomforpeopletoenterthe
temple,andmaylendanimposingeffecttotheviewofthestatuesof
thegods.
[Note3:Thatis:twometopeswithatriglyphbetweenthem,andhalf
ofthetriglyphoneitherside.]
9.Thecolumnsshouldbeflutedwithtwentyflutes.Ifthesearetobe
leftplane,onlythetwentyanglesneedbemarkedoff.Butiftheyare
tobechannelledout,thecontourofthechannellingmaybedetermined
thus:drawasquarewithsidesequalinlengthtothebreadthofthe
fluting,andcentreapairofcompassesinthemiddleofthissquare.
Thendescribeacirclewithacircumferencetouchingtheanglesofthe
square,andletthechannellingshavethecontourofthesegmentformed
bythecircumferenceandthesideofthesquare.Theflutingofthe
Doriccolumnwillthusbefinishedinthestyleappropriatetoit.
10.Withregardtotheenlargementtobemadeinthecolumnatits
middle,letthedescriptiongivenforIoniccolumnsinthethirdbookbe

appliedherealsointhecaseofDoric.
SincetheexternalappearanceoftheCorinthian,Doric,andIonic
proportionshasnowbeendescribed,itisnecessarynexttoexplainthe
arrangementsofthecellaandthepronaos.

CHAPTERIV
THECELLAANDPRONAOS
1.Thelengthofatempleisadjustedsothatitswidthmaybehalfits
length,andtheactualcellaonefourthgreaterinlengththaninwidth,
includingthewallinwhichthefoldingdoorsareplaced.Letthe
remainingthreeparts,constitutingthepronaos,extendtotheantae
terminatingthewalls,whichantaeoughttobeofthesamethicknessas
thecolumns.Ifthetempleistobemorethantwentyfeetinwidth,let
twocolumnsbeplacedbetweenthetwoantae,toseparatethepteroma
fromthepronaos.Thethreeintercolumniationsbetweentheantaeandthe
columnsshouldbeclosedbylowwallsmadeofmarbleorofjoiner's
work,withdoorsinthemtoaffordpassagesintothepronaos.
2.Ifthewidthistobemorethanfortyfeet,letcolumnsbeplaced
insideandoppositetothecolumnsbetweentheantae.Theyshouldhave
thesameheightasthecolumnsinfrontofthem,buttheirthickness
shouldbeproportionatelyreduced:thus,ifthecolumnsinfrontarein
thicknessoneeighthoftheirheight,theseshouldbeonetenth;ifthe
formerareoneninthoronetenth,theseshouldbereducedinthesame
proportion.Fortheirreductionwillnotbediscernible,astheairhas
notfreeplayaboutthem.Still,incasetheylooktooslender,whenthe
outercolumnshavetwentyortwentyfourflutes,thesemayhave
twentyeightorthirtytwo.Thustheadditionalnumberoffluteswill
makeupproportionatelyforthelossinthebodyoftheshaft,
preventingitfrombeingseen,andsoinadifferentwaythecolumns
willbemadetolookequallythick.
[Illustration:VITRUVIUS'TEMPLEPLANCOMPAREDWITHACTUALEXAMPLES]
3.Thereasonforthisresultisthattheeye,touchingthusupona
greaternumberofpoints,setclosertogether,hasalargercompassto
coverwithitsrangeofvision.Foriftwocolumns,equallythickbut
oneunflutedandtheotherfluted,aremeasuredbydrawinglinesround
them,onelinetouchingthebodyofthecolumnsinthehollowsofthe
channelsandontheedgesoftheflutes,thesesurroundinglines,even
thoughthecolumnsareequallythick,willnotbeequaltoeachother,
becauseittakesalineofgreaterlengthtocompassthechannelsand
theflutes.Thisbeinggranted,itisnotimproper,innarrowquarters
orwherethespaceisenclosed,touseinabuildingcolumnsofsomewhat
slenderproportions,sincewecanhelpoutbyadulyproportionate
numberofflutings.
4.Thewallsofthecellaitselfshouldbethickinproportiontoits
size,providedthattheirantaearekeptofthesamethicknessasthe
columns.Ifthewallsaretobeofmasonry,lettherubbleusedbeas
smallaspossible;butiftheyaretobeofdimensionstoneormarble,
thematerialoughttobeofaverymoderateanduniformsize;forthe
layingofthestonessoastobreakjointswillmakethewholework
stronger,andtheirbevellededges,standingupaboutthebuildsand
beds,willgiveitanagreeablelook,somewhatlikethatofapicture.

CHAPTERV
HOWTHETEMPLESHOULDFACE

1.Thequartertowardwhichtemplesoftheimmortalgodsoughttoface
istobedeterminedontheprinciplethat,ifthereisnoreasonto
hinderandthechoiceisfree,thetempleandthestatueplacedinthe
cellashouldfacethewesternquarterofthesky.Thiswillenablethose
whoapproachthealtarwithofferingsorsacrificestofacethe
directionofthesunriseinfacingthestatueinthetemple,andthus
thosewhoareundertakingvowslooktowardthequarterfromwhichthe
suncomesforth,andlikewisethestatuesthemselvesappeartobecoming
forthoutoftheeasttolookuponthemastheyprayandsacrifice.
2.Butifthenatureofthesiteissuchastoforbidthis,thenthe
principleofdeterminingthequartershouldbechanged,sothatthe
widestpossibleviewofthecitymaybehadfromthesanctuariesofthe
gods.Furthermore,templesthataretobebuiltbesiderivers,asin
EgyptonbothsidesoftheNile,ought,asitseems,tofacetheriver
banks.Similarly,housesofthegodsonthesidesofpublicroadsshould
bearrangedsothatthepassersbycanhaveaviewofthemandpaytheir
devotionsfacetoface.

CHAPTERVI
THEDOORWAYSOFTEMPLES
1.Forthedoorwaysoftemplesandtheircasingstherulesareas
follows,firstdeterminingofwhatstyletheyaretobe.Thestylesof
portalsareDoric,Ionic,andAttic.
IntheDoric,thesymmetricalproportionsaredistinguishedbythe
followingrules.Letthetopofthecorona,whichislaidabovethe
casing,beonalevelwiththetopsofthecapitalsofthecolumnsin
thepronaos.Theapertureofthedoorwayshouldbedeterminedby
dividingtheheightofthetemple,fromfloortocofferedceiling,into
threeandonehalfpartsandlettingtwoandonehalf[4]thereof
constitutetheheightoftheapertureofthefoldingdoors.Letthisin
turnbedividedintotwelveparts,andletfiveandahalfoftheseform
thewidthofthebottomoftheaperture.Atthetop,thiswidthshould
bediminished,iftheapertureissixteenfeetinheight,byonethird
thewidthofthedoorjamb;iftheapertureisfromsixteento
twentyfivefeet,lettheupperpartofitbediminishedbyonequarter
ofthejamb;iffromtwentyfivetothirtyfeet,letthetopbe
diminishedbyoneeighthofthejamb.Otherandhigheraperturesshould,
asitseems,havetheirsidesperpendicular.
[Note4:Codd._duae._]
2.Further,thejambsthemselvesshouldbediminishedatthetopbyone
fourteenthoftheirwidth.Theheightofthelintelshouldbeequivalent
tothewidthofthejambsatthetop.Itscymatiumoughttobeonesixth
ofthejamb,withaprojectionequivalenttoitsheight.Thestyleof
carvingofthecymatiumwithitsastragalshouldbetheLesbian.Above
thecymatiumofthelintel,placethefriezeofthedoorway,ofthe
sameheightasthelintel,andhavingaDoriccymatiumandLesbian
astragalcarveduponit.Letthecoronaanditscymatiumatthetopof
allbecarvedwithoutornamentation,andhaveaprojectionequaltoits
height.Totherightandleftofthelintel,whichrestsuponthejambs,
therearetobeprojectionsfashionedlikeprojectingbasesandjointed
toanicetywiththecymatiumitself.
3.IfthedoorwaysaretobeoftheIonicstyle,theheightofthe
apertureshouldbereachedinthesamemannerasintheDoric.Letits
widthbedeterminedbydividingtheheightintotwoandonehalfparts
andlettingoneofthemformthewidthatthebottom.Thediminutions
shouldbethesameasforDoric.Thewidthofthefacesofthejambs

shouldbeonefourteenthoftheheightoftheaperture,andthecymatium
onesixthofthewidth.Lettherest,excludingthecymatium,bedivided
intotwelveparts.Letthreeofthesecomposethefirstfasciawithits
astragal,fourthesecond,andfivethethird,thefasciaewiththeir
astragalsrunningsidebysideallround.
4.ThecornicesofIonicdoorwaysshouldbeconstructedinthesame
mannerasthoseofDoric,indueproportions.Theconsoles,otherwise
calledbrackets,carvedattherightandleft,shouldhangdowntothe
levelofthebottomofthelintel,exclusiveoftheleaf.Theirwidthon
thefaceshouldbetwothirdsofthewidthofthejamb,butatthe
bottomonefourthslendererthanabove.
Doorsshouldbeconstructedwiththehingestilesonetwelfthofthe
widthofthewholeaperture.Thepanelsbetweentwostilesshouldeach
occupythreeofthetwelveparts.
5.Therailswillbeapportionedthus:dividetheheightintofive
parts,ofwhichassigntwototheupperportionandthreetothelower;
abovethecentreplacethemiddlerails;inserttheothersatthetop
andatthebottom.Lettheheightofarailbeonethirdofthebreadth
ofapanel,anditscymatiumonesixthoftherail.Thewidthofthe
meetingstilesshouldbeonehalftherail,andthecoverjointtwo
thirdsoftherail.Thestilestowardthesideofthejambsshouldbe
onehalftherail.Ifthedoorshavefoldsinthem,theheightwill
remainasbefore,butthewidthshouldbedoublethatofasingledoor;
ifthedooristohavefourfolds,itsheightshouldbeincreased.
[Illustration:VITRUVIUS'RULEFORDOORWAYSCOMPAREDWITHTWOEXAMPLES]
6.AtticdoorwaysarebuiltwiththesameproportionsasDoric.Besides,
therearefasciaerunningallroundunderthecymatiaonthejambs,and
apportionedsoastobeequaltothreeseventhsofajamb,excludingthe
cymatium.Thedoorsarewithoutlatticework,arenotdoublebuthave
foldsinthem,andopenoutward.
ThelawswhichshouldgovernthedesignoftemplesbuiltintheDoric,
Ionic,andCorinthianstyles,havenow,sofarasIcouldarriveat
them,beensetforthaccordingtowhatmaybecalledtheaccepted
methods.IshallnextspeakofthearrangementsintheTuscanstyle,
showinghowtheyshouldbetreated.

CHAPTERVII
TUSCANTEMPLES
1.Theplacewherethetempleistobebuilthavingbeendividedonits
lengthintosixparts,deductoneandlettherestbegiventoits
width.Thenletthelengthbedividedintotwoequalparts,ofwhichlet
theinnerbereservedasspaceforthecellae,andthepartnextthe
frontleftforthearrangementofthecolumns.
2.Nextletthewidthbedividedintotenparts.Ofthese,letthreeon
therightandthreeontheleftbegiventothesmallercellae,orto
thealaeiftherearetobealae,andtheotherfourdevotedtothe
middleofthetemple.Letthespaceinfrontofthecellae,inthe
pronaos,bemarkedoutforcolumnsthus:thecornercolumnsshouldbe
placedoppositetheantaeonthelineoftheoutsidewalls;thetwo
middlecolumns,setoutonthelineofthewallswhicharebetweenthe
antaeandthemiddleofthetemple;andthroughthemiddle,betweenthe
antaeandthefrontcolumns,asecondrow,arrangedonthesamelines.
Letthethicknessofthecolumnsatthebottombeoneseventhoftheir
height,theirheightonethirdofthewidthofthetemple,andthe
diminutionofacolumnatthetop,onefourthofitsthicknessatthe
bottom.

[Illustration:THETUSCANTEMPLEACCORDINGTOVITRUVIUS.]
3.Theheightoftheirbasesshouldbeonehalfofthatthickness.The
plinthoftheirbasesshouldbecircular,andinheightonehalfthe
heightofthebases,thetorusaboveitandcongebeingofthesame
heightastheplinth.Theheightofthecapitalisonehalfthe
thicknessofacolumn.Theabacushasawidthequivalenttothe
thicknessofthebottomofacolumn.Lettheheightofthecapitalbe
dividedintothreeparts,andgiveonetotheplinth(thatis,the
abacus),thesecondtotheechinus,andthethirdtotheneckingwith
itsconge.
4.Uponthecolumnslaythemainbeams,fastenedtogether,toaheight
commensuratewiththerequirementsofthesizeofthebuilding.These
beamsfastenedtogethershouldbelaidsoastobeequivalentin
thicknesstotheneckingatthetopofacolumn,andshouldbefastened
togetherbymeansofdowelsanddovetailedtenonsinsuchawaythat
thereshallbeaspacetwofingersbroadbetweenthematthefastening.
Foriftheytouchoneanother,andsodonotleaveairholesandadmit
draughtsofairtoblowbetweenthem,theygetheatedandsoonbeginto
rot.
5.Abovethebeamsandwallsletthemutulesprojecttoadistanceequal
toonequarteroftheheightofacolumn;alongthefrontofthemnail
casings;above,buildthetympanumofthepedimenteitherinmasonryor
inwood.Thepedimentwithitsridgepole,principalrafters,and
purlinesaretobebuiltinsuchawaythattheeavesshallbe
equivalenttoonethirdofthecompletedroof.

CHAPTERVIII
CIRCULARTEMPLESANDOTHERVARIETIES
1.Therearealsocirculartemples,someofwhichareconstructedin
monopteralform,surroundedbycolumnsbutwithoutacella,while
othersaretermedperipteral.Thosethatarewithoutacellahavea
raisedplatformandaflightofstepsleadingtoit,onethirdofthe
diameterofthetemple.Thecolumnsuponthestylobatesareconstructed
ofaheightequivalenttothediametertakenbetweentheouteredgesof
thestylobatewalls,andofathicknessequivalenttoonetenthoftheir
heightincludingthecapitalsandbases.Thearchitravehastheheight
ofonehalfofthethicknessofacolumn.Thefriezeandtheotherparts
placedaboveitaresuchasIhavedescribedinthethird[5]book,on
thesubjectofsymmetricalproportions.
[Illustration:_Photo.Anderson_
THECIRCULARTEMPLEATTIVOLI]
[Illustration:THEMAISONCARREEATNIMES,APSEUDOPERIPTERALTEMPLE]
[Note5:1Codd._quarto._]
[Illustration:TEMPLEATTIVOLI]
[Illustration:_FromDurm_
PLANOFTHETEMPLEOFVESTAATROME]
2.Butifsuchatempleistobeconstructedinperipteralform,lettwo
stepsandthenthestylobatebeconstructedbelow.Next,letthecella
wallbesetup,recessedwithinthestylobateaboutonefifthofthe
breadththereof,andletaplaceforfoldingdoorsbeleftinthemiddle
toaffordentrance.Thiscella,excludingitswallsandthepassage

roundtheoutside,shouldhaveadiameterequivalenttotheheightofa
columnabovethestylobate.Letthecolumnsroundthecellabearranged
inthesymmetricalproportionsjustgiven.
3.Theproportionsoftheroofinthecentreshouldbesuchthatthe
heightoftherotunda,excludingthefinial,isequivalenttoonehalf
thediameterofthewholework.Thefinial,excludingitspyramidal
base,shouldhavethedimensionsofthecapitalofacolumn.Allthe
restmustbebuiltinthesymmetricalproportionsdescribedabove.
[Illustration:_FromDurm_
THECIRCULARTEMPLEACCORDINGTOVITRUVIUS]
4.Therearealsootherkindsoftemples,constructedinthesame
symmetricalproportionsandyetwithadifferentkindofplan:for
example,thetempleofCastorinthedistrictoftheCircusFlaminius,
thatofVejovisbetweenthetwogroves,andstillmoreingeniouslythe
templeofDianainhersacredgrove,withcolumnsaddedontherightand
leftattheflanksofthepronaos.Templesofthiskind,likethatof
CastorintheCircus,werefirstbuiltinAthensontheAcropolis,and
inAtticaatSuniumtoPallasMinerva.Theproportionsofthemarenot
different,butthesameasusual.Forthelengthoftheircellaeis
twicethewidth,asinothertemples;butallthatweregularlyfindin
thefrontsofothersisinthesetransferredtothesides.
5.SometakethearrangementofcolumnsbelongingtotheTuscanorder
andapplyittobuildingsintheCorinthianandIonicstyles,andwhere
thereareprojectingantaeinthepronaos,setuptwocolumnsinaline
witheachofthecellawalls,thusmakingacombinationofthe
principlesofTuscanandGreekbuildings.
6.Othersactuallyremovethetemplewalls,transferringthemtothe
intercolumniations,andthus,bydispensingwiththespaceneededfora
pteroma,greatlyincreasetheextentofthecella.So,whileleavingall
therestinthesamesymmetricalproportions,theyappeartohave
producedanewkindofplanwiththenewname"pseudoperipteral."These
kinds,however,varyaccordingtotherequirementsofthesacrifices.
Forwemustnotbuildtemplesaccordingtothesamerulestoallgods
alike,sincetheperformanceofthesacredritesvarieswiththevarious
gods.
7.Ihavenowsetforth,astheyhavecomedowntome,allthe
principlesgoverningthebuildingoftemples,havemarkedoutunder
separateheadstheirarrangementsandproportions,andhavesetforth,
sofarasIcouldexpresstheminwriting,thedifferencesintheir
plansandthedistinctionswhichmakethemunlikeoneanother.Next,
withregardtothealtarsoftheimmortalgods,Ishallstatehowthey
maybeconstructedsoastoconformtotherulesgoverningsacrifices.

CHAPTERIX
ALTARS
Altarsshouldfacetheeast,andshouldalwaysbeplacedonalower
levelthanarethestatuesinthetemples,sothatthosewhoarepraying
andsacrificingmaylookupwardstowardsthedivinity.Theyareof
differentheights,beingeachregulatedsoastobeappropriatetoits
owngod.Theirheightsaretobeadjustedthus:forJupiterandallthe
celestials,letthembeconstructedashighaspossible;forVestaand
MotherEarth,letthembebuiltlow.Inaccordancewiththeserules
willaltarsbeadjustedwhenoneispreparinghisplans.
Havingdescribedthearrangementsoftemplesinthisbook,inthe
followingweshallgiveanexpositionoftheconstructionofpublic

buildings.

BOOKV

INTRODUCTION
1.Thosewhohavefilledbooksofunusuallylargesize,Emperor,in
settingforththeirintellectualideasanddoctrines,havethusmadea
verygreatandremarkableadditiontotheauthorityoftheirwritings.I
couldwishthatcircumstancesmadethisaspermissibleinthecaseof
oursubject,sothattheauthorityofthepresenttreatisemightbe
increasedbyamplifications;butthisisnotsoeasyasitmaybe
thought.Writingonarchitectureisnotlikehistoryorpoetry.History
iscaptivatingtothereaderfromitsverynature;foritholdsoutthe
hopeofvariousnovelties.Poetry,withitsmeasuresandmetricalfeet,
itsrefinementinthearrangementofwords,andthedeliveryinverseof
thesentimentsexpressedbytheseveralcharacterstooneanother,
delightsthefeelingsofthereader,andleadshimsmoothlyontothe
veryendofthework.
2.Butthiscannotbethecasewitharchitecturaltreatises,because
thosetermswhichoriginateinthepeculiarneedsoftheart,giverise
toobscurityofideasfromtheunusualnatureofthelanguage.Hence,
whilethethingsthemselvesarenotwellknown,andtheirnamesnotin
commonuse,ifbesidesthistheprinciplesaredescribedinavery
diffusefashionwithoutanyattemptatconcisenessandexplanationina
fewpellucidsentences,suchfullnessandamplitudeoftreatmentwillbe
onlyahindrance,andwillgivethereadernothingbutindefinite
notions.Therefore,whenImentionobscureterms,andthesymmetrical
proportionsofmembersofbuildings,Ishallgivebriefexplanations,so
thattheymaybecommittedtomemory;forthusexpressed,themindwill
beenabledtounderstandthemthemoreeasily.
3.Furthermore,sinceIhaveobservedthatourcitizensaredistracted
withpublicaffairsandprivatebusiness,Ihavethoughtitbestto
writebriefly,sothatmyreaders,whoseintervalsofleisurearesmall,
maybeabletocomprehendinashorttime.
Thenagain,Pythagorasandthosewhocameafterhiminhisschool
thoughtitpropertoemploytheprinciplesofthecubeincomposing
booksontheirdoctrines,and,havingdeterminedthatthecubeconsisted
of216[6]lines,heldthatthereshouldbenomorethanthreecubesin
anyonetreatise.
[Note6:Codd._CC.&L._]
4.Acubeisabodywithsidesallofequalbreadthandtheirsurfaces
perfectlysquare.Whenthrowndown,itstandsfirmandsteadysolongas
itisuntouched,nomatteronwhichofitssidesithasfallen,likethe
dicewhichplayersthrowontheboard.ThePythagoreansappeartohave
drawntheiranalogyfromthecube,becausethenumberoflinesmentioned
willbefixedfirmlyandsteadilyinthememorywhentheyhaveonce
settleddown,likeacube,uponaman'sunderstanding.TheGreekcomic
poets,also,dividedtheirplaysintopartsbyintroducingachoral
song,andbythispartitionontheprincipleofthecubes,theyrelieve
theactor'sspeechesbysuchintermissions.
5.Sincetheserules,foundedontheanalogyofnature,werefollowedby
ourpredecessors,andsinceIobservethatIhavetowriteonunusual
subjectswhichmanypersonswillfindobscure,Ihavethoughtitbestto
writeinshortbooks,sothattheymaythemorereadilystrikethe
understandingofthereader:fortheywillthusbeeasytocomprehend.I

havealsoarrangedthemsothatthoseinsearchofknowledgeona
subjectmaynothavetogatheritfromdifferentplaces,butmayfindit
inonecompletetreatment,withthevariousclassessetfortheachina
bookbyitself.Hence,Caesar,inthethirdandfourthbooksIgavethe
rulesfortemples;inthisbookIshalltreatofthelayingoutof
publicplaces.Ishallspeakfirstoftheproperarrangementofthe
forum,forinitthecourseofbothpublicandprivateaffairsis
directedbythemagistrates.

CHAPTERI
THEFORUMANDBASILICA
1.TheGreekslayouttheirforumsintheformofasquaresurroundedby
veryspaciousdoublecolonnades,adornthemwithcolumnssetrather
closelytogether,andwithentablaturesofstoneormarble,and
constructwalksaboveintheupperstory.ButinthecitiesofItalythe
samemethodcannotbefollowed,forthereasonthatitisacustom
handeddownfromourancestorsthatgladiatorialshowsshouldbegiven
intheforum.
[Illustration:_FromGsell_
FORUMATTIMGAD
A,Forum.B,Basilica.C,Curia.C',OfficialBuilding.D,SmallTemple.
E,Latrina.F,Atrium.]
2.Thereforelettheintercolumniationsroundtheshowplacebepretty
wide;roundaboutinthecolonnadesputthebankers'offices;andhave
balconiesontheupperfloorproperlyarrangedsoastobeconvenient,
andtobringinsomepublicrevenue.
Thesizeofaforumshouldbeproportionatetothenumberof
inhabitants,sothatitmaynotbetoosmallaspacetobeuseful,nor
looklikeadesertwasteforlackofpopulation.Todetermineits
breadth,divideitslengthintothreepartsandassigntwoofthemto
thebreadth.Itsshapewillthenbeoblong,anditsgroundplan
convenientlysuitedtotheconditionsofshows.
3.Thecolumnsoftheuppertiershouldbeonefourthsmallerthanthose
ofthelower,because,forthepurposeofbearingtheload,whatis
belowoughttobestrongerthanwhatisabove,andalso,becausewe
oughttoimitatenatureasseeninthecaseofthingsgrowing;for
example,inroundsmoothstemmedtrees,likethefir,cypress,andpine,
everyoneofwhichisratherthickjustabovetherootsandthen,asit
goesonincreasinginheight,tapersoffnaturallyandsymmetricallyin
growinguptothetop.Hence,ifnaturerequiresthisinthingsgrowing,
itistherightarrangementthatwhatisaboveshouldbelessinheight
andthicknessthanwhatisbelow.
4.Basilicasshouldbeconstructedonasiteadjoiningtheforumandin
thewarmestpossiblequarter,sothatinwinterbusinessmenmaygather
inthemwithoutbeingtroubledbytheweather.Inbreadththeyshouldbe
notlessthanonethirdnormorethanonehalfoftheirlength,unless
thesiteisnaturallysuchastopreventthisandtoobligean
alterationintheseproportions.Ifthelengthofthesiteisgreater
thannecessary,Chalcidianporchesmaybeconstructedattheends,asin
theJuliaAquiliana.
5.Itisthoughtthatthecolumnsofbasilicasoughttobeashighas
thesideaislesarebroad;anaisleshouldbelimitedtoonethirdof
thebreadthwhichtheopenspaceinthemiddleistohave.Letthe
columnsoftheuppertierbesmallerthanthoseofthelower,aswritten
above.Thescreen,tobeplacedbetweentheupperandthelowertiersof

columns,oughttobe,itisthought,onefourthlowerthanthecolumns
oftheuppertier,sothatpeoplewalkingintheupperstoryofthe
basilicamaynotbeseenbythebusinessmen.Thearchitraves,friezes,
andcornicesshouldbeadjustedtotheproportionsofthecolumns,as
wehavestatedinthethirdbook.
[Illustration:_FromMau_
FORUMATPOMPEII
A,Forum.B,Basilica.C,TempleofApollo.D,D',MarketBuildings.E,
Latrina.F,CityTreasury.G,MemorialArch.H,TempleofJupiter.I,
ArchofTiberius.K,Macellum(provisionmarket).L,Sanctuaryofthe
CityLares.M,TempleofVespasian.N,BuildingofEumachia.O,
Comitium.P,OfficeoftheDuumvirs.Q,TheCityCouncil.R,Officeof
theAediles.]
6.Butbasilicasofthegreatestdignityandbeautymayalsobe
constructedinthestyleofthatonewhichIerected,andthebuilding
ofwhichIsuperintendedatFano.Itsproportionsandsymmetrical
relationswereestablishedasfollows.Inthemiddle,themainroof
betweenthecolumnsis120feetlongandsixtyfeetwide.Itsaisle
roundthespacebeneaththemainroofandbetweenthewallsandthe
columnsistwentyfeetbroad.Thecolumns,ofunbrokenheight,measuring
withtheircapitalsfiftyfeet,andbeingeachfivefeetthick,have
behindthempilasters,twentyfeethigh,twoandonehalffeetbroad,
andoneandonehalffeetthick,whichsupportthebeamsonwhichis
carriedtheupperflooringoftheaisles.Abovethemareother
pilasters,eighteenfeethigh,twofeetbroad,andafootthick,which
carrythebeamssupportingtheprincipalrafteringandtheroofofthe
aisles,whichisbroughtdownlowerthanthemainroof.
[Illustration:_FromDurm_
PLANOFTHEBASILICAATPOMPEII]
7.Thespacesremainingbetweenthebeamssupportedbythepilastersand
thecolumns,areleftforwindowsbetweentheintercolumniations.The
columnsare:onthebreadthofthemainroofateachend,four,
includingthecornercolumnsatrightandleft;onthelongsidewhich
isnexttotheforum,eight,includingthesamecornercolumns;onthe
otherside,six,includingthecornercolumns.Thisisbecausethetwo
middlecolumnsonthatsideareomitted,inordernottoobstructthe
viewofthepronaosofthetempleofAugustus(whichisbuiltatthe
middleofthesidewallofthebasilica,facingthemiddleoftheforum
andthetempleofJupiter)andalsothetribunalwhichisintheformer
temple,shapedasahemicyclewhosecurvatureislessthanasemicircle.
[Illustration:VITRUVIUS'BASILICAATFANO]
8.Theopensideofthishemicycleisfortysixfeetalongthefront,
anditscurvatureinwardsisfifteenfeet,sothatthosewhoare
standingbeforethemagistratesmaynotbeinthewayofthebusiness
meninthebasilica.Roundabout,abovethecolumns,areplacedthe
architraves,consistingofthreetwofoottimbersfastenedtogether.
Thesereturnfromthecolumnswhichstandthirdontheinnersidetothe
antaewhichprojectfromthepronaos,andwhichtouchtheedgesofthe
hemicycleatrightandleft.
9.Abovethearchitravesandregularlydispersedonsupportsdirectly
overthecapitals,piersareplaced,threefeethighandfourfeetbroad
eachway.Abovethemisplacedtheprojectingcorniceroundabout,made
oftwotwofoottimbers.Thetiebeamsandstruts,beingplacedabove
them,anddirectlyovertheshaftsofthecolumnsandtheantaeand
wallsofthepronaos,holduponegableroofalongtheentirebasilica,
andanotherfromthemiddleofit,overthepronaosofthetemple.
10.Thusthegabletopsrunintwodirections,liketheletterT,and
giveabeautifuleffecttotheoutsideandinsideofthemainroof.

Further,bytheomissionofanornamentalentablatureandofalineof
screensandasecondtierofcolumns,troublesomelabourissavedand
thetotalcostgreatlydiminished.Ontheotherhand,thecarryingof
thecolumnsthemselvesinunbrokenheightdirectlyuptothebeamsthat
supportthemainroof,seemstoaddanairofsumptuousnessanddignity
tothework.

CHAPTERII
THETREASURY,PRISON,ANDSENATEHOUSE
1.Thetreasury,prison,andsenatehouseoughttoadjointheforum,but
insuchawaythattheirdimensionsmaybeproportionatetothoseofthe
forum.Particularly,thesenatehouseshouldbeconstructedwithspecial
regardtotheimportanceofthetownorcity.Ifthebuildingissquare,
letitsheightbefixedatoneandonehalftimesitsbreadth;butifit
istobeoblong,addtogetheritslengthandbreadthand,havinggotthe
total,lethalfofitbedevotedtotheheightuptothecoffered
ceiling.
2.Further,theinsidewallsshouldbegirdled,atapointhalfwayup
theirheight,withcoronaemadeofwoodworkorofstucco.Withoutthese,
thevoiceofmenengagedindiscussiontherewillbecarrieduptothe
heightabove,andsobeunintelligibletotheirlisteners.Butwhenthe
wallsaregirdledwithcoronae,thevoicefrombelow,beingdetained
beforerisingandbecominglostintheair,willbeintelligibletothe
ear.

CHAPTERIII
THETHEATRE:ITSSITE,FOUNDATIONSANDACOUSTICS
1.Aftertheforumhasbeenarranged,next,forthepurposeofseeing
playsorfestivalsoftheimmortalgods,asiteashealthyaspossible
shouldbeselectedforthetheatre,inaccordancewithwhathasbeen
writteninthefirstbook,ontheprinciplesofhealthfulnessinthe
sitesofcities.Forwhenplaysaregiven,thespectators,withtheir
wivesandchildren,sitthroughthemspellbound,andtheirbodies,
motionlessfromenjoyment,havetheporesopen,intowhichblowingwinds
findtheirway.Ifthesewindscomefrommarshydistrictsorfromother
unwholesomequarters,theywillintroducenoxiousexhalationsintothe
system.Hence,suchfaultswillbeavoidedifthesiteofthetheatreis
somewhatcarefullyselected.
2.Wemustalsobewarethatithasnotasouthernexposure.Whenthesun
shinesfullupontheroundedpartofit,theair,beingshutupinthe
curvedenclosureandunabletocirculate,staysthereandbecomes
heated;andgettingglowinghotitburnsup,driesout,andimpairsthe
fluidsofthehumanbody.Forthesereasons,siteswhichareunwholesome
insuchrespectsaretobeavoided,andhealthysitesselected.
3.Thefoundationwallswillbeaneasiermatteriftheyareona
hillside;butiftheyhavetobelaidonaplainorinamarshyplace,
soliditymustbeassuredandsubstructuresbuiltinaccordancewithwhat
hasbeenwritteninthethirdbook,onthefoundationsoftemples.Above
thefoundationwalls,theascendingrowsofseats,fromthe
substructuresup,shouldbebuiltofstoneandmarblematerials.
4.Thecurvedcrossaislesshouldbeconstructedinproportionate
relation,itisthought,totheheightofthetheatre,butnothigher
thanthefootwayofthepassageisbroad.Iftheyareloftier,theywill

throwbackthevoiceanddriveitawayfromtheupperportion,thus
preventingthecaseendingsofwordsfromreachingwithdistinctmeaning
theearsofthosewhoareintheuppermostseatsabovethecrossaisles.
Inshort,itshouldbesocontrivedthatalinedrawnfromthelowestto
thehighestseatwilltouchthetopedgesandanglesofalltheseats.
Thusthevoicewillmeetwithnoobstruction.
5.Thedifferententrancesoughttobenumerousandspacious,theupper
notconnectedwiththelower,butbuiltinacontinuousstraightline
fromallpartsofthehouse,withoutturnings,sothatthepeoplemay
notbecrowdedtogetherwhenletoutfromshows,butmayhaveseparate
exitsfromallpartswithoutobstructions.
Particularpainsmustalsobetakenthatthesitebenota"deaf"one,
butonethroughwhichthevoicecanrangewiththegreatestclearness.
Thiscanbebroughtaboutifasiteisselectedwherethereisno
obstructionduetoecho.
6.Voiceisaflowingbreathofair,perceptibletothehearingby
contact.Itmovesinanendlessnumberofcircularrounds,likethe
innumerablyincreasingcircularwaveswhichappearwhenastoneis
thrownintosmoothwater,andwhichkeeponspreadingindefinitelyfrom
thecentreunlessinterruptedbynarrowlimits,orbysomeobstruction
whichpreventssuchwavesfromreachingtheirendindueformation.When
theyareinterruptedbyobstructions,thefirstwaves,flowingback,
breakuptheformationofthosewhichfollow.
7.Inthesamemannerthevoiceexecutesitsmovementsinconcentric
circles;butwhileinthecaseofwaterthecirclesmovehorizontallyon
aplanesurface,thevoicenotonlyproceedshorizontally,butalso
ascendsverticallybyregularstages.Therefore,asinthecaseofthe
wavesformedinthewater,soitisinthecaseofthevoice:thefirst
wave,whenthereisnoobstructiontointerruptit,doesnotbreakup
thesecondorthefollowingwaves,buttheyallreachtheearsofthe
lowestandhighestspectatorswithoutanecho.
8.Hencetheancientarchitects,followinginthefootstepsofnature,
perfectedtheascendingrowsofseatsintheatresfromtheir
investigationsoftheascendingvoice,and,bymeansofthecanonical
theoryofthemathematiciansandthatofthemusicians,endeavouredto
makeeveryvoiceutteredonthestagecomewithgreaterclearnessand
sweetnesstotheearsoftheaudience.Forjustasmusicalinstruments
arebroughttoperfectionofclearnessinthesoundoftheirstringsby
meansofbronzeplatesorhorn[Greek:echeia],sotheancientsdevised
methodsofincreasingthepowerofthevoiceintheatresthroughthe
applicationofharmonics.

CHAPTERIV
HARMONICS
1.Harmonicsisanobscureanddifficultbranchofmusicalscience,
especiallyforthosewhodonotknowGreek.Ifwedesiretotreatofit,
wemustuseGreekwords,becausesomeofthemhavenoLatinequivalents.
Hence,IwillexplainitasclearlyasIcanfromthewritingsof
Aristoxenus,appendhisscheme,anddefinetheboundariesofthenotes,
sothatwithsomewhatcarefulattentionanybodymaybeableto
understanditprettyeasily.
2.Thevoice,initschangesofpositionwhenshiftingpitch,becomes
sometimeshigh,sometimeslow,anditsmovementsareoftwokinds,in
oneofwhichitsprogressiscontinuous,intheotherbyintervals.The
continuousvoicedoesnotbecomestationaryatthe"boundaries"orat
anydefiniteplace,andsotheextremitiesofitsprogressarenot
apparent,butthefactthattherearedifferencesofpitchisapparent,

asinourordinaryspeechin_sol_,_lux_,_flos_,_vox_;forinthese
caseswecannottellatwhatpitchthevoicebegins,noratwhatpitch
itleavesoff,butthefactthatitbecomeslowfromhighandhighfrom
lowisapparenttotheear.Initsprogressbyintervalstheoppositeis
thecase.Forhere,whenthepitchshifts,thevoice,bychangeof
position,stationsitselfononepitch,thenonanother,and,asit
frequentlyrepeatsthisalternatingprocess,itappearstothesensesto
becomestationary,ashappensinsingingwhenweproduceavariationof
themodebychangingthepitchofthevoice.Andso,sinceitmovesby
intervals,thepointsatwhichitbeginsandwhereitleavesoffare
obviouslyapparentintheboundariesofthenotes,buttheintermediate
pointsescapenoticeandareobscure,owingtotheintervals.
3.Therearethreeclassesofmodes:first,thatwhichtheGreeksterm
theenharmonic;second,thechromatic;third,thediatonic.The
enharmonicmodeisanartisticconception,andthereforeexecutioninit
hasaspeciallyseveredignityanddistinction.Thechromatic,withits
delicatesubtletyandwiththe"crowding"ofitsnotes,givesasweeter
kindofpleasure.Inthediatonic,thedistancebetweentheintervalsis
easiertounderstand,becauseitisnatural.Thesethreeclassesdiffer
intheirarrangementofthetetrachord.Intheenharmonic,the
tetrachordconsistsoftwotonesandtwo"dieses."Adiesisisaquarter
tone;henceinasemitonethereareincludedtwodieses.Inthe
chromatictherearetwosemitonesarrangedinsuccession,andthethird
intervalisatoneandahalf.Inthediatonic,therearetwo
consecutivetones,andthethirdintervalofasemitonecompletesthe
tetrachord.Hence,inthethreeclasses,thetetrachordsareequally
composedoftwotonesandasemitone,butwhentheyareregarded
separatelyaccordingtothetermsofeachclass,theydifferinthe
arrangementoftheirintervals.
4.Nowthen,theseintervalsoftonesandsemitonesofthetetrachord
areadivisionintroducedbynatureinthecaseofthevoice,andshe
hasdefinedtheirlimitsbymeasuresaccordingtothemagnitudeofthe
intervals,anddeterminedtheircharacteristicsincertaindifferent
ways.Thesenaturallawsarefollowedbytheskilledworkmenwhofashion
musicalinstruments,inbringingthemtotheperfectionoftheirproper
concords.
[Illustration]
5.Ineachclassthereareeighteennotes,termedinGreek[Greek:
phthongoi],ofwhicheightinallthethreeclassesareconstantand
fixed,whiletheotherten,notbeingtunedtothesamepitch,are
variable.Thefixednotesarethosewhich,beingplacedbetweenthe
moveable,makeuptheunityofthetetrachord,andremainunalteredin
theirboundariesaccordingtothedifferentclasses.Theirnamesare
proslambanomenos,hypatehypaton,hypatemeson,mese,netesynhemmenon,
paramese,netediezeugmenon,netehyperbolaeon.Themoveablenotesare
thosewhich,beingarrangedinthetetrachordbetweentheimmoveable,
changefromplacetoplaceaccordingtothedifferentclasses.Theyare
calledparhypatehypaton,lichanoshypaton,parhypatemeson,lichanos
meson,tritesynhemmenon,paranetesynhemmenon,tritediezeugmenon,
paranetediezeugmenon,tritehyperbolaeon,paranetehyperbolaeon.
[Illustration]
6.Thesenotes,frombeingmoveable,takeondifferentqualities;for
theymaystandatdifferentintervalsandincreasingdistances.Thus,
parhypate,whichintheenharmonicisattheintervalofhalfasemitone
fromhypate,hasasemitoneintervalwhentransferredtothechromatic.
Whatiscalledlichanosintheenharmonicisattheintervalofa
semitonefromhypate;butwhenshiftedtothechromatic,itgoestwo
semitonesaway;andinthediatonicitisatanintervalofthree
semitonesfromhypate.Hencethetennotesproducethreedifferentkinds
ofmodesonaccountoftheirchangesofpositionintheclasses.
7.Therearefivetetrachords:first,thelowest,termedinGreek
[Greek:hypaton];second,themiddle,called[Greek:meson];third,the

conjunct,termed[Greek:synemmenon];fourth,thedisjunct,named
[Greek:diezeugmenon];thefifth,whichisthehighest,istermedin
Greek[Greek:hyperbolaion].Theconcords,termedinGreek[Greek:
symphoniai],ofwhichhumanmodulationwillnaturallyadmit,aresixin
number:thefourth,thefifth,theoctave,theoctaveandfourth,the
octaveandfifth,andthedoubleoctave.
8.Theirnamesarethereforeduetonumericalvalue;forwhenthevoice
becomesstationaryonsomeonenote,andthen,shiftingitspitch,
changesitspositionandpassestothelimitofthefourthnotefrom
thatone,weusetheterm"fourth";whenitpassestothefifth,the
termis"fifth."[7]
[Note7:Theremainderofthissectionisomittedfromthe
translationasbeinganobviousinterpolation.]
9.Fortherecanbenoconsonanceseitherinthecaseofthenotesof
stringedinstrumentsorofthesingingvoice,betweentwointervalsor
betweenthreeorsixorseven;but,aswrittenabove,itisonlythe
harmoniesofthefourth,thefifth,andsoonuptothedoubleoctave,
thathaveboundariesnaturallycorrespondingtothoseofthevoice:and
theseconcordsareproducedbytheunionofthenotes.

CHAPTERV
SOUNDINGVESSELSINTHETHEATRE
1.Inaccordancewiththeforegoinginvestigationsonmathematical
principles,letbronzevesselsbemade,proportionatetothesizeofthe
theatre,andletthembesofashionedthat,whentouched,theymay
producewithoneanotherthenotesofthefourth,thefifth,andsoon
uptothedoubleoctave.Then,havingconstructednichesinbetweenthe
seatsofthetheatre,letthevesselsbearrangedinthem,inaccordance
withmusicallaws,insuchawaythattheynowheretouchthewall,but
haveaclearspaceallroundthemandroomovertheirtops.Theyshould
besetupsidedown,andbesupportedonthesidefacingthestageby
wedgesnotlessthanhalfafoothigh.Oppositeeachniche,apertures
shouldbeleftinthesurfaceoftheseatnextbelow,twofeetlongand
halfafootdeep.
2.Thearrangementofthesevessels,withreferencetothesituationsin
whichtheyshouldbeplaced,maybedescribedasfollows.Ifthetheatre
beofnogreatsize,markoutahorizontalrangehalfwayup,andinit
constructthirteenarchednicheswithtwelveequalspacesbetweenthem,
sothatoftheabovementioned"echea"thosewhichgivethenotenete
hyperbolaeonmaybeplacedfirstoneachside,inthenicheswhichare
attheextremeends;nexttotheendsandafourthbelowinpitch,the
notenetediezeugmenon;third,paramese,afourthbelow;fourth,nete
synhemmenon;fifth,mese,afourthbelow;sixth,hypatemeson,afourth
below;andinthemiddleandanotherfourthbelow,onevesselgivingthe
notehypatehypaton.
3.Onthisprincipleofarrangement,thevoice,utteredfromthestage
asfromacentre,andspreadingandstrikingagainstthecavitiesofthe
differentvessels,asitcomesincontactwiththem,willbeincreased
inclearnessofsound,andwillwakeanharmoniousnoteinunisonwith
itself.
Butifthetheatreberatherlarge,letitsheightbedividedintofour
parts,sothatthreehorizontalrangesofnichesmaybemarkedoutand
constructed:onefortheenharmonic,anotherforthechromatic,andthe
thirdforthediatonicsystem.Beginningwiththebottomrange,letthe
arrangementbeasdescribedaboveinthecaseofasmallertheatre,but
ontheenharmonicsystem.

[Illustration]
4.Inthemiddlerange,placefirstattheextremeendsthevessels
whichgivethenoteofthechromatichyperbolaeon;nexttothem,those
whichgivethechromaticdiezeugmenon,afourthbelow;third,the
chromaticsynhemmenon;fourth,thechromaticmeson,afourthbelow;
fifth,thechromatichypaton,afourthbelow;sixth,theparamese,for
thisisboththeconcordofthefifthtothechromatichyperbolaeon,and
theconcord[8]ofthechromaticsynhemmenon.
[Note8:Codd._diatessaron_,whichisimpossible,paramesebeing
theconcordofthefourthtothechromaticmeson,andidenticalwiththe
chromaticsynhemmenon.]
5.Novesselistobeplacedinthemiddle,forthereasonthatthereis
noothernoteinthechromaticsystemthatformsanaturalconcordof
sound.
Inthehighestdivisionandrangeofniches,placeattheextremeends
vesselsfashionedsoastogivethenoteofthediatonichyperbolaeon;
next,thediatonicdiezeugmenon,afourthbelow;third,thediatonic
synhemmenon;fourth,thediatonicmeson,afourthbelow;fifth,the
diatonichypaton,afourthbelow;sixth,theproslambanomenos,afourth
below;inthemiddle,thenotemese,forthisisboththeoctaveto
proslambanomenos,andtheconcordofthefifthtothediatonichypaton.
6.Whoeverwishestocarryouttheseprincipleswithease,hasonlyto
consulttheschemeattheendofthisbook,drawnupinaccordancewith
thelawsofmusic.ItwasleftbyAristoxenus,whowithgreatability
andlabourclassifiedandarrangedinitthedifferentmodes.In
accordancewithit,andbygivingheedtothesetheories,onecaneasily
bringatheatretoperfection,fromthepointofviewofthenatureof
thevoice,soastogivepleasuretotheaudience.
7.Somebodywillperhapssaythatmanytheatresarebuilteveryyearin
Rome,andthatinthemnoattentionatallispaidtotheseprinciples;
buthewillbeinerror,fromthefactthatallourpublictheatresmade
ofwoodcontainagreatdealofboarding,whichmustberesonant.This
maybeobservedfromthebehaviourofthosewhosingtothelyre,who,
whentheywishtosinginahigherkey,turntowardsthefoldingdoors
onthestage,andthusbytheiraidarereinforcedwithasoundin
harmonywiththevoice.Butwhentheatresarebuiltofsolidmaterials
likemasonry,stone,ormarble,whichcannotberesonant,thenthe
principlesofthe"echea"mustbeapplied.
8.If,however,itisaskedinwhattheatrethesevesselshavebeen
employed,wecannotpointtoanyinRomeitself,butonlytothosein
thedistrictsofItalyandinagoodmanyGreekstates.Wehavealsothe
evidenceofLuciusMummius,who,afterdestroyingthetheatrein
Corinth,broughtitsbronzevesselstoRome,andmadeadedicatory
offeringatthetempleofLunawiththemoneyobtainedfromthesaleof
them.Besides,manyskilfularchitects,inconstructingtheatresin
smalltowns,have,forlackofmeans,takenlargejarsmadeofclay,but
similarlyresonant,andhaveproducedveryadvantageousresultsby
arrangingthemontheprinciplesdescribed.

