1
animal action) are removed and cut at the prime maturity level to
obtain the best wood or wood chips for paper industry.
Investment programme
2
Economic, social and institutional policies
3
There are two major forces in action in a given environment in
the formation of economic and social activities: Physical
systems and societal systems. These two systems should
operate on a highly complementary state if there is success in
the programme of environmental management.
4
1. Modernism or modernisation
2. Alternative development
5
other political goals and has to be treated as equal to political
goals.
Secondly, the inability of the new states to identify their
priorities of development as well as high levels of official
corruption did not enable the capital accumulation, scientific
development or growth of a skilled labour force.
Lund (1993) is of the view that after independence colonies
were unsuccessful in economic improvement and local elite
was busy keeping themselves in power, fighting neighbours or
suppressing rebellions.
Crew and Harrison (1998) and Dube (1988) identify the
Eurocentric nature of the modernisation paradigm, as a major
factor for its failure in the developing countries. Crew and
Harrison, (1998) indicate that rationality, the search for
objective truth, and a movement towards modernity was
expected in the ideology but not practised in the developing
nations.
Therefore, the criticisms of the modernisation paradigm have
been extended to include its heavy dependence on economic
theory and the failure to understand the complex social
situations. However, the modernisation remained a powerful
tool in development planning in the developing countries well
into the late 1970s, mainly because its utilisation by the
international development agencies and funding authorities.
There was no serious discussion of the modernisation theory until the
early 1970s and environmental degradation was becoming a problem,
because role of spatial variables and geographical contexts were not
considered important Lund ( 1993).
She reiterates the validity of the cultural and historic factors of
development in a discussion of the newly industrialised countries of
Asia and relates this development to a pre-modern or modern
phenomenon in the Rostowian sense. A continuation of this process of
change into the 1970s is related to the rapid growth of Sri Lanka and
Bangladesh, which was curtailed by the recession in the west in the
1980s.
The crisis faced by the modernisation theory led to the
formulation of some alternative perspectives of development. Though
these approaches have some change in the secondary strategies, they
still believed in the transformation of societies, international
exploitation and domination. The intention was to make a more
service oriented development and aid redistribution of wealth. Within
this framework, there was a struggle in the poor nations and some tried
to establish socialist societies, while others worked towards national
capitalism.
The dependency school formulated the underdevelopment
theory through the writings of many radical researchers, which
6
contained the elements of Marxist language, mode of analysis and
ideological and theoretical projects (Aina, 1993). This wing was
headed by Andre Gunder Frank, Samir Amin, Walter Rodney and a
host of others, and which has been called the underdevelopment
theory, which is Neo-Marxist in formation. (Aina, 1993).
A parallel to the theory of under-development, the problems of
modernisation were discussed in the structural Marxism originating
from the French school of Marxist studies. This theory explained the
importance of class relations in the development and gave a strong
critique of capitalism and explained the process of development with
the use of impeccable logic and convincing inter-linkage.
These two variants managed to introduce alternatives to the
modernisation on social transformation, production and political
organisation and became popular in the undeveloped world as it gave a
deep critique of capitalism, colonisation and neo-colonial imperialism.
Frank (1966:31) presents the best overview of this group of theories,
which studies the overall exploitation of the satellite states by the
central powerful industrial states. His view was that the industrialised
countries have become rich through the exploitation of the poor
countries.
It is pertinent to look at Myrdal (1970), who brought forward
the concept of circular cumulative causation, which became popular
through the notion of vicious cycle of poverty. He regarded the
development as a social process and stressed that the power structures
of the developing world have to be changed either by evolution or
revolution as a prerequisite for development. He further explained that
this should be followed by changes in orientation on the part of the
developed world.
However, the modernisation paradigm survived in the
developing world as a major instrument in the process of development
from its beginnings to 1980s and the influences of theories of
underdevelopment and Marxist alternatives were not capable of
making a marked impact. This is a result of the strong presence of
nationalism, ethnicity and corruption in the developing world , which
were more easily accommodated within the modernist capitalist
philosophy (Aina, 1993). Giddens (1991) claims that the inability of
the theories of underdevelopment to consider cultural and political
factors in detail may have led to their weaknesses. According to Lund
(1993), the renewal of interest in the modernist thinking was initiated
by the rise of a few newly industrialised countries in the East Asian
region. These countries have used joint ventures with multi-national
or trans-national companies and have built an export oriented
industrial base, which led to the transformation of the economy . A
similar rapid growth was noticed in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka in the
early 1980s. However, it should be noted that this rapid growth and
7
diversification was mostly associated with the financial and tariff
support given by the industrialised countries.
8
1970s in rural development work (Aina, 1993). This has been mainly
in operation in micro-scale projects and exhibit some difference to
empowerment.
The alternative development has not indicated that it is capable of the
establishment of a better process of development and the developing
world is still immersed in poverty or getting poorer than before.
There are many debates on the nature of the development paradigm
needed for the two worlds, developed and developing.
The modern development has had major negative impacts on the
environment and on
existing social structures. Many livelihoods have been seriously
affected by
excessive use of forests, water systems, and fisheries. Urban areas in
developing countries suffer from serious pollution and congestion in
transportation, poor quality water, and solid waste disposal problems.
By 1990 it was clear that if this damage is not checked properly it may
retard development of these areas. Then the occurrence of massive
destruction through increased intensity of cyclones, landslides and
droughts resulting from El Nino effect between 1990 and 2000
prompted the World Organisations to take note of effects of global
warming resulting from the process of development in the highly
industrialised countries of the world.
9
operation of a free and fair government and social institutions where
equity of all is honoured.
10
beginning in the 1930's and continued to dump through out most of the
1960's. Chisso denied all allegations for as long as they possibly could.
The poisoning became known as Minamata Disease, and its victims
rallied together and took the Chisso Corporation to court to sue for
damages. It wasn't until March 20, 1973 that the victims triumphed
and won their case. As of 1992 the number of people officially
diagnosed as having Minamata disease totaled 2,252 people; 1,043
were dead and another 12,127 people were waiting to be tested. As
recently as March of 1997, the number of people still waiting to be
tested was 1,968.
