ADIFFERENTCANADA

Laurier(LiberalPrimeMinister)proclaimedthatthe20thcenturywouldbethecenturyof
Canada
Intheearly20thcentury,mostCanadianslivedonfarms/smallvillages
VictorianEra:AneranamedafterQueenVictoriathatwasmorallystrict.Familieswere
expectedtoattendchurchregularlyandfullysupportEngland.
Suffragists:Agroupofwomenwhodespiterepression,wantedtherighttovotesothey
couldinfluencetheirgovernment.
CanadabegantobecomeurbanizedasliteratureandartbecamemoreCanadianand
sentimental
Canadawasstillhowever,verymuchaBritishcolony
FrenchCanadiansdidnotsupportBritain,theywerenationalistswhowantedCanadatobe
moreindependent

CANADASCHANGINGPOPULATION
AfterLaurierbecameprimeminister,herealizedCanadaneededmorepeople
HestartedtopromoteCanadaasagreatplacetoliveandencouragedimmigration
MostCanadianshoweverwereethnocentric,thinkingtheirownracewassuperior
Asaresult,racismanddiscriminationwerecommonpracticesfortheimmigrantsthatcame
in
Headtax:ThefederalgovernmentthentriedtolimitimmigrationfromAsiabyplacinga
headtaxonimmigrantsfromChina.
In1908,therewasavirtualbanonEastIndianImmigrants
Thesummerof1914,TheKomagataMaru,ashipcarryingmostlySikhs,wasforcedto
returntoIndiaaftertheyweredeniedentryintoCanada

ABORIGINALPEOPLE
ThemovementsofAboriginalswereregulatedundertheIndianActof1876
Bythe1880s,AboriginalsinthePrairieswerelivingonreserves:designatedareasofland,
usedtofreetheopenlandforEuropeanimmigrants.
Aboriginalswereexpectedtotakeupfarmingasopposedtohunting,butalotofthemwent
hungryasequipmentwaslimited
Residentialschools:SchoolsforAboriginalchildrenrunbychurcheswheretheconditions
wereunsanitaryandcauseddiseasesliketuberculosistospreadquickly.
Assimilation:AfederalgovernmentpolicytryingtoabolishtraditionalAboriginalcultureand
accustomthemtotheEuropeanwayoflife.Suchresidentialschoolsandforcedfarmingare
examplesofthis.

URBANIZATION
Morepeoplebegantomovetotownsandcities,howeverthecontrastbetweenrichand
poorwasevident
AsthepopulationCanadagrew,asdidtheeconomy,withtheuseofelectricityboosting
Canadasindustrialgrowth

 Workersbegantoformtradeunionswhichpressedforbetterpay,reducedhoursofwork
andbetterworkingconditions.Theywouldgoonstrikewhenemployersrefusedtheir
demands.
By1914,Canadawasinarecessionafter2decadesofrapidgrowth
Atthistime,Canadiansfinallybegantorealizethetollthatindustrializationwastakingon
theenvironment

CANADAANDWORLDWARI
Summerof19141918(ArmisticedeclaredontheWesternFront)
EasternFront=pastRussia,WesternFront=pastFrance
Propagandawasusedtopersuadepeopletosupportthewar

CAUSESOFTHEWAR
June28th,1914ArchdukeFranzFerdinand(CrownPrinceofAustriaHungary)andhiswife
SophiewereshotbyGavriloPrincip(memberofSerbiannationalistgroup,theBlackHand)
whilevisitingSarajevo.
Nationalism:Europewascontrolledbythreeweakandcrumblingempires:TheAustro
Hungarian,theRussianandtheOttoman.Manycountriesresentedbeingpartofanempire
andwantedindependence.WhenBosniaHerzegovina,forexample.wastakenoverby
AustriaHungary,Serbianswereoutraged.
Alliances:Toreducevulnerabilitytoattack,manycountriesformedalliances.
TripleAllianceAKAtheCentralPowers:Germany,AustriaHungaryandItaly
TripleEntenteAKAtheAllies:France,GreatBritainandRussia
Ifanyonecountrywasattacked,othermembersofwouldimmediatelyalsobecome
involved.
Militarism:CountriesinEuropehadbeenrapidlybuildinguptheirarmies.Germanyin
particularkeptexpandinginanattempttomaintainthebalanceofpower.Ithadthe
strongestarsenalofweaponsinEuropebutwantedtobeatGreatBritaininthenavalsector.
Bothcountriesstartedtobuildlargebattleshipscalleddreadnoughtsandhadhugefleetsof
warships.
Imperialism:ManyEuropeancountrieshadacquiredcoloniesoverseasandoftenchallenged
eachotherforrightstocertainterritoriesandresources.

THEDOMINOEFFECT
AustriaHungaryblamedSerbiafortheassassinationofFranzFerdinand
AustriaHungarydeclaredwaronSerbia
Russia,SerbiasallymobilizeditstroopsandGermany,AustriaHungarysallydidthesame
Allthegreatpowershadmobilizedarmieswithinweeksandwereatwar
BritaindeclaredwaronGermanyafteritinvadedBelgium
ItbecametheTripleEntentevs.theTripleAlliance,withmanycountriesatwar

CANADASROLE
PrimeMinisteratthetimewasRobertBorden(conservative)
Canadabecameapoliticalunionin1867,butBritainstillcontrolleditsforeignpolicy
MostEnglishspeakerssupportedthewarbecausetheywerepatriotictowardsG.B

 WilfredLaurier(liberal)supportedthewarandsaidthatCanadianswerereadytohelp
Manyenthusiasticvolunteerssignedup(over30,000)becausetheythoughtthewarwould
beshortandtheywouldbehomebyChristmas
o Someenjoyedtheideaofbeingahero
o Othersneededtoescapefinancialhardshipsathome
Womenwereencouragedtostayhomeandsupportmen,butsomebecamenursesand
ambulancedrivers.
Minoritiesinitiallywerenotwelcome,buttheyeventuallyovercamethediscriminationand
joined,thoughfewwerepromoted

TRAINING
SamHughes(British),theministerofmilitiasetupatrainingcentreinValcartier,Qubec
32000troopsweresentafterafewweeksofminimaltraining
WarbroughtCanadianstogetherastheybegantodevelopanationalidentity
ThisarmywascalledtheCanadianExpeditionaryForce(CorpsExpeditionnaireCanadien),
andfoughtforthemostpartindependentlyfromBritain
Hugheswasalsoinchargeofthearmamentindustry
HecreatedtheShellCommitteeandby1917wassupplying1/3ofBritainsshells
However,becausehewasapooradministrator,theMinistryofMilitiabecameinefficient
andconfusing
Hebegantomanufactureweaponsofpoorqualityandwasmoreconcernedwithmaking
moneythanquality.
TheCanadianRossrifletendedtojaminrapidfiresoCanadiantroopswouldtakeBritishLee
Enfieldrifleswhentheycould.
Hugheswasdismissedin1916,butwasknightedbeforeso

THEWARMEASURESACT(Loidesmeasuresdeguerre)
Bordenrealizedthegovernmentneededmorecontroltomeetthedemandsofwar
HeintroducedtheWarMeasuresAct(Loidesmeasuresdeguerre)whichsaidthe
governmentcoulddoanythingnecessaryforthesecurityofCanada
Mailcouldbecensored,theycouldinterveneintheeconomyandhabeascorpus(theright
toajudge)wassuspended
Anyonedeemedsuspiciouscouldbesenttojailordeported
ImmigrantsfromGermanyandAustriaHungaryhadspecialidentitycardsandsomewere
senttointernmentcamps

THEWARONLAND
TheSchlieffenPlan:TheGermanplantoquicklyinvadeBelgium,thenFrancetocapture
Paris.TheywouldthenturntheirattentiontowardsRussia.
Theycameclose(35kmfromParisbyAugust1914),buttheywereexhaustedbythepaceof
theplanandwerepushedback
GermanythendecidedtodigadefensivelineoftrenchesandtheAlliesfollowedsuit
AvastnetworkoftrencheswasthenbuiltfromtheEnglishChanneltotheSwissborder
NoMansLandwastheareabetweenthetrenchesofbothsides,comprisedofcorpses,
barbedwireandmud
BytheChristmasof1914,neithersidecouldadvancebutneithercouldretreateither

 By1914,newweaponsweresoadvancedthatchargingwasnolongeragoodstrategy
Themachinegunwasinvented
Planeswereusedtospyonenemies
Tankswereinventedin1916andwereusedtobreakthroughthebarbedwireinfrontof
trenches
Manycommandersdidntrealizethatnewweaponsneedednewstrategiesandover3
years,hundredsofthousandsofsoldiersdiedinFranceandBelgium

INTHETRENCHES
Conditionswerecold,damp,rainy,muddy,smellyandoverrunbyrats
ManymendevelopedTrenchFoot,wherefeetwouldswellandturnblack,oftenrequiring
amputation
Injuredmenwereoftenlefttodieinnomanslandbecauserescuewastoodangerous

MAJORCEFBATTLESOFWORLDWARI

THESECONDBATTLEOFYPRES
April22,1915andApril24th,1915theFrenchandCanadiantroopswereblinded,burned
andkilledbythechlorinegas(AKAmustardgas)usedbytheGermans
FoughtInYpres,BelgiumnearFlanderssField
Gasattackdespitethefactthatgasformilitarypurposeswasoutlawedsince1907
Foramonth,neithersidegainedadvantageinthefieldofFlanders,but6000Canadians
werekilledwoundedorcaptured

THEBATTLEOFTHESOMME
July1916,1916BritishandFrenchforcesunderGeneralDouglasHaiglaunchedamassive
attackalongtheridgesnearSommeRiver,France
Haiginsistedonusingpreviousstrategies,despitethembeinguselessintrenchwarfare
WavesofsoldiersmarchedacrossopenfieldsandwerekilledbyGermanmachineguns
85%oftheRoyalNewfoundlandRegimentwerekilled/woundedinhalfanhour(over700
men)
OveramillioncasualtieswhenthebattleendedinNovember.
Haigclaimedvictory.24000Canadiansdied.

THEBATTLEOFVIMYRIDGE
GermanscontrolledVimyRidge(northernFrance)sincetheirfirstoffensivein1914
Frenchhadtried3timestoregainVimy,butfailed
Inlate1916,CanadiansledbyGeneralJulianByngwerechosentoleadnewassault
Byngtrainedthetroopsthoroughlyanddevelopedstrategies
Fromthewestsideoftheridge,CanadiansbombardedGermansforoveramonthwhile
armyengineersmadetunnelstomovetroopssecretlytoforwardpositions
AtzerohourApril9th,1917,EasterMonday,thetroopsmovedintoposition
Canadiansfollowedtheplanofattackandtooktheirfirstobjectives
April10th,theycapturedHill145,thehighestpointoftheridge
April12th,theytookthepimple,thelastGermanposition

 Greatvictory,takenmoreprisonersandmoreartillerythananyotherBritishoffensive
Over3500menwerekilledand7000wounded
ThevictoryisagreatsourceofprideinCanadianhistory

PASSCHENDAELE
In1917,CanadianswerecalledtoretakePasschendaeleRidgeinBelgium
ByngwaspromotedbecauseofVimyandhisreplacementwasGeneralArthurCurrie
(Canadianrealestatedealer)
CurriestilltookordersfromHaig,whowantedtorecapturePasschendaele
Curriewarnedthatitwasabadideaandcasualtieswouldbehigh,butHaigignoredhim
TheAllieswon,butthevictorycostover15000Canadianlivesandhalfamillionsoldiers
frombothsides

THEROLEOFWOMEN
Almost2500womenjoinedthemedicalandfieldambulancecorps
NurseswerecalledtheBluebirdsbecauseoftheiruniforms
Manydiedasaresultoffire,bombsandgas
Somebecamevolunteers,butthegreatestchangewastheircontributiontothelabourforce
Before1914,womenweredomesticservantsandworkersintheclothing/foodindustry
Womenbecamehiredforallkindsofworkduringthewar

WARINTHEAIR
Atthestart,pilotsflewaloneinbiplanestospyonenemytroopmovements
Thepilotssoonbecamearmedhoweverwithpistolsandrifles
Withinayear,planesbegantohavemachinegunsmountedtotheplanes
Aftershootingdown5enemyaircrafts,apilotbecameanace
Aceswouldgobackhometofundraiseandrecruit
Lifeasapilotwasexciting,butdangerous(morethan50000pilotswerekilledfrom1914
1918)
Canadadidnothaveitsownairforce.PilotsjoinedtheBritishRFC.

WARATSEA
GermanscouldnotmatchtheBritishnavy,buttheyhadsubmarinesakaUboats
Submarinesbecameequippedwithtorpedoes,whichdestroyedwar/merchantships
Lusitania:In1915,aGermansubmarinesankaBritishpassengerlinercalledtheLusitania,
killing1200passengers,mostlyCanadiansandAmericans.
In1917,Germanyannouncedthatsubmarineswouldsinkanyshipwithinthewarzone
aroundBritain
Allieseventuallydevelopedaconvoysystemandunderwaterlisteningdevicethathelped
themlocateanddestroysubmarines
Canadahadtwowarships,theRainbow(patrolledtheWestCoast)andtheNiobe(inHalifax)
Halifax=ideallocationtorefuelandrepairAlliedwarshipsasitwasprotectedbytheNiobe
CanadasmerchantshipsprovidedfoodandmunitionstoBritain.Manymerchantseamen
diedwhilecrossingtheAtlantic.

THEWARATHOME
Thewarwasgoodfortheeconomy.By1916,theeconomywasbooming.
BordenreplacedtheShellCommitteewiththeImperialMunitionsBoard,andfactorieswere
builttoconstructships,airplanesandshells
HundredsofthousandsofCanadianswereemployedinthesefactories
Workerseventuallybecamefrustratedbythelowwageshowever

PAYINGFORTHEWAR
Despitetheboomingeconomy,warwasexpensiveandthegovernmentcouldntpayforits
contributiontothewar
Victorybonds:thegovernmentsoldvictorybondstoappealtopatriots.Afterthewarwas
over,thecitizenswerepromisedtheywouldgettheirmoneyback,plusinterest.
Incometax:Originallysupposedtobetemporarywelloffindividualspaid3%oftheir
income.
Borrowingfromothercountries:Victorybondsandincometaxwerenotenough,andby
1918,theCanadiangovernmentdeepindebtwasforcedtoborrowmoneyfromother
countries,especiallytheUS.

WOMENSRIGHTTOVOTE
1915WomeninManitobagottherighttovote
1915AlbertaandSaskatchewanfollowedsuitlaterduringtheyear
1917WomeninOntarioandBritishColumbiagottherighttovoteinprovincialelections
1918AllCanadianwomenhavetherighttovoteinfederalelections

THEHALIFAXDISASTER
December6th,1917TheMontBlanc(aFrenchvessel),carryingmorethan2500tof
dynamitewasaccidentallyhitbyanothership.Theresultingexplosiondevastatedmuchof
thecityandharbor.
20003000peoplewerekilledandmorethan10000injured.

CONSCRIPTION
Bordenhadpromisedtherewouldbenoconscription,butduringhisvisittoBritain,David
LloydGeorge,theBritishprimeministerconvincedBordenthatthewarneededtobewon
WhenhewentbacktoCanada,BordenintroducedtheMilitaryServiceAct(abillthatmade
servicecompulsory)
TheActhadexceptionsforthedisabled,thosewithessentialjobs/specialskillsandthose
whodidntbelieveinwarbecauseofreligion
Recruitmentrateswereuneven,thelowestlevelsbeinginQuebec
FrenchCanadiansfeltnopatrioticconnectiontoBritainorFranceandthereforefeltlikethe
Actwasforcingthemtofightinawarthatwasnttheirs
Farmersalsoopposedconscription,especiallyinthePrairies.Theyneededtoworkonfarms.
Industrialworkersfeltthattheywerealreadyplayingapartinthewar
Labourersledtheoppositiontoconscription.
LabourleaderGingerGoodwinhidfromauthoritiesafterhewasdrafted.Hewaseventually
trackeddownandkilledbyapoliceconstable.


CANADASMOSTDIVISIVEELECTION
Bordendecidedtocallanelectionovertheissueofconscription
Hehadpassedtwopiecesoflegislationthatweredesignedtoensurehisreelection
o TheMilitaryVotersActallowingmen/womenoverseastovote
o TheWartimeElectionsActallowingallwomendirectlyrelatedtoservicemento
vote.Theactalsocancelledvoteforallimmigrantsandobjectorswhocamefrom
enemycountriesinthelast14years.
BordeninvitedoppositionLiberalswhosupportedconscriptiontojoinhiminaUnion
Government
TheseLiberalswereofferedCabinetpositionstojoinhim
WilfredLaurierhoweverwasopposedtoconscription
LiberalslostalotofsupportbecauseofLauriersview
TheUnionGovernmentwontheelectionwithsupportfromthearmedforces
Conscriptioncontroversyhoweverdidnotsubside.InQuebec,FrenchCanadiansmarched
thestreets.OnEasterWeekendof1918,atananticonscriptionriot,4demonstrators
wereshotdeadand10werewounded.
Conscriptionwentonwith130000enlisted,butonly25000reachingFrancebeforethewar
ended.Outof404000menwhowerecalled,380500appliedforexemptions.

