The Harappan Civilization, c.

2600-1900 BCE
Harappan, Indus, or Sindhu-Sarasvati Civilization?
The first sites were discovered in the valley of the Indus and its tributaries. Hence it was given the name
'Indus valley civilization'.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The northernmost site is Manda in Jammu district.

The southernmost is Malvan in Gujarat.
The western-most site is Sutkagendor
Easternmost is Alamgirpur
There is an isolated site at Shortughai in Afghanistan.

1. The terms 'Indus-Sarasvati' or 'Sindhu-Sarasvati' civilization are also used by some scholars. This
is because a large number of sites are located on the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra river.
2. Since the civilization was not confined to the valleys of the Indus or Ghaggar-Hakra, the best
option is to use the term 'Harappan ' civilization.
3. Before the advent of radiocarbon dating, this civilization was dated by cross-referencing with the
Mesopotamian civilization.
4. Recent calibrated C-14 dates : early Harappan, c. 3200-2600 BeE; mature Harappan, c. 26001900 BeE; and late Harappan, c. 1900-1300 BeE.

Origin: The Significance of the Early Harappan Phase

John Marshall -Indus civilization must have had a long antecedent history on the soil of India.
Mackay -a migration of people from Sumer (southern Mesopotamia) .
Mortimer Wheeler -argued for a migration of ideas, not people.
The fact that city life emerged in Mesopotamia a few centuries before it appeared in the Egyptian
and Harappan contexts does not mean that the latter were derived from the former in a direct or
indirect way. The Mesopotamians had a completely different script, a much greater use of bronze,
different settlement layouts, and a large-scale canal system of the kind that seems absent in the
Harappan civilization.
1. The story of its origins can, in fact, be traced to the emergence of settled farming communities in
Baluchistan in the 7th millennium BeE.
2. Amalananda Ghosh focused on the pre-Harappan Sothi culture of Rajasthan. He asserted that
there were similarities between Sothi pottery and the pottery of (a) Zhob, Quetta (b) preHarappan Kalibangan, Kot Diji . He argued that the Sothi culture should be described as protoHarappan. A limitation of this hypothesis was that it was based exclusively on a comparison of
pottery.
3. The first comprehensive analysis of the evidence was made by M. R. Mughal . The preHarappan phase showed large fortified settlements, a fairly high level of expertise in specialized
crafts such, the use of wheeled transport, and the existence of trade networks. The two things

lacking were large cities and increased levels of craft specialization. Mughal argued that the 'preHarappan' phase actually represented the early, formative phase of the Harappan culture.
4. Early Harappan levels have been identified at a large number of sites.
Period I at Amri is early Harappan and Period II represents a transitional phase and Period III is
mature Harappan. Within Period I, there was a gradual increase in the refinement and variety of
pottery.
Early Harappan Period I (Kot Diji) was dated from c. 3300 BCE. Fortified with a massive wall,
the settlement consisted of a citadel complex and a lower residential area. The distinctive pottery
is a short-necked ovoid pot, painted with designs such as the 'horned deity', pipal leaves.
Period I at Kalibangan is early Harappa was surrounded by massive mud-brick fortifications.
Houses were made around courtyards. There was a standardization of brick size (3:2:1). Some of
the pots were similar to Kot Dijian pottery. Some of the graffiti on pottery is similar to the script
of the mature Harappan phase.

The Relationship Between the Early and Mature Harappan Phases

In spite of the undeniable evidence of cultural continuity the 'outside influence' factor still sometimes
resurfaces.
1. Lamberg-Karlovsky suggests that the emergence of an early urban interaction sphere in c. 3000
BCE in Turkmenia, Seistan, and south Afghanistan had an important role to play in Harappan
urbanism.
2. Shereen Ratnagar suggests that Indus-Mesopotamian trade played an important role in the rise
and decline of the Harappan civilization.
3. Apart from the fact that some features of the mature Harappan culture were already in place in the
early Harappan phase, what is also visible is a gradual transition towards a level of cultural
uniformity a process that the Allchins call 'cultural convergence'.
4. Another notable feature is the appearance of the 'horned deity' at a number of places. He is
painted on a jar found at Kot Diji suggests that the process of 'cultural convergence' was also
operating in the religious and symbolic spheres.
5. But how did this convergence come about? According to Chakrabarti the catalyst for the
transition may have been an increasing level of craft specialization. The answer may lie in the
emergence of a new, decisive political leadership. Such changes are difficult to deduce from the
archaeological data.
6. There are several other gaps . There are several mature Harappan sites where there is no early
Harappan level, e.g., Lothal, Chanhudaro. There are several early Harappan sites in the Potwar
plateau which do not have mature Harappan levels. And at sites where there are both the
transition from one to the other is not always smooth.

