MICROWAVE

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
ALMA CHRISTINE C. DANZALAN, ECE

Introduction
Microwaves are the ultrahigh, superhigh, and

extremely high frequencies directly above the

lower frequency ranges where most radio
communication now takes place and below the
optical frequencies that cover infrared, visible,
and ultraviolet light.

Microwave frequency bands

Microwave
MicrowaveRadio-Frequency
Radio-Frequency
Assignments
Assignments
Band

Frequency (GHz)

Application

12

24

Marine radar

48

Commercial use,
satellites

8 12

Military

Ku

12 18

Commercial use,
satellites

18 27

Commercial use,
satellites

Ka

27 40

Military

60 80

80 100

Microwave
Communication
Set-up

DOMSAT ANTIPOLO (TO

BE TRANSFERRED TO
NBC TOWER)

PLDT
SAMPALOC

OB VAN
ENG VAN

GMA EDSA
COMPLEX

TANDANG SORA
TRANSMIITTER

Applications:
A microwave oven for the purpose of cooking food.
Microwaves are used in broadcasting transmissions
Radar also uses microwave radiation
Wireless LAN protocols, such as Bluetooth and the IEEE 802.11g and b

specifications
Metropolitan Area Networks - MAN protocols, such as WiMAX based
in the IEEE 802.16 specification
Cable TV and Internet access
Mobile phone networks

Many semiconductor processing techniques use

microwaves to generate plasma for such purposes as

reactive ion etching and PECVD.

Important considerations
Signals follow a straight line or Line of Sight (LOS)

path.
Signals are affected by obstructions (Man-made
objects, earths terrain) and weather/atmospheric
conditions (free space attenuation);
Installed in tall towers, buildings or mountains
Relay can extend across country and continents.

Important considerations
Tight beam, high frequency;
Frequencies used are greater than 300 MHZ

covering UHF, SHF and EHF range (actually

between 1 to 100 GHz).
Microwave system capacities vary form 12 to 22000
voice channels. Presently, microwave systems carry
pulse code modulated time division multiplexed
voice band circuits and use more modern digital
modulation techniques, such as phase shift keying
and quadrature amplitude modulation.

Types of Microwave Transmission Link:

Short Haul usually at lower capacity ranging from 64

kbps up to 2Mbps.
Long Haul used for backbone route applications at

34 Mbps to 620 Mbps capacity.

FM MW Radio Transmitter

Baseband
(audio,data,video)

Preemphasis
Network

FM
Deviator

Mixer

Microwave
Generator

BPF

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RF out

FM MW Receiver

Baseband out
(audio,data,video)

De-emphasis
Network

FM
Detector

Mixer

Microwave
Generator

BPF

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RF in

System variables for permissible distances between the transmitter

and its associated receiver:
1. Transmitter output power
2. Receiver Noise threshold
3. Terrain
4. Atmospheric condition
5. System Capacity
6. Reliability objectives
7. Performance expectation

CLASSIFICATIONS OF MICROWAVE
COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

Terrestrial Microwave

Communications

Satellite

Communications

Categories of Microwave
1. Line of Sight Communication
Use low transmit power and highly directional
antennas
Subject to earth bulge and other obstructions
Maximum distance is 30 to 50 statute miles

Categories of Microwave
2. Tropospheric Scatter Communications
Requires very high powered beam of energy
Beyond LOS
Uses refractive properties
Provides reliable communications up to 400
statute mile

Terrestrial Microwave
Basically there are 2 types of microwave stations.

Terminals are points in the system where the

baseband signals either originate or terminate

Repeaters are points in the system where the

baseband signals maybe reconfigured or simply
repeated or amplified.

Types of passive repeaters

1.

Two identical
parabolic antennas
placed back to back

Types of passive repeaters

2. A flat billboard type
reflecting surface.
- flat metal type used to
reflect
microwave
signals

Types of FM Active microwave Repeater

1. IF repeater with an IF repeater, the received IF

carrier is down converted to an IF frequency, amplified
and then retransmitted.

Types of FM Active microwave Repeater

2. Baseband Repeater
- with the baseband repeater, the RF carrier is downconverted to an IF frequency, amplified, filtered and
then further demodulated to baseband.

Microwave and HF/ VHF

BAND

TRANSMISSIO
N MEDIUM

ANTENN
A

Tx to Ant
Signal
Form

Operating
Frequency

HF/VHF

Wire

Dipole

Voltage
/current

30 300
MHz

Microwave

Waveguide

Parabolic Electrom
/Horn
agnetic
waves

1 30 GHz

TYPES OF MICROWAVE PATH

1. Line-of-Sight Path
2. Grazing Path
3. Obstructed Path

CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROWAVE

1. Microwaves behave similarly as light waves.

2. It can be reflected, refracted and diffracted.

3. It can be absorbed by some of the particles in the

atmosphere.
4. It can be scattered.
5. It can be polarized.