COLLAPSEOFTHECENTRALPOWERS
1)Marchof1917CzarNicolasofRussiawasforcedtoabdicateandaprovisionalRussian
governmentwasformed.
2)April2nd1917TheUSdeclaredwaronGermany,angeredbythesinkingofneutralships
suchastheLusitania.
InOctober1917,RussianrevolutionariescalledBolsheviksoverthewtheprovisional
governmentandsignedapeacetreatywithGermany
Inalastdesperateoffensive,theGermanswentandstrucktheweakpointsintheenemy
lines.TheytookbackYpres,theSomme,PasschendaeleandeverythingbutVimyRidge
Bythetimetheywereonly75kmfromParis,theyhadexhaustedthemselves:withoutfresh
troops,foodorsuppliesandcouldnotcontinue.
TheHundredDaysthefinalmonthsofthewarwhereCanadiansledbyCurriebroke
throughGermanlinesandwonimportantbattlesatArras,CambraiandValenciennes.The
GermanKaiserfledtoHolland.
TheArmisticewassignedinarailwaycaronNovember11th,1918at11am.

CANADAONTHEWORLDSTAGE
ParisPeaceConference:Afterthesigningofthearmistice,theAlliesandGermanymetin
Paristodiscussapeaceagreement.BordenobtainedaseatforCanada.
TheTreatyofVersailles:Thedocumentthatsetoutthetermsofthepeaceagreementin
1919.Bordengottosignit.ItalsocreatedtheLeagueofNations.Americanpresident
WoodrowWilsonhadlaidouta14pointplanearlierin1918thatemphasizedforgiveness,
buttheFrench/BelgianleaderswantedcompensationfromGermany.Theydecidedthat:
o Germanywouldhavetoacceptresponsibilityforcausingthewar(guiltclause)
o Germanyhadtopay30billiondollarsworthofreparations
o TheEuropeanmapwouldberedrawn,reducingGermanysterritory

 o TheGermanarmywouldberestrictedto100000men,withnomoreUboatsorair
force
GermanycouldnotpayaswithallotherEuropeancountries,itwasinruins
LeagueofNations:CreatedafterthewarbytheTreatyofVersailles.Canadawasamember
anditwasbasedontheprincipleofcollectivesecurity(ifonemembercameunderattack,
allmemberswouldcometohelp).TheLeaguecouldpunishanaggressivenationthrough
economicsanctionswhichrestrictedtradewiththenation.TheAmericansrefusedtojoinas
WoodrowWilsonhadastrokethatlefthimhalfparalyzed,makinghimnolongerableto
campaignforjoiningtheLeague.
Afterthewar,peoplewenthungryallacrossEurope.TheSpanishFlusweptacrossthe
continent,killingover22million(morethanthewar).50000Canadiansdiedandschools
wereclosedformonths.

CANADAANDTHETWENTIES
Adecadeofprosperity,funandwildliving
TheJazzAge,boldnewmusic,shockingfashionsandimprovementoflife
SoldiersreturnedtoCanadawithnopensions,nospecialmedicalservicesandfew
jobs

WORKERSRESPOND
WorkersWantedhigherwages,betterconditionsandtherighttojoinunions
Thisresultedinmanystrikes
BritishEmpireSteelCorporationForfouryears,theunionandthesteelcorporation
confrontedeachotherinLabourWars.Thestrikesturnedviolent,andthecompanycalled
inpolice/troopstobreakthemup.
Westernleadersweremoresocialist,thinkingcitizensshouldhavemoreinvolvement,
influencedbythecommunistBolsheviksinRussia
March1919TheWesternLaborConferenceUnionleadersfoundedtheOneBigUnion,
whichrepresentedallCanadianworkers,aimingtohelpworkersgaincontrol

THEWINNIPEGGENERALSTRIKE
Lasted43days
May1919,Winnipegsmetalandbuildingworkerswalkedofftheirjobs
Theywantedhigherwages,ashorterworkingweekandtherighttocollectivebargaining
Collectivebargaining:Allowstheunionleadershiptonegotiatewithemployersonbehalfof
unionmembers
30000peoplewentonstrike,eventhoughhalfwerentunionized
CitizensCommitteeofOneThousand:Formedbybusinessleaders,politiciansand
industrialists.Theysawtheunionleadersaspartofacommunistconspiracytooverthrow
thegovernment.
TheFederalgovernmentfearedthatthisstrikewouldinfluenceothercitiesandtherefore
intervened
TheyamendedTheImmigrationActsotheycoulddeportforeignbornunionleaders
ThemayorofWinnipegappointedspecialpolice,firedcivicworkersandhadleaders
arrested

 BloodySaturday:OnJune21st,strikersheldaparadetoprotestthemayorsactions.The
RoyalNorthWestMountedPolice/specialpolicechargedintothecrowdwithclubsand
pistols,makingtheaffairviolent.Onestrikerdied,30wereinjuredandmanyothers
arrested.Thestrikersthenreturnedtowork.
TheRoyalCommissionexaminedthestrikeandfoundthegrievancestobevalid
J.SWoodsworth,whowasarrestedduringthestrikewentontofoundtheCooperative
CommonwealthFederation(CCF)whichlaterbecametheNewDemocraticParty(NDP)

CHALLENGESTOFEDERALISM
Regionalism:theconcernoflocalproblemswithinaregion,whichincreasedafterthewar.
MaritimeRightsMovement:Abriefmovementformedbyprominentbusinessandpolitical
leaders,urgingallpoliticiansseekingofficetomakepoliciesthatbenefittheMaritimes.This
movementdiedquicklywithoutaccomplishingmuch.
NationalPolicy:Inplacesince1878,placingtariffsanddutiesonforeigngoodsimportedinto
Canada.ThiswasimplementedsothatCanadiansboughtmoreCanadiangoods,strengthening
theeconomy.Farmerswerefrustratedastheyfeltalienatedbythispolicy.Farmerswantedfree
trade(nomoretariffs,allowingfarmerstobuycheaper,USmademachinery).
UnitedFarmersParties:Farmersmadetheirownpoliticalparties.Bytheearly1920s,
Ontarioandtheprairieselectedthesepartieswhichformedthegovernment.
FederalProgressivePartyCreatedbyThomasCrerar,aformerministerofagriculturein
Bordensuniongovernment.ItwantedanewNationalPolicybasedonfreetradeandpublic
ownershipofrailways.Theycontestedthe1921election.

CANADIANSCHOOSEANEWGOVERNMENT
1919WilliamLyonMackenzieKingwaschosentoleadtheLiberals
WilliamLyonMackenzieKing:Reputationofareformer,anauthorityonsocialand
economicissues.Hewasconciliatory,alwayslookingforthemiddlepaththatoffendedthe
leastamountofpeople.
ArthurMeighen:chosentoreplaceBordenastheleaderoftheConservatives.Hewasa
brilliantdebaterandalongstandingmemberofparliament.Hebelievedinprinciplesover
compromiseanddidntcarewhoheoffended.
KingandMeighenhatedeachother;haddifferentapproachestopolitics.(Kingwithnot
wantingtooffendpeopleandMeighennotcaringifhedid)
Inthe1921FederalElection,Liberalshad117members,Conservativeshad50membersand
theProgressiveshad64.
TheLiberalshadelectedaminoritygovernment(neededthesupportofopposition
memberstopasslegislation).
TheProgressivePartydidntlastlong;butbroughtalongchanges:
o TheOldPensionAct:passedin1927,grantingbasicpension($240peryear)to
Canadiancitizens.
CANADASGROWINGINDEPENDENCE
BordenhadraisedCanadasprofileinternationallyandMackenzieKingcontinuedtopush
formoreindependence
1922KingrefusedtosupportBritainwhenitwantedtoinvadeTurkey
1923KinginsistedthathebeallowedtosignaninternationaltreatywithoutaBritish
representativesigningit

 KingByngCrisis:Afterthe1925election,theLiberalshad101seats,theConservatives,116
andtheProgressives,24.TheLiberalsthereforeneededthehelpoftheProgressivestostay
inpower,buttheylosttheirsupportasaresultofaliquorsmugglingscandalintheCustoms
Department.TheConservativescalledforamotionofcensure(voteofstrongdisapproval)
againstKingsgovernment.Ifithadpassed,Kingwouldneedtoresignasprimeminister.
KingaskedGovernorGeneralByngtocallanotherelection,butByngrefusedsayingthatthe
censureneededtobecompletedfirst.KingwasfuriousandByngwaseventuallyforcedto
callanelection.Kingappealedtonationalismduringhiscampaignandwon.
TheBalfourReport:AttheImperialConferenceof1926,thedominionsoftheEnglish
Empirerequestedformalrecognitionofautonomy(freedomtogovernthemselves).A
specialcommitteeunderLordBalfour(respectedBritishpolitician)examinedtherequest.
TheypublishedtheBalfourReport,whichsupportedthedominions.
TheStatuteofWestminster:Passedin1931bytheBritishgovernment,makingthe
recommendationsoftheBalfourReportlaw.(Thereportsupporteddominionautonomy)
TheStatutecreatedtheBritishCommonwealth,makingCanadaequaltoBritain.
Canadacouldnowmakeitsownlaws,howeverthereweretworestrictions.
TheBritishNorthAmericaAct:AKAtheCanadianconstitution.IthadtostayinBritain
becausetheCanadiangovernmentscouldntagreeonanamendingformula(theprocedure
forchangingtheact).
ThejudicialcourtofappealforCanadiansresidedinBritainuntil1949.

THEECONOMYIMPROVES
thebeginningofthe20s=economicdepression
itbegantoimprovehoweverinthemiddleofthedecade
Wheatwasanimportantexportbuttherewasalsogrowthintheexploitationofresources

THEUNITEDSTATESINVESTSINCANADASECONOMY
TheUSbecametheworldseconomicleaderafterthewar
UScompaniesinvestedinpulpandpapermills/minesacrossthecountry.Themajorityof
theseresourceswereexportedtotheUS.
Branchplants:businessesownedandcontrolledbycompaniesintheUSbutoperatedin
Canada.InvestorssettheseupinsteadoflendingmoneytothecompanieslikeBritaindid.
Bytheendofthe1920s,theCanadianautoindustrywastakenoverbytheBigThreeUS
automobilecompanies(GM,FordandChrystler).
TheUSenrichedtheCanadianeconomybyextractingrawmaterials(primaryindustries)
However,thesematerialsweretakentotheUSformanufacturing(secondaryindustries)

PROHIBITION
DuringWorldWarI,theWomansChristianTemperanceUnionandotherorganizations
succeededinbringinguponProhibition,banningthemanufactureandsaleofalcoholic
drinksinCanada
Thosewithmoneycouldstillgetit(doctorprescriptionastonic,orillegalbathtubgin)
By1920,governmentsadmittedthatProhibitionwasnotworking.Itwasdislikedbymost.
After1921,mostprovincialgovernmentsdecidedtoregulatealcoholinstead.Afteraseries
ofplebiscites(votesonapublicissue),Canadiansadoptedgovernmentcontrolledliquor
stores.

10

 ProhibitioncontinuedintheUSuntil1933.
CanadianscouldnowsupplytheUSwithillegalliquor(calledrumrunning),whichwasvery
profitable.Theysmuggledalcoholacrosstheborder.

URBANIZATION
Thegrowthinthemanufacturingsectorbroughtmorepeopletocitiesinsearchofwork
Thiswascalledurbanization.By1931,citydwellersoutnumberedtheruralpopulation.
ThemodernCanadiancitybegantoform:businessesclusteredinthecitycenter,slums
becameabiggerproblem,pollutiongotworseandrichfamiliesmovedtoresidentialareas

THEROLEOFWOMEN
1920S=AneweraforwomeninCanada
Inthe1921federalelection,only5womenranforofficeandonlyonewonherseat
AgnesMacphail:theonlywomanintheHouseofCommonsuntil1935
Womenwerestillexpectedtobewivesandmothers.Becauseofnewtechnologysuchas
thevacuumandwashingmachine,houseswereexpectedtobecleaner.Marriedwomen
weresupposedtostayathomeandfewwomenbecamedoctorsorlawyers.
ThePersonsCaseof1929EmilyMurphy,awellknownsuffragistwasappointedahead
magistrate(judicialofficer)inAlberta.UndertheBritishNorthAmericanActhowever,only
personscouldholdthistitleandwomenwerenotseenaspersonsunderthelaw.The
SupremeCourtofAlbertasaidshecouldbeajudge,butthematterdidntstopthere.Emily
Murphyand4otherwomenchallengedPrimeMinisterMackenzieKingtoappointawoman
senatorandtoclarifythedefinitionofpersons.TheywereknownasTheFamousFive.
TheyappealedtotheJudicialCommitteeofthePrivyCouncilinBritainandonOctober18,
1929,womenwereofficiallyconsideredpersons.
Thefirstfemalesenatorwasappointedin1930,CairineWilson(Liberal).

ANEWPROSPERITY
RoaringTwenties:TheimprovedeconomycausedCanadianstoparticipateinastyleoflife
calledtheRoaringTwenties.Peopleboughtallsortsoftechnologyandwenttothemovies
andfadsfromtheUSquicklyspread.NewdancesliketheShimmyandTurkeyTrotwere
introducedandCanadianfashionwasalsoinfluencedbytheUS.
Automobiles:Carsbegantochangethelandscapeofthecountry.
AssemblyLines:Thefirstassemblylinewascreatedin1913byHenryFord.Carscouldthen
bemanufacturedcheaplyandquickly.
TheTransCanadaHighwayIn1920,Canadaonlyhad1600kmoftopratedhighways,and
thisfigurewouldincrease10xbytheendofthedecade.TheCanadianShieldandRocky
MountainswerephysicalbarriersthatdelayedtheconstructionoftheTransCanada
HighwayandsomostofthebetterroadsransouthtotheUS.BCsoonstartedtodriveon
therightsideoftheroadliketheAmericansandnotontheleftliketheBritish.
Aviation:Aviationcontinuedtoexpandasmanyveteranpilotsflewgeologistsand
prospectorsintoremoteareastoexploreminingopportunities.
Telephone:Inthe1920s,thephonebecameastandardhouseholdapplianceandphone
linesweresharedbymanyneighborswhichallowedanyonetoeavesdroponothers
conversations.

11

 Radio:Theuseofradiobegantobreakdowntheisolationoffarawaycommunities.Bythe
endofthe20s,nearly300000CanadiansweretuningintoUSstationsforentertainment.
Movies:Soonenough,moviescameintocompetewithradios.Talkingmoviesarrivedin
1927.
TheGroupofSevenAgroupofpaintersthatheldanexhibitioninTorontoin1920.They
brokewithtraditionalCanadianartandpaintedtheruggedlandscapesofthecountry.
EmilyCarr:ThebestknownpainterofthePacificCoast(inVictoria).Shewasinfluencedby
theGroupofSeven.
Baseball:BaseballbecameimportanttoCanadianswholistenedtogamesontheradio.
Boxing,rugby,curlingandgolfwerealsopopular.
Hockey:BecamepopularwhensportswriterFosterHewittmadethefirsthockeyradio
broadcastin1923.

DISCRIMINATION

AboriginalNations:Theywerestillnotclassifiedaspersonsunderthelaw.
Theystillcouldntvoteinprovincial/federalelections
Gottherighttovoteinprovincialelectionsin1949.
Theygottherighttovoteinfederalelectionsin1960.
Theywerefacedwithdiscriminationandhostility.Residentialschoolsweretraumatizingfor
Aboriginalchildrenandsotheyhadtroublefindingwork.
Intheearly1920s,theAboriginalpeopleinBCchallengedthefederalandprovincial
governmentsonthreeissues:thepotlachceremony,cutofflandsandAboriginaltitle.
Potlach:animportantculturalceremonyamongcertainpeopleofthePacific.Itrecorded
births,deaths,marriagesandotherevents.Itwascarefullyplannedandestablishedstatus
intribes.Thegovernmentsawitasanobstacletoassimilationanditwasforbiddenin1884.
Aboriginaltitle:Alsoknownaslandclaims.OnlyinBCdidsomeFirstNationshave
negotiatedlandtreaties.
CutOffLands:LargetractsoflandthathadbeensetasidefortheAboriginalpeoplethatthe
governmenthadtakenwithouttheconsentoftheAboriginals.
JoeCapilano:achiefoftheSquamishpeoplewhowenttoLondonin1906topresentaland
claimpetitiontoKingEdwardVII.Yearslater,theAlliedTribesofBritishColumbia,an
organizationmadeofseveraltribes,appealedthegovernmentsactions.Theysaidthe
removalofthelandwascontrarytotheIndianAct(regulatedrelationsbetweenthefederal
governmentandtheAboriginals).ThegovernmentrespondedbychangingtheIndianActso
thattheynolongerneededAboriginalconsenttotransferreservelands.
UnderAndrewPaullandPeterKelly,theAlliedTribesofBritishColumbiacontinuedto
petitionthegovernmenttobegintreatynegotiations.In1927,theywenttotheHouseof
CommonsandSenate,buttheDepartmentofIndianAffairsdefendedthegovernments
actions.TheythenamendedtheIndianActagaintoforbidtheraisingoracceptanceof
moneytopursuelandclaims.

AfricanCanadians:DiscriminationagainstAfricanshadbeenblatant
TheEducationAct:InNovaScotia,TheEducationActof1918providedseparateschoolsfor
BlacksandEuropeans.Itremainedthiswayuntil1954.