CHAPTERVI
PLANOFTHETHEATRE
1.Theplanofthetheatreitselfistobeconstructedasfollows.
Havingfixedupontheprincipalcentre,drawalineofcircumference
equivalenttowhatistobetheperimeteratthebottom,andinit
inscribefourequilateraltriangles,atequaldistancesapartand
touchingtheboundarylineofthecircle,astheastrologersdoina

figureofthetwelvesignsofthezodiac,whentheyaremaking
computationsfromthemusicalharmonyofthestars.Takingthatoneof
thesetriangleswhosesideisnearesttothescaena,letthefrontof
thescaenabedeterminedbythelinewherethatsidecutsoffasegment
ofthecircle(AB),anddraw,throughthecentre,aparallelline(CD)
setofffromthatposition,toseparatetheplatformofthestagefrom
thespaceoftheorchestra.
2.TheplatformhastobemadedeeperthanthatoftheGreeks,because
allourartistsperformonthestage,whiletheorchestracontainsthe
placesreservedfortheseatsofsenators.Theheightofthisplatform
mustbenotmorethanfivefeet,inorderthatthosewhositinthe
orchestramaybeabletoseetheperformancesofalltheactors.The
sections(cunei)forspectatorsinthetheatreshouldbesodivided,
thattheanglesofthetriangleswhichrunaboutthecircumferenceof
thecirclemaygivethedirectionfortheflightsofstepsbetweenthe
sections,asfarasuptothefirstcurvedcrossaisle.Abovethis,the
uppersectionsaretobelaidout,midwaybetween(thelowersections),
withalternatingpassageways.
3.Theanglesatthebottom,whichgivethedirectionsfortheflights
ofsteps,willbeseveninnumber(C,E,F,G,H,I,D);theotherfive
angleswilldeterminethearrangementofthescene:thus,theanglein
themiddleoughttohavethe"royaldoor"(K)oppositetoit;theangles
totherightandleft(L,M)willdesignatethepositionofthedoors
forguestchambers;andthetwooutermostangles(A,B)willpointto
thepassagesinthewings.Thestepsforthespectators'places,where
theseatsarearranged,shouldbenotlessthanafootandapalmin
height,normorethanafootandsixfingers;theirdepthshouldbe
fixedatnotmorethantwoandahalffeet,norlessthantwofeet.
[Illustration:THEROMANTHEATREACCORDINGTOVITRUVIUS]
4.Theroofofthecolonnadetobebuiltatthetopoftherowsof
seats,shouldlielevelwiththetopofthe"scaena,"forthereason
thatthevoicewillthenrisewithequalpoweruntilitreachesthe
highestrowsofseatsandtheroof.Iftheroofisnotsohigh,in
proportionasitislower,itwillcheckthevoiceatthepointwhich
thesoundfirstreaches.
5.Takeonesixthofthediameteroftheorchestrabetweenthelowest
steps,andletthelowerseatsattheendsonbothsidesbecutawayto
aheightofthatdimensionsoastoleaveentrances(O,P).Atthepoint
wherethiscuttingawayoccurs,fixthesoffitsofthepassages.Thus
theirvaultingwillbesufficientlyhigh.
6.Thelengthofthe"scaena"oughttobedoublethediameterofthe
orchestra.Theheightofthepodium,startingfromthelevelofthe
stage,is,includingthecoronaandcymatium,onetwelfthofthe
diameteroftheorchestra.Abovethepodium,thecolumns,including
theircapitalsandbases,shouldhaveaheightofonequarterofthe
samediameter,andthearchitravesandornamentsofthecolumnsshould
beonefifthoftheirheight.Theparapetabove,includingitscymaand
corona,isonehalftheheightoftheparapetbelow.Letthecolumns
abovethisparapetbeonefourthlessinheightthanthecolumnsbelow,
andthearchitravesandornamentsofthesecolumnsonefifthoftheir
height.Ifthe"scaena"istohavethreestories,lettheuppermost
parapetbehalftheheightoftheintermediateone,thecolumnsatthe
toponefourthlesshighthantheintermediate,andthearchitravesand
coronaeofthesecolumnsonefifthoftheirheightasbefore.
[Illustration:_FromDurm_
THETHEATREATASPENDUS]
7.Itisnotpossible,however,thatinalltheatrestheserulesof
symmetryshouldanswerallconditionsandpurposes,butthearchitect
oughttoconsidertowhatextenthemustfollowtheprincipleof
symmetry,andtowhatextentitmaybemodifiedtosuitthenatureof

thesiteorthesizeofthework.Thereare,ofcourse,somethings
which,forutility'ssake,mustbemadeofthesamesizeinasmall
theatre,andalargeone:suchasthesteps,curvedcrossaisles,their
parapets,thepassages,stairways,stages,tribunals,andanyother
thingswhichoccurthatmakeitnecessarytogiveupsymmetrysoasnot
tointerferewithutility.Again,ifinthecourseoftheworkanyof
thematerialfallshort,suchasmarble,timber,oranythingelsethat
isprovided,itwillnotbeamisstomakeaslightreductionor
addition,providedthatitisdonewithoutgoingtoofar,butwith
intelligence.Thiswillbepossible,ifthearchitectisamanof
practicalexperienceand,besides,notdestituteofclevernessand
skill.
8.The"scaena"itselfdisplaysthefollowingscheme.Inthecentreare
doubledoorsdecoratedlikethoseofaroyalpalace.Attherightand
leftarethedoorsoftheguestchambers.Beyondarespacesprovidedfor
decorationplacesthattheGreekscall[Greek:periaktoi],becausein
theseplacesaretriangularpiecesofmachinery([Greek:D,D])which
revolve,eachhavingthreedecoratedfaces.Whentheplayistobe
changed,orwhengodsentertotheaccompanimentofsuddenclapsof
thunder,thesemayberevolvedandpresentafacedifferentlydecorated.
Beyondtheseplacesaretheprojectingwingswhichaffordentrancesto
thestage,onefromtheforum,theotherfromabroad.
9.Therearethreekindsofscenes,onecalledthetragic,second,the
comic,third,thesatyric.Theirdecorationsaredifferentandunlike
eachotherinscheme.Tragicscenesaredelineatedwithcolumns,
pediments,statues,andotherobjectssuitedtokings;comicscenes
exhibitprivatedwellings,withbalconiesandviewsrepresentingrowsof
windows,afterthemannerofordinarydwellings;satyricscenesare
decoratedwithtrees,caverns,mountains,andotherrusticobjects
delineatedinlandscapestyle.

CHAPTERVII
GREEKTHEATRES
1.InthetheatresoftheGreeks,thesesamerulesofconstructionare
nottobefollowedinallrespects.First,inthecircleatthebottom
wheretheRomanhasfourtriangles,theGreekhasthreesquareswith
theiranglestouchingthelineofcircumference.Thesquarewhoseside
isnearesttothe"scaena,"andcutsoffasegmentofthecircle,
determinesbythislinethelimitsofthe"proscaenium"(A,B).Parallel
tothislineandtangenttotheoutercircumferenceofthesegment,a
lineisdrawnwhichfixesthefrontofthe"scaena"(CD).Throughthe
centreoftheorchestraandparalleltothedirectionofthe
"proscaenium,"alineislaidoff,andcentresaremarkedwhereitcuts
thecircumferencetotherightandleft(E,F)attheendsofthe
halfcircle.Then,withthecompassesfixedattheright,anarcis
describedfromthehorizontaldistanceatthelefttothelefthandside
ofthe"proscaenium"(F,G);againwiththecentreattheleftend,an
arcisdescribedfromthehorizontaldistanceattherighttotheright
handsideofthe"proscaenium"(E,H).
2.Asaresultofthisplanwiththreecentres,theGreekshavea
roomierorchestra,anda"scaena"setfurtherback,aswellasastage
oflessdepth.Theycallthisthe[Greek:logeion],forthereasonthat
therethetragicandcomicactorsperformonthestage,whileother
artistsgivetheirperformancesintheentireorchestra;hence,from
thisfacttheyaregiveninGreekthedistinctnames"Scenic"and
"Thymelic."Theheightofthis"logeum"oughttobenotlessthanten
feetnormorethantwelve.Lettheascendingflightsofstepsbetween
thewedgesofseats,asfarupasthefirstcurvedcrossaisle,belaid
outonlinesdirectlyoppositetotheanglesofthesquares.Abovethe
crossaisle,letotherflightsbelaidoutinthemiddlebetweenthe

first;andatthetop,asoftenasthereisanewcrossaisle,the
numberofflightsofstepsisalwaysincreasedtothesameextent.
[Illustration:THEGREEKTHEATREACCORDINGTOVITRUVIUS]

CHAPTERVIII
ACOUSTICSOFTHESITEOFATHEATRE
1.Allthishavingbeensettledwiththegreatestpainsandskill,we
mustseetoit,withstillgreatercare,thatasitehasbeenselected
wherethevoicehasagentlefall,andisnotdrivenbackwitharecoil
soastoconveyanindistinctmeaningtotheear.Therearesomeplaces
whichfromtheirverynatureinterferewiththecourseofthevoice,as
forinstancethedissonant,whicharetermedinGreek[Greek:
katechountes];thecircumsonant,whichwiththemarenamed[Greek:
periechountes];againtheresonant,whicharetermed[Greek:
antechountes];andtheconsonant,whichtheycall[Greek:synechountes].
Thedissonantarethoseplacesinwhichthefirstsoundutteredthatis
carrieduphigh,strikesagainstsolidbodiesabove,and,beingdriven
back,checksasitsinkstothebottomtheriseofthesucceedingsound.
2.Thecircumsonantarethoseinwhichthevoicespreadsallround,and
thenisforcedintothemiddle,whereitdissolves,thecaseendingsare
notheard,anditdiesawaythereinsoundsofindistinctmeaning.The
resonantarethoseinwhichitcomesintocontactwithsomesolid
substanceandrecoils,thusproducinganecho,andmakingthe
terminationsofcasessounddouble.Theconsonantarethoseinwhichit
issupportedfrombelow,increasesasitgoesup,andreachestheears
inwordswhicharedistinctandclearintone.Hence,iftherehasbeen
carefulattentionintheselectionofthesite,theeffectofthevoice
will,throughthisprecaution,beperfectlysuitedtothepurposesofa
theatre.
Thedrawingsoftheplansmaybedistinguishedfromeachotherbythis
difference,thattheatresdesignedfromsquaresaremeanttobeusedby
Greeks,whileRomantheatresaredesignedfromequilateraltriangles.
Whoeveriswillingtofollowthesedirectionswillbeabletoconstruct
perfectlycorrecttheatres.

CHAPTERIX
COLONNADESANDWALKS
1.Colonnadesmustbeconstructedbehindthescaena,sothatwhensudden
showersinterruptplays,thepeoplemayhavesomewheretoretirefrom
thetheatre,andsothattheremayberoomforthepreparationofall
theoutfitofthestage.Suchplaces,forinstance,arethecolonnades
ofPompey,andalso,inAthens,thecolonnadesofEumenesandthefane
ofFatherBacchus;also,asyouleavethetheatre,themusichallwhich
Themistoclessurroundedwithstonecolumns,androofedwiththeyards
andmastsofshipscapturedfromthePersians.Itwasburnedduringthe
warwithMithridates,andafterwardsrestoredbyKingAriobarzanes.At
SmyrnathereistheStratoniceum,atTralles,acolonnadeoneachside
ofthescaenaabovetheracecourse,andinothercitieswhichhavehad
carefularchitectstherearecolonnadesandwalksaboutthetheatres.
2.Theapprovedwayofbuildingthemrequiresthattheyshouldbe
double,andhaveDoriccolumnsontheoutside,withthearchitravesand
theirornamentsfinishedaccordingtothelawofmodularproportion.The
approveddepthforthemrequiresthatthedepth,fromthelowerpartof

theoutermostcolumnstothecolumnsinthemiddle,andfromthemiddle
columnstothewallenclosingthewalkunderthecolonnade,shouldbe
equaltotheheightoftheoutercolumns.Letthemiddlecolumnsbeone
fifthhigherthantheoutercolumns,anddesignedintheIonicor
Corinthianstyle.
3.Thecolumnswillnotbesubjecttothesamerulesofsymmetryand
proportionwhichIprescribedinthecaseofsanctuaries;forthe
dignitywhichoughttobetheirqualityintemplesofthegodsisone
thing,buttheireleganceincolonnadesandotherpublicworksisquite
another.Hence,ifthecolumnsaretobeoftheDoricorder,lettheir
height,includingthecapital,bemeasuredoffintofifteenparts.Of
theseparts,letonebefixedupontoformthemodule,andin
accordancewiththismodulethewholeworkistobedeveloped.Letthe
thicknessofthecolumnsatthebottombetwomodules;an
intercolumniation,fiveandahalfmodules;theheightofacolumn,
excludingthecapital,fourteenmodules;thecapital,onemodulein
heightandtwoandonesixthmodulesinbreadth.Letthemodular
proportionsoftherestoftheworkbecarriedoutaswritteninthe
fourthbookinthecaseoftemples.
4.ButifthecolumnsaretobeIonic,lettheshaft,excludingbaseand
capital,bedividedintoeightandonehalfparts,andletoneofthese
beassignedtothethicknessofacolumn.Letthebase,includingthe
plinth,befixedathalfthethickness,andlettheproportionsofthe
capitalbeasshowninthethirdbook.Ifthecolumnistobe
Corinthian,letitsshaftandbasebeproportionedasintheIonic,but
itscapital,ashasbeenwritteninthefourthbook.Inthestylobates,
lettheincreasemadetherebymeansofthe"scamilliimpares"betaken
fromthedescriptionwrittenaboveinthethirdbook.Letthe
architraves,coronae,andalltherestbedeveloped,inproportionto
thecolumns,fromwhathasbeenwrittenintheforegoingbooks.
5.Thespaceinthemiddle,betweenthecolonnadesandopentothesky,
oughttobeembellishedwithgreenthings;forwalkingintheopenair
isveryhealthy,particularlyfortheeyes,sincetherefinedand
rarefiedairthatcomesfromgreenthings,findingitswayinbecauseof
thephysicalexercise,givesacleancutimage,and,byclearingaway
thegrosshumoursfromtheeyes,leavesthesightkeenandtheimage
distinct.Besides,asthebodygetswarmwithexerciseinwalking,this
air,bysuckingoutthehumoursfromtheframe,diminishestheir
superabundance,anddispersesandthusreducesthatsuperfluitywhichis
morethanthebodycanbear.
6.Thatthisissomaybeseenfromthefactthatmistyvapoursnever
arisefromspringsofwaterwhichareundercover,norevenfromwatery
marsheswhichareunderground;butinuncoveredplaceswhichareopento
thesky,whentherisingsunbeginstoactupontheworldwithits
heat,itbringsoutthevapourfromdampandwateryspots,androllsit
inmassesupwards.Therefore,ifitappearsthatinplacesopentothe
skythemorenoxioushumoursaresuckedoutofthebodybytheair,as
theyobviouslyarefromtheearthintheformofmists,Ithinkthereis
nodoubtthatcitiesshouldbeprovidedwiththeroomiestandmost
ornamentedwalks,laidoutunderthefreeandopensky.
7.Thattheymaybealwaysdryandnotmuddy,thefollowingistobe
done.Letthembedugdownandclearedouttothelowestpossibledepth.
Attherightandleftconstructcovereddrains,andintheirwalls,
whicharedirectedtowardsthewalks,layearthenpipeswiththeirlower
endsinclinedintothedrains.Havingfinishedthese,filluptheplace
withcharcoal,andthenstrewsandoverthewalksandlevelthemoff.
Hence,onaccountoftheporousnatureofthecharcoalandtheinsertion
ofthepipesintothedrains,quantitiesofwaterwillbeconducted
away,andthewalkswillthusberenderedperfectlydryandwithout
moisture.
8.Furthermore,ourancestorsinestablishingtheseworksprovided
citieswithstorehousesforanindispensablematerial.Thefactisthat
insiegeseverythingelseiseasiertoprocurethaniswood.Saltcan

easilybebroughtinbeforehand;corncanbegottogetherquicklybythe
Stateorbyindividuals,andifitgivesout,thedefencemaybe
maintainedoncabbage,meat,orbeans;watercanbehadbydigging
wells,orwhentherearesuddenfallsofrain,bycollectingitfromthe
tiles.Butastockofwood,whichisabsolutelynecessaryforcooking
food,isadifficultandtroublesomethingtoprovide;foritisslowto
gatherandagooddealisconsumed.
9.Onsuchoccasions,therefore,thesewalksarethrownopen,anda
definiteallowancegrantedtoeachinhabitantaccordingtotribes.Thus
theseuncoveredwalksinsuretwoexcellentthings:first,healthintime
ofpeace;secondly,safetyintimeofwar.Hence,walksthatare
developedontheseprinciples,andbuiltnotonlybehindthe"scaena"
oftheatres,butalsoatthetemplesofallthegods,willbecapableof
beingofgreatusetocities.
[Illustration:_Photo.BrooklynInstitute_
THETEPIDARIUMOFTHESTABIANBATHSATPOMPEII]
[Illustration:_Photo.BrooklynInstitute_
APODYTERIUMFORWOMENINTHESTABIANBATHSATPOMPEII]
Asitappearsthatwehavegivenanadequateaccountofthem,nextwill
followdescriptionsofthearrangementsofbaths.

CHAPTERX
BATHS
1.Inthefirstplace,thewarmestpossiblesituationmustbeselected;
thatis,onewhichfacesawayfromthenorthandnortheast.Therooms
forthehotandtepidbathsshouldbelightedfromthesouthwest,or,if
thenatureofthesituationpreventsthis,atalleventsfromthesouth,
becausethesettimeforbathingisprincipallyfrommiddaytoevening.
Wemustalsoseetoitthatthehotbathroomsinthewomen'sandmen's
departmentsadjoineachother,andaresituatedinthesamequarter;for
thusitwillbepossiblethatthesamefurnaceshouldservebothofthem
andtheirfittings.Threebronzecauldronsaretobesetoverthe
furnace,oneforhot,anotherfortepid,andthethirdforcoldwater,
placedinsuchpositionsthattheamountofwaterwhichflowsoutofthe
hotwatercauldronmaybereplacedfromthatfortepidwater,andinthe
samewaythecauldronfortepidwatermaybesuppliedfromthatfor
cold.Thearrangementmustallowthesemicylindersforthebathbasins
tobeheatedfromthesamefurnace.
2.Thehangingfloorsofthehotbathroomsaretobeconstructedas
follows.Firstthesurfaceofthegroundshouldbelaidwithtilesa
footandahalfsquare,slopingtowardsthefurnaceinsuchawaythat,
ifaballisthrownin,itcannotstopinsidebutmustreturnofitself
tothefurnaceroom;thustheheatofthefirewillmorereadilyspread
underthehangingflooring.Uponthem,pillarsmadeofeightinchbricks
arebuilt,andsetatsuchadistanceapartthattwofoottilesmaybe
usedtocoverthem.Thesepillarsshouldbetwofeetinheight,laid
withclaymixedwithhair,andcoveredontopwiththetwofoottiles
whichsupportthefloor.
[Illustration:TheStabianBathsatPompeii
S,S.Shops.B.PrivateBaths.AT.Men'sBath.A'T'.Women'sBaths.E,
E'.Entrances.A,A'.Apodyteria.F.Frigidarium.T,T'.Tepidarium.C,
C.Caldarium.K,K,K.Kettlesinfurnaceroom.P.Piscina.]
3.Thevaultedceilingswillbemoreserviceableifbuiltofmasonry;

butiftheyareofframework,theyshouldhavetileworkontheunder
side,tobeconstructedasfollows.Letironbarsorarcsbemade,and
hangthemtotheframeworkbymeansofironhookssetasclosetogether
aspossible;andletthesebarsorarcsbeplacedatsuchdistances
apartthateachpairofthemmaysupportandcarryanunflangedtile.
Thustheentirevaultingwillbecompletelysupportedoniron.These
vaultsshouldhavethejointsontheiruppersidedaubedwithclaymixed
withhair,andtheirunderside,facingthefloor,shouldfirstbe
plasteredwithpoundedtilemixedwithlime,andthencoveredwith
polishedstuccoinrelieforsmooth.Vaultsinhotbathroomswillbe
moreserviceableiftheyaredoubled;forthenthemoisturefromthe
heatwillnotbeabletospoilthetimberintheframework,butwill
merelycirculatebetweenthetwovaults.
4.Thesizeofthebathsmustdependuponthenumberofthepopulation.
Theroomsshouldbethusproportioned:lettheirbreadthbeonethirdof
theirlength,excludingthenichesforthewashbowlandthebathbasin.
Thewashbowloughtwithoutfailtobeplacedunderawindow,sothatthe
shadowsofthosewhostandrounditmaynotobstructthelight.Niches
forwashbowlsmustbemadesoroomythatwhenthefirstcomershave
takentheirplaces,theotherswhoarewaitingroundmayhaveproper
standingroom.Thebathbasinshouldbenotlessthansixfeetbroad
fromthewalltotheedge,thelowerstepandthe"cushion"takingup
twofeetofthisspace.
5.TheLaconicumandothersweatingbathsmustadjointhetepidroom,
andtheirheighttothebottomofthecurveddomeshouldbeequalto
theirwidth.Letanaperturebeleftinthemiddleofthedomewitha
bronzedischangingfromitbychains.Byraisingandloweringit,the
temperatureofthesweatingbathcanberegulated.Thechamberitself
ought,asitseems,tobecircular,sothattheforceofthefireand
heatmayspreadevenlyfromthecentreallroundthecircumference.

CHAPTERXI
THEPALAESTRA
1.Next,althoughthebuildingofpalaestraeisnotusualinItaly,I
thinkitbesttosetforththetraditionalway,andtoshowhowtheyare
constructedamongtheGreeks.Thesquareoroblongperistyleina
palaestrashouldbesoformedthatthecircuitofitmakesawalkoftwo
stadia,adistancewhichtheGreekscallthe[Greek:diaulos].Letthree
ofitscolonnadesbesingle,butletthefourth,whichisonthesouth
side,bedouble,sothatwhenthereisbadweatheraccompaniedbywind,
thedropsofrainmaynotbeabletoreachtheinterior.
2.Inthethreecolonnadesconstructroomyrecesses(A)withseatsin
them,wherephilosophers,rhetoricians,andotherswhodelightin
learningmaysitandconverse.Inthedoublecolonnadelettheroomsbe
arrangedthus:theyoungmen'shall(B)inthemiddle;thisisavery
spaciousrecess(exedra)withseatsinit,anditshouldbeonethird
longerthanitisbroad.Attheright,thebagroom(C);thennext,the
dustroom(D);beyondthedustroom,atthecornerofthecolonnade,the
coldwashingroom(E),whichtheGreekscall[Greek:loutron].Atthe
leftoftheyoungmen'shallistheanointingroom(F);then,nextto
theanointingroom,thecoldbathroom(G),andbeyondthatapassage
intothefurnaceroom(H)atthecornerofthecolonnade.Next,but
insideandonalinewiththecoldbathroom,putthevaultedsweating
bath(I),itslengthtwiceitsbreadth,andhavingattheendsonone
sideaLaconicum(K),proportionedinthesamemannerasabove
described,andoppositetheLaconicumthewarmwashingroom(L).Inside
apalaestra,theperistyleoughttobelaidoutasdescribedabove.
3.Butontheoutside,letthreecolonnadesbearranged,oneasyou
leavetheperistyleandtwoattherightandleft,withrunningtracks

inthem.Thatoneofthemwhichfacesthenorthshouldbeadouble
colonnadeofveryamplebreadth,whiletheothershouldbesingle,and
soconstructedthatonthesidesnextthewallsandthesidealongthe
columnsitmayhaveedges,servingaspaths,ofnotlessthantenfeet,
withthespacebetweenthemsunken,sothatstepsarenecessaryingoing
downfromtheedgesafootandahalftotheplane,whichplaneshould
benotlessthantwelvefeetwide.Thuspeoplewalkingroundonthe
edgeswillnotbeinterferedwithbytheanointedwhoareexercising.
[Illustration:I.THEPALAESTRAATOLYMPIA;II.THEGREEKPALAESTRA
ACCORDINGTOVITRUVIUS]
4.ThiskindofcolonnadeiscalledamongtheGreeks[Greek:xystos],
becauseathletesduringthewinterseasonexerciseincoveredrunning
tracks.Nexttothis"xystus"andtothedoublecolonnadeshouldbelaid
outtheuncoveredwalkswhichtheGreeksterm[Greek:paradromides]and
ourpeople"xysta,"intowhich,infairweatherduringthewinter,the
athletescomeoutfromthe"xystus"forexercise.The"xysta"oughtto
besoconstructedthattheremaybeplantationsbetweenthetwo
colonnades,orgrovesofplanetrees,withwalkslaidoutinthemamong
thetreesandrestingplacesthere,madeof"opussigninum."Behindthe
"xystus"astadium,sodesignedthatgreatnumbersofpeoplemayhave
plentyofroomtolookonatthecontestsbetweentheathletes.
Ihavenowdescribedallthatseemednecessaryfortheproper
arrangementofthingswithinthecitywalls.

CHAPTERXII
HARBOURS,BREAKWATERS,ANDSHIPYARDS
1.ThesubjectoftheusefulnessofharboursisonewhichImustnot
omit,butmustexplainbywhatmeansshipsareshelteredinthemfrom
storms.Iftheirsituationhasnaturaladvantages,withprojectingcapes
orpromontorieswhichcurveorreturninwardsbytheirnatural
conformation,suchharboursareobviouslyofthegreatestservice.Round
them,ofcourse,colonnadesorshipyardsmustbebuilt,orpassagesfrom
thecolonnadestothebusinessquarters,andtowersmustbesetupon
bothsides,fromwhichchainscanbedrawnacrossbymachinery.
2.Butifwehaveasituationwithoutnaturaladvantages,andunfitto
sheltershipsfromstorms,itisobviousthatwemustproceedas
follows.Ifthereisnoriverintheneighbourhood,butiftherecanbe
aroadsteadononeside,then,lettheadvancesbemadefromtheother
sidebymeansofwallsorembankments,andlettheenclosingharbourbe
thusformed.Wallswhicharetobeunderwatershouldbeconstructedas
follows.Takethepowderwhichcomesfromthecountryextendingfrom
CumaetothepromontoryofMinerva,andmixitinthemortartroughin
theproportionoftwotoone.
3.Then,intheplacepreviouslydetermined,acofferdam,withitssides
formedofoakenstakeswithtiesbetweenthem,istobedrivendowninto
thewaterandfirmlyproppedthere;then,thelowersurfaceinside,
underthewater,mustbelevelledoffanddredged,workingfrombeams
laidacross;andfinally,concretefromthemortartroughthestuff
havingbeenmixedasprescribedabovemustbeheapedupuntiltheempty
spacewhichwaswithinthecofferdamisfilledupbythewall.This,
however,ispossessedasagiftofnaturebysuchplacesashavebeen
describedabove.
Butifbyreasonofcurrentsortheassaultsoftheopenseatheprops
cannotholdthecofferdamtogether,then,letaplatformofthegreatest
possiblestrengthbeconstructed,beginningonthegrounditselforona
substructure;andlettheplatformbeconstructedwithalevelsurface
forlessthanhalfitsextent,whiletherest,whichisclosetothe

beach,slopesdownandout.
4.Then,onthewater'sedgeandatthesidesoftheplatform,let
marginalwallsbeconstructed,aboutoneandonehalffeetthickand
broughtuptoalevelwiththesurfaceabovementioned;next,letthe
slopingpartbefilledinwithsandandlevelledoffwiththemarginal
wallandthesurfaceoftheplatform.Then,uponthislevelsurface
constructablockaslargeasisrequired,andwhenitisfinished,
leaveitfornotlessthantwomonthstodry.Then,cutawaythe
marginalwallwhichsupportsthesand.Thus,thesandwillbeundermined
bythewaves,andthiswillcausetheblocktofallintothesea.By
thismethod,repeatedasoftenasnecessary,anadvanceintothewater
canbemade.
5.Butinplaceswherethispowderisnotfound,thefollowingmethod
mustbeemployed.Acofferdamwithdoublesides,composedofcharred
stakesfastenedtogetherwithties,shouldbeconstructedinthe
appointedplace,andclayinwickerbasketsmadeofswamprushesshould
bepackedinamongtheprops.Afterthishasbeenwellpackeddownand
filledinascloselyaspossible,setupyourwaterscrews,wheels,and
drums,andletthespacenowboundedbytheenclosurebeemptiedand
dried.Then,digoutthebottomwithintheenclosure.Ifitprovestobe
ofearth,itmustbeclearedoutanddriedtillyoucometosolidbottom
andforaspacewiderthanthewallwhichistobebuiltuponit,and
thenfilledinwithmasonryconsistingofrubble,lime,andsand.
6.Butiftheplaceprovestobesoft,thebottommustbestakedwith
pilesmadeofcharredalderorolivewood,andthenfilledinwith
charcoalashasbeenprescribedinthecaseofthefoundationsof
theatresandthecitywall.Finally,buildthewallofdimensionstone,
withthebondstonesaslongaspossible,sothatparticularlythe
stonesinthemiddlemaybeheldtogetherbythejoints.Then,fillthe
insideofthewallwithbrokenstoneormasonry.Itwillthusbe
possibleforevenatowertobebuiltuponit.
7.Whenallthisisfinished,thegeneralruleforshipyardswillbeto
buildthemfacingthenorth.Southernexposuresfromtheirheatproduce
rot,thewoodworm,shipworms,andallsortsofotherdestructive
creatures,andstrengthenandkeepthemalive.Andthesebuildingsmust
bynomeansbeconstructedofwood,forfearoffire.Asfortheirsize,
nodefinitelimitneedbeset,buttheymustbebuilttosuitthe
largesttypeofship,sothatifevenlargershipsarehauledup,they
mayfindplentyofroomthere.
Ihavedescribedinthisbooktheconstructionandcompletionofall
thatIcouldrememberasnecessaryforgeneraluseinthepublicplaces
ofcities.InthefollowingbookIshallconsiderprivatehouses,their
conveniences,andsymmetricalproportions.

BOOKVI

INTRODUCTION
1.ItisrelatedoftheSocraticphilosopherAristippusthat,being
shipwreckedandcastashoreonthecoastoftheRhodians,heobserved
geometricalfiguresdrawnthereon,andcriedouttohiscompanions:"Let
usbeofgoodcheer,forIseethetracesofman."Withthathemadefor
thecityofRhodes,andwentstraighttothegymnasium.Therehefellto
discussingphilosophicalsubjects,andpresentswerebestoweduponhim,
sothathecouldnotonlyfithimselfout,butcouldalsoprovidethose
whoaccompaniedhimwithclothingandallothernecessariesoflife.
Whenhiscompanionswishedtoreturntotheircountry,andaskedhim

whatmessagehewishedthemtocarryhome,hebadethemsaythis:that
childrenoughttobeprovidedwithpropertyandresourcesofakindthat
couldswimwiththemevenoutofashipwreck.
2.Theseareindeedthetruesupportsoflife,andneitherFortune's
adversegale,norpoliticalrevolution,norravagesofwarcandothem
anyharm.Developingthesameidea,Theophrastus,urgingmentoacquire
learningratherthantoputtheirtrustinmoney,statesthecasethus:
"Themanoflearningistheonlypersonintheworldwhoisneithera
strangerwheninaforeignland,norfriendlesswhenhehaslosthis
intimatesandrelatives;onthecontrary,heisacitizenofevery
country,andcanfearlesslylookdownuponthetroublesomeaccidentsof
fortune.Buthewhothinkshimselfentrenchedindefencesnotof
learningbutofluck,movesinslipperypaths,strugglingthroughlife
unsteadilyandinsecurely."
3.AndEpicurus,inmuchthesameway,saysthatthewiseowelittleto
fortune;allthatisgreatestandessentialisunderthedirectionof
thethinkingpowerofthemindandtheunderstanding.Manyother
philosophershavesaidthesamething.Likewisethepoetswhowrotethe
ancientcomediesinGreekhaveexpressedthesamesentimentsintheir
versesonthestage:forexample,Eucrates,Chionides,Aristophanes,and
withthemAlexisinparticular,whosaysthattheAtheniansoughttobe
praisedforthereasonthat,whilethelawsofallGreeksrequirethe
maintenanceofparentsbytheirchildren,thelawsoftheAthenians
requirethisonlyinthecaseofthosewhohaveeducatedtheirchildren
inthearts.Allthegiftswhichfortunebestowsshecaneasilytake
away;buteducation,whencombinedwithintelligence,neverfails,but
abidessteadilyontotheveryendoflife.
4.Hence,Iamverymuchobligedandinfinitelygratefultomyparents
fortheirapprovalofthisAthenianlaw,andforhavingtakencarethat
Ishouldbetaughtanart,andthatofasortwhichcannotbebroughtto
perfectionwithoutlearningandaliberaleducationinallbranchesof
instruction.Thanks,therefore,totheattentionofmyparentsandthe
instructiongivenbymyteachers,Iobtainedawiderangeofknowledge,
andbythepleasurewhichItakeinliteraryandartisticsubjects,and
inthewritingoftreatises,Ihaveacquiredintellectualpossessions
whosechieffruitsarethesethoughts:thatsuperfluityisuseless,and
thatnottofeelthewantofanythingistrueriches.Theremaybesome
people,however,whodeemallthisofnoconsequence,andthinkthatthe
wisearethosewhohaveplentyofmoney.Henceitisthatverymany,in
pursuitofthatend,takeuponthemselvesimpudentassurance,andattain
notorietyandwealthatthesametime.
5.Butformypart,Caesar,Ihaveneverbeeneagertomakemoneybymy
art,buthavegoneontheprinciplethatslendermeansandagood
reputationarepreferabletowealthanddisrepute.Forthisreason,only
alittlecelebrityhasfollowed;butstill,myhopeisthat,withthe
publicationofthesebooks,Ishallbecomeknowneventoposterity.And
itisnottobewonderedatthatIamsogenerallyunknown.Other
architectsgoaboutandaskforopportunitiestopractisetheir
profession;butIhavebeentaughtbymyinstructorsthatitisthe
properthingtoundertakeachargeonlyafterbeingasked,andnotto
askforit;sinceagentlemanwillblushwithshameatpetitioningfor
athingthatarousessuspicion.Itisinfactthosewhocangrant
favoursthatarecourted,notthosewhoreceivethem.Whatareweto
thinkmustbethesuspicionsofamanwhoisaskedtoallowhisprivate
meanstobeexpendedinordertopleaseapetitioner?Musthenot
believethatthethingistobedonefortheprofitandadvantageof
thatindividual?
6.Henceitwasthattheancientsusedtoentrusttheirworkinthe
firstplacetoarchitectsofgoodfamily,andnextinquiredwhetherthey
hadbeenproperlyeducated,believingthatoneoughttotrustinthe
honourofagentlemanratherthanintheassuranceofimpudence.Andthe
architectsthemselveswouldteachnonebuttheirownsonsorkinsmen,
andtrainedthemtobegoodmen,whocouldbetrustedwithouthesitation
inmattersofsuchimportance.

ButwhenIseethatthisgrandartisboldlyprofessedbytheuneducated
andtheunskilful,andbymenwho,farfrombeingacquaintedwith
architecture,havenoknowledgeevenofthecarpenter'strade,Ican
findnothingbutpraiseforthosehouseholderswho,intheconfidenceof
learning,areemboldenedtobuildforthemselves.Theirjudgmentis
that,iftheymusttrusttoinexperiencedpersons,itismorebecoming
tothemtouseupagoodroundsumattheirownpleasurethanatthatof
astranger.
7.Nobody,therefore,attemptstopractiseanyotherartinhisown
homeas,forinstance,theshoemaker's,orthefuller's,oranyother
oftheeasierkindsbutonlyarchitecture,andthisisbecausethe
professionalsdonotpossessthegenuineartbuttermthemselves
architectsfalsely.ForthesereasonsIhavethoughtpropertocompose
mostcarefullyacompletetreatiseonarchitectureanditsprinciples,
believingthatitwillbenounacceptablegifttoalltheworld.Inthe
fifthbookIhavesaidwhatIhadtosayabouttheconvenient
arrangementofpublicworks;inthisIshallsetforththetheoretical
principlesandthesymmetricalproportionsofprivatehouses.

CHAPTERI
ONCLIMATEASDETERMININGTHESTYLEOFTHEHOUSE
1.Ifourdesignsforprivatehousesaretobecorrect,wemustatthe
outsettakenoteofthecountriesandclimatesinwhichtheyarebuilt.
OnestyleofhouseseemsappropriatetobuildinEgypt,anotherin
Spain,adifferentkindinPontus,onestilldifferentinRome,andso
onwithlandsandcountriesofothercharacteristics.Thisisbecause
onepartoftheearthisdirectlyunderthesun'scourse,anotherisfar
awayfromit,whileanotherliesmidwaybetweenthesetwo.Hence,asthe
positionoftheheavenwithregardtoagiventractontheearthleads
naturallytodifferentcharacteristics,owingtotheinclinationofthe
circleofthezodiacandthecourseofthesun,itisobviousthat
designsforhousesoughtsimilarlytoconformtothenatureofthe
countryandtodiversitiesofclimate.
2.Inthenorth,housesshouldbeentirelyroofedoverandshelteredas
muchaspossible,notintheopen,thoughhavingawarmexposure.Buton
theotherhand,wheretheforceofthesunisgreatinthesouthern
countriesthatsufferfromheat,housesmustbebuiltmoreintheopen
andwithanorthernornortheasternexposure.Thuswemayamendbyart
whatnature,iflefttoherself,wouldmar.Inothersituations,also,
wemustmakemodificationstocorrespondtothepositionoftheheaven
anditseffectsonclimate.
3.Theseeffectsarenoticeableanddiscerniblenotonlyinthingsin
nature,buttheyalsoareobservableinthelimbsandbodiesofentire
races.Inplacesonwhichthesunthrowsoutitsheatinmoderation,it
keepshumanbodiesintheirpropercondition,andwhereitspathisvery
closeathand,itparchesthemup,andburnsoutandtakesawaythe
proportionofmoisturewhichtheyoughttopossess.But,ontheother
hand,inthecoldregionsthatarefarawayfromthesouth,the
moistureisnotdrawnoutbyhotweather,buttheatmosphereisfullof
dampnesswhichdiffusesmoistureintothesystem,andmakestheframe
largerandthepitchofthevoicedeeper.Thisisalsothereasonwhy
theracesthatarebredinthenorthareofvastheight,andhavefair
complexions,straightredhair,greyeyes,andagreatdealofblood,
owingtotheabundanceofmoistureandthecoolnessoftheatmosphere.
4.Onthecontrary,thosethatarenearesttothesouthernhalfofthe
axis,andthatliedirectlyunderthesun'scourse,areoflower
stature,withaswarthycomplexion,haircurling,blackeyes,strong
legs,andbutlittlebloodonaccountoftheforceofthesun.Hence,

too,thispovertyofbloodmakesthemovertimidtostandupagainstthe
sword,butgreatheatandfeverstheycanendurewithouttimidity,
becausetheirframesarebredupintheragingheat.Hence,menthatare
borninthenortharerenderedovertimidandweakbyfever,buttheir
wealthofbloodenablesthemtostandupagainsttheswordwithout
timidity.
[Illustration]
5.Thepitchofthevoiceislikewisedifferentandvaryinginquality
withdifferentnations,forthefollowingreasons.Theterminating
pointseastandwestontheleveloftheearth,wheretheupperand
lowerpartsoftheheavenaredivided,seemtolieinanaturally
balancedcirclewhichmathematicianscalltheHorizon.Keepingthisidea
definitelyinmind,ifweimaginealinedrawnfromthenorthernsideof
thecircumference(N)tothesidewhichliesabovethesouthernhalfof
theaxis(S),andfromhereanotherlineobliquelyuptothepivotat
thesummit,beyondthestarscomposingtheGreatBear(thepolestarP),
weshalldoubtlessseethatwehaveintheheavenatriangularfigure
likethatofthemusicalinstrumentwhichtheGreekscallthe
"sambuca."
6.Andso,underthespacewhichisnearesttothepivotatthebottom,
offthesouthernportionsofthelineoftheaxis,arefoundnations
thatonaccountoftheslightaltitudeoftheheavenabovethem,have
shrillandveryhighpitchedvoices,likethestringnearesttothe
angleinthemusicalinstrument.Nextinordercomeothernationsasfar
asthemiddleofGreece,withlowerelevationsofthevoice;andfrom
thismiddlepointtheygooninregularorderuptotheextremenorth,
where,underhighaltitudes,thevocalutteranceoftheinhabitantsis,
undernaturallaws,producedinheaviertones.Thusitisobviousthat
thesystemoftheuniverseasawholeis,onaccountoftheinclination
oftheheaven,composedinamostperfectharmonythroughthetemporary
powerofthesun.
7.Thenations,therefore,thatliemidwaybetweenthepivotsatthe
southernandthenorthernextremitiesoftheaxis,converseinavoice
ofmiddlepitch,likethenotesinthemiddleofamusicalscale;but,
asweproceedtowardsthenorth,thedistancestotheheavenbecome
greater,andsothenationsthere,whosevocalutteranceisreducedby
themoisturetothe"hypates"andto"proslambanomenon,"arenaturally
obligedtospeakinheaviertones.Inthesameway,asweproceedfrom
themiddlepointtothesouth,thevoicesofthenationsthere
correspondinextremeheightofpitchandinshrillnesstothe
"paranetes"and"netes."
8.Thatitisafactthatthingsaremadeheavierfrombeinginplaces
naturallymoist,andhigherpitchedfromplacesthatarehot,maybe
provedfromthefollowingexperiment.Taketwocupswhichhavebeen
bakedinthesameovenforanequaltime,whichareofequalweight,and
whichgivethesamenotewhenstruck.Diponeofthemintowaterand,
aftertakingitoutofwater,strikethemboth.Thisdone,therewillbe
agreatdifferenceintheirnotes,andthecupscannolongerbeequal
inweight.Thusitiswithmen:thoughborninthesamegeneralformand
underthesameallembracingheaven,yetinsomeofthem,onaccountof
theheatintheircountry,thevoicestrikestheaironahighnote,
whileinothers,onaccountofabundanceofmoisture,thequalityof
tonesproducedisveryheavy.
9.Further,itisowingtotherarityoftheatmospherethatsouthern
nations,withtheirkeenintelligenceduetotheheat,areveryfreeand
swiftinthedevisingofschemes,whilenorthernnations,being
envelopedinadenseatmosphere,andchilledbymoisturefromthe
obstructingair,havebutasluggishintelligence.Thatthisisso,we
mayseefromthecaseofsnakes.Theirmovementsaremostactiveinhot
weather,whentheyhavegotridofthechillduetomoisture,whereasat
thewintersolstice,andinwinterweather,theyarechilledbythe
changeoftemperature,andrenderedtorpidandmotionless.Itis
thereforenowonderthatman'sintelligenceismadekeenerbywarmair

anddullerbycold.
10.Butalthoughsouthernnationshavethekeenestwits,andare
infinitelycleverinformingschemes,yetthemomentitcomesto
displayingvalour,theysuccumbbecauseallmanlinessofspiritis
suckedoutofthembythesun.Ontheotherhand,menbornincold
countriesareindeedreadiertomeettheshockofarmswithgreat
courageandwithouttimidity,buttheirwitsaresoslowthattheywill
rushtothechargeinconsideratelyandinexpertly,thusdefeatingtheir
owndevices.Suchbeingnature'sarrangementoftheuniverse,andall
thesenationsbeingallottedtemperamentswhicharelackingindue
moderation,thetrulyperfectterritory,situatedunderthemiddleof
theheaven,andhavingoneachsidetheentireextentoftheworldand
itscountries,isthatwhichisoccupiedbytheRomanpeople.
11.Infact,theracesofItalyarethemostperfectlyconstitutedin
bothrespectsinbodilyformandinmentalactivitytocorrespondto
theirvalour.ExactlyastheplanetJupiterisitselftemperate,its
courselyingmidwaybetweenMars,whichisveryhot,andSaturn,which
isverycold,soItaly,lyingbetweenthenorthandthesouth,isa
combinationofwhatisfoundoneachside,andherpreeminenceiswell
regulatedandindisputable.Andsobyherwisdomshebreaksthe
courageousonsetsofthebarbarians,andbyherstrengthofhand
thwartsthedevicesofthesoutherners.Hence,itwasthedivine
intelligencethatsetthecityoftheRomanpeopleinapeerlessand
temperatecountry,inorderthatitmightacquiretherighttocommand
thewholeworld.
12.Nowifitisafactthatcountriesdifferfromoneanother,andare
ofvariousclassesaccordingtoclimate,sothattheverynationsborn
thereinnaturallydifferinmentalandphysicalconformationand
qualities,wecannothesitatetomakeourhousessuitableinplantothe
peculiaritiesofnationsandraces,sincewehavetheexpertguidanceof
natureherselfreadytoourhand.
Ihavenowsetforththepeculiarcharacteristicsoflocalities,sofar
asIcouldnotethem,inthemostsummaryway,andhavestatedhowwe
oughttomakeourhousesconformtothephysicalqualitiesofnations,
withdueregardtothecourseofthesunandtoclimate.NextIshall
treatthesymmetricalproportionsofthedifferentstylesofhouses,
bothaswholesandintheirseparateparts.

CHAPTERII
SYMMETRY,ANDMODIFICATIONSINITTOSUITTHESITE
1.Thereisnothingtowhichanarchitectshoulddevotemorethought
thantotheexactproportionsofhisbuildingwithreferencetoa
certainpartselectedasthestandard.Afterthestandardofsymmetry
hasbeendetermined,andtheproportionatedimensionsadjustedby
calculations,itisnextthepartofwisdomtoconsiderthenatureof
thesite,orquestionsofuseorbeauty,andmodifytheplanby
diminutionsoradditionsinsuchamannerthatthesediminutionsor
additionsinthesymmetricalrelationsmaybeseentobemadeoncorrect
principles,andwithoutdetractingatallfromtheeffect.
2.Thelookofabuildingwhenseencloseathandisonething,ona
heightitisanother,notthesameinanenclosedplace,still
differentintheopen,andinallthesecasesittakesmuchjudgmentto
decidewhatistobedone.Thefactisthattheeyedoesnotalwaysgive
atrueimpression,butveryoftenleadsthemindtoformafalse
judgment.Inpaintedscenery,forexample,columnsmayappeartojut
out,mutulestoproject,andstatuestobestandingintheforeground,
althoughthepictureisofcourseperfectlyflat.Similarlywithships,
theoarswhenunderthewaterarestraight,thoughtotheeyethey

appeartobebroken.Tothepointwheretheytouchthesurfaceofthe
seatheylookstraight,asindeedtheyare,butwhendippedunderthe
watertheyemitfromtheirbodiesundulatingimageswhichcomeswimming
upthroughthenaturallytransparentmediumtothesurfaceofthewater,
and,beingtherethrownintocommotion,maketheoarslookbroken.
3.Nowwhetherthisappearanceisduetotheimpactoftheimages,orto
theeffusionoftheraysfromtheeye,asthephysicistshold,ineither
caseitisobviousthatthevisionmayleadustofalseimpressions.
4.Since,therefore,therealitymayhaveafalseappearance,andsince
thingsaresometimesrepresentedbytheeyesasotherthantheyare,I
thinkitcertainthatdiminutionsoradditionsshouldbemadetosuit
thenatureorneedsofthesite,butinsuchfashionthatthebuildings
losenothingthereby.Theseresults,however,arealsoattainableby
flashesofgenius,andnotonlybymerescience.
5.Hence,thefirstthingtosettleisthestandardofsymmetry,from
whichweneednothesitatetovary.Then,layoutthegroundlinesof
thelengthandbreadthoftheworkproposed,andwhenoncewehave
determineditssize,lettheconstructionfollowthiswithdueregardto
beautyofproportion,sothatthebeholdermayfeelnodoubtofthe
eurythmyofitseffect.Imustnowtellhowthismaybebroughtabout,
andfirstIwillspeakoftheproperconstructionofacavaedium.