Efforts were made to restore the bay; in 1974 a three-mile long net was
placed around the bay to contain contaminated fish. After 53 years of
being considered deadly waters, in 1998 the bay was declared safe
again. Chisso finally took responsibility and have made their final
payments.
Thalidomite cases
Thalidomide is a drug that was sold during the late 1950s and 1960s as
a sleeping aid and to pregnant women as an antiemetic to combat
morning sickness and other symptoms.
It was later (1960–61) found to be teratogenic in fetal development,
most visibly as a cause of amelia or phocomelia, especially if taken
during the first 25 to 50 days of pregnancy. Around 15,000 children
were affected by thalidomide, of whom about 12,000 in 46 countries
were born with birth defects, with only 8,000 of them surviving past
the first year of life. Most of these survivors are still alive, nearly all
with disabilities caused by the drug
http://www.tartan-terror.co.uk/forum/viewtopic.php
Atmospheric and underground nuclear tests
From 1945 to 1963 the U.S.A. conducted an extensive campaign of
atmospheric nuclear tests, grouped into roughly 20 test "series." After
1963 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed testing for the
U.S., Soviet Union, and Great Britain moved underground. France
continued atmospheric testing until 1974 and China did so until 1980.
http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/nudb/datab22.asp
Ozone hole
The first global agreement to restrict CFCs came with the signing of
the Montreal Protocol in 1987 ultimately aiming to reduce them by
half by the year 2000. Two revisions of this agreement have been
made in the light of advances in scientific understanding, the latest
being in 1992. Agreement has been reached on the control of industrial
production of many halocarbons until the year 2030. The main CFCs
11
will not be produced by any of the signatories after the end of 1995,
except for a limited amount for essential uses, such as for medical
sprays.
The countries of the European Community have adopted even stricter
measures than are required under the Montreal Protocol agreements.
Recognising their responsibility to the global environment they have
agreed to halt production of the main CFCs from the beginning of
1995. Tighter deadlines for use of the other ozone-depleting
compounds are also being adopted.
It was anticipated that these limitations would lead to a recovery of the
ozone layer within 50 years of 2000; the World Meteorological
Organisation estimated 2045 (WMO reports #25, #37), but recent
investigations suggest the problem is perhaps on a much larger scale
than anticipated.
http://www.atm.ch.cam.ac.uk/tour/part1.html
Drought 1964/1974
Severe Desertification caused by Man
"It is evident that the desert southern boundary has shifted south by an
average of about 90-100 km in the last 17 years...in several areas,
particularly in northern Kordofan in the Hamrat El Wuz and Kheiran
areas, sand encroachment has moved rapidly ahead of the southern
boundary of the desert and loose sand is accumulating over the
formerly consolidated sandy (and locally clay) soils...Shallow sand
encroachment appears to have killed nearly all vegetation except the
trees Acacia tortilis and Balanites aegyptica and a small number of
dune adapted shrubs as far south as 15 N in the Hamrat El Wuz area.
Immediately south of this area mobile dunes are moving southwards
with the prevailing wind and are becoming an increasingly serious
threat to the agricultural land and several villages in the Bashiri and
Bara areas of the Kheiran region. The sand dunes are being augmented
by the very large area of drifting sand further north near Hamrat El
Wuz."). This is a commonly accepted description of desertification in
Kordofan reproduced e.g. by Refs. 7-9. It was even stated by Ref. 10
that: "Surveys have shown that the desert had advanced 90-100 km
within a 17 years period and is currently advancing at the rate of 5 to 6
km per year".
http://www.ciesin.org/docs/002-178/002-178.html
In the 1980s the observed changes in the Ozone layer and the
occurrence of El Ninio was connected to global warming. The global
12
warming was discovered to be an important event in climatic change
as ozone holes were discovered in Antarctica in the 1990s. By 1995
the relationship between global climatic change and local weather
systems were fully understood and serious warnings were issued on
increased intensity of thunderstorms and cyclones, increased
stagnation of depressional rain and change of direction of major rain
bearing winds like, South West Monsoon, North East Monsoon and
Sub Polar Westerlies.
However the developed industrial nations have not been able to
substantially reduce their emissions and chemical releases and they
have not signed most of the documents prepared by international
conferences on environment and environment protection.
Prospects for South West Monsoon 2003 : What the IMD statement
does not tell us
The only conclusion that one can reasonably draw from IMD‟s nimble
foot-stepping, is that in the worse case (if not the worst case), average
precipitation during SW monsoon 2003 would be
96–5=91 per cent of LPA. That would have been just “normal” by
yesteryear‟s standard, indicating that some regions may get scarce
rains, although on the whole things are satisfactory. If the negative
variation is geographically skewed, and the skew is loaded against the
13
more arid parts of the country, unrelieved drought conditions in
Rajasthan, Gujarat and other arid regions would be further
compounded.
Sub-polar westerlies
14
Stratospheric cooling over the polar cap (Randel and Wu 1999), and
total column ozone losses poleward of 40oN (Randel and Wu 1999;
Thompson et al. 1999).
Changes in storm activity and the shifts in the Atlantic storm track
(Hurrell 1995b), changes in within season variability such as blocking
(Nakamura 1996).
Changes in the length of the growing season over Europe (Post and
Stenseth 1999), and changes in the population dynamical processes of
several terrestrial species (Post et al. 1999; Stenseth et al. 1999).
All these appear to be strongly related to the recent trend in the NAO.
http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/NAO/
15
countries, but for the provision of facilities to the developing
poor countries in case of emergencies and development
planning. Developed countries have to support the developing
in their various types of emergencies and therefore developed
have to gather financial resources and make investments in the
developing countries to make their poor live without being
subjected to famine.
3. Developing countries have no operational freedom for
majority of its citizens due to institutional corruption and
conflict. In here the developed countries have to provide
developing countries with financial and material support to
maintain operational freedom ( establishment of human rights
and provision of refugee positions).
There is an another view on the effect of policies of the developed
world on the activities of the developing world based on
dependency theory, which states that the developed world
organisation forces developing countries to depend on developed.