12

 In1921,theSuperiorCourtofQuebecruledinfavourofraciallysegregatedseatingin
Montrealtheatres.
In1929,ablackdelegationtoaWorldBaptistConventioninTorontowasdeniedahotel
room.
In1924,theEdmontonCityCouncilrefusedtobanAfricanCanadiansfrompublicparks.
In1919,theBrotherhoodofRailwayWorkersacceptedblackportersasmembers,thefirst
Canadianuniontoabolishracialdiscrimination.
Immigrants:TheCanadiangovernmentadoptedimmigrationrestrictions,withpreferencetotheUS
andGreatBritain
ManyCanadianslikedimmigrantsbecausetheyworkedforlowwages
Labourgroupssawimmigrantsasunfaircompetitionwhostoletheirjobs
Asianimmigrants:In1923,thegovernmentpassedalawthatexcludedChineseimmigrants
toCanadauntil1947.TheCanadaJapanAgreementof1922restrictedimmigrationfrom
Japanto150servantsandlabourersayear.
In1925,oncetheeconomyimproved,thegovernmentrelaxedrestrictionsonimmigration.
Theywantedtoincreasethepopulationsothatbusinesseswouldhavealargermarket.

THESTOCKMARKETCRASH
TheNorthAmericaneconomywasboominginthelate20s
October29th,1929TheNewYorkStockExchangecollapsed;allthepricesofstocksfell
quicklyandledtotheGreatDepression.

THETHIRTIES:ADECADEOFDESPAIR

FALLINGOFFTHEECONOMICEDGE
Duringtheeconomicboom,sharesinthestockexchangewerebeingexchangedfeverishly
Buyingonmargin:Buyingshareswithonlya10%downpayment,assumingthepricesofthe
stockswouldincreaseanditwouldpayforitself.Thiswasverycommoninthe20s.
Becausestockswerebeingboughtsomuch,thepricesweredrivenupbeyondtheirreal
value.Wheninvestorsstartedsellinginordertocashinonprofits,othersdidthesameand
thevalueofstocksfelldramatically.
October29th,1929TheNewYorkStockMarketCollapseThiswasfollowedbythe
TorontoandMontrealstockmarkets.Peoplewentbankruptinasingleday.

LEADINGUPTOTHEDEPRESSION
Thedecreaseinthepriceofwheatontheworldmarket:Morewheatwasbeingproduced
thansold.Canada/USdependedonforeignmarkets,butmanycountriesstartedtoproduce
theirownwheat.Assalesdropped,farmersalariesalsodroppedandmanywereunableto
paytheirmortgagesandloanpayments.
Overproduction:Otherindustrieswereproducingmoregoodsthanwerebeingsold.They
begantocutbackonproduction,whichledtolayoffsinfactories.
Hightariffsonforeigngoods:TheUSimplementedhightariffsonforeigngoods,aiming
improvetheUSsowneconomy.Thiswasaformofprotectionism.Thesetariffsslowed
downworldtrade.

13

 Germanysinabilitytomeetitsfinancialobligations:AccordingtotheTreatyofVersailles,
Germanywasrequiredtopayreparationsforthewar,howeverbecauseitseconomywasin
ruinspostwar,itwasnotabletodoso.FranceandGreatBritainhadbeencountingon
GermanysothattheycouldrepaytheirowndebtstotheUS.However,becauseGermany
couldnotpay,theUScouldnotgettheirmoneyback.

CANADAANDTHEDEPRESSION
TheDepressionshowcasedCanadasdependencyontheexportofprimaryresources
WheatfromtheprairiesandnewsprintfromBC,OntarioandQuebecmadeCanada
vulnerabletochangesinworldmarkets
Asworlddemanddecreased,manypeopleinCanadalosttheirjobs
Withoutmoney,theycouldnotconsumeorbuygoods
Workersinthefactoriesthatproducedthesegoodsalsolosttheirjobsbecauseofthelack
ofdemand.Inthisway,millionsofpeoplelosttheirjobs.
TheUShadbecomeCanadasgreatesttradingpartnerandsowhentheUSeconomy
crashed,wealsofelttheeffects.

DESPERATEYEARS
Factoryworkersandbusinessownerslosttheirjobsandcouldnolongeraffordrent
Pogey:Governmentreliefpaymentstothosewhohadnoothersourceofincome.Many
existedononlythis,howeverthosethatreceivedhadtopubliclydeclarefinancialfailure.
Privatecharitiesalsohelpedthoseinneed,withsoupkitchensfeedingthehungry.
Thecountrywasfilledwithunemployedmendriftingplacetoplacehoppingfreighttreinsin
searchofwork.

DROUGHTONTHEPRAIRIES
ThePrairieshadbeenhitbyadisastrousdroughtthatbeganin1928,lastingalmost8years.
Therewereconstantduststormsandmillionsoffertiletopsoilblewaway
Aplagueofgrasshoppersdescendedontheprairiesaswell,stallingtrains,cloggingcar
radiators,etc.
ThePrairieFarmRehabilitationAdministrationAct:Passedin1935bythefederal
governmenttohelpfarmersbuildirrigationsystemsandreservoirs.

THEDISADVANTAGED
Forwomen,therewerefewjobsotherthandomesticworkpayingjustafewdollarsaweek
Aboriginalfamiliesonreliefgotonly5dollarsamonthandwereexpectedtoliveoffthe
landdespitethefactthatconditionsonreservesweretoopoortodoso
Immigrantswereviewedwithhostilityandweredeniedjobs
Jewsweretargetedinparticularandmanyprofessionswouldbeclosedtothem
In1931,thegovernmentputastoptoimmigration

RESPONDINGTOTHEDEPRESSION
PrimeMinisterMackenzieKingwasunpreparedtodealwithacrisisliketheDepression
Hebelievedthatthesituationwastemporaryandthoughtthatsocialaidwasthe
responsibilityofmunicipalandprovincialgovernments

14

 Thisattitudelosthimtheelectionof1930,wherehelosttoR.B.Bennett(conservative)

BENNETTSRESPONSE
Bennettwasnotinfavourofgovernmentreliefeither
Nevertheless,hegaveprovinces$20millionforworkcreationprograms,thoughthe
economydidnotimprove
Hisplanwastoraisetariffsby50%toprotectCanadasbusinesses(protectionism),butthis
onlybuilttradebarriersagainstCanada
Asthesituationgotworse,Bennettbecameatargetforangerandfrustration
o Adesertedfarm=calledaBennettbarnyard,anewspaper=aBennettblanket
Bennettwasafraidthejoblessmiddleclasswouldbecomeinfluencedbycommunismandin
1931,hebannedtheCommunistPartyandarresteditsleaders
Thefederalgovernmentalsodecidedtocreateworkcampsforunemployed,singlemen

WORKCAMPS
Werelocateddeepinthewoodstoisolatethemen
Theyworkedonprojectssuchasbuildingroadsandclearingland
Theywerepaid20centsadayandgivenroom/board,thoughtheconditionswereterrible

THEONTOOTTAWATREK
In1935,overathousandmenlefttheworkcampstoprotestcampconditions
UndertheReliefCampWorkersUnion,theybegantotaketheircomplaintstoOttawa
TheyrodethroughPrairies,pickingupsupportersalongtheway
TheRCMPstoppedtheminRegina,allowingonlytheleaderstoproceedtoOttawa
Bennetthoweverdismissedthemimmediatelyandattackedthemasradicals/troublemakers
InRegina,theRCMPwastoldtoclearthetrekkersfromthestadiuminwhichtheywere
held.Theyresistedfor2hours.Onemandiedandmanywereinjured,with130arrested.

POLITICSOFPROTEST
CooperativeCommonwealthFederation(CCF)FormedintheWestin1932.Itappealedto
Canadiansincludingfarmers,labourersandintellectuals.TheirleaderwasJ.SWoodsworth.
Asocialistparty,itsupportedsocialprogramstoassistpeopleinneedofmoney.Theyurged
thegovernmenttospendmoneyonpublicworkstocreateemployment.
SocialCreditParty:LedbyWilliamAberhartandwonthe1935electioninAlberta.Aberhart
wasacharismaticpreacherandhighschoolteacherfromCalgary.Hethoughtthat
capitalismwasawastefuleconomicsystemandthoughtthatthegovernmentshouldput
moneyintotheeconomysothatpeoplecouldspendit.Hepromisedeachcitizenabasic
dividendof25dollarsamonth,butsocialcreditwasdisallowedbytheSupremeCourt.The
partyremainedinpowerhoweveruntil1971underErnestManningandHarryStrom.

PROVINCIALSOLUTIONS
Ontario:theLiberalscamebacktopowerin1934,thefirsttimein29years.LedbyMitch
Hepburnwhodidlittlefortheunemployed.Healsosuppressedstrikes.
Quebec:theUnionNationale(anationalisticFrenchCanadianparty)cametopowerin
1936.LedbyMauriceDuplessiswhodidlittletoimproveconditionsinQuebec.

15

 BC:LiberalDufferinPattullowaselectedin1933andintroducedreformstoshortenthe
workdayandincreasewages/reliefpayments.Publicworkprojectswerelaunched(Fraser
RiverBridgeinNewWestminster)andanewVancouverCityHall.Theprojectswere
shortlivedasthefederalgovernmentsaiditwastheirresponsibilitytointroduceprograms.

ACHANGEINGOVERNMENT
By1935,voterswerefedupwithBennettandreturnedMackenzieKingtopower
Despitebeingencouragedtospendmillionsonjobcreation,heonlyspentofafractionof
that

INCREASETENSIONINTHEFEDERALPROVINCIALRELATIONS
In1937,KingcreatedtheRowellSiroisCommission,anotherRoyalCommission
Theunemploymentcrisiscreatedtensionbetweenfederalandprovincialgovernments
TheRowellSiroisCommissionrecommendedequalizationpayments(givingmoneyto
poorerprovincestoensurethesamelevelofservices)
TheeconomystartedtoimprovehoweverandasWorldWarIIbegan,mostofthe
recommendationsoftheCommissionwerepushedasideforlater

DISTRACTIONSFROMDESPAIR
Movies,magazinesandradiowerestillpopular
CBC(CanadianBroadcastingCorporation):Createdin1936bythefederalgovernmentso
thatCanadacouldhaveapublicradioservice.
TheDionnequintupletsBornin1934inCorbeil,Ontario,theybecameinternational
sensationsandweretakenintothecareoftheOntariogovernment.Theywereputon
displayandthegovernmentearnedmillionsofdollarsfromthem.

THERISEOFDICTATORSHIPS
ManyEuropeaneconomiesdidnotrecoverfromWorldWarI,Depressionworsenedit
Somebelievedthatcommunismwastheonlysolutiontosocialsuffering
Othersbelievedastrongmilitarywasneededtorestoreorder
SovietUnion:JosefStalintookoverastheleaderoftheCommunistPartyafterthedeathof
Lenin,theleaderofthe1917revolution.Hewasaruthlessandcruelleaderwhose
agriculturalpolicieskilledmillionsofSovietworkers.TheUnionhadbecomeatotalitarian
state,witheveryaspectofpeopleslivescontrolledbythegovernment.
Italy:BenitoMussolini(IlDuce)cameintopowerin1922.Hecreatedafascistgovernment.
Fascism:opposedtodemocracy,relyingonmilitary/policepowertomaintaincontrol.They
controlledallmediaandusedpropagandatopromotetheidealsofthestates.

GERMANYPOSTWAR
Afterthewar,GermanswereunhappywiththeTreatyofVersailles
Theydidnotlikebeingblamed
TheeconomyhadbeenruinedandtheGermancurrencydeclined.TocontrolGerman
inflation,Britain,FranceandtheUSagreedtogivethembettertermsforthereparation
payments.

16

HITLERCOMESTOPOWER
Hitlerhadbeengainingsupportsince1923bycriticizingtheweakgovernment
HitlerandhisNaziParty(influencedbyFascistItaly),promisedthattheyhadthesolutionto
bringGermanyoutoftheDepression
January1933:HitlerbecametheChancellorGermanyandbyMarch,hispartyhadwon
controloftheparliament
TheNazigovernmentstoppedreparationpaymentsandbegantoexpanditsarmedforces
Hitlerpouredmoneyintopublicprojectsandtheeconomybegantoimprove
Nazisabolishedallotherpoliticalpartiesandbannedtradeunions
HitlerbecameknownasderFuhrer(theLeader),aruthlessdictator
TheNaziswereracist,thinkingGermanswerethemasterrace,composedtoAryans,a
pureraceofNorthernEuropeans
NazispersecutednonAryanssuchasJews,homosexuals,Gypsiesandthosewhodisabilities
TheysetupconcentrationcampstoimprisonandisolatethemfromGermansociety

ONTHEROADTOWAR
In1931,JapaninvadedtheChineseMachuria.ChinacomplainedtotheLeagueofNations
whotriedtonegotiatewithJapan,howeverJapansimplywithdrewfromtheLeague.
Spring1935,ItalyattackedAbyssinia(nowknownasEthiopia)andtheLeagueofNations
imposedtradesanctionsagainstItaly.

GERMANYONTHEOFFENSIVE
In1936,HitlerorderedhistroopsintoRhineland,goingunpunishedbytheLeagueof
Nations
SpanishCivilWar:1936GeneralFranciscoFrancoandhisfascistfollowersledanattackon
theSpanishgovernment.Thisresultedinacivilwarbetweenthesocialistgovernmentand
therebelforcesofFranco.FrancohadsupportfromHitlerandMussoliniandsohewonthe
warandbecamerulerofSpain.

THEPOLICYOFAPPEASEMENT
NoonewaswillingtofightanotherwarsotheywerewillingtotolerateHitlersactionsto
maintainpeace.Thisonlyencouragedhimfurther.
InMarch1938,HitlerinvadedAustriaandthendemandedtotakeovertheSudetenland(the
GermanspeakingregioninCzechoslovakia).InSeptember1938,ataconferenceinMunich,
BritainandFranceagreedtothisandHitlerpledgeditwouldbehislastterritorialclaim.
March1939HitlertookovertherestofCzechoslovakiadespitehispledge
August1939HitlermadeapactwithStalin,leaderoftheSovietUnion.Theyvowedtonot
fighteachotherinthecaseofwarandagreedtosharePolandbetweenthetwoofthem.
September1,1939GermanyinvadedPoland,wantingtotakebackanareathathadbeen
takenawayintheTreatyofVersailles.
BritainandFranceorderedGermanyoutofPolandbySeptember3rd,1939.Germany
ignoredthisdeadlineandsotheworldbecameentangledinanewconflict.

CANADASRESPONSETOGROWINGTENSIONS
Throughoutthe30s,Canadaremainedisolationists(uninterestedinforeignaffairs)

17

 In1937,MackenzieKingwenttoGermanyhimselfandthoughtHitlerhadpleasant,no
warlikeintentions.HethereforedidnotseewhyCanadashouldbecomeinvolved.
TheSecretaryofState,PierreRinfretandLiberalCabinetmember,ThomasCrerarwereboth
antiSemitic
TheSt.Louis:anoceanlinerwithover900JewishrefugeesonboardthatarrivedinCanada
in1939.TheywererefusedpermissiontodockandreturnedtoEurope,wheremanyofthe
passengersdiedinconcentrationcamps.

CANADAANDWORLDWARII

CANADADECLARESWAR
In1938,BritishPrimeMinisterNevilleChamberlainthoughthehadavoidedwarbysigning
theMunichAgreement(givingHitlerpartofCzechoslovakiaashisfinalconquest)
HitlerignoredthetermsandtookovertherestofCzechoslovakia;warseemedinevitable
InMay,KingGeorgeVIandQueenElizabethofBritaincametovisit,buildingstrongties
betweenCanadaandBritain
PrimeMinisterKingdidnotwanttogetinvolvedinanotherwar
September8,1939AfterBritainandFrancedeclaredwaronGermany,Kingdecidedtocall
aspecialsessionofParliamenttodecideCanadasresponse.
OnlytheCCFwasagainstwar,andsoonSeptember10,CanadadeclaredwaronGermany

MOBILIZINGCANADASRESOURCE
Canadawasnotpreparedforwar
Thepopulationwaslessenthusiastic,butneverthelesstheystillgot58330volunteers
AboriginalsvolunteeredatthehighestpercentagethananyothergroupinCanada
AfricanCanadianswereoriginallyrejectedhowevertheywerelateraccepted
Somewantedtheprivatespayof$1.30adaywhileothersfelttriestoBritain
FirsttroopswentoutfromHalifaxonDecember10,1939

THEBRITISHCOMMONWEALTHAIRTRAININGPLAN
TheBritishCommonwealthAirTrainingPlan:inDecember1939,Canadaagreedto
host/administeratrainingplanledbyBritishinstructorswhowouldtrainpilotsandother
flightpersonnel.AirfieldswerebuiltintheprairiesandtheprogramwasamajorCanadian
contributiontothewareffort.ThePlantrainedover130000pilots,navigators,flight
engineersandgroundstaff.

TOTALWAR
InApril1940,thegovernmentestablishedtheDepartmentofMunitionsandSupplies,with
C.D.Howeasitsminister
Howecoulddowhateverhewanted.Hewasdirect,impatientandconvincedleadersto
manufacturegoodstheydneverhandledbefore.Iftheprivatesectorcouldnotdoit,he
createdCrowncorporationstodothejob.
Evenfarmersweretoldtoproducemorewheatandotherfoods
Policyoftotalwar:Canadianswillingtodowhateverittooktodefeattheenemy.