The General Features of Mature Harappan Settlements

1. Harappan sites varied a great deal in size and function. The largest settlements include
Mohenjodaro (over 200 ha), Harappa (over 150 ha), Ganweriwala , Dholavira (about 100 ha). The
second rung of Harappan settlements are moderate-sized sites ranging between 10 and 50 ha,

such as Kalibangan. Then sites of 5-10 ha, such as Amri, Lothal, Chanhudaro. 1-5 ha range
include Allahdino, Kot Diji, Surkotada, etc.
2. The streets and houses of Harappan cities were once thought to be laid on a grid-pattern oriented
north-south and east-west. Actually, even Mohenjodaro does not show a perfect grid system.
3. But the settlements were clearly planned. The details of the plans differ. Mohenjodaro, Harappa
have a similar layout, consisting of a raised citadel complex and a lower city. At Lothal and
Surkotada, the citadel complex is not separate; it is located within the main settlement. Dholavira
consisted of not two but three parts-the citadel, middle town, and lower town.
4. In villages, houses were made mostly of mud-brick. Buildings in towns and cities of
sun-dried and burnt bricks.
5. A striking feature of Harappan structures is the uniformity in the average size of the bricks-7 x 14
x 28 Cm for houses and 10 x 20 x 40 Cm for city walls.
6. People lived in houses of different sizes, mostly consisting of rooms arranged around a central
courtyard. Doorways and windows rarely opened onto the main streets.
7. Floors were usually made of hard-packed earth. Roofs may have been made of wooden beams
covered with reeds.
8. Small houses attached to large ones may have been the quarters of service groups working for
wealthy city dwellers.
9. The floor of the bathing area was usually made of tightly fitted bricks to make a carefully sloped
watertight surface. A small drain led from here, cut through the house wall, and went out into the
street, connecting ultimately with a larger sewage drain.
10. Recent excavations at Harappa have uncovered toilets in almost every house. The commodes
were made of big pots sunk into the floor. Most of the pots had a small hole in the base, through
which water could seep into the ground.
11. Well laid-out streets and side lanes associated with an efficient and well-planned drainage system
are other notable features of Harappan settlements.
12. At Harappa and Mohenjodaro, terra cotta drain pipes directed waste water into open street drains
made of baked bricks. These connected into large drains along the main streets, which emptied
their contents into the fields outside the city wall.
13. The emphasis on providing water for bathing, evident at several sites, suggests that they were
very particular about personal hygiene. It is possible that frequent bathing also had a religious or
ritualistic aspect.

Profiles of Some Harappan Cities, Towns, and Villages

Mohenjodaro
1. Mohenjodaro consists of two mounds, a higher but smaller western mound and a lower but larger
eastern mound. The western mound at Mohenjodaro (citadel) was circled by a 6 m thick mudbrick retaining wall .
2. In the north are the Great Bath, the so-called 'granary', and 'college of priests'. In Great Bath, floor
and walls of the tank were made water-tight by finely fitted bricks laid edge to edge with gypsum
mortar,making this one of the earliest examples of waterproofing in the world. There are a series
of rooms along the eastern edge of the building.
3. Across the street from the Great Bath are the remains of a large, imposing building consisting of
several rooms. It was tentatively identified as the house of the chief priest or several priests, and
was labelled the 'college of priests'.
4. On the western edge of the citadel mound is a structure that was originally identified as a
hammam or hot-air bath, and later as the 'great granary' divided into 27 square and rectangular
blocks by narrow passageways.
5. The lower town to the east may also have been surrounded by a fortification wall. The houses
varied in size, suggesting differences in wealth and status.
6. A number of shops and workshops associated with copper working, bead making were identified
in the lower town.
7. There may have been over 700 wells in the city of Mohenjodaro about one in every third house.