Frank (1966) presents the best overview of this group of theories,
which studies the overall exploitation of the satellite states by the
central powerful industrial states. His view was that the
industrialised countries have become rich through the exploitation
of the poor countries. The dependency school formulated the
underdevelopment theory through the writings of many radical
researchers, which contained the elements of Marxist language,
mode of analysis and ideological and theoretical projects (Aina,
1993). This wing was headed by Andre Gunder Frank, Samir
Amin, Walter Rodney and a host of others, and which has been
called the underdevelopment theory, which is Neo-Marxist in
formation. (Aina, 1993).
This dependency is further increased by the facility available in
the financial institutions of the developed world to deposit
finances from undisclosed sources of the developing world, which
allows the corrupt of the developing world. This matter relates
heavily to illegal exploitation of valuable resources in the
developing world. Oil in Nigeria, Gems in Sri Lanka, Sex Trade in
many south Asian countries, illegal Arms Trade, Money
Laundering, Drug Trafficking have taken hold primarily due to
ability of the people involved in these activities to invest through
the financial institutions in the western developed world. Most of
these activities are also supported by a few powerful elements of
the developed world. The investigations conducted by Federal
Bureau of Investigation (USA) and Scotland Yard (UK) indicate
these underground connections continue through the use of relaxed
human rights conditions in the developed world.
All these activities threaten sustainability in all the areas of the
globe. Then a question can be put forward for analysis?
16
Is there a true sustainability in human development? Can humans
develop without damaging environment? Can environmental
protection bring stability to environment?
The answer to three above questions is NO.
Why?
The concept of environmental change provide the answer, which is
that the ever changing environment will change on the changes
created by
Geological change –continuous and cannot be controlled (
Seneviratne, 2006a)
Climatic change- continuous and cannot be changed ( Seneviratne,
2006a)
Human development change – continuous, but can be controlled to
maintain sustainability ( countries like Switzerland, Norway,
Singapore and Malaysia have successfully mixed human
development change and sustainable development of environment)
Natural disaster – continuous, but can be controlled to maintain
sustainability (developed world)
Human disaster - continuous, but can be controlled to maintain
sustainability (developed world)
Testing of new materials and processes - continuous, but can be
controlled to maintain sustainability (beginning)
Then how to reach a stage of sustainability which will not damage
environment unduly and limit progress?
This path is decided by the following factors
Level of available technology – level of available technology
decides the ability to learn, experiment and control environment
keeping sustainable level of resource exploitation. For example in
the ancient kingdom of Sri Lanka there was a system of
environmental management which was sufficient enough to
maintain the civilisation in a time of massive foreign invasion and
a drought of less than 3 years. This is because the area was
managed well by a well constructed environmental management
plan, which was supported by strict legislation. The sustainability
level of that civilisation was decided on its technological capacity
to face a foreign invasion and drought. Today, the sustainable
level of the present civilisation in North central Province is
decided on the supply of trans basin water transfer due to change
of environment and effect of drought is felt more due to poor
water management system. Further, continuing destruction of
forests and shrub land has forced the area to be subjected to loss of
water resources, lowering of water levels, loss of biodiversity and
wev (reservoir) destruction.
Basic needs
17
Human needs are immensely important to the establishment of
sustainable development because it is the need which decides the
type and amount of resources required for development. Humans
require products and services for their various needs and these are
supplied through the market. Market situations are decided by
supply and demand factors and governed by the system of trading
conducted in an economic environment. There is a movement to
request for consumption control in the developing countries which
indicate that sustainable development is threatened not only by
poverty in the developing world but also by over consumption in
the developed world.
18
SYDNEY, Australia -- A meeting in Sydney of six Asia-Pacific
nations to address climate change issues has concluded with
member countries seeking to balance continued economic growth
with the need to cut greenhouse emissions.The inaugural two-day
meeting of the the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development
and Climate issued a communique Thursday outlining its
strategies.This included a declaration stressing the importance of
fossil fuels -- oil, gas and coal --and their continued use through
the 21st century.
"Coal and gas are and will remain critical fuels for all six partner
economies," the communique said. Reductions in greenhouse
gases must be achieved without hindering economic growth, it
said. However, the summit also concluded renewable energy and
nuclear power would be an increasing share of global energy
supplies.
Under the plan, eight task forces will identify research and
innovation in key industries and develop action plans.Also
Thursday, the United States said it would contribute $52 million
towards the administration of the new climate grouping.James
Connaughton, chairman of the White House Council on
Environmental Quality, told Australian Associated Press that U.S.
President George W. Bush would seek $52 million in
Washington's 2007 budget to manage the partnership's work.
Earlier, Australian Prime Minister John Howard earmarked Aust.
$100 million ($75 million) over five years for funding the
development of clean energy technologies.This included Aust. $25
million specifically for renewable energy projects.Environment
group Greenpeace attacked the pledges Thursday, describing them
as inadequate.
Chapter 2
20
extreme ideologies related to ethnicity and religion. The modelling
presented in this book is based on scientific concepts of environmental
management and economic development and they may be in constant
conflict with the reader‟s environment in a developing world.
What is a model
21
Economics present the concept of market place. Market place is
created by the behaviour of consumers and firms on the basis of their
requirements from environmental resources, both natural and human.
Consumers need products to satisfy their life requirements and firms
produce it and sell it to the consumer. In the construction of products
there is a system of production, which require raw materials, energy
and technology. Acquiring the raw materials, energy and technology is
involved in the utilisation of environmental resources. In the utilisation
of resources resource depletion and pollution occur. Therefore the
basic process of economic activity creates a status where
environmental problems are born.
For example the requirement for rice in Sri Lanka increases with the
rise in its population. Rising population demands more and more rice
to be supplied to the market. The farmers have to produce more and
more rice to supply the demand of the market place and use various
types of chemical fertilizers, weed killers and insecticides. The use of
these chemical products affect environment and some of the residue
from the use of chemicals remain in the land, water and air systems of
the environment and pollute the environment.
This is a basic model which study the real and monetary flows of
economic activity through the factor market and the output market.
Output market
Demand for goods and Supply of goo
services
Expenditures Revenues
Households F
Income Costs
Supply of Factor market Demand for
resources
22
labour, knowledge, investment finance) to the factor market. The firms
demand these factors from the factor market. The products and
commodities are supplied to the out put market (sales units) by the
firms and the out put market supplies the products to the households.