18


THEWARINEUROPE
TheAllies:Britain,France,Commonwealth
TheAxis:Italy,GermanyandJapan
PhoneyWar:AlliedtroopswerestationedalongFrancesborderwithGermany,wherethey
waitedforGermanysnextmove.Theywaitedsevenmonthsandnothinghappened.
April1940:Germanyreneweditsblitzkrieg(lighteningwar)andattackedNorwayand
Denmark
Blitzkrieg:PowerfulwartacticusedbytheGermans.Ithadsurpriseattackswithlightning
speed.Germantanks(panzers)wouldcrashthroughenemylines,drivingasfarastheycould
whilewarplanesrippedthroughthesky,bombingtheenemybelow.Soldierswouldalso
parachuteintoenemyterritoryanddestroycommunication/transportationlinks.

EVACUATIONOFDUNKIRK
IttookGermanyhourstoconquerDenmarkand2monthstosubdueNorway
May10theGermanarmedforcesstartedtoinvadetheNetherlands
ItwentthroughBelgiumquickly,thenintoFrance
TheAlliesweresoonsurroundedintheFrenchportofDunkirkandtheyhadtoescape
beforetheGermanscapturedthetown
Theyattemptedanevacuationbysea,andtheBritishsenteveryboatcapableofnavigating
theEnglishChanneltoDunkirk
EvacuationbeganonMay26
Twodayslater,theGermanLuftwaffe(airforce)bombedtheport,makingescapemore
difficult
EvacuationendedonJune4th,bringingover340000AlliedsoldierstoBritain
TheGermanArmycontinuedtosweepthroughFranceandonJune22,1940,France
surrendered.BritainandtheCommonwealthwerealoneagainstGermany.

THEBATTLEOFBRITAIN
OperationSeaLion:theinvasionofBritain,HitlersnextgoalafterbombingDunkirk.
GermanyfirstwantedtodestroyBritainsairpower.
July10th,1940LuftwaffestartedabombingcampaignaimedatharboursinEngland.
BySeptember,theywerebombingcivilians.
TheBlitz:ThenamegiventotheGermanraidswheretheybombedLondonandothercities
for50consecutivenights.
TheywerestillunabletodefeattheBritishairforcehowever.TheBritishhadaradarsystem
thatwarnedthemofoncomingGermans.TheyalsohadSpitfiresandHurricanes,fighter
planesthatwereeffectivedefenseplanes.
Eventually,theBritishairforcebecamemoresuccessfulinshootingdownGermanbombers
andinMay1941,HitlergaveuponhisplantoinvadeBritain
Morethan23000peoplewerekilledintheBlitz

THEWARSPREADS
OperationBarbarossa:HitlersnextplanaftertheBattleofBritaintoinvadetheUSSR.
DespitehispeaceagreementwiththeUSSR,HitlerwantedtocompletehisGermanEmpire.

19

 WhentheSovietUniontookoverpartoftheBalkansin1940,Hitlerbecamesuspiciousand
decidedtoinvaderightaway.
TheSovietsweresurprisedandbyautumntheGermansreachedtheoutskirtsofMoscow
andLeningrad(nowSt.Petersburg).
TheGermanswerenotequippedfortheSovietwinter,soonlosingtheiradvantage
In1942,GermanylaunchedanotheroffensiveandgotasfarasStalingrad,butwerestopped
bywinteronceagain.
Aftersuffering300000casualties,theGermanssurrenderedin1943
TheSovietUnionseizedthischancetoregainmuchofitslostterritory.
Byearly1944,theSovietswereadvancingintoEasternEuropetowardsGermany.

THEWARINTHEPACIFIC
JapanwasanAxismember,butwasnotinvolvedinthewarinEurope
In1941,itwaspreparedtoinvadeUSandEuropeancoloniesinAsiawhichwererichin
resourcessuchasoil,rubberandtin
PearlHarbour:OnDecember7th,1941,JapaneseplanesbombedtheUSnavalbaseinPearl
Harbour,ontheislandofHawaii,destroyinghalthefleet.
TheywentontobombthePhilippines.
Thenextday,theUSdeclaredwaronJapan,promptingtheAxistodeclarewarontheUS
JapancontinuedtoinvadeSoutheastAsiaandBurma,plusIndonesiaandAustralia
December7th,1941HoursafterPearlHarbour,Japanesetroopsbegantheirinvasionof
HongKong
ByChristmasDay1941,HongKonghadfallentotheJapanese
CanadahadsenttroopstoHongKongmonthsearlier,butall1975Canadiantroopshad
beenkilledortakenprisoner.

CANADASROLEINEUROPE
TheDieppeRaid
TheAllieswantedtodoasmallraidtotestnewtechniquesandequipment
Until1942,mostofthewarhadbeenfoughtinAfrica
The2ndCanadianDivisionwaschosentobethemainforceofattackinaraidontheFrench
portofDieppe(underGermanoccupation)
Therewereproblemsfromthestartoftheraidhowever
MorningofAugust19th,1942oneoftheshipscarryingCanadianstoDieppeunexpectedly
metasmallGermanconvoy.Theyengagedinasmallseabattle,butthenoisealerted
Germansonshore.Theshipswerealsodelayedsotheycouldnotembarkbeforedawn.
TheywereeasilyshotdowninthedaylightbyGermanmachineguns.
Communicationbetweentheshipsandlandwasbadsotheysentmorereinforcements
ashore,trappingthosetroopstoo.
Alliedtankscouldntgettractiononthebeachandcouldntmove
Theraidwasafailure,with907Canadiancasualtiesina9hourbattle

CANADIANSATSEA
TheRoyalCanadianNavywasdesperatelyshortofequipment/manpower
By1941,theBattleoftheAtlanticwasinfullforce
BritainwasdependentonCanadaforfoodandmilitarysupplies

20

 GermanstriedtostarvetheBritishbycuttingoffandsinkingmerchantships
Topreventbeingsunk,Alliesailedinconvoys(warshipsescortedvesselscarryingsupplies)
UBoatscontinuedtodestroyhundredsofsupplyships
Canadabegantobuildcorvettessmall,unstableshipsthatwerequick
ByMay1942,BritainhadcrackedtheGermannavalcodeandmoreAlliedshipswere
surviving.Thenavypersonnelweregettingbettertrainedandsupplieswerebeing
conserved.
TheCanadiannavygrewalotduringthewar,andprovidedhalftheescortsacrossthe
Atlantic

CANADIANSINTHEAIR
TheRoyalCanadianAirForcealsogrewafterthewarbegan
TheyparticipatedinbombingraidsinBritain,NorthAfrica,Italy,NorthwestEuropeand
SoutheastAsia,includingnightraidsoverGermany
Bymid1943,theAlliesstartedbombingGermanindustriesnightafternightwhileUS
bombersattackedduringtheday
Hamburgwasbombedrelentlesslyasthecitywasengulfedbyflames
Nearly10000Canadianbomberslosttheirlives
In1941,theRCAFformedtheWomensDivisiontosupportthewareffort
Theyweretrainedasclerks,cooks,assistantsandrivers
Onlylaterinthewarwerewomenallowedtofly.Theydeliveredtheplanesbutwerenot
allowedincombat.

THEINVASIONOFITALY
WinstonChurchillthoughtthebestwaytorecaptureEuropewasthroughthesoft
underbellyofEurope:ItalyandSicily
Theinvasionlasted2years
July10,1943CanadianshelpedtheAlliesinvadeSicily.Aftertwoweeksoffighting,the
Allieswon.
InSeptember,theymovedtomainlandItalywherethemuddyconditionsandrainyweather
madebattleandadvancesslow.
OnJune4,1944,theAlliestookRome,butfightinginItalycontinueduntilspringof1945.

DDAYANDLIBERATION
June6th,1944DDay:theAllieslaunchedOperationOverlordafullscaleinvasionof
Europe
TheylearnedfromDieppeandthistimetheinvasionwasplannedtotheverylastdetail
OnthemorningofJune6th,over30000CanadiansoldiersarrivesatJunobeachandworked
throughtheGermanbuiltobstacles(concretebarrier,barbedwire)togetinland
Germandefensewaspoorastherehadbeenastormandtheydidntexpectanattack
TheAlliesfoughtforweekstogetinland
Theythenbeganan11monthadvancethroughFranceandBelgium,towardsGermany
InMarch1945,AlliedforcesattackedGermany
CanadiansweregiventheresponsibilityofliberatingtheNetherlands

21

 AllieshadattemptedtosavetheNetherlandsearlierin1944butfailed.TheGermanshad
destroyedmanyportcitieslikeAmsterdamandRotterdam.Theirfoodsuppliesandhad
beencutoffandsomanyDutchwerestarvingtodeath.
InearlyAprilCanadiansbegantheirattackontheNetherlands
Thefightingwasslowandover6300Canadiansdied
April17ththeCanadiansdefeatedtheGermansinthenortherncityofGroningen
May4thGermansweresurroundedandtheysurrendered
Airdropsoffoodandconvoysoftruckscarryingsuppliesprovidedfoodtothecivilians
Canadianswerehailedasheroes
TheAlliesattackedGermanyfromthewestandtheSovietUnionattackedfromtheEast
GermanysurrenderedonMay7th,1945
HitlerandhiswifeEvaBrauncommittedsuicideinaBerlinBunkerbeforesubmittingtothe
Allies

THEHOLOCAUSTDISCOVERED
Millionsofpeoplehadbeenmurderedinconcentrationcamps
TheFinalSolution:aplanadoptedbytheNazigovernmentin1941toridsocietyofall
peopletheyconsideredundesirable.DeathcampswerebuiltallovertheGermanEmpire
andJewsfromalloverEuropewerebroughttothesecamps.Theirheadswereshaved,
familiesseparatedandtheweak/youngweresentimmediatelytodieingaschambers.The
strongandhealthyhadtowork,untiltheybecametooweak.Then,theytoowentintothe
gaschambers.
By1945,theGermanshadkilledover6millionJews,gypsies,slavsandothers.
ThiseventwascalledtheHolocaust.

JAPANSURRENDERS
AftertheAlliedvictoryinEurope,thewarinthePacificintensified
Bymid1945,mostoftheJapaneseairforce/navywasdestroyed
Theirarmywasstillstronghowever,sotheUSdecidedtouseanatomicbomb
ManhattanProject:atopsecretplanbyUSandBritishscientistsin1941todevelopa
nuclearbomb.Canadabecameawarein1942.
August6th,1945aUSbombernicknamedEnolaGaydroppedtheatomicbombover
Hiroshima,killing70000residents.
August9th,1945A2ndbombwasdroppedonNagasaki,killing40000people.
Realizingtheycouldnotwithstandthepowerofthenuclearbomb,Japansurrendered.
Thewarwasover.

THEWARATHOME
Canadianfactorieswereproducingmoregoodsthaneverbefore
Workersworkedverylonghoursandwomencameintotakemensplacesintheworkforce
Manyworkers,especiallysinglewomen,movedfromruralareastoindustrialcities

CANADASWARTIMEECONOMY
Withincreasedproductionandemployment,peoplehadmoremoney
Therewerelessgoodstobuythough,becausemostwerebeingshippedofftoBritain
Inflation:Whentherestoomuchmoneyandnotenoughgoods,thepricesskyrocket.

22

 KingappointedJamesIlsley(lawyerfromNovaScotia)toaddresspotentialinflationand
debt
HeencouragedpeopletobuyVictoryBonds
Inflationstilloccurredhowever
In1941,theWartimePricesandTradeBoardfrozeallwagesandpricestopreventinflation
1942Kingintroducedfoodrationing,limitingtheamountofgoodsonecouldreceiveper
week

GROWINGDEMANDFORSOCIALCHANGE
Duringthewar,thegovernmenttriedtorestrictstrikes
Workerswantedhigherwagesandtherighttobargain
AfterthesteelworkersinNovaScotiaandcoalminersinAlberta/BCwentonstrike,the
governmentsofteneditspolicyandallowedworkerstojoinunions
TheCCFbegantobecomepopular
In1943,theCCFmadeuptheoppositioninOntario
In1944,theCFFformedthegovernmentinSaskatchewan
FeelingthethreatoftheCCF,Kingintroducedtheunemploymentinsuranceprogramin
1940andexpandedCanadassocialassistanceprogramin1945.

THECONSCRIPTIONCRISIS
TheNationalResourcesMobilizationAct:IntroducedbyMackenzieKinginresponsetothe
peoplewantingmoregovernmentactiontowardsthewar.Thisactgavethegovernment
specialemergencypowerstomobilizealltheresourcesinthenationtodefeattheenemy,
thusallowingconscription.
ConservativeswerepressuringKingtoadoptoverseasconscription
SoKingheldaplebisciteontheissueonApril17th,1942
AllprovincesexceptQuebecvotedinfavourofconscription
InAugust1942,anamendmenttotheNationalResourcesMobilizationActpermitted
overseasconscription
QuebecwasangryandKingtriedtosmooththeconflictover,butfailed
TheMinisterofDefense,J.L.Ralstonresignedbutlaterdecidedtostayinhisposition.King
kepthisresignationletter.
Hehadmanagedtoavoidtheissueofoverseasconscriptionfor2yearsuntil...
Inthe1944invasionofEurope,Canadahadlostmanysoldiersandthereforereplacements
wereneeded.RalstonwentovertoEuropeandconcludedthatmoresoldierswereindeed
needed.KingrefusedtobeconvincedandannouncedRalstonsresignationtwoyearsafter
hisletterhadbeenhandedin
KingreplacedRalstonwithGeneralAndrewMcNaughton,whohehadhopedwouldbeable
toencouragevolunteers,buthefailedtodoso
Kingfinallycavedandsentconscriptsoverseas
Notallwentpeacefully,astherewereriotsinMontrealandconscriptsfromBCrefusedto
leave

WHATTHEWARMEANTTOCANADA
CanadaprovidedsupporttotheAllieseconomicallyandmilitarily
Theeconomyboomedasagriculturewasovertakenbyindustry

23

 Manufacturingwasnowimportantandindustrialareasbecamemorecommon
Thisattractedamassivewaveofimmigrationpostwar
ThewarprovedtotheworldCanadasidentityandstrength

CANADAINTHEPOSTWARWORLD
TheUSandtheSovietUnionhadbeenalliesduringWWII,buttheirrelationssoon
grewtense
Theywerehostiletowardseachotherandusedspies
Bothsidesstockpiledweaponsandbombs
CanadaatthistimewastryingtokeeptheUSfromweakeningitsnationalidentity

THECOLDWARBEGINS
TheUSandSovietUnionwereconsideredsuperpowers
Theybothhadweaponscapableofnuclearannihilation,thereforetheysimplyfoughtfor
politicalinfluenceinotherpartsoftheworld
ThisrivalrywascalledtheColdWar,asitwasntanopenwar,thoughitlastedover40years
Causes:
Differentpoliticalsystems:TheSovietUnionwascommunist;thegovernment
controlledallindustryandcommerce.Nopoliticaloppositionwastolerated.TheUShowever
wascapitalist,withaneconomybasedonprivateenterprise,individualsinvestinginbusiness
forprofit.Peoplehadfreedomofspeechinsuchasystem.
Westerncountriesweresuspiciousofcommunismastheythoughtitwasaimedto
overthrowWesternsocietiesinaworldrevolution.
TheSovietstookoverEasternEuropeandestablishedcommunistgovernmentsthere
CommuniststookoverChinain1949,theformergovernmentfleeingtoTaiwan
CommitteeonUnAmericanActivities:createdbytheUSgovernmentduringtheColdwar
toweedoutanycommunistsinthecountry.ChairedbySenatorJosephMcCarthy,who
terrifiedthecountrywithsecretlistsofallegedcommunists.Anyonesuspectedofbeinga
communistwouldbepersecuted,firedandblacklisted(notallowedtofindanotherjob).

THECOLDWARATHOME
In1949,theleaderoftheConservativestriedtomakethespreadofcommunismAKAthe
redmenace,anissue.
PrimeMinisterLouisSt.Laurent,however,refusedtooutlawcommunismasitwas
undemocratictodoso
Nevertheless,manyCanadiansbegantofearcommunism
Theybegantosuspectunionleaderswhofoughtforbetterconditionsforworkersand
defenseindustriessecretlysentoutlistsofemployeesforscreening
Workerssuspectedofcommunismweredismissedfornoapparentreason
InQuebec,PremierMauriceDuplessistookastrongstandagainstcommunism
Policeraidedofficesandhomestofindrevolutionarymaterial
ThePadlockLawwasusedtoshutdownsuspectedorganizations/newspapers

24

 WhenapoorlyconstructedbridgecollapsedinTroisRivieresin1951,Duplessisclaimedit
wascommunistsabotage

NATOANDTHEWARSAWPACT
NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization:AmilitaryallianceformedbytheUSinfearofthe
SovietUnionin1949,comprisedofCanada,theUS,GreatBritainandotherWestern
Europeancountries.Ifanyonememberwasattacked,theotherswererequiredtohelp.
TheWarsawPact:WhenNATOacceptedWestGermanyasamember,theSovietUnionfelt
threatenedandformedanalliancecalledtheWarsawPactin1955.Thisalliancewas
comprisedofEasternEuropeancountries,usedtoprotectthemselvesfromattack.
Armiesconstantlypracticedforwarandhadspieseverywhere,searchingforsecretsand
carryingoutmurders/assassinations
In1956,theSovietsbrutallycrushedarevolutioninHungary
TheBerlinWall:builtbyEastGermanyin1961toseparateEast/WestBerliners.

