PDB 2012
Dr. Solomon
Office Block L-01-22
Ext. 7121
RECAP
Sediment texture
and
Sand and sandstones
Classification of
sedimentary rocks
- Grain size
Chemical/Biochemical
- Carbonates
- Siliceous Oozes/Cherts
- Evaporites
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
Analyze the mechanism of sediment transport.
Outline
Cont.
Sediment Flow/Transportation
There are two types of fluid flow.
Laminar
orderly, parallel flow lines
all molecules within the fluid move parallel to each other in the direction of transport.
Turbulent
particles everywhere; flow lines change constantly.
molecules in the fluid move in all directions but with a net movement in the transport direction.
heterogeneous fluids are thoroughly mixed in turbulent flows.
Nichols (2009)
Reynolds Number
Laminar and Turbulent flows can be characterized and quantified using Reynolds Number.
The equation to define the Reynolds number is:
Particles being carried by rolling and saltation are referred to as bedload, and
the material in suspension is called the suspended load.
Cont
The fluid velocity at which a particle becomes entrained in the flow can be referred to as the critical
velocity.
Cohesive silt and clay particles finer than 0.0625mm,
the critical entrainment velocity increases with
decreasing particle size!
WHY?
- The higher the amount of surface area/volume, the stronger
the attractive forces, and the more cohesive the sediment will be.
And difficult to entrain.
Transport in
suspension
Fig.1 Hjulstroms diagram showing the relationship between the velocity of a water flow and the transport of loose grains (applies specifically to a
20C, 1m deep aqueous flow ). (modified after Hefferan and OBrien, 2010)
Deposition
The threshold velocity of deposition is lower than that required for entrainment for
Traction deposits
Debris flow
Summary
Water, air and glaciers are main agents of sediment transport.
The grain size of the particles in a flow can be used as an indicator of the
velocity at the time of deposition of the sediment.
Outline
Physical process of transportation
Sedimentary structures
Occur on the upper and lower surfaces of beds as well as within beds.
Can be used to deduce the processes and conditions of deposition, the directions of the
currents which deposited the sediments, and in areas of folded rocks, the way-up of the
strata.
Develop through physical and/or chemical processes before, during and after deposition,
and through biogenic processes.
It is convenient to recognize five categories of sedimentary structure: Erosional,
Depositional, Post-depositional/Diagenetic and Biogenic.
Main Types
Bedding surface structures
- Ripples
- Flute casts
- Shrinkage cracks
- Parting lineation (primary current
lineation)
- Rainspot impressions
- Graded bedding
- Cross-stratification
- Massive bedding
Analysis of borehole
images across a wide
range of sedimentary
environments reveals a
consistent set of
commonly recognized
sedimentary features.
Depositional Structures
Laminae and beds are the basic sedimentary units that produce stratification; the transition
between the two is arbitrarily set at 1 cm.
Bedding and lamination define stratification. Bedding is thicker than 1 cm whereas lamination
is thinner than 1 cm.
Many finely laminated fine-grained sediments are deposited in protected environments such as
lagoons and lakes and in relatively deep water marine basins.
Fig. Terms used for describing the thickness of beds and laminae
Boggs (2009)
Flaser lamination is characterised by isolated thin drapes of mud amongst the cross-laminae of a sand.
Lenticular lamination is composed of isolated ripples of sand completely surrounded by mud, and intermediate
forms made up of approximately equal proportions of sand and mud are called wavy lamination.
(a)
(b)
Fig. (a) Bedding planes and bed contacts: the range of possibilities (Tucker, 2003), (b) Lenticular, wavy and flaser bedding in
deposits that are mixtures of sand and mud (Nichols, 2009).
These bedding types are common in tidal-flat and delta front sediments, where there are
fluctuations in sediment supply or level of current (or wave) activity.
(Nichols, 2009)
Beds that contain internal layers that are essentially parallel to the bounding bedding
surfaces are said to be planar-stratified. Groups of similar planar beds are called
bedsets.
Graded Bedding
Graded beds are strata characterized by gradual but distinct vertical changes in grain size.
Normal grading: beds that display gradation from coarser particles at the base to finer
particles at the top.
- can result from the settling of particles out of suspension or as a consequence of a
decrease in flow strength through time.
Reverse grading: those that grade from finer particles at the base to coarser at the top.
- increase in flow velocity through time may result in an increase in grain size up
through a bed.
Fig. Beds deposited by turbidity currents are called turbidites. Each event produces a single bed
characterized by a decrease in sediment size from bottom to top, a feature known as a graded bed
(Monroe et al., 2007).
Massive Bedding
Applied to beds of sedimentary rock that contain few or no visible internal laminae.
Massively bedded sediments are rare.
Presumably generated in the absence of fluid-
sandstone
shale
Fig. Massive-bedded sandstone (upper part of photograph) lying
above thin, parallel-bedded siltstone and shale (Boggs, 2009).
Cross-Bedding
forms during deposition on the inclined surfaces of bedforms such as ripples and dunes, and
indicates that the depositional environment contained a flowing medium (water or wind).
Cross-beds, are strata in which internal layers, or foresets, dip at a distinct angle to the
surfaces that bound the sets of cross-beds.
Tabular cross-bedding: having bounding surfaces that are planar,
Trough cross-bedding, having bounding surfaces that are curved.
Cross-bedding formed under different environmental conditions (fluvial, eolian, marine) can
be very similar in appearance and thus may be difficult to differentiate in ancient deposits.
(a)
(b)
Fig. (a) Multiple sets of small-scale planar cross-beds (between arrows) with tangential foresets, (b) Three intersecting
sets of small-scale trough cross-beds in fine, laminated sandstone. The area marked (B) may be a burrow (Boggs, 2009).
Cross stratification
Cross lamination (small-scale cross stratification) is produced by ripples.
Cross bedding (large-scale cross stratification) is produced by dunes.
Cross-stratified deposits can only be preserved when a bedform is not entirely
eroded by the subsequent bedform (i.e., sediment input > sediment output).
Straight-crested bedforms lead to planar cross stratification; sinuous or linguoid
bedforms produce trough cross stratification.
Fig. (A) Cross beds from a modern beach sand dune, (B) Aeolian cross beds in the Navajo Sandstone,
Zion National Park.
Summary
Bedding and lamination define stratification. Bedding is thicker than 1 cm whereas lamination
is thinner than 1 cm.
Graded beds are strata characterized by gradual but distinct vertical changes in grain size.
Beds displaying internal layers deposited at a distinct angle to the bounding surfaces are crossstratified.
Massive bedding applies to sedimentary rock that contain few or no visible internal laminae.
Thank You