CHAPTERIII
PROPORTIONSOFTHEPRINCIPALROOMS
1.Therearefivedifferentstylesofcavaedium,termedaccordingto
theirconstructionasfollows:Tuscan,Corinthian,tetrastyle,
displuviate,andtestudinate.
IntheTuscan,thegirdersthatcrossthebreadthoftheatriumhave
crossbeamsonthem,andvalleysslopinginandrunningfromtheangles
ofthewallstotheanglesformedbythebeams,andtherainwaterfalls
downalongtherafterstotheroofopening(compluvium)inthemiddle.
IntheCorinthian,thegirdersandroofopeningareconstructedonthese
sameprinciples,butthegirdersruninfromthesidewalls,andare
supportedallroundoncolumns.
Inthetetrastyle,thegirdersaresupportedattheanglesbycolumns,
anarrangementwhichrelievesandstrengthensthegirders;forthusthey
havethemselvesnogreatspantosupport,andtheyarenotloadeddown
bythecrossbeams.
[Illustration:_FromMau_
THEHOUSEOFTHESURGEON,POMPEII
IllustratingtheTuscanAtrium
1.Fauces
2,3.Shops
4.Storage
5.Atrium
6.Chambers
7.Tablinum
8.Alae
9,10.Diningrooms
13.Kitchen,_a_,hearth
14.RearEntrance
16.Portico
18.Stairstoroomsovertherearofthehouse

20.Garden
]
[Illustration:_FromMau_
HOUSEOFEPIDIUSRUFUSATPOMPEII
IllustratingCorinthianAtrium]
2.Inthedispluviate,therearebeamswhichslopeoutwards,supporting
theroofandthrowingtherainwateroff.Thisstyleissuitablechiefly
inwinterresidences,foritsroofopening,beinghighup,isnotan
obstructiontothelightofthediningrooms.Itis,however,very
troublesometokeepinrepair,becausethepipes,whichareintendedto
holdthewaterthatcomesdrippingdownthewallsallround,cannottake
itquicklyenoughasitrunsdownfromthechannels,butgettoofull
andrunover,thusspoilingthewoodworkandthewallsofhousesofthis
style.
[Illustration:_FromMau_
HOUSEOFTHESILVERWEDDINGATPOMPEII
IllustratingtheTetrastyleAtrium
_a._fauces
_d._tetrastyleatrium
_n._diningroom
_o._tablinum
_p._andron
_r._peristyle
_w._summerdiningroom
]
Thetestudinateisemployedwherethespanisnotgreat,andwherelarge
roomsareprovidedinupperstories.
3.Inwidthandlength,atriumsaredesignedaccordingtothreeclasses.
Thefirstislaidoutbydividingthelengthintofivepartsandgiving
threepartstothewidth;thesecond,bydividingitintothreeparts
andassigningtwopartstothewidth;thethird,byusingthewidthto
describeasquarefigurewithequalsides,drawingadiagonallinein
thissquare,andgivingtheatriumthelengthofthisdiagonalline.
4.Theirheightuptothegirdersshouldbeonefourthlessthantheir
width,therestbeingtheproportionassignedtotheceilingandthe
roofabovethegirders.
Thealae,totherightandleft,shouldhaveawidthequaltoonethird
ofthelengthoftheatrium,whenthatisfromthirtytofortyfeet
long.Fromfortytofiftyfeet,dividethelengthbythreeandone
half,andgivethealaetheresult.Whenitisfromfiftytosixtyfeet
inlength,devoteonefourthofthelengthtothealae.Fromsixtyto
eightyfeet,dividethelengthbyfourandonehalfandlettheresult
bethewidthofthealae.Fromeightyfeettoonehundredfeet,the
lengthdividedintofivepartswillproducetherightwidthforthe
alae.Theirlintelbeamsshouldbeplacedhighenoughtomaketheheight
ofthealaeequaltotheirwidth.
5.Thetablinumshouldbegiventwothirdsofthewidthoftheatrium
whenthelatteristwentyfeetwide.Ifitisfromthirtytofortyfeet,
lethalfthewidthoftheatriumbedevotedtothetablinum.Whenitis
fromfortytosixtyfeet,dividethewidthintofivepartsandlettwo
ofthesebesetapartforthetablinum.Inthecaseofsmalleratriums,
thesymmetricalproportionscannotbethesameasinlarger.Forif,in
thecaseofthesmaller,weemploytheproportionthatbelongtothe
larger,bothtablinaandalaemustbeunserviceable,whileif,inthe

caseofthelarger,weemploytheproportionsofthesmaller,therooms
mentionedwillbehugemonstrosities.Hence,Ihavethoughtitbestto
describeexactlytheirrespectiveproportionatesizes,withaviewboth
toconvenienceandtobeauty.
[Illustration:_FromMau_
PLANOFATYPICALROMANHOUSE]
6.Theheightofthetablinumatthelintelshouldbeoneeighthmore
thanitswidth.Itsceilingshouldexceedthisheightbyonethirdof
thewidth.Thefaucesinthecaseofsmalleratriumsshouldbetwo
thirds,andinthecaseoflargeronehalfthewidthofthetablinum.
Letthebustsofancestorswiththeirornamentsbesetupataheight
correspondingtothewidthofthealae.Theproportionatewidthand
heightofdoorsmaybesettled,iftheyareDoric,intheDoricmanner,
andifIonic,intheIonicmanner,accordingtotherulesofsymmetry
whichhavebeengivenaboutportalsinthefourthbook.Inthe
roofopeningletanaperturebeleftwithabreadthofnotlessthan
onefourthnormorethanonethirdthewidthoftheatrium,andwitha
lengthproportionatetothatoftheatrium.
[Illustration:_Photo.Sommer_
THEPERISTYLEOFTHEHOUSEOFTHEVETTIIATPOMPEII]
7.Peristyles,lyingathwart,shouldbeonethirdlongerthantheyare
deep,andtheircolumnsashighasthecolonnadesarewide.
Intercolumniationsofperistylesshouldbenotlessthanthreenormore
thanfourtimesthethicknessofthecolumns.Ifthecolumnsofthe
peristylearetobemadeintheDoricstyle,takethemoduleswhichI
havegiveninthefourthbook,ontheDoricorder,andarrangethe
columnswithreferencetothesemodulesandtotheschemeofthe
triglyphs.
[Illustration:_FromDurm_
PLANOFTHEHOUSEOFTHEVETTII,POMPEII]
8.Diningroomsoughttobetwiceaslongastheyarewide.Theheight
ofalloblongroomsshouldbecalculatedbyaddingtogethertheir
measuredlengthandwidth,takingonehalfofthistotal,andusingthe
resultfortheheight.Butinthecaseofexedraeorsquareoeci,let
theheightbebroughtuptooneandonehalftimesthewidth.Picture
galleries,likeexedrae,shouldbeconstructedofgenerousdimensions.
Corinthianandtetrastyleoeci,aswellasthosetermedEgyptian,should
havethesamesymmetricalproportionsinwidthandlengthasthedining
roomsdescribedabove,but,sincetheyhavecolumnsinthem,their
dimensionsshouldbeampler.
9.ThefollowingwillbethedistinctionbetweenCorinthianandEgyptian
oeci:theCorinthianhavesingletiersofcolumns,seteitherona
podiumorontheground,witharchitravesoverthemandcoronaeeither
ofwoodworkorofstucco,andcarvedvaultedceilingsabovethecoronae.
IntheEgyptiantherearearchitravesoverthecolumns,andjoistslaid
thereonfromthearchitravestothesurroundingwalls,withafloorin
theupperstorytoallowofwalkingroundundertheopensky.Then,
abovethearchitraveandperpendicularlyoverthelowertierofcolumns,
columnsonefourthsmallershouldbeimposed.Abovetheirarchitraves
andornamentsaredecoratedceilings,andtheuppercolumnshavewindows
setinbetweenthem.ThustheEgyptianarenotlikeCorinthiandining
rooms,butobviouslyresemblebasilicas.
10.Therearealso,thoughnotcustomaryinItaly,theoeciwhichthe
GreekscallCyzicene.Thesearebuiltwithanorthernexposureand
generallycommandaviewofgardens,andhavefoldingdoorsinthe
middle.Theyarealsosolongandsowidethattwosetsofdining
couches,facingeachother,withroomtopassroundthem,canbeplaced
therein.Ontherightandlefttheyhavewindowswhichopenlikefolding

doors,sothatviewsofthegardenmaybehadfromthediningcouches
throughtheopenedwindows.Theheightofsuchroomsisoneandonehalf
timestheirwidth.
11.Alltheabovementionedsymmetricalrelationsshouldbeobserved,in
thesekindsofbuildings,thatcanbeobservedwithoutembarrassment
causedbythesituation.Thewindowswillbeaneasymattertoarrange
iftheyarenotdarkenedbyhighwalls;butincasesofconfinedspace,
orwhenthereareotherunavoidableobstructions,itwillbepermissible
tomakediminutionsoradditionsinthesymmetricalrelations,with
ingenuityandacuteness,however,sothattheresultmaybenotunlike
thebeautywhichisduetotruesymmetry.

CHAPTERIV
THEPROPEREXPOSURESOFTHEDIFFERENTROOMS
1.Weshallnextexplainhowthespecialpurposesofdifferentrooms
requiredifferentexposures,suitedtoconvenienceandtothequarters
ofthesky.Winterdiningroomsandbathroomsshouldhaveasouthwestern
exposure,forthereasonthattheyneedtheeveninglight,andalso
becausethesettingsun,facingtheminallitssplendourbutwith
abatedheat,lendsagentlerwarmthtothatquarterintheevening.
Bedroomsandlibrariesoughttohaveaneasternexposure,becausetheir
purposesrequirethemorninglight,andalsobecausebooksinsuch
librarieswillnotdecay.Inlibrarieswithsouthernexposuresthebooks
areruinedbywormsanddampness,becausedampwindscomeup,which
breedandnourishtheworms,anddestroythebookswithmould,by
spreadingtheirdampbreathoverthem.
2.DiningroomsforSpringandAutumntotheeast;forwhenthewindows
facethatquarter,thesun,ashegoesonhiscareerfromoveragainst
themtothewest,leavessuchroomsatthepropertemperatureatthe
timewhenitiscustomarytousethem.Summerdiningroomstothenorth,
becausethatquarterisnot,liketheothers,burningwithheatduring
thesolstice,forthereasonthatitisunexposedtothesun'scourse,
andhenceitalwayskeepscool,andmakestheuseoftheroomsboth
healthyandagreeable.Similarlywithpicturegalleries,embroiderers'
workrooms,andpainters'studios,inorderthatthefixedlightmay
permitthecoloursusedintheirworktolastwithqualitiesunchanged.

CHAPTERV
HOWTHEROOMSSHOULDBESUITEDTOTHESTATIONOFTHEOWNER
1.Aftersettlingthepositionsoftheroomswithregardtothequarters
ofthesky,wemustnextconsidertheprinciplesonwhichshouldbe
constructedthoseapartmentsinprivatehouseswhicharemeantforthe
householdersthemselves,andthosewhicharetobesharedincommonwith
outsiders.Theprivateroomsarethoseintowhichnobodyhastheright
toenterwithoutaninvitation,suchasbedrooms,diningrooms,
bathrooms,andallothersusedforthelikepurposes.Thecommonare
thosewhichanyofthepeoplehaveaperfectrighttoenter,even
withoutaninvitation:thatis,entrancecourts,cavaedia,peristyles,
andallintendedforthelikepurpose.Hence,menofeverydayfortunedo
notneedentrancecourts,tablina,oratriumsbuiltingrandstyle,
becausesuchmenaremoreapttodischargetheirsocialobligationsby
goingroundtoothersthantohaveotherscometothem.
2.Thosewhodobusinessincountryproducemusthavestallsandshops
intheirentrancecourts,withcrypts,granaries,storerooms,andso

forthintheirhouses,constructedmoreforthepurposeofkeepingthe
produceingoodconditionthanforornamentalbeauty.
Forcapitalistsandfarmersoftherevenue,somewhatcomfortableand
showyapartmentsmustbeconstructed,secureagainstrobbery;for
advocatesandpublicspeakers,handsomerandmoreroomy,toaccommodate
meetings;formenofrankwho,fromholdingofficesandmagistracies,
havesocialobligationstotheirfellowcitizens,loftyentrancecourts
inregalstyle,andmostspaciousatriumsandperistyles,with
plantationsandwalksofsomeextentinthem,appropriatetotheir
dignity.Theyneedalsolibraries,picturegalleries,andbasilicas,
finishedinastylesimilartothatofgreatpublicbuildings,since
publiccouncilsaswellasprivatelawsuitsandhearingsbefore
arbitratorsareveryoftenheldinthehousesofsuchmen.
3.If,therefore,housesareplannedontheseprinciplestosuit
differentclassesofpersons,asprescribedinmyfirstbook,underthe
subjectofPropriety,therewillbenoroomforcriticism;fortheywill
bearrangedwithconvenienceandperfectiontosuiteverypurpose.The
rulesonthesepointswillholdnotonlyforhousesintown,butalso
forthoseinthecountry,exceptthatintownatriumsareusuallynext
tothefrontdoor,whileincountryseatsperistylescomefirst,and
thenatriumssurroundedbypavedcolonnadesopeninguponpalaestraeand
walks.
IhavenowsetforththerulesforhousesintownsofarasIcould
describetheminasummaryway.NextIshallstatehowfarmhousesmaybe
arrangedwithaviewtoconvenienceinuse,andshallgivetherulesfor
theirconstruction.

CHAPTERVI
THEFARMHOUSE
1.Inthefirstplace,inspectthecountryfromthepointofviewof
health,inaccordancewithwhatiswritteninmyfirstbook,onthe
buildingofcities,andletyourfarmhousesbesituatedaccordingly.
Theirdimensionsshoulddependuponthesizeofthefarmandtheamount
ofproduce.Theircourtyardsandthedimensionsthereofshouldbe
determinedbythenumberofcattleandthenumberofyokesofoxenthat
willneedtobekepttherein.Letthekitchenbeplacedonthewarmest
sideofthecourtyard,withthestallsfortheoxenadjoining,andtheir
cribsfacingthekitchenfireandtheeasternquarterofthesky,for
thereasonthatoxenfacingthelightandthefiredonotget
roughcoated.Evenpeasantswhollywithoutknowledgeofthequartersof
theskybelievethatoxenoughttofaceonlyinthedirectionofthe
sunrise.
[Illustration:_FromMau_
THEVILLARUSTICAATBOSCOREALENEARPOMPEII
_A._Court._B._Kitchen._CF._Baths._H._Stable.
_J._Toolroom._K,L,V,V._Bedrooms.
_N._DiningRoom._M._Anteroom._O._Bakery.
_P._Roomwithtwowinepresses._Q._Corridor.
_B._Courtforfermentationofwine._S._Barn.
_T._Threshingfloor._Y._Roomwithoilpress.
]
2.Theirstallsoughttobenotlessthantennormorethanfifteenfeet
wide,andlongenoughtoallownotlessthansevenfeetforeachyoke.
Bathrooms,also,shouldadjointhekitchen;forinthissituationit
willnottakelongtogetreadyabathinthecountry.

Letthepressingroom,also,benexttothekitchen;forinthis
situationitwillbeeasytodealwiththefruitoftheolive.Adjoining
itshouldbethewineroomwithitswindowslightedfromthenorth.Ina
roomwithwindowsonanyotherquartersothatthesuncanheatit,the
heatwillgetintothewineandmakeitweak.
3.Theoilroommustbesituatedsoastogetitslightfromthesouth
andfromwarmquarters;foroiloughtnottobechilled,butshouldbe
keptthinbygentleheat.Indimensions,oilroomsshouldbebuiltto
accommodatethecropandthepropernumberofjars,eachofwhich,
holdingaboutonehundredandtwentygallons,musttakeupaspacefour
feetindiameter.Thepressingroomitself,ifthepressureisexerted
bymeansofleversandabeam,andnotworkedbyturningscrews,should
benotlessthanfortyfeetlong,whichwillgivethelevermana
convenientamountofspace.Itshouldbenotlessthansixteenfeet
wide,whichwillgivethemenwhoareatworkplentyoffreespacetodo
theturningconveniently.Iftwopressesarerequiredintheplace,
allowtwentyfourfeetforthewidth.
4.Foldsforsheepandgoatsmustbemadelargeenoughtoalloweach
animalaspaceofnotlessthanfourandahalf,normorethansixfeet.
Roomsforgrainshouldbesetinanelevatedpositionandwitha
northernornortheasternexposure.Thusthegrainwillnotbeableto
heatquickly,but,beingcooledbythewind,keepsalongtime.Other
exposuresproducethecornweevilandtheotherlittlecreaturesthat
arewonttospoilthegrain.Tothestableshouldbeassignedthevery
warmestplaceinthefarmhouse,providedthatitisnotexposedtothe
kitchenfire;forwhendraughtanimalsarestabledverynearafire,
theircoatsgetrough.
5.Furthermore,thereareadvantagesinbuildingcribsapartfromthe
kitchenandintheopen,facingtheeast;forwhentheoxenaretaken
overtothemonearlywintermorningsinclearweather,theircoatsget
sleekerastheytaketheirfodderinthesunlight.Barnsforgrain,hay,
andspelt,aswellasbakeries,shouldbebuiltapartfromthe
farmhouse,sothatfarmhousesmaybebetterprotectedagainstdanger
fromfire.Ifsomethingmorerefinedisrequiredinfarmhouses,theymay
beconstructedontheprinciplesofsymmetrywhichhavebeengivenabove
inthecaseoftownhouses,providedthatthereisnothinginsuch
buildingstointerferewiththeirusefulnessonafarm.
6.Wemusttakecarethatallbuildingsarewelllighted,butthisis
obviouslyaneasiermatterwiththosewhichareoncountryestates,
becausetherecanbenoneighbour'swalltointerfere,whereasintown
highpartywallsorlimitedspaceobstructthelightandmakethemdark.
Hencewemustapplythefollowingtestinthismatter.Onthesidefrom
whichthelightshouldbeobtainedletalinebestretchedfromthetop
ofthewallthatseemstoobstructthelighttothepointatwhichit
oughttobeintroduced,andifaconsiderablespaceofopenskycanbe
seenwhenonelooksupabovethatline,therewillbenoobstructionto
thelightinthatsituation.
7.Butiftherearetimbersintheway,orlintels,orupperstories,
then,maketheopeninghigherupandintroducethelightinthisway.
Andasageneralrule,wemustarrangesoastoleaveplacesforwindows
onallsidesonwhichaclearviewoftheskycanbehad,forthiswill
makeourbuildingslight.Notonlyindiningroomsandotherroomsfor
generalusearewindowsverynecessary,butalsoinpassages,levelor
inclined,andonstairs;forpeoplecarryingburdenstoooftenmeetand
runagainsteachotherinsuchplaces.
Ihavenowsetforththeplansusedforbuildingsinournativecountry
sothattheymaybecleartobuilders.Next,Ishalldescribesummarily
howhousesareplannedintheGreekfashion,sothatthesealsomaybe
understood.

CHAPTERVII
THEGREEKHOUSE
1.TheGreeks,havingnouseforatriums,donotbuildthem,butmake
passagewaysforpeopleenteringfromthefrontdoor,notverywide,
withstablesononesideanddoorkeepers'roomsontheother,andshut
offbydoorsattheinnerend.Thisplacebetweenthetwodoorsis
termedinGreek[Greek:thyroreion].Fromitoneenterstheperistyle.
Thisperistylehascolonnadesonthreesides,andonthesidefacingthe
southithastwoantae,aconsiderabledistanceapart,carryingan
architrave,witharecessforadistanceonethirdlessthanthespace
betweentheantae.Thisspaceiscalledbysomewriters"prostas,"by
others"pastas."
[Illustration:PLANOFVITRUVIUS'GREEKHOUSEACCORDINGTOBECKER]
2.Hereabouts,towardstheinnerside,arethelargeroomsinwhich
mistressesofhousessitwiththeirwoolspinners.Totherightandleft
oftheprostastherearechambers,oneofwhichiscalledthe
"thalamos,"theotherthe"amphithalamos."Allroundthecolonnadesare
diningroomsforeverydayuse,chambers,androomsfortheslaves.This
partofthehouseistermed"gynaeconitis."
3.Inconnexionwiththesethereareamplersetsofapartmentswithmore
sumptuousperistyles,surroundedbyfourcolonnadesofequalheight,or
elsetheonewhichfacesthesouthhashighercolumnsthantheothers.A
peristylethathasonesuchhighercolonnadeiscalledaRhodian
peristyle.Suchapartmentshavefineentrancecourtswithimposingfront
doorsoftheirown;thecolonnadesoftheperistylesaredecoratedwith
polishedstuccoinreliefandplain,andwithcofferedceilingsof
woodwork;offthecolonnadesthatfacethenorththeyhaveCyzicene
diningroomsandpicturegalleries;totheeast,libraries;exedraeto
thewest;andtothesouth,largesquareroomsofsuchgenerous
dimensionsthatfoursetsofdiningcouchescaneasilybearrangedin
them,withplentyofroomforservingandfortheamusements.
4.Men'sdinnerpartiesareheldintheselargerooms;foritwasnot
thepractice,accordingtoGreekcustom,forthemistressofthehouse
tobepresent.Onthecontrary,suchperistylesarecalledthemen's
apartments,sinceinthemthemencanstaywithoutinterruptionfromthe
women.Furthermore,smallsetsofapartmentsarebuilttotherightand
left,withfrontdoorsoftheirownandsuitablediningroomsand
chambers,sothatguestsfromabroadneednotbeshownintothe
peristyles,butratherintosuchguests'apartments.ForwhentheGreeks
becamemoreluxurious,andtheircircumstancesmoreopulent,theybegan
toprovidediningrooms,chambers,andstoreroomsofprovisionsfor
theirguestsfromabroad,andonthefirstdaytheywouldinvitethemto
dinner,sendingthemonthenextchickens,eggs,vegetables,fruits,and
othercountryproduce.Thisiswhyartistscalledpicturesrepresenting
thethingswhichweresenttoguests"xenia."Thus,too,theheadsof
families,whilebeingentertainedabroad,hadthefeelingthattheywere
notawayfromhome,sincetheyenjoyedprivacyandfreedominsuch
guests'apartments.
[Illustration:_FromBull.de.Corr.Hell.1895_
GREEKHOUSEATDELOS]
5.Betweenthetwoperistylesandtheguests'apartmentsarethe
passagewayscalled"mesauloe,"becausetheyaresituatedmidwaybetween
twocourts;butourpeoplecalledthem"andrones."
This,however,isaverystrangefact,forthetermdoesnotfiteither
theGreekortheLatinuseofit.TheGreekscallthelargeroomsin
whichmen'sdinnerpartiesareusuallyheld[Greek:andrones],because
womendonotgothere.Thereareothersimilarinstancesasinthecase

of"xystus,""prothyrum,""telamones,"andsomeothersofthesort.Asa
Greekterm,[Greek:xystos]meansacolonnadeoflargedimensionsin
whichathletesexerciseinthewintertime.Butourpeopleapplythe
term"xysta"touncoveredwalks,whichtheGreekscall[Greek:
paradromides].Again,[Greek:prothyra]meansinGreektheentrance
courtsbeforethefrontdoors;we,however,usetheterm"prothyra"in
thesenseoftheGreek[Greek:diathyra].
[Illustration:_FromMitt.d.Deutsch.Arch.Inst_.
GREEKHOUSEDISCOVEREDATPERGAMUMIN1903
13.Prothyron.7.Tablinum.]
6.Again,figuresintheformofmensupportingmutulesorcoronae,we
term"telamones"thereasonswhyorwhereforetheyaresocalledare
notfoundinanystorybuttheGreeksnamethem[Greek:atlantes].For
Atlasisdescribedinstoryasholdingupthefirmamentbecause,through
hisvigorousintelligenceandingenuity,hewasthefirsttocausemen
tobetaughtaboutthecoursesofthesunandmoon,andthelaws
governingtherevolutionsofalltheconstellations.Consequently,in
recognitionofthisbenefaction,paintersandsculptorsrepresenthim
asholdingupthefirmament,andtheAtlantides,hisdaughters,whomwe
call"Vergiliae"andtheGreeks[Greek:Pleiades],areconsecratedin
thefirmamentamongtheconstellations.
7.Allthis,however,Ihavenotsetforthforthepurposeofchanging
theusualterminologyorlanguage,butIhavethoughtthatitshouldbe
explainedsothatitmaybeknowntoscholars.
Ihavenowexplainedtheusualwaysofplanninghousesbothinthe
ItalianfashionandaccordingtothepracticesoftheGreeks,andhave
described,withregardtotheirsymmetry,theproportionsofthe
differentclasses.Having,therefore,alreadywrittenoftheirbeauty
andpropriety,Ishallnextexplain,withreferencetodurability,how
theymaybebuilttolasttoagreatagewithoutdefects.

CHAPTERVIII
ONFOUNDATIONSANDSUBSTRUCTURES
1.Houseswhicharesetlevelwiththegroundwillnodoubtlasttoa
greatage,iftheirfoundationsarelaidinthemannerwhichwehave
explainedintheearlierbooks,withregardtocitywallsandtheatres.
Butifundergroundroomsandvaultsareintended,theirfoundations
oughttobethickerthanthewallswhicharetobeconstructedinthe
upperpartofthehouse,andthewalls,piers,andcolumnsofthelatter
shouldbesetperpendicularlyoverthemiddleofthefoundationwalls
below,sothattheymayhavesolidbearing;foriftheloadofthewalls
orcolumnsrestsonthemiddleofspans,theycanhavenopermanent
durability.
2.Itwillalsodonoharmtoinsertpostsbetweenlintelsandsills
wheretherearepiersorantae;forwherethelintelsandbeamshave
receivedtheloadofthewalls,theymaysaginthemiddle,and
graduallyundermineanddestroythewalls.Butwhentherearepostsset
upunderneathandwedgedinthere,theypreventthebeamsfromsettling
andinjuringsuchwalls.
3.Wemustalsomanagetodischargetheloadofthewallsbymeansof
archingscomposedofvoussoirswithjointsradiatingtothecentre.For
whenarcheswithvoussoirsaresprungfromtheendsofbeams,orfrom
thebearingsoflintels,inthefirstplacetheywilldischargetheload
andthewoodwillnotsag;secondly,ifincourseoftimethewood
becomesatalldefective,itcaneasilybereplacedwithoutthe

constructionofshoring.
4.Likewiseinhouseswherepiersareusedintheconstruction,when
therearearchescomposedofvoussoirswithjointsradiatingtothe
centre,theoutermostpiersatthesepointsmustbemadebroaderthan
theothers,sothattheymayhavethestrengthtoresistwhenthe
wedges,underthepressureoftheloadofthewalls,begintopress
alongtheirjointstowardsthecentre,andthustothrustoutthe
abutments.Hence,ifthepiersattheendsareoflargedimensions,they
willholdthevoussoirstogether,andmakesuchworksdurable.
5.Havingtakenheedinthesematterstoseethatproperattentionis
paidtothem,wemustalsobeequallycarefulthatallwallsare
perfectlyvertical,andthattheydonotleanforwardanywhere.
Particularpains,too,mustbetakenwithsubstructures,forherean
endlessamountofharmisusuallydonebytheearthusedasfilling.
Thiscannotalwaysremainofthesameweightthatitusuallyhasin
summer,butinwintertimeitincreasesinweightandbulkbytakingup
agreatdealofrainwater,andthenitburstsitsenclosingwallsand
thruststhemout.
6.Thefollowingmeansmustbetakentoprovideagainstsuchadefect.
First,letthewallsbegivenathicknessproportionatetotheamountof
filling;secondly,buildcounterfortsorbuttressesatthesametimeas
thewall,ontheouterside,atdistancesfromeachotherequivalentto
whatistobetheheightofthesubstructureandwiththethicknessof
thesubstructure.Atthebottomletthemrunouttoadistance
correspondingtothethicknessthathasbeendeterminedforthe
substructure,andthengraduallydiminishinextentsothatatthe
surfacetheirprojectionisequaltothethicknessofthewallofthe
building.
[Illustration:RETAININGWALLS
(FromtheeditionofVitruviusbyFraGiocondo,Venice1511)]
7.Furthermore,inside,tomeetthemassofearth,thereshouldbe
sawshapedconstructionsattachedtothewall,thesingleteeth
extendingfromthewallforadistanceequivalenttowhatistobethe
heightofthesubstructure,andtheteethbeingconstructedwiththe
samethicknessasthewall.Thenattheoutermostanglestakeadistance
inwards,fromtheinsideoftheangle,equaltotheheightofthe
substructure,andmarkitoffoneachside;fromthesemarksbuildupa
diagonalstructureandfromthemiddleofitasecond,joinedontothe
angleofthewall.Withthisarrangement,theteethanddiagonal
structureswillnotallowthefillingtothrustwithallitsforce
againstthewall,butwillcheckanddistributethepressure.
8.Ihavenowshownhowbuildingscanbeconstructedwithoutdefects,
andthewaytotakeprecautionsagainsttheoccurrenceofthem.Asfor
replacingtiles,rooftimbers,andrafters,weneednotbesoparticular
aboutthemasaboutthepartsjustmentioned,becausetheycaneasilybe
replaced,howeverdefectivetheymaybecome.Hence,Ihaveshownbywhat
methodsthepartswhicharenotconsideredsolidcanberendered
durable,andhowtheyareconstructed.
9.Asforthekindofmaterialtobeused,thisdoesnotdependuponthe
architect,forthereasonthatallkindsofmaterialsarenotfoundin
allplacesalike,ashasbeenshowninthefirstbook.Besides,it
dependsontheownerwhetherhedesirestobuildinbrick,orrubble
work,ordimensionstone.Consequentlythequestionofapprovingany
workmaybeconsideredunderthreeheads:thatis,delicacyof
workmanship,sumptuousness,anddesign.Whenitappearsthataworkhas
beencarriedoutsumptuously,theownerwillbethepersontobepraised
forthegreatoutlaywhichhehasauthorized;whendelicately,the
masterworkmanwillbeapprovedforhisexecution;butwhenproportions
andsymmetrylenditanimposingeffect,thenthegloryofitwill
belongtothearchitect.

10.Suchresults,however,mayverywellbebroughtaboutwhenheallows
himselftotaketheadvicebothofworkmenandoflaymen.Infact,all
kindsofmen,andnotmerelyarchitects,canrecognizeagoodpieceof
work,butbetweenlaymenandthelatterthereisthisdifference,that
thelaymancannottellwhatitistobelikewithoutseeingitfinished,
whereasthearchitect,assoonashehasformedtheconception,and
beforehebeginsthework,hasadefiniteideaofthebeauty,the
convenience,andtheproprietythatwilldistinguishit.
IhavenowdescribedasclearlyasIcouldwhatIthoughtnecessaryfor
privatehouses,andhowtobuildthem.InthefollowingbookIshall
treatofthekindsofpolishedfinishemployedtomakethemelegant,and
durablewithoutdefectstoagreatage.

BOOKVII

INTRODUCTION
1.Itwasawiseandusefulprovisionoftheancientstotransmittheir
thoughtstoposteritybyrecordingthemintreatises,sothatthey
shouldnotbelost,but,beingdevelopedinsucceedinggenerations
throughpublicationinbooks,shouldgraduallyattaininlatertimes,to
thehighestrefinementoflearning.Andsotheancientsdeserveno
ordinary,butunendingthanks,becausetheydidnotpassoninenvious
silence,buttookcarethattheirideasofeverykindshouldbe
transmittedtothefutureintheirwritings.
2.Iftheyhadnotdoneso,wecouldnothaveknownwhatdeedsweredone
inTroy,norwhatThales,Democritus,Anaxagoras,Xenophanes,andthe
otherphysiciststhoughtaboutnature,andwhatrulesSocrates,Plato,
Aristotle,Zeno,Epicurus,andotherphilosopherslaiddownforthe
conductofhumanlife;norwouldthedeedsandmotivesofCroesus,
Alexander,Darius,andotherkingshavebeenknown,unlesstheancients
hadcompiledtreatises,andpublishedthemincommentariestobehadin
universalremembrancewithposterity.
3.So,whiletheydeserveourthanks,those,onthecontrary,deserve
ourreproaches,whostealthewritingsofsuchmenandpublishthemas
theirown;andthosealso,whodependintheirwritings,notontheir
ownideas,butwhoenviouslydowrongtotheworksofothersandboast
ofit,deservenotmerelytobeblamed,buttobesentencedtoactual
punishmentfortheirwickedcourseoflife.Withtheancients,however,
itissaidthatsuchthingsdidnotpasswithoutprettystrict
chastisement.Whattheresultsoftheirjudgmentswere,itmaynotbe
outofplacetosetforthastheyaretransmittedtous.
4.ThekingsofthehouseofAttalushavingestablished,underthe
influenceofthegreatcharmsofliterature,anexcellentlibraryat
Pergamustogivepleasuretothepublic,Ptolemyalsowasarousedwith
noendofenthusiasmandemulationintoexertionstomakeasimilar
provisionwithnolessdiligenceatAlexandria.Havingdonesowiththe
greatestcare,hefeltthatthiswasnotenoughwithoutprovidingfor
itsincreaseanddevelopment,forwhichhesowedtheseed.He
establishedpubliccontestsinhonouroftheMusesandApollo,and
appointedprizesandhonoursforvictoriousauthorsingeneral,asis
doneinthecaseofathletes.
5.Thesearrangementshavingbeenmade,andthecontestsbeingathand,
itbecamenecessarytoselectliterarymenasjudgestodecidethem.The
kingsoonselectedsixofthecitizens,butcouldnotsoeasilyfinda
properpersontobetheseventh.Hethereforeturnedtothosewho
presidedoverthelibrary,andaskedwhethertheyknewanybodywhowas

suitableforthepurpose.Thentheytoldhimthattherewasone
Aristophaneswhowasdailyengagedinreadingthroughallthebookswith
thegreatestenthusiasmandthegreatestcare.Hence,whenthegathering
fortheconteststookplace,andseparateseatsweresetapartforthe
judges,Aristophaneswassummonedwiththerest,andsatdowninthe
placeassignedtohim.
6.Agroupofpoetswasfirstbroughtintocontend,and,asthey
recitedtheircompositions,thewholeaudiencebyitsapplauseshowed
thejudgeswhatitapproved.So,whentheywereindividuallyaskedfor
theirvotes,thesixagreed,andawardedthefirstprizetothepoet
who,astheyobserved,hadmostpleasedthemultitude,andthesecondto
theonewhocamenext.ButAristophanes,onbeingaskedforhisvote,
urgedthatthepoetwhohadleastpleasedtheaudienceshouldbe
declaredtobethefirst.
7.Asthekingandtheentireassemblyshowedgreatindignation,he
arose,andaskedandreceivedpermissiontospeak.Silencebeing
obtained,hestatedthatonlyoneofthemhismanwasapoet,andthat
theresthadrecitedthingsnottheirown;furthermore,thatjudges
oughttogivetheirapproval,nottothefts,buttooriginal
compositions.Thepeoplewereamazed,andthekinghesitated,but
Aristophanes,trustingtohismemory,hadavastnumberofvolumes
broughtoutfrombookcaseswhichhespecified,and,bycomparingthem
withwhathadbeenrecited,obligedthethievesthemselvestomake
confession.So,thekinggaveordersthattheyshouldbeaccusedof
theft,andaftercondemnationsentthemoffindisgrace;buthehonoured
Aristophaneswiththemostgenerousgifts,andputhiminchargeofthe
library.
8.Someyearslater,Zoilus,whotookthesurnameofHomeromastix,came
fromMacedoniatoAlexandriaandreadtothekinghiswritingsdirected
againsttheIliadandOdyssey.Ptolemy,seeingthefatherofpoetsand
captainofallliteratureabusedinhisabsence,andhisworks,towhich
alltheworldlookedupinadmiration,disparagedbythisperson,made
norejoinder,althoughhethoughtitanoutrage.Zoilus,however,after
remaininginthekingdomsometime,sankintopoverty,andsenta
messagetotheking,requestingthatsomethingmightbebestowedupon
him.
9.Butitissaidthatthekingreplied,thatHomer,thoughdeada
thousandyearsago,hadallthattimebeenthemeansoflivelihoodfor
manythousandsofmen;similarly,apersonwholaidclaimtohigher
geniusoughttobeabletosupportnotonemanonly,butmanyothers.
Andinshort,variousstoriesaretoldabouthisdeath,whichwaslike
thatofonefoundguiltyofparricide.Somewritershavesaidthathe
wascrucifiedbyPhiladelphus;othersthathewasstonedatChios;
othersagainthathewasthrownaliveuponafuneralpyreatSmyrna.
Whicheveroftheseformsofdeathbefellhim,itwasafitting
punishmentandhisjustdue;foronewhoaccusesmenthatcannotanswer
andshow,facetoface,whatwasthemeaningoftheirwritings,
obviouslydeservesnoothertreatment.
10.Butformypart,Caesar,Iamnotbringingforwardthepresent
treatiseafterchangingthetitlesofothermen'sbooksandinsertingmy
ownname,norhasitbeenmyplantowinapprobationbyfindingfault
withtheideasofanother.Onthecontrary,Iexpressunlimitedthanks
toalltheauthorsthathaveinthepast,bycompilingfromantiquity
remarkableinstancesoftheskillshownbygenius,provideduswith
abundantmaterialsofdifferentkinds.Drawingfromthemasitwere
waterfromsprings,andconvertingthemtoourownpurposes,wefindour
powersofwritingrenderedmorefluentandeasy,and,relyinguponsuch
authorities,weventuretoproducenewsystemsofinstruction.
11.Hence,asIsawthatsuchbeginningsontheirpartformedan
introductionsuitedtothenatureofmyownpurpose,Isetouttodraw
fromthem,andtogosomewhatfurther.
InthefirstplaceAgatharcus,inAthens,whenAeschyluswasbringing

outatragedy,paintedascene,andleftacommentaryaboutit.Thisled
DemocritusandAnaxagorastowriteonthesamesubject,showinghow,
givenacentreinadefiniteplace,thelinesshouldnaturally
correspondwithdueregardtothepointofsightandthedivergenceof
thevisualrays,sothatbythisdeceptionafaithfulrepresentationof
theappearanceofbuildingsmightbegiveninpaintedscenery,andso
that,thoughallisdrawnonaverticalflatfacade,somepartsmayseem
tobewithdrawingintothebackground,andotherstobestandingoutin
front.
12.AfterwardsSilenuspublishedabookontheproportionsofDoric
structures;Theodorus,ontheDorictempleofJunowhichisinSamos;
ChersiphronandMetagenes,ontheIonictempleatEphesuswhichis
Diana's;Pytheos,ontheIonicfaneofMinervawhichisatPriene;
IctinusandCarpion,ontheDorictempleofMinervawhichisonthe
acropolisofAthens;TheodorusthePhocian,ontheRoundBuildingwhich
isatDelphi;Philo,ontheproportionsoftemples,andonthenaval
arsenalwhichwas[9]attheportofPeiraeus;Hermogenes,ontheIonic
templeofDianawhichisatMagnesia,apseudodipteral,andonthatof
FatherBacchusatTeos,amonopteral;Arcesius,ontheCorinthian
proportions,andontheIonictempleofAesculapiusatTralles,whichit
issaidthathebuiltwithhisownhands;ontheMausoleum,Satyrusand
Pytheoswhowerefavouredwiththegreatestandhighestgoodfortune.
[Note9:Codd._fuerat_.]
13.Formenwhoseartistictalentsarebelievedtohavewonthemthe
highestrenownforalltime,andlaurelsforevergreen,devisedand
executedworksofsupremeexcellenceinthisbuilding.Thedecoration
andperfectionofthedifferentfacadeswereundertakenbydifferent
artistsinemulationwitheachother:Leochares,Bryaxis,Scopas,
Praxiteles,and,assomethink,Timotheus;andthedistinguished
excellenceoftheirartmadethatbuildingfamousamongtheseven
wondersoftheworld.
14.Then,too,manylesscelebratedmenhavewrittentreatisesonthe
lawsofsymmetry,suchasNexaris,Theocydes,Demophilus,Pollis,
Leonidas,Silanion,Melampus,Sarnacus,andEuphranor;othersagainon
machinery,suchasDiades,Archytas,Archimedes,Ctesibius,Nymphodorus,
PhiloofByzantium,Diphilus,Democles,Charias,Polyidus,Pyrrus,and
Agesistratus.FromtheircommentariesIhavegatheredwhatIsawwas
usefulforthepresentsubject,andformeditintoonecomplete
treatise,andthisprincipally,becauseIsawthatmanybooksinthis
fieldhadbeenpublishedbytheGreeks,butveryfewindeedbyour
countrymen.Fuficius,infact,wasthefirsttoundertaketopublisha
bookonthissubject.TerentiusVarro,also,inhiswork"OntheNine
Sciences"hasonebookonarchitecture,andPubliusSeptimius,two.
15.Buttothisdaynobodyelseseemstohavebenthisenergiestothis
branchofliterature,althoughtherehavebeen,evenamongour
fellowcitizensinoldtimes,greatarchitectswhocouldalsohave
writtenwithelegance.Forinstance,inAthens,thearchitects
Antistates,Callaeschrus,Antimachides,andPormuslaidthefoundations
whenPeisistratusbeganthetempleofOlympianJove,butafterhisdeath
theyabandonedtheundertaking,onaccountofpoliticaltroubles.Hence
itwasthatwhen,aboutfourhundredyearslater,KingAntiochus
promisedtopaytheexpensesofthatwork,thehugecella,the
surroundingcolumnsindipteralarrangement,andthearchitravesand
otherornaments,adjustedaccordingtothelawsofsymmetry,werenobly
constructedwithgreatskillandsupremeknowledgebyCossutius,a
citizenofRome.Moreover,thisworkhasanameforitsgrandeur,not
onlyingeneral,butalsoamongtheselectfew.
16.Thereare,infact,fourplacespossessingtemplesembellishedwith
workmanshipinmarblethatcausesthemtobementionedinaclassby
themselveswiththehighestrenown.Totheirgreatexcellenceandthe
wisdomoftheirconceptiontheyowetheirplaceofesteeminthe
ceremonialworshipofthegods.FirstthereisthetempleofDianaat
Ephesus,intheIonicstyle,undertakenbyChersiphronofGnosusandhis

sonMetagenes,andsaidtohavebeenfinishedlaterbyDemetrius,who
washimselfaslaveofDiana,andbyPaeoniustheMilesian.AtMiletus,
thetempleofApollo,alsoIonicinitsproportions,wastheundertaking
ofthesamePaeoniusandoftheEphesianDaphnis.AtEleusis,thecella
ofCeresandProserpine,ofvastsize,wascompletedtotheroofby
IctinusintheDoricstyle,butwithoutexteriorcolumnsandwithplenty
ofroomforthecustomarysacrifices.
17.Afterwards,however,whenDemetriusofPhalerumwasmasterof
Athens,Philosetupcolumnsinfrontbeforethetemple,andmadeit
prostyle.Thus,byaddinganentrancehall,hegavetheinitiatesmore
room,andimpartedthegreatestdignitytothebuilding.Finally,in
Athens,thetempleoftheOlympionwithitsdimensionsonagenerous
scale,andbuiltintheCorinthianstyleandproportions,issaidto
havebeenconstructed,aswrittenabove,byCossutius,nocommentaryby
whomhasbeenfound.ButCossutiusisnottheonlymanbywhomweshould
liketohavewritingsonoursubject.AnotherisGaiusMucius,who,
havinggreatknowledgeonwhichtorely,completedthecella,columns,
andentablatureoftheMariantempleofHonourandValour,in
symmetricalproportionsaccordingtotheacceptedrulesoftheart.If
thisbuildinghadbeenofmarble,sothatbesidestherefinementofits
artitpossessedthedignitycomingfrommagnificenceandgreatoutlay,
itwouldbereckonedamongthefirstandgreatestofworks.
18.Sinceitappears,then,thatourarchitectsintheolddays,anda
goodmanyeveninourowntimes,havebeenasgreatasthoseofthe
Greeks,andneverthelessonlyafewofthemhavepublishedtreatises,I
resolvednottobesilent,buttotreatthedifferenttopics
methodicallyindifferentbooks.Hence,sinceIhavegivenanaccountof
privatehousesinthesixthbook,inthis,whichistheseventhin
order,Ishalltreatofpolishedfinishingsandthemethodsofgiving
thembothbeautyanddurability.

CHAPTERI
FLOORS
1.FirstIshallbeginwiththeconcreteflooring,whichisthemost
importantofthepolishedfinishings,observingthatgreatpainsandthe
utmostprecautionmustbetakentoensureitsdurability.Ifthis
concreteflooringistobelaidlevelwiththeground,letthesoilbe
testedtoseewhetheritiseverywheresolid,andifitis,levelitoff
anduponitlaythebrokenstonewithitsbedding.Butiftheflooris
eitherwhollyorpartlyfilling,itshouldberammeddownhardwith
greatcare.Incaseawoodenframeworkisused,however,wemustsee
thatnowallwhichdoesnotreachuptothetopofthehouseis
constructedunderthefloor.Anywallwhichisthereshouldpreferably
fallshort,soastoleavethewoodenplankingaboveitanunsupported
span.Ifawallcomesupsolid,theunyieldingnatureofitssolid
structuremust,whenthejoistsbegintodry,ortosagandsettle,lead
tocracksinthefloorontherightandleftalongthelineofwall.
2.Wemustalsobecarefulthatnocommonoakgetsinwiththewinter
oakboards,forassoonascommonoakboardsgetdamp,theywarpand
causecracksinfloors.Butifthereisnowinteroak,andnecessity
drives,forlackofthisitseemsadvisabletousecommonoakboardscut
prettythin;forthelessthicktheyare,themoreeasilytheycanbe
heldinplacebybeingnailedon.Then,attheendsofeveryjoist,nail
ontwoboardssothattheyshallnotbeabletowarpandstickupatthe
edges.AsforTurkeyoakorbeechorash,noneofthemcanlasttoa
greatage.
Whenthewoodenplankingisfinished,coveritwithfern,ifthereis
any,otherwisewithstraw,toprotectthewoodfrombeinghurtbythe
lime.

3.Then,uponthislaythebedding,composedofstonesnotsmallerthan
canfillthehand.Afterthebeddingislaid,mixthebrokenstonein
theproportions,ifitisnew,ofthreepartstooneoflime;ifitis
oldmaterialusedagain,fivepartsmayanswertotwointhemixture.
Next,laythemixtureofbrokenstone,bringonyourgangs,andbeatit
againandagainwithwoodenbeetlesintoasolidmass,andletitbenot
lessthanthreequartersofafootinthicknesswhenthebeatingis
finished.Onthislaythenucleus,consistingofpoundedtilemixedwith
limeintheproportionsofthreepartstoone,andformingalayernot
lessthansixdigitsthick.Ontopofthenucleus,thefloor,whether
madeofcutslipsorofcubes,shouldbewellandtrulylaidbyruleand
level.
4.Afteritislaidandsetattheproperinclination,letitberubbed
downsothat,ifitconsistsofcutslips,thelozenges,ortriangles,
orsquares,orhexagonsmaynotstickupatdifferentlevels,butbeall
jointedtogetheronthesameplanewithoneanother;ifitislaidin
cubes,sothatalltheedgesmaybelevel;fortherubbingdownwillnot
beproperlyfinishedunlessalltheedgesareonthesamelevelplane.
Theherringbonepattern,madeofTiburburntbrick,mustalsobe
carefullyfinished,soastobewithoutgapsorridgesstickingup,but
allflatandrubbeddowntorule.Whentherubbingdowniscompletely
finishedbymeansofthesmoothingandpolishingprocesses,sift
powderedmarbleontop,andlayonacoatingoflimeandsand.
5.Intheopenair,speciallyadaptedkindsoffloorsmustbemade,
becausetheirframework,swellingwithdampness,orshrinkingfrom
dryness,orsaggingandsettling,injuresthefloorsbythesechanges;
besides,thefrostandrimewillnotletthemgounhurt.Hence,if
necessitydrives,wemustproceedasfollowsinordertomakethemas
freefromdefectsaspossible.Afterfinishingtheplankflooring,laya
secondplankflooringoveritatrightangles,andnailitdownsoasto
givedoubleprotectiontotheframework.Then,mixwithnewbrokenstone
onethirdthequantityofpoundedtile,andletlimebeaddedtothe
mixtureinthemortartroughintheproportionoftwopartstofive.
6.Havingmadethebedding,layonthismixtureofbrokenstone,and
letitbenotlessthanafootthickwhenthebeatingisfinished.Then,
afterlayingthenucleus,asabovedescribed,constructthefloorof
largecubescutabouttwodigitseachway,andletithavean
inclinationoftwodigitsforeverytenfeet.Ifitiswellputtogether
andproperlyrubbeddown,itwillbefreefromallflaws.Inorderthat
themortarinthejointsmaynotsufferfromfrosts,drenchitwith
oildregseveryyearbeforewinterbegins.Thustreated,itwillnotlet
thehoarfrostenterit.
7.If,however,itseemsneedfultousestillgreatercare,laytwofoot
tiles,jointedtogetherinabedofmortar,overthebrokenstone,with
littlechannelsofonefinger'sbreadthcutinthefacesofallthe
joints.Connectthesechannelsandfillthemwithamixtureoflimeand
oil;then,rubthejointshardandmakethemcompact.Thus,thelime
stickinginthechannelswillhardenandsolidifyintoamass,andso
preventwateroranythingelsefrompenetratingthroughthejoints.
Afterthislayerisfinished,spreadthenucleusuponit,andworkit
downbybeatingitwithrods.Uponthislaythefloor,atthe
inclinationabovedescribed,eitheroflargecubesorburntbrickin
herringbonepattern,andfloorsthusconstructedwillnotsoonbe
spoiled.

CHAPTERII
THESLAKINGOFLIMEFORSTUCCO
1.Leavingthesubjectoffloors,wemustnexttreatofstuccowork.

Thiswillbeallrightifthebestlime,takeninlumps,isslakeda
goodwhilebeforeitistobeused,sothatifanylumphasnotbeen
burnedlongenoughinthekiln,itwillbeforcedtothrowoffitsheat
duringthelongcourseofslakinginthewater,andwillthusbe
thoroughlyburnedtothesameconsistency.Whenitistakennot
thoroughlyslakedbutfresh,ithaslittlecrudebitsconcealedinit,
andso,whenapplied,itblisters.Whensuchbitscompletetheirslaking
aftertheyareonthebuilding,theybreakupandspoilthesmooth
polishofthestucco.
2.Butwhentheproperattentionhasbeenpaidtotheslaking,and
greaterpainshavethusbeenemployedinthepreparationforthework,
takeahoe,andapplyittotheslakedlimeinthemortarbedjustas
youhewwood.Ifitstickstothehoeinbits,thelimeisnotyet
tempered;andwhentheironisdrawnoutdryandclean,itwillshow
thatthelimeisweakandthirsty;butwhenthelimeisrichand
properlyslaked,itwillsticktothetoollikeglue,provingthatitis
completelytempered.Thengetthescaffoldingready,andproceedto
constructthevaultingsintherooms,unlesstheyaretobedecorated
withflatcofferedceilings.