THEISSUEOFNORTHAMERICANDEFENSE
Withlongrangebombersdeveloped,NorthAmericabecamevulnerabletoattack
ToprotectagainstSovietairattacks,theUSbuilt3linesofradarstationsacrossCanada:
o ThePinetreeLine
o TheMidCanadaLine(intheArctic)
o TheDistantEarlyWarning(theDEW)
Theywereconstructedbetween1950and1957,andweredesignedtodetectanysurprise
Sovietattacks
Forthefirsttime,USmilitarywasstationedinCanadiansoil.
SomeCanadiansfeltthiscompromisedtheirindependence
Soon,theUSandtheSovietshaddevelopedintercontinentalballisticmissiles
TomeetthepotentialthreatofSovietattackinNorthAmerica,CanadaandtheUS
establishedtheNorthAmericanAirDefenseAgreement,whichincludedallfigherforces,
missilebasesandradarscontrolledbyacentralcommandstationinCheyenneMountain,
Colorado.

CIVILDEFENCE:THEHOMEFRONTINTHECOLDWAR
Canadianswereafraidthatanopenwarwouldrainbombsandmissilesontheircities
Thegovernmentthereforedevelopedcivildefenseplans
o Nuclearshelterswerebuilt,schoolsrandrills,etc.

PLANNINGFORPEACE:THEUNITEDNATIONS
InApril1945,delegatesfrom51countriesdrewupacharterfortheUnitedNations
TheUnitedNationswasbasedontheideaofcollectivesecurity
Iffacedwithanaggressornation,itcould:
o Condemntheaggressorthroughspeechesandresolutions
o Useeconomicsanctions,urgingmembersnottotradewiththeaggressor
o Respondmilitarilybysendinginanarmedforce
TheSecurityCouncilisresponsibleformaintainingpeaceandsecurity
Itsmain5membersareBritain,France,theUS,RussiaandChina

25

 Therearealso10othernonpermanentmemberswith2yearterms
Decisionsrequiretheconsentof9members,butthe5permanentmembershavethepower
toveto(rejectactionsthattheydisagreewith)
Upto1955,thevetowasused78times,75timesofwhichwerebytheSovietUnion
TheUNalsowantedtoabolishdisease,famineandprotecthumanrights
TheycreatedagenciessuchastheWorldHealthOrganizationandUNICEFforthis
TheyalsoestablishedtheInternationalMonetaryFundtostabilizetheworldeconomy

THEKOREANCONFLICT
WorldWarIIhadleftKoreadivided
Thenorthsidewascommunist,supportedbytheUSSRandcommunistChina
ThesouthsidewasafragiledemocracybackedbytheUS
In1950,NorthKoreatriedtoinvadeSouthKoreaandwarbrokeout
AUNforcecomprisedmostlyofAmericanstriedtoforcetheinvaderstoretreat.Canada
sentthousandsoftroopsaswell.
LesterPearson,CanadasMinisterofAffairs,urgedallsidestoagreetoaceasefire,which
wasreachedin1953
Thewarhadincreasedtensionbetweenthewestandthecommunistnations

THESUEZCRISIS
TheSuezcanallinkstheMediterraneantotheRedSea,theshortestsearoutefromEurope
totheIndianOcean
In1956,Egyptspresident,GamalAbdelNasser,tookoverthecanalonbehalfofEgypt
IsraelwasfrightenedbyEgyptshostilityastheyhadthreatenedtobarshipstoandfrom
Israelusingthecanal
FranceandBritainwerequicktogodefendIsraelandsolandedtroopsinthecanalzone
TheSovietUnionthenofferedEgyptfinancialaidandmissiles
LesterPearsonwenttotheUNandtriedtoworkoutasolution
HeproposedthataUNEmergencyforcebesenttotheSuezCanaltoseparateandmediate
betweentherivalarmies
Forhelpingdefusethecrisis,PearsonwasawardedtheNobelPeacePrize

THECUBANMISSILECRISIS
1959CubanrebelsunderFidelCastrooverthrewCubasproUSleader
TheUSthenimposedtradeandeconomicsanctionsonCuba
In1961,theUSbackedaninvasionofCubabyagroupofantiCastroCubans
Theinvasionfailed,butCubawenttotheUSSRforsupport
October1962USplanestookpicturesoftheUSSRinstallingnuclearmissilesinCuba
PresidentKennedy,seeingthisthreat,announcedanavalandairblockadeofCuba
TheUSwasreadyforwar
SovietPremierNikitaKhrushchevoriginallyrefusedtoremovethemissilesandordered
shipstogotowardstheUSshipsthatblockedCuba
Lastminute,KhrushchevagreedtodismantlethemissilebasesinexchangefortheUSs
promisetonotinvadeCuba
CanadarefusedtoplaceCanadasNORADforcesonalertasPrimeMinisterDiefenbakerwas
reluctanttohaveCanadadrawnintotheconflict

26

 TheUSwasfuriousandtheeventcausedmuchdamagetoCanadaUSrelations

THENUCLEARISSUEINCANADA
ThecountrywasdividedastowhetherornotCanadashouldacceptnuclearweapons
In1963,therulingConservativePartywasdividedontheissue
Duringtheelectoralcampaignof1963,LesterB.Pearson(Liberal)proposedthatCanadian
forcesacceptnuclearweaponsundercertainconditions
TheConservativesunderDiefenbakerhoweverappealedtonationalism
PearsonwoninanarrowdefeatandtheLiberalsformedaminoritygovernment

THEVIETNAMWAR
VietnamwasdividedintwojustlikeKorea
Thenorthwascommunistandinthesouth,therewasadictatorshipsupportedbytheUS
Atfirst,theUSofferedonlymilitaryadviceandeconomichelp,butbythe60s,theywere
lendingtroopsaswell
In1965,PresidentLyndonJohnsonincreasedthenumberoftroopsandauthorizedthe
bombingofNorthVietnam
By1966,therewere190000USsoldiersinVietnam
Thiswarwasthefirsttoberecordedbytelevisioncamerasandsotheantiwarprotests
beganacrossthecountryasaresultofseeingthedamageonTVscreens
TheNorthVietnameselaunchedtheTetOffensive,simultaneouslyattackingcities
throughoutSouthVietnamandseizingtheUSembassyinSaigon
TheUStroopscouldnotwinthewar
In1969,RichardNixontookoffice,pledgingtotakethetroopsoutofSoutheastAsia
TheforcesleftSouthVietnamin1973
Lessthantwoyearslater,aNorthVietnameseoffensivecrushedSouthVietnam,unifying
thewholecountryundercommunistrule
ThousandsofVietnamesefledtoCanadainfearofcommunism

CANADASREACTIONTOTHEWAR
Somebenefitedfromthewar,sellinggoodstotheUSDefenseDepartment
Mostpeoplestillsawcommunismasathreat
PrimeMinisterPearsonalsodoubtedthewar
In1965,hecriticizedOperationRollingThunder(theUSbombingcampaignofNorth
Vietnam)

TRUDEAUSFOREIGNPOLICY
PierreElliotTrudeau(LIBERAL)waselectedprimeministerin1968.
HewantedtochartacourseinforeignpolicythatwaslessdependentonUSapproval.
TrudeaudidnotwanttoangertheStateshowever
HewantedtoscalebackCanadasparticipationinthenucleararmsracewiththeUSSR
hopingitwouldeaseColdWartensions
From19701972,nuclearmissileswereremovedfromCanadasNATOforcesinEurope
TrudeaualsocutthenationaldefensebudgetandreducedCanadasNATOcontingentin
Europe
CanadacontinuedtoparticipateinNATOandNORAD

27


CANADAASAMIDDLEPOWER
Trudeauwantedworldpeaceandunderstandingamongnations
CanadahadbegantobuildlinksbetweentheEast,West,NorthandSouth,becominga
middlepower
Hecalledformoreaidtopoorcountriesintheworldandimprovelivingconditionsfortheir
people
Thispolicyoftradeandaid=thecornerstoneofTrudeausforeignpolicy
CanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgency:formedin1968.Itsresponsibilitywasto
boostforeignaidtolessindustrializedcountries.Countriesreceivingaidwouldhaveto
agreetobuyproductsmadeinCanada.Thiswasalsocalledtiedaidandmadeuphalfof
thedevelopmentaidthatCanadagavetoothernations.

THECOMMONWEALTHANDLAFRANCOPHONIE
CanadawasinagoodpositiontobuildbridgesbetweenNorthandSouthbecauseitwas
partoftheCommonwealthandlaFrancophonie
Commonwealth:TheformermembersoftheBritishempire.
LaFrancophonie:anorganizationofFrenchspeakingstates.
In1950,CommonwealthcountriesestablishedtheColomboPlantoprovidemoneyandaid
tolessdevelopedcountriesintheorganization.MostCanadianaidundertheColomboPlan
wenttoIndiaandPakistan.

THECOLDWARRENEWED
Intheearly1970s,tensionbetweentheUSandtheUSSReasedandtheyagreedtoreduce
thenumberoftheirnuclearweapons
StrategicArmsLimitationTreaty(SALT1):Signedin1972bytheUSandtheUSSR,a
breakthroughagreementbetweenthetwosuperpowers.
In1979however,theUSSRinvadedAfghanistanandsentnewmissilestoEasternEurope.
NATOinresponsedecidedtoannouncethatit,toowasdeployingmoremissilestoEurope.
InprotestagainsttheSovietoccupationofAfghanistan,manyWesternnationsboycotted
the1980OlympicgamesinMoscow.
In1983,SovietjetsshotdownaKoreanpassengerjet
Amonthlater,theUSinvadedGrenadaanddeposedaproSovietgovernment
Eachsuperpoweraccusedtheotherofprovokingwar
Trudeauappealedtobothcountriestoshowmorerestraintandmadeatouroftheworld
capitalstoenlistotherleaderstohelpmediatethetensionbetweentheUSandtheUSSR.
Februrary29th,1984Trudeauhadbecometiredofpoliticsanddecidedtoretireaftera
walkthroughthesnowystreetsofOttawa.

THEMULRONEYERA:CLOSERTIESWITHTHEUNITEDSTATES
BrianMulroney(Conservative)becamePrimeMinisterinSeptember1984
MulroneytriedtogetclosertotheUS;developingaclosepersonalrelationshipwithUS
PresidentRonaldReagan
In1985,theUSgovernmentrevealedaplanforadefenseshield,partofwhichwouldorbit
theEarth.ItwascalledtheStrategicDefenseInitiative,nicknamedStarWars.

28

 MulroneydeniedCanadasofficialinvolvement,buthetightenedotherlinkswiththeUS
TheForeignInvestmentReviewAgency(FIRA):formedin1973byTrudeautoblockany
foreigninvestmentthatseemedtonotbeinCanadasinterest.ThiswouldreducetheUSs
controlovertheCanadianeconomy.
MulroneydeclaredCanadaopenforbusinessanddismantledFIRA,replacingitwith
InvestmentCanada,whichencouragedsuitableforeigninvestment.
In1987,hestartednegotiationsthatledCanadaintotheFreeTradeAgreement,withthe
US.Theagreementremovedtariffsongoodscrossingtheborderandopenedupinvestment
betweenthetwocountries.
Freetradewasverycontroversial,somethoughtitwouldhelptheCanadianindustrygrow,
whereasothersthoughtitwouldleadtothedownfalloftheCanadianeconomy
Aftermuchdebate,theFreeTradeAgreementwasestablishedin1989
NorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement:Signedin1992,whentheMulroneygovernment
expandedthefreetradezonetoMexico.
Thisdecisionwasalsocontroversialforsimilarreasons.Amidprotests,theLiberal
GovernmentunderJeanChrtiensignedtheNorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement,which
cameintoeffectin994.
TheConservativeshadbeendefeatedin1993.

THEENDOFTHECOLDWAR
Thewarendedsurprisinglyquickly
SovietLeaderMikhailGorbachev,realizingtheUSSRcouldnotaffordsuchcostlyarms,
proposedmassivecutsinthearsenalofbothsuperpowers
Hethenbeganaseriesofsocial,economicandpoliticalreformsthatwouldhelpthe
communistcountriesrunmoreefficiently/bemorecitizenfriendly
Heloosenedcensorshipandallowedfreedomofspeech
Thesechangesencouragedothercommunistcountriestodothesame
InNovember1919,theBerlinWallcamedown
EventheSovietUnionfellapartin1991,withitsstatesbecomingindependentcountries
TheColdWarwasover
Chinaexperimentedalsowithcapitalismandcitizenswantedpoliticalfreedom
TheirhopesweredashedhoweverinTiananmenSquareinJune1989.RedArmysoldiers
andtanksattackedstudentsinvolvedinthedemocracymovement,killinghundredsmaybe
thousands.
Regardless,thedivisionbetweenthecommunistandwesternworldwasgone

THENEWWORLDORDER
ManythoughttheendoftheColdWarwouldbringpeace,buttherewerestillnumerous
regionalandethnicrivalries
August1990IraqinvadedKuwait
TheUNdemandedthatIraqwithdrew,howeverbyJanuary1991,thedeadlinegivenhad
passedandUS/coalitionforcesbegantobombtargetsfromtheairandsea
OperationDesertStormhadbegun
TheGulfWardestroyedmuchoftheIraqiarmyandcountryinfrastructure
Theuseoflaserguidedbombsandcruisemissileschangedwarforever
AfterwinningtheGulfWAR,usPresidentGeorgeBushproclaimedaNewWorldOrder

29

 Fromnowon,theUNwouldtakeamoreactiveroleasaglobalpoliceforce,ina
peacekeepingrole
AstheremainingsuperpowerafterthecollapseoftheUSSR,theUSwaslefttodominate
worldaffairs

SOMALIA
OperationRestoreHopeLaunchedinSomaliain1992bytheUN,itaimedtohelpthe
countrywhichwasravagedbycivilwarandstarvation.
Themissionresultedincrisiswhenonenight,membersoftheCanadianAirborneRegiment
arrestedateeninthenight,torturedhimandbeathimtodeath.Canadianswereshockedat
thisblatantactofracismandin1995,theAirborneRegimentwasdisbanded.

RWANDA
Rwandawastornapartbyethnicrivalries
AgroupofUNpeacekeepersledbyCanadianmajorGeneralRomeoDallairewenttohelp
controltheslaughter
Dallairehadaplantohaltthekilling,butitrequiredtheUNtosendtroopsquicklyandit
alsorequiredthesupportoftheUS
TheresponsefromtheUNandUSwasunenthusiastic
Withinafewweeks,closetoamillionpeoplehaddied.TheUNhadfailed.

ANEWERAOFGLOBALIZATION
OneofJeanChrtiensprioritieswastoexpandCanadastradetoothercountries
HesignedfreetradeagreementswithChileandIsrael
CanadaalsojoinedtheAsiaPacificEconomicCooperationGroup
Theseinitiativeswerepartoftheglobalizationtrend,avastnetworkofbusiness,
communicationsandculturallinksamongcountries
Goodscouldbeeasilyshippedduetoimprovedcommunicationandtechnology
TheInternetmadeitpossibletodobusinessonlineinalmostanypartoftheworld

GLOBALIZATIONASAPROBLEM
Mostthinkthatitwillraiselivingstandardsforeveryone
Othershoweverthinkthatitgrowstoomuchdependenceonothereconomies
Also,manymultinationalcorporationshaverelocatedtopartsoftheworldwherelabouris
cheaper.Thistakesjobsawayfromonesowncountry,aswellasintroducingpoor/abusive
workconditionsforothersinforeigncountries.

ACHANGINGSOCIETY
ManywarveteransgotmarriedoverseasandbroughtbackWarbridestoCanada
TheywereforcedtoadapttoanewCanada,whichwaseverchanging

COMINGHOME

30

 Toeasethetransitionofveteransbackintosociety,theyweregivenbackthejobstheyhad
before
Veterans/warwidowsweregivenhiringpreferenceforgovernmentjobs
TheVeteransLandAct:Anactenablingveteranstoobtainmortgagesatpreferredrates.

THENEWFACEOFCANADA
Displacedpersons:RefugeeswholanguishedincampsacrossEurope,including
concentrationcampsurvivorsandotherswhohadnohomes,possessionsorhope.
Canadaacceptdisplacedpersonsandsettledthemincommunities
Mostnewimmigrantsnowsettledincitiesasopposedtofarms
Suburbs:Newhousingdevelopmentsintheoutlyingareasofcitieswherelandwas
cheaper.Manymoresuburbswerebuiltasthepopulationexpanded.Theneedforhousing
increasedandsothesecommunitieswerebuilt.
Suburbanvalues:Suburbanfamilieswereseenastraditional;withthestayathomemom
andtheperfectchildren.Womensjobsweregivenbacktowarveteransandnew
householdgadgetssuchaselectricfloorpolishersmadehouseworkeasier.
Babyboom:Thepostwarperioduntil1960wheretherewasadrasticincreaseinbirthrate.
6.7millionchildrenwerebornbetween1946and1961.