The failure of the circular flow model led to the formation of amore
applicable model to explain economic activity in a more meaningful
way. Economics and value of environment is in cooperated into this
23
new model. In this model the connection between natural resources
and economics are more intensively examined.
This model has an added sector call nature in addition to four major
sectors in the circular flow model. Nature in this model is studied
within the realm of natural resource economics. The flow of materials
from nature to households and flow of residuals from households and
firms to nature is taken into consideration within this model. In this
analysis, the resources are identified as renewable natural resources
and non-renewable natural resources.
This applies also to residuals as some residuals are life long and others
are short-lived. Some of the residuals have an assimilative capacity
and effects not only the current living environment, but environment
of many centuries ahead. However all the residuals except for nuclear
waste is capable of recycling and directed towards reuse or
regeneration. Recycling is not fully capable of preventing the
formation of residuals and finally all products add some form of
residual to nature.
The time scale of the material balance model is not unlimited and
based on the concept of ever changing knowledge and technological
capacity. This model believes that man is capable of finding some
answers to many problems, which will enable him to survive longer
than many people think.
24
The first law looks supreme, but in reality once humans have used an
environmental resource it will produce waste. This waste can be
recycled but the product originating from recycling will also produce
waste. Waste is always produced and it can be completely recycled
only through bacterial decomposition, but the process of using bacteria
in complete recycling is only at its juvenile stages. Therefore for
many years to come the production of recycled or reusable goods is
only a temporary solution to waste.
Example: plastics are normally not easy to recycle and remain as waste
in the environment for thousands of years, but the production of bio-
degradable plastics are expected to reduce the amount of waste.
However the time required to convert the total world plastics
production into bio-degradable plastics cannot be achieved in the near
future. Then the plastics we have used from the 1980s to may be to
2020 will remain in the environment as waste, making it an everlasting
problem.
25
management process involves decision making. Organising and
staffing, planning and strategic management, leadership,
communicating and controlling and managing information.
When there was a scarcity of local human resources the rulers were
not hesitant to import human resources from other neighbouring
civilisations. For example in the construction of statues and creating
designs the local craftsmen were either trained in traditions of the time
or worked with foreign craftsmen to construct works of art. Samadhi
statue, Sigiri frescoes and many types of temple paintings indicate the
influence of neighbouring civilisations. The success and the long
lasting value of these products indicate that the leaders of the ancient
civilisation were capable of evolving and operating a system of
management to run an efficient and profitable society. It confirms that
the „ universal rule of management has no time related limit‟ and the
failure is a result of not adhereing to the principles of management.
26
Number Expenditure Total Total Maintenance Profit or
of of each expenditure addition to cost (year) contribution
visitors visitor on economy the to the
(mean to arrive at economy national
value the site (year) economy
for a (estimated) (year)
year)
300,000 5.00 rupees Rs.
for local 1,500,000.00 Rs. Rs. Rs.
tourist Rs. 9,000,000.00 2,000,000.00 7,000,000.00
25.00 7,500,000.00
rupees for
international
tourist
Information in the above table is not easy to explain with the existing
system of inefficient environmental management in Sri Lanka as
present day financial management is not geared towards proper
accounting. For example at present the income generated from the
tourism in Anuradhapura is not properly collected, invested and
utilised for further development of the area. Therefore the present
status do not correspond with the words optimum, long term, elements
and factors have to be defined correctly if we are to achieve an
acceptable level of management or more commonly termed
sustainable environmental management.
Sri Lanka has a great potential for all types of tourism, but the country
has not produced a comprehensive scientific plan of utilisation of
27
resources, in route planning, transport facilities, communication
facilities, accommodation facilities etc. This is a result of lack of
national plan which indicate the optimum and maximum capabilities
of environment in a given place. Most of the modern equipment is
available and trained scientific people are available, but the tourist
industry in Sri Lanka is based on the notion that it does not require a
sound scientific base to develop. This has resulted in over expenditure
and wastage of resources and the optimum utilisation is hindered.
For example the area in and around Horton Plains and World‟ End is a
resource with a great potential for tourism. However the slow grinding
walk on the land of prime value has begun to destroy its value as a
Strict nature Reserve. The rate of erosion of the foot path is about 2
millimeters a year since 1990 (field measurements were conducted by
the author in three selected sample sites) the foot paths have already
removed about 20 million cubic meters of soil from the foot paths
since 1990. About 14 percent of the total foot path length has already
become footpath gullies.
It is clear now that in our ancient civilisation long term plans were in
force in relation to water and forestry. Wev construction was either
postponed or delayed and repair and strengthening of existing systems
were evident in some periods while aggressive Wev building was
pursued in other periods. 8,9 and 10 centuries were the climax of the
Anuradhapura civilisation, but the level of construction of irrigation
structures was low in comparison to its early period. This came as an
understanding of the pressure on water sources and until the steady
shift towards Polonnaruwa began there were no new constructions.
28
plan for forest maintenance and it helped to provide the large
quantities of timber required in the development.
the above two edicts were aimed at preventing water pollution, spread
of disease and securing a religious environment.
29
“ the palm, coconut, tamrind and Mee trees on Mihinthala hill should
not be cut or removed. The persons including the royal servants who
break this law should be punished by a fine and the income collected
should be given to the temple” Mihinthala Pillar Inscription, King
Sena II, AD 853-887.
“ The sluice of Tissa weva should be closed nine days after harvest in
the fields of Isurumuniya and allow it to fill again. Then the remaining
water can be released first to the temple and surrounding area and any
excess water should be released to Malwathu Ela. In addtion the land
belonging to the temple should not be taken over by anyone.”
Wessagiriya Inscription, Mihindu IV, 956-973.
“ 2 Aka (an older currency) was fined for flooding of paddy fields
(over use of water), before ploughing (there was a set standard for
ploughing). If ploughing was not done correctly the person at fault
was fined with one Kalang of gold. If the ploughing was not done as
prescribed the person at fault was fined 5 kalangs of gold.”
30
Elements and factors
31
Principle 3 – implementation – organisation need to develop the
capabilities and support to achive its goals
Sustainabiltiy
32
However the success so far has been very limited in the developing
countries as the principles of sustainability is difficult to practise due
to socio-political corruption present in them. This type of corruption
originate from lack of application of morality and associated rule of
law in a given society. This is because the environment is total and it
cannot be operated successfully when even one of its parts is non-
operational.