CHAPTERIII
VAULTINGSANDSTUCCOWORK
1.Whenvaultingisrequired,theprocedureshouldbeasfollows.Setup
horizontalfurringstripsatintervalsofnotmorethantwofeetapart,
usingpreferablycypress,asfirissoonspoiledbydecayandbyage.
Arrangethesestripssoastoformacurve,andmakethemfasttothe
joistsoftheflooraboveortotheroof,ifitisthere,bynailing
themwithmanyironnailstotiesfixedatintervals.Thesetiesshould
bemadeofakindofwoodthatneitherdecaynortimenordampnesscan
spoil,suchasbox,juniper,olive,oak,cypress,oranyothersimilar
woodexceptcommonoak;forthiswarps,andcausescracksinworkin
whichitisused.
2.Havingarrangedthefurringstrips,takecordmadeofSpanishbroom,
andtieGreekreeds,previouslypoundedflat,tothemintherequired
contour.Immediatelyabovethevaultingspreadsomemortarmadeoflime
andsand,tocheckanydropsthatmayfallfromthejoistsorfromthe
roof.IfasupplyofGreekreedisnottobehad,gatherslendermarsh
reeds,andmakethemupwithsilkcordintobundlesallofthesame
thicknessandadjustedtotheproperlength,providedthatthebundles
arenotmorethantwofeetlongbetweenanytwoknots.Thentiethem
withcordtothebeams,asabovedescribed,anddrivewoodenpegsinto
them.Makealltheotherpreparationsasabovedescribed.
3.Havingthussetthevaultingsintheirplacesandinterwoventhem,
applytherenderingcoattotheirlowersurface;thenlayonthesand
mortar,andafterwardspolishitoffwiththepowderedmarble.Afterthe
vaultingshavebeenpolished,settheimpostmouldingsdirectlybeneath
them.Theseobviouslyoughttobemadeextremelyslenderanddelicate,
forwhentheyarelarge,theirweightcarriesthemdown,andtheycannot
supportthemselves.Gypsumshouldbynomeansbeusedintheir
composition,butpowderedmarbleshouldbelaidonuniformly,lest
gypsum,bysettingtooquicklyshouldkeeptheworkfromdrying
uniformly.Wemustalsobewareoftheancients'schemeforvaultings;
forintheirmouldingsthesoffitsoverhangveryheavily,andare
dangerous.
4.Somemouldingsareflat,othersinrelief.Inroomswheretherehas
tobeafireoragoodmanylights,theyshouldbeflat,sothatthey
canbewipedoffmoreeasily.Insummerapartmentsandinexedraewhere
thereisnosmokenorsoottohurtthem,theyshouldbemadeinrelief.
Itisalwaysthecasethatstucco,intheprideofitsdazzlingwhite,

gatherssmokenotonlyfromitsownhousebutalsofromothers.
5.Havingfinishedthemouldings,applyaveryroughrenderingcoatto
thewalls,andafterwards,whentherenderingcoatgetsprettydry,
spreaduponitthelayersofsandmortar,exactlyadjustedinlengthto
ruleandline,inheighttotheplummet,andattheanglestothe
square.Thestuccowillthuspresentafaultlessappearancefor
paintings.Whenitgetsprettydry,spreadonasecondcoatandthena
third.Thebetterthefoundationofsandmortarthatislaidon,the
strongerandmoredurableinitssoliditywillbethestucco.
6.Whennotlessthanthreecoatsofsandmortar,besidestherendering
coat,havebeenlaidon,then,wemustmakethemixtureforthelayers
ofpowderedmarble,themortarbeingsotemperedthatwhenmixeditdoes
notsticktothetrowel,buttheironcomesoutfreelyandcleanfrom
themortartrough.Afterthispowderedmarblehasbeenspreadonand
getsdry,layonamediumsecondcoat.Whenthathasbeenappliedand
wellrubbeddown,spreadonafinercoat.Thewalls,beingthusrendered
solidbythreecoatsofsandmortarandasmanyofmarble,willnot
possiblybeliabletocracksortoanyotherdefect.
7.Andfurther,suchwalls,owingtothesolidfoundationgivenby
thoroughworkingwithpolishinginstruments,andthesmoothnessofit,
duetothehardanddazzlingwhitemarble,willbringoutinbrilliant
splendourthecolourswhicharelaidonatthesametimewiththe
polishing.
Thesecolours,whentheyarecarefullylaidonstuccostillwet,donot
fadebutarepermanent.Thisisbecausethelime,havinghadits
moistureburnedoutinthekiln,becomesporousandlosesitsstrength,
anditsdrynessmakesittakeupanythingthatmaycomeincontactwith
it.Onmixingwiththeseedsorelementsthatcomefromother
substances,itformsasolidmasswiththemand,nomatterwhatthe
constituentpartsmaythenbe,itmust,obviously,onbecomingdry,
possessthequalitieswhicharepeculiartoitsownnature.
8.Hence,stuccothatisproperlymadedoesnotgetroughastimegoes
on,norloseitscolourswhenitiswipedoff,unlesstheyhavebeen
laidonwithlittlecareandafteritisdry.So,whenthestuccoon
wallsismadeasdescribedabove,itwillhavestrengthandbrilliancy,
andanexcellencethatwilllasttoagreatage.Butwhenonlyonecoat
ofsandmortarandoneoffinemarblehavebeenspreadon,itsthin
layeriseasilycrackedfromwantofstrength,andfromitslackof
thicknessitwillnottakeonthebrilliance,duetopolishing,whichit
oughttohave.
9.Justasasilvermirrorthatisformedofathinplatereflects
indistinctlyandwithafeeblelight,whileonethatissubstantially
madecantakeonaveryhighpolish,andreflectsabrilliantand
distinctimagewhenonelookstherein,soitiswithstucco.Whenthe
stuffofwhichitisformedisthin,itnotonlycracksbutalsosoon
fades;when,however,ithasasolidfoundationofsandmortarandof
marble,thicklyandcompactlyapplied,itisnotonlybrilliantafter
beingsubjectedtorepeatedpolishings,butalsoreflectsfromits
surfaceaclearimageofthebeholder.
10.TheGreekstuccoworkersnotonlyemploythesemethodstomaketheir
worksdurable,butalsoconstructamortartrough,mixthelimeandsand
init,bringonagangofmen,andbeatthestuffwithwoodenbeetles,
anddonotuseituntilithasbeenthusvigorouslyworked.Hence,some
cutslabsoutofoldwallsandusethemaspanels,andthestuccoof
suchpanelsand"reflectors"hasprojectingbevellededgesallroundit.
11.Butifstuccohastobemadeon"wattleanddaub,"wheretheremust
becracksattheuprightsandcrosssticks,becausetheymusttakein
moisturewhentheyaredaubedwiththemud,andcausecracksinthe
stuccowhentheydryandshrink,thefollowingmethodwillpreventthis
fromhappening.Afterthewholewallhasbeensmearedwiththemud,nail
rowsofreedstoitbymeansof"flynails,"thenspreadonthemuda

secondtime,and,ifthefirstrowshavebeennailedwiththeshafts
transverse,nailonasecondsetwiththeshaftsvertical,andthen,as
abovedescribed,spreadonthesandmortar,themarble,andthewhole
massofstucco.Thus,thedoubleseriesofreedswiththeirshafts
crossingonthewallswillpreventanychippingorcrackingfromtaking
place.

CHAPTERIV
ONSTUCCOWORKINDAMPPLACES,ANDONTHEDECORATIONOFDININGROOMS
1.Havingspokenofthemethodbywhichstuccoworkshouldbedonein
drysituations,Ishallnextexplainhowthepolishedfinishistobe
accomplishedinplacesthataredamp,insuchawaythatitcanlast
withoutdefects.First,inapartmentswhicharelevelwiththeground,
applyarenderingcoatofmortar,mixedwithburntbrickinsteadof
sand,toaheightofaboutthreefeetabovethefloor,andthenlayon
thestuccosothatthoseportionsofitmaynotbeinjuredbythe
dampness.Butifawallisinastateofdampnessallover,constructa
secondthinwallalittlewayfromitontheinside,atadistance
suitedtocircumstances,andinthespacebetweenthesetwowallsruna
channel,atalowerlevelthanthatoftheapartment,withventstothe
openair.Similarly,whenthewallisbroughtuptothetop,leave
airholesthere.Forifthemoisturehasnomeansofgettingoutbyvents
atthebottomandatthetop,itwillnotfailtospreadalloverthe
newwall.Thisdone,applyarenderingcoatofmortarmadewithburnt
bricktothiswall,spreadonthelayerofstucco,andpolishit.
2.Butifthereisnotroomenoughfortheconstructionofawall,make
channelswiththeirventsextendingtotheopenair.Thenlaytwofoot
tilesrestingonthemarginofthechannelononeside,andontheother
sideconstructafoundationofpillarsforthem,madeofeightinch
bricks,ontopofeachofwhichtheedgesoftwotilesmaybesupported,
eachpillarbeingnotmorethanahand'sbreadthdistantfromthewall.
Then,above,sethookedtilesfastenedtothewallfrombottomtotop,
carefullycoveringtheinnersidesofthemwithpitchsothattheywill
rejectmoisture.Bothatthebottomandatthetopabovethevaulting
theyshouldhaveairholes.
3.Then,whitewashthemwithlimeandwatersothattheywillnotreject
therenderingcoatofburntbrick.For,astheyaredryfromthelossof
waterburntoutinthekiln,theycanneithertakenorholdthe
renderingcoatunlesslimehasbeenappliedbeneathittostickthetwo
substancestogether,andmakethemunite.Afterspreadingtherendering
coatuponthis,applylayersofburntbrickmortarinsteadofsand
mortar,andfinishupalltherestinthemannerdescribedabovefor
stuccowork.
4.Thedecorationsofthepolishedsurfacesofthewallsoughttobe
treatedwithdueregardtopropriety,soastobeadaptedtotheir
situations,andnotoutofkeepingwithdifferencesinkind.Inwinter
diningrooms,neitherpaintingsongrandsubjectsnordelicacyof
decorationinthecorniceworkofthevaultingsisaserviceablekind
ofdesign,becausetheyarespoiledbythesmokefromthefireandthe
constantsootfromthelamps.Intheseroomsthereshouldbepanels
abovethedadoes,workedinblack,andpolished,withyellowochreor
vermilionblocksinterposedbetweenthem.Afterthevaultinghasbeen
treatedintheflatstyle,andpolished,theGreekmethodofmaking
floorsforuseinwinterdiningroomsmaynotbeunworthyofone's
notice,asbeingveryinexpensiveandyetserviceable.
5.Anexcavationismadebelowthelevelofthediningroomtoadepth
ofabouttwofeet,and,afterthegroundhasbeenrammeddown,themass
ofbrokenstonesorthepoundedburntbrickisspreadon,atsuchan
inclinationthatitcanfindventsinthedrain.Next,havingfilledin

withcharcoalcompactlytroddendown,amortarmixedofgravel,lime,
andashesisspreadontoadepthofhalfafoot.Thesurfacehaving
beenmadetruetoruleandlevel,andsmoothedoffwithwhetstone,gives
thelookofablackpavement.Hence,attheirdinnerparties,whatever
ispouredoutofthecups,orspirtedfromthemouth,nosoonerfalls
thanitdriesup,andtheservantswhowaittheredonotcatchcoldfrom
thatkindoffloor,althoughtheymaygobarefoot.

CHAPTERV
THEDECADENCEOFFRESCOPAINTING
1.Fortheotherapartments,thatis,thoseintendedtobeusedin
Spring,Autumn,andSummer,aswellasforatriumsandperistyles,the
ancientsrequiredrealisticpicturesofrealthings.Apictureis,in
fact,arepresentationofathingwhichreallyexistsorwhichcan
exist:forexample,aman,ahouse,aship,oranythingelsefromwhose
definiteandactualstructurecopiesresemblingitcanbetaken.
Consequentlytheancientswhointroducedpolishedfinishingsbeganby
representingdifferentkindsofmarbleslabsindifferentpositions,and
thencornicesandblocksofyellowochrearrangedinvariousways.
2.Afterwardstheymadesuchprogressastorepresenttheformsof
buildings,andofcolumns,andprojectingandoverhangingpediments;in
theiropenrooms,suchasexedrae,onaccountofthesize,theydepicted
thefacadesofscenesinthetragic,comic,orsatyricstyle;andtheir
walks,onaccountofthegreatlength,theydecoratedwithavarietyof
landscapes,copyingthecharacteristicsofdefinitespots.Inthese
paintingsthereareharbours,promontories,seashores,rivers,
fountains,straits,fanes,groves,mountains,flocks,shepherds;insome
placestherearealsopicturesdesignedinthegrandstyle,withfigures
ofthegodsordetailedmythologicalepisodes,orthebattlesatTroy,
orthewanderingsofUlysses,withlandscapebackgrounds,andother
subjectsreproducedonsimilarprinciplesfromreallife.
3.Butthosesubjectswhichwerecopiedfromactualrealitiesare
scornedinthesedaysofbadtaste.Wenowhavefrescopaintingsof
monstrosities,ratherthantruthfulrepresentationsofdefinitethings.
Forinstance,reedsareputintheplaceofcolumns,flutedappendages
withcurlyleavesandvolutes,insteadofpediments,candelabra
supportingrepresentationsofshrines,andontopoftheirpediments
numeroustenderstalksandvolutesgrowingupfromtherootsandhaving
humanfiguressenselesslyseateduponthem;sometimesstalkshavingonly
halflengthfigures,somewithhumanheads,otherswiththeheadsof
animals.
4.Suchthingsdonotexistandcannotexistandneverhaveexisted.
Hence,itisthenewtastethathascausedbadjudgesofpoorartto
prevailovertrueartisticexcellence.Forhowisitpossiblethata
reedshouldreallysupportaroof,oracandelabrumapedimentwithits
ornaments,orthatsuchaslender,flexiblethingasastalkshould
supportafigurepercheduponit,orthatrootsandstalksshould
producenowflowersandnowhalflengthfigures?Yetwhenpeoplesee
thesefrauds,theyfindnofaultwiththembutonthecontraryare
delighted,anddonotcarewhetheranyofthemcanexistornot.Their
understandingisdarkenedbydecadentcriticalprinciples,sothatitis
notcapableofgivingitsapprovalauthoritativelyandontheprinciple
ofproprietytothatwhichreallycanexist.Thefactisthatpictures
whichareunlikerealityoughtnottobeapproved,andeveniftheyare
technicallyfine,thisisnoreasonwhytheyshouldoffhandbejudgedto
becorrect,iftheirsubjectislackingintheprinciplesofreality
carriedoutwithnoviolations.
5.Forinstance,atTralles,ApaturiusofAlabandadesignedwithskilful
handthescaenaofthelittletheatrewhichistherecalledthe[Greek:

ekklesiasterion],representingcolumnsinitandstatues,Centaurs
supportingthearchitraves,rotundaswithroundroofsonthem,pediments
withoverhangingreturns,andcornicesornamentedwithlions'heads,
whicharemeantfornothingbuttherainwaterfromtheroofs,andthen
ontopofitallhemadeanepiscaeniuminwhichwerepaintedrotundas,
porticoes,halfpediments,andallthedifferentkindsofdecoration
employedinaroof.Theeffectofhighreliefinthisscaenawasvery
attractivetoallwhobeheldit,andtheywerereadytogivetheir
approvaltothework,whenLicymniusthemathematiciancameforwardand
saidthat(6.)theAlabandineswereconsideredbrightenoughinall
mattersofpolitics,butthatonaccountofoneslightdefect,thelack
ofthesenseofpropriety,theywerebelievedtobeunintelligent."In
theirgymnasiumthestatuesareallpleadingcauses,intheirforum,
throwingthediscus,running,orplayingball.Thisdisregardof
proprietyintheinterchangeofstatuesappropriatetodifferentplaces
hasbroughtthestateasawholeintodisrepute.Letusthenbewarelest
thisscaenaofApaturiusmakeAlabandinesorAbderitesofus.Whichof
youcanhavehousesorcolumnsorextensivepedimentsontopofhis
tiledroof?Suchthingsarebuiltabovethefloors,notabovethetiled
roofs.Therefore,ifwegiveourapprovaltopicturesofthingswhich
canhavenoreasonforexistenceinactualfact,weshallbevoluntarily
associatingourselveswiththosecommunitieswhicharebelievedtobe
unintelligentonaccountofjustsuchdefects."
7.Apaturiusdidnotventuretomakeanyanswer,butremovedthe
scaena,altereditsothatitconformedtoreality,andgave
satisfactionwithitinitsimprovedstate.WouldtoGodthatLicymnius
couldcometolifeagainandreformthepresentconditionoffollyand
mistakenpracticesinfrescopainting!However,itmaynotbeoutof
placetoexplainwhythisfalsemethodprevailsoverthetruth.Thefact
isthattheartisticexcellencewhichtheancientsendeavouredtoattain
byworkinghardandtakingpains,isnowattemptedbytheuseofcolours
andthebraveshowwhichtheymake,andexpenditurebytheemployer
preventspeoplefrommissingtheartisticrefinementsthatoncelent
authoritytoworks.
8.Forexample,whichoftheancientscanbefoundtohaveused
vermilionotherwisethansparingly,likeadrug?Buttodaywholewalls
arecommonlycoveredwithiteverywhere.Then,too,thereismalachite
green,purple,andArmenianblue.Whenthesecoloursarelaidon,they
presentabrilliantappearancetotheeyeevenalthoughtheyare
inartisticallyapplied,andastheyarecostly,theyaremadeexceptions
incontracts,tobefurnishedbytheemployer,notbythecontractor.
IhavenowsufficientlyexplainedallthatIcouldsuggestforthe
avoidanceofmistakesinstuccowork.Next,Ishallspeakofthe
componentsastheyoccurtome,andfirstIshalltreatofmarble,since
Ispokeoflimeatthebeginning.

CHAPTERVI
MARBLEFORUSEINSTUCCO
Marbleisnotproducedeverywhereofthesamekind.Insomeplacesthe
lumpsarefoundtocontaintransparentgrainslikesalt,andthiskind
whencrushedandgroundisextremelyserviceableinstuccowork.In
placeswherethisisnotfound,thebrokenbitsofmarbleor"chips,"as
theyarecalled,whichmarbleworkersthrowdownastheywork,maybe
crushedandgroundandusedinstuccoafterbeingsifted.Instillother
placesforexample,ontheborderlandofMagnesiaandEphesusthere
areplaceswhereitcanbedugoutallreadytouse,withouttheneedof
grindingorsifting,butasfineasanythatiscrushedandsiftedby
hand.

CHAPTERVII
NATURALCOLOURS
Asforcolours,somearenaturalproductsfoundinfixedplaces,anddug
upthere,whileothersareartificialcompoundsofdifferentsubstances
treatedandmixedinproperproportionssoastobeequallyserviceable.
1.Weshallfirstsetforththenaturalcoloursthataredugupassuch,
likeyellowochre,whichistermed[Greek:ochra]inGreek.Thisis
foundinmanyplaces,includingItaly,butAttic,whichwasthebest,is
notnowtobehadbecauseinthetimeswhentherewereslavesinthe
Atheniansilvermines,theywoulddiggalleriesundergroundinorderto
findthesilver.Wheneveraveinofochrewasfoundthere,theywould
followituplikesilver,andsotheancientshadafinesupplyofitto
useinthepolishedfinishingsoftheirstuccowork.
2.Redearthsarefoundinabundanceinmanyplaces,butthebestin
onlyafew,forinstanceatSinopeinPontus,inEgypt,intheBalearic
islandsofSpain,aswellasinLemnos,anislandtheenjoymentofwhose
revenuestheSenateandRomanpeoplegrantedtotheAthenians.
3.Paraetoniumwhitegetsitsnamefromtheplacewhereitisdugup.
ThesameisthecasewithMelianwhite,becausethereissaidtobea
mineofitinMelos,oneoftheislandsoftheCyclades.
4.Greenchalkisfoundinnumerousplaces,butthebestatSmyrna.The
Greekscallit[Greek:theodoteion],becausethiskindofchalkwas
firstfoundontheestateofapersonnamedTheodotus.
5.Orpiment,whichistermed[Greek:arsenikon]inGreek,isdugupin
Pontus.Sandarach,inmanyplaces,butthebestisminedinPontusclose
bytheriverHypanis.

CHAPTERVIII
CINNABARANDQUICKSILVER
1.Ishallnowproceedtoexplainthenatureofcinnabar.Itissaid
thatitwasfirstfoundintheCilbiancountrybelongingtoEphesus,and
bothitanditspropertiesarecertainlyverystrange.First,before
gettingtothevermilionitselfbymethodsoftreatment,theydigout
whatiscalledtheclod,anorelikeiron,butratherofareddish
colourandcoveredwithareddust.Duringthediggingitsheds,under
theblowsofthetools,tearaftertearofquicksilver,whichisatonce
gatheredupbythediggers.
2.Whentheseclodshavebeencollected,theyaresofullofmoisture
thattheyarethrownintoanoveninthelaboratorytodry,andthe
fumesthataresentupfromthembytheheatofthefiresettledownon
theflooroftheoven,andarefoundtobequicksilver.Whentheclods
aretakenout,thedropswhichremainaresosmallthattheycannotbe
gatheredup,buttheyaresweptintoavesselofwater,andtherethey
runtogetherandcombineintoone.Fourpintsofit,whenmeasuredand
weighed,willbefoundtobeonehundredpounds.
3.Ifthequicksilverispouredintoavessel,andastoneweighingone
hundredpoundsislaiduponit,thestoneswimsonthesurface,and
cannotdepresstheliquid,norbreakthrough,norseparateit.Ifwe
removethehundredpoundweight,andputonascrupleofgold,itwill
notswim,butwillsinktothebottomofitsownaccord.Hence,itis
undeniablethatthegravityofasubstancedependsnotontheamountof

itsweight,butonitsnature.
4.Quicksilverisausefulthingformanypurposes.Forinstance,
neithersilvernorcoppercanbegildedproperlywithoutit.Andwhen
goldhasbeenwovenintoagarment,andthegarmentbecomeswornout
withagesothatitisnolongerrespectabletouse,thepiecesofcloth
areputintoearthenpots,andburnedupoverafire.Theashesarethen
thrownintowaterandquicksilveraddedthereto.Thisattractsallthe
bitsofgold,andmakesthemcombinewithitself.Thewateristhen
pouredoff,andtherestemptiedintoaclothandsqueezedinthehands,
whereuponthequicksilver,beingaliquid,escapesthroughtheloose
textureofthecloth,butthegold,whichhasbeenbroughttogetherby
thesqueezing,isfoundinsideinapurestate.

CHAPTERIX
CINNABAR(_continued_)
1.Iwillnowreturntothepreparationofvermilion.Whenthelumpsof
orearedry,theyarecrushedinironmortars,andrepeatedlywashedand
heateduntiltheimpuritiesaregone,andthecolourscome.Whenthe
cinnabarhasgivenupitsquicksilver,andthuslostthenaturalvirtues
thatitpreviouslyhad,itbecomessoftinqualityanditspowersare
feeble.
2.Hence,thoughitkeepsitscolourperfectlywhenappliedinthe
polishedstuccofinishofclosedapartments,yetinopenapartments,
suchasperistylesorexedraeorotherplacesofthesort,wherethe
brightraysofthesunandmooncanpenetrate,itisspoiledbycontact
withthem,losesthestrengthofitscolour,andturnsblack.Amongmany
others,thesecretaryFaberius,whowishedtohavehishouseonthe
Aventinefinishedinelegantstyle,appliedvermiliontoallthewalls
oftheperistyle;butafterthirtydaystheyturnedtoanuglyand
mottledcolour.Hethereforemadeacontracttohaveothercolours
appliedinsteadofvermilion.
3.Butanybodywhoismoreparticular,andwhowantsapolishedfinish
ofvermilionthatwillkeepitspropercolour,should,afterthewall
hasbeenpolishedandisdry,applywithabrushPonticwaxmeltedover
afireandmixedwithalittleoil;thenafterthisheshouldbringthe
waxtoasweatbywarmingitandthewallatclosequarterswith
charcoalenclosedinanironvessel;andfinallyheshouldsmoothitall
offbyrubbingitdownwithawaxcandleandcleanlinencloths,just
asnakedmarblestatuesaretreated.
4.Thisprocessistermed[Greek:ganosis]inGreek.Theprotectingcoat
ofPonticwaxpreventsthelightofthemoonandtheraysofthesun
fromlickingupanddrawingthecolouroutofsuchpolishedfinishing.
ThemanufactorieswhichwereonceattheminesoftheEphesianshavenow
beentransferredtoRome,becausethiskindoforewaslaterdiscovered
inSpain.Theclodsarebroughtfromtheminesthere,andtreatedin
Romebypubliccontractors.Thesemanufactoriesarebetweenthetemples
ofFloraandQuirinus.
5.Cinnabarisadulteratedbymixinglimewithit.Hence,onewillhave
toproceedasfollows,ifonewishestoprovethatitisunadulterated.
Takeanironplate,putthecinnabaruponit,andlayitonthefire
untiltheplategetsredhot.Whentheglowingheatmakesthecolour
changeandturnblack,removetheplatefromthefire,andifthe
cinnabarwhencooledreturnstoitsformercolour,itwillbeprovedto
beunadulterated;butifitkeepstheblackcolour,itwillshowthatit
hasbeenadulterated.
6.IhavenowsaidallthatIcouldthinkofaboutcinnabar.Malachite

greenisbroughtfromMacedonia,andisdugupintheneighbourhoodof
coppermines.ThenamesArmenianblueandIndiainkshowinwhatplaces
thesesubstancesarefound.

CHAPTERX
ARTIFICIALCOLOURS.BLACK
1.Ishallnowpasstothosesubstanceswhichbyartificialtreatment
aremadetochangetheircomposition,andtotakeonthepropertiesof
colours;andfirstIshalltreatofblack,theuseofwhichis
indispensableinmanyworks,inorderthatthefixedtechnicalmethods
forthepreparationofthatcompoundmaybeknown.
2.AplaceisbuiltlikeaLaconicum,andnicelyfinishedinmarble,
smoothlypolished.Infrontofit,asmallfurnaceisconstructedwith
ventsintotheLaconicum,andwithastokeholethatcanbevery
carefullyclosedtopreventtheflamesfromescapingandbeingwasted.
Resinisplacedinthefurnace.Theforceofthefireinburningit
compelsittogiveoutsootintotheLaconicumthroughthevents,and
thesootstickstothewallsandthecurvedvaulting.Itisgathered
fromthem,andsomeofitismixedandworkedwithgumforuseas
writingink,whiletherestismixedwithsize,andusedonwallsby
frescopainters.
3.Butifthesefacilitiesarenotathand,wemustmeettheexigencyas
follows,sothattheworkmaynotbehinderedbytediousdelay.Burn
shavingsandsplintersofpitchpine,andwhentheyturntocharcoal,
putthemout,andpoundtheminamortarwithsize.Thiswillmakea
prettyblackforfrescopainting.
4.Again,iftheleesofwinearedriedandroastedinanoven,andthen
groundupwithsizeandappliedtoawall,theresultwillbeacolour
evenmoredelightfulthanordinaryblack;andthebetterthewineof
whichitismade,thebetterimitationitwillgive,notonlyofthe
colourofordinaryblack,butevenofthatofIndiaink.

CHAPTERXI
BLUE.BURNTOCHRE
1.MethodsofmakingbluewerefirstdiscoveredinAlexandria,and
afterwardsVestoriussetupthemakingofitatPuzzuoli.Themethodof
obtainingitfromthesubstancesofwhichithasbeenfoundtoconsist,
isstrangeenough.Sandandtheflowersofnatronarebrayedtogetherso
finelythattheproductislikemeal,andcopperisgratedbymeansof
coarsefilesoverthemixture,likesawdust,toformaconglomerate.
Thenitismadeintoballsbyrollingitinthehandsandthusbound
togetherfordrying.Thedryballsareputinanearthernjar,andthe
jarsinanoven.Assoonasthecopperandthesandgrowhotandunite
undertheintensityofthefire,theymutuallyreceiveeachother's
sweat,relinquishingtheirpeculiarqualities,andhavinglosttheir
propertiesthroughtheintensityofthefire,theyarereducedtoablue
colour.
2.Burntochre,whichisveryserviceableinstuccowork,ismadeas
follows.Aclodofgoodyellowochreisheatedtoaglowonafire.It
isthenquenchedinvinegar,andtheresultisapurplecolour.

CHAPTERXII
WHITELEAD,VERDIGRIS,ANDARTIFICIALSANDARACH
1.Itisnowinplacetodescribethepreparationofwhiteleadandof
verdigris,whichwithusiscalled"aeruca."InRhodestheyputshavings
injars,pourvinegaroverthem,andlaypiecesofleadontheshavings;
thentheycoverthejarswithlidstopreventevaporation.Aftera
definitetimetheyopenthem,andfindthatthepiecesofleadhave
becomewhitelead.Inthesamewaytheyputinplatesofcopperandmake
verdigris,whichiscalled"aeruca."
2.Whiteleadonbeingheatedinanovenchangesitscolouronthefire,
andbecomessandarach.Thiswasdiscoveredastheresultofan
accidentalfire.Itismuchmoreserviceablethanthenaturalsandarach
dugupinmines.

CHAPTERXIII
PURPLE
1.Ishallnowbegintospeakofpurple,whichexceedsallthecolours
thathavesofarbeenmentionedbothincostlinessandinthe
superiorityofitsdelightfuleffect.Itisobtainedfromamarine
shellfish,fromwhichismadethepurpledye,whichisaswonderfulto
thecarefulobserverasanythingelseinnature;forithasnotthe
sameshadeinalltheplaceswhereitisfound,butisnaturally
qualifiedbythecourseofthesun.
2.ThatwhichisfoundinPontusandGaulisblack,becausethose
countriesarenearesttothenorth.Asonepassesonfromnorthtowest,
itisfoundofabluishshade.Dueeastandwest,whatisfoundisofa
violetshade.Thatwhichisobtainedinsoutherncountriesisnaturally
redinquality,andthereforethisisfoundintheislandofRhodesand
inothersuchcountriesthatarenearesttothecourseofthesun.
3.Aftertheshellfishhavebeengathered,theyarebrokenupwithiron
tools,theblowsofwhichdriveoutthepurplefluidlikeafloodof
tears,andthenitispreparedbybrayingitinmortars.Itiscalled
"ostrum"becauseitistakenfromtheshellsofmarineshellfish.On
accountofitssaltness,itsoondriesupunlessithashoneypoured
overit.

CHAPTERXIV
SUBSTITUTESFORPURPLE,YELLOWOCHRE,MALACHITEGREEN,ANDINDIGO
1.Purplecoloursarealsomanufacturedbydyeingchalkwithmadderroot
andwithhysginum.Othercoloursaremadefromflowers.Thus,when
frescopainterswishtoimitateAtticyellowochre,theyputdried
violetsintoavesselofwater,andheatthemoverafire;then,when
themixtureisready,theypouritontoalinencloth,andsqueezeit
outwiththehands,catchingthewaterwhichisnowcolouredbythe
violets,inamortar.Intothistheypourchalkandbrayit,obtaining
thecolourofAtticyellowochre.
2.Theymakeafinepurplecolourbytreatingbilberryinthesameway
andmixingitwithmilk.Thosewhocannotusemalachitegreenonaccount
ofitsdearness,dyebluewiththeplantcalleddyer'sweed,andthus

obtainamostvividgreen.Thisiscalleddyer'smalachitegreen.Again,
forwantofindigo,theydyeSelinusianoranularianchalkwithwoad,
whichtheGreekscall[Greek:isatis],andmakeanimitationofindigo.
3.InthisbookIhavewrittendown,sofarasIcouldrecallthem,the
methodsandmeansofattainingdurabilityinpolishedfinishings,how
picturesthatareappropriateshouldbemade,andalsothenatural
qualitiesofallthecolours.Andso,havingprescribedinsevenbooks
thesuitableprincipleswhichshouldgoverntheconstructionofall
kindsofbuildings,Ishalltreatinthenextofwater,showinghowit
maybefoundinplaceswhereitiswanting,bywhatmethoditmaybe
conducted,andbywhatmeansitswholesomenessandfitnessmaybe
tested.

BOOKVIII

INTRODUCTION
1.AmongtheSevenSages,ThalesofMiletuspronouncedforwaterasthe
primordialelementinallthings;Heraclitus,forfire;thepriestsof
theMagi,forwaterandfire;Euripides,apupilofAnaxagoras,and
calledbytheAthenians"thephilosopherofthestage,"forairand
earth.Earth,heheld,wasimpregnatedbytherainsofheavenand,thus
conceiving,broughtforththeyoungofmankindandofalltheliving
creaturesintheworld;whateverissprungfromhergoesbacktoher
againwhenthecompellingforceoftimebringsaboutadissolution;and
whateverisbornoftheairreturnsinthesamewaytotheregionsof
thesky;nothingsuffersannihilation,butatdissolutionthereisa
change,andthingsfallbacktotheessentialelementinwhichtheywere
before.ButPythagoras,Empedocles,Epicharmus,andotherphysicistsand
philosophershavesetforththattheprimordialelementsarefourin
number:air,fire,earth,andwater;andthatitisfromtheircoherence
tooneanotherunderthemouldingpowerofnaturethatthequalitiesof
thingsareproducedaccordingtodifferentclasses.
2.And,infact,weseenotonlythatallwhichcomestobirthis
producedbythem,butalsothatnothingcanbenourishedwithouttheir
influence,norgrow,norbepreserved.Thebody,forexample,canhave
nolifewithouttheflowofthebreathtoandfro,thatis,unlessan
abundanceofairflowsin,causingdilationsandcontractionsinregular
succession.Withouttherightproportionofheat,thebodywilllack
vitality,willnotbewellsetup,andwillnotproperlydigeststrong
food.Again,withoutthefruitsoftheearthtonourishthebodily
frame,itwillbeenfeebled,andsoloseitsadmixtureoftheearthy
element.
3.Finally,withouttheinfluenceofmoisture,livingcreatureswillbe
bloodlessand,havingtheliquidelementsuckedoutofthem,will
witheraway.Accordinglythedivineintelligencehasnotmadewhatis
reallyindispensableformaneitherhardtogetorcostly,likepearls,
gold,silver,andsoforth,thelackofwhichneitherourbodynorour
naturefeels,buthasspreadabroad,readytohandthroughallthe
world,thethingswithoutwhichthelifeofmortalscannotbe
maintained.Thus,totakeexamples,supposethereisadeficiencyof
breathinthebody,theair,towhichisassignedthefunctionofmaking
upthedeficiency,performsthatservice.Tosupplyheat,themightysun
isready,andtheinventionoffiremakeslifemoresecure.Thenagain,
thefruitsoftheearth,satisfyingourdesireswithamorethan
sufficientstoreoffoodstuffs,supportandmaintainlivingbeingswith
regularnourishment.Finally,water,notmerelysupplyingdrinkbut
fillinganinfinitenumberofpracticalneeds,doesusserviceswhich
makeusgratefulbecauseitisgratis.

4.Hence,too,thosewhoareclothedinpriesthoodsoftheEgyptian
ordersdeclarethatallthingsdependuponthepoweroftheliquid
element.So,whenthewaterpotisbroughtbacktoprecinctandtemple
withwater,inaccordancewiththeholyrite,theythrowthemselvesupon
thegroundand,raisingtheirhandstoheaven,thankthedivine
benevolenceforitsinvention.
Therefore,sinceitisheldbyphysicistsandphilosophersandpriests
thatallthingsdependuponthepowerofwater,Ihavethoughtthat,as
intheformersevenbookstherulesforbuildingshavebeensetforth,
inthisIoughttowriteonthemethodsoffindingwater,onthose
specialmeritswhichareduetothequalitiesoflocalities,ontheways
ofconductingit,andhowitmaybetestedinadvance.Foritisthe
chiefrequisiteforlife,forhappiness,andforeverydayuse.

CHAPTERI
HOWTOFINDWATER
1.Thiswillbeeasierifthereareopenspringsofrunningwater.But
iftherearenospringswhichgushforth,wemustsearchforthem
underground,andconductthemtogether.Thefollowingtestshouldbe
applied.Beforesunrise,liedownflatintheplacewherethesearchis
tobemade,andplacingthechinontheearthandsupportingitthere,
takealookoutoverthecountry.Inthiswaythesightwillnotrange
higherthanitought,thechinbeingimmovable,butwillrangeovera
definitelylimitedheightonthesamelevelthroughthecountry.Then,
diginplaceswherevapoursareseencurlingandrisingupintotheair.
Thissigncannotshowitselfinadryspot.
2.Searchersforwatermustalsostudythenatureofdifferent
localities;forthoseinwhichitisfoundarewelldefined.Inclaythe
supplyispoor,meagre,andatnogreatdepth.Itwillnothavethebest
taste.Infinegravelthesupplyisalsopoor,butitwillbefoundata
greaterdepth.Itwillbemuddyandnotsweet.Inblackearthsome
slightdrippingsanddropsarefoundthatgatherfromthestormsof
winterandsettledownincompact,hardplaces.Theyhavethebest
taste.Amongpebblestheveinsfoundaremoderate,andnottobe
dependedupon.These,too,areextremelysweet.Incoarsegrainedgravel
andcarbuncularsandthesupplyissurerandmorelasting,andithasa
goodtaste.Inredtufaitiscopiousandgood,ifitdoesnotrundown
throughthefissuresandescape.Atthefootofmountainsandinlavait
ismoreplentifulandabundant,andhereitisalsocolderandmore
wholesome.Inflatcountriesthespringsaresalt,heavybodied,tepid,
andillflavoured,exceptingthosewhichrunundergroundfrommountains,
andburstforthinthemiddleofaplain,where,ifprotectedbythe
shadeoftrees,theirtasteisequaltothatofmountainsprings.
3.Inthekindsofsoildescribedabove,signswillbefoundgrowing,
suchasslenderrushes,wildwillows,alders,agnuscastustrees,reeds,
ivy,andotherplantsofthesamesortthatcannotspringupof
themselveswithoutmoisture.Buttheyarealsoaccustomedtogrowin
depressionswhich,beinglowerthantherestofthecountry,receive
waterfromtherainsandthesurroundingfieldsduringthewinter,and
keepitforacomparativelylongtimeonaccountoftheirholdingpower.
Thesemustnotbetrusted,butthesearchmustbemadeindistrictsand
soils,yetnotindepressions,wherethosesignsarefoundgrowingnot
fromseed,butspringingupnaturallyofthemselves.
4.Iftheindicationsmentionedappearinsuchplaces,thefollowing
testshouldbeapplied.Digoutaplacenotlessthanthreefeetsquare
andfivefeetdeep,andputintoitaboutsunsetabronzeorleadenbowl
orbasin,whicheverisathand.Smeartheinsidewithoil,layitupside
down,andcoverthetopoftheexcavationwithreedsorgreenboughs,

throwingearthuponthem.Nextdayuncoverit,andiftherearedrops
anddrippingsinthevessel,theplacewillcontainwater.
5.Again,ifavesselmadeofunbakedclaybeputinthehole,and
coveredinthesameway,itwillbewetwhenuncovered,andalready
beginningtogotopiecesfromdampness,iftheplacecontainswater.If
afleeceofwoolisplacedintheexcavation,andwatercanbewrungout
ofitonthefollowingday,itwillshowthattheplacehasasupply.
Further,ifalampbetrimmed,filledwithoil,lighted,andputinthat
placeandcoveredup,andifonthenextdayitisnotburntout,but
stillcontainssomeremainsofoilandwick,andisitselffoundtobe
damp,itwillindicatethattheplacecontainswater;forallheat
attractsmoisture.Again,ifafireismadeinthatplace,andifthe
ground,whenthoroughlywarmedandburned,sendsupamistyvapourfrom
itssurface,theplacewillcontainwater.
6.Afterapplyingthesetestsandfindingthesignsdescribedabove,a
wellmustnextbesunkintheplace,andifaspringofwaterisfound,
morewellsmustbedugthereabouts,andallconductedbymeansof
subterraneanchannelsintooneplace.
Themountainsanddistrictswithanorthernexposurearethebestspots
inwhichtosearch,forthereasonthatspringsaresweeter,more
wholesome,andmoreabundantwhenfoundthere.Suchplacesfaceaway
fromthesun'scourse,andthetreesarethickinthem,andthe
mountains,beingthemselvesfullofwoods,castshadowsoftheirown,
preventingtheraysofthesunfromstrikinguninterruptedlyuponthe
groundanddryingupthemoisture.
7.Thevalleysamongthemountainsreceivetherainsmostabundantly,
andonaccountofthethickwoodsthesnowiskeptinthemlongerbythe
shadeofthetreesandmountains.Afterwards,onmelting,itfilters
throughthefissuresintheground,andthusreachestheveryfootof
themountains,fromwhichgushingspringscomebelchingout.
Butinflatcountries,onthecontrary,agoodsupplycannotbehad.For
howevergreatitis,itcannotbewholesome,because,asthereisno
shadeintheway,theintenseforceofthesundrawsupandcarriesoff
themoisturefromtheflatplainswithitsheat,andifanywatershows
itselfthere,thelightestandpurestandthedelicatelywholesomepart
ofitissummonedawaybytheair,anddispersedtotheskies,whilethe
heaviestandthehardandunpleasantpartsareleftinspringsthatare
inflatplaces.

CHAPTERII
RAINWATER
1.Rainwaterhas,therefore,morewholesomequalities,becauseitis
drawnfromthelightestandmostdelicatelypurepartsofallthe
springs,andthen,afterbeingfilteredthroughtheagitatedair,itis
liquefiedbystormsandsoreturnstotheearth.Andrainfallisnot
abundantintheplains,butratheronthemountainsorcloseto
mountains,forthereasonthatthevapourwhichissetinmotionat
sunriseinthemorning,leavestheearth,anddrivestheairbeforeit
throughtheheaveninwhateverdirectionitinclines;then,whenoncein
motion,ithascurrentsofairrushingafterit,onaccountofthevoid
whichitleavesbehind.
2.Thisair,drivingthevapoureverywhereasitrushesalong,produces
galesandconstantlyincreasingcurrentsbyitsmightyblasts.Wherever
thewindscarrythevapourwhichrollsinmassesfromsprings,rivers,
marshes,andthesea,itisbroughttogetherbytheheatofthesun,
drawnoff,andcarriedupwardintheformofclouds;thentheseclouds
aresupportedbythecurrentofairuntiltheycometomountains,where

theyarebrokenupfromtheshockofthecollisionandthegales,turn
intowateronaccountoftheirownfulnessandweight,andinthatform
aredispersedupontheearth.
3.Thatvapour,mists,andhumiditycomeforthfromtheearth,seemsdue
tothereasonthatitcontainsburningheat,mightycurrentsofair,
intensecold,andagreatquantityofwater.So,assoonastheearth,
whichhascooledoffduringthenight,isstruckbytheraysofthe
risingsun,andthewindsbegintoblowwhileitisyetdark,mists
begintoriseupwardfromdampplaces.Thattheairwhenthoroughly
heatedbythesuncanmakevapoursriserollingupfromtheearth,may
beseenbymeansofanexampledrawnfrombaths.
4.Ofcoursetherecanbenospringsabovethevaultingsofhot
bathrooms,buttheatmosphereinsuchrooms,becomingwellwarmedbythe
hotairfromthefurnaces,seizesuponthewateronthefloors,and
takesituptothecurvedvaultingsandholdsitupthere,forthe
reasonthathotvapouralwayspushesupwards.Atfirstitdoesnotlet
themoisturego,forthequantityissmall;butassoonasithas
collectedaconsiderableamount,itcannotholditup,onaccountofthe
weight,butsprinklesitupontheheadsofthebathers.Inthesameway,
whentheatmosphericairfeelstheheatofthesun,itdrawsthe
moisturefromallabout,causesittorise,andgathersitintoclouds.
Fortheearthgivesoutmoistureundertheinfluenceofheatjustasa
man'sheatedbodyemitssweat.
5.Thewindsarewitnessestothisfact.Thosethatareproducedand
comefromthecoolestdirections,thenorthandnortheastwinds,blowin
blaststhatarerarefiedbythegreatdrynessintheatmosphere,butthe
southwindandtheothersthatassailusfromthedirectionofthesun's
courseareverydamp,andalwaysbringrain,becausetheyreachusfrom
warmregionsafterbeingwellheatedthere,andlickingupandcarrying
offthemoisturefromthewholecountry,theypouritoutontheregions
inthenorth.
6.Thatthisisthestateofthecasemaybeprovedbythesourcesof
rivers,themajorityandthelongestofwhich,asdrawnanddescribedin
geographiesoftheworld,arefoundtoriseinthenorth.Firstin
India,theGangesandIndusspringfromtheCaucasus;inSyria,the
TigrisandEuphrates;inPontusinAsia,theDnieper,Bug,andDon;in
Colchis,thePhasis;inGaul,theRhone;inCeltica,theRhine;onthis
sideoftheAlps,theTimavoandPo;inItaly,theTiber;inMaurusia,
whichwecallMauretania,theDyris,risingintheAtlasrangeand
runningwesterlytoLakeHeptagonus,whereitchangesitsnameandis
calledAgger;thenfromLakeHeptabolusitrunsatthebaseofbarren
mountains,flowingsoutherlyandemptyingintothemarshcalled[10]...
ItsurroundsMeroe,whichisakingdominsouthernEthiopia,andfrom
themarshgroundsthere,windingroundbytheriversAstansobaand
Astoboaandagreatmanyothers,itpassesthroughthemountainstothe
Cataract,andfromthereitdashesdown,andpassestothenorthbetween
ElephantisandSyeneandtheplainsofThebesintoEgypt,whereitis
calledtheNile.
[Note10:Heresomethingislost,asalsoinchapterIII,sections5
and6.]
7.ThatthesourceoftheNileisinMauretaniaisknownprincipally
fromthefactthatthereareotherspringsontheothersideofthe
Atlasrangeflowingintotheoceantothewest,andthatichneumons,
crocodiles,andotheranimalsandfishesoflikenaturearefound
there,althoughtherearenohippopotamuses.
8.Therefore,sinceindescriptionsoftheworlditappearsthatall
riversofanysizeflowfromthenorth,andsinceintheplainsof
Africa,whichareexposedtothecourseofthesuninthesouth,the
moistureisdeeplyhidden,springsnotcommon,andriversrare,it
followsthatthesourcesofspringswhichlietothenorthornortheast
aremuchbetter,unlesstheyhituponaplacewhichisfullofsulphur,
alum,orasphalt.Inthiscasetheyarecompletelychanged,andflowin

springswhichhaveabadsmellandtaste,whetherthewaterishotor
cold.
9.Thefactis,heatisnotatallapropertyofwater,butwhena
streamofcoldwaterhappensuponahotplace,itboilsup,andissues
throughthefissuresandoutofthegroundinastateofheat.This
cannotlastverylong,butinashorttimethewaterbecomescold.Ifit
werenaturallyhot,itwouldnotcooloffandloseitsheat.Itstaste,
however,anditssmellandcolourarenotrestored,becauseithas
becomesaturatedandcompoundedwiththesequalitiesonaccountofthe
rarityofitsnature.