DEVELOPMENTSINSOCIETY

Automobiles:Inthe1950s,Canadiansfellinlovewithcars
Smallstoresshutdowninwantofsupermarketsandshoppingmalls
Fewthoughtaboutthepollutionitwouldcause,seatbeltswerenonexistand
drinking/drivingwasconsideredacceptable
Television/ConsumerSociety:TVencouragedaconsumersociety,wherepeoplewouldbuymore
products.Thousandsofinventionswereintroducedandshoppingbecameanationalpastime.
TeenCulture:Withnomorewars/economichardshiptoforcestudentsoutofschool,theteenagerwas
invented
Theyhadmoreleisuretime,moremoneytospendandmoreindependencethankids
Rockandroll(developedinthe50s),becamepopularandwerefavouredamongstteens
Canadaandthegood:MostCanadianswerestillconservative
Hockeyhoweverwasstillafavouritepastime
ProtectingCanadianCulture:CanadawasinfluencedheavilybytheUSandHollywood
ToinvestigateCanadianculture,thefederalgovernmentcreatedTheMasseyCommission
in1949.ItsuggestedtheCanadiansbeprotectedfromUSinfluences.
ItrecommendedthestrengtheningoftheNationalFilmBoard(establishedin1939)
Italsorecommendedfundingtotheartsanduniversities
TheycreatedtheCanadaCouncilin1957whichawardedgrantstowritersandartists
TheMasseyCommissionalsorecommendedthatTVbeusedfornationalentertainment
TheyputtheCBC(previouslymadeforradio)inchargeoftelevision
ThefirsttwostationsopenedinTorontoandMontrealin1952
However,USprogramswerestillpreferredbyaudiencesandchildrengrewupknowing
moreaboutAmericanculturethanCanadianculture

31

 In1968,thegovernmentestablishedTheCanadianRadiotelevisionand
TelecommunicationsCommission,whichimposedrulesrequiringCanadiancontent.

POSTWARPROSPERITY
OnAugust6th,1945,PrimeMinisterMackenzieKingcalledameetingoftheprovincial
premierstodiscusstheeconomy
Kingrecommendedthatthefederalgovernmentbeinchargeoftheeconomy
ProvinceslikeQuebecandOntariohoweverwerenotwillingtogiveuptheirownpowers
C.D.Howe,theMinisterofReconstruction,TradeandCommercehadanewstrategy:
o Privateindustrywouldhandlethetransitionoftheeconomywiththehelpof
governmentincentives
o Taxbreakswouldbegiventocompanieswhoproducedconsumergoods
o GovernmentCrowncorporationswereauctionedofftoprivatecompanies
o Soon,Canadaseconomywasbooming
Theprovincesthentransferredtaxationpowerstothefederalgovernment
Theprovincesreceivetherighttoprovidesocialservices
Thefederalgovernmentnowhadmuchmorepowerattheexpenseoftheprovinces

RICHRESOURCESANDNEWINDUSTRIES
OilwasdiscoveredinAlbertain1947
Boomtownswerecreatedwherenewminesandwellsdeveloped
Ontariohoweverwasstillthecentreofmanufacturing
TheTransCanadaHighwaythelongestnationalhighwayintheworld,whichwas
completedin1970.ItspannedfromSt.JohnstoVictoria.
TheSt.LawrenceSeawayajoinedCanadaUnitedStatesprojectspanningfrom1954
1959.ItlinkedtheAtlanticOceanwiththeGreatLakes.
TheTransCanadaPipelineBuilttotransportgascheaplyfromthewesttotheindustrial
centresofCanada.

Canadiansbegantothinkthattheywerebecomingthe49thstatebecauseoftheUSsgreat
influenceoverthem,anuncertaindebatethatcontinueduntiltheFreeTradeAgreement

CANADIANOWNERSANDWORKERS
Inthewest,H.R.MacMillanputtogetheroneoftheworldslargestforestrycompanies
InNewBrunswick,K.C.Irvingbecameoneoftheworldsrichestmen
Tradeunionsfoughtforagreatershareofthecountrysprosperity
From19461947,7millionworkdayswerelosttostrikes
Wagesroseasaresult,allowingCanadiansmoremoneytospendthereforebenefitting
otherbusinesses

LIMITATIONS
Womenwerepaidsignificantlylessthanmen
Immigrantsandtheworkingpoorworkedundermiserableconditions
TheFirstNationssufferedfromtheindustrialpollution
Thedevelopmentofmines,highwaysandboomtownsdisruptedNativehuntinggrounds

32


THENATIONEXPANDS
AfterWorldWarII,islandersofNewfoundland(independentuntil1932)decidedtoholda
referendumtovoteontheirpoliticalfuture
J.R.JoeySmallwoodwasaskillfulpoliticianwhoarguedtheyshouldjoinCanada
June1948Thefirstreferendumwasheldwithnoclearmajority
March31st,1949TheyheldasecondvoteandtheConfederationwonthevote.
March31st,1949NewfoundlandbecameapartofCanada.

THECHANGINGFACEOFPOLITICS
MackenzieKinghadbeeninpowerlongerthananyotherprimeminister
In1948,heretiredattheageof73
LouisSt.Laurentwashisreplacement
ThemediaatthistimebegantoplayalargerroleinCanadianlife,influencingthepublicinto
seeingcertainviews
TVspromotedJohnDiefenbaker(ProgressiveConservative),whowasseenaselectrifying.
HewontheelectionandtheLiberalschoseanewleader,LesterPearson

DIEFVS.MIKE
Overthenextdecade,PearsonandDiefenbakertookturnsbeingPrimeMinisterandLeader
oftheOpposition;theywerebitterrivalsthrough5nationalelectionsin10years.
Diefenbaker:aPrairiespopulistwholistenedoordinarypeople.
HewascommittedtotheequalityofallCanadians(calledunhyphenatedCanadianism).
HewasalsoanationalistwhobelievedinpreservingCanadasBritishconnectionswhile
standinguptotheAmericans.
HewasprohumanrightsandthefirstprimeministertoincludeawomaninhisCabinetand
includeanAboriginalsenator.
HegavestatusIndianslivingonreservestherighttovoteinfederalelections
HeintroducedtheCanadianBillofRights
Pearson:HebelivedthatBritishconnectionstoCanadawouldbeseveredinthelongrun
Heintroducedtrialabolitionofcapitalpunishmentandeasierdivorcelaws
HeintroducedCanadasflagandimprovedthesocialwelfaresystem

SOCIALWELFARE
Kingintroducedanunemploymentinsurancein1940andthebabybonusin1944
CanadianPensionPlan:Introducedin1966byPearsonsgovernment,whichimprovedon
existingpensionschemes.
CanadaAssistancePlan:Helpedtheprovincesfinancesocialassistanceprogramsforall
needypeople,introducedbyPearsonsgovernment.
PearsonalsointroducedMedicare
SaskatchewanPremierT.C.TommyDouglasintroducedamedicareprogramfirst
Thebillwaspassedin1962
In1962also,TommyDouglasbecametheleaderoftheNewDemocraticParty,formedfrom
theCCF
TheLiberalswerethreatenedbytheNDPandfearedtheywouldwintheelectionthrough
theintroductionofMedicare

33

 In1966,theNationalMedicalCareActwaspassed.Thismeantthatfederalandprovincial
governmentswouldthensharethecostofmedicalcarewithfundingfromtaxes.

In1967,Canadaturned100yearsold

DiefenbakerandPearsonrealizedtheywerebecomingoutoftouchwiththetimesso
Pearsonsteppeddown,beingreplacedbyTrudeau.Diefenbakerwasdefeatedina
leadershipconventionoftheProgressiveConservativePartyin1967.

THETRUDEAUERA
Trudeauwasaflashypolitician,arrivinginsportscars,datingcelebritiesandjokingwith
reporters.Canadianswereinlovewithhim.Trudeaumaniagrippedthenation.
Hewantedtobuildajustsociety.
Hebelievedthatthegovernmenthadthedutytoprotecttherights/freedomsofthepeople

TheYouthquake:
DuetothelargenumberofyouthinNorthAmerica,amorepowerfulyouthcultureof
protestcalledyouthquakewascreated
ThetransitionbeganwiththeBritishInvasionledbytheBeatles
Thisbeganthehippiephenomenon;aneraofsexualpromiscuityanddrugs
Thisyouthquakeshowedthatyoungpeoplewerebecomingmorepoliticallyaware
In1972,thevotingageforfederalelectionswasloweredfrom21to18
Bythe1980s,thebabyboomersbegantolivemoresubduedlives.Theirdesireforwealth
nicknamedthemtheMeGenerationandsothesocialprotestmovementhadgone

TheWomensMovement:
Inthe1960s,theideaoffeminismemerged
Womenfelttrappedbytheirhouseholds
Inresponse,thegovernmentsetuptheRoyalCommissionontheStatusofWomenin1967
toexamineawomansroleinsociety.Theyrealized:
o Womenshouldhavetherightworkoutsideofhome
o Societyshouldtakeresponsibilityforchildren;daycaresshouldbeimplemented
o Womenshouldbeentitledtopaidmaternityleavefromtheirjobs
o Thefederalgovernmentshouldhelpwomenovercomediscrimination
TheNationalActionCommitteeontheStatusofWomen:apressuregroupformedin1971
byseveralwomensgroups.Theylobbiedwithgovernmentstoactquicklyonthe
Commissionsrecommendations.Theywonaclauseguaranteeingtheequalityofwomenin
CanadasCharterofRightsandFreedoms,whichcameintoforcein1982.
Bythe1980s,moreCanadianwomenbecameengineers,doctorsandpoliticians

TheEnvironmentalMovement:
Publicconcernovertheenvironmentbegantorisedramatically
Eventually,thegovernmentpassedlawsrequiringcompaniestoprovetheirprojectswould
notharmtheenvironment
Recyclingbecamemorecommonandvehicleshadtobecomemorefuelefficient

34

 Greenpeace:Anenvironmentalgroupformedin1970byagroupofactivistsinBC.
ConcernedaboutnucleartestingoffthecoastofAlaska,theytookaboattotheareaand
refusedtoleaveuntilthetestwascancelled.Theyhaveusedsimilartacticssincethenand
todayarebasedinAmsterdam.

ECONOMICCHALLENGES
TheOilEmbargoof1973bytheOrganizationofPetroleumExportingCountries

In1973,warbrokeoutintheMiddleEastbetweenIsraelanditsArabneighbors
ManywesterncountriesincludingCanadasupportedIsrael
OPECretaliatedbyrefusingtoselloiltothosecountries;gasandoilpricesjumped400%
overnight
Thisinflationwasseenacrossthecountry,spreadingtoproductsaswell
Aspricesrose,workerswantedhigherwagesandasthewagesgothigher,thepricesdidtoo
Businessesbegantofallandunemploymentratesgothigh

RegionalDisparity:ThegapbetweenthepoorerandmoreprosperousregionsofCanada.
Astherecessionofthe70shit,theprovinceswhodependedonnationalresourceswere
mostimpacted.However,OntarioandQuebecdidnotsufferasmuchandotherprovinces
resentedthemforthat.
WesternAlienation:PeopleinthePrairiesbelievedthatOttawafavouredCentralCanadaatthe
expenseoftheWest.Inresponsetotheoilcrisis,thefederalgovernmentfrozethepriceofoil
andgas,whileimposingataxonpetroleumthatwasexportedfromwesternCanada.The
moneyfromthosetaxeswouldbeusedtosubsidizethecostofimportedoilfromtheEast.
Albertanswerefurious.

Trudeauincreasetransferpaymentstoprovincesforsocialservicesandspentmillionsof
regionalprojectstoboosteconomicdevelopmentincertainareas.
TheLiberalsthenboughtintotheNationalEnergyProgram,whichaimedto:
o Reducetheconsumptionofoil
o ToprotectCanadiansfromrisingoilprices
o TomakeCanadaselfsufficientinoil
TheprogramgavefundingtoCanadianPetroleumcompaniessotheycoulddrillforoilin
promisingsites.Theyalsoencouragedcitizenstoswitchtoelectricpower.
By1984,oilpriceshadfallenandtheNEPhadbeendismantled

THEDEBTCRISIS
Socialservicescostmorethantheyhadenvisioned
Governmentwasoperatingatadeficit:moremoneywasbeingspentthanearned
Thegovernmentcollectedlesstaxeswhenbusinessesfailed,butthenneededtogiveout
morewelfareandsoCanadaneededtoborrowmoneyforitsprograms
WhenTrudeauleftofficein1984,thefederalgovernmentwas160billiondollarsindebt

MULRONEYANDTHEDEBT

35

 BrianMulroney(ProgressiveConservative)cametopowerin1984,promisingtofix
Canadaseconomy.
MulroneyplannedtocopyRonaldReagan(theUS)andMargaretThatcher(Britain).He
wouldsavemoneybytrimmingsocialprograms.
Hewouldcuttaxesandstimulatetheeconomy;however,thisdidnotwork
Canadawashitbyrecessionin1990andpeoplelosttheirjobswhiledebtincreased
TheConservativeslostin1993inadisastrousdefeat

THELIBERALSANDTHEDEBT
JeanChrtien(Liberal)cameintopowerin1993,withadebtof$466billion
Theirsolutionwastoinjectmoneyintotheeconomy;spending6billiondollarsonpublic
workssuchasroadrepairsandnewbridges
Interestratesshotupin1994however,andFinanceMinisterPaulMartinconcludedthat
Canadacouldnolongerafforditsvastnumberofsocialservices
Martinbegancuttingfederalgovernmentspending;raisingtuitionfeesandhealthcosts
SomeCanadianswenttotheUSfortreatmentastheservicestheyneededwerenot
availableinCanada

CANADAANDNEWTECHNOLOGY
Canadiansbecameworldtravelersduetotheadvancementofairplanes
Satellitesallowedaccesstohundredsoftelevisionstations
Satellitesallowedforcheaplongdistancephonecalls
Inthe1980s,personalcomputerswereintroduceandbythe21stcentury,overhalfof
Canadianshadcomputers

THECANADIANIDENTITY

THEROOTSOFQUEBECNATIONALISM

TheDuplessisEra
From19361939andagainfrom19441959,QuebecwascontrolledbyPremierMaurice
Duplessis(UnionNationale)
HewasastrongQuebecnationalistwhothoughtofQuebecasitsownnation
HeintroducedanewflagforQuebecfeaturingthefleurdelis
TheRomanCatholicChurchbecamethemaindefenderofQuebecculture
Religionwasacommonpartofthecurriculum,alongwithlanguagesandphilosophy
DuplessisencouragedforeigninvestmentinQuebec
Theprovinceguaranteedcheaplabourandpromisedlowtaxes
BriberyandcorruptionweretrademarksoftheDuplessisregime

TheQuietRevolution
AfterDuplessisdiedin1960,JeanLesage(Liberals)cameintopower
QuietRevolution:thegroupofchangesbroughtonbyJeanLesageafterDuplessisdied.

36

 Lesagefirstruledoutcorruption,wages/pensionswereraisedandrestrictionsontrade
unionswereremoved
Theyalsomodernizedtheprovinceseconomy,politicsandculture
Theychangedupthecurriculumtomakeitmorescienceandtechnologyoriented
TheinfluenceoftheCatholicChurchdeclined
TheLiberalswonagaininthe1962election,withtheaimofstrengtheningQuebecsown
economy
Thegovernmentboughtoutseveralhydrocompaniesandturneditintoaprovincial
monopolycalledHydroQuebec

TheBirthofSeparatism
WithQuebecsnewachievements,theygotangrierattheinjusticesoftheangloCanadians
TheonlysolutionseenbymostwasseparationfromCanada
YoungradicalsjoinedterroristgroupssuchastheFLQandfoughtinthenameofafree
Quebec
FrontdelaLiberationduQubec:aterroristgroupwhofoughtforafreeQuebec.They
usedfirebombsandexplosivestoattacksymbolsofEnglishpower.MostQuebec
nationalistsdisagreedwithsuchtactics.
In1967,theQuebeccabinetministerRenLvesquelefttheLiberalPartyandformedthe
PartiQubcois,apartyalsoinfavourofQuebecsindependence/separation.

OttawasResponse
LesterPearsonwasprimeministerinthemidstoftheQuietRevolution
HeappointedtheRoyalCommissiononBilingualismandBiculturalismtoinvestigate
solutionsfortheFrenchsdiscontent
ThecommissionrecommendedtheCanadabecomeofficiallybilingual
FrancophonescomplainedaboutthedominanceofBritishsymbols,soPearsonsuggested
Canadamakeanewflagandsochosethemapleleaf.
CanadiansresentedanewflagbecausetheythoughtPearsonwassimplymakingthe
francophoneshappy
However,onFebrurary15th,1965,Canadasnewflagwasraisedforthefirsttime

TrudeauandQubec
TrudeaureplacedPearsonin1968
HepassedtheOfficialLanguagesAct,whichmadeCanadaabilingualcountry
Manyembracedthedeclaration,butsomeWesternersfeltFrenchwasbeingforcedon
them
FrancophoneshoweverfeltthatTrudeauwasnotdoingenough
TheywantedspecialstatusforQuebecinConfederation,butTrudeaurefused

TheOctoberCrisis
October5th1970membersoftheFLQkidnappedJamesCross,aBritishdiplomatfromhis
homeinMontreal
Inexchangeforhisrelease,theFLQdemandedthereleaseofFLQmembersinprison
Thegovernmenthowever,refused
October10th,1970TheFLQkidnappedQuebeclabourministerPierreLaporte

37

 Trudeau,needingtotakeaction,askedParliamenttoimposetheWarMeasuresAct,which
suspendedcivilrightsandhadonlybeenusedduringthefirsttwoworldwars
Anyonecouldbearrestedwithoutbeingchargedforanoffense;beingpartoftheFLQwas
thenacrime
October16thfederaltroopsweresenttopatrolthestreetsofOttawaandMontreal,
wherehundredsofproseparatistQuebeckerswerearrested
October17ththepolicefoundthestrangledbodyofPierreLapointeinthetrunkofacar
Twomonthslater,theMontrealpolicefoundthegroupholdingJamesCrossinaMontreal
house
InexchangeforCrossssafety,thegroupmembersweregivenasafepassagetoCubawhere
theydgetpoliticalasylum.
ThosedetainedundertheWarMeasuresActwerereleasedandtheOctoberCrisiswasover

ThePQinPower
ThePartiQuebecoistookpowerin1976
LeaderRenLevesquepromisedtoholdareferendumregardingindependence
Bill101,AKAtheCharteroftheFrenchLanguagethisbillmadeFrenchtheonlyofficial
languageoftheprovince.ItwasintroducedbyRenLevesqueshortlyafterhegotpower.