Chanhudaro
Chanhudaro is a 4.7 ha site. This is a single mound site with no fortifications. Chanhudaro was clearly an
important centre of craft activity Some of the houses yielded raw material such as carnelian, agate,
amethyst. More striking was the discovery of a bead factory, with lots of
finished and unfinished beads.

Harappa
1. The higher citadel mound lies to the west, with a lower but larger lower town to its south-east.The
citadel at Harappa was shaped roughly like a parallelogram.
2. To the north of the citadel complex, a number of structures were located on a mound (Mound F)
surrounded by a mud-brick wall. One walled complex had at least 15 units. This has been
interpreted as workmen's quarters. To the north of this complex were at least 18 circular brick
platforms. These may have been threshing platforms for grain. The 'granary' was located to the
north of these platforms.
The lower walled town of Harappa is currently being excavated.

Lothal

1. It was a modest-sized settlement roughly rectangular in plan. The citadel ( 'Acropolis') was
roughly trapezoidal in plan.
2. To the south of the residential area was a complex identified as a warehouse, where goods may
have been packed and stored. Some of the houses had fire altars.
3. The most distinctive feature of Lothal is the dockyard, which lies on the eastern edge of the site.
This is a roughly trapezoidal basin, enclosed by walls of burnt bricks. The dockyard had
provisions for maintaining a regular level of water. An alternative interpretation of this structure
as a water reservoir is not convincing.

Dholavira
1. The architecture of Dholavira shows a large-scale use of sandstone.
2. At least three different sections were identified. There was a small 'castle' area, a 'bailey' area to
its west, and a larger 'middle town' to the north, all with their own enclosing walls.
3. An interesting feature is a large open area (called the 'stadium') between the castle-bailey and the
middle town, which may have been used for special ceremonial occasions.
4. In one of the side rooms of the northern gateway of Dholavira lay what seems to be a fallen
signboard.
5. The cemetery area revealed rectangular pit burials lined with blocks of stone.
6. Several large, deep water cisterns and reservoirs located in the citadel and lower town preserved
precious stores of rain water.

The Diversity of the Harappan Subsistence Base

1. Subsistence is closely related to environment, and the nature of the Harappan environment is the
subject of continuing debate. Mortimer Wheeler and Stuart Piggott suggested a wetter climate
in Harappan times.
2. Gurdip Singh analysed pollen from the three salt lakes and the freshwater Pushkar lake and
concluded that there was an increase in rainfall in c. 3000 BeE and a decrease in 1800 BeE.
However, a recent study of the Lunkaransar lake suggests that it had dried up by 3500 BeE and
that the climate had become drier long before the emergence of the Harappan civilization. The
issue of the nature of climatic conditions remains unresolved.
3. Detailed evidence of the plant economy of the early and mature Harappan phase is available from
Balu (in Haryana). The crop remains identified here included various types of barley, wheat, rice
and the earliest evidence of garlic.
4. The discovery of a ploughed field at early Harappan levels at Kalibangan. The continuing use of
the plough into the mature Harappan phase can be inferred. Irrigation canals have been found at
Shortughai.

5. Bones of wild animals have been found at Harappan sites. These include many varieties of deer,
pig, boar, sheep, goat. At coastal sites in Gujarat, molluscs provided an important protein-rich
element in people's diet.
6. Harappan sites have also yielded remains of domesticated animals such as humped and hump less
cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goat.
7. The issue of the horse is controversial .For instance, it is not easy to ascertain whether the bones
in question belong to the half-ass or domesticated horse.