CHAPTERIII
VARIOUSPROPERTIESOFDIFFERENTWATERS
1.Thereare,however,somehotspringsthatsupplywaterofthebest
taste,whichissodelightfultodrinkthatonedoesnotthinkwith
regretoftheFountainoftheMusesortheMarcianaqueduct.Thesehot
springsareproducednaturally,inthefollowingmanner.Whenfireis
kindleddownbeneathinalumorasphaltorsulphur,itmakestheearth
immediatelyoveritveryhot,andemitsaglowingheattotheparts
stillfartheraboveit,sothatifthereareanyspringsofsweetwater
foundintheupperstrata,theybegintoboilintheirfissureswhen
theyaremetbythisheat,andsotheyrunoutwiththeirtaste
unimpaired.
2.Andtherearesomecoldspringsthathaveabadsmellandtaste.
Theyrisedeepdowninthelowerstrata,crossplaceswhichareonfire,
andthenarecooledbyrunningalongdistancethroughtheearth,coming
outabovegroundwiththeirtaste,smell,andcolourspoiled;as,for
instance,theriverAlbulaontheroadtoTivoliandthecoldspringsof
Ardea,whichhavethesamesmellandarecalledsulphursprings,and
othersinsimilarplaces.Althoughtheyarecold,yetatfirstsight
theyseemtobehotforthereasonthatwhentheyhappenuponaburning
spotdeepdownbelow,theliquidandthefiremeet,andwithagreat
noiseatthecollisiontheytakeinstrongcurrentsofair,andthus,
swollenbyaquantityofcompressedwind,theycomeoutatthesprings
inaconstantstateofebullition.Whensuchspringsarenotopenbut
confinedbyrocks,theforceoftheairinthemdrivesthemupthrough
thenarrowfissurestothesummitsofhills.
3.Consequentlythosewhothinkthattheyhaveexcavatedsourcesof
springsattheheightofsuchhillsfindthemselvesmistakenwhenthey
openuptheirexcavations.Supposeabronzevasefillednottothevery
lips,butcontainingtwothirdsofthequantityofwaterwhichformsits
capacity,andwithacoverplaceduponit.Whenitissubjectedtoa
veryhotfire,thewatermustbecomethoroughlyheated,andfromthe
rarityofitsnatureitgreatlyexpandsbytakingintheheat,sothat
itnotonlyfillsthevasebutraisesitscoverbymeansofthecurrents
ofairinit,andswellsandrunsover.Butifyoutakethecoveroff,
theexpandingforcesarereleasedintotheopenair,andthewater
settlesdownagaintoitsproperlevel.Soitiswiththesourcesof
springs.Aslongastheyareconfinedinnarrowchannels,thecurrents
ofairinthewaterrushupinbubblestothetop,butassoonasthey
aregivenawideroutlet,theylosetheiraironaccountoftherarity
peculiartowater,andsosettledownandresumetheirproperlevel.
4.Everyhotspringhashealingpropertiesbecauseithasbeenboiled
withforeignsubstances,andthusacquiresanewusefulquality.For
example,sulphurspringscurepainsinthesinews,bywarmingupand
burningoutthecorrupthumoursofthebodybytheirheat.Aluminous
springs,usedinthetreatmentofthelimbswhenenfeebledbyparalysis
orthestrokeofanysuchmalady,introducewarmththroughtheopen
pores,counteractingthechillbytheoppositeeffectoftheirheat,

andthusequablyrestoringthelimbstotheirformercondition.
Asphalticsprings,takenaspurges,cureinternalmaladies.
5.Thereisalsoakindofcoldwatercontainingnatron,foundfor
instanceatPenneintheVestinecountry,atCutiliae,andatother
similarplaces.Itistakenasapurgeandinpassingthroughthebowels
reducesscrofuloustumours.Copiousspringsarefoundwherethereare
minesofgold,silver,iron,copper,lead,andthelike,buttheyare
veryharmful.Fortheycontain,likehotsprings,sulphur,alum,
asphalt,...andwhenitpassesintothebodyintheformofdrink,and
spreadingthroughtheveinsreachesthesinewsandjoints,itexpands
andhardensthem.Hencethesinews,swellingwiththisexpansion,are
contractedinlengthandsogivementhecramporthegout,forthe
reasonthattheirveinsaresaturatedwithveryhard,dense,andcold
substances.
6.Thereisalsoasortofwaterwhich,sinceitcontains...thatare
notperfectlyclear,anditfloatslikeafloweronthesurface,in
colourlikepurpleglass.ThismaybeseenparticularlyinAthens,where
thereareaqueductsfromplacesandspringsofthatsortleadingtothe
cityandtheportofPiraeus,fromwhichnobodydrinks,forthereason
mentioned,buttheyusethemforbathingandsoforth,anddrinkfrom
wells,thusavoidingtheirunwholesomeness.AtTroezenitcannotbe
avoided,becausenootherkindofwateratallisfound,exceptwhatthe
Cibdelifurnish,andsointhatcityallormostofthepeoplehave
diseasesofthefeet.AtthecityofTarsusinCiliciaisarivernamed
Cydnus,inwhichgoutypeoplesoaktheirlegsandfindrelieffrompain.
7.Therearealsomanyotherkindsofwaterwhichhavepeculiar
properties;forexample,theriverHimerainSicily,which,after
leavingitssource,isdividedintotwobranches.Oneflowsinthe
directionofEtruriaandhasanexceedinglysweettasteonaccountofa
sweetjuiceinthesoilthroughwhichitruns;theotherrunsthrougha
countrywheretherearesaltpits,andsoithasasalttaste.At
Paraetonium,andontheroadtoAmmon,andatCasiusinEgyptthereare
marshylakeswhicharesosaltthattheyhaveacrustofsaltonthe
surface.Inmanyotherplacestherearespringsandriversandlakes
whicharenecessarilyrenderedsaltbecausetheyrunthroughsaltpits.
8.Othersflowthroughsuchgreasyveinsofsoilthattheyare
overspreadwithoilwhentheyburstoutassprings:forexample,at
Soli,atowninCilicia,therivernamedLiparis,inwhichswimmersor
bathersgetanointedmerelybythewater.Likewisethereisalakein
Ethiopiawhichanointspeoplewhoswiminit,andoneinIndiawhich
emitsagreatquantityofoilwhentheskyisclear.AtCarthageisa
springthathasoilswimmingonitssurfaceandsmellinglikesawdust
fromcitruswood,withwhichoilsheepareanointed.InZacynthusand
aboutDyrrachiumandApolloniaarespringswhichdischargeagreat
quantityofpitchwiththeirwater.InBabylon,alakeofverygreat
extent,calledLakeAsphaltitis,hasliquidasphaltswimmingonits
surface,withwhichasphaltandwithburntbrickSemiramisbuiltthe
wallsurroundingBabylon.AtJaffainSyriaandamongtheNomadsin
Arabia,arelakesofenormoussizethatyieldverylargemassesof
asphalt,whicharecarriedoffbytheinhabitantsthereabouts.
9.Thereisnothingmarvellousinthis,forquarriesofhardasphaltare
numerousthere.So,whenaquantityofwaterburstsitswaythroughthe
asphalticsoil,itcarriesasphaltoutwithit,andafterpassingoutof
theground,thewaterisseparatedandsorejectstheasphaltfrom
itself.Again,inCappadociaontheroadfromMazacatoTyana,thereis
anextensivelakeintowhichifapartofareedorofsomeotherthing
beplunged,andwithdrawnthenextday,itwillbefoundthatthepart
thuswithdrawnhasturnedintostone,whilethepartwhichremained
abovewaterretainsitsoriginalnature.
10.Inthesameway,atHierapolisinPhrygiathereisamultitudeof
boilinghotspringsfromwhichwaterisletintoditchessurrounding
gardensandvineyards,andthiswaterbecomesanincrustationofstone
attheendofayear.Hence,everyyeartheyconstructbanksofearthto

therightandleft,letinthewater,andthusoutofthese
incrustationsmakewallsfortheirfields.Thisseemsduetonatural
causes,sincethereisajuicehavingacoagulatingpotencylikerennet
undergroundinthosespotsandinthatcountry.Whenthispotency
appearsabovegroundmingledwithspringwater,themixturecannotbut
behardenedbytheheatofthesunandair,asappearsinsaltpits.
11.Therearealsospringswhichissueexceedinglybitter,owingtoa
bitterjuiceinthesoil,suchastheriverHypanisinPontus.Forabout
fortymilesfromitssourceitstasteisverysweet;thenitreachesa
pointaboutonehundredandsixtymilesfromitsmouth,whereitis
joinedbyaverysmallbrook.Thisrunsintoit,andatoncemakesthat
vastriverbitter,forthereasonthatthewaterofthebrookbecomes
bitterbyflowingthroughthekindofsoilandtheveinsinwhichthere
aresandarachmines.
12.Thesewatersaregiventheirdifferentflavoursbythepropertiesof
thesoil,asisalsoseeninthecaseoffruits.Iftherootsoftrees,
vines,orotherplantsdidnotproducetheirfruitsbydrawingjuices
fromsoilofdifferentproperties,theflowersofallwouldbeofthe
samekindinallplacesanddistricts.Butwefindintheislandof
Lesbostheprotropumwine,inMaeonia,thecatacecaumenites,inLydia,
theTmolian,inSicily,theMamertine,inCampania,theFalernian,
betweenTerracinaandFondi,theCaecuban,andwinesofcountless
varietiesandqualitiesproducedinmanyotherplaces.Thiscouldnotbe
thecase,wereitnotthatthejuiceofthesoil,introducedwithits
properflavoursintotheroots,feedsthestem,and,mountingalongit
tothetop,impartsaflavourtothefruitwhichispeculiartoits
situationandkind.
13.Ifsoilswerenotdifferentandunlikeintheirkindsofjuices,
SyriaandArabiawouldnotbetheonlyplacesinwhichthereeds,
rushes,andalltheplantsarearomatic,andinwhichtherearetrees
bearingfrankincenseoryieldingpepperberriesandlumpsofmyrrh,nor
wouldassafoetidabefoundonlyinthestalksgrowinginCyrene,but
everythingwouldbeofthesamesort,andproducedinthesoilofall
countries.Itistheinclinationofthefirmamentandtheforceofthe
sun,asitdrawsnearerorrecedesinitscourse,thatmakethese
diversitiessuchaswefindthemindifferentcountriesandplaces,
throughthenatureofthesoilandit'sjuices.Andnotonlyinthecase
ofthethingsmentioned,butalsointhatofsheepandcattle.These
diversitieswouldnotexistifthedifferentpropertiesofsoilsand
theirjuiceswerenotqualifiedbythepowerofthesun.
14.Forinstance,thereareinBoeotiatheriversCephisusandMelas,in
Lucania,theCrathis,inTroy,theXanthus,andcertainspringsinthe
countryoftheClazomenians,theErythraeans,andtheLaodiceans.When
sheeparereadyforbreedingattheproperseasonoftheyear,theyare
driveneverydayduringthatseasontothoseriverstodrink,andthe
resultisthat,howeverwhitetheymaybe,theybegetinsomeplaces
whitybrownlambs,inotherplacesgray,andinothersblackasaraven.
Thus,thepeculiarcharacteroftheliquid,enteringtheirbody,
producesineachcasethequalitywithwhichitisimbued.Hence,itis
saidthatthepeopleofIliumgavetheriverXanthusitsnamebecause
reddishcattleandwhitybrownsheeparefoundintheplainsofTroy
nearthatriver.
15.Deadlykindsofwaterarealsofound,whichrunthroughsoil
containinganoxiousjuice,andtakeinitspoisonousquality:for
instance,thereissaidtohavebeenaspringatTerracina,calledthe
springofNeptune,whichcausedthedeathofthosewhothoughtlessly
drankfromit.Inconsequence,itissaidthattheancientsstoppedit
up.AtChrobsinThracethereisalakewhichcausesthedeathnotonly
ofthosewhodrinkofit,butalsoofthosewhobatheinit.InThessaly
thereisagushingfountofwhichsheepnevertaste,nordoesanysort
ofcreaturedrawneartoit,andclosebythisfountthereisatree
withcrimsonflowers.
16.InMacedonia,attheplacewhereEuripidesisburied,twostreams

approachfromtherightandleftofhistomb,andunite.Byoneof
these,travellersareinthehabitoflyingdownandtakingluncheon,
becauseitswaterisgood;butnobodygoesnearthestreamontheother
sideofthetomb,becauseitswaterissaidtobedeathdealing.In
ArcadiathereisatractoflandcalledNonacris,whichhasextremely
coldwatertricklingfromarockinthemountains.Thiswateriscalled
"WateroftheStyx,"andnovessel,whetherofsilver,bronze,oriron,
canstanditwithoutflyingtopiecesandbreakingup.Nothingbuta
mule'shoofcankeepittogetherandholdit,andtraditionsaysthatit
wasthusconveyedbyAntipaterthroughhissonIollasintotheprovince
whereAlexanderwasstaying,andthatthekingwaskilledbyhimwith
thiswater.
17.AmongtheAlpsinthekingdomofCottiusthereisawaterthosewho
tasteofwhichimmediatelyfalllifeless.IntheFaliscancountryonthe
ViaCampanaintheCampusCornetusisagroveinwhichrisesaspring,
andtherethebonesofbirdsandoflizardsandotherreptilesareseen
lying.
Somespringsareacid,asatLyncestusandinItalyintheVelian
country,atTeanoinCampania,andinmanyotherplaces.Thesewhenused
asdrinkshavethepowerofbreakingupstonesinthebladder,which
forminthehumanbody.
18.Thisseemstobeduetonaturalcauses,asthereisasharpandacid
juicecontainedinthesoilthere,whichimpartsasharpnesstothese
springsastheyissuefromit;andso,onenteringthebody,they
disperseallthedepositsandconcretions,duetotheuseofother
waters,whichtheyfindinthebody.Whysuchthingsarebrokenupby
acidwaterswecanseefromthefollowingexperiments.Ifaneggisleft
forsometimeinvinegar,itsshellwillsoftenanddissolve.Again,if
apieceoflead,whichisveryflexibleandheavy,isputinavaseand
vinegarpouredoverit,andthevasecoveredandsealedup,thelead
willbedissolvedandturnintowhitelead.
19.Onthesameprinciple,copper,whichisnaturallymoresolid,will
disperseandturnintoverdigrisifsimilarlytreated.So,also,a
pearl.Evenrocksoflava,whichneitherironnorfirealonecan
dissolve,splitintopiecesanddissolvewhenheatedwithfireandthen
sprinkledwithvinegar.Hence,sinceweseethesethingstakingplace
beforeourveryeyes,wecaninferthatonthesameprincipleeven
patientswiththestonemay,inthenatureofthings,becuredinlike
mannerbymeansofacidwaters,onaccountofthesharpnessofthe
potion.
20.Thentherearespringsinwhichwineseemstobemingled,likethe
oneinPaphlagonia,thewaterofwhichintoxicatesthosewhodrinkof
thespringalonewithoutwine.TheAequiansinItalyandthetribeof
theMedulliintheAlpshaveakindofwaterwhichcausesswellingsin
thethroatsofthosewhodrinkit.
21.InArcadiaisthewellknowntownofClitor,inwhoseterritoryisa
cavewithrunningwaterwhichmakespeoplewhodrinkofitabstemious.
Atthisspring,thereisanepigraminGreekversesinscribedonstone
totheeffectthatthewaterisunsuitableforbathing,andalso
injurioustovines,becauseitwasatthisspringthatMelampuscleansed
thedaughtersofProetusoftheirmadnessbysacrificialrites,and
restoredthosemaidenstotheirformersoundstateofmind.The
inscriptionrunsaswrittenbelow:
Swain,ifbynoontidethirstthouartopprest
WhenwiththyflockstoCleitor'sboundsthou'sthied,
Takefromthisfountadraught,andgrantarest
Toallthygoatsthewaternymphsbeside.
Butbathenotin'twhenfullofdrunkencheer,
Lestthemerevapourmaybringtheetobane;
ShunmyvinehatingspringMelampushere
FrommadnessoncewashedProetus'daughterssane,
Andallth'offscouringheredidhide,whenthey

FromArgoscametoruggedArcady.
22.IntheislandofZeaisaspringofwhichthosewhothoughtlessly
drinklosetheirunderstanding,andanepigramiscuttheretothe
effectthatadraughtfromthespringisdelightful,butthathewho
drinkswillbecomedullasastone.Thesearetheverses:
Thisstonesweetstreamsofcoolingdrinkdothdrip,
Butstonehiswitsbecomewhodothitsip.
23.AtSusa,thecapitalofthePersiankingdom,thereisalittle
spring,thosewhodrinkofwhichlosetheirteeth.Anepigramiswritten
there,thesignificanceofwhichistothiseffect,thatthewateris
excellentforbathing,butthattakenasdrink,itknocksouttheteeth
bytheroots.Theversesofthisepigramare,inGreek,asfollows:
Stranger,youseethewatersofaspring
Inwhich'tissafeformentheirhandstolave;
Butiftheweedybasinentering
Youdrinkofitsunpalatablewave,
Yourgrinderstumbleoutthatselfsameday
Fromjawsthatorphanedsocketswilldisplay.
24.Therearealsoinsomeplacesspringswhichhavethepeculiarityof
givingfinesingingvoicestothenatives,asatTarsusinMagnesiaand
inothercountriesofthatkind.ThenthereisZama,anAfricancity,
whichKingJubafortifiedbyenclosingitwithadoublewall,andhe
establishedhisroyalresidencethere.Twentymilesfromitisthe
walledtownofIsmuc,thelandsbelongingtowhicharemarkedoffbya
marvellouskindofboundary.ForalthoughAfricawasthemotherand
nurseofwildanimals,particularlyserpents,yetnotoneiseverborn
inthelandsofthattown,andifeveroneisimportedandputthere,it
diesatonce;andnotonlythis,butifsoilistakenfromthisspotto
anotherplace,thesameistruethere.Itissaidthatthiskindofsoil
isalsofoundintheBalearicIslands.Theabovementionedsoilhasa
stillmorewonderfulproperty,ofwhichIhavelearnedinthefollowing
way.
25.CaiusJulius,Masinissa'sson,whoownedallthelandsaboutthat
town,servedwithCaesarthefather.Hewasoncemyguest.Hence,inour
dailyintercourse,wenaturallytalkedofliterarysubjects.Duringa
conversationbetweenusontheefficacyofwateranditsqualities,he
statedthattherewerespringsinthatcountryofakindwhichcaused
peopleborntheretohavefinesingingvoices,andthatconsequently
theyalwayssentabroadandboughthandsomeladsandripegirls,and
matedthem,sothattheirprogenymighthavenotonlyfinevoicesbut
alsobeautifulforms.
26.Thisgreatvarietyindifferentthingsisadistributiondueto
nature,foreventhehumanbody,whichconsistsinpartoftheearthy,
containsmanykindsofjuices,suchasblood,milk,sweat,urine,and
tears.Ifallthisvariationofflavoursisfoundinasmallportionof
theearthy,weshouldnotbesurprisedtofindinthegreatearthitself
countlessvarietiesofjuices,throughtheveinsofwhichthewater
runs,andbecomessaturatedwiththembeforereachingtheoutletsof
springs.Inthisway,differentvarietiesofspringsofpeculiarkinds
areproduced,onaccountofdiversityofsituation,characteristicsof
country,anddissimilarpropertiesofsoils.
27.SomeofthesethingsIhaveseenformyself,othersIhavefound
writteninGreekbooks,theauthoritiesforthesewritingsbeing
Theophrastus,Timaeus,Posidonius,Hegesias,Herodotus,Aristides,and
Metrodorus.Thesemenwithmuchattentionandendlesspainsshowedby
theirwritingsthatthepeculiaritiesofsites,thepropertiesof
waters,andthecharacteristicsofcountriesareconditionedbythe
inclinationoftheheaven.Followingtheirinvestigations,Ihaveset
downinthisbookwhatIthoughtsufficientaboutdifferentkindsof
water,tomakeiteasier,bymeansofthesedirections,forpeopleto
pickoutspringsfromwhichtheycanconductthewaterinaqueductsfor

theuseofcitiesandtowns.
28.Foritisobviousthatnothingintheworldissonecessaryforuse
aswater,seeingthatanylivingcreaturecan,ifdeprivedofgrainor
fruitormeatorfish,oranyoneofthem,supportlifebyusingother
foodstuffs;butwithoutwaternoanimalnoranyproperfoodcanbe
produced,keptingoodcondition,orprepared.Consequentlywemust
takegreatcareandpainsinsearchingforspringsandselectingthem,
keepinginviewthehealthofmankind.

CHAPTERIV
TESTSOFGOODWATER
1.Springsshouldbetestedandprovedinadvanceinthefollowingways.
Iftheyrunfreeandopen,inspectandobservethephysiqueofthe
peoplewhodwellinthevicinitybeforebeginningtoconductthewater,
andiftheirframesarestrong,theircomplexionsfresh,legssound,and
eyesclear,thespringsdeservecompleteapproval.Ifitisaspring
justdugout,itswaterisexcellentifitcanbesprinkledintoa
Corinthianvaseorintoanyothersortmadeofgoodbronzewithout
leavingaspotonit.Again,ifsuchwaterisboiledinabronze
cauldron,afterwardsleftforatime,andthenpouredoffwithoutsand
ormudbeingfoundatthebottomofthecauldron,thatwateralsowill
haveproveditsexcellence.
2.Andifgreenvegetablescookquicklywhenputintoavesselofsuch
waterandsetoverafire,itwillbeaproofthatthewaterisgoodand
wholesome.Likewiseifthewaterinthespringisitselflimpidand
clear,ifthereisnogrowthofmossorreedswhereitspreadsand
flows,andifitsbedisnotpollutedbyfilthofanysortbuthasa
cleanappearance,thesesignsindicatethatthewaterislightand
wholesomeinthehighestdegree.

CHAPTERV
LEVELLINGANDLEVELLINGINSTRUMENTS
1.Ishallnowtreatofthewaysinwhichwatershouldbeconductedto
dwellingsandcities.Firstcomesthemethodoftakingthelevel.
Levellingisdoneeitherwithdioptrae,orwithwaterlevels,orwith
thechorobates,butitisdonewithgreateraccuracybymeansofthe
chorobates,becausedioptraeandlevelsaredeceptive.Thechorobatesis
astraightedgeabouttwentyfeetlong.Attheextremitiesithaslegs,
madeexactlyalikeandjointedonperpendicularlytotheextremitiesof
thestraightedge,andalsocrosspieces,fastenedbytenons,connecting
thestraightedgeandthelegs.Thesecrosspieceshaveverticallines
drawnuponthem,andthereareplumblineshangingfromthestraightedge
overeachofthelines.Whenthestraightedgeisinposition,andthe
plumblinesstrikeboththelinesalikeandatthesametime,theyshow
thattheinstrumentstandslevel.
2.Butifthewindinterposes,andconstantmotionpreventsanydefinite
indicationbythelines,thenhaveagrooveontheupperside,fivefeet
long,onedigitwide,andadigitandahalfdeep,andpourwaterinto
it.Ifthewatercomesupuniformlytotherimsofthegroove,itwill
beknownthattheinstrumentislevel.Whenthelevelisthusfoundby
meansofthechorobates,theamountoffallwillalsobeknown.
3.PerhapssomereaderoftheworksofArchimedeswillsaythatthere
canbenotruelevellingbymeansofwater,becauseheholdsthatwater

hasnotalevelsurface,butisofasphericalform,havingitscentre
atthecentreoftheearth.Still,whetherwaterisplaneorspherical,
itnecessarilyfollowsthatwhenthestraightedgeislevel,itwill
supportthewaterevenlyatitsextremitiesontherightandleft,but
thatifitslopesdownatoneend,thewateratthehigherendwillnot
reachtherimofthegrooveinthestraightedge.Forthoughthewater,
whereverpouredin,musthaveaswellingandcurvatureinthecentre,
yettheextremitiesontherightandleftmustbeonalevelwitheach
other.Apictureofthechorobateswillbefounddrawnattheendofthe
book.Ifthereistobeaconsiderablefall,theconductingofthewater
willbecomparativelyeasy.Butifthecourseisbrokenbydepressions,
wemusthaverecoursetosubstructures.

CHAPTERVI
AQUEDUCTS,WELLS,ANDCISTERNS
1.Therearethreemethodsofconductingwater,inchannelsthrough
masonryconduits,orinleadpipes,orinpipesofbakedclay.Ifin
conduits,letthemasonrybeassolidaspossible,andletthebedof
thechannelhaveagradientofnotlessthanaquarterofaninchfor
everyhundredfeet,andletthemasonrystructurebearchedover,so
thatthesunmaynotstrikethewateratall.Whenithasreachedthe
city,buildareservoirwithadistributiontankinthreecompartments
connectedwiththereservoirtoreceivethewater,andletthereservoir
havethreepipes,oneforeachoftheconnectingtanks,sothatwhenthe
waterrunsoverfromthetanksattheends,itmayrunintotheone
betweenthem.
2.Fromthiscentraltank,pipeswillbelaidtoallthebasinsand
fountains;fromthesecondtank,tobaths,sothattheymayyieldan
annualincometothestate;andfromthethird,toprivatehouses,so
thatwaterforpublicusewillnotrunshort;forpeoplewillbeunable
todivertitiftheyhaveonlytheirownsuppliesfromheadquarters.
ThisisthereasonwhyIhavemadethesedivisions,andalsoinorder
thatindividualswhotakewaterintotheirhousesmaybytheirtaxes
helptomaintaintheconductingofthewaterbythecontractors.
3.If,however,therearehillsbetweenthecityandthesourceof
supply,subterraneanchannelsmustbedug,andbroughttoalevelatthe
gradientmentionedabove.Ifthebedisoftufaorotherstone,letthe
channelbecutinit;butifitisofearthorsand,theremustbe
vaultedmasonrywallsforthechannel,andthewatershouldthusbe
conducted,withshaftsbuiltateverytwohundredandfortyfeet.
4.Butifthewateristobeconductedinleadpipes,firstbuilda
reservoiratthesource;then,letthepipeshaveaninteriorarea
correspondingtotheamountofwater,andlaythesepipesfromthis
reservoirtothereservoirwhichisinsidethecitywalls.Thepipes
shouldbecastinlengthsofatleasttenfeet.Iftheyarehundreds,
theyshouldweigh1200poundseachlength;ifeighties,960pounds;if
fifties,600pounds;forties,480pounds;thirties,360pounds;
twenties,240pounds;fifteens,180pounds;tens,120pounds;eights,
100pounds;fives,60pounds.Thepipesgetthenamesoftheirsizes
fromthewidthoftheplates,takenindigits,beforetheyarerolled
intotubes.Thus,whenapipeismadefromaplatefiftydigitsin
width,itwillbecalleda"fifty,"andsoonwiththerest.
5.Theconductingofthewaterthroughleadpipesistobemanagedas
follows.Ifthereisaregularfallfromthesourcetothecity,without
anyinterveninghillsthatarehighenoughtointerruptit,butwith
depressionsinit,thenwemustbuildsubstructurestobringitupto
thelevelasinthecaseofchannelsandconduits.Ifthedistanceround
suchdepressionsisnotgreat,thewatermaybecarriedround
circuitously;butifthevalleysareextensive,thecoursewillbe

directeddowntheirslope.Onreachingthebottom,alowsubstructureis
builtsothattheleveltheremaycontinueaslongaspossible.This
willformthe"venter,"termed[Greek:Koilia]bytheGreeks.Then,on
reachingthehillontheoppositeside,thelengthoftheventermakes
thewaterslowinswellinguptorisetothetopofthehill.
6.Butifthereisnosuchventermadeinthevalleys,norany
substructurebuiltonalevel,butmerelyanelbow,thewaterwillbreak
out,andburstthejointsofthepipes.Andintheventer,water
cushionsmustbeconstructedtorelievethepressureoftheair.Thus,
thosewhohavetoconductwaterthroughleadpipeswilldoitmost
successfullyontheseprinciples,becauseitsdescents,circuits,
venters,andrisingscanbemanagedinthisway,whenthelevelofthe
fallfromthesourcestothecityisonceobtained.
7.Itisalsonotineffectualtobuildreservoirsatintervalsof24,000
feet,sothatifabreakoccursanywhere,itwillnotcompletelyruin
thewholework,andtheplacewhereithasoccurredcaneasilybe
found;butsuchreservoirsshouldnotbebuiltatadescent,norinthe
planeofaventer,noratrisings,noranywhereinvalleys,butonly
wherethereisanunbrokenlevel.
8.Butifwewishtospendlessmoney,wemustproceedasfollows.Clay
pipeswithaskinatleasttwodigitsthickshouldbemade,butthese
pipesshouldbetonguedatoneendsothattheycanfitintoandjoin
oneanother.Theirjointsmustbecoatedwithquicklimemixedwithoil,
andattheanglesoftheleveloftheventerapieceofredtufastone,
withaholeboredthroughit,mustbeplacedrightattheelbow,sothat
thelastlengthofpipeusedinthedescentisjointedintothestone,
andalsothefirstlengthoftheleveloftheventer;similarlyatthe
hillontheoppositesidethelastlengthoftheleveloftheventer
shouldstickintotheholeintheredtufa,andthefirstoftherise
shouldbesimilarlyjointedintoit.
9.Thelevelofthepipesbeingthusadjusted,theywillnotbesprung
outofplacebytheforcegeneratedatthedescentandattherising.
Forastrongcurrentofairisgeneratedinanaqueductwhichburstsits
wayeventhroughstonesunlessthewaterisletinslowlyandsparingly
fromthesourceatfirst,andcheckedattheelbowsorturnsbybands,
orbytheweightofsandballast.Alltheotherarrangementsshouldbe
madeasinthecaseofleadpipes.Andashesaretobeputinbeforehand
whenthewaterisletinfromthesourceforthefirsttime,sothatif
anyofthejointshavenotbeensufficientlycoated,theymaybecoated
withashes.
10.Claypipesforconductingwaterhavethefollowingadvantages.In
thefirstplace,inconstruction:ifanythinghappenstothem,anybody
canrepairthedamage.Secondly,waterfromclaypipesismuchmore
wholesomethanthatwhichisconductedthroughleadpipes,becauselead
isfoundtobeharmfulforthereasonthatwhiteleadisderivedfrom
it,andthisissaidtobehurtfultothehumansystem.Hence,ifwhat
isproducedfromitisharmful,nodoubtthethingitselfisnot
wholesome.
11.Thiswecanexemplifyfromplumbers,sinceinthemthenatural
colourofthebodyisreplacedbyadeeppallor.Forwhenleadis
smeltedincasting,thefumesfromitsettleupontheirmembers,andday
afterdayburnoutandtakeawayallthevirtuesofthebloodfromtheir
limbs.Hence,wateroughtbynomeanstobeconductedinleadpipes,if
wewanttohaveitwholesome.Thatthetasteisbetterwhenitcomes
fromclaypipesmaybeprovedbyeverydaylife,forthoughourtables
areloadedwithsilvervessels,yeteverybodyusesearthenwareforthe
sakeofpurityoftaste.
12.Butiftherearenospringsfromwhichwecanconstructaqueducts,
itisnecessarytodigwells.Nowinthediggingofwellswemustnot
disdainreflection,butmustdevotemuchacutenessandskilltothe
considerationofthenaturalprinciplesofthings,becausetheearth
containsmanyvarioussubstancesinitself;forlikeeverythingelse,it

iscomposedofthefourelements.Inthefirstplace,itisitself
earthy,andofmoistureitcontainsspringsofwater,alsoheat,which
producessulphur,alum,andasphalt;andfinally,itcontainsgreat
currentsofair,which,comingupinapregnantstatethroughtheporous
fissurestotheplaceswherewellsarebeingdug,andfindingmen
engagedindiggingthere,stopupthebreathoflifeintheirnostrils
bythenaturalstrengthoftheexhalation.Sothosewhodonotquickly
escapefromthespot,arekilledthere.
13.Toguardagainstthis,wemustproceedasfollows.Letdowna
lightedlamp,andifitkeepsonburning,amanmaymakethedescent
withoutdanger.Butifthelightisputoutbythestrengthofthe
exhalation,thendigairshaftsbesidethewellontherightandleft.
Thusthevapourswillbecarriedoffbytheairshaftsasifthrough
nostrils.Whenthesearefinishedandwecometothewater,thenawall
shouldbebuiltroundthewellwithoutstoppingupthevein.
14.Butifthegroundishard,oriftheveinslietoodeep,thewater
supplymustbeobtainedfromroofsorhigherground,andcollectedin
cisternsof"signinumwork."Signinumworkismadeasfollows.Inthe
firstplace,procurethecleanestandsharpestsand,breakuplavainto
bitsofnotmorethanapoundinweight,andmixthesandinamortar
troughwiththestrongestlimeintheproportionoffivepartsofsand
totwooflime.Thetrenchforthesigninumwork,downtothelevelof
theproposeddepthofthecistern,shouldbebeatenwithwoodenbeetles
coveredwithiron.
15.Thenafterhavingbeatenthewalls,letalltheearthbetweenthem
beclearedouttoalevelwiththeverybottomofthewalls.Having
evenedthisoff,letthegroundbebeatentotheproperdensity.Ifsuch
constructionsareintwocompartmentsorinthreesoastoinsure
clearingbychangingfromonetoanother,theywillmakethewatermuch
morewholesomeandsweetertouse.Foritwillbecomemorelimpid,and
keepitstastewithoutanysmell,ifthemudhassomewheretosettle;
otherwiseitwillbenecessarytoclearitbyaddingsalt.
InthisbookIhaveputwhatIcouldaboutthemeritsandvarietiesof
water,itsusefulness,andthewaysinwhichitshouldbeconductedand
tested;inthenextIshallwriteaboutthesubjectofdiallingandthe
principlesoftimepieces.

BOOKIX

INTRODUCTION
1.TheancestorsoftheGreekshaveappointedsuchgreathonoursforthe
famousathleteswhoarevictoriousattheOlympian,Pythian,Isthmian,
andNemeangames,thattheyarenotonlygreetedwithapplauseasthey
standwithpalmandcrownatthemeetingitself,butevenonreturning
totheirseveralstatesinthetriumphofvictory,theyrideintotheir
citiesandtotheirfathers'housesinfourhorsechariots,andenjoy
fixedrevenuesforlifeatthepublicexpense.WhenIthinkofthis,I
amamazedthatthesamehonoursandevengreaterarenotbestowedupon
thoseauthorswhoseboundlessservicesareperformedforalltimeand
forallnations.Thiswouldhavebeenapracticeallthemoreworth
establishing,becauseinthecaseofathletesitismerelytheirown
bodilyframethatisstrengthenedbytheirtraining,whereasinthecase
ofauthorsitisthemind,andnotonlytheirownbutalsoman'sin
general,bythedoctrineslaiddownintheirbooksfortheacquiringof
knowledgeandthesharpeningoftheintellect.
2.WhatdoesitsignifytomankindthatMiloofCrotonandothervictors

ofhisclasswereinvincible?Nothing,savethatintheirlifetimethey
werefamousamongtheircountrymen.ButthedoctrinesofPythagoras,
Democritus,Plato,andAristotle,andthedailylifeofotherlearned
men,spentinconstantindustry,yieldfreshandrichfruit,notonlyto
theirowncountrymen,butalsotoallnations.Andtheywhofromtheir
tenderyearsarefilledwiththeplenteouslearningwhichthisfruit
affords,attaintothehighestcapacityofknowledge,andcanintroduce
intotheirstatescivilizedways,impartialjustice,andlaws,things
withoutwhichnostatecanbesound.
3.Since,therefore,thesegreatbenefitstoindividualsandto
communitiesareduetothewisdomofauthors,Ithinkthatnotonly
shouldpalmsandcrownsbebestoweduponthem,butthattheyshouldeven
begrantedtriumphs,andjudgedworthyofbeingconsecratedinthe
dwellingsofthegods.
Oftheirmanydiscoverieswhichhavebeenusefulforthedevelopmentof
humanlife,Iwillciteafewexamples.Onreviewingthese,peoplewill
admitthathonoursoughtofnecessitytobebestoweduponthem.
4.Firstofall,amongthemanyveryusefultheoremsofPlato,Iwill
citeoneasdemonstratedbyhim.Supposethereisaplaceorafieldin
theformofasquareandwearerequiredtodoubleit.Thishastobe
effectedbymeansoflinescorrectlydrawn,foritwilltakeakindof
calculationnottobemadebymeansofmeremultiplication.The
followingisthedemonstration.Asquareplacetenfeetlongandten
feetwidegivesanareaofonehundredfeet.Nowifitisrequiredto
doublethesquare,andtomakeoneoftwohundredfeet,wemustaskhow
longwillbethesideofthatsquaresoastogetfromthisthetwo
hundredfeetcorrespondingtothedoublingofthearea.Nobodycanfind
thisbymeansofarithmetic.Forifwetakefourteen,multiplication
willgiveonehundredandninetysixfeet;iffifteen,twohundredand
twentyfivefeet.
5.Therefore,sincethisisinexplicablebyarithmetic,letadiagonal
linebedrawnfromangletoangleofthatsquareoftenfeetinlength
andwidth,dividingitintotwotrianglesofequalsize,eachfiftyfeet
inarea.Takingthisdiagonallineasthelength,describeanother
square.Thusweshallhaveinthelargersquarefourtrianglesofthe
samesizeandthesamenumberoffeetasthetwooffiftyfeeteach
whichwereformedbythediagonallineinthesmallersquare.Inthis
wayPlatodemonstratedthedoublingbymeansoflines,asthefigure
appendedatthebottomofthepagewillshow.
6.Thenagain,Pythagorasshowedthatarightanglecanbeformed
withoutthecontrivancesoftheartisan.Thus,theresultwhich
carpentersreachverylaboriously,butscarcelytoexactness,withtheir
squares,canbedemonstratedtoperfectionfromthereasoningand
methodsofhisteaching.Ifwetakethreerules,onethreefeet,the
secondfourfeet,andthethirdfivefeetinlength,andjointhese
rulestogetherwiththeirtipstouchingeachothersoastomakea
triangularfigure,theywillformarightangle.Nowifasquarebe
describedonthelengthofeachoneoftheserules,thesquareonthe
sideofthreefeetinlengthwillhaveanareaofninefeet;offour
feet,sixteen;offive,twentyfive.
7.Thustheareainnumberoffeetmadeupofthetwosquaresonthe
sidesthreeandfourfeetinlengthisequalledbythatoftheone
squaredescribedonthesideoffive.WhenPythagorasdiscoveredthis
fact,hehadnodoubtthattheMuseshadguidedhiminthediscovery,
anditissaidthatheverygratefullyofferedsacrificetothem.
Thistheoremaffordsausefulmeansofmeasuringmanythings,anditis
particularlyserviceableinthebuildingofstaircasesinbuildings,so
thatthestepsmaybeattheproperlevels.
8.Supposetheheightofthestory,fromtheflooringabovetothe
groundbelow,tobedividedintothreeparts.Fiveofthesewillgive
therightlengthforthestringersofthestairway.Letfourparts,each

equaltooneofthethreecomposingtheheightbetweentheupperstory
andtheground,besetofffromtheperpendicular,andtherefixthe
lowerendsofthestringers.Inthismannerthestepsandthestairway
itselfwillbeproperlyplaced.Afigureofthisalsowillbefound
appendedbelow.
9.InthecaseofArchimedes,althoughhemademanywonderful
discoveriesofdiversekinds,yetofthemall,thefollowing,whichI
shallrelate,seemstohavebeentheresultofaboundlessingenuity.
Hiero,aftergainingtheroyalpowerinSyracuse,resolved,asa
consequenceofhissuccessfulexploits,toplaceinacertaintemplea
goldencrownwhichhehadvowedtotheimmortalgods.Hecontractedfor
itsmakingatafixedprice,andweighedoutapreciseamountofgoldto
thecontractor.Attheappointedtimethelatterdeliveredtotheking's
satisfactionanexquisitelyfinishedpieceofhandiwork,anditappeared
thatinweightthecrowncorrespondedpreciselytowhatthegoldhad
weighed.
10.Butafterwardsachargewasmadethatgoldhadbeenabstractedand
anequivalentweightofsilverhadbeenaddedinthemanufactureofthe
crown.Hiero,thinkingitanoutragethathehadbeentricked,andyet
notknowinghowtodetectthetheft,requestedArchimedestoconsider
thematter.Thelatter,whilethecasewasstillonhismind,happened
togotothebath,andongettingintoatubobservedthatthemorehis
bodysankintoitthemorewaterranoutoverthetub.Asthispointed
outthewaytoexplainthecaseinquestion,withoutamoment'sdelay,
andtransportedwithjoy,hejumpedoutofthetubandrushedhome
naked,cryingwithaloudvoicethathehadfoundwhathewasseeking;
forasheranheshoutedrepeatedlyinGreek,"[Greek:Eureka,eureka]."
11.Takingthisasthebeginningofhisdiscovery,itissaidthathe
madetwomassesofthesameweightasthecrown,oneofgoldandthe
otherofsilver.Aftermakingthem,hefilledalargevesselwithwater
totheverybrim,anddroppedthemassofsilverintoit.Asmuchwater
ranoutaswasequalinbulktothatofthesilversunkinthevessel.
Then,takingoutthemass,hepouredbackthelostquantityofwater,
usingapintmeasure,untilitwaslevelwiththebrimasithadbeen
before.Thushefoundtheweightofsilvercorrespondingtoadefinite
quantityofwater.
12.Afterthisexperiment,helikewisedroppedthemassofgoldintothe
fullvesseland,ontakingitoutandmeasuringasbefore,foundthat
notsomuchwaterwaslost,butasmallerquantity:namely,asmuchless
asamassofgoldlacksinbulkcomparedtoamassofsilverofthesame
weight.Finally,fillingthevesselagainanddroppingthecrownitself
intothesamequantityofwater,hefoundthatmorewaterranoverfor
thecrownthanforthemassofgoldofthesameweight.Hence,reasoning
fromthefactthatmorewaterwaslostinthecaseofthecrownthanin
thatofthemass,hedetectedthemixingofsilverwiththegold,and
madethetheftofthecontractorperfectlyclear.
13.NowletusturnourthoughtstotheresearchesofArchytasof
TarentumandEratosthenesofCyrene.Theymademanydiscoveriesfrom
mathematicswhicharewelcometomen,andso,thoughtheydeserveour
thanksforotherdiscoveries,theyareparticularlyworthyofadmiration
fortheirideasinthatfield.Forexample,eachinadifferentway
solvedtheproblemenjoineduponDelosbyApolloinanoracle,the
doublingofthenumberofcubicfeetinhisaltars;thisdone,hesaid,
theinhabitantsoftheislandwouldbedeliveredfromanoffenceagainst
religion.
14.Archytassolveditbyhisfigureofthesemicylinders;
Eratosthenes,bymeansoftheinstrumentcalledthemesolabe.
Notingallthesethingswiththegreatdelightwhichlearninggives,we
cannotbutbestirredbythesediscoverieswhenwereflectuponthe
influenceofthemonebyone.Ifindalsomuchforadmirationinthe
booksofDemocritusonnature,andinhiscommentaryentitled[Greek:
Cheirokmeta],inwhichhemadeuseofhisringtosealwithsoftwaxthe

principleswhichhehadhimselfputtothetest.
15.These,then,weremenwhoseresearchesareaneverlasting
possession,notonlyfortheimprovementofcharacterbutalsofor
generalutility.Thefameofathletes,however,soondeclineswiththeir
bodilypowers.Neitherwhentheyareinthefloweroftheirstrength,
norafterwardswithposterity,cantheydoforhumanlifewhatisdone
bytheresearchesofthelearned.
16.Butalthoughhonoursarenotbestoweduponauthorsforexcellenceof
characterandteaching,yetastheirminds,naturallylookinguptothe
higherregionsoftheair,areraisedtotheskyonthestepsof
history,itmustneedsbe,thatnotmerelytheirdoctrines,buteven
theirappearance,shouldbeknowntoposteritythroughtimeeternal.
Hence,menwhosesoulsarearousedbythedelightsofliteraturecannot
butcarryenshrinedintheirheartsthelikenessofthepoetEnnius,as
theydothoseofthegods.Thosewhoaredevotedlyattachedtothepoems
ofAcciusseemtohavebeforethemnotmerelyhisvigorouslanguagebut
evenhisveryfigure.
17.So,too,numbersbornafterourtimewillfeelasiftheywere
discussingnaturefacetofacewithLucretius,ortheartofrhetoric
withCicero;manyofourposteritywillconferwithVarroontheLatin
language;likewise,therewillbenumerousscholarswho,astheyweigh
manypointswiththewiseamongtheGreeks,willfeelasiftheywere
carryingonprivateconversationswiththem.Inaword,theopinionsof
learnedauthors,thoughtheirbodilyformsareabsent,gainstrengthas
timegoeson,and,whentakingpartincouncilsanddiscussions,have
greaterweightthanthoseofanylivingmen.
18.Such,Caesar,aretheauthoritiesonwhomIhavedepended,and
applyingtheirviewsandopinionsIhavewrittenthepresentbooks,in
thefirstseventreatingofbuildingsandintheeighthofwater.In
thisIshallsetforththerulesfordialling,showinghowtheyare
foundthroughtheshadowscastbythegnomonfromthesun'sraysinthe
firmament,andonwhatprinciplestheseshadowslengthenandshorten.

CHAPTERI
THEZODIACANDTHEPLANETS
1.Itisduetothedivineintelligenceandisaverygreatwonderto
allwhoreflectuponit,thattheshadowofagnomonattheequinoxis
ofonelengthinAthens,ofanotherinAlexandria,ofanotherinRome,
andnotthesameatPiacenza,oratotherplacesintheworld.Hence
drawingsfordialsareverydifferentfromoneanother,correspondingto
differencesofsituation.Thisisbecausethelengthoftheshadowat
theequinoxisusedinconstructingthefigureoftheanalemma,in
accordancewithwhichthehoursaremarkedtoconformtothesituation
andtheshadowofthegnomon.Theanalemmaisabasisforcalculation
deducedfromthecourseofthesun,andfoundbyobservationofthe
shadowasitincreasesuntilthewintersolstice.Bymeansofthis,
througharchitecturalprinciplesandtheemploymentofthecompasses,we
findouttheoperationofthesunintheuniverse.
2.Theword"universe"meansthegeneralassemblageofallnature,and
italsomeanstheheaventhatismadeupoftheconstellationsandthe
coursesofthestars.Theheavenrevolvessteadilyroundearthandsea
onthepivotsattheendsofitsaxis.Thearchitectatthesepointswas
thepowerofNature,andsheputthepivotsthere,tobe,asitwere,
centres,oneofthemabovetheearthandseaattheverytopofthe
firmamentandevenbeyondthestarscomposingtheGreatBear,theother
ontheoppositesideundertheearthintheregionsofthesouth.Round
thesepivots(termedinGreek[Greek:poloi])ascentres,likethoseof
aturninglathe,sheformedthecirclesinwhichtheheavenpasseson

itseverlastingway.Inthemidstthereof,theearthandseanaturally
occupythecentralpoint.
3.Itfollowsfromthisnaturalarrangementthatthecentralpointin
thenorthishighabovetheearth,whileonthesouth,theregion
below,itisbeneaththeearthandconsequentlyhiddenbyit.
Furthermore,acrossthemiddle,andobliquelyinclinedtothesouth,
thereisabroadcircularbeltcomposedofthetwelvesigns,whose
stars,arrangedintwelveequivalentdivisions,representeachashape
whichnaturehasdepicted.Andsowiththefirmamentandtheother
constellations,theymoveroundtheearthandseainglitteringarray,
completingtheirorbitsaccordingtothesphericalshapeoftheheaven.
4.Theyareallvisibleorinvisibleaccordingtofixedtimes.Whilesix
ofthesignsarepassingalongwiththeheavenabovetheearth,the
othersixaremovingundertheearthandhiddenbyitsshadow.Butthere
arealwayssixofthemmakingtheirwayabovetheearth;for,
correspondingtothatpartofthelastsignwhichinthecourseofits
revolutionhastosink,passundertheearth,andbecomeconcealed,an
equivalentpartofthesignoppositetoitisobligedbythelawof
theircommonrevolutiontopassupand,havingcompleteditscircuit,to
emergeoutofthedarknessintothelightoftheopenspaceontheother
side.Thisisbecausetherisingandsettingofbotharesubjecttoone
andthesamepowerandlaw.
5.Whilethesesigns,twelveinnumberandoccupyingeachonetwelfth
partofthefirmament,steadilyrevolvefromeasttowest,themoon,
Mercury,Venus,thesun,aswellasMars,Jupiter,andSaturn,differing
fromoneanotherinthemagnitudeoftheirorbitsasthoughtheir
courseswereatdifferentpointsinaflightofsteps,passthrough
thosesignsinjusttheoppositedirection,fromwesttoeastinthe
firmament.Themoonmakeshercircuitoftheheavenintwentyeightdays
plusaboutanhour,andwithherreturntothesignfromwhichsheset
forth,completesalunarmonth.
6.Thesuntakesafullmonthtomoveacrossthespaceofonesign,that
is,onetwelfthofthefirmament.Consequently,intwelvemonthshe
traversesthespacesofthetwelvesigns,and,onreturningtothesign
fromwhichhebegan,completestheperiodofafullyear.Hence,the
circuitmadebythemoonthirteentimesintwelvemonths,ismeasured
bythesunonlyonceinthesamenumberofmonths.ButMercuryand
Venus,theirpathswreathingaroundthesun'sraysastheircentre,
retrogradeanddelaytheirmovements,andso,fromthenatureofthat
circuit,sometimeswaitatstoppingplaceswithinthespacesofthe
signs.
7.ThisfactmaybestberecognizedfromVenus.Whensheisfollowing
thesun,shemakesherappearanceintheskyafterhissetting,andis
thencalledtheEveningStar,shiningmostbrilliantly.Atothertimes
sheprecedeshim,risingbeforedaybreak,andisnamedtheMorning
Star.ThusMercuryandVenussometimesdelayinonesignforagoodmany
days,andatothersadvanceprettyrapidlyintoanothersign.Theydo
notspendthesamenumberofdaysineverysign,butthelongerthey
havepreviouslydelayed,themorerapidlytheyaccomplishtheirjourneys
afterpassingintothenextsign,andthustheycompletetheirappointed
course.Consequently,inspiteoftheirdelayinsomeofthesigns,they
neverthelesssoonreachtheproperplaceintheirorbitsafterfreeing
themselvesfromtheirenforceddelay.
8.Mercury,onhisjourneythroughtheheavens,passesthroughthe
spacesofthesignsinthreehundredandsixtydays,andsoarrivesat
thesignfromwhichhesetoutonhiscourseatthebeginningofhis
revolution.Hisaveragerateofmovementissuchthathehasabout
thirtydaysineachsign.
9.Venus,onbecomingfreefromthehindranceofthesun'srays,crosses
thespaceofasigninthirtydays.Thoughshethusstayslessthan
fortydaysinparticularsigns,shemakesgoodtherequiredamountby
delayinginonesignwhenshecomestoapause.Thereforeshecompletes

hertotalrevolutioninheaveninfourhundredandeightyfivedays,and
oncemoreentersthesignfromwhichshepreviouslybegantomove.
10.Mars,aftertraversingthespacesoftheconstellationsforabout
sixhundredandeightythreedays,arrivesatthepointfromwhichhe
hadbeforesetoutatthebeginningofhiscourse,andwhilehepasses
throughsomeofthesignsmorerapidlythanothers,hemakesupthe
requirednumberofdayswheneverhecomestoapause.Jupiter,climbing
withgentlerpaceagainsttherevolutionofthefirmament,travels
througheachsigninaboutthreehundredandsixtydays,andfinishesin
elevenyearsandthreehundredandthirteendays,returningtothesign
inwhichhehadbeentwelveyearsbefore.Saturn,traversingthespace
ofonesignintwentyninemonthsplusafewdays,isrestoredafter
twentynineyearsandaboutonehundredandsixtydaystothatinwhich
hehadbeenthirtyyearsbefore.Heis,asitappears,slower,because
thenearerheistotheoutermostpartofthefirmament,thegreateris
theorbitthroughwhichhehastopass.
11.Thethreethatcompletetheircircuitsabovethesun'scoursedonot
makeprogresswhiletheyareinthetrianglewhichhehasentered,but
retrogradeandpauseuntilthesunhascrossedfromthattriangleinto
anothersign.Someholdthatthistakesplacebecause,astheysay,when
thesunisagreatdistanceoff,thepathsonwhichthesestarswander
arewithoutlightonaccountofthatdistance,andsothedarkness
retardsandhindersthem.ButIdonotthinkthatthisisso.The
splendourofthesunisclearlytobeseen,andmanifestwithoutany
kindofobscurity,throughoutthewholefirmament,sothatthosevery
retrogrademovementsandpausesofthestarsarevisibleeventous.
12.Ifthen,atthisgreatdistance,ourhumanvisioncandiscernthat
sight,why,pray,arewetothinkthatthedivinesplendourofthestars
canbecastintodarkness?Ratherwillthefollowingwayofaccounting
foritprovetobecorrect.Heatsummonsandattractseverythingtowards
itself;forinstance,weseethefruitsoftheearthgrowinguphigh
undertheinfluenceofheat,andthatspringwaterisvapourisedand
drawnuptothecloudsatsunrise.Onthesameprinciple,themighty
influenceofthesun,withhisraysdivergingintheformofatriangle,
attractsthestarswhichfollowhim,and,asitwere,curbsand
restrainsthosethatprecede,notallowingthemtomakeprogress,but
obligingthemtoretrogradetowardshimselfuntilhepassesoutinto
thesignthatbelongstoadifferenttriangle.
13.Perhapsthequestionwillberaised,whythesunbyhisgreatheat
causesthesedetentionsinthefifthsignfromhimselfratherthanin
thesecondorthird,whicharenearer.Iwillthereforesetforthwhat
seemstobethereason.Hisraysdivergethroughthefirmamentin
straightlinesasthoughforminganequilateraltriangle,thatis,to
thefifthsignfromthesun,nomore,noless.Ifhisrayswerediffused
incircuitsspreadingalloverthefirmament,insteadofinstraight
linesdivergingsoastoformatriangle,theywouldburnupallthe
nearerobjects.ThisisafactwhichtheGreekpoetEuripidesseemsto
haveremarked;forhesaysthatplacesatagreaterdistancefromthe
sunareinaviolentheat,andthatthosewhicharenearerhekeeps
temperate.ThusintheplayofPhaethon,thepoetwrites:[Greek:kaiei
taporro,tangythendeukratechei].
14.Ifthen,factandreasonandtheevidenceofanancientpoetpoint
tothisexplanation,Idonotseewhyweshoulddecideotherwisethanas
Ihavewrittenaboveonthissubject.
Jupiter,whoseorbitisbetweenthoseofMarsandSaturn,traversesa
longercoursethanMars,andashorterthanSaturn.Likewisewiththe
restofthesestars:thefarthertheyarefromtheoutermostlimitsof
theheaven,andthenearertheirorbitstotheearth,thesoonerthey
areseentofinishtheircourses;forthoseofthemthathaveasmaller
orbitoftenpassthosethatarehigher,goingunderthem.
15.Forexample,placesevenantsonawheelsuchaspottersuse,having
madesevenchannelsonthewheelaboutthecentre,increasing

successivelyincircumference;andsupposethoseantsobligedtomakea
circuitinthesechannelswhilethewheelisturnedintheopposite
direction.Inspiteofhavingtomoveinadirectioncontrarytothatof
thewheel,theantsmustnecessarilycompletetheirjourneysinthe
oppositedirection,andthatantwhichisnearestthecentremustfinish
itscircuitsooner,whiletheantthatisgoingroundattheouteredge
ofthediscofthewheelmust,onaccountofthesizeofitscircuit,
bemuchslowerincompletingitscourse,eventhoughitismovingjust
asquicklyastheother.Inthesameway,thesestars,whichstruggleon
againstthecourseofthefirmament,areaccomplishinganorbitonpaths
oftheirown;but,owingtotherevolutionoftheheaven,theyareswept
backasitgoesroundeveryday.
16.Thereasonwhysomeofthesestarsaretemperate,othershot,and
otherscold,appearstobethis:thattheflameofeverykindoffire
risestohigherplaces.Consequently,theburningraysofthesunmake
theetherabovehimwhitehot,intheregionsofthecourseofMars,and
sotheheatofthesunmakeshimhot.Saturn,onthecontrary,being
nearesttotheoutermostlimitofthefirmamentandborderingonthe
quartersoftheheavenwhicharefrozen,isexcessivelycold.Hence,
Jupiter,whosecourseisbetweentheorbitsofthesetwo,appearsto
haveamoderateandverytemperateinfluence,intermediatebetweentheir
coldandheat.
Ihavenowdescribed,asIhavereceivedthemfrommyteacher,thebelt
ofthetwelvesignsandthesevenstarsthatworkandmoveinthe
oppositedirection,withthelawsandnumericalrelationsunderwhich
theypassfromsigntosign,andhowtheycompletetheirorbits.Ishall
nextspeakofthewaxingandwaningofthemoon,accordingtothe
accountsofmypredecessors.