The1980Referendum
Areferendumwasheldin1980todetermineQuebecspoliticalfuture
HeproposedthatQuebecbecomeindependentyetmaintaineconomicaltieswithCanada
TrudeaupromisedtonegotiateanewConstitutionthatwouldbeanosidewin
ThereferendumvotedagainstindependenceandRenLevesqueaccepteddefeat

PatriatingtheConstitution
TheBritishNorthAmericaActhadbeenCanadasconstitutionsince1867
TheActwasunderBritishjurisdictionhowever,sonochangescouldbemadewithoutBritish
approval
TrudeauwantedtobringtheConstitutionhometoCanada,aswellasincludeaCharteror
RightsandFreedoms
Trudeauneededtofirstthinkofanamendingformula,howchangeswouldbemade.
OnNovember4th,1981,10premiersmetinOttawaovernightandthoughtoftheKitchen
Compromise.9/10premierswereawakenedinthemiddleofthenighttoapprovethedeal.
ThepremiersacceptedtheCharterofRights,giventhatanescapeclausewereadded(asin,
federal/provincialgovernmentcouldoptoutofcertainclausesintheCharter)
Anamendingformulawasalsodecidedupon:changescouldonlybemadewiththe
approvalof7/10provincesrepresentinghalfofCanadaspopulation.
RenLevesque,whowasstayinginanotherhotel,wasnotincludedintheKitchen
Compromise.
Hearguedthedeal,butTrudeauacceptedthecompromise
Quebecfeltbetrayed
OnApril17th,1982,theNewConstitutionActwassignedintolawbyQueenElizabethIIand
PrimeMinisterTrudeauandtheCanadianConstitutionhadreturnedtoCanada

TheConstitutionDebate

38

 By1984,thegreatestconcernofCanadianswastheeconomy
Intheelectioncampaignof1984,BrianMulroney(ProgressiveConservative),decidedto
appealtotheQuebeckersbypromisingtorepairthedamagedonebytheConstitution
MulroneywaselectedandbegannegotiationswhenRenLvesqueretiredandRobert
Bourassa(ProFederalistLiberalParty)cameintopower
HisgoalwastogetQuebectosigntheconstitution,butotherprovincesalsohaddemands
WesternalienationhadbecomeaproblemagainasOttawagaveagovernmentcontractto
Bombardier,aMontrealbasedairplanecompanyasopposedtotheWinnipegbasedBristol
AerospaceofWinnipeg.
TheReformParty:formedin1987togiveavoicetowesternCanada.

TheMeechLakeAccord
In1987,PrimeMinisterMulroneycalledthepremierstoaconferenceatMeechLake
TheyweretodiscussamendmentstotheConstitution
TheyproposedtorecognizeQuebecasadistinctsocietyandgavemorepowertoother
provinces
ManitobaandNewfoundlandwithheldtheirsupporthoweverandtheAccorddisintegrated
inJune1990
BlocQubcois:formedin1990byLucienBouchard,aQuebecmemberofMulroneys
cabinet.

TheCharlottetownAccord
MulroneysgovernmentformedaCitizensForum,acommitteethattravelledacrossthe
nationtoheartheviewsofCanadiansontheConstitution
Theymadeanewpackageofproposedamendments
ThiswastheCharlottetownAccord
ItproposedreformingtheSenate,makingitanelectedbodywithequalrepresentationfrom
allpartsofthecountry
ItalsosupportedAboriginalselfgovernment
TheAccordwasputtoanationalreferenduminOctober1992
Despiteseeminglypleasingeveryone,over50%ofvotersrejectedit
ThegreatestoppositionwasinBC,wheretheydidntwanttogiveQuebectoomuchpower
Thisaccordalsofailed

Referendumof1995andAfter
TheseparatistPariQubcoiswaselectedonceagaininthe1994provincialelection
PremierJacquesParizeaucalledaprovincialreferendumonQuebecsseparation
Thenosidewonbyalittleover1%
LucienBouchardbecameQuebecpremierattheendofthecenturyandspokeofanew
referendum
PrimeMinisterJeanChrtienestablishedtheClarityBill,whichsetdowninlawthata
substantialyesmajoritywasrequiredbeforeQuebecsindependencecouldbenegotiated
TheLiberalswontheQuebecelectionin2000asseparatismdeclined
BouchardresignedandthenewPremierbecameBernardLandry

AMulticulturalNation

39

 FromtheendofWorldWarItothe60s,Canadahadarestrictiveimmigrationpolicy
In1962,newregulationsremovedlimitsonAsian,Africanandotherforeignimmigrants
In1967,legislationmadeCanadasimmigrationpolicycolourblind
Immigrantswerethenchosenbasedoneducationandemploymentprospects
In1971,TrudeauintroducedanofficialPolicyofMulticulturalism,whichencouragedthe
countrysvariousethnicgroupstoexpresstheircultures.
In1976,immigrationregulationschangedagain,allowingimmigrationoffamilymembers
withrelativesalreadyinCanada
Post60s,moreallowancewasmadeforrefugeesfleeingpersecutionintheirhomelands
Inthe80s,Canadabecamemoremulticulturalthanever,withthebiggestincreasebeing
fromAsiancountries.
SomethoughtthoughthatmulticulturalismwaspreventingCanadafromforminganidentity

AboriginalNations
Aboriginalpeoplelivingonreservesgottherighttovotein1960
Theycontinuedtosufferhoweverfrompoorhealthandpoverty
TheNationalIndianBrotherhood:formedinthelate1960stolobbyonbehalfofthe
Aboriginalpeoplelivingonreserves.
TrudeausgovernmentproposedapolicyoutlinedintheWhitePaperof1969.(Adocument
putforthfordiscussionthatcouldbepassedintothelaw)
TrudeauandChrtien,theIndianAffairsMinister,thoughtthatabolishinganyspecialrights
thattheIndianshad(suchasnotpayingtaxes),wouldsolvetheproblem.Thiswouldallow
Aboriginalstointegrateintomainstreamsociety.
TheAboriginalswerefuriousanddemandedselfgovernment,controlovertheirownaffairs.
Theypresentedtheirownpaper:CitizensPlusAKATheRedPaper.

EducationalConcerns
Thesystemofresidentialschoolswasabandonedin1969
Aboriginalscreatedtheirownschools,teachingtheirownlanguagesandcultures
Asparofagovernmentrunboardinghomeprogram,somehighschoolstudentswere
senttolivewithfamiliesandattendschoolsincitiessuchasVancouver
Thelonelinessdrovesomehomehoweverbeforegraduation
Manystudentswereabusedattheschools
Thegovernmentapologizedin1998andannounceda$350HealingFund

EnvironmentalConcerns
IndustrieswereexpandingaroundreservesandAboriginalswereconcernedthiswould
affecttheirtraditionalactivities
Inthe1970s,theInuit,MtisandIndianBrotherhoodoftheYukon/NorthwestTerritories
wantedtohalttheconstructionofoilandnaturalgaspipelinesthatwouldrunthroughtheir
land
Theydemandedastudytoexaminetheeffectsoftheproject
TheBergerCommissionwascreatedforthispurposeandtheysuggestedthatthe
constructionofthepipelinesbesuspendedfor10yearspendingenvironmentalstudy.

40

 InQuebec,afterdisputesinthe80sand90s,theCreeoftheNorthmanagedtohaltthe
constructionoftwonewphasesoftheJamesBayHydroProject,whichthreatenedtoflood
theirterritory

ThePathtoSelfGovernment
1980CanadianAboriginalpeoplesformedtheAssemblyofFirstNationstorepresent
themintheirdealingswiththefederalgovernment
AboriginalrightswerethenentrenchedintheCharterofRightsandFreedoms
BillC31:passedin1985byParliament.ItgavetheAboriginalbandcouncilsthepowerto
decidewhohadtherighttoliveonAboriginalreserves
Aboriginalsstillwantedselfgovernment,however.
Specificclaims:LandclaimspertainingtoareaswheretreatiesbetweenAboriginalpeoples
andthefederalgovernmenthadbeensigned.Inthesecases,thegovernmenthadnotkept
theirterms.
Comprehensiveclaims:LandclaimspertainingtoownershipoflandinpartsofCanada
neversurrenderedbythetreaty.

TheOkaConfrontation
InOka,Quebecduringthesummerof1990,theOkaTownCouncildecidedtoexpandagolf
courseintoMohawkterritory(theKanesatakereserve)
TheMohawkwarriorsocietystoppedconstructionbyblockadingtheland
TheQuebecProvincialPolicewerecalledintoremovetheblock
OnJuly11th,1990,thepoliceadvancedontheMohawklines.Gunfirebrokeoutandan
officerwaskilled.
Atensestandoffensuedandtherewerenightlyviolentconfrontations
QuebecPremierRobertBourassacalledintheCanadianForcesforhelpasotherbands
persuadedtheMohawkstoendthestandoff
Thedisputedlandwaseventuallyboughtbythefederalgovernmentandgivento
Kanesatake

LandClaimsinBritishColumbia
AboriginalnationsneverofficiallygaveupclaimstomostofBC
TheRoyalProclamationof1763alsodeclaredthatanylandspurchasedbytheBritish
belongedtotheIndians
In1887theNisgaabeganassertingtheirlandrights.EvenwhentheIndianActmadeit
illegalforthemtoraisefundsforlandclaims,theycontinued.
Inthemid1990s,thegovernmentsofCanadaandBCdecidedthatthetimehadcometo
settletheNigsaaclaim
In1996,theywontherightto8%oftheiroriginalland,ownershipoftheforestsandthe
righttotheirownmunicipalgovernment/policinghowevertheNigsaaagreedtopaytaxes.
In1998,theSupremeCourtofCanadadefinedAboriginalTitle.ItruledthatAboriginal
groupscouldclaimownershipoflandiftheycouldprovetheyhadthelandbeforethe
Canadiangovernmentclaimedsovereignty.

APowerfulForceforChange
Nunavutwascreatedin1999fromthelargesttreatynegotiatedeverinCanada

41

 ItgavetheInuitpoliticalcontrolof1.6millionsquarekilometersontheEasternArctic

THEGOVERNMENT
Government:theformaldecisionmakingsystemthatactstoestablishedrulesand
procedures.
Institutions:Bodiesorgroupsresponsibleforcarryingoutspecificaspectsofthe
governmentswork.
OurformalmethodsofdecisionmakinghaveEuropeanroots,whobroughttheirformsof
governingwiththemtoNorthAmerica
Democracy:ruledbythepeople
Directdemocracy:Wheneveryeligiblecitizenparticipatesdirectlybyvotinginalldecisions
thataffectsociety.ThiswaspracticedinAncientGreece.
Representativedemocracy:Whereelectedrepresentativesmakedecisionsonvoters
behalf.Example:Canada.
Constitutionalmonarchy:Therecognitionofamonarch(kingorqueen)asheadofstate.
Canadaisanexampleofone.
TheQueendoesntactuallyruleanynationalone.However,theCrownhasultimatepower.
InCanadatheCrownisrepresentedbytheGovernorGeneral.
CanadianConstitution:Alegaldocumentthatoutlineswhoshouldhavethepowertomake
variousdecisions.Itoutlinesthestructureofourgovernmentanddefines/limitsthe
governmentspower.Canadaisaconstitutionalmonarchy:thepowersandresponsibilities
ofthemonarcharesubjecttothelawsintheConstitution.OriginallycalledtheBritishNorth
AmericaAct,afteritsamendmentin1982,ithas3mainparts:
o AdescriptionofthepowersofprovinciallegislaturesandParliament
o ACharterofRightsandFreedomsthatoutlinesthebasicrightsandresponsibilities
ofeveryCanadian
o AnamendingformulathatdescribeshowtheConstitutionmaybechangedor
altered.Thisformularequires7/10provincestoagreeontheproposal;the7
provincesmustalsomakeupatleastonehalfofthepopulationofCanada
TheUnwrittenConstitution:Customs,lawsandstatutestakenfromBritishtraditionthatwe
abidebybutarenotwrittenintheConstitution.Forexample:politicalparties.
TheNonwithstandingClauseAclauseintheConstitutionthatallowsParliamentorthe
legislatureofprovincetoallowanacttostandevenifitcontravenestheCharter.
FederalSystemAKAFederalism:anorganizationofregionalgovernments(provinces)acting
onbehalfofitsownresidents,withacentralgovernmentresponsibleformattersvitalto
thenationasawhole.
Alllevelsofgovernmentshavedifferentresponsibilities.

Federal SharedResponsibilities ProvincialResponsabilities

NationalDefense Immigration Education
ForeignPolicy Agriculture Charities
AboriginalAffairs HealthCare HealthServicesandHospitals
PostalServices NaturalResources Licences
BankingSystem EnvironmentalIssues Highways

42

MarriageandDivorceLaw ProvincialCourtSystem
CriminalLaw ProvincialPoliceandPrisons
FederalPrisons

TheFathersofConfederationassignedallnewareasofdecisionthatdidntexistin1867to
thefederalgovernmentasresidualpowers.
Thisexplainswhythefederalgovernmentisinchargeoftelevision,computersandfaxes,as
thetechnologydidnotexistbackwhentheConfederationwascreate
Municipalgovernments:AKAlocalgovernmentsthatprovideessentialserviceslikegarbage
disposalandwatersupply.Theyarecontrolledbytheprovincialgovernments.

Canadaisdividedintothreebranches:legislative,executiveandjudicial

Executivepower:thepowertomakedecisionsandadministerthem.
Legislativepower:thepowertomakelaws.
Allthreelevelsofgovernmenthavethepowertomake/amendlaws.
Judicialpower:thepowertointerpret/administerthelaw.
Judicialpowerisseparate fromthetwoother branchesofthegovernmentto ensurethat
thegovernmentactswithintheLaw.

THEFEDERALGOVERNMENT
ParliamentismadeupoftheGovernorGeneral,theHouseofCommonsandtheSenate
Parliamentmustmeetatleastonceayearinasessiontopassnewlaws,amendsand
debateissuesofconcern

TheHouseofCommons:AKAtheLowerHouse.Itistheonlypartofthelegislativebranchthathas
electedmembers.ElectionsforseatsintheHousemustoccurevery5yearsunlessanelectioniscalled
earlier.
Ridings:AKAconstituencies,areasthataredividedroughlyinequalinpopulation(100000
citizens).EachridingisrepresentedbyaMemberofParliament(MP).
ThenumberofseatsintheHouseofCommonsdependsonthepopulation
DebatesintheHouseofCommonsaredirectedbytheSpeakeroftheHouse,anMPchosen
byotherMPschosentoleadthediscussion
Memberssitwiththeirparties
Theoppositionparties(notinpower)sitoppositethegovernmentparty
Theirjobistoscrutinizetheactionsofthegovernment
Caucus:Everypoliticalpartyholdsprivatemeetingscalledcaucuses.Here,theydiscuss
concernsandopinionsfreely.Onceadecisionisreachedincaucus,itistraditionforallMPs
tovoteinfavourofthepartyspositionintheHouseofCommons.
Freevote:Whenmembersofthelegislaturevoteaccordingtowhattheywant,asopposed
tofollowingapartydecision.

TheSenate:AKAtheUpperHouseofParliament.ItisindependentoftheHouseofCommonsandruns
itsownaffairs.ItprovidesafinalcheckonthelegislationpassedintheHouseofCommonsandmayalso
introducetheirownbillsandpassthem.TheywouldthenneedtosendthebilltotheHouseof

43

Commons,thoughthispracticeisrare.SenatorsareappointedbytheGovernorGeneralby
recommendationofthePrimeMinister.Senatorsmust:
o BeCanadiancitizens
o Beatleast30yearsold/youngerthan75
o BeLivingintheprovince/territorytheyrepresent
o Ownatleast$4000ofproperty.
Provinceswithgreaterpopulationshavemoresenators
Patronage:Arewardgivenforindividualloyaltyorsupport

TheExecutiveBranch:
GovernorGeneral:Themonarchsrepresentative.Theymustgiveformalassent(agreement)to
abillbeforeitbecomesalaw.
ThePrimeMinister:TheleaderofthepartywiththemostelectedrepresentativesintheHouse
ofCommons.TheymustbeaskedbytheGovernorGeneraltobecomeprimeminister.
TheCabinet:Madeupofelectedpartymemberschosenbytheprimeminister.Usuallyeach
memberisresponsibleforaparticulardepartment,ie.Defenseorfinance.Cabinetmeetingsare
heldinprivateandinthemeetings,theymayexpresstheirviewsfrankly.
Cabinetsolidarity:Inpublichowever,cabinetmembersmustshowfullsupportoftheir
leader.Thisiscalledcabinetsolidaritysothatthegovernmentappearsunified
Partywhip:Onememberofapartythatiselectedtoensurethatmembersarepresent
inParliamenttosupportpartybillsandvoteaccordingtotheparty.