Diversity
It suggests that there are more than one

transmission path or method of transmission

between a transmitter and the receiver.
It can select the path or method that gives the

highest quality of received signal.

Diversity Techniques
Space diversity
Frequency diversity
Polarization diversity
Crossband diversity
Angle diversity
Hybrid diversity
Path diversity

Space Diversity
addition of another receive antenna,separated in

distance from the first

- improvement in reliability comes from the reduced
probability that both paths will be adversely affected
by fading at the same time
- more vertical spacing between antennas offers less
path correlation and better path reliability

Space diversity

Space diversity scheme: Antenna

Separation (S)

S = 3Re / L

Where:
path length

L=

Re = effective earth radius (m)

Space diversity

Frequency Diversity
Microwave transmitters operating on two

frequencies (with a typical in-band diversity spacing

of about 2% 3%
Reliability improvement comes from the reduced
chances of fading occurring on both frequencies (or
frequency bands) at the same time
Requires the use of more spectrum because it
uses two sets of frequencies

Frequency Diversity

Other Diversity Techniques:

Crossband diversity the signals are transmitted using

entirely different allocations.

Hybrid Diversity combination of space and frequency
diversity
Polarization Diversity a single RF carrier is propagated
with 2 different electromagnetic polarizations (Vertical
and horizontal)
Angle diversity transmission of information at two or
more slightly different angles resulting to two or more
paths based on illuminating different scatter volume in
troposcater system.

Other Diversity Techniques

Path Diversity in this method, the signal is sent to

a link which connects to the original destination, but

is not as severely affected by fade.

Degree of Diversity
It describes the number of signals carrying the same

information available at the receiver.

Degree of diversity are:
1. Dual diversity
2. Triple diversity
3. Quad diversity

Protection Switching
2 Types of protection switching equipment

1. Hot Standby
2. Diversity

Hot Standby*
Active RCVR
#1

System XTMR
Primary #1

Standby RCVR
#2

System XTMR
Standby #2

failure switch
Transmitter

Receiver

*Hot standby is designed for equipment failure

only

Earth Blge
Earths curvature presents LOS obstruction and
must be compensated using 4/3 earth radius for
atmospheric bending of waves.

EFFECTIVE EARTHS RADIUS FACTOR (K)

The ratio of fictitious earths radius to the actual

radius of the earth

A numerical figure that considers the nonideal

condition of the atmosphere resulting to atmospheric

refraction that causes the microwave beam to bend
toward the earth or away from the earth

Atmospheric Conditions
1. Sub-standard atmosphere (K<1)
- the microwave beam is bent away from the
surface of the earth
- produces a phenomenon known as Earth
Bulging Effect
2. Standard atmosphere (K=4/3)
- the microwave beam is slightly bent towards
the surface of the earth
- normal atmospheric condition

Atmospheric Conditions
3. Super-standard atmosphere (K>4/3)
- the microwave beam is bent towards the
surface of the earth
- produces a phenomenon known as Earth
Flattening Effect
4. Homogenous atmosphere (K=1)
- no refractive effect on the microwave signal
- no density gradient

Atmospheric Conditions
5. Infinity condition (K=)
- the microwave beam tend to follow the
curvature of the earth
- results to zero curvature or Flat Earth
Condition

Atmospheric Conditions

Propagation Condition
Propagation Condition
Perfect temperature zone, no fog, no
ducting, good atmospheric condition day and
night
Ideal dry, mountainous, no fog
Average Flat, temperate, some fog
Difficult coastal
Bad coastal, water, tropical

K factor
4/3

1 4/3
2/3 1
2/3
- 2/5

Earth Bulge
- change in vertical height of the earths surface from a
horizontal reference line with respect to the distance.

Earth Bulge Computations

where:
eb=earth bulge
d1=distance from site 1
d2=distance from site 2
K=effective earths radius
factor

Path Calculations

where:
d = total distance in mi
dt = radio horizon for transmit
antenna (mi)
dr = radio horizon for receive
antenna (mi)
ht = transmit antenna height (feet)
hr = receive antenna height (feet)

Path Calculations
Terrestrial microwave links

generally use line-of-sight

propagation
The maximum distance
between two stations depends
upon the height of the
transmitting and receiving
antennas, as well as the
terrain between them
Line-of-sight propagation is
defined by:
For accurate calculations, it is

necessary to use topographic

maps and plot the path on
graph paper

d 17hT 17hR

Power Budget Calculations

a path power budget is nothing but an itemized list

of all system losses and gains (in decibels) from the

transmitter on one end of the path to the receiver on
the other end, and everything in between.