CHAPTERII
THEPHASESOFTHEMOON
1.AccordingtotheteachingofBerosus,whocamefromthestate,or
rathernation,oftheChaldees,andwasthepioneerofChaldeanlearning
inAsia,themoonisaball,onehalfluminousandtherestofablue
colour.When,inthecourseofherorbit,shehaspassedbelowthedisc
ofthesun,sheisattractedbyhisraysandgreatheat,andturns
thitherherluminousside,onaccountofthesympathybetweenlightand
light.Beingthussummonedbythesun'sdiscandfacingupward,her
lowerhalf,asitisnotluminous,isinvisibleonaccountofits
likenesstotheair.Whensheisperpendiculartothesun'srays,all
herlightisconfinedtoheruppersurface,andsheisthencalledthe
newmoon.
2.Asshemoveson,passingbytotheeast,theeffectofthesunupon
herrelaxes,andtheouteredgeoftheluminoussideshedsitslight
upontheearthinanexceedinglythinline.Thisiscalledthesecond
dayofthemoon.Daybydaysheisfurtherrelievedandturns,andthus
arenumberedthethird,fourth,andfollowingdays.Ontheseventhday,
thesunbeinginthewestandthemooninthemiddleofthefirmament
betweentheeastandwest,sheishalftheextentofthefirmament
distantfromthesun,andthereforehalfoftheluminoussideisturned
towardtheearth.Butwhenthesunandmoonareseparatedbytheentire
extentofthefirmament,andthemoonisintheeastwiththesunover
againstherinthewest,sheiscompletelyrelievedbyherstillgreater
distancefromhisrays,andso,onthefourteenthday,sheisatthe
full,andherentirediscemitsitslight.Onthesucceedingdays,upto
theendofthemonth,shewanesdailyassheturnsinhercourse,being
recalledbythesununtilshecomesunderhisdiscandrays,thus
completingthecountofthedaysofthemonth.
3.ButAristarchusofSamos,amathematicianofgreatpowers,haslefta

differentexplanationinhisteachingonthissubject,asIshallnow
setforth.Itisnosecretthatthemoonhasnolightofherown,but
is,asitwere,amirror,receivingbrightnessfromtheinfluenceofthe
sun.Ofallthesevenstars,themoontraversestheshortestorbit,and
hercourseisnearesttotheearth.Henceineverymonth,ontheday
beforeshegetspastthesun,sheisunderhisdiscandrays,andis
consequentlyhiddenandinvisible.Whensheisthusinconjunctionwith
thesun,sheiscalledthenewmoon.Onthenextday,reckonedasher
second,shegetspastthesunandshowsthethinedgeofhersphere.
Threedaysawayfromthesun,shewaxesandgrowsbrighter.Removing
furthereverydaytillshereachestheseventh,whenherdistancefrom
thesunathissettingisaboutonehalftheextentofthefirmament,
onehalfofherisluminous:thatis,thehalfwhichfacestowardthe
sunislightedupbyhim.
4.Onthefourteenthday,beingdiametricallyacrossthewholeextentof
thefirmamentfromthesun,sheisatherfullandriseswhenthesunis
setting.For,asshetakesherplaceoveragainsthimanddistantthe
wholeextentofthefirmament,shethusreceivesthelightfromthesun
throughoutherentireorb.Ontheseventeenthday,atsunrise,sheis
incliningtothewest.Onthetwentysecondday,aftersunrise,themoon
isaboutmidheaven;hence,thesideexposedtothesunisbrightand
therestdark.Continuingthusherdailycourse,shepassesunderthe
raysofthesunonaboutthetwentyeighthday,andsocompletesthe
accountofthemonth.
Iwillnextexplainhowthesun,passingthroughadifferentsigneach
month,causesthedaysandhourstoincreaseanddiminishinlength.

CHAPTERIII
THECOURSEOFTHESUNTHROUGHTHETWELVESIGNS
1.Thesun,afterenteringthesignAriesandpassingthroughoneeighth
ofit,determinesthevernalequinox.OnreachingthetailofTaurusand
theconstellationofthePleiades,fromwhichthefronthalfofTaurus
projects,headvancesintoaspacegreaterthanhalfthefirmament,
movingtowardthenorth.FromTaurusheentersGeminiatthetimeofthe
risingofthePleiades,and,gettinghigherabovetheearth,he
increasesthelengthofthedays.Next,comingfromGeminiintoCancer,
whichoccupiestheshortestspaceinheaven,andaftertraversingone
eighthofit,hedeterminesthesummersolstice.Continuingon,he
reachestheheadandbreastofLeo,portionswhicharereckonedas
belongingtoCancer.
2.AfterleavingthebreastofLeoandtheboundariesofCancer,the
sun,traversingtherestofLeo,makesthedaysshorter,diminishingthe
sizeofhiscircuit,andreturningtothesamecoursethathehadin
Gemini.Next,crossingfromLeointoVirgo,andadvancingasfarasthe
bosomofhergarment,hestillfurthershortenshiscircuit,makinghis
courseequaltowhatitwasinTaurus.AdvancingfromVirgobywayof
thebosomofhergarment,whichformsthefirstpartofLibra,he
determinestheautumnequinoxattheendofoneeighthofLibra.Here
hiscourseisequaltowhathiscircuitwasinthesignAries.
3.WhenthesunhasenteredScorpio,atthetimeofthesettingofthe
Pleiades,hebeginstomakethedaysshorterasheadvancestowardthe
south.FromScorpioheentersSagittariusand,onreachingthethighs,
hisdailycourseisstillfurtherdiminished.Fromthethighsof
Sagittarius,whicharereckonedaspartofCapricornus,hereachesthe
endofthefirsteighthofthelatter,wherehiscourseinheavenis
shortest.Consequently,thisseason,fromtheshortnessoftheday,is
calledbrumaordiesbrumales.CrossingfromCapricornusintoAquarius,
hecausesthedaystoincreasetothelengthwhichtheyhadwhenhewas
inSagittarius.FromAquariusheentersPiscesatthetimewhenFavonius

beginstoblow,andherehiscourseisthesameasinScorpio.Inthis
waythesunpassesroundthroughthesigns,lengtheningorshortening
thedaysandhoursatdefiniteseasons.
Ishallnextspeakoftheotherconstellationsformedbyarrangementsof
stars,andlyingtotherightandleftofthebeltofthesigns,inthe
southernandnorthernportionsofthefirmament.

CHAPTERIV
THENORTHERNCONSTELLATIONS
1.TheGreatBear,calledinGreek[Greek:arktos]or[Greek:helike],
hasherWardenbehindher.NearhimistheVirgin,onwhoseright
shoulderrestsaverybrightstarwhichwecallHarbingerofthe
Vintage,andtheGreeks[Greek:protrygetes].ButSpicainthat
constellationisbrighter.Oppositethereisanotherstar,coloured,
betweenthekneesoftheBearWarden,dedicatedthereunderthenameof
Arcturus.
2.OppositetheheadoftheBear,atananglewiththefeetofthe
Twins,istheCharioteer,standingonthetipofthehornoftheBull;
hence,oneandthesamestarisfoundinthetipofthelefthornofthe
BullandintherightfootoftheCharioteer.Supportedonthehandof
theCharioteeraretheKids,withtheSheGoatathisleftshoulder.
AbovetheBullandtheRamisPerseus,havingathisright...[11]with
thePleiadesmovingbeneath,andathislefttheheadoftheRam.His
righthandrestsonthelikenessofCassiopea,andwithhislefthe
holdstheGorgon'sheadbyitstopovertheRam,layingitatthefeet
ofAndromeda.
[Note11:Fromthispointtotheendofsection3thetextisoften
hopelesslycorrupt.Thetranslationfollows,approximately,the
manuscriptreading,butcannotpretendtobeexact.]
3.AboveAndromedaaretheFishes,oneaboveherbellyandtheother
abovethebackboneoftheHorse.Averybrightstarterminatesboththe
bellyoftheHorseandtheheadofAndromeda.Andromeda'srighthand
restsabovethelikenessofCassiopea,andherleftabovetheNorthern
Fish.TheWaterman'sheadisabovethatoftheHorse.TheHorse'shoofs
lieclosetotheWaterman'sknees.Cassiopeaissetapartinthemidst.
HighabovetheHeGoataretheEagleandtheDolphin,andnearthemis
theArrow.FartheronistheBird,whoserightwinggrazestheheadand
sceptreofCepheus,withitsleftrestingoverCassiopea.Underthetail
oftheBirdliethefeetoftheHorse.
4.AbovetheArcher,Scorpion,andBalance,istheSerpent,reachingto
theCrownwiththeendofitssnout.Next,theSerpentholdergraspsthe
Serpentaboutthemiddleinhishands,andwithhisleftfoottreads
squarelyontheforepartsoftheScorpion.Alittlewayfromtheheadof
theSerpentholderistheheadofthesocalledKneeler.Theirheadsare
themorereadilytobedistinguishedasthestarswhichcomposethemare
bynomeansdim.
5.ThefootoftheKneelerrestsonthetempleofthatSerpentwhichis
entwinedbetweentheSheBears(calledSeptentriones).Thelittle
DolphinmovesinfrontoftheHorse.OppositethebilloftheBirdis
theLyre.TheCrownisarrangedbetweentheshouldersoftheWardenand
theKneeler.InthenortherncirclearethetwoSheBearswiththeir
shoulderbladesconfrontingandtheirbreaststurnedawayfromone
another.TheGreekscalltheLesserBear[Greek:kynosoura],andthe
Greater[Greek:elike].Theirheadsfacedifferentways,andtheirtails
areshapedsothateachisinfrontoftheheadoftheotherBear;for
thetailsofbothstickupoverthem.

6.TheSerpentissaidtoliestretchedoutbetweentheirtails,andin
itthereisastar,calledPolus,shiningneartheheadoftheGreater
Bear.Atthenearestpoint,theSerpentwindsitsheadround,butis
alsoflunginafoldroundtheheadoftheLesserBear,andstretches
outclosetoherfeet.Hereittwistsback,makinganotherfold,and,
liftingitselfup,bendsitssnoutandrighttemplefromtheheadofthe
LesserBearroundtowardstheGreater.AbovethetailoftheLesserBear
arethefeetofCepheus,andatthispoint,attheverytop,arestars
forminganequilateraltriangle.Thereareagoodmanystarscommonto
theLesserBearandtoCepheus.
Ihavenowmentionedtheconstellationswhicharearrangedintheheaven
totherightoftheeast,betweenthebeltofthesignsandthenorth.I
shallnextdescribethosethatNaturehasdistributedtotheleftofthe
eastandinthesouthernregions.

CHAPTERV
THESOUTHERNCONSTELLATIONS
1.First,undertheHeGoatliestheSouthernFish,facingtowardsthe
tailoftheWhale.TheCenserisundertheScorpion'ssting.Thefore
partsoftheCentaurarenexttotheBalanceandtheScorpion,andhe
holdsinhishandsthefigurewhichastronomerscalltheBeast.Beneath
theVirgin,Lion,andCrabisthetwistedgirdleformedbytheSnake,
extendingoverawholelineofstars,hissnoutraisedneartheCrab,
supportingtheBowlwiththemiddleofhisbodyneartheLion,and
bringinghistail,onwhichistheRaven,underandnearthehandofthe
Virgin.Theregionabovehisshouldersisequallybright.
2.BeneaththeSnake'sbelly,atthetail,liestheCentaur.Nearthe
BowlandtheLionistheshipnamedArgo.Herbowisinvisible,buther
mastandthepartsaboutthehelmareinplainsight,thesternofthe
vesseljoiningtheDogatthetipofhistail.TheLittleDogfollows
theTwins,andisoppositetheSnake'shead.TheGreaterDogfollowsthe
Lesser.Orionliesaslant,undertheBull'shoof;inhislefthand
graspinghisclub,andraisingtheothertowardtheTwins.
3.AthisfeetistheDog,followingalittlebehindtheHare.TheWhale
liesundertheRamandtheFishes,andfromhismanethereisaslight
sprinklingofstars,calledinGreek[Greek:harpedonai],regularly
disposedtowardseachoftheFishes.Thisligaturebywhichtheyhangis
carriedagreatwayinwards,butreachesouttothetopofthemaneof
theWhale.TheRiver,formedofstars,flowsfromasourceattheleft
footofOrion.ButtheWater,saidtopourfromtheWaterman,flows
betweentheheadoftheSouthernFishandthetailoftheWhale.
4.Theseconstellations,whoseoutlinesandshapesintheheavenswere
designedbyNatureandthedivineintelligence,Ihavedescribed
accordingtotheviewofthenaturalphilosopherDemocritus,butonly
thosewhoserisingsandsettingswecanobserveandseewithourown
eyes.JustastheBearsturnroundthepivotoftheaxiswithoutever
settingorsinkingundertheearth,therearelikewisestarsthatkeep
turningroundthesouthernpivot,whichonaccountoftheinclinationof
thefirmamentliesalwaysundertheearth,and,beinghiddenthere,they
neverriseandemergeabovetheearth.Consequently,thefigureswhich
theyformareunknowntousonaccountoftheinterpositionofthe
earth.ThestarCanopusprovesthis.Itisunknowntoourvicinity;but
wehavereportsofitfrommerchantswhohavebeentothemostdistant
partofEgypt,andtoregionsborderingontheuttermostboundariesof
theearth.

CHAPTERVI
ASTROLOGYANDWEATHERPROGNOSTICS
1.Ihaveshownhowthefirmament,andthetwelvesignswiththe
constellationsarrangedtothenorthandsouthofthem,flyroundthe
earth,sothatthemattermaybeclearlyunderstood.Foritisfromthis
revolutionofthefirmament,fromthecourseofthesunthroughthe
signsintheoppositedirection,andfromtheshadowscastby
equinoctialgnomons,thatwefindthefigureoftheanalemma.
2.Asforthebranchofastronomywhichconcernstheinfluencesofthe
twelvesigns,thefivestars,thesun,andthemoonuponhumanlife,we
mustleaveallthistothecalculationsoftheChaldeans,towhom
belongstheartofcastingnativities,whichenablesthemtodeclarethe
pastandthefuturebymeansofcalculationsbasedonthestars.These
discoverieshavebeentransmittedbythemenofgeniusandgreat
acutenesswhosprangdirectlyfromthenationoftheChaldeans;firstof
all,byBerosus,whosettledintheislandstateofCos,andthere
openedaschool.AfterwardsAntipaterpursuedthesubject;thenthere
wasArchinapolus,whoalsoleftrulesforcastingnativities,basednot
onthemomentofbirthbutonthatofconception.
3.Whenwecometonaturalphilosophy,however,ThalesofMiletus,
AnaxagorasofClazomenae,PythagorasofSamos,XenophanesofColophon,
andDemocritusofAbderahaveinvariouswaysinvestigatedandleftus
thelawsandtheworkingofthelawsbywhichnaturegovernsit.Inthe
trackoftheirdiscoveries,Eudoxus,Euctemon,Callippus,Meto,
Philippus,Hipparchus,Aratus,andothersdiscoveredtherisingsand
settingsoftheconstellations,aswellasweatherprognosticationsfrom
astronomythroughthestudyofthecalendars,andthisstudytheyset
forthandlefttoposterity.Theirlearningdeservestheadmirationof
mankind;fortheyweresosolicitousaseventobeabletopredict,long
beforehand,withdiviningmind,thesignsoftheweatherwhichwasto
followinthefuture.Onthissubject,therefore,referencemustbemade
totheirlaboursandinvestigations.

CHAPTERVII
THEANALEMMAANDITSAPPLICATIONS
1.Indistinctionfromthesubjectsfirstmentioned,wemustourselves
explaintheprincipleswhichgoverntheshorteningandlengtheningof
theday.Whenthesunisattheequinoxes,thatis,passingthrough
AriesorLibra,hemakesthegnomoncastashadowequaltoeightninths
ofitsownlength,inthelatitudeofRome.InAthens,theshadowis
equaltothreefourthsofthelengthofthegnomon;atRhodestofive
sevenths;atTarentum,tonineelevenths;atAlexandria,tothree
fifths;andsoatotherplacesitisfoundthattheshadowsof
equinoctialgnomonsarenaturallydifferentfromoneanother.
2.Hence,whereverasundialistobeconstructed,wemusttakethe
equinoctialshadowoftheplace.Ifitisfoundtobe,asinRome,equal
toeightninthsofthegnomon,letalinebedrawnonaplanesurface,
andinthemiddlethereoferectaperpendicular,plumbtotheline,
whichperpendiculariscalledthegnomon.Then,fromthelineinthe
plane,letthelineofthegnomonbedividedoffbythecompassesinto
nineparts,andtakethepointdesignatingtheninthpartasacentre,
tobemarkedbytheletterA.Then,openingthecompassesfromthat
centretothelineintheplaneatthepointB,describeacircle.This
circleiscalledthemeridian.
3.Then,oftheninepartsbetweentheplaneandthecentreonthe
gnomon,takeeight,andmarkthemoffonthelineintheplanetothe

pointC.Thiswillbetheequinoctialshadowofthegnomon.Fromthat
point,markedbyC,letalinebedrawnthroughthecentreatthepoint
A,andthiswillrepresentarayofthesunattheequinox.Then,
extendingthecompassesfromthecentretothelineintheplane,mark
offtheequidistantpointsEontheleftandIontheright,onthetwo
sidesofthecircumference,andletalinebedrawnthroughthecentre,
dividingthecircleintotwoequalsemicircles.Thislineiscalledby
mathematiciansthehorizon.
[Illustration]
4.Then,takeafifteenthpartoftheentirecircumference,and,placing
thecentreofthecompassesonthecircumferenceatthepointwherethe
equinoctialraycutsitattheletterF,markoffthepointsGandHon
therightandleft.Thenlinesmustbedrawnfromthese(andthecentre)
tothelineoftheplaneatthepointsTandR,andthus,onewill
representtherayofthesuninwinter,andtheothertherayinsummer.
OppositeEwillbethepointI,wherethelinedrawnthroughthecentre
atthepointAcutsthecircumference;oppositeGandHwillbethe
pointsLandK;andoppositeC,F,andAwillbethepointN.
5.Then,diametersaretobedrawnfromGtoLandfromHtoK.The
upperwilldenotethesummerandthelowerthewinterportion.These
diametersaretobedividedequallyinthemiddleatthepointsMandO,
andthosecentresmarked;then,throughthesemarksandthecentreA,
drawalineextendingtothetwosidesofthecircumferenceatthe
pointsPandQ.Thiswillbealineperpendiculartotheequinoctial
ray,anditiscalledinmathematicalfigurestheaxis.Fromthesesame
centresopenthecompassestotheendsofthediameters,anddescribe
semicircles,oneofwhichwillbeforsummerandtheotherforwinter.
6.Then,atthepointsatwhichtheparallellinescutthelinecalled
thehorizon,theletterSistobeontherightandtheletterVonthe
left,andfromtheextremityofthesemicircle,atthepointG,drawa
lineparalleltotheaxis,extendingtothelefthandsemicircleatthe
pointH.ThisparallellineiscalledtheLogotomus.Then,centrethe
compassesatthepointwheretheequinoctialraycutsthatline,atthe
letterD,andopenthemtothepointwherethesummerraycutsthe
circumferenceattheletterH.Fromtheequinoctialcentre,witha
radiusextendingtothesummerray,describethecircumferenceofthe
circleofthemonths,whichiscalledMenaeus.Thusweshallhavethe
figureoftheanalemma.
7.Thishavingbeendrawnandcompleted,theschemeofhoursisnextto
bedrawnonthebaseplatesfromtheanalemma,accordingtothewinter
lines,orthoseofsummer,ortheequinoxes,orthemonths,andthus
manydifferentkindsofdialsmaybelaiddownanddrawnbythis
ingeniousmethod.Buttheresultofalltheseshapesanddesignsisin
onerespectthesame:namely,thedaysoftheequinoxesandofthe
winterandsummersolsticesarealwaysdividedintotwelveequalparts.
Omittingdetails,therefore,notforfearofthetrouble,butlestI
shouldprovetiresomebywritingtoomuch,Iwillstatebywhomthe
differentclassesanddesignsofdialshavebeeninvented.ForIcannot
inventnewkindsmyselfatthislateday,nordoIthinkthatIoughtto
displaytheinventionsofothersasmyown.Hence,Iwillmentionthose
thathavecomedowntous,andbywhomtheywereinvented.

CHAPTERVIII
SUNDIALSANDWATERCLOCKS
1.Thesemicircularform,hollowedoutofasquareblock,andcutunder
tocorrespondtothepolaraltitude,issaidtohavebeeninventedby
BerosustheChaldean;theScapheorHemisphere,byAristarchusofSamos,
aswellasthedisconaplanesurface;theArachne,bytheastronomer

Eudoxusor,assomesay,byApollonius;thePlinthiumorLacunar,like
theoneplacedintheCircusFlaminius,byScopinasofSyracuse;the
[Greek:prostahistoroumena],byParmenio;the[Greek:prospanklima],
byTheodosiusandAndreas;thePelecinum,byPatrocles;theCone,by
Dionysodorus;theQuiver,byApollonius.Themenwhosenamesarewritten
above,aswellasmanyothers,haveinventedandleftusotherkinds:
as,forinstance,theConarachne,theConicalPlinthium,andthe
Antiborean.Manyhavealsoleftuswrittendirectionsformakingdials
ofthesekindsfortravellers,whichcanbehungup.Whoeverwishesto
findtheirbaseplates,caneasilydosofromthebooksofthesewriters,
providedonlyheunderstandsthefigureoftheanalemma.
2.Methodsofmakingwaterclockshavebeeninvestigatedbythesame
writers,andfirstofallbyCtesibiustheAlexandrian,whoalso
discoveredthenaturalpressureoftheairandpneumaticprinciples.It
isworthwhileforstudentstoknowhowthesediscoveriescameabout.
Ctesibius,bornatAlexandria,wasthesonofabarber.Preeminentfor
naturalabilityandgreatindustry,heissaidtohaveamusedhimself
withingeniousdevices.Forexample,wishingtohangamirrorinhis
father'sshopinsuchawaythat,onbeingloweredandraisedagain,its
weightshouldberaisedbymeansofaconcealedcord,heemployedthe
followingmechanicalcontrivance.
3.Undertheroofbeamhefixedawoodenchannelinwhichhearrangeda
blockofpulleys.Hecarriedthecordalongthechanneltothecorner,
wherehesetupsomesmallpiping.Intothisaleadenball,attachedto
thecord,wasmadetodescend.Astheweightfellintothenarrowlimits
ofthepipe,itnaturallycompressedtheenclosedair,and,asitsfall
wasrapid,itforcedthemassofcompressedairthroughtheoutletinto
theopenair,thusproducingadistinctsoundbytheconcussion.
4.Hence,Ctesibius,observingthatsoundsandtoneswereproducedby
thecontactbetweenthefreeairandthatwhichwasforcedfromthe
pipe,madeuseofthisprincipleintheconstructionofthefirstwater
organs.Healsodevisedmethodsofraisingwater,automatic
contrivances,andamusingthingsofmanykinds,includingamongthemthe
constructionofwaterclocks.Hebeganbymakinganorificeinapiece
ofgold,orbyperforatingagem,becausethesesubstancesarenotworn
bytheactionofwater,anddonotcollectdirtsoastogetstoppedup.
5.Aregularflowofwaterthroughtheorificeraisesaninvertedbowl,
calledbymechaniciansthe"cork"or"drum."Tothisareattachedarack
andarevolvingdrum,bothfittedwithteethatregularintervals.These
teeth,actingupononeanother,induceameasuredrevolutionand
movement.Otherracksandotherdrums,similarlytoothedandsubjectto
thesamemotion,giverisebytheirrevolutiontovariouskindsof
motions,bywhichfiguresaremoved,conesrevolve,pebblesoreggs
fall,trumpetssound,andotherincidentaleffectstakeplace.
6.Thehoursaremarkedintheseclocksonacolumnorapilaster,anda
figureemergingfromthebottompointstothemwitharodthroughoutthe
wholeday.Theirdecreaseorincreaseinlengthwiththedifferentdays
andmonths,mustbeadjustedbyinsertingorwithdrawingwedges.The
shutoffsforregulatingthewaterareconstructedasfollows.Twocones
aremade,onesolidandtheotherhollow,turnedonalathesothatone
willgointotheotherandfititperfectly.Arodisusedtoloosenor
tobringthemtogether,thuscausingthewatertoflowrapidlyorslowly
intothevessels.Accordingtotheserules,andbythismechanism,water
clocksmaybeconstructedforuseinwinter.
7.Butifitprovesthattheshorteningorlengtheningofthedayis
notinagreementwiththeinsertionandremovalofthewedges,because
thewedgesmayveryoftencauseerrors,thefollowingarrangementwill
havetobemade.Letthehoursbemarkedofftransverselyonthecolumn
fromtheanalemma,andletthelinesofthemonthsalsobemarkedupon
thecolumn.Thenletthecolumnbemadetorevolve,insuchawaythat,
asitturnscontinuouslytowardsthefigureandtherodwithwhichthe
emergingfigurepointstothehours,itmaymakethehoursshortorlong
accordingtotherespectivemonths.

8.Thereisalsoanotherkindofwinterdial,calledtheAnaphoricand
constructedinthefollowingway.Thehours,indicatedbybronzerodsin
accordancewiththefigureoftheanalemma,radiatefromacentreonthe
face.Circlesaredescribeduponit,markingthelimitsofthemonths.
Behindtheserodsthereisadrum,onwhichisdrawnandpaintedthe
firmamentwiththecircleofthesigns.Indrawingthefiguresofthe
twelvecelestialsigns,oneisrepresentedlargerandthenextsmaller,
proceedingfromthecentre.Intothebackofthedrum,inthemiddle,a
revolvingaxisisinserted,androundthataxisiswoundaflexible
bronzechain,atoneendofwhichhangsthe"cork"whichisraisedby
thewater,andattheotheracounterpoiseofsand,equalinweightto
the"cork."
9.Hence,thesandsinksasthe"cork"israisedbythewater,andin
sinkingturnstheaxis,andtheaxisthedrum.Therevolutionofthis
drumcausessometimesalargerandsometimesasmallerportionofthe
circleofthesignstoindicate,duringtherevolutions,theproper
lengthofthehourscorrespondingtotheirseasons.Forineveryoneof
thesignsthereareasmanyholesasthecorrespondingmonthhasdays,
andaboss,whichseemstobeholdingtherepresentationofthesunona
dial,designatesthespacesforthehours.This,asitiscarriedfrom
holetohole,completesthecircuitofafullmonth.
10.Hence,justasthesunduringhispassagethroughtheconstellations
makesthedaysandhourslongerorshorter,sothebossonadial,
movingfrompointtopointinadirectioncontrarytothatofthe
revolutionofthedruminthemiddle,iscarrieddaybydaysometimes
overwiderandsometimesovernarrowerspaces,givingarepresentation
ofthehoursanddayswithinthelimitsofeachmonth.
Tomanagethewatersothatitmayflowregularly,wemustproceedas
follows.
11.Inside,behindthefaceofthedial,placeareservoir,andletthe
waterrundownintoitthroughapipe,andletithaveaholeatthe
bottom.Fastenedtoitisabronzedrumwithanopeningthroughwhich
thewaterflowsintoitfromthereservoir.Enclosedinthisdrumthere
isasmallerone,thetwobeingperfectlyjointedtogetherbytenonand
socket,insuchawaythatthesmallerdrumrevolvescloselybuteasily
inthelarger,likeastopcock.
12.Onthelipofthelargerdrumtherearethreehundredandsixtyfive
points,markedoffatequalintervals.Therimofthesmalleronehasa
tonguefixedonitscircumference,withthetipdirectedtowardsthose
points;andalsointhisrimisasmallopening,throughwhichwater
runsintothedrumandkeepstheworksgoing.Thefiguresofthe
celestialsignsbeingonthelipofthelargerdrum,andthisdrumbeing
motionless,letthesignCancerbedrawnatthetop,withCapricornus
perpendiculartoitatthebottom,Libraatthespectator'sright,Aries
athisleft,andlettheothersignsbegivenplacesbetweenthemas
theyareseenintheheavens.
13.Hence,whenthesunisinCapricornus,thetongueontherimtouches
everydayoneofthepointsinCapricornusonthelipofthelarger
drum,andisperpendiculartothestrongpressureoftherunningwater.
Sothewaterisquicklydriventhroughtheopeningintherimtothe
insideofthevessel,which,receivingitandsoonbecomingfull,
shortensanddiminishesthelengthofthedaysandhours.Butwhen,
owingtothedailyrevolutionofthesmallerdrum,itstonguereaches
thepointsinAquarius,theopeningwillnolongerbeperpendicular,and
thewatermustgiveupitsvigorousflowandruninaslowerstream.
Thus,thelessthevelocitywithwhichthevesselreceivesthewater,
themorethelengthofthedaysisincreased.
14.ThentheopeningintherimpassesfrompointtopointinAquarius
andPisces,asthoughgoingupstairs,andwhenitreachestheendofthe
firsteighthofAries,thefallofthewaterisofmediumstrength,
indicatingtheequinoctialhours.FromAriestheopeningpasses,with

therevolutionofthedrum,throughTaurusandGeminitothehighest
pointattheendofthefirsteighthofCancer,andwhenitreachesthat
point,thepowerdiminishes,andhence,withtheslowerflow,itsdelay
lengthensthedaysinthesignCancer,producingthehoursofthesummer
solstice.FromCanceritbeginstodecline,andduringitsreturnit
passesthroughLeoandVirgotothepointsattheendofthefirst
eighthofLibra,graduallyshorteninganddiminishingthelengthofthe
hours,untilitcomestothepointsinLibra,whereitmakesthehours
equinoctialoncemore.
15.Finally,theopeningcomesdownmorerapidlythroughScorpioand
Sagittarius,andonitsreturnfromitsrevolutiontotheendofthe
firsteighthofCapricornus,thevelocityofthestreamrenewsoncemore
theshorthoursofthewintersolstice.
Therulesandformsofconstructionemployedindesigningdialshavenow
beendescribedaswellasIcould.Itremainstogiveanaccountof
machinesandtheirprinciples.Inordertomakemytreatiseon
architecturecomplete,Iwillbegintowriteonthissubjectinthe
followingbook.

BOOKX

INTRODUCTION
1.InthefamousandimportantGreekcityofEphesusthereissaidtobe
anancientancestrallaw,thetermsofwhicharesevere,butitsjustice
isnotinequitable.Whenanarchitectacceptsthechargeofapublic
work,hehastopromisewhatthecostofitwillbe.Hisestimateis
handedtothemagistrate,andhispropertyispledgedassecurityuntil
theworkisdone.Whenitisfinished,iftheoutlayagreeswithhis
statement,heiscomplimentedbydecreesandmarksofhonour.Ifnomore
thanafourthhastobeaddedtohisestimate,itisfurnishedbythe
treasuryandnopenaltyisinflicted.Butwhenmorethanonefourthhas
tobespentinadditiononthework,themoneyrequiredtofinishitis
takenfromhisproperty.
2.WouldtoGodthatthiswerealsoalawoftheRomanpeople,not
merelyforpublic,butalsoforprivatebuildings.Fortheignorant
wouldnolongerrunriotwithimpunity,butmenwhoarewellqualified
byanexactscientifictrainingwouldunquestionablyadoptthe
professionofarchitecture.Gentlemenwouldnotbemisledintolimitless
andprodigalexpenditure,eventoejectmentsfromtheirestates,andthe
architectsthemselvescouldbeforced,byfearofthepenalty,tobe
morecarefulincalculatingandstatingthelimitofexpense,sothat
gentlemenwouldprocuretheirbuildingsforthatwhichtheyhad
expected,orbyaddingonlyalittlemore.Itistruethatmenwhocan
affordtodevotefourhundredthousandtoaworkmayholdon,ifthey
havetoaddanotherhundredthousand,fromthepleasurewhichthehope
offinishingitgivesthem;butiftheyareloadedwithafiftypercent
increase,orwithanevengreaterexpense,theylosehope,sacrifice
whattheyhavealreadyspent,andarecompelledtoleaveoff,brokenin
fortuneandinspirit.
3.Thisfaultappearsnotonlyinthematterofbuildings,butalsoin
theshowsgivenbymagistrates,whetherofgladiatorsintheforumorof
playsonthestage.Hereneitherdelaynorpostponementispermissible,
butthenecessitiesofthecaserequirethateverythingshouldbeready
atafixedtime,theseatsfortheaudience,theawningdrawnover
them,andwhatever,inaccordancewiththecustomsofthestage,is
providedbymachinerytopleasetheeyeofthepeople.Thesematters
requirecarefulthoughtandplanningbyawelltrainedintellect;for

noneofthemcanbeaccomplishedwithoutmachinery,andwithouthard
studyskilfullyappliedinvariousways.
4.Therefore,sincesuchareourtraditionsandestablishedpractices,
itisobviouslyfittingthattheplansshouldbeworkedoutcarefully,
andwiththegreatestattention,beforethestructuresarebegun.
Consequently,aswehavenolaworcustomarypracticetocompelthis,
andaseveryyearbothpraetorsandaedileshavetoprovidemachinery
forthefestivals,Ihavethoughtitnotoutofplace,Emperor,sinceI
havetreatedofbuildingsintheearlierbooks,tosetforthandteach
inthis,whichformsthefinalconclusionofmytreatise,theprinciples
whichgovernmachines.

CHAPTERI
MACHINESANDIMPLEMENTS
1.Amachineisacombinationoftimbersfastenedtogether,chiefly
efficaciousinmovinggreatweights.Suchamachineissetinmotionon
scientificprinciplesincircularrounds,whichtheGreekscall[Greek:
kyklikekineois].Thereis,however,aclassintendedforclimbing,
termedinGreek[Greek:akrobatikon],anotherworkedbyair,whichwith
themiscalled[Greek:pneumatikon],andathirdforhoisting;thisthe
Greeksnamed[Greek:baroulkos].Intheclimbingclassaremachinesso
disposedthatonecansafelyclimbuphigh,bymeansoftimberssetup
onendandconnectedbycrossbeams,inordertoviewoperations.Inthe
pneumaticclass,airisforcedbypressuretoproducesoundsandtones
asinan[Greek:organon].
2.Inthehoistingclass,heavyweightsareremovedbymachineswhich
raisethemupandsettheminposition.Theclimbingmachinedisplaysno
scientificprinciple,butmerelyaspiritofdaring.Itisheldtogether
bydowelsandcrossbeamsandtwistedlashingsandsupportingprops.A
machinethatgetsitsmotivepowerbypneumaticpressurewillproduce
prettyeffectsbyscientificrefinements.Butthehoistingmachinehas
opportunitiesforusefulnesswhicharegreaterandfullofgrandeur,and
itisofthehighestefficacywhenusedwithintelligence.
3.Someoftheseactontheprincipleofthe[Greek:mechane],otherson
thatofthe[Greek:organon].Thedifferencebetween"machines"and
"engines"isobviouslythis,thatmachinesneedmoreworkmenandgreater
powertomakethemtakeeffect,asforinstanceballistaeandthebeams
ofpresses.Engines,ontheotherhand,accomplishtheirpurposeatthe
intelligenttouchofasingleworkman,asthescorpiooranisocycliwhen
theyareturned.Thereforeengines,aswellasmachines,are,in
principle,practicalnecessities,withoutwhichnothingcanbe
unattendedwithdifficulties.
4.Allmachineryisderivedfromnature,andisfoundedontheteaching
andinstructionoftherevolutionofthefirmament.Letusbutconsider
theconnectedrevolutionsofthesun,themoon,andthefiveplanets,
withouttherevolutionofwhich,duetomechanism,weshouldnothave
hadthealternationofdayandnight,northeripeningoffruits.Thus,
whenourancestorshadseenthatthiswasso,theytooktheirmodels
fromnature,andbyimitatingthemwereledonbydivinefacts,until
theyperfectedthecontrivanceswhicharesoserviceableinourlife.
Somethings,withaviewtogreaterconvenience,theyworkedoutby
meansofmachinesandtheirrevolutions,othersbymeansofengines,and
so,whatevertheyfoundtobeusefulforinvestigations,forthearts,
andforestablishedpractices,theytookcaretoimprovestepbystepon
scientificprinciples.
5.Letustakefirstanecessaryinvention,suchasclothing,andsee
howthecombinationofwarpandwoofontheloom,whichdoesitsworkon
theprincipleofanengine,notonlyprotectsthebodybycoveringit,

butalsogivesithonourableapparel.Weshouldnothavehadfoodin
abundanceunlessyokesandploughsforoxen,andforalldraught
animals,hadbeeninvented.Iftherehadbeennoprovisionof
windlasses,pressbeams,andleversforpresses,wecouldnothavehad
theshiningoil,northefruitofthevinetogiveuspleasure,and
thesethingscouldnotbetransportedonlandwithouttheinventionof
themechanismofcartsorwaggons,norontheseawithoutthatofships.
6.Thediscoveryofthemethodoftestingweightsbysteelyardsand
balancessavesusfromfraud,byintroducinghonestpracticesintolife.
Therearealsoinnumerablewaysofemployingmachineryaboutwhichit
seemsunnecessarytospeak,sincetheyareathandeveryday;suchas
mills,blacksmiths'bellows,carriages,gigs,turninglathes,andother
thingswhicharehabituallyusedasgeneralconveniences.Hence,we
shallbeginbyexplainingthosethatrarelycometohand,sothatthey
maybeunderstood.

CHAPTERII
HOISTINGMACHINES
1.Firstweshalltreatofthosemachineswhichareofnecessitymade
readywhentemplesandpublicbuildingsaretobeconstructed.Two
timbersareprovided,strongenoughfortheweightoftheload.Theyare
fastenedtogetherattheupperendbyabolt,thenspreadapartatthe
bottom,andsosetup,beingkeptuprightbyropesattachedattheupper
endsandfixedatintervalsallround.Atthetopisfastenedablock,
whichsomecalla"rechamus."Intheblocktwosheavesareenclosed,
turningonaxles.Thetractionropeiscarriedoverthesheaveatthe
top,thenletfallandpassedroundasheaveinablockbelow.Thenit
isbroughtbacktoasheaveatthebottomoftheupperblock,andsoit
goesdowntothelowerblock,whereitisfastenedthroughaholein
thatblock.Theotherendoftheropeisbroughtbackanddownbetween
thelegsofthemachine.
2.Socketpiecesarenailedtothehinderfacesofthesquaredtimbers
atthepointwheretheyarespreadapart,andtheendsofthewindlass
areinsertedintothemsothattheaxlesmayturnfreely.Closetoeach
endofthewindlassaretwoholes,soadjustedthathandspikescanbe
fittedintothem.Tothebottomofthelowerblockarefastenedshears
madeofiron,whoseprongsarebroughttobearuponthestones,which
haveholesboredinthem.Whenoneendoftheropeisfastenedtothe
windlass,andthelatteristurnedroundbyworkingthehandspikes,the
ropewindsroundthewindlass,getstaut,andthusitraisestheloadto
theproperheightandtoitsplaceinthework.
3.Thiskindofmachinery,revolvingwiththreesheaves,iscalleda
trispast.Whentherearetwosheavesturningintheblockbeneathand
threeintheupper,themachineistermedapentaspast.Butifwehave
tofurnishmachinesforheavierloads,wemustusetimbersofgreater
lengthandthickness,providingthemwithcorrespondinglylargeboltsat
thetop,andwindlassesturningatthebottom.Whentheseareready,
letforestaysbeattachedandleftlyingslackinfront;letthe
backstaysbecarriedovertheshouldersofthemachinetosomedistance,
and,ifthereisnothingtowhichtheycanbefastened,slopingpiles
shouldbedriven,thegroundrammeddownallroundtofixthemfirmly,
andtheropesmadefasttothem.
4.Ablockshouldthenbeattachedbyastoutcordtothetopofthe
machine,andfromthatpointaropeshouldbecarriedtoapile,andto
ablocktiedtothepile.Lettheropebeputinroundthesheaveof
thisblock,andbroughtbacktotheblockthatisfastenedatthetopof
themachine.Rounditssheavetheropeshouldbepassed,andthenshould
godownfromthetop,andbacktothewindlass,whichisatthebottom
ofthemachine,andtherebefastened.Thewindlassisnowtobeturned

bymeansofthehandspikes,anditwillraisethemachineofitself
withoutdanger.Thus,amachineofthelargerkindwillbesetin
position,withitsropesintheirplacesaboutit,anditsstays
attachedtothepiles.Itsblocksandtractionropesarearrangedas
describedabove.
5.Butiftheloadsofmaterialfortheworkarestillmorecolossalin
sizeandweight,weshallnotentrustthemtoawindlass,butsetinan
axletree,heldbysocketsasthewindlasswas,andcarryingonits
centrealargedrum,whichsometermawheel,buttheGreekscallit
[Greek:amphiesis]or[Greek:perithekion].
6.Andtheblocksinsuchmachinesarenotarrangedinthesame,butin
adifferentmanner;fortherowsofsheavesinthemaredoubled,bothat
thebottomandatthetop.Thetractionropeispassedthroughaholein
thelowerblock,insuchawaythatthetwoendsoftheropeareof
equallengthwhenitisstretchedout,andbothportionsareheldthere
atthelowerblockbyacordwhichispassedroundthemandlashedso
thattheycannotcomeouteithertotherightortheleft.Thentheends
oftheropearebroughtupintotheblockatthetopfromtheoutside,
andpasseddownoveritslowersheaves,andsoreturntothebottom,and
arepassedfromtheinsidetothesheavesinthelowestblock,andthen
arebroughtupontherightandleft,andreturntothetopandround
thehighestsetofsheaves.
7.Passingoverthesefromtheoutside,theyarethencarriedtothe
rightandleftofthedrumontheaxletree,andaretiedtheresoasto
stayfast.Thenanotherropeiswoundroundthedrumandcarriedtoa
capstan,andwhenthatisturned,itturnsthedrumandtheaxletree,
theropesgettautastheywindroundregularly,andthustheyraisethe
loadssmoothlyandwithnodanger.Butifalargerdrumisplacedeither
inthemiddleoratoneside,withoutanycapstan,mencantreadinit
andaccomplishtheworkmoreexpeditiously.
8.Thereisalsoanotherkindofmachine,ingeniousenoughandeasyto
usewithspeed,butonlyexpertscanworkwithit.Itconsistsofa
singletimber,whichissetupandheldinplacebystaysonfoursides.
Twocheeksarenailedonbelowthestays,ablockisfastenedbyropes
abovethecheeks,andastraightpieceofwoodabouttwofeetlong,six
digitswide,andfourdigitsthick,isputundertheblock.Theblocks
usedhaveeachthreerowsofsheavessidebyside.Hencethreetraction
ropesarefastenedatthetopofthemachine.Thentheyarebroughtto
theblockatthebottom,andpassedfromtheinsideroundthesheaves
thatarenearestthetopofit.Thentheyarebroughtbacktotheupper
block,andpassedinwardsfromoutsideroundthesheavesnearestthe
bottom.
9.Oncomingdowntotheblockatthebottom,theyarecarriedroundits
secondrowofsheavesfromtheinsidetotheoutside,andbroughtback
tothesecondrowatthetop,passingrounditandreturningtothe
bottom;thenfromthebottomtheyarecarriedtothesummit,wherethey
passroundthehighestrowofsheaves,andthenreturntothebottomof
themachine.Atthefootofthemachineathirdblockisattached.The
Greekscallit[Greek:epagon],butourpeople"artemon."Thisblock
fastenedatthefootofthemachinehasthreesheavesinit,roundwhich
theropesarepassedandthendeliveredtomentopull.Thus,threerows
ofmen,pullingwithoutacapstan,canquicklyraisetheloadtothe
top.
10.Thiskindofmachineiscalledapolyspast,becauseofthemany
revolvingsheavestowhichitsdexterityanddespatcharedue.Thereis
alsothisadvantageintheerectionofonlyasingletimber,thatby
previouslyincliningittotherightorleftasmuchasonewishes,the
loadcanbesetdownatoneside.
Allthesekindsofmachinerydescribedaboveare,intheirprinciples,
suitednotonlytothepurposesmentioned,butalsototheloadingand
unloadingofships,somekindsbeingsetupright,andothersplaced
horizontallyonrevolvingplatforms.Onthesameprinciple,shipscanbe

hauledashorebymeansofarrangementsofropesandblocksusedonthe
ground,withoutsettinguptimbers.
11.Itmayalsonotbeoutofplacetoexplaintheingeniousprocedure
ofChersiphron.DesiringtoconveytheshaftsforthetempleofDianaat
Ephesusfromthestonequarries,andnottrustingtocarts,lesttheir
wheelsshouldbeengulfedonaccountofthegreatweightsoftheload
andthesoftnessoftheroadsintheplain,hetriedthefollowingplan.
Usingfourinchtimbers,hejoinedtwoofthem,eachaslongasthe
shaft,withtwocrosspiecessetbetweenthem,dovetailingalltogether,
andthenleadedirongudgeonsshapedlikedovetailsintotheendsofthe
shafts,asdowelsareleaded,andinthewoodworkhefixedringsto
containthepivots,andfastenedwoodencheekstotheends.Thepivots,
beingenclosedintherings,turnedfreely.So,whenyokesofoxenbegan
todrawthefourinchframe,theymadetheshaftrevolveconstantly,
turningitbymeansofthepivotsandrings.
12.Whentheyhadthustransportedalltheshafts,anditbecame
necessarytotransportthearchitraves,Chersiphron'ssonMetagenes
extendedthesameprinciplefromthetransportationoftheshaftstothe
bringingdownofthearchitraves.Hemadewheels,eachabouttwelvefeet
indiameter,andenclosedtheendsofthearchitravesinthewheels.In
theendshefixedpivotsandringsinthesameway.Sowhenthe
fourinchframesweredrawnbyoxen,thewheelsturnedonthepivots
enclosedintherings,andthearchitraves,whichwereenclosedlike
axlesinthewheels,soonreachedthebuilding,inthesamewayasthe
shafts.Therollersusedforsmoothingthewalksinpalaestraewill
serveasanexampleofthismethod.Butitcouldnothavebeenemployed
unlessthedistancehadbeenshort;foritisnotmorethaneightmiles
fromthestonequarriestothetemple,andthereisnohill,butan
uninterruptedplain.
13.Inourowntimes,however,whenthepedestalofthecolossalApollo
inhistemplehadcrackedwithage,theywereafraidthatthestatue
wouldfallandbebroken,andsotheycontractedforthecuttingofa
pedestalfromthesamequarries.ThecontractwastakenbyonePaconius.
Thispedestalwastwelvefeetlong,eightfeetwide,andsixfeethigh.
Paconius,withconfidentpride,didnottransportitbythemethodof
Metagenes,butdeterminedtomakeamachineofadifferentsort,though
onthesameprinciple.
14.Hemadewheelsofaboutfifteenfeetindiameter,andinthese
wheelsheenclosedtheendsofthestone;thenhefastenedtwoinch
crossbarsfromwheeltowheelroundthestone,encompassingit,sothat
therewasanintervalofnotmorethanonefootbetweenbarandbar.
Thenhecoiledaroperoundthebars,yokeduphisoxen,andbeganto
drawontherope.Consequentlyasituncoiled,itdidindeedcausethe
wheelstoturn,butitcouldnotdrawtheminalinestraightalongthe
road,butkeptswervingouttooneside.Henceitwasnecessarytodraw
themachinebackagain.Thus,bythisdrawingtoandfro,Paconiusgot
intosuchfinancialembarrassmentthathebecameinsolvent.
15.Iwilldigressabitandexplainhowthesestonequarrieswere
discovered.Pixodoruswasashepherdwholivedinthatvicinity.When
thepeopleofEphesuswereplanningtobuildthetempleofDianain
marble,anddebatingwhethertogetthemarblefromParos,Proconnesus,
Heraclea,orThasos,Pixodorusdroveouthissheepandwasfeedinghis
flockinthatveryspot.Thentworamsranateachother,and,each
passingtheother,oneofthem,afterhischarge,struckhishorns
againstarock,fromwhichafragmentofextremelywhitecolourwas
dislodged.SoitissaidthatPixodoruslefthissheepinthemountains
andrandowntoEphesuscarryingthefragment,sincethatverythingwas
thequestionofthemoment.Thereforetheyimmediatelydecreedhonours
tohimandchangedhisname,sothatinsteadofPixodorusheshouldbe
calledEvangelus.Andtothisdaythechiefmagistrategoesouttothat
veryspoteverymonthandofferssacrificetohim,andifhedoesnot,
heispunished.