ThePublicService:AKAthecivilserviceorthebureaucracy.Itisagroupofpermanent
employeeswhoperformthebusinessofthegovernmentie.Gatherstats,writedetailsforlaws
orcollecttaxes.

HowaBillBecomesLaw
PrivateMemberssBill:ifthememberintroducingabillisnotpartoftheCabinet.Anymember
oftheHouseofCommonsorSenatemayintroduceabill.
Procedure:
Ideaforbillisdrafted
IdeaisexplainedtoCabinet
Cabinetapprovesidea
Lawyersdraftthebill
Cabinetcommitteeexaminesthebill
Cabinetandcaucusapprovethebill
ThebillisintroducedtotheHouseofCommonsforthefirstreading
Secondreading:Thehousedebatesandvotesontheprincipleofthebill.
TheParliamentarycommitteeexaminesthebill
TheHouseamendsthebill
Thirdreading:Usuallylittledebateandvote
Ifitpasses,itgoestotheSenate(unlesstheSenateintroducedthebillfirstinwhichcaseitis
giventotheHouseofCommons)
Senateexamines,debatesandamendsthebill
Onceapproved,thebillpassessenate
TheGovernorGeneralgivesformalassentandthebillisnowalaw

44


Provincialgovernments
Hasresponsibilitiesineducation,healthandsocialservices,transportationandnegotiation
withthefederalgovernment.
Thistableshowstherolesinprovincialgovernmentsvs.federalgovernments.

FederalGovernment Role Provincial/TerritorialGov.

GovernorGeneral Representativeofthemonarchy LieutenantGovernor
PrimeMinister Leaderofthegovernmentand Premier
partyinpower
Cabinet Ministersresponsiblefor Cabniet
departmentsaschosenbythe
leaderofthegovernment
HouseofCommons Partoflegislativebranchof LegislativeorNationalAssembly
governmentwhereelected
representativesmakeand
changelaws
Senate Providessobersecondthought [Noequivalent]
totheactionsoftheHouseof
Commons
PublicService Civilservice/bureaucracy,non PublicService
electedpeoplewhoconductthe
businessofthegovernment

LocalGovernments
Simplestformisatowncouncil
Theleaderofthecouncilmaybecalledmayor,reeve,chairperson,overseerorwarden

AboriginalSelfGovernment
ManyAboriginalcommunitieshavelocalgovernmentsthatprovideforthepeoplesneeds
Theleaderiscalledachief
Thechiefmustnegotiatewithhigherlevelsofgovernmentregardinglicenses,accessto
highwaysandeducation

THECITIZENANDGOVERNMENT

Elections:
AnyCanadiancitizenovertheageof18mayvote
Electionsareheldatleastevery5yearsforfederalandprovincialparliaments
Municipalelectionsusuallyoccurevery23years
WhenthePrimeMinisterdecidestocallanelection,theyasktheGovernorGeneralto
dissolveParliament

45

 PoliticalcampaignsareusuallyexpensiveandthereforetheElectionsExpensesActwas
createdin1974.Itlimitedthespendingofcampaignsandevenedouttheplayingfieldfor
candidateswithfewerfunds.
PublicOpinionPolls:Partiesusuallyseekpublicopinionthroughouttheyearthroughpolls.
Onelectionday,pollingstationsaresetupineveryridingusuallyinschoolsorchurches.

TheElectoralSystem:
Firstpastthepostsystem:UsedinCanada,whenthepollsclose,thevotesarecountedand
thecandidatewiththemostvotesineachridingisannouncedthewinner.Nomajorityis
needed.Thissystemaccentuatesregionalism.
Proportionalrepresentation:UsedinIsrael,HollandandItalywhereeachpoliticalpartysets
outalistofallitscandidates.Voterssupportacandidatebasedontheirpartyandthe
numberofseatsapartywinsinlegislatureisbasedonthetotalnumberofvotesitreceives.

PolitcalParties:
Mostelectedrepresentativesbelongtoapoliticalparty
Membersofthesamepartysharethesameideology(groupofbeliefs)
Partiesaregenerallydividedbetweenleftwing,centreandrightwing

LEFT CENTRE RIGHT

Supportchangeinorderto Traditionisimportant,but Traditionisimportant;change
improvethewelfareofcitizens. changemustbesupportedif shouldbetreatedwithcaution.
mostpeoplewantIt.
Governmentsshouldplaylarger Governmentsshouldplayarole Governmentsshouldplayasmall
rolesinpeopleslives,especially onlywhenitimprovesthelives role.Privatebusinessesshould
insocialservice. ofcitizens. ensurethatneedsofcitizensare
met.
Lawandorderareimportantto Lawandorderareimportantto Emphasizeslawandorderto
protecttherightsofallcitizens encourageandprotecttherights protectsocietyanditstraditions
fairlyandequally. ofindividuals

Joiningapoliticalparty:mustbe18yearsold

NonGovernmentalOrganization(NGO)nonprofitorganizationsthatworktoimprovelivesie.The
RedCrossandOxfam.

PressureGroups:madeupofpeoplewhoshareacertainviewpointandwanttochange/influencethe
governmenttopromotetheirinterest.
Institutionalizedpressuregroups:Wellestablishedandhaveformalorganizations.
Issueorientedgroups:Lesspermanentandtendtoaccomplishlimitedaims.
Governmentoftenseeksadvicefromthesegroups
Lobbyist:usedbyinstitutionalizedgroups.Theyarepaidtorepresenttheinterestsofa
particulargrouptokeydecisionmakerssuchaspoliticians.

46

Media:Partiesoftenusethemediatopresentaskewedviewofcertainthings.Theyusepropagandato
convertcitizenstotheirside.

Civildisobedience:theactofintentionallybreakingorrefusingtokeeplawsthatoneconsidersunjust.
ThisisaformofprotestusedbyMartinLutherKingandGhandiwhobothultimatelydiedfortheir
cause.

CANADASLEGALSYSTEM
RuleofLaw:Thismeanswearegovernedbyafixedsetoflawsthatapplytoallpeople.
MagnaCartaisasymbolofthis,signedin1215byKingJohn.Itguaranteedmanyrights
forBritishcitizens.

HabeusCorpus:Therighttoajudge.
CivilLaw:Dealswithrelationshipsbetweenindividualsorgroups,asindisputesoverpropertyor
personalrelationships.ThepersonwhohasbeenhurtiscalledthePlaintiffwhereastheaccusedis
calledtheDefendant.
CriminalLaw:Dealswithmattersthataffectsocietyasawhole.Asthecrimesareagainstsocietyasa
whole,thedefenserepresentstheaccusedpersonandthoseaccusingtheaccusedpersonarecalledthe
Crownor,thepersecution.Onlythefederalgovernmentcanmakecriminallaws.
CriminalCodeofCanada:PassedbyfederalParliamentin1892andcontainsmanycriminallaws.
Commonlaw:BasedonthedecisionsofjudgesintheBritishroyalcourts,akaitsbasedonprecedent
andthingsthathavehappenedbefore.
Statutorylaw:Writtenlawsetdownbylegislature.

Qubecscivillawsystemisdifferentfromlegaltraditionandonlyappliestoitsown
province.ItisbasedonRomanlaw.

TheCharterofRightsandFreedoms
Sections7to14oftheCharterofRightsandFreedomsguaranteeCanadianslegalrights
Theserightscannotbetakenawaywithoutaproperlegalprocess

Indictableoffences:moreseriouscaseshandledbyprovincialsupremecourts.
Summaryoffences:usuallylessseriousandhandledbylowercourts.
SupremeCourtofCanada:ThehighestcourtforalllegalissuesinCanadasince1949.TheGovernor
GeneralontheadviceofthePrimeMinisterappointsthe9members.Theministerofjusticeencourages
lawyersandjudgestorecommendsuitablecandidates.3ofthe9justicesmustbefromQubec,3from
Ontario,onefromtheMaritimesand2fromtheWesternProvinces.OneischosenbythePrime
MinistertobeChiefJustice.In2000,BeverleyMcLachlinwasthefirstwomantoholdthattitle.

Penalsystem:Thejudgesentencesthoseconvictedofcrimes.Theymayforcetheoffendertopaya
fine,makesomekindofrestitutiontothevictim,performcommunityserviceorgotoprison.Infirst
offences,ajudgemayplacetheoffenderonprobation:Asetperiodoftimewheretheymustfollow
conditionssetbythecourt.

47

Lifeinprison:Thisisthemaximumsentence.Itmeans25yearswithoutparole.
Parole:Therighttoearlyreleaseforgoodbehavior.

Prisonersservingsentencesofunder2yearsgotoprovincialprisons
Thosewithlongersentencesserveinfederalinstitutions
Thereareminimum,mediumormaximumsecurityinstitutions
Canadahasoneofthehighestratesofimprisonment(incarceration)intheWesternWorld

YouthandtheLaw
Beforethe20thcentury,youthgotnospecialtreatmentwhentheybrokethelaw
TheYoungOffendersAct:Passedin1984,givinglenienttreatmenttoyoungoffenders
YouthCriminalJusticeAct:Passedin2000,representingamovetowardsharsher
punishmentsforyouth,especiallythosewhocommittedseriouscrimes
Youthbetweentheageof1217whoarechargedwithacrimeareguaranteedthesame
legalrightsundertheCharterasanyothercitizen
Theygetspecialrightsbecauseoftheiragealso,withtheexceptionofseriouscrime
offenders
Youthcourt:Specialcourtsespeciallyforyouth,wherethejudgealonehearsthecase.A
sentenceiscalledadispositioninyouthcourtandcanvaryfromjailtocommunityservice.
Maximumjailtimeforayoungoffenderis5years.

InformationTechnologiesandtheLaw
Copyrightissue:theillegaldownloadofmusichasbecomeaconflictinNorthAmerica.
Technologyassistedcrime:Websiteshavefacilitatedgambling,pornographyandevenhatesites
CanadianRadioTelevisionandTelecommunicationsCommission:thebodyresponsiblefor
regulatingcommunicationsinCanada.TheCommissiondecidedthatgenerallawsgoverning
hatepropagandaandpornographywereenoughtoprotectCanadians.
TheCanadianCentreforInformationTechnologySecurity:ajointinitiativeoftheBritish
ColumbiaPoliceAcademyandtheJusticeInstituteofBritishColumbia.Theircoalistohelp
policedealeffectivelywithtechnologyassistedcrime.

THEERAOFHUMANRIGHTS
Humanrights:Rightsthatareconsideredbasictolifeinanyhumansociety.
TheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights:ProclaimedattheUnitedNationsGeneral
Assemblyin1948.Itisbasedonthebeliefthatallhumanbeingsarebornfreeandequalin
dignityandrights.ItisnowbindinguponCanadaininternationallaw,andtheUNhasgotten
mostcountriestoagreewithitsgeneralprinciples.

TheRighttoVote
1947CanadiansofChineseandEastIndiandescentgettherighttovote
1947TheChineseImmigrationActwasalsorepealed,allowingChinesewivesandchildrento
joinhusbandsandfatherswhowerealreadyCanadiancitizens.

48

 1949JapaneseCanadiansthathadbeenrelocatedduringWWIIwereallowedtoreturnand
werealsogiventherighttovote.
1960Aboriginalsobtainedtherighttovote.

In1960,DiefenbakerpassedTheCanadianBillofRights
ItformallyrecognizedandoutlinedrightsalreadyheldbyCanadiansundercommonlow
However,thebillcouldbeamendedlikeanypieceoflegislation

THECHARTER
FundamentalFreedoms:Section2protectsthefundamentalfreedomsofconscience,religion,thought,
belief,expression,peacefulassemblyandassociation.

EqualityRights:Section15oftheCharterguaranteesequalitybeforeandunderthelaw.Every
individualhasaccesstothecourts.Section15alsoprohibitsanydiscriminationagainstindividualson
thebasisorrace,colour,religionoranydisability.

TheNotwithstandingClause:Section33oftheCharter,whichgivesthegovernmentanescapeclause.
Thisallowsthegovernmenttopassalawevenifthatlawviolatesaspecificfreedomorrightasgivenby
theCharter.

TheBCHumanRightsCode:ProtectsBritishColumbiansfromdiscriminationofallkinds.Itcovers
employment,tenacyandpropertypurchases,accommodation,servicesandfacilitiescustomarily
availabletothepublicandhatepropaganda.

Femalesoftengetpaidlessforthesameamountofworkthatmendo
Inordertoavoidthis,TheCanadianHumanRightsActof1986statesthatitis
discriminatorypracticeforanemployertoestablishadifferencebetweenmaleandfemale
employees.

TheConventionontheRightsoftheChild:Thefirstlegallybindinginternationalagreementtoinclude
childrenscivilandpoliticalrights.Itwasadoptedin1989bytheUnitedNationsGeneralAssembly.It
statedthatchildrenhadtherighttofreedomofexpression,thatchildrenshouldnotbeseparatedfrom
theirparentsunlessitwasintheirbestinterest,thatchildrenshouldhavethehigheststandardofhealth
andarighttoeducation.

1979wasconsideredtheInternationalYearoftheChild

CanadianCoalitionfortheRightsoftheChild:Anorganizationconsistingofover50organizations,
conductingresearchintohowwellCanadafulfillsitsinternationalobligationsforchildrensrights.

HUMANGEOGRAPHY

49

POPULATION
Demography:thestatisticalstudyofhumanpopulations.
Census:Acompletewayofgatheringinformation,definedasthetotalprocessofcollecting,
compilingandpublishingdemographic,economicandsocialdatapertainingtoaparticulartime,
toallpersonsinaparticularcountry.Itcomesintheformaquestionnaire.Canadahasdonea
majoroneevery10yearssincetheConfederationandalessdetailedoneevery5years.
Canadiansarerequiredbylawtofillitout.Censusesareusuallymoreaccurateindeveloped
countriesasthereistechnologyavailabletokeepdatacurrent.Indevelopingcountries
however,thedataisusuallylessaccurate.
ComponentsofPopulationChange:a)howmanypeopleareborn
b)howmanydie
c)howmanymoveinandoutofanarea
AKA:Birthsdeaths+immigrantsemigrants=increase/decreaseinpopulation
Crudebirthrate:Numberofbirthsinoneyear,dividedbythepopulation,multipliedby1000.
Crudedeathrate:Numberofdeathsinoneyear,dividedbythepopulation,multipliedby1000.
Naturalincrease:Subractingcrudedeathratefromcrudebirthrate.(Doesnotincludeimmigration!)
Exponentialrateofincrease:Imaginethatacouplehasfourchildrenandeachchildgrowsuptohave4
children.Bythe3rdgenerationtheywillhave16descendants.Insteadofaregularrateof1,2,3,4,an
exponentialrateincreasesby1,2,4,8,etc.
RuleofSeventy:Aconvenientwaytoexpressexponentialpopulationgrowth,usingthelengthoftimeit
wouldtakeforapopulationtodoubleinsize.ItstatesthatDoublingTimeisapproximatelyequalto70
dividedbythegrowthrate(inpercent)peryear.

MIGRATIONS
Immigrationratesrateofpeopleenteringthecountry.Calculatedbynumberofimmigrants
dividedbythepopulation,multipliedby1000.
Emigrationratesrateofpeopleleavingthecountry.Calculatedbynumberofemmigrants
dividedbythepopulation,multipliedby1000.
NetMigrationRate:ThedifferencebetweentheEmigrationrateandtheImmigrationrate.

BirthrateDeathRate+/NetMigrationRate=PopulationGrowthRate

Canada,theUSandAustraliaareseveralcountriesinwhichimmigrationisasignificantfactorof
populationgrowth.Mostimmigrantsareyoungandgenerallysinglemales,whichgivesthehost
countriesayoungerpopulationwhichresultsinahigherbirthrate.

Lifeexpectancy:Theaveragenumberofyearsthananindividualisexpectedtolive.
Lifeexpectancyisover75todayinCanada,whereasinthe17thcentury,itwaslittleover30.
Birthratesbackinthe18thcenturywerehigh,butpopulationgrowthwasslowbecause
deathrateswerealsohigh.
AfterWorldWarII,theWorldHealthOrganizationandaidprogramsmadeimprovedhealth
measuresavailabletoallcountries.Deathratesfell,butbirthrateswerestillhighin
developingcountries,explainingtherapidpopulationgrowthinsuchareasoftheworld.

50

TheDemographicTransitionmodel:Showschangesoveraperiodoftimein3elements:birthrates,
deathratesandtrendsinoverallpopulationnumbers.Itassumesthatinanycountry,highbirthrates
andhighdeathrateswillgraduallyfall.Itassumesthatcountrieswillpassthroughperiodsof
industrialization/urbanizationthatreducebirth/deathrates.

Agestructure:Agestructureofapopulationhelpsusunderstandwhythingschangewithinapopulation
Threeagegroupshavebeendetermined:Childrenupto15,workingadultsfrom1624andadults65+.
Dependencyratio:Thethreeagegroupsgiveustheproportionofthepopulationthatisbeing
supportedbytheworkingagegroup.
Childrenandolderpeopleputpressureonsocietyformedical,educationandotherservices

PopulationPyramid:agraphthatshowstheageandsexstructureofapopulation.Ithashorizontalbar
graphsformalesandfemalesplacedbacktobackatageintervalsof5years(calledcohorts).

Expandingpopulation:Countrieswithhighbirthratesandmany
children.