Link Budget
Transmitter Power

Transmission Line Losses

Transmission Losses
a. WAVEGUIDE LOSS
-Taken from the specs of the waveguide used. This is the amount
of loss, usually expressed in dB per unit length (dB/ft or dB/m) of
signal as it travels in the waveguide.
b. CONNECTOR LOSS - taken from specs (0.5 dB)
c. COUPLING LOSS - taken form specs (coax to waveguide
to air)
d. HYBRID LOSS taken from specs, AKA circulator loss
(1dB)
e. RADOME LOSS taken from the specs (0.5 dB)

3. Atmospheric Absorption Loss (AAL)

a. OXYGEN ABSORPTION LOSS

- attenuation due to the absorption of
radio
frequency
energy
by
oxygen molecules in the atmosphere.
b. WATER VAPOR LOSS
- attenuation due to the absorption of
radio frequency energy by water vapor in the
atmosphere.

4. Miscellaneous Path Loss (MPL)

a. DIFFRACTION LOSSES
- Defined as the modulation or redistribution of
energy within a wave front when it passes
near the edge of an opaque object.

- path is blocked by an obstruction

i. DLP Diffraction Loss due to Path
ii. DLS - Diffraction Loss due to Shielding
b. REFLECTION LOSS (RL)

5. OTHER LOSSES
a. RAIN LOSSES
- attenuation due to the effects of

rain

b. CLUTTER LOSSES
- attenuation due to trees and buildings in
the front of the antenna

c. ANTENNA MISALIGNMENT
- human factor error. This loss comes
from the condition of the antenna when being
installed. The value of this loss is assumed never
to go above 0.25dB per antenna or 0.5 dB for the
link.

Parabolic Antenna Gain

English system:

GdB = 7.5 + 20logf GHz + 20logD ft

Metric system:

GdB = 17.8 + 20logf GHz + 20logD m

Free Space Loss

English system:

FSL dB = 96.6 + 20logf GHz + 20logD miles

Metric system:

FSL dB = 92.4 + 20logf GHz + 20logD km

Net Path Loss

Received Signal Level

1. Effective Isotropically
Radiated Power (EIRP)
the amount of power that would have to be
emitted by an isotropic antenna to produce the
peak power density observed in the direction of
maximum antenna gain.

EIRP = Pt + Gant TLL

where:
Pt = RF power output (dBm)
Gant = transmit antenna gain (dB)
TLL = total transmission line loss
at
transmitter (taken from
specs, in dB)

2. Antenna Gain Formula

Gant = (d/)2
where:
antenna efficiency
(typical value = 0.55)
d = diameter of antenna in meters

Gant = 20 log f (GHz) + 20 log d (m) + 17.8

where:
f = frequency in GHz
d = diameter of antenna in meters
*

3. Isotropic Receive Level (IRL)

IRL = EIRP FSL

where:
EIRP = Effective Isotropically
Radiated Power in dBm
FSL = free space loss in dB

5. Received Signal Level (RSL) unfaded

RSL = IRL + Gant TLL

RSL = Pt + Gant(Tx) TLL(Tx) FSL +
Gant(Rx) TLL(Rx)
where:
IRL = in dBm
Gant(Rx) = receive antenna gain (dB)
TLL(Rx) = transmission line loss at
receiver

6. Receiver Threshold (C/N)

the minimum wideband carrier power (Cmin) at the

input to a receiver that will provide a usable
baseband output; sometimes called receiver
sensitivity

Receiver Threshold (C/N)

C/N(dB) = RSL(dBm) - Pn(dBm)
where:
Pn = thermal noise threshold of
system

the receiving

7. Thermal Noise Threshold (Pn)

Pn = 174 + 10 log B + NF
where:
NF = receiver noise figure
B = Bandwidth (hertz)

8. Fade Margin (FM)

equation considers the non-ideal and less
predictable characteristics of radio wave
propagation such as multi-path loss and terrain
sensitivity

Using Barnett-Vignant Equation:

FM = RSL Receiver Threshold Power Level
FM = 30 log D + 10 log (6ABf)
10 log (1 R) 70
where:
30 log D = multi-path effect
10 log (6ABf) = terrain sensitivity
10 log (1 R) = reliability objectiveness

where:
FM - Fade Margin
D - Distance (km)
f - Frequency (GHz)
R - Reliability
(1 R) Reliability objective
A roughness factor
B factor to convert a worst
month
probability to an
annual probability

A Values
4

smooth terrain, over water, or flat desert

average terrain

0.25
mountains, very rough or very dry
terrain

B Values
0.5
0.25

hot humid areas

average inland areas, normal, interior
temperature or sub-arctic areas

0.125
mountainous or very dry but nonreflective
areas

System Gain
- It is the difference between the nominal output
power of a transmitter and the minimum input
power required by a receiver.
- It must be greater than or equal to the sum of all
gains and losses incurred by a signal as it
propagates from a transmitter to a receiver.
- It represents the net loss of a radio system.