Harappan Crafts and Techniques

1. While some sites specialized in the production of a single or a few items, others such as Harappa
manufactured a wide range of goods.
2. The Harappan pottery reflects efficient mass-production. There is a great variety of pottery,
including black-on-red, grey, buff, and black-and-red wares. Most pots were wheel turned. Both
fine and coarse fabrics occur. The typical Harappan pottery is a fine, sturdy, wheel-made ware
with a bright red slip, decorated with painted black designs.
3. Distinctive shapes include the dish-on-stand, cylindrical perforated jar. The decorative patterns
range from simple horizontal lines to geometric patterns and pictorial motifs.
4. The large jars may have been used to store grain or water. The more elaborately painted pots may
have had a ceremonial use or may have belonged to rich people.
5. Harappan sites have yielded a profusion of terracottas. There are figurines of animals such as
bulls, buffaloes, monkeys, and dogs include numerous female figurines .
6. The Harappans made faience bangles, rings, pendants, miniature vessels. Another distinctive
Harappan craft was the making of hard, high-fired bangles known as stone ware bangles.
7. Stone work was another important craft. More visible at all Harappan sites were the massproduced chert blades .
8. The Harappan civilization is marked by a large number of copper objects included vessels, spears,
knives, short swords, arrowheads, axes, fishhooks. ]
9. Sixteen copper furnaces were found at Harappa, and copper workshops were found at Lothal.
10. Beautifully worked gold and silver jewellery including necklaces, bracelet and earrings have been
found at Harappan sites. A hoard of jewellery made of gold, silver, and semi-precious stones was
found at Allahdino.
11. Seal making was another important Harappan craft. Most of the seals are square or rectangular. A
few cylindrical and round seals have also been found. Most of the seals are made of steatite. The
carving is in intaglio-i.e., it is a sunken engraving. Motifs include the elephant, tiger, antelope
and the one-horned mythical animal referred to as a unicorn.
12. Bead making was a craft known in earlier cultures, but in the Harappan civilization new
materials, styles, and techniques came into vogue. A new type of cylindrical stone drill was

devised and used to perforate beads of semi-precious stones. Tiny micro-beads were made of
steatite paste and hardened by heating.
13. Bead making factories have been found at Chanhudaro and Lothal.
14. Chanhudaro and Balakot were important centres of shell work. Nageshwar was exclusively
devoted to shell-working and specialized in making bangles. Bone working was another
specialized craft.
15. It can be inferred from the available evidence that the Harappans made cotton and woollen
textiles. Mesopotamian texts mention cotton as one of the imports from Meluhha.
The Harappan crafts display an impressive level of standardization. Kenoyer has suggested that
state control may have been responsible. Standardization extended to units of weights and
measure. Cubical weights have been found at all excavated sites. Does it imply centralized
control by merchants or rulers? Some element of central direction is suggested, but its nature and
degree are far from certain.

Networks of Trade
1. One of the important aspects of Harappan trade is the identification of the sources of major raw
materials used by the Harappans. The discovery of factory sites in the limestone hills of Sukkur
and Rohri indicates that chert blades were mass produced here and sent to various Harappan
settlements in Sindh. The Khetri deposits of Rajasthan must have been an important source of
copper. Gold may have come from the Kolar fields of Karnataka. Most varieties of semi-precious
stone came from Gujarat. The exception is lapis lazuli obtained from Afghanistan. Two-wheeled
carts were mode of transport for people and goods.
2. Traders must also have transported their merchandise across long distances in caravans of pack
animals such as oxen, sheep, goats, and donkeys. Boats are depicted on seals and moulded
tablets.
3. Lahiri points out that major trade routes connected the following areas: Sindh and south
Baluchistan; coastal Sindh, upper Sindh, and the central Indus plains; the Indus plains and
Rajasthan; Sindh and east Punjab; east Punjab and Rajasthan; and Sindh and Gujarat.
4. It is likely that the Indus saw a certain amount of riverine traffic. The location of some of the important sites can in fact be explained in relation to the trade routes of the time. For instance,
Mohenjodaro.
1. A number of Harappan and Harappan-related objects found in south Turkmenistan at sites such as
Altyn Depe and Khapuz. The most definite evidence comes from Altyn Depe, in the form of a
rectangular Harappan seal bearing the Harappan script.
2. The sites in Iran are Hissar, Shah Tepe, Jalalabad etc.
3. The most important evidence of trade with Afghanistan comes from an isolated Harappan trading
outpost at Shortughai.
4. Harappan and Harappan-related artefacts have been found at Ras-al-Qala on the island of
Bahrain. Jar fragments with Harappan writing have been found at many sites in the Persian Gulf.