CHAPTERIII
THEELEMENTSOFMOTION
1.IhavebrieflysetforthwhatIthoughtnecessaryaboutthe
principlesofhoistingmachines.Inthemtwodifferentthings,unlike
eachother,worktogether,aselementsoftheirmotionandpower,to
producetheseeffects.Oneofthemistherightline,whichtheGreeks
term[Greek:eutheia];theotheristhecircle,whichtheGreekscall
[Greek:kyklote];butinpointoffact,neitherrectilinearwithout
circularmotion,norrevolutions,withoutrectilinearmotion,can
accomplishtheraisingofloads.Iwillexplainthis,sothatitmaybe
understood.
2.Ascentres,axlesareinsertedintothesheaves,andtheseare
fastenedintheblocks;aropecarriedoverthesheaves,drawnstraight
down,andfastenedtoawindlass,causestheloadtomoveupwardfrom
itsplaceasthehandspikesareturned.Thepivotsofthiswindlass,
lyingascentresinrightlinesinitssocketpieces,andthehandspikes
insertedinitsholes,maketheloadrisewhentheendsofthewindlass
revolveinacirclelikealathe.Justso,whenanironleverisapplied
toaweightwhichagreatmanyhandscannotmove,withthefulcrum,
whichtheGreekscall[Greek:hupomochlion],lyingasacentreina
rightlineunderthelever,andwiththetongueoftheleverplaced
undertheweight,oneman'sstrength,bearingdownupontheheadofit,
heavesuptheweight.
3.For,astheshorterforepartofthelevergoesundertheweightfrom
thefulcrumthatformsthecentre,theheadofit,whichisfartheraway
fromthatcentre,onbeingdepressed,ismadetodescribeacircular
movement,andthusbypressurebringstoanequilibriumtheweightofa
verygreatloadbymeansofafewhands.Again,ifthetongueofaniron
leverisplacedunderaweight,anditsheadisnotpusheddown,but,on
thecontrary,isheavedup,thetongue,supportedonthesurfaceofthe
ground,willtreatthatastheweight,andtheedgeoftheweightitself
asthefulcrum.Thus,notsoeasilyasbypushingdown,butbymotionin
theoppositedirection,theweightoftheloadwillneverthelessbe
raised.If,therefore,thetongueofaleverlyingonafulcrumgoestoo
farundertheweight,anditsheadexertsitspressuretoonearthe
centre,itwillnotbeabletoelevatetheweight,norcanitdoso
unless,asdescribedabove,thelengthoftheleverisbroughtto
equilibriumbythedepressionofitshead.
4.Thismaybeseenfromthebalancesthatwecallsteelyards.Whenthe
handleissetasacentreclosetotheendfromwhichthescalehangs,
andthecounterpoiseismovedalongtowardstheotherarmofthebeam,
shiftingfrompointtopointasitgoesfartherorevenreachesthe
extremity,asmallandinferiorweightbecomesequaltoaveryheavy
objectthatisbeingweighed,onaccountoftheequilibriumthatisdue
tothelevellingofthebeam.Thus,asitwithdrawsfromthecentre,a
smallandcomparativelylightcounterpoise,slowlyturningthescale,
makesagreateramountofweightrisegentlyupwardsfrombelow.
5.So,too,thepilotofthebiggestmerchantman,graspingthesteering
oarbyitshandle,whichtheGreekscall[Greek:oiax],andwithone
handbringingittotheturningpoint,accordingtotherulesofhis
art,bypressureaboutacentre,canturntheship,althoughshemaybe
ladenwithaverylargeorevenenormousburdenofmerchandiseand
provisions.Andwhenhersailsaresetonlyhalfwayupthemast,aship
cannotrunquickly;butwhentheyardishoistedtothetop,shemakes
muchquickerprogress,becausethenthesailsgetthewind,notwhen
theyaretooclosetotheheelofthemast,whichrepresentsthe
centre,butwhentheyhavemovedfartherawayfromittothetop.
6.Asaleverthrustunderaweightishardertomanage,anddoesnot
putforthitsstrength,ifthepressureisexertedatthecentre,but

easilyraisestheweightwhentheextremeendofitispusheddown,so
sailsthatareonlyhalfwayuphavelesseffect,butwhentheyget
fartherawayfromthecentre,andarehoistedtotheverytopofthe
mast,thepressureatthetopforcestheshiptomakegreaterprogress,
thoughthewindisnostrongerbutjustthesame.Again,takethecase
ofoars,whicharefastenedtothetholesbyloops,whentheyare
pushedforwardanddrawnbackbythehand,iftheendsofthebladesare
atsomedistancefromthecentre,theoarsfoamwiththewavesofthe
seaanddrivetheshipforwardinastraightlinewithamightyimpulse,
whileherprowcutsthroughtherarewater.
7.Andwhentheheaviestburdensarecarriedonpolesbyfourorsix
portersatatime,theyfindthecentresofbalanceattheverymiddle
ofthepoles,sothat,bydistributingthedeadweightoftheburden
accordingtoadefinitelyproportioneddivision,eachlabourermayhave
anequalsharetocarryonhisneck.Forthepoles,fromwhichthe
strapsfortheburdenofthefourportershang,aremarkedoffattheir
centresbynails,topreventthestrapsfromslippingtooneside.If
theyshiftbeyondthemarkatthecentre,theyweighheavilyuponthe
placetowhichtheyhavecomenearer,liketheweightofasteelyard
whenitmovesfromthepointofequilibriumtowardstheendofthe
weighingapparatus.
8.Inthesameway,oxenhaveanequaldraughtwhentheiryokeis
adjustedatitsmiddlebytheyokestraptothepole.Butwhentheir
strengthisnotthesame,andthestrongeroutdoestheother,thestrap
isshiftedsoastomakeonesideoftheyokelonger,whichhelpsthe
weakerox.Thus,inthecaseofbothpolesandyokes,whenthestraps
arenotfastenedatthemiddle,butatoneside,thefartherthestrap
movesfromthemiddle,theshorteritmakesoneside,andthelongerthe
other.So,ifbothendsarecarriedroundincircles,usingasacentre
thepointtowhichthestraphasbeenbrought,thelongerendwill
describealarger,andtheshorterendasmallercircle.
9.Justassmallerwheelsmoveharderandwithgreaterdifficultythan
largerones,so,inthecaseofthepolesandyokes,thepartswherethe
intervalfromcentretoendisless,beardownhardupontheneck,but
wherethedistancefromthesamecentreisgreater,theyeasetheburden
bothfordraughtandcarriage.Asinallthesecasesmotionisobtained
bymeansofrightlinesatthecentreandbycircles,soalsofarm
waggons,travellingcarriages,drums,mills,screws,scorpiones,
ballistae,pressbeams,andallothermachines,producetheresults
intended,onthesameprinciples,byturningaboutarectilinearaxis
andbytherevolutionofacircle.

CHAPTERIV
ENGINESFORRAISINGWATER
1.Ishallnowexplainthemakingofthedifferentkindsofengines
whichhavebeeninventedforraisingwater,andwillfirstspeakofthe
tympanum.Althoughitdoesnotliftthewaterhigh,itraisesagreat
quantityveryquickly.Anaxleisfashionedonalatheorwiththe
compasses,itsendsareshodwithironhoops,anditcarriesroundits
middleatympanummadeofboardsjoinedtogether.Itrestsonposts
whichhavepiecesofirononthemundertheendsoftheaxle.Inthe
interiorofthistympanumthereareeightcrosspiecessetatintervals,
extendingfromtheaxletothecircumferenceofthetympanum,and
dividingthespaceinthetympanumintoequalcompartments.
2.Planksarenailedroundthefaceofit,leavingsixinchaperturesto
admitthewater.Atonesideofittherearealsoholes,likethoseofa
dovecot,nexttotheaxle,oneforeachcompartment.Afterbeingsmeared
withpitchlikeaship,thethingisturnedbythetreadofmen,and
raisingthewaterbymeansoftheaperturesinthefaceofthetympanum,

deliversitthroughtheholesnexttotheaxleintoawoodentroughset
underneath,withaconduitjoinedtoit.Thus,alargequantityofwater
isfurnishedforirrigationingardens,orforsupplyingtheneedsof
saltworks.
3.Butwhenithastoberaisedhigher,thesameprinciplewillbe
modifiedasfollows.Awheelonanaxleistobemade,largeenoughto
reachthenecessaryheight.Allroundthecircumferenceofthewheel
therewillbecubicalboxes,madetightwithpitchandwax.So,whenthe
wheelisturnedbytreading,theboxes,carriedupfullandagain
returningtothebottom,willofthemselvesdischargeintothereservoir
whattheyhavecarriedup.
4.But,ifithastobesuppliedtoaplacestillmorehigh,adouble
ironchain,whichwillreachthesurfacewhenletdown,ispassedround
theaxleofthesamewheel,withbronzebucketsattachedtoit,each
holdingaboutsixpints.Theturningofthewheel,windingthechain
roundtheaxle,willcarrythebucketstothetop,andastheypass
abovetheaxletheymusttipoveranddeliverintothereservoirwhat
theyhavecarriedup.

CHAPTERV
WATERWHEELSANDWATERMILLS
1.Wheelsontheprinciplesthathavebeendescribedabovearealso
constructedinrivers.Roundtheirfacesfloatboardsarefixed,which,
onbeingstruckbythecurrentoftheriver,makethewheelturnasthey
move,andthus,byraisingthewaterintheboxesandbringingittothe
top,theyaccomplishthenecessaryworkthroughbeingturnedbythemere
impulseoftheriver,withoutanytreadingonthepartofworkmen.
2.Watermillsareturnedonthesameprinciple.Everythingisthesame
inthem,exceptthatadrumwithteethisfixedintooneendofthe
axle.Itissetverticallyonitsedge,andturnsinthesameplanewith
thewheel.Nexttothislargerdrumthereisasmallerone,alsowith
teeth,butsethorizontally,andthisisattached(tothemillstone).
Thustheteethofthedrumwhichisfixedtotheaxlemaketheteethof
thehorizontaldrummove,andcausethemilltoturn.Ahopper,hanging
overthiscontrivance,suppliesthemillwithcorn,andmealisproduced
bythesamerevolution.

CHAPTERVI
THEWATERSCREW
1.Thereisalsothemethodofthescrew,whichraisesagreatquantity
ofwater,butdoesnotcarryitashighasdoesthewheel.Themethodof
constructingitisasfollows.Abeamisselected,thethicknessof
whichindigitsisequivalenttoitslengthinfeet.Thisismade
perfectlyround.Theendsaretobedividedoffontheircircumference
withthecompassintoeightparts,byquadrantsandoctants,andletthe
linesbesoplacedthat,ifthebeamislaidinahorizontalposition,
thelinesonthetwoendsmayperfectlycorrespondwitheachother,and
intervalsofthesizeofoneeighthpartofthecircumferenceofthe
beammaybelaidoffonthelengthofit.Then,placingthebeamina
horizontalposition,letperfectlystraightlinesbedrawnfromoneend
totheother.Sotheintervalswillbeequalinthedirectionsbothof
theperipheryandofthelength.Wherethelinesaredrawnalongthe
length,thecuttingcircleswillmakeintersections,anddefinitepoints
attheintersections.

[Illustration:CONSTRUCTIONOFTHEWATERSCREW]
[Illustration:THEWATERSCREW
(FromtheeditionofVitruviusbyFraGiocondo,Venice,1511)]
2.Whentheselineshavebeencorrectlydrawn,aslenderwitheof
willow,orastraightpiececutfromtheagnuscastustree,istaken,
smearedwithliquidpitch,andfastenedatthefirstpointof
intersection.Thenitiscarriedacrossobliquelytothesucceeding
intersectionsoflongitudinallinesandcircles,andasitadvances,
passingeachofthepointsindueorderandwindinground,itis
fastenedateachintersection;andso,withdrawingfromthefirsttothe
eighthpoint,itreachesandisfastenedtothelinetowhichitsfirst
partwasfastened.Thus,itmakesasmuchprogressinitslongitudinal
advancetotheeighthpointasinitsobliqueadvanceovereight
points.Inthesamemanner,withesfortheeightdivisionsofthe
diameter,fastenedobliquelyattheintersectionsontheentire
longitudinalandperipheralsurface,makespiralchannelswhich
naturallylookjustlikethoseofasnailshell.
3.Otherwithesarefastenedonthelineofthefirst,andonthese
stillothers,allsmearedwithliquidpitch,andbuiltupuntilthe
totaldiameterisequaltooneeighthofthelength.Thesearecovered
andsurroundedwithboards,fastenedontoprotectthespiral.Then
theseboardsaresoakedwithpitch,andboundtogetherwithstripsof
iron,sothattheymaynotbeseparatedbythepressureofthewater.
Theendsoftheshaftarecoveredwithiron.Totherightandleftof
thescrewarebeams,withcrosspiecesfasteningthemtogetheratboth
ends.Inthesecrosspiecesareholessheathedwithiron,andintothem
pivotsareintroduced,andthusthescrewisturnedbythetreadingof
men.
4.Itistobesetupataninclinationcorrespondingtothatwhichis
producedindrawingthePythagoreanrightangledtriangle:thatis,let
itslengthbedividedintofiveparts;letthreeofthemdenotethe
heightoftheheadofthescrew;thusthedistancefromthebaseofthe
perpendiculartothenozzleofthescrewatthebottomwillbeequalto
fourofthoseparts.Afigureshowinghowthisoughttobe,hasbeen
drawnattheendofthebook,rightontheback.
IhavenowdescribedasclearlyasIcould,tomakethembetterknown,
theprinciplesonwhichwoodenenginesforraisingwaterare
constructed,andhowtheygettheirmotionsothattheymaybeof
unlimitedusefulnessthroughtheirrevolutions.

CHAPTERVII
THEPUMPOFCTESIBIUS
1.NextImusttellaboutthemachineofCtesibius,whichraiseswater
toaheight.Itismadeofbronze,andhasatthebottomapairof
cylinderssetalittlewayapart,andthereisapipeconnectedwith
each,thetworunningup,liketheprongsofafork,sidebysidetoa
vesselwhichisbetweenthecylinders.Inthisvesselarevalves,
accuratelyfittingovertheupperventsofthepipes,whichstopupthe
ventholes,andkeepwhathasbeenforcedbypressureintothevessel
fromgoingdownagain.
2.Overthevesselacowlisadjusted,likeaninvertedfunnel,and
fastenedtothevesselbymeansofawedgethrustthroughastaple,to
preventitfrombeingliftedoffbythepressureofthewaterthatis
forcedin.Ontopofthisapipeisjointed,calledthetrumpet,which
standsupvertically.Valvesareinsertedinthecylinders,beneaththe

lowerventsofthepipes,andovertheopeningswhichareinthebottoms
ofthecylinders.
3.Pistonssmoothlyturned,rubbedwithoil,andinsertedfromabove
intothecylinders,workwiththeirrodsandleversupontheairand
waterinthecylinders,and,asthevalvesstopuptheopenings,force
anddrivethewater,byrepeatedpressureandexpansion,throughthe
ventsofthepipesintothevessel,fromwhichthecowlreceivesthe
inflatedcurrents,andsendsthemupthroughthepipeatthetop;andso
watercanbesuppliedforafountainfromareservoiratalowerlevel.
4.This,however,isnottheonlyapparatuswhichCtesibiusissaidto
havethoughtout,butmanymoreofvariouskindsareshownbyhimto
produceeffects,borrowedfromnature,bymeansofwaterpressureand
compressionoftheair;as,forexample,blackbirdssingingbymeansof
waterworks,and"angobatae,"andfiguresthatdrinkandmove,andother
thingsthatarefoundtobepleasingtotheeyeandtheear.
5.OftheseIhaveselectedwhatIconsideredmostusefulandnecessary,
andhavethoughtitbesttospeakintheprecedingbookabout
timepieces,andinthisaboutthemethodsofraisingwater.Therest,
whicharenotsubservienttoourneeds,buttopleasureandamusement,
maybefoundinthecommentariesofCtesibiushimselfbyanywhoare
interestedinsuchrefinements.

CHAPTERVIII
THEWATERORGAN
1.Withregardtowaterorgans,however,Ishallnotfailwithall
possiblebrevityandprecisiontotouchupontheirprinciples,andto
giveasufficientdescriptionofthem.Awoodenbaseisconstructed,and
onitissetanaltarshapedboxmadeofbronze.Uprights,fastened
togetherlikeladders,aresetuponthebase,totherightandtothe
left(ofthealtar).Theyholdthebronzepumpcylinders,themoveable
bottomsofwhich,carefullyturnedonalathe,haveironelbowsfastened
totheircentresandjointedtolevers,andarewrappedinfleecesof
wool.Inthetopsofthecylindersareopenings,eachaboutthreedigits
indiameter.Closetotheseopeningsarebronzedolphins,mountedon
jointsandholdingchainsintheirmouths,fromwhichhangcymbalshaped
valves,letdownundertheopeningsinthecylinders.
2.Insidethealtar,whichholdsthewater,isaregulatorshapedlike
aninvertedfunnel,underwhichtherearecubes,eachaboutthreedigits
high,keepingafreespacebelowbetweenthelipsoftheregulatorand
thebottomofthealtar.Tightlyfixedontheneckoftheregulatoris
thewindchest,whichsupportstheprincipalpartofthecontrivance,
calledinGreekthe[Greek:kanonmousikos].Runninglongitudinally,
therearefourchannelsinitifitisatetrachord;six,ifitisa
hexachord;eight,ifitisanoctachord.
3.Eachofthechannelshasacockinit,furnishedwithanironhandle.
Thesehandles,whenturned,openventholesfromthewindchestintothe
channels.Fromthechannelstothecanonthereareverticalopenings
correspondingtoventholesinaboardabove,whichboardistermed
[Greek:pinax]inGreek.Betweenthisboardandthecanonareinserted
sliders,piercedwithholestocorrespond,andrubbedwithoilsothat
theycanbeeasilymovedandslidbackintoplaceagain.Theyclosethe
abovementionedopenings,andarecalledtheplinths.Theirgoingand
comingnowclosesandnowopenstheholes.
4.Theseslidershaveironjacksfixedtothem,andconnectedwiththe
keys,andthekeys,whentouched,maketheslidersmoveregularly.To
theuppersurfaceoftheopeningsintheboard,wherethewindfinds
egressfromthechannels,ringsaresoldered,andintothemthereedsof

alltheorganpipesareinserted.Fromthecylindersthereare
connectingpipesattachedtotheneckoftheregulator,anddirected
towardstheventholesinthewindchest.Inthepipesarevalves,turned
onalathe,andset(wherethepipesareconnectedwiththecylinders).
Whenthewindchesthasreceivedtheair,thesevalveswillstopupthe
openings,andpreventthewindfromcomingbackagain.
5.So,whentheleversareraised,theelbowsdrawdownthebottomsof
thecylindersasfarastheycango;andthedolphins,whicharemounted
onjoints,letthecymbalsfallintothecylinders,thusfillingthe
interiorswithair.Thentheelbows,raisingthebottomswithinthe
cylindersbyrepeatedandviolentblows,andstoppingtheopeningsabove
bymeansofthecymbals,compresstheairwhichisenclosedinthe
cylinders,andforceitintothepipes,throughwhichitrunsintothe
regulator,andthroughitsneckintothewindchest.Withastronger
motionofthelevers,theairisstillmorecompressed,streamsthrough
theaperturesofthecocks,andfillsthechannelswithwind.
6.So,whenthekeys,touchedbythehand,drivetheslidersforwardand
drawthembackregularly,alternatelystoppingandopeningtheholes,
theyproduceresonantsoundsinagreatvarietyofmelodiesconforming
tothelawsofmusic.
WithmybesteffortsIhavestriventosetforthanobscuresubject
clearlyinwriting,butthetheoryofitisnoteasy,norreadily
understoodbyall,saveonlythosewhohavehadsomepracticeinthings
ofthiskind.Ifanybodyhasfailedtounderstandit,hewillcertainly
find,whenhecomestoknowthethingitself,thatitiscarefullyand
exquisitelycontrivedinallrespects.

CHAPTERIX
THEHODOMETER
1.Thedriftofourtreatisenowturnstoausefulinventionofthe
greatestingenuity,transmittedbyourpredecessors,whichenablesus,
whilesittinginacarriageontheroadorsailingbysea,toknowhow
manymilesofajourneywehaveaccomplished.Thiswillbepossibleas
follows.Letthewheelsofthecarriagebeeachfourfeetindiameter,
sothatifawheelhasamarkmadeuponit,andbeginstomoveforward
fromthatmarkinmakingitsrevolutiononthesurfaceoftheroad,it
willhavecoveredthedefinitedistanceoftwelveandahalffeeton
reachingthatmarkatwhichitbegantorevolve.
2.Havingprovidedsuchwheels,letadrumwithasingletooth
projectingbeyondthefaceofitscircumferencebefirmlyfastenedto
theinnersideofthehubofthewheel.Then,abovethis,letacasebe
firmlyfastenedtothebodyofthecarriage,containingarevolvingdrum
setonedgeandmountedonanaxle;onthefaceofthedrumthereare
fourhundredteeth,placedatequalintervals,andengagingthetoothof
thedrumbelow.Theupperdrumhas,moreover,onetoothfixedtoits
sideandstandingoutfartherthantheotherteeth.
3.Then,above,lettherebeahorizontaldrum,similarlytoothedand
containedinanothercase,withitsteethengagingthetoothfixedto
thesideoftheseconddrum,andletasmanyholesbemadeinthis
(third)drumaswillcorrespondtothenumberofmilesmoreorless,it
doesnotmatterthatacarriagecangoinaday'sjourney.Letasmall
roundstonebeplacedineveryoneoftheseholes,andinthereceptacle
orcasecontainingthatdrumletoneholebemade,withasmallpipe
attached,throughwhich,whentheyreachthatpoint,thestonesplaced
inthedrummayfallonebyoneintoabronzevesselsetunderneathin
thebody,ofthecarriage.
4.Thus,asthewheelingoingforwardcarrieswithitthelowestdrum,

andasthetoothofthisateveryrevolutionstrikesagainsttheteeth
oftheupperdrum,andmakesitmovealong,theresultwillbethatthe
upperdrumiscarriedroundonceforeveryfourhundredrevolutionsof
thelowest,andthatthetoothfixedtoitssidepushesforwardone
toothofthehorizontaldrum.Since,therefore,withfourhundred
revolutionsofthelowestdrum,theupperwillrevolveonce,the
progressmadewillbeadistanceoffivethousandfeetoronemile.
Hence,everystone,makingaringingsoundasitfalls,willgive
warningthatwehavegoneonemile.Thenumberofstonesgatheredfrom
beneathandcounted,willshowthenumberofmilesintheday'sjourney.
5.Onboardship,also,thesameprinciplesmaybeemployedwithafew
changes.Anaxleispassedthroughthesidesoftheship,withitsends
projecting,andwheelsaremountedonthem,fourfeetindiameter,with
projectingfloatboardsfastenedroundtheirfacesandstrikingthe
water.Themiddleoftheaxleinthemiddleoftheshipcarriesadrum
withonetoothprojectingbeyonditscircumference.Hereacaseis
placedcontainingadrumwithfourhundredteethatregularintervals,
engagingthetoothofthedrumthatismountedontheaxle,andhaving
alsooneothertoothfixedtoitssideandprojectingbeyondits
circumference.
6.Above,inanothercasefastenedtotheformer,isahorizontaldrum
toothedinthesameway,andwithitsteethengagingthetoothfixedto
thesideofthedrumthatissetonedge,sothatoneoftheteethof
thehorizontaldrumisstruckateachrevolutionofthattooth,andthe
horizontaldrumisthusmadetorevolveinacircle.Letholesbemade
inthehorizontaldrum,inwhichholessmallroundstonesaretobe
placed.Inthereceptacleorcasecontainingthatdrum,letoneholebe
openedwithasmallpipeattached,throughwhichastone,assoonasthe
obstructionisremoved,fallswitharingingsoundintoabronzevessel.
7.So,whenashipismakingheadway,whetherunderoarsorunderagale
ofwind,thefloatboardsonthewheelswillstrikeagainstthewaterand
bedrivenviolentlyback,thusturningthewheels;andthey,revolving,
willmovetheaxle,andtheaxlethedrum,thetoothofwhich,asit
goesround,strikesoneoftheteethoftheseconddrumateach
revolution,andmakesitturnalittle.So,whenthefloatboardshave
causedthewheelstorevolvefourhundredtimes,thisdrum,having
turnedroundonce,willstrikeatoothofthehorizontaldrumwiththe
tooththatisfixedtoitsside.Hence,everytimetheturningofthe
horizontaldrumbringsastonetoahole,itwillletthestoneout
throughthepipe.Thusbythesoundandthenumber,thelengthofthe
voyagewillbeshowninmiles.
Ihavedescribedhowtomakethingsthatmaybeprovidedforuseand
amusementintimesthatarepeacefulandwithoutfear.

CHAPTERX
CATAPULTSORSCORPIONES
1.Ishallnextexplainthesymmetricalprinciplesonwhichscorpiones
andballistaemaybeconstructed,inventionsdevisedfordefenceagainst
danger,andintheinterestofselfpreservation.
Theproportionsoftheseenginesareallcomputedfromthegivenlength
ofthearrowwhichtheengineisintendedtothrow,andthesizeofthe
holesinthecapitals,throughwhichthetwistedsinewsthatholdthe
armsarestretched,isoneninthofthatlength.
2.Theheightandbreadthofthecapitalitselfmustthenconformtothe
sizeoftheholes.Theboardsatthetopandbottomofthecapital,
whicharecalled"peritreti,"shouldbeinthicknessequaltoonehole,
andinbreadthtooneandthreequarters,exceptattheirextremities,

wheretheyequaloneholeandahalf.Thesidepostsontherightand
leftshouldbefourholeshigh,excludingthetenons,andfivetwelfths
ofaholethick;thetenons,halfahole.Thedistancefromasidepost
totheholeisonequarterofahole,anditisalsoonequarterofa
holefromtheholetothepostinthemiddle.Thebreadthofthepost
inthemiddleisequaltooneholeandoneeighth,thethickness,toone
hole.
3.Theopeninginthemiddlepost,wherethearrowislaid,isequalto
onefourthofthehole.Thefoursurroundingcornersshouldhaveiron
platesnailedtotheirsidesandfaces,orshouldbestuddedwithbronze
pinsandnails.Thepipe,called[Greek:syrigx]inGreek,hasalength
ofnineteenholes.Thestrips,whichsometermcheeks,nailedatthe
rightandleftofthepipe,havealengthofnineteenholesandaheight
andthicknessofonehole.Twootherstrips,enclosingthewindlass,are
nailedontothese,threeholeslongandhalfaholeinbreadth.The
cheeknailedontothem,namedthe"bench,"orbysomethe"box,"and
madefastbymeansofdovetailedtenons,isoneholethickandseven
twelfthsofaholeinheight.Thelengthofthewindlassisequal
to...[12]holes,thethicknessofthewindlasstothreequartersofa
hole.
[Note12:Thedotshereandinwhatfollows,indicatelacunaein
themanuscripts.]
4.Thelatchisseventwelfthsofaholeinlengthandonequarterin
thickness.Soalsoitssocketpiece.Thetriggerorhandleisthree
holesinlengthandthreequartersofaholeinbreadthandthickness.
Thetroughinthepipeissixteenholesinlength,onequarterofahole
inthickness,andthreequartersinheight.Thebaseofthestandardon
thegroundisequaltoeightholes;thebreadthofthestandardwhereit
isfastenedintotheplinthisthreequartersofahole,itsthickness
twothirdsofahole;theheightofthestandarduptothetenonis
twelveholes,itsbreadththreequartersofahole,anditsthickness
twothirds.Ithasthreestruts,eachnineholesinlength,halfahole
inbreadth,andfivetwelfthsinthickness.Thetenonisoneholein
length,andtheheadofthestandardoneholeandahalfinlength.
5.Theantefixhasthebreadthofaholeandoneeighth,andthe
thicknessofonehole.Thesmallersupport,whichisbehind,termedin
Greek[Greek:antibasis],iseightholeslong,threequartersofahole
broad,andtwothirdsthick.Itspropistwelveholeslong,andhasthe
samebreadthandthicknessasthesmallersupportjustmentioned.Above
thesmallersupportisitssocketpiece,orwhatiscalledthecushion,
twoandahalfholeslong,oneandahalfhigh,andthreequartersofa
holebroad.Thewindlasscupistwoandseventwelfthsholeslong,two
thirdsofaholethick,andthreequartersbroad.Thecrosspieceswith
theirtenonshavethelengthof...holes,thebreadthofthreequarters,
andthethicknessoftwothirdsofahole.Thelengthofanarmisseven
holes,itsthicknessatitsbasetwothirdsofahole,andatitsend
onehalfahole;itscurvatureisequaltotwothirdsofahole.
6.Theseenginesareconstructedaccordingtotheseproportionsorwith
additionsordiminutions.For,iftheheightofthecapitalsisgreater
thantheirwidthwhentheyarecalled"hightensioned,"something
shouldbetakenfromthearms,sothatthemorethetensionisweakened
byheightofthecapitals,themorethestrengthoftheblowis
increasedbyshortnessofthearms.Butifthecapitalisless
high,whentheterm"lowtensioned"isused,thearms,onaccountof
theirstrength,shouldbemadealittlelonger,sothattheymaybe
drawneasily.Justasittakesfourmentoraisealoadwithalever
fivefeetlong,andonlytwomentoliftthesameloadwithatenfoot
lever,sothelongerthearms,theeasiertheyaretodraw,andthe
shorter,theharder.
Ihavenowspokenoftheprinciplesapplicabletothepartsand
proportionsofcatapults.

CHAPTERXI
BALLISTAE
1.Ballistaeareconstructedonvaryingprinciplestoproducean
identicalresult.Someareworkedbyhandspikesandwindlasses,someby
blocksandpulleys,othersbycapstans,othersagainbymeansofdrums.
Noballista,however,ismadewithoutregardtothegivenamountof
weightofthestonewhichtheengineisintendedtothrow.Hencetheir
principleisnoteasyforeverybody,butonlyforthosewhohave
knowledgeofthegeometricalprinciplesemployedincalculationandin
multiplication.
2.Fortheholesmadeinthecapitalsthroughtheopeningsofwhichare
stretchedthestringsmadeoftwistedhair,generallywomen's,orof
sinew,areproportionatetotheamountofweightinthestonewhichthe
ballistaisintendedtothrow,andtotheprincipleofmass,asin
catapultstheprincipleisthatofthelengthofthearrow.Therefore,
inorderthatthosewhodonotunderstandgeometrymaybeprepared
beforehand,soasnottobedelayedbyhavingtothinkthematteroutat
amomentofperilinwar,IwillsetforthwhatImyselfknowby
experiencecanbedependedupon,andwhatIhaveinpartgatheredfrom
therulesofmyteachers,andwhereverGreekweightsbeararelationto
themeasures,Ishallreduceandexplainthemsothattheywillexpress
thesamecorrespondingrelationinourweights.
3.Aballistaintendedtothrowatwopoundstonewillhaveaholeof
fivedigitsinitscapital;fourpounds,sixdigits;andsixpounds,
sevendigits;tenpounds,eightdigits;twentypounds,tendigits;forty
pounds,twelveandahalfdigits;sixtypounds,thirteenandahalf
digits;eightypounds,fifteenandthreequartersdigits;onehundred
pounds,onefootandoneandahalfdigits;onehundredandtwenty
pounds,onefootandtwodigits;onehundredandfortypounds,onefoot
andthreedigits;onehundredandsixtypounds,onefootandaquarter;
onehundredandeightypounds,onefootandfivedigits;twohundred
pounds,onefootandsixdigits;twohundredandfortypounds,onefoot
andsevendigits;twohundredandeightypounds,onefootandahalf;
threehundredandtwentypounds,onefootandninedigits;threehundred
andsixtypounds,onefootandtendigits.
4.Havingdeterminedthesizeofthehole,designthe"scutula,"termed
inGreek[Greek:peritretos],...holesinlengthandtwoandonesixth
inbreadth.Bisectitbyalinedrawndiagonallyfromtheangles,and
afterthisbisectingbringtogethertheoutlinesofthefiguresothat
itmaypresentarhomboidaldesign,reducingitbyonesixthofits
lengthandonefourthofitsbreadthatthe(obtuse)angles.Inthe
partcomposedbythecurvaturesintowhichthepointsoftheanglesrun
out,lettheholesbesituated,andletthebreadthbereducedbyone
sixth;moreover,lettheholebelongerthanitisbroadbythe
thicknessofthebolt.Afterdesigningthescutula,letitsoutlinebe
workeddowntogiveitagentlecurvature.
5.Itshouldbegiventhethicknessofseventwelfthsofahole.The
boxesaretwoholes(inheight),oneandthreequartersinbreadth,two
thirdsofaholeinthicknessexceptthepartthatisinsertedinthe
hole,andatthetoponethirdofaholeinbreadth.Thesidepostsare
fiveholesandtwothirdsinlength,theircurvaturehalfahole,and
theirthicknessthirtysevenfortyeighthsofahole.Inthemiddle
theirbreadthisincreasedasmuchasitwasneartheholeinthe
design,bythebreadthandthicknessof...hole;theheightbyone
fourthofahole.
6.The(inner)striponthe"table"hasalengthofeightholes,a
breadthandthicknessofhalfahole.Itstenonsareoneholeandone
sixthlong,andonequarterofaholeinthickness.Thecurvatureof
thisstripisthreequartersofahole.Theouterstriphasthesame

breadthandthickness(astheinner),butthelengthisgivenbythe
obtuseangleofthedesignandthebreadthofthesidepostatits
curvature.Theupperstripsaretobeequaltothelower;the
crosspiecesofthe"table,"onehalfofahole.
7.Theshaftsofthe"ladder"arethirteenholesinlength,oneholein
thickness;thespacebetweenthemisoneholeandaquarterinbreadth,
andoneandoneeighthindepth.Lettheentirelengthoftheladderon
itsuppersurfacewhichistheoneadjoiningthearmsandfastenedto
thetablebedividedintofiveparts.Oftheselettwopartsbegiven
tothememberwhichtheGreekscallthe[Greek:chelonion],itsbreadth
beingoneandonesixth,itsthicknessonequarter,anditslength
elevenholesandonehalf;theclawprojectshalfaholeandthe
"winging"threesixteenthsofahole.Whatisattheaxiswhichis
termedthe...face...thecrosspiecesofthreeholes?
8.Thebreadthoftheinnerslipsisonequarterofahole;their
thicknessonesixth.Thecoverjointorlidofthecheloniumis
dovetailedintotheshaftsoftheladder,andisthreesixteenthsofa
holeinbreadthandonetwelfthinthickness.Thethicknessofthe
squarepieceontheladderisthreesixteenthsofahole,...the
diameteroftheroundaxlewillbeequaltothatoftheclaw,butatthe
pivotssevensixteenthsofahole.
9.Thestaysare...holesinlength,onequarterofaholeinbreadthat
thebottom,andonesixthinthicknessatthetop.Thebase,termed
[Greek:eschara],hasthelengthof...holes,andtheantibaseoffour
holes;eachisoneholeinthicknessandbreadth.Asupporterisjointed
on,halfwayup,oneandonehalfholesinbreadthandthickness.Its
heightbearsnorelationtothehole,butwillbesuchastobe
serviceable.Thelengthofanarmissixholes,itsthicknessatthe
basetwothirdsofahole,andattheendonehalfahole.
Ihavenowgiventhosesymmetricalproportionsofballistaeand
catapultswhichIthoughtmostuseful.ButIshallnotomit,sofarasI
canexpressitinwriting,themethodofstretchingandtuningtheir
stringsoftwistedsineworhair.

CHAPTERXII
THESTRINGINGANDTUNINGOFCATAPULTS
1.Beamsofverygenerouslengthareselected,anduponthemarenailed
socketpiecesinwhichwindlassesareinserted.Midwayalongtheir
lengththebeamsareincisedandcutawaytoformframings,andinthese
cuttingsthecapitalsofthecatapultsareinserted,andpreventedby
wedgesfrommovingwhenthestretchingisgoingon.Thenthebronze
boxesareinsertedintothecapitals,andthelittleironbolts,which
theGreekscall[Greek:epizygides],areputintheirplacesinthe
boxes.
2.Next,theloopsofthestringsareputthroughtheholesinthe
capitals,andpassedthroughtotheotherside;next,theyareputupon
thewindlasses,andwoundroundtheminorderthatthestrings,
stretchedouttautonthembymeansofthehandspikes,onbeingstruck
bythehand,mayrespondwiththesamesoundonbothsides.Thenthey
arewedgedtightlyintotheholessothattheycannotslacken.So,in
thesamemanner,theyarepassedthroughtotheotherside,and
stretchedtautonthewindlassesbymeansofthehandspikesuntilthey
givethesamesound.Thuswithtightwedging,catapultsaretunedtothe
properpitchbymusicalsenseofhearing.
OnthesethingsIhavesaidwhatIcould.Thereisleftforme,inthe
matterofsieges,toexplainhowgeneralscanwinvictoriesandcities
bedefended,bymeansofmachinery.

CHAPTERXIII
SIEGEMACHINES
1.Itisrelatedthatthebatteringramforsiegeswasoriginally
inventedasfollows.TheCarthaginianspitchedtheircampforthesiege
ofCadiz.Theycapturedanoutworkandattemptedtodestroyit.But
havingnoironimplementsforitsdestruction,theytookabeam,and,
raisingitwiththeirhands,anddrivingtheendofitrepeatedly
againstthetopofthewall,theythrewdownthetopcoursesofstones,
andthus,stepbystepinregularorder,theydemolishedtheentire
redoubt.
2.AfterwardsacarpenterfromTyre,Brightbynameandbynature,was
ledbythisinventionintosettingupamastfromwhichhehunganother
crosswiselikeasteelyard,andso,byswingingitvigorouslytoand
fro,hethrewdownthewallofCadiz.GerasofChalcedonwasthefirst
tomakeawoodenplatformwithwheelsunderit,uponwhichhe
constructedaframeworkofuprightsandcrosspieces,andwithinithe
hungtheram,andcovereditwithoxhideforthebetterprotectionof
themenwhowerestationedinthemachinetobatterthewall.Asthe
machinemadebutslowprogress,hefirstgaveitthenameofthe
tortoiseoftheram.
3.Thesewerethefirststepsthentakentowardsthatkindofmachinery,
butafterwards,whenPhilip,thesonofAmyntas,wasbesieging
Byzantium,itwasdevelopedinmanyvarietiesandmadehandierby
PolyidustheThessalian.HispupilswereDiadesandCharias,whoserved
withAlexander.Diadesshowsinhiswritingsthatheinventedmoveable
towers,whichheusedalsototakeapartandcarryroundwiththearmy,
andlikewisetheborer,andthescalingmachine,bymeansofwhichone
cancrossovertothewallonalevelwiththetopofit,aswellasthe
destroyercalledtheraven,orbyothersthecrane.
4.Healsoemployedtherammountedonwheels,anaccountofwhichhe
leftinhiswritings.Asforthetower,hesaysthatthesmallestshould
benotlessthansixtycubitsinheightandseventeeninbreadth,but
diminishingtoonefifthlessatthetop;theuprightsforthetower
beingnineinchesatthebottomandhalfafootatthetop.Sucha
tower,hesays,oughttobetenstorieshigh,withwindowsinitonall
sides.
5.Hislargertower,headds,wasonehundredandtwentycubitshighand
twentythreeandonehalfcubitsbroad,diminishingliketheotherto
onefifthless;theuprights,onefootatthebottomandsixdigitsat
thetop.Hemadethislargetowertwentystorieshigh,eachstoryhaving
agalleryroundit,threecubitswide.Hecoveredthetowerswith
rawhidetoprotectthemfromanykindofmissile.
6.Thetortoiseofthebatteringramwasconstructedinthesameway.It
had,however,abaseofthirtycubitssquare,andaheight,excluding
thepediment,ofthirteencubits;theheightofthepedimentfromits
bedtoitstopwassevencubits.Issuingupandabovethemiddleofthe
rooffornotlessthantwocubitswasagable,andonthiswasreareda
smalltowerfourstorieshigh,inwhich,onthetopfloor,scorpiones
andcatapultsweresetup,andonthelowerfloorsagreatquantityof
waterwasstored,toputoutanyfirethatmightbethrownonthe
tortoise.Insideofthiswassetthemachineryoftheram,termedin
Greek[Greek:kriodoche],inwhichwasplacedaroller,turnedona
lathe,andtheram,beingsetontopofthis,produceditsgreat
effectswhenswungtoandfrobymeansofropes.Itwasprotected,like
thetower,withrawhide.
7.Heexplainedtheprinciplesoftheborerasfollows:thatthemachine

itselfresembledthetortoise,butthatinthemiddleithadapipe
lyingbetweenuprightwalls,likethepipeusuallyfoundincatapults
andballistae,fiftycubitsinlengthandonecubitinheight,inwhich
awindlasswassettransversely.Ontherightandleft,attheendof
thepipe,weretwoblocks,bymeansofwhichtheironpointedbeam,
whichlayinthepipe,wasmoved.Therewerenumerousrollersenclosed
inthepipeitselfunderthebeam,whichmadeitsmovementsquickerand
stronger.Numerousarcheswereerectedalongthepipeabovethebeam
whichwasinit,toholduptherawhideinwhichthismachinewas
enveloped.
8.Hethoughtitneedlesstowriteabouttheraven,becausehesawthat
themachinewasofnovalue.Withregardtothescalingmachine,termed
inGreek[Greek:epibathra],andthenavalcontrivanceswhich,ashe
wrote,couldbeusedinboardingships,Ihaveobservedthathemerely
promisedwithsomeearnestnesstoexplaintheirprinciples,butthathe
hasnotdoneso.
IhavesetforthwhatwaswrittenbyDiadesonmachinesandtheir
construction.IshallnowsetforththemethodswhichIhavelearned
frommyteachers,andwhichImyselfbelievetobeuseful.

CHAPTERXIV
THETORTOISE
1.Atortoiseintendedforthefillingofditches,andtherebytomake
itpossibletoreachthewall,istobemadeasfollows.Letabase,
termedinGreek[Greek:eschara],beconstructed,witheachofitssides
twentyonefeetlong,andwithfourcrosspieces.Letthesebeheld
togetherbytwoothers,twothirdsofafootthickandhalfafoot
broad;letthecrosspiecesbeaboutthreefeetandahalfapart,and
beneathandinthespacesbetweenthemsetthetrees,termedinGreek
[Greek:hamaxopodes],inwhichtheaxlesofthewheelsturniniron
hoops.Letthetreesbeprovidedwithpivots,andalsowithholes
throughwhichleversarepassedtomakethemturn,sothatthetortoise
canmoveforwardorbackortowardsitsrightorleftside,orif
necessaryobliquely,allbytheturningofthetrees.
2.Lettwobeamsbelaidonthebase,projectingforsixfeetoneach
side,roundtheprojectionsofwhichlettwootherbeamsbenailed,
projectingsevenfeetbeyondtheformer,andofthethicknessand
breadthprescribedinthecaseofthebase.Onthisframeworksetup
postsmortisedintoit,ninefeethighexclusiveoftheirtenons,one
footandaquartersquare,andonefootandahalfapart.Lettheposts
betiedtogetheratthetopbymortisedbeams.Overthebeamsletthe
raftersbeset,tiedoneintoanotherbymeansoftenons,andcarriedup
twelvefeethigh.Overtherafterssetthesquarebeambywhichthe
raftersareboundtogether.
3.Lettheraftersthemselvesbeheldtogetherbybridgings,andcovered
withboards,preferablyofholmoak,or,thisfailing,ofanyother
materialwhichhasthegreateststrength,exceptpineoralder.For
thesewoodsareweakandeasilycatchfire.Overtheboardingsletthere
beplacedwattlesverycloselywovenofthintwigsasfreshaspossible.
Lettheentiremachinebecoveredwithrawhidesewedtogetherdoubleand
stuffedwithseaweedorstrawsoakedinvinegar.Inthiswaytheblows
ofballistaeandtheforceoffireswillberepelledbythem.

CHAPTERXV
HEGETOR'STORTOISE

[Illustration:HEGETOR'SRAMANDTORTOISE
1.FromaMS.ofthesixteenthcentury(Wescher'sPoliorcetiquedes
Grecs).
2.FromamodelmadebyA.A.Howard.]
1.Thereisalsoanotherkindoftortoise,whichhasalltheother
detailsasdescribedaboveexcepttherafters,butithasroundita
parapetandbattlementsofboards,andeavesslopingdownwards,and
iscoveredwithboardsandhidesfirmlyfastenedinplace.Abovethis
letclaykneadedwithhairbespreadtosuchathicknessthatfire
cannotinjurethemachine.Thesemachinescan,ifneedbe,haveeight
wheels,shoulditbenecessarytomodifythemwithreferencetothe
natureoftheground.Tortoises,however,whichareintendedfor
excavating,termedinGreek[Greek:oryktides],havealltheother
detailsasdescribedabove,buttheirfrontsareconstructedlikethe
anglesoftriangles,inorderthatwhenmissilesareshotagainstthem
fromawall,theymayreceivetheblowsnotsquarelyinfront,but
glancingfromthesides,andthoseexcavatingwithinmaybeprotected
withoutdanger.
2.Itdoesnotseemtomeoutofplacetosetforththeprincipleson
whichHegetorofByzantiumconstructedatortoise.Thelengthofits
basewassixtythreefeet,thebreadthfortytwo.Thecornerposts,four
innumber,whichweresetuponthisframework,weremadeoftwotimbers
each,andwerethirtysixfeethigh,afootandaquarterthick,anda
footandahalfbroad.Thebasehadeightwheelsbymeansofwhichit
wasmovedabout.Theheightofthesewheelswassixandthreequarters
feet,theirthicknessthreefeet.Thusconstructedofthreepiecesof
wood,unitedbyalternateoppositedovetailsandboundtogetherby
colddrawnironplates,theyrevolvedinthetreesoramaxopodes.
3.Likewise,ontheplaneofthecrossbeamsabovethebase,wereerected
postseighteenfeethigh,threequartersofafootbroad,twothirdsof
afootthick,andafootandthreequartersapart;abovethese,framed
beams,afootbroadandthreequartersofafootthick,heldthewhole
structuretogether;abovethistherafterswereraised,withan
elevationoftwelvefeet;abeamsetabovetheraftersunitedtheir
joinings.Theyalsohadbridgingsfastenedtransversely,andaflooring
laidonthemprotectedthepartsbeneath.
4.Ithad,moreover,amiddleflooringongirts,wherescorpionesand
catapultswereplaced.Thereweresetup,also,twoframeduprights
fortyfivefeetlong,afootandahalfinthickness,andthreequarters
ofafootinbreadth,joinedatthetopsbyamortisedcrossbeamandby
another,halfwayup,mortisedintothetwoshaftsandtiedinplaceby
ironplates.Abovethiswasset,betweentheshaftsandthecrossbeams,
ablockpiercedoneithersidebysockets,andfirmlyfastenedinplace
withclamps.Inthisblockweretwoaxles,turnedonalathe,andropes
fastenedfromthemheldtheram.
5.Overtheheadofthese(ropes)whichheldtheram,wasplaceda
parapetfittedoutlikeasmalltower,sothat,withoutdanger,two
soldiers,standinginsafety,couldlookoutandreportwhattheenemy
wereattempting.Theentireramhadalengthofonehundredandeighty
feet,abreadthatthebaseofafootandaquarter,andathicknessof
afoot,taperingattheheadtoabreadthofafootandathicknessof
threequartersofafoot.
6.Thisram,moreover,hadabeakofhardironsuchasshipsofwar
usuallyhave,andfromthebeakironplates,fourinnumber,about
fifteenfeetlong,werefastenedtothewood.Fromtheheadtothevery
heelofthebeamwerestretchedcables,threeinnumberandeightdigits
thick,fastenedjustasinashipfromstemtosterncontinuously,and
thesecableswereboundwithcrossgirdlesafootandaquarterapart.
Overthesethewholeramwaswrappedwithrawhide.Theendsoftheropes

fromwhichtheramhungweremadeoffourfoldchainsofiron,andthese
chainswerethemselveswrappedinrawhide.
7.Likewise,theprojectingendoftheramhadaboxframedand
constructedofboards,inwhichwasstretchedanetmadeofratherlarge
ropes,overtheroughsurfacesofwhichoneeasilyreachedthewall
withoutthefeetslipping.Andthismachinemovedinsixdirections,
forward(andbackward),alsototherightorleft,andlikewiseitwas
elevatedbyextendingitupwardsanddepressedbyincliningit
downwards.Themachinecouldbeelevatedtoaheightsufficienttothrow
downawallofaboutonehundredfeet,andlikewiseinitsthrustit
coveredaspacefromrighttoleftofnotlessthanonehundredfeet.
Onehundredmencontrolledit,thoughithadaweightoffourthousand
talents,whichisfourhundredandeightythousandpounds.