GS = Pt - Cmin
Pt - Cmin > Losses Gains
where:
GS System Gain (dB)
Pt transmitter output power (dBm)
Cmin minimum receiver input power for a
given
quality objective (dBm)

GS = FM + FSL + Lf + Lb At - Ar
Gains
At transmit antenna gain (dB)
Ar receive antenna gain (dB)
Losses
FSL free space path loss between antennas
Lf waveguide feeder loss between distribution
network and antenna
Lb branching and coupling losses
FM Fade Margin for a given reliability objective

Sample Problems
1. For a carrier frequency of 6 GHz and a distance of

50 km, determine the free-space path loss.

2. An FM LOS microwave link operates at 6.15 GHz.
The transmitter output power is 1 watt. The path
length is 34 km; the antennas at each end have a
35-dB gain and the transmission line losses at each
end are 3 dB. Find the received signal level (RSL).

3. Consider a space-diversity microwave radio system

operating at an RF carrier frequency of 1.8 GHz.
Each station has a 2.4-meter diameter parabolic
antenna that is fed by a 100m of air-filled coaxial
cable. The terrain is smooth and the area has a
humid climate. The distance between stations is 40
km. A reliability objective of 99.99% is desired.
Determine the system gain. The air-filled coaxial
cable has a feeder loss of 5.4 dB/100m and
branching loss of 2 dB.

RECEIVER SENSITIVITY

the minimum wideband carrier power of the input of

the reciever that will provide a usable baseband

output.
Receiver Thermal Noise
- sometimes called Detection Threshold or
Absolute Noise Threshold

Pn = - 174 + 10 log
B + NF

Improvement Threshold

this is the point at which the RF carrier-to noise ratio

is equal to10 dB

Carrier to Noise Ratio

The ratio of the minimum wideband carrier power at

the input of a receiver that will provide a usable

baseband output to the wideband noise power
present at the input of a receiver and the noise
introduced within the receiver.

FADE MARGIN

A safety margin of excess signal that the path can

fade before the receiver becomes unusable due to

noise.

Fade Margin

Thermal Fade Margin

- the difference between the receiver threshold

value and the receive signal level(RSL) being applied
to the receiver under normal path conditions
Dispersive Fade Margin
- defined by the radio manufacturer, and is
determined by the type of modulation,
effectiveness of any equalization in the receive
path, and the multipath signals delay time.

Fade Margin
Interference Fade Margin
External Interference Fade Margin
- is receiver threshold degradation due to
interference from external systems
Adjacent Channel Interference Fade Margin
- accounts for receiver threshold degradation
due to interference from adjacent channel
transmitters in ones own system

Fade Margin

Rayleigh Distribution of Fading

Sample Problem 1
An FM LOS microwave link operates at 6.15 GHz.
The required receiver IF bandwidth is 20 MHz. The
transmitter output power is 30 dBm. The receivers
front end active stage is a mixer with a noise figure of
9 dB. The path length is 21 mi, the antennas at each
end have a 35 dB gain and the transmission line
losses at each end are 3 dB. If the FM Improvement
threshold is used as the unfaded reference, what is the
Fade margin?

Sample Problem 2
A microwave system operating at 6 GHz uses a
transmitter with an output power of 1 W. Both sites
uses a 6 ft parabolic dish antenna with a waveguide
loss of 5 dB per site. If the distance between the two
sites is 30 miles, determine the reliability of the
system using Rayleigh Distribution of Fading
considering -92.5 dBm practical threshold.

SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

System Gain
System Reliability
System Unavailability
Path Reliability

System Reliability
the percentage of time the system or link meets

performance requirements

System Unavailability

Path Reliability
It represents the percentage of time the
link is expected to operate without an
outage caused by propagation conditions

Sample Problems
1. If the MTBF of a communications circuit is 20,000
hours and its MTTR is 3 hours, what is its availability?
2. A long distance telephone company employs five
microwave radio hops over a single route to link two
important cities. If each hop has an MTBF of 10,000
hours and an MTTR of 3 hours, what is the MTTR and
reliability of the route? Assume that the failure occur
at different periods of time.