5. The Harappans were also trading with the Oman peninsula. Carnelian bead of the Harappan type
was found at Umm-an-Nar. The major imports from Oman may have included chlorite vessels,
shell.
6. There is literary as well as archaeological evidence for Harappan trade with Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamian records of the time of king Sargon refer to ships from the lands of Meluhha .
7. The archaeological evidence for Harappan-Mesopotamian trade consists Harappan-related seals
and carnelian beads at Mesopotamian sites such as Kish, Nippur, and Ur.
8. Carnelian beads were clearly an important Harappan export to West Asia. Textiles and conch shell
objects were other possible exports.Mesopotamian texts mention the following items as imports
from Meluhha: lapis lazuli, carnelian, gold, silver, copper, dog, cat, and monkey. Mesopotamia's
general exports included fish, grain, raw wool, woollen garments.
9. Ratnagar highlights the importance of this trade, especially the trade in lapis lazuli, and even
argues that its decline was a reason for the decline of the Harappan civilization. Chakrabarti
and Shaffer argue that Harappan trade with Mesopotamia was not direct, extensive or intensive.
10. Among the Harappan imports were lapis lazuli was probably an import from Afghanistan, Jade
must have come from Turkmenistan. Tin may have been obtained from Ferghana . Carved
chlorite and green schist vessels from Persian Gulf.
11. Two main overland routes connected the Harappan civilization with West Asia. The northern one
passed through northern Afghanistan, north Iran, Turkmenistan, and Mesopotamia. A
southern route passed through Tepe Yahya, Jalalabad and Ur. Dholavira and the sites along the
coast of Kutch no doubt played an important role in maritime trade.
12. The argument that the quantum of Harappan long-distance trade was not great is persuasive.
Unlike the resource-poor area of Mesopotamia, the Harappan culture zone was rich in a variety of
natural resources.

The Nature and Uses of Writing

1. Among the biggest mysteries is the language the Harappans spoke and their writing system. Some
scholars have suggested that this language belonged to the Dravidian family, while others in
favour of the Indo-Aryan family. However, there is so far no consensus.
2. Two sites of Mohenjodaro and Harappa together account for about 87 per cent of all inscribed
material.
3. There are 400-450 basic signs and the script is logo-syllabic. It was generally written and meant
to be read from right to left. Longer inscriptions that were sometimes written in the
boustrophedon style.
4. Writing appears very frequently on the seals. Some of these were impressed onto small moist clay
tablets known as sealings, probably by merchants to authenticate merchandise. However, more
seals than sealings have been found. This suggests that some of the so-called seals may have had

other functions. They may also have been worn as amulets or used as identification markers. The
so-called 'seals' were thus used for multiple purposes.
5. Writing also appears on miniature tablets made of steatite, terracotta, and faience. The limited
number of places where they occur suggests a restricted use.
6. The evidence of writing on pottery suggests a wider use in craft production and economic
transactions.
7. Items like copper and bronze tools, stoneware bangles and gold jewellery were sometimes
inscribed. They may have had some sort of magico-religious or ritualistic Significance.
8. The Dholavira 'signboard' does indicate a civic use of writing. The evidence of a common script
shows a high level of cultural integration.
9. The virtual disappearance of the script by c. 1700 BeE suggests both a close connection of
writing with city life and the lack of sufficient downward percolation of writing.