CHAPTERXVI
MEASURESOFDEFENCE
1.Withregardtoscorpiones,catapults,andballistae,likewisewith
regardtotortoisesandtowers,Ihavesetforth,asseemedtome
especiallyappropriate,bothbywhomtheywereinventedandinwhat
mannertheyshouldbeconstructed.ButIhavenotconsidereditas
necessarytodescribeladders,cranes,andotherthings,theprinciples
ofwhicharesimpler,forthesoldiersusuallyconstructtheseby
themselves,norcantheseverymachinesbeusefulinallplacesnorin
thesameway,sincefortificationsdifferfromeachother,andsoalso
thebraveryofnations.Forsiegeworksagainstboldandventuresomemen
shouldbeconstructedononeplan,onanotheragainstcautiousmen,and
onstillanotheragainstthecowardly.
2.Andso,ifanyonepaysattentiontothesedirections,andby
selectionadaptstheirvariousprinciplestoasinglestructure,hewill
notbeinneedoffurtheraids,butwillbeable,withouthesitation,to
designsuchmachinesasthecircumstancesorthesituationsdemand.With
regardtoworksofdefence,itisnotnecessarytowrite,sincethe
enemydonotconstructtheirdefencesinconformitywithourbooks,but
theircontrivancesarefrequentlyfoiled,onthespurofthemoment,by
someshrewd,hastilyconceivedplan,withouttheaidofmachines,asis
saidtohavebeentheexperienceoftheRhodians.
3.ForDiognetuswasaRhodianarchitect,towhom,asanhonour,was
grantedoutofthepublictreasuryafixedannualpaymentcommensurate
withthedignityofhisart.AtthistimeanarchitectfromAradus,
Calliasbyname,comingtoRhodes,gaveapubliclecture,andshoweda
modelofawall,overwhichhesetamachineonarevolvingcranewith
whichheseizedanhelepolisasitapproachedthefortifications,and
broughtitinsidethewall.TheRhodians,whentheyhadseenthismodel,
filledwithadmiration,tookfromDiognetustheyearlygrantand
transferredthishonourtoCallias.
4.Meanwhile,kingDemetrius,whobecauseofhisstubborncouragewas
calledPoliorcetes,makingwaronRhodes,broughtwithhimafamous
AthenianarchitectnamedEpimachus.Heconstructedatenormousexpense,
withtheutmostcareandexertion,anhelepolisonehundredand
thirtyfivefeethighandsixtyfeetbroad.Hestrengtheneditwithhair
andrawhidesothatitcouldwithstandtheblowofastoneweighing
threehundredandsixtypoundsshotfromaballista;themachineitself
weighedthreehundredandsixtythousandpounds.WhenCalliaswasasked
bytheRhodianstoconstructamachinetoresistthishelepolis,andto
bringitwithinthewallashehadpromised,hesaidthatitwas
impossible.
5.Fornotallthingsarepracticableonidenticalprinciples,butthere
aresomethingswhich,whenenlargedinimitationofsmallmodels,are

effective,otherscannothavemodels,butareconstructedindependently
ofthem,whiletherearesomewhichappearfeasibleinmodels,butwhen
theyhavebeguntoincreaseinsizeareimpracticable,aswecanobserve
inthefollowinginstance.Ahalfinch,inch,orinchandahalfholeis
boredwithanauger,butifweshouldwish,inthesamemanner,tobore
aholeaquarterofafootinbreadth,itisimpracticable,whileoneof
halfafootormoreseemsnotevenconceivable.
6.Sotoo,insomemodelsitisseenhowtheyappearpracticableonthe
smallestscaleandlikewiseonalarger.AndsotheRhodians,inthe
samemanner,deceivedbythesamereasoning,inflictedinjuryandinsult
onDiognetus.Therefore,whentheysawtheenemystubbornlyhostile,
slaverythreateningthembecauseofthemachinewhichhadbeenbuiltto
takethecity,andthattheymustlookforwardtothedestructionof
theirstate,theyfellatthefeetofDiognetus,begginghimtocometo
theaidofthefatherland.Heatfirstrefused.
7.Butafterfreebornmaidensandyoungmencamewiththeprieststo
implorehim,hepromisedtodoitonconditionthatifhetookthe
machineitshouldbehisproperty.Whenthesetermshadbeenagreed
upon,hepiercedthewallintheplacewherethemachinewasgoingto
approachit,andorderedalltobringforthfrombothpublicandprivate
sourcesallthewater,excrement,andfilth,andtopouritinfrontof
thewallthroughpipesprojectingthroughthisopening.Afteragreat
amountofwater,filth,andexcrementhadbeenpouredoutduringthe
night,onthenextdaythehelepolismovingup,beforeitcouldreach
thewall,cametoastopintheswampmadebythemoisture,andcould
notbemovedforwards,norlaterevenbackwards.AndsoDemetrius,when
hesawthathehadbeenbaffledbythewisdomofDiognetus,withdrew
withhisfleet.
8.ThentheRhodians,freedfromthewarbythecunningofDiognetus,
thankedhimpublicly,anddecoratedhimwithallhonoursand
distinctions.Diognetusbroughtthathelepolisintothecity,setitup
inapublicplace,andputonitaninscription:"Diognetusoutofthe
spoilsoftheenemydedicatedthisgifttothepeople."Therefore,in
worksofdefence,notmerelymachines,but,mostofall,wiseplansmust
beprepared.
9.LikewiseatChios,whentheenemyhadpreparedstormingbridgeson
theirships,theChians,bynight,carriedoutearth,sand,andstones
intotheseabeforetheirwalls.So,whentheenemy,onthenextday,
triedtoapproachthewalls,theirshipsgroundedonthemoundbeneath
thewater,andcouldnotapproachthewallnorwithdraw,butpierced
withfiredartswereburnedthere.Again,whenApolloniawasbeing
besieged,andtheenemywerethinking,bydiggingmines,tomaketheir
waywithinthewallswithoutexcitingsuspicion,andthiswasreported
byscoutstothepeopleofApollonia,theyweremuchdisturbedand
alarmedbythenews,andhavingnoplansfordefence,theylostcourage,
becausetheycouldnotlearneitherthetimeorthedefiniteplacewhere
theenemywouldcomeout.
10.ButatthistimeTrypho,theAlexandrinearchitect,wasthere.He
plannedanumberofcounterminesinsidethewall,andextendingthem
outsidethewallbeyondtherangeofarrows,hungupinallofthem
brazenvessels.Thebrazenvesselshanginginoneofthesemines,which
wasinfrontofamineoftheenemy,begantoringfromthestrokesof
theirirontools.Sofromthisitwasascertainedwheretheenemy,
pushingtheirmines,thoughttoenter.Thelinebeingthusfoundout,he
preparedkettlesofhotwater,pitch,humanexcrement,andsandheated
toaglow.Then,atnight,hepiercedanumberofholes,andpouringthe
mixturesuddenlythroughthem,killedalltheenemywhowereengagedin
thiswork.
11.Inthesamemanner,whenMarseilleswasbeingbesieged,andthey
werepushingforwardmorethanthirtymines,thepeopleofMarseilles,
distrustingtheentiremoatinfrontoftheirwall,lowereditby
diggingitdeeper.Thusalltheminesfoundtheiroutletinthemoat.In
placeswherethemoatcouldnotbedugtheyconstructed,withinthe

walls,abasinofenormouslengthandbreadth,likeafishpond,in
frontoftheplacewherethemineswerebeingpushed,andfilleditfrom
wellsandfromtheport.Andso,whenthepassagesoftheminewere
suddenlyopened,theimmensemassofwaterletinunderminedthe
supports,andallwhowerewithinwereoverpoweredbythemassofwater
andthecavinginofthemine.
12.Again,whenarampartwasbeingpreparedagainstthewallinfront
ofthem,andtheplacewasheapedupwithfelledtreesandworksplaced
there,byshootingatitwiththeballistaeredhotironboltstheyset
thewholeworkonfire.Andwhenaramtortoisehadapproachedtobatter
downthewall,theyletdownanoose,andwhentheyhadcaughttheram
withit,windingitoveradrumbyturningacapstan,havingraisedthe
headoftheram,theydidnotallowthewalltobetouched,andfinally
theydestroyedtheentiremachinebyglowingfiredartsandtheblowsof
ballistae.Thusbysuchvictory,notbymachinesbutinoppositionto
theprincipleofmachines,hasthefreedomofstatesbeenpreservedby
thecunningofarchitects.
SuchprinciplesofmachinesasIcouldmakeclear,andasIthoughtmost
serviceablefortimesofpeaceandofwar,Ihaveexplainedinthis
book.InthenineearlierbooksIhavedealtwithsingletopicsand
details,sothattheentireworkcontainsallthebranchesof
architecture,setforthintenbooks.
FINIS
*****

SCAMILLIIMPARES(BOOKIII,ch.4)
NopassageinVitruviushasgivenrisetosomuchdiscussionor
beenthesubjectofsuchvariousinterpretationsasthisphrase.
Themostreasonableexplanationofitsmeaningseemstobethatof
EmileBurnouf,atonetimeDirectoroftheFrenchSchoolatAthens,
publishedinthe_RevueGeneraledel'Architecture_for1875,asa
notetoabriefarticleofhisontheexplanationofthecurvesof
GreekDoricbuildings.ThisexplanationwasacceptedbyProfessor
Morgan,whocalledmyattentiontoitinanotedatedDecember12,
1905.IthasalsoquiterecentlybeenadoptedbyProfessorGoodyear
inhisinterestingbookon_GreekRefinements_.
Burnoufwouldtranslateit_nivelettesinegales_,"unequal
levellers."HestatesthatinmanypartsofFranceinsettinga
longcourseofcutstonethemasonsmakeuseofasimpledevice
consistingofthreepointedblocksofequalheightusedas
levellers,ofwhichtwoareplacedoneateachextremityofthe
course,whilethethirdisusedtolevelthestones,astheyare
successivelysetinplace,bysettingituponthestonetobeset
andsightingacrosstheothertwolevellers.Iftwo"levellers"of
equalheightareusedwithathirdoflessheightplacedatthe
centreofthecourse,withperhapsothersofintermediateheight
usedatintermediatepoints,itwouldobviouslybeequallyeasyto
setoutacurvedcourse,as,forinstance,thecurvedstylobateof
theParthenonwhichrisesaboutthreeinchesinitslengthofone
hundredfeet.Byasimplecalculationanydesiredcurvecouldbe
laidoutinthisway.Thewordscamillusisadiminutiveof
_scamnum_,amountingblockorbench.
PracticallythesameexplanationisgivenbyG.Georgesinamemoir
submittedtotheSorbonneinApril,1875.Georgesaddsan
interestinglist,bynomeanscomplete,ofthevariousexplanations
thathavebeenofferedatdifferenttimes.
Philander(15221552).Projectionsofthestylobateorpedestals.

Barbaro(15561690).Thesame.
Bertano(1558).Swellingsofthedieofthestylobateorbosses
inthestylobateorthefriezeofthe
entablature.
Baldus(1612).Subplinthsplacedunderthebasesofthecolumns.
Perrault(16731684).Projectionofthestylobate.
Polleni(1739).Thesame.
Galiani(17581790).Projectionofthestylobatewithhypothesisof
embossmentsonthestylobatesandthebasesof
thecolumns.
TardieuandCoussin(1837)andMauffras(1847).Projectionofthestylobates.
Aures(1865).Stepsoroffsetsbetweenthestylobateandthecolumns.
ThelistofGeorgesiswhollyFrenchandItalian.
FraGiocondo'sinterpretationisindicatedinourreproductionof
theillustrationinhiseditionof1511.
Hoffer(1838)andafterwardsPennethorne(1846)andPenrose(1851)
gavemeasurementsshowingthecurvaturesintheParthenonandthe
templeofTheseusinAthens.Penroseandmostwriterswhofollowed
himsupposedthe"scamilliimpares"tobeprojectionsoroffsetson
thestylobaterequiredonaccountofthecurvestobringthecolumn
intorelationwiththearchitravesabove,andsimilaroffsetsof
unequalorslopingformweresupposedtoberequiredabovethe
abaciofthecapitals,butsuchoffsets,althoughsometimes
existing,havenoobviousconnectionwiththepassageinVitruvius.
C.Boetticher(1863)andmorerecentlyDurmhavedeniedtheoriginal
intentionofthecurvesandascribethemtosettlement,a
suppositionwhichhardlyaccordswiththeobservedfacts.Reber,in
thenoteonthispassageinhistranslationofVitruvius(1865),
thinksthescamilliwereslopingoffsetsonthestylobatetocause
theinclinationofthecolumns,butadmitsthatnothingofthekind
hasbeenfoundintheremainssofarexamined.Itmaybeaddedthat
thisisatvariancewiththestatementofthepurposeofthe
scamilliwhichVitruviusgives.
Assuming,asIthinkwemust,thatthehorizontalcurvatureofthe
stylobateinsuchbuildingsastheParthenonwasintendedand
carefullyplanned,Burnouf'sexplanationfitsthecaseprecisely
andmakesthispassageofVitruviusstraightforwardandsimple.
Thiscanbesaidofnootherexplanation,foralltheothersleave
thepassageobscureandmoreorlessnonsensical.Durm'sattemptto
referthepassagetothecaseofthetemplewithapodiumwhichhas
justbeenspokenofbyVitruviusissomewhatforced,oratleast
unnecessary.Clearlythepassagereferstostylobatesingeneral;
butReberalsosotranslatesandpunctuatesastomaketheuseof
the"scamilliimpares"referonlytothecaseoftemplesbuiltin
theRomanmannerwiththepodium.Hisresultingexplanationstill
leavesthepassageobscureandunsatisfactory.Onemayfinally
refertotheingeniousbutimprobableexplanationofChoisy,who
translatesitechelonsimpairs,andexplainsthemasoffsets
arrangedaccordingtotheoddnumbers,_nombresimpairs_,i.e.,
offsetsvaryingatequalintervalsintheproportionof1,3,5,7,
9,etc.,andwhichheclaimswasappliedalsototheentasisof
columns.
H.L.WARREN.

INDEX
Abacus,92,106,110,122.
[Greek:Abaton],56.
Abdera,212,269.
Acanthuspattern,originof,104.
Accius,255.
Acoustics,ofthesiteofatheatre,153_f._
Acroteria,96.
Aequianshavespringswhichproducegoitre,239.
Aeruca(verdigris),219.
Aeschylus,198.
Aesculapius,propersitefortempleof,15;
templeof,atTralles,198.
Aetna,47.
Africa,240.
Agatharcus,198.
Agesistratus,199.
Agger(river),231.
Agnuscastus(tree),60_f._,296.
[Greek:Akrobatikon],283.
Alabanda,212;
templeofApolloat,78.
Alae,ofhouse,177;
oftemples,120.
Albula(river),233.
Alder,61.
Alexander,35_f._,195,310.
Alexandria,36,196,197,218;
lengthofshadowofgnomonat,270.
Alexis(poet),168.
Altars,125_f._
Altino,21.
Aluminoussprings,234.
Amiternum,stonequarriesof,49.
Ammon,235.
Amphiprostyle,75.

Amphithalamos,186.
Amyntas,310.
Analemma,257;
itsapplications,270_ff._
Anaphoricdial,275.
Anaxagoras,195,198,225,269.
Ancona,63.
Andreas,273.
Andromeda(constellation),266.
AndronofEphesus,70.
Andrones,187.
AndronicusofCyrrhus,26.
Antae,114,120,186;
templeinantis,75.
Antiborean(sundial),273.
Antimachides,199.
Antiochus,199.
Antipater,238,269.
Antistates,199.
Apaturius,212.
Apelles,11.
Apollo,69,102,103,196;
Panionion,103,255;
colossalstatueof,289;
templeof,atAlabanda,78;
atMiletus,200;atRome,80;
siteoftempleof,80.
Apollonia,235;siegeof,317_f._
Apollonius,273.
ApolloniusofPerga,12.
Aqueducts,244_ff._;
Marcian,232.
Aquileia,21.
Arabia,235,237.
Arachne(sundial),273.
Aradus,315.
Araeostyletemples,78,80;
proportionsofcolumnsin,84.
Aratus,269.

Arcadia,238.
Arcesius,109,198.
Archedsubstructures,190.
Archer(constellation),266.
Archimedes,8,12,199,243;
detectsatheftofgoldbyacontractor,253_f._
Archinapolus(astrologer),269.
Architecture,fundamentalprinciplesof,13_ff._;
departmentsof,16_ff._
Architrave,94,288.
ArchytasofTarentum,12,199,255.
Arcturus(star),266.
Ardea,233.
Arevanias,54.
Arezzo,ancientwallofbrickat,53.
Argo(constellation),268.
Argolis,precinctofJunoat,102.
Argos,54.
Ariobarzanes,154.
Aristarchus,11.
ofSamos,12,263,273.
Aristides,241.
Aristippus,shipwreckof,167.
AristomenesofThasos,70.
Aristophanes,168;grammaticus,196.
Aristotle,195,251.
Aristoxenus,11,140,145.
Armenianblue,213,217.
[Greek:Harpedonai](stargroup),268.
Arrow(constellation),266.
Arsenal,naval,atPeiraeus,198.
Arsinoe,103.
Artemisia,55_f._
Artemon([Greek:Epagon]),287.
Asphalt,235;
asphalticsprings,234;

lakeAsphaltitis,235.
[Greek:Asplenon],20.
AssafoetidagrowninCyrene,237.
Astansoba(river),231.
Astoboa(river),231.
Astragals,90.
Astrology,269_ff._
Athens,26,40,53,78,124,199,200,234;
colonnadesat,154;
templeofMinervaat,198;
lengthofshadowofgnomonat,257,270.
Athos,Mt.,35.
[Greek:Atlantes],188.
Atlantides,189.
Atlas,188,231.
Atrium,185,210;
proportionsof,176_f._
Attalus,53,103,195.
Atticdoorways,120.
Aurelius,Marcus,3.
Aventine,216.
Babylon,24,235.
Bacchus,propersitefortempleof,31;
Ionicorderappropriateto,15;
templeof,atTeos,82,109,198.
Baiae,46,47.
Bakeries,184.
Balance(constellation),266.
Balconiesinforum,131.
BalearicIsles,214,240.
Ballistae,rulesformaking,305_ff._
Bankers'offices,131.
Barns,184.
[Greek:Baroulkos],283.
Bases,Ionic,90_ff._
Basilica,132_ff._;
ofVitruviusatFano,134_ff._
Bathrooms,180;

offarmhouse,183.
Baths,157_ff._
Beast(constellation),268.
Bedrooms,181.
Beech,60.
Berosus,262,269,273.
Bilbery,usedtomakepurple,220.
Bird(constellation),266.
Black,217_f._
Block(_rechamus_),285_ff._
Blue,218_f._
Body,proportionsof,72.
BoedasofByzantium,70.
Boeotia,237.
Bolsena,lakeof,50.
Boscoreale,villarusticaat,183.
Bowl(constellation),268.
Breakwaters,162_ff._
Brick,42_ff._;
testof,57.
Bright(Pephrasmenos),inventorofbatteringram,309.
Bryaxis,199.
Bucketpump,294.
Bug(river),231.
Bull(constellation),266.
Burntochre,218_f._
Buttresses,190_f._
Byzantium,310.
Cadiz,309.
Caecuban(wine),236.
Caesar,Julius,62_f._,240.
Callaeschrus,199.
CalliasofAradus,315.
Callimachus([Greek:katatexitechnos]),104.
Callippus,269.

Campania,48,64,236,238.
CampusCornetus,238.
Canonofwaterorgan,299.
Canopus(star),268.
Capitals,Ionic,92_ff._;
Corinthian,102,104_f._;
Doric,110;
oftriglyphs,112.
Capitol,hutofRomuluson,40;
templeon,80.
Cappadocia,235.
Carpion,198.
Carthage,235.
Caryae,6_f._
Caryatides,6f_f._
Casius(towninEgypt),235.
Cassiopea(constellation),266.
Castor,templeof,124.
Catacecaumenites(wine),236.
Catapults,303_ff._;
stringingandtuningof,308_f._
CataractofNile,231.
Catheti,92.
Caucasus,231.
Cavaedium,176_ff._
Cedar,62.
Ceilingsofbaths,158.
Cella,114_ff._,120;
ofcirculartemple,123.
Celtica,231.
Censer(constellation),267.
Centaur(constellation),267.
Cepheus(constellation),266.
Cephisus,237.
Ceres,templeof80,200;
siteoftempleof,32.
Chalcedon,309.
Chaldeans,262.

Charias,199,310.
Charioteer(constellation),266.
[Greek:Cheirokmeta]ofDemocritus,255.
Chersiphron,78,198,200,288.
ChionofCorinth,70.
Chionides,168.
Chios,103,197;siegeof,317.
Chorobates,levellinginstrument,242_f._
Chrobs,poisonouslakeat,237.
Chromaticmode,140.
Cibdeli,234.
Cicero,256.
Cilbiancountry,215.
Cilicia,235.
Cinnabar,215_ff._;
adulterationof,217.
Circulartemples,122_ff._
Circumferenceofearth,27_f._
Circumsonantsitesoftheatres([Greek:periechountes]),153.
Circus,Flaminius,124,273;
Maximus,80.
Cisterns,244_ff._
City,siteof,17_ff._;walls,21_f._
Classificationoftemples,75_ff._,78_ff._
Clazomenae,103,269.
Clearstockoffir,60.
Climatedeterminesthestyleofhouses,170.
Clitor,springat,239.
Colchis,231.
CollineGate,75.
Colonnades,131,154,155,156_f._,160_f._
Colophon,103,269.
Colours,214_ff._;
natural,214_f._;
artificial,217;
manufacturedfromflowers,220;
howappliedtostucco,207.

Columbaria([Greek:opai]),108.
Columns,proportionsof,incolonnades,154;
inforums,132;
inbasilicas,132;
Corinthian,102;
diminutionintopof,84_f._;
Ionicorder,90_ff._;
arrangementof,114.
Conarachne(sundial),273.
Concordsinmusic,142.
Concretefloors,202.
Cone(sundial),273.
ConicalPlinthium(sundial),273.
Consonanciesinmusic,142.
Consonantsitesoftheatres([Greek:synechountes]),153.
Constellations,northern,265_ff._;
Southern,267_ff._
Consumptives,resinoflarchgoodfor,63.
Corinth,145.
Corinthiancavaedium,176.
Corinthianorder,15;
originof,102_f._;
proportionsof,106_f._;
treatiseon,byArcesius,198.
Cornelius,Gnaeus,3.
Corona,102,107,112.
Cos,islandof,269.
Cossutius,200.
Couragedependentonclimate,173.
Counterforts,190.
Courtyards,183.
Crab(constellation),268.
Crathis(river),237.
Crete,20,62.
Creusa,103.
Croesus,195;
houseof,atSardis,53.
Crossaislesintheatre,138,146;
inGreektheatre,151.
Crown(constellation),266.

Ctesibius,8,198,273_f._;
pumpof,297_f._
Cube,propertiesof,130.
Cubitequalssixpalmsortwentyfourfingers,74.
Cumae,162.
Cuneiintheatre,146.
Cutiliae,234.
Cyclades,214.
Cydnus,234.
Cymatium,94,110;
Doric,112.
Cypress,59,61.
Cyrene,27,237,255.
DaphnisofMiletus,200.
Darius,195.
Decorationsofwalls,209_f._
Defence,measuresfor,315_ff._
Delos,problemenjoinedupon,byApollo,255.
Delphi,RoundBuildingat,198.
DemetriusofPhalerum,200.
DemetriusPoliorcetes,316.
Demetrius(slaveofDiana),200.
Democles,199.
Democritus,42,195,251,255,269;
hisstudyofperspective,198.
Demophilus,199.
Denarius,74.
Dentils,94,102,108.
Departmentsofarchitecture,16_f._
Diades,199;inventorofsiegemachines,310.
Dialsarrangedtoshowhoursofvaryinglength,274_ff._
Diana,templeofIonicorder,15,78;
templeof,atEphesus,78,103,198,200,288_f._;
atRome,80,124;
atMagnesia,78,198;
statueof,62.
Diatonicmode,140.
Diastyletemples,78,80;

proportionsofcolumnsin,84;
Doric,113.
[Greek:Diathyra],188.
Dichalca,74.
Diesis,140.
Diminutionintopofcolumn,84,110.
Diningrooms,proportionsof,179,181,186;
Cyzicene,186;
winter,209_f._
Dinocrates,35_f._
Diognetus,Rhodianarchitect,315_ff._
Diomede,21.
Dionysodorus,273.
Dioptra,242.
Diphilus,199.
Dipteraltemple,75,78.
Displuviatecavaedium,177.
Dissonantsitesoftheatres([Greek:katechountes]),153.
Dnieper,231.
Dog(constellation),268.
Dolphin(constellation),266.
Don(river),231.
Doors,oftemples,118_f._;
ofdwellings,178;
intheatres,146.
Doorwaysoftemples,proportionsof,117_ff._
Doricorder,15;
proportionsof,109_ff._;
doorways,117;
templesof,198.
Dorus,102.
Drachma,74.
Dyer'sweed,220.
Dyris(river),231.
Dyrrachium,235.
Eagle(constellation),266.
Echea([Greek:echeia]),9,143_ff._
Echinus,93,110,122.

Economy,16.
Educationofthearchitect,5_ff._,168_f._
Egypt,214,231,235,269.
[Greek:Ekphora],90.
Elements([Greek:stoicheia])andtheirproportions,18_ff._,225.
Elephantis,231.
Eleusis,200.
[Greek:Helike],267.
ElpiasofRhodes,21.
Empedocles,225.
[Greek:Emplekton],52.
Engines,283;forraisingwater,293_ff._
Enharmonicmode,140.
Ennius,255.
[Greek:Entasis]ofcolumns,86.
Eolipiles,25.
Ephesus,103,214,215,281;
templeofDianaat,78,198,200.
Epicharmus,225.
Epicurus,42,167,195.
Epimachus,316.
EquestrianFortune,templeof,80.
EratosthenesofCyrene,12,27,28,255.
Erythrae,103.
Ethiopia,231,235.
Etruria(Tuscany),48,64,235.
Eucrates,168.
Euctemon,269.
Eudoxus,269,273.
Eumenes,colonnadesof,154.
Euphranor,199.
Euphrates,231.
Euripides,225;
buriedinMacedonia,238;
"Phaethon"of,261.
Eurythmy,14.

Eustyletemples,78,80_f._;
proportionsofcolumnsin,84.
Exedrae,160,179,186,211.
Exposure,properforrooms,180,_f._
Faberius,216.
Falernian(wine),236.
Fano,63;basilicaat,134_ff._
Farmhouses,183_f._
Fascia,94;
ofAtticdoorway,120.
Fauces,theirdimensions,178.
FaunustempleontheIslandoftheTiber,75.
Femur([Greek:meros]),112.
Ferento,50.
Fidenae,stonequarriesat,49.
Fir,qualitiesof,60;
highlandandlowland,64_f._
Fire,originof,38.
Fishes(constellation),266.
Flaminiuscircus,124.
Floors,202_ff._;
Greekmethodofmaking,210;
ofbaths,157,_f._
Flora,templeofCorinthianorder,15.
Flutesofcolumns,96;
Doric,113.
Foldsforsheepandgoats,184.
Fondi,236.
Footequalsfourpalms,orsixteenfingers,74.
Fortune,templeofEquestrian,80;
ThreeFortunes,75.
Forum,131_ff._
Foundationsoftemples,86_ff._;
ofhouses,189_ff._
Frescopainting,decadenceof,210_ff._
Frieze,94,123.
Fuficius(architect),199.
Fulcrum([Greek:hypomochlion]),290.

Ganges,231.
[Greek:Ganosis],217.
Gaul,220,231.
Geras,inventorofshedforbatteringram,309.
Gilding,215.
Gnomon,257;
lengthofshadowatdifferentplaces,270.
Gnosus,20,200.
Gorgon'shead(stargroup),266.
Gortyna,20.
Grainrooms,184.
GreaterDog(constellation),268.
GreatBear,257;
([Greek:arktos]or[Greek:helike]),265.
GrecianStation,56.
Greekhouses,185_ff._
Greenchalk([Greek:theodoteion]),214.
GrottaRossa,stonequarriesat,49.
Guttae,102,110,112.
Gynaeconitis,186.
Gypsumnottobeusedforstuccowork,206.
Halicarnassus,53,54.
HarbingeroftheVintage(star),265.
Harbours,162_ff._
Harmonics,139_ff._
Hegesias,241.
HeGoat(constellation),266.
HelepolisofEpimachus,316_f._
Hellen,102.
Hemisphere(sundial),273.
Heptabolus,lake,231.
Heptagonus,lake,231.
Heraclea,289.
HeraclitusofEphesus,42,225.
Hercules,Doricorderappropriateto,15;
siteoftempleof,31;

cellaeoftempleof,53;
Pompey'stempleof,80.
Hermodorus,templeofJupiterStator,78.
Hermogenes,109;
templeofDianaby,78;
determinedrulesofsymmetryforeustyletemples,82.
Herodotus,241.
Herringbonepattern,203.
Hierapolis,boilingspringsat,236.
Hiero,253_f._
Hingestiles,118.
Hipparchus,269.
Hippocrates,11.
Hodometer,301_ff._
Hoistingmachines,285.
Homer,197.
Hornbeam,61.
Horse(constellation),266.
Hostilius,Marcus,21.
Hotsprings,232;
healingpropertiesof,233_f._
Hours,howmarkedbyclocks,274.
House,originof,38_f._;
earlytypesof,39_f._;
styleof,determinedbyclimate,170_f._
Hypaethraltemple,14,75,78.
Hypanis,214,236.
Hysginum,220.
Ictinus,198,200.
IliadandOdyssey,197.
Ilium,237.
Incertumopus,51.
India,231.
Indiaink,217,218.
Indigo,substitutefor,220.
Indus,231.
Iollas,238.

Ion,103.
Ionicorder,15;
proportionsof,90_ff._;
doorwaysof,118;
templesof,198,200.
Isis,siteoftempleof,31.
Ismuc,240.
Isodomum,52.
Isthmiangames,251.
Italy,48,53,131,145,173,214,231,239.
Jaffa,235.
Jambs,proportionsof,117.
Juba,King,240.
Julius,Caius,sonofMasinissa,240.
Juno,Ionicorderappropriateto,15;
sitefortempleof,31;
precinctatArgolis,102;
Dorictempleof,inSamos,198.
Jupiter,templeof,14,199;
sitefortempleof,31;
cellaeoftemple,53;
templeonIslandoftheTiber,75;
altarsof,125.
Jupiter(planet),258,260,261,262.
Kids(constellation),266.
Kitchen,183.
Kneeler(constellation),266.
Knotwood,60.
[Greek:Kynosoura],267.
Lacedaemonians,7.
Laconicum,159.
Lacunar(sundial),273.
Language,originof,38.
Larch,62_f._
Larignum,62,63.
LawgoverningarchitectsatEphesus,281.
Leadpipespoisonous,247.
Lebedos,103.

Lemnos,214.
Leochares,54,199.
Leonidas,199.
Lesbos,25,236.
Levellinginstruments,242_f._
Lever,explanationof,290_f._
Libraries,181,186.
Licymnius,212_f._
Lightingofrooms,howtotest,185.
Lime,45_f._;
slakingof,forstucco,204.
Linden,60.
Lintels,heightof,117.
Lion(constellation),268.
Liparis(river),235.
LittleDog(constellation),268.
Liverexaminedtodeterminesiteoftowns,20.
[Greek:Logeion],scenicandthymelic,151;dimensionsof,151.
Logotomus,272.
Lucania,237.
Lucretius,256.
Lyncestus,acidspringsof,238.
Lyre(constellation),267.
Lysippus,69.
Macedonia,217,238.
Machines,283_ff._;
fordefence,315_ff._
Maeonia,wineof,236.
Magi,225.
Magnesia,78,214,240;
templeofDianaat,198.
Malachitegreen,213;
wherefound,217;
substitutefor,220.
Mamertine(wine),236.
Marble,powderedforstuccowork,206,213_f._;
wherequarried,289.

Marius'templeofHonourandValour,78.
Mars,templeshouldbeDoric,15;
siteoftempleof,31.
Mars(planet),259_f._,262.
Marseilles,siegeof,318.
Maurusia(Mauretania),231.
Mausoleum,54,199.
Mausolus,53_ff._
Mazaca,lakenear,petrifiesreeds,etc.,235.
Medicine,architectshouldknow,10.
Medullihavespringswhichproducegoitre,239.
Melampus,199,239.
MelasofArgos,54.
Melas(river),237.
Melassa,54.
Melianwhite,214.
Melite,103.
Melos,214.
Menaeus,272.
Mercury,siteoftempleof,31;
templeof,54.
Mercury(planet),258,259.
Meroe,231.
Mesauloe,187.
Metagenes,198,200,288.
Metellus,porticoof,78.
Meto,269.
Metopes([Greek:metope]),94,108,110;
sizeof,112;
arrangementof,inDorictemples,113.
Metrodorus,241.
Miletus,103,200,269.
MiloofCroton,251.
Minerva,templeshouldbeDoric,15;
siteoftemple,31;
templeatSunium,124;
atPriene,11,198;
atAthens,198.
Minidius,Publius,3.

Mithridates,154.
Modesofmusic,140_ff._
Moon,258;phasesof,262_f._
Mortar,consistencyof,forstuccowork,206_f._;
ofburntbrick,209.
Motion,elementsof,290_ff._
Mouldingsforstuccowork,206.
Mucius,C.,templeofHonourandValour,78,200.
Mummius,Lucius,145.
Muses,253;
fountainof,232.
Musicusefultoarchitect,8.
Mutules,102,108;
ofTuscantemples,122.
MyagerthePhocaean,70.
Myron,11,69.
Mysiathe"BurntDistrict,"47.
Mytilene,25.
Myus,103.
Nemeangames,251.
Neptune,springof,237.
Nexaris,199.
Nile,36,231;
templeson,shouldfacetheriver,117.
Nonacris,"WateroftheStyx,"238.
Notes,namesof,141_f._
Number,perfect,73_f._
Nymphodorus,199.
Nymphs,templeofCorinthianorder,15.
Oak,60;
infloors,202.
Obols,74.
Ochre([Greek:ochra]),214.
Oeci,distinctionbetweenCorinthianandEgyptian,179;
Cyzicene,180.
Oilroom,184.

Olympiangames,251.
[Greek:Opai],108.
Opusincertum,51;
reticulatum,51;
Signinum,247_f._
Orchestra,reservedforsenators,146;
ofGreektheatre,151.
Orderappropriatetotemples,15;
originofdifferentorders,102_ff._
Organ,water,299_f._
[Greek:Organon],283.
Orientationofstreets,24_ff._;
oftemples,116_f._
Orion(constellation),268.
Ornamentsoftheorders,107_ff._
Orpiment([Greek:arsenikon]),214.
Ostrum,sourceofpurpledye,220.
Paconius,289.
PaeoniusofEphesus,200.
Palaestra,159_ff._
Palla,stonequarriesat,49.
Panelsofdoors,118.
Paphlagonia,intoxicatingspringsof,239.
[Greek:Paradromides],188.
Paraetonium,235;
white,214.
Parapetoftheatre,dimensionsof,148.
Parmenio,273.
Paros,289.
Pastas,186.
Patras,cellaeoftemplebuiltofbrick,53.
Patrocles,273.
Pausanias,sonofAgesipolis,7.
Peiraeus,234;
navalarsenalat,198.
Peisistratus,199.
Pelecinum(sundial),273.
Penne,234.

Pentaspast(hoistingmachine),285.
Pergamus,196.
Peripteraltemple,75_f._
Peristyle,186;
decorationsof,210_f._;
proportionsof,179;
Rhodian,186.
Peritreti,303_f._
Perseus(constellation),266.
PersianPorch,7.
Persians,statuesof,8_f._
Perspective,commentariesonbyAgatharcus,Anaxagoras,andDemocritus,198.
Pesaro,63.
PharaxofEphesus,70.
Phasis,231.
Phidias,69.
Philippus(physicist),269.
PhilipsonofAmyntas,310.
Philo,198,200;
ofByzantium,199.
PhilolausofTarentum,12.
Philosophy,whyusefultoarchitect,8.
Phocaea,103.
Phrygia,236.
Phthia,102.
Picenum,49.
Picturegalleries,179,186.
Piles,ofalder,61;
olive,oroak,88.
[Greek:Pinax]ofwaterorgan,299.
Pine,61.
PixodorusdiscoversmarblenearEphesus,289;
hisnamechangedtoEvangelus,290.
Planets,257_ff._;
theirretrogrademovement,260_f._
Plataea,battleof,7.
Plato,195,251;
rulefordoublingthesquare,252.
[Greek:Pleiades],189.

Plinthium(sundial),273.
[Greek:Pneumatikon],283.
Po,231.
Podiumoftheatre,heightof,148.
Pollis,199.
[Greek:Poloi](pivotsofheaven),257.
Polus(star),267.
PolyclesofEphesus,70.
Polyclitus,11,69.
Polyidus,199,310.
Polyspast(hoistingmachine),288.
Pompeianpumice,47.
Pompey,colonnadesof,154;
templeofHercules,80.
Ponticwax,216,217.
Pontus,214,220,231,236.
Poplar,60.
Pormus,199.
Posidonius,241.
Pothereus(river),20.
Pozzolana,46_f._
Praxiteles,199.
Pressingroom,183_f._
Priene,103;
TempleofMinervaat,11,198.
Primordialsubstance,42.
Prison,locationof,137.
Proconnesus,289.
Pronaos,114_ff._,120.
Proportions,72,174_f._;
ofcirculartemples,123_f._;
ofcolonnades,154_f._;
ofcolumnsandintercolumniations,78_ff._,116;
oftheCorinthianorder,106_f._;
ofdoorwaysoftemples,117_ff._;
ofDorictemples,109_ff._;
oftheIonicorder,90_ff._;
ofrooms,176_ff._
Propriety,14_ff._

ProscaeniumofGreektheatre,151.
ProserpinetempleofCorinthianorder,15;
templeof,200.
[Greek:Prospanklima](sundial),273.
[Greek:Prostahistoroumena](sundial),273.
Prostas,186.
Prostyle,75.
Proteus,daughtersof,239.
Prothyra,188.
Protropum(wine),236.
[Greek:Protrygetes](star),265.
Pseudisodomum,52.
Pseudodipteraltemple,75,78,82.
Pseudoperipteraltemples,125.
Pteroma,82,114,125.
Ptolemy,196,197;
Philadelphus,197.
Publicbuildings,sitesof,31_f._
PumpofCtesibius,297_f._
Purple,213,219;substitutesfor,220_f._
Puzzuoli,218.
Pycnostyletemples,78_f._;
proportionsofcolumnsin,84.
Pyrrus,199.
Pythagoras,42,130,225,251,269;
righttriangleof,252_f._
Pytheos,11,109,198,199.
Pythiangames,251.
QuarriesofGrottaRosa,Palla,Fidenae,Campania,
Umbria,Picenum,Tivoli,Amiternum,Venetia,Tarquinii,
LakeofBolsena,Ferento,49,50.
Quicksilver,215_ff._
Quirinus,templeof,78.
Quiver(sundial),273.
Rainwater,229_ff._
Ram,battering,309_f._;
Hegetor's,314_f._

Ram(constellation),266.
Raven(constellation),268.
Raven,amachineofnovalue,310_f._
Ravenna,21,61,63.
Reductionofcolumns,114.
Refractionexplained,175.
Resin,sootof,usedtomakeblack,218.
Resonantsitesoftheatres([Greek:antechountes]),153.
Retainingwalls,190_f._
Reticulatumopus,51.
Retrogressionofplanets,261.
Rhine,231.
Rhodes,55_f._,167,219,220;
lengthofshadowofgnomonat,270;
siegeof,316_f._
Rhone,231.
River(constellation),268.
Riversriseinthenorth,231.
Rome,63,64,78,80,145,217;
siteof,determinedbydivineintelligence,174;
lengthofshadowofgnomonat,270.
Romulus,hutof,40.
Roofs,ofmud,39_f._;
timbersof,107;
ofTuscantemples,122;
ofcirculartemples,124.
Rooms,proportionsof,176_ff._;
properexposurefor,180_f._;
shouldbesuitedtostationoftheowner,181_f._
RoundBuildingatDelphi,198.
Salmacis,springof,54.
SalpiainApulia,21.
Sambucaillustrateseffectofclimateonvoice,171.
Samos,12,103,263,269,273;
DorictempleofJunoin,198.
Sand,44_f._,48.
Sandarach,214;madefromwhitelead,219.
Sardis,53.
Sarnacus,199.

Saturn(planet),260,261,262.
Satyrus,199.
Scaenaoftheatre,146;
dimensionsof,148;
schemeof,150;
decorationsof,150;
oftheatreatTralles,212.
Scale,musical,141.
Scalingmachine,311.
Scamilliimpares,89,155,320.
Scaphe(sundial),273.
Scopas,199.
Scopinas,12,273.
Scorpion(constellation),266.
Scorpiones,rulesformaking,303_ff._
Scotia,90,112.
Scutulaofballistae,306_f._
Seatsintheatre,dimensionsof,148.
Selinusianchalk([Greek:isatis]),220.
Semiramis,235.
Senatehouse,locationof,137.
Septentriones(SheBears),267.
Septimius,P.,199.
Serapis,siteoftempleof,31.
Serpent(constellation),266.
Serpentholder(constellation),266.
Sesterce,74.
SheGoat(constellation),266.
Ship,motionof,explained,291.
Shipyards,164.
Sicily,236.
Siegemachines,309_ff._
Signinumwork,247_f._
SignsoftheZodiac,258;
sun'scoursethrough,264_f._;
shownondials,276_f._
Silanion,199.
Silenus,ontheproportionsofDoricstructures,198.

Simae([Greek:epaietides]),96,108.
Sinope,214.
Smyrna,197,214;
Stratoniceumat,154.
Snake(constellation),268.
Socrates,69,70,195.
Soli,235.
Soracte,stonequarriesof,49.
Soundingvesselsinthetheatre,143_ff._
SouthernFish(constellation),267.
Spain,214;
cinnabarminesof,217.
Sparta,paintingsonbrickwallsat,53.
Spica(star),265.
Stables,184,186.
Statonia,50.
Steelyard,descriptionof,291.
Stepsoftemplesoddinnumber,88.
Stereobates,88.
Stone,48,49_f._
Stratoniceum,154.
Streets,directionsof,24.
Stucco,204_ff._;
indampplaces,208_ff._
Stuccoworkers,Greek,208.
Stylobates,88.
Substructuresofhouses,189_ff._
Sulphursprings,233_f._
Sun,258_f._;
courseof,throughthetwelvesigns,264_f._
Sundials,273_ff._;
howdesigned,270_ff._
Sunium,templeofPallasat,124.
Susa,springat,240.
Syene,231.
Symmetry,14;
intemplesandinthehumanbody,72_f._;
modificationstosuitsite,174_ff._

Syracuse,273.
Syria,231,235,237.
Systyletemples,78_f._;
proportionsofcolumnsin,84;
Doric,113.
Tablinum,proportionsof,178.
Tarentum,12,255;
lengthofshadowofgnomonat,270.
Tarquinii,50.
Tarsus,234,240.
Teano,acidspringsof,238.
Telamones,188.
TeleasofAthens,70.
[Greek:Teleion](perfectnumber),73_f._
Temperingofiron,18.
Temples,classificationof,75_ff._;
circular,122_ff._;
Corinthian,102_f._;
Doric,109_ff._;
Ionic,90_ff._;
Tuscan,120;
foundationsof,86_ff._;
orientationof,116_f._;
proportionofcolumnsof,78_ff._;
sitesof,31_f._;
Aesculapius,15,198;
Apollo,31,78,80,200;
Bacchus,15,31,82,109,198;
Castor,124;
Ceres,32,80,200;
Diana,15,78,80,103,124,198,200,288_f._;
EquestrianFortune,80;
Faunus,75;
Flora,15;
ThreeFortunes,75;
Hercules,15,31,53,80;
Isis,31;
Juno,15,31,198;
Jupiter,14,31,53,75,199;
HonourandValour,78,200;
Mars,15,31;
Mercury,31,54;
Minerva,11,15,31,124,198;
Nymphs,15;
Proserpine,15,200;
Quirinus,78;
Serapis,31;
Vejovis,124;
Venus,15,31,54;
Vulcan,31.
Teos,103;
templeofBacchusat,82,198.
Terracina,236,237.

Testudinatecavaedium,177.
Tetrachords,140_ff._
Tetrastylecavaedium,176.
Thalamos,186.
Thales,42,195,225,269.
Thasos,289.
Theatre,137_ff._;
siteof,137;
foundationsof,138_f._;
entrancesto,138,148;
planofRoman,146_ff._;
planofGreek,151_ff._;
soundingvesselsin,143_f._;
acousticsofsiteof,153_ff._
ThebesinEgypt,231.
Themistocles,colonnadeof,154.
TheoofMagnesia,70.
Theocydes,199.
Theodorus,198.
TheodorusthePhocian,198.
Theodosius,273.
Theodotus,214.
Theophrastus,167,241.
Thessaly,237.
Thrace,237.
[Greek:Thyroreion],186.
Tiber,231.
Tigris,231.
Timaeus,241.
Timavo,231.
Timber,58_ff._
Timotheus,54,199.
Tivoli,233;stonequarriesof,49.
Tortoise,311_ff._;
ofbatteringram,310;
Hegetor's,312_ff._
Torus,90.
Towers,constructionof,22_f._;
dimensionsofmoveable,310.

Tralles,212;
palaceofbrickat,53;
colonnadesat,154;
templeofAesculapiusat,198.
Treasury,locationof,137.
Trichalca,74.
Triglyphs,originof,107_ff._;
arrangementof,109_f._,113;
sizeof,112.
Trispast(hoistingmachine),285.
[Greek:Trochilos](scotia),90.
Troezen,54,234.
Troy,195,211,237.
Trypho,Alexandrinearchitect,317_f._
Tufa,itsqualities,49.
Tuscan,cavaedium,176;
temples,120_f._
Twins(constellation),266.
Tyana,235.
Tympanum,96,122;
watertympanum,293.
Tyre,309.
Ulysses,211.
Universe,definitionof,257.
Varro,M.Terentius,199,256.
Vaultings,205_ff._
Vejovis,templeof,124.
Veliancountry,acidspringsof,238.
Venter([Greek:koilia]),245.
Venus,Corinthianorderappropriateto,15;
siteoftempleof,31;
templeof,54.
Venus(planet),259.
Verdigris,219.
Vergiliae,189.
Vermilion,213,215;
preparationof,216.
Vesta,altarof,125.
Vestorius,218.

Vesuvius,46,47.
ViaCampana,238.
Vinegarasolventofrocks,239.
Violetsusedforpurplecolour,220.
Virgin(constellation),265.
Vitruvius,education,13,168;
personalappearance,36;
methodofwriting,197_ff._;
militaryservice,3;
hisbasilicaatFano,134_ff._
Voice,defined,138_f._;
pitchof,determinedbyclimate,171.
Volutes,93.
Voussoirs,190.
Vulcan,siteoftempleof,31.
Walks,howtobeconstructed,156;
servepracticalpurpose,156.
Walls,materialfor,24;
methodsofbuilding,51_ff._,56;
ofbrickaredurable,53;
ofrubble,53.
Warden(constellation),265.
Water(constellation),268.
Water,225_ff._;
indispensable,226;
howtofind,227_ff._;
propertiesof,232_ff._;
testsofgood,242;
methodsofconducting,244_ff._
Waterclocks,273_ff._
Waterman(constellation),266.
Waterorgan,299_f._
Waterpipes,244_ff._
Waterscrew,295_ff._
Waterwheels,294.
Wattleanddaub,57_f._
Weatherprognostics,269_ff._
Wells,244_ff._
Whale(constellation),267.
Wheel(treadmill),286_f._
Whitelead,219,238_f._

Willow,60.
Winds,namesandnumberof,26_ff._;
diagramsof,29_f._;
orientationofcitieswithreferenceto,24_ff._
Wine,givenitsflavourbysoilandwater,236;
leesusedtomakeblack,218.
Winerooms,184.
Xanthus,237.
Xenia,187.
Xenophanes,195,269.
[Greek:Xystos],161,188.
Xuthus,103.
Xysta([Greek:paradromides]),161,188.
Yellowochre,220.
Zacynthus,235.
Zama,240.
Zea,springat,239_f._
Zeno,195.
Zodiac,257_ff._
Zoilus(Homeromastix),197.

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