1. customer orientationm
2. integrated effort
3. viability
4. profitability
1. Customer orientation
A good knowledge of the consumer needs and wants is required in
all marketing action, product and service. Product and service
planning and development require a deeper understanding of the
consumer needs and wants. In here the general marketing concept
should include the damaging effect of customer needs and wants
in the production of goods and services, which have to be
controlled through advice and legal support.
Use of plastics is easy and cheap, but the waste problem created by
polythene waste has resulted in serious environmental pollution. A
survey conducted and a publication made on polythene indicates that it
is lack of proper waste collection system, which leads to this situation
in our urban areas. A large bureaucracy and political interference is the
major cause of inefficiency in the governance of our urban centres in
Sri Lanka, as they consume a larger portion of the finances collected
33
through taxation. Further existence of illegal tax collection prevents
the collection of proper taxes and loss of revenue to the local
authorities. The general corruption of the nation is estimated at about
71% as at 2006 August, which leads to all these problems. A survey
conducted in 2001 revealed that though all types of urban councils in
Sri Lanka has complained of lack of finances, an audit showed
otherwise (SIDA/Sarec).
For example venison meat is a delicacy every one likes to eat, but the
availability of deer is limited and unless deer is bread in large
quantities it is impossible to lift the ban on sale of deer meat. Though
breeding deer has a great future in the dry zone of Sri Lanka, religious
factors control animal breeding. This has enabled the farmers in
Thailand to have a lucrative business in producing venison in large
quantities which has helped to lift their economic status. Sometimes
the religious belief is a controlling factor in satisfying customer
demand.
Illegal felling valuable timber like ebony, satin wood and halmilla is a
constant reminder that there is a great demand for those types of
timber. However, the elite of Sri Lanka has no problem in getting the
required supply from the rapidly depleting resource. However, so far
Sri Lanka has no plan of cultivating and managing these types of
plantations on the principles used by the kings of our ancient
civilisation.
34
forcing valuable timber like ebony, satin wood and halmilla (Berrya
cordifolia) to be endangered species. This is also applicable to
antelopes, deer and leopard in Sri Lanka.
Integrated effort
Viability
Profitability
The primary goal of any business is to be profitable, but the nation has
to be welfarist in its approach to business. Marketing of produce there
35
for require more than profitability under national market organisation.
The environmental products should be green friendly and it has to be
promoted all the time and producers who are not green friendly have
to be directed to be so within the stipulated time. As non-profit
organisations the state has to be extremely careful in financial
management. As given in inscriptions financial management was
maintained at a supreme level in the ancient kingdom of Sri Lanka,
with the use of strict regulations and edicts given in inscriptions.
“ Collect proper taxes from timber, but should not over tax”,
Kondawattawan Pillar Inscription, King Dappula, 924 –935 AD.
“ People who have killed water buffalo, cattle and goats should be
killed. If these were stolen the thieves should be caught, marked with
hot iron in their arm pit and banished from the area. If the thieves do
not surrender they should be controlled with force using weapons.
Who will not follow the king‟s order should forced to stand on heated
foot wear‟ Wewelketiya Inscription, King Mihindu, IV, 956 -972.
Economic solutions
At present, economic solutions to environmental problems have to be
considered within the space of sustainability and globalisation as these
two economic systems control the utilisation and exploitation of
environmental resources. Investigations into the way in which the
solutions can be provided require a detailed knowledge of the two
economic systems.
Globalisation
Globalisation can be defined in many ways and in the study of
environmental management, globalisation can be defined as “the
process of interdependence, integration and interaction between
economic and social systems, which affect the methodology of the
utilisation of environmental resources”. Globalisation has guided to
evaluate environmental resources from a harvesting perspective of the
modern world. This is because, the old protective approach has failed
and the social systems have not found any other alternative. This is
true specially of the developing world where growth of population and
poverty exist in parallel due to non-adhenrence to scientific systems of
environmental management employed in them.
The western international monetary institutions which dictate terms to
the developing countries stress on free flow of goods and investments,
free international capital flows and diffusion of modern technology
within globalisation. Globalisation enters the environment of a country
36
through its industrial, financial, political and cultural systems and
therefore it soaks through every part of resource environment: natural
and societal.
Sustainability
(Sustainability was discussed earlier)
37
Chapter 3
Price of sand – 10
Cost of repair of environment damage or use of scientific mining – 4
Profit – 4
38
Here the balance in the environment can be achieved by – raising the
price of sand by 2 units and reducing profit by 2, which will stabilise
the situation on a long term basis. However, use of scientific mining
systems in full can reduce cost further.
Open recreation are without entry fee will lead to higher rates of
environmental degradation as given in Garrett Hardin's tragedy of
Commons. This situation is clearly visible in the developing countries
today as there is no organised system in the use of open areas for
recreation. All the river banks, tank bunds and waterfall sites are
seriously polluted with waste due to this free entry system in
operation. For example prime forest areas of Samanala Range and
Horton Plains are being destroyed rapidly due to this free access
system. Soil erosion and vegetation destruction are the two most
damaging activities which occur in thes two prime natural areas in Sri
Lanka due to overuse. These areas should be restricted to research and
students of high learning and a cable car service has to be installed if
the serious destruction to these prime wild areas is to be stopped.
Author has witnessed about 60 to 70 centimeter deep removal of soil
from the path in the lower and middle part of Samanala climb between
1960 and 2000 and drop of moistrue levels by about 30 percent
between 1990 and 2000 in Horton Plains, since the construction of a
highway beyong Pattipola. The loss of water and addition of sediments
to the reservoirs below has reached disastrous level and only in the
seasons of excessive high rainfall the reservoirs are capable of
providing expected hydro power capacity. Average annual loss of
income due to hydro-power problem is about 30 to 40 billion rupees
and about 25 percent of the loss is a result of uncontrolled entry into
these wilderness. In the developed countries (Switzerland, Norway)
where natural scenery is utilised to make a large contribution to the
economy and hydro power generation the above mentioned systems
are in operation with success.