Religious and Funerary Practices

1. The worship of female goddesses associated with fertility has long been held as one of the major
features of Harappan religion. This conclusion is based on the following factors:
(a) the concerns that agricultural societies are invariably known to have with fertility;
(b) cross-cultural parallels with other ancient civilizations;
(c) the discovery of a large number of terracotta female figurines that were labelled 'Mother
Goddesses'.
2. The attributes of the figurines and the contexts in which they were found have to be considered
carefully .
3. The type which is frequently interpreted as having a religious Significance is a slim female figure
with a distinctive fan-shaped headdress, wearing a short skirt.
4. Most of the terracotta figurines were found broken and discarded in secondary locations.
Suggests that they may have been part of a ritual cycle and were made for short-term use for
certain specific occasions.
5. Marshall suggested that the Harappans also worshipped a male god represented on a steatite seal
discovered at Mohenjodaro, usually referred to as the Pashupati seal.
6. Another aspect of the fertility-related beliefs of the Harappans was the worship of male and
female creative energy in the form of lingas and yanis. George Dales argued that the contexts in
which these stones were found do not suggest cultic significance.
7. The pipal tree appears often and may have been venerated. Sometimes, there is a figure
peering out from between its branches, possibly a tree-spirit.
8. Some of the animals depicted on seals and sealings-for instance, the humped and humpless bull,
snake, elephant, rhinoceros, antelope may have had cultic significance. The composite animals
and the 'unicorn' depicted on some seals and sealings may also have had some sort of religious or
mythological Significance.

9. The Great Bath was probably the scene of an elite ritual activity involving ceremonial bathing.
10. A triangular terracotta cake found at Kalibangan has a carving of an animal being dragged by a
rope by a human on the other. Interpreted as suggesting the practice of animal sacrifice. The most
striking evidence suggesting ritualistic practices comes from the 'fire altars' found on the citadel
mound at Kalibangan.
11. The most common method of burial was to place the body of the deceased in an extended
position, with the head towards the north. Grave goods including food, pottery, tools, and
ornaments. Fractional burials were found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa. These two sites also gave
evidence of urn burials suggestive of cremation.
It is interesting to note that the Harappan civilization does display a few features reminiscent of
later traditions, except, however, the important element of temple worship.

Harrapan People
1. Going by the figurines, Harappan women wore a short skirt made of cotton or wool. They wore
their hair variously in braids, rolled into a bun, wrapped around the head like a turban, or left
loose. Female figurines wear ornaments such as necklaces, hair ornaments, bangles, and belts.
2. Male figurines are usually bare headed. Most of them are nude, so it is difficult to say what sort
of clothes men wore. Certain stone sculptures suggest the use of a dhoti-like lower garment .
Most have beards. Men and women both wear bangles and necklaces.
3. Terracotta toys of various kinds have been found at Harappan sites. They include balls, whistles,
gamesmen, carts with moveable parts. There are spinning tops .There are figurines of children
playing with toys. Lots of terracotta figurines of dogs have been found at Harappan sites, some
with collars, suggesting that people kept dogs as pets.
4. Figurines depicting women grinding or kneading something , have been found at Nausharo,
Harappa, and Mohenjodaro, suggesting the association of women with food-processing activities.
5. There is the larger question of the analysis and assessment of the structure of Harappan society.
The absence of deciphered written evidence is a major handicap. The level of social
differentiation may not have been as great as in Mesopotamia and Egypt, but differences in house
sizes and the hoards of jewellery do indicate a concentration of wealth and differences in social
and economic status.

The Ruling Elite

The debate on the nature of the Harappan political system has focused largely on whether or not a state
existed, and if so, what sort of state it was??
1. Many scholars have observed that the elements of warfare, conflict, and force in the Harappan
civilization seem weak. Weapons are not a dominant feature of the artefacts. However,
fortifications cannot be overlooked.

2. That the Harappan civilization lasted for some 700 years and its artefacts, traditions, and symbols
seem to have continued more or less unchanged through this long period, suggests a strong
element of political stability.
3. Earliest hypotheses by Stuart Piggott and was supported to some extent by Mortimer Wheeler.
Piggott suggested that the Harappan state was a highly centralized empire ruled by autocratic
priest-kings from the twin capitals of Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
4. Fairservis argued that the Harappans did not have an empire, not even a state. He pointed to the
absence of evidence of priest -kings, slaves, standing armies. Later, Fairservis modified his views
to some extent and agreed that there may have been some element of centralized control .
5. S. C. Malik argued that the lack of imposing monuments and supreme gods goes against the idea
of a strong, centralized state. The Harappan polity, according to Malik, is transitional between a
kinship society and civil state society.
6. Ratnagar used cross-cultural parallels to conclude that we do seem to be looking at a Harappan
empire.
7. Shaffer questions the level of homogeneity in the Harappan civilization and suggests that it could
have been the result of a well-developed network of internal trade rather than a strong, centralized
government.
8. The fact that some form of state structure did exist in the Harappan civilization cannot be denied.
Some of the buildings on the citadel complex seem to have had an administrative function.
9. Jacobson suggests that the Harappan state was an early state with : a sovereign or sovereigns
closely linked to a mythical character and seen as benevolent.
10. According to Possehl Harappan society was had a strong corporate element.
11. The large number of unicorn seals at major cities led Ratnagar to suggest that the unicorn was the
symbol of the Harappan ruling elite. It is in fact the less frequent motifs such as the bull that may
have been symbols of the most powerful rulers.

The Decline of Urban Life

Decline had set in at Mohenjodaro by 2200 BeE and the settlement had come to an end by 2000 BeE.
Mohenjodaro and Dholavira give a picture of gradual decline, while at Kalibangan and Banawali, city life
ended all of a sudden.
1. One of the most popular explanations of is the idea that the civilization was destroyed by Aryan
invaders was first put forward by Ramaprasad Chanda and was elaborated on by Mortimer
Wheeler. Wheeler argued that references in the Rig Veda to various kinds of forts, attacks on
walled cities. He identified a place called Hariyupiya in the Rig Veda with Harappa.The
Cemetery-H culture, he suggested, represented the culture of the Aryan invaders.

2. Many scholars such as Kane ,Dales and B. B. Lal have refuted the invasion theory. There is, in
fact, no evidence of any kind of military assault . The 37 groups of skeletal remains at
Mohenjodaro do not belong to the same cultural phase. The Harappan civilization was not
destroyed by an Indo-Aryan invasion.
3. Several layers of silt at Mohenjodaro give evidence of the city being affected by repeated
episodes of Indus floods.
4. Harappan sites in the Ghaggar-Hakra valley were affected by gradual desiccation. The Sutlej or
the Yamuna once flowed into the Ghaggar. Tectonic movements led to river capture-drastically
reducing the water flowing into the Ghaggar. M. R. Mughal's study shows a drastic reduction in
the number of sites as the river dried up.
5. Gurdip Singh suggests a connection between the onset of a drier climate and the decline of the
Harappan civilization. However onset of drier conditions in this area may have happened well
before the emergence of the Harappan civilization.
6. Fairservis suggests that the civilization declined because the growing population of people
and cattle could not be supported from resources within the Harappan culture zone.
7. Shereen Ratnagar has argued that the decline in the lapis lazuli trade with Mesopotamia was a
factor in the decline of the Harappan civilization.

The Significance of the Late Harappan Phase

1. In Sindh, the late Harappan phase is represented by the Jhukar culture at sites such as Jhukar,
Chanhudaro, and Amri. There were gradual changes in the seals, a decrease in the frequency of
cubical weights, and writing came to be confined only to pottery.
2. In the Punjab province of Pakistan and the Ghaggar-Hakra valley, the late Harappan phase is
represented by the Cernetery-H culture.
3. In east Punjab, Haryana, and north Rajasthan, the late Harappan settlements were small compared
to the mature Harappan ones.
4. While there was abandonment or severe reduction in population in Sindh, there was the increase
in the number of settlements in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, northern Rajasthan. The
data suggests an eastward and southward shift of settlements and people.
5. Compared to mature Harappan pottery, the slip of late Harappan pottery is less bright. The pots
tend to be thicker and sturdier. Some of the classic Harappan shapes-e.g perforated jar-disappear.
Various elements of Harappan urbanism such as the cities, script declined in the late Harappan
phase, but did not completely disappear. Some of the late Harappan sites such as Bet Dwarka in
Gujarat, and Daimabad can be described as urban, but they are few.
6. A rectangular conch shell seal similar to that found on seals of the Persian Gulf, was found at Bet
Dwarka. This suggests that contact with the Persian Gulf continued in the late Harappan phase.
7. A notable development in the late Harappan phase was the diversification of agriculture. In
Baluchistan, there was the beginning of double cropping.

8. The general picture presented by the late Harappan phase is one of a breakdown of urban
networks and an expansion of rural ones.