These are called market failures in economic terminology, where there
is an inefficient economic result is obtained from a resource. The
inefficiency results in polution or reduction of the capability of the
environment to support the potential of the area. This type of thinking
has led to study the well-being of the economy and people.
Property rights, tarrifs and taxes, quotas and regulations are used in the
traditional environmental economics to provide solutions. Property
rights can be exchanged or traded to prevent environmental damage.
The payment of the damage can either come from the party which is
affected or the initiator. For example the responsibility for the damage
caused by sand extraction in Sri lanka can be born by the local
authorities, who will pay the affected as they have issued the permits
for extaraction or the people who will suffer damage can help the
contractors to carry out scientific extraction. This is possible only if
39
the transaction costs are not high and the number of aprties involved
are limited.
Tarrifs can be imposed on the goods produced by polluters to
discourage damage to environment. In here a level of acceptable
pollution has to be found through scientific inquirey as “no pollution
production is not possible and the environment has the capability of
absorbing a certain amount of pollution from each and every itme
without causing environmental damage”. Tarriffs and taxes do not
work well in the developing countries as most of the pollution
produced in these countries originate from inefficient operational
systems in agriculture, transport, industry and communications. This
inefficiency beging with the use of non-scientific methods in
development and failure in stabilising economic development. Further,
influnce of multi-nationals on the political and administartive systems
of developing countries lead to development of a nonchalent attitude
towards pollution caused by the friends of the politics and
administration. For example businesses of illegal timber, gem mining
and sand extraction which are the three most damaging environmental
problems in Sri Lanka results mainly as these activities are supported
by corrupt governance. However in a place like Singapore, or
Malaysia the value of their environmental resources have increased in
the last 10 years due to implementation of many taxes and tarriffs.
40
environmental legistlation in the developed world while living in them
for a period of about 7 years.
41
There is evidence to show that a similar system was in operation in the
ancient kingdom of Sri Lanka, wher valuable timber was cultivated
and forest was scientifically maintained with the use of proper
legislation.
Chapter 4
All activities require tools. All of us keep tools like knife, hammer and
screw driver in our houses as they are the most required tools in the
house. These tools are required to conduct the least problematic
problems in the house. Further we all work with tools all the time to
conduct work or repair to our living environment. Likewise, when we
require to make decisions on the utilisation of environment we have to
use various types of tools to understand the nature, capacity and
problems of the environment which we intend to utilise.
Cognitive skills
This is the most valuable skill an environmental manager requires in
decision making. Ability to
Analyse problems
Selecting irrelevant from relevant
42
Combined source material into composed presentation
Present material within the existing scientific order
Making judgements where a total base is not available using
experience and knowledge
Originality in handling and solving problems are a must for a decision
maker.
Key skills
Communicability – environmental decision maker should be a good
communicator with the ability to present in writing, electronic system
and practical exhibition.
Ability to present to specialist and non-specialist
Excellent skills in numerical/quantitative/qualitative analysis on IT
based systems
43
ancient kingdom)
Present material within Capacity to support Capacity to support
the existing scientific locally available in and latest
order the University technology is
environmental available
management
Making judgements Participatory Technological
where a total base is not information system knowledge is very
available using is very useful useful
experience and
knowledge
Originality in handling People Oriented Hi-tech Disaster
and solving problems are Disaster management system
a must for a decision Management
maker System
44
Table 4.1.3 Key skills
Chapter 5
45
Origin of Environmental Risk Analysis
What is risk
Table 5.1 risk, global and local risk level of some common
systems (approximated using national, and global media data
bases from BBC/CNN)
50
Influence of population on environment – survival capacity
51
Table 5.5 Variables used and result for Bandarawela Town,
Temple Road
52
Table 5.6 Quality of environment and survival capacity (explanation
for positive values
Quality of environment Survival
capacity
Very good with very low natural, societal and 75 and over
health risks
Good with annual occurrence of natural, societal 50 to 74
and health risks
Moderate with bi-annual or more occurrence of 25 to 49
natural, societal and health risks
Low with more than bi-annual occurrence of 1 to 24
natural, societal and health risks
53
Table 5.7 Survival capacity scores for some selected places in
Sri Lanka (developing/ poor, Nigeria (developing) and
Norway (developed).
54
bathing water. About 30 percent of the total hospital morbidity
and about 40 percent of morbidity reported to private medical
practitioners were related to interaction with water in 2000 (
Seneviratne, 2003). National data ( Ministry of Health, 2000)
indicate that safe drinking water is available to 68.4 percent of the
population, but about 68 percent of the sample used in this survey
said that they have to boil or re-filter water before drinking
indicating that only 32 percent were satisfied with the safe
drinking water provided by the national system. All the
conferences or meetings attended by the author since 1996
(including some in the Ministry of Health) provided bottled spring
water for the participants. Poor drainage is given as the major
factor responsible the high incidence of dengue, malaria and
diarrhoeal diseases in our urban areas. Health data indicate that
urban areas have the highest incidence of waste related diseases.
For example lack of sufficient quantity of quality drinking water
makes dry zone areas and towns in Sri Lanka more hazardous to
live than the rest of the environment. The selected places in
Nigeria show highly negative results due to poor drinking water
status, presence of malaria and many other infectious diseases and
extremely poor public social service system and heavy socio-
political corruption. It is clear that heavy socio-political corruption
makes many places in the developing world to have negative
scores and most of the developed countries to have positive scores.
Norway which is a country with very low levels of socio-political
corruption and high social support level scores well though it is
located in a harsh and cold environment.
The survival capacity of any place on earth is not expected to rise
above 75 percent as all places on the surface of the earth have
some form of natural and societal hazards and any score of – 20
and above is acceptable as a limit for a fairly secure life.
55
situation (corruption) etc. all these above mentioned factors
contribute to uncertainty as reliable data on these activities are rare
and unreliable.
= 80
56
Galle 15 85
Kurunegala 15 85
Mahakanadarawa -35 135
Matale -10 110
Matara -25 125
Meegoda 50 50
Maligathenna 55 45
(Bandarawela)
Mihinthale town -40 140
Millawana 45 55
Nalanda 45 55
Site - Nigeria
Gubio - 45 145
Magumeri - 55 155
Baga -35 135
Maiduguri -15 115
Jos -10 110
Site – Norway
Trondheim 60 40
Lonsdale 45 55
Oslo 35 65
Bergen 55 45
For example crossing a river at high water is one of the major risks
when good quality ropes and safety jackets were not available and
today armies and hunters can cross any river without a serious
57
threat to their lives or property with the use of this safety
equipment. However in the developing countries loss of life due to
many natural and societal hazards is increasing as people take
unnecessary risks as they are gaining more freedom with lessening
of legal and social controls. Therefore evolution of risk and trend
of future are influenced by historical evolution of technology,
social freedom and attitudes. Media reports, comments made by
geologists and academics on the occurrence of natural and societal
disasters are used to present the following table which indicate the
non-utilisation of available knowledge and readiness for future in
a developing country.
58
Table 5.9 Risk and future trend for some selected risks in developing countries
59
on of damage to all types of environment
waterways,
access
systems
(roads and
drainage
systems)
and burial
or removal
of
vegetative
matter
Weighted damage is calculated on a 1 to 10 scale / 1 lowest and 10 is the highest. Equally calculated for both
developing and developed countries.
Table 5.10, Utilisation of available knowledge and readiness for future in a developed country.
60
controlled
Reservoir Available Negligible Highly Low damage as control Negligible 1
problems controlled measures are in place
Soil erosion and Available Negligible Highly Low damage as control Negligible 1
sedimentation controlled measures are in place
Weighted damage is calculated on a 1 to 10 scale / 1 lowest and 10 is the highest. Equally calculated for both
developing and developed countries.
61
Increased risk from natural and societal hazards and
disasters were discussed in detail in relation to Sri
Lanka by Seneviratne, 1975,1977, Siddhisena and
Seneviratne, 2002, Seneviratne and Karunaratne, 2003
a, Seneviratne, 2003 b, 2006a and 2006b, which
compares well with the increasing risk level of natural
and societal hazards and disasters. Figure indicate the
temporal development of hazard levels in Sri Lanka.
Information released recently (Stefan Lovgren, 2005)
indicate that climatic change refugees may rise to about
450 million by 2050 and the total property damage may
be about 2000 to 4000 billion US Dollars. The rate of
corruption in the developing world has also increased in
the past two decades with addition of countries like Sri
Lanka into heavily corrupted list of nations.
4 RAINFALL
DROUGHT
FLOOD
3
PEOPLE
LITERACY
2 DISASTER DAMAGE
0
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2010
5 PEOPLE
ETHICS
4 CONFLICT
ETHNICITY
3 LITERACY
BELIEFS
2 DISASTER DAMAGE
0
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2010
62
Therefore, natural and societal hazards and disasters are
increasing at an alarming rate at present making world a more
and more dangerous place to live. However, developed
countries have managed to limit damages and destruction
through use of environmental management principles in their
development process.
However, roads in Sri Lanka are rarely with these two items
proportionately to the requirement. 84 percent of the time rural
road surface is blocked by parked vehicles, construction
material, conversing drivers, sediments, solid waste and waste
water. 97 percent of the time rural roads have not provided
space for pedestrians. 91 percent of the sampled mileage of rural
roads has no proper drains. In addition the quality of rural road
construction is poor and about86 percent of the interviewed
were opinion that political and institutional corruption is
responsible for the poor quality rural roads.
“ I took the contract with good faith, but they did not pay me64
correctly, but as you know the member who is in-charge of the
construction has bought new vehicle” was a response recorded
during a survey in Central Province, where the road surface
constructed by the contractor is of good quality (the road
surface constructed by this contractor was under observation for
4 years and without any maintenance it has managed to stay
fairly motorable until the authors last visit in December 2006
field class. 34 percent of rural road surfaces
All the above examples indicate that cost benefit analysis in
relation to environmental management rests on the concept of
basic needs and sustainability. This demands that a societal
approach, which can be constructed on the participatory model
is more suited for any cost benefit analysis exercise in
environmental management.
Environmental cost benefit accounting is widely discussed in
research since the arrival of basic needs concept and many types
of methodologies are used in the analysis. There is no single
methodology as the methodology has to change with changing
nature of problems.
Example-
65
Cost of Rs. Environmental Rs. Loss to
production cost per environment
kilogramme per 1
kilogramme
Rs.
1 10.00 Short term 6.00
kilogramme
of paddy (
with
chemical
inputs)
Selling price 15.00 Long term 3.00
1
kilogramme
of paddy (
with
chemical
inputs)
Profit 5.00 Total 9.00
environment
cost
4.00
67
Total value 2,100,000.00 Total 7,000,000.00
of housing environment
after the cost due to
slide (with poor site
addition of selection
some (burial of
recovered cultivated
building land, loss of
material) livelihoods,
loss of soil,
burial of soil,
vegetation
damage)
Total 5,600,000.00 Total 8,434,000.00
Total loss for 2,834,000.00
selecting site
If the 4,900,000.00
housing
was
constructed
on a stable
site (value
at 1998)
68
Cost Value Income Profit Profit without
remediation
Economic value of forest 20,000,000.00
(with good quality natural
timber)
69
Profit after environmental 70,000,000.00 No profit only a loss
remediation
70
Contingent valuation methods are useful when price information is not available and
competitive market is present. In here environment is not considered valuable and
environmental degradation is not considered an important variable in development. All the
developing and a few developed countries follow this type of model. Sri Lanka is noted for
following this type of model and its natural resources are squandered by a few elites
resulting in serious environmental degradation in all sectors of environment. With reference
to forestry, sand extraction, clay extraction, soil erosion and sedimentation of rivers and
reservoirs Sri Lanka has reached a point of no return by 2005. though there are about 14 to
20 organisations involved in environmental work Sri Lanka is yet to implement the
programme of environmental recovery.
Benefit-cost analysis is a useful tool for assessing the economic effects of projects, policies
or programs. The purpose is to provide a selection that would eliminate projects that are a
hindrance to economic development.
Randall (1991) lists two important issues relating to quality control: one, the principles are
clearly specified for empirical benefit-cost analysis and are based on sound economic
principles; and two, the benefit-cost analysis documents are available for public scrutiny to
expose the improper use of theory and practice.
The estimation of costs is relatively simple compared with estimating the benefits.
Environmental costs must be accounted for in any cost benefit analysis. There is a serious
lack of data available on the value of biodiversity, but it does not mean that we should forget
the value of biodiversity
Valuation techniques and the steps to be followed in monetising the benefits from
biodiversity
1. prices of all inputs and outputs other than the good in question
are held constant.
2. resulting benefits do not lead to any changes in the real incomes.
1. for changes in both prices and incomes and takes into account the
71
indirect effects of a policy.
First, the benefits and costs of a given activity is calculated for each year that it is effective.
Second, an aggregate net present value is calculated by discounting future costs and benefits
to present day value and then adding them up over the years studied.
If the net present value is positive, that is present value benefits exceed present value costs,
the policy makes economic sense.
Discounting is done so that benefits and costs occurring at different times can be aggregated
and expressed in composite form.
1. most consumers consider present day benefits to be more valuable than future.
2. resources invested now will increase productivity and wealth in the future.
72
The discount rate, r, is the premium they are willing to pay, expressed as a percentage
over a specified period. Funds received today are worth, at the end of the first period, a
total of (1+r) times the amount of funds. Equivalently, an amount of funds to be received
at the end of the period are worth 1/(1+r) times that amount at the beginning of the
period.
For policies or programs, particularly those having consequences lasting well beyond the
typical 10 to 25 year life spans of most private sector investments, a lower "social
discount rate" may be warranted.
73
Chapter 6
Field techniques
Field techniques in environmental management are taken from the basic techniques
available in natural and social sciences. Further, the student of environmental
management has to utilise the physical resource evaluation and management assessment
techniques available in many social sciences. The techniques provided here are aimed at
giving a primary insight to the application of principles in major problems studied within
the special degree in environmental management.
Aim is to find techniques to identify environmental damage and guide the specialist for
detailed study.
The major hazards and disasters related to natural environment are related to materials
and processes at the earth surface. Damages from landslides, floods, tornadoes, cyclones,
earthquakes, and tsunamis are closely related to landform environment. Though,
tornadoes and cyclones are of climatic origin their damage level has a relationship to
land form and materials at the surface of the earth natural or constructed. For example
damage from a cyclone is felt more in a sandy lowland than in a rocky beach front.
Tornado in a rocky mountain area will not be damaging as in a plain with soft soils. This
is because stronger materials reduce damage to land surface and buildings built on it.
Further slope factor decides the stability of the buildings depending on the bed rock
properties. For examples highest damage by landslides and creep in Sri Lanka is
reported from where deep regolith (deeply weathered soils with rock debris is present) is
present.
Geomorphological map contain information on genesis, age and morphology of the land
surface. Therefore it is a document with information on processes of past, and present
land formation and evolution (Bennett, 1994; Bennett, and Boulton, 1993; Bennett and
Boulton, 1993: Bennett, et.al 1998; Bromley, 1998; Lowe and Walker, 1998;
Slaymaker and Spencer, 1998).
Stage 1 74
Selection of the area from a 1:10,000 scale topographic map
Stage 2
Field mapping of all material and process information during all the major seasons of the
area.
Advantages
Geomorphlogical map shows the location of materials and processes. For example
Figure shows a basic geomorphological map of Suwaddakanda catchment located along
Mihinthale – Vauniya Raod around 83 rd Mile post (134th Kilometer mark). The symbols
used simplified as printing facilities available to the author is limited. When printing
facilities are readily available the international symbols and key can be tuilised in the
map construction. Information for this map which covers an are of 2.1 square kilometres
collected from a three day field work by two students (Jayantha Ranasinghe and Dilip
Gamini Senannayake guided by the author).
Stage 3
Symbols, letters and other systems for mapping are available from various sources (),
but a simple system to identify the hazardous areas can be constructed using locally
favourite symbols and letters.
Societal environmental hazards and disasters are studied using various types of
techniques with varying degree of statistical value. Questionnaire, group interview,
informal interview, life history recordings and informal interviews are used widely
today in collection of societal information. However the present trend is to use people
oriented systems based on discourse, text and narrative analysis taken from sociology.
Participatory system techniques like life history recordings, record keeping and
compilation of spatial data into maps are also used.
The SWOT Analysis is a simple tool that gives profound insights into any assessment.
SWOT is shorthand for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats. It is the first
step in developing a strategy for the future. It will point out what needs to be done to
maximize industry‟s strengths, minimize its weaknesses, take advantage of
opportunities, and minimize or eliminate industry‟s threats. Strengths and Weaknesses
are typically internal factors, whereas Opportunities and Threats are more typically
external factors. It is an excellent tool to use in assessing your competitive position
versus competition. This is a systematic identification of these factors and the strategy
75
that reflects the best match between them. It is based on the logic that an effective
strategy maximizes a business‟s strengths and opportunities but at the same time
minimize its weakness and threats. This simple assumption, if accurately applied,
has powerful implications for successful choosing and designing effective strategy.
The SWOT Analysis consists of an external scan and an internal assessment. The
External Scanning Process is undertaken to identify the major threats and
opportunities that face the organization or industry in the foreseeable future. The
Internal Assessment Process is conducted to examine the strengths and weaknesses
of the organization and its ability to respond to threats and take advantage of
opportunities. To begin the analysis some basic decisions need to be made
concerning who will be involved, what needs to be assessed, what the deliverables
will be, and when it needs to be done by. The Action Plan tool can be very helpful in
doing this. Also, Brainstorming and Affinity can be used to identify the external
search areas. A large list of questions is provided to assist with the internal
assessment? These questions can be revised to better support the purpose of the
assessment and the time and resources available. Unrelated questions can be deleted
and more appropriate ones can be added. Similarly, Analyzer should be able to fine
tune the most critical areas in all four segments. Whereby SWOT analysis could be
completed with precise decision of what would the next move going to be.
Importantly, collection of data must do with utmost care. There should not be a
room for repeat same identified area in different classification or under estimate the
weight of any given factor. Lines up the facts are the most important and easily
misguiding task of the SWOT analysis .However careful analytical skills rigorously
demand in formulating strategy in the light of SWOT.
76
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the Loch Lomond Re-Advance: A review of research approaches and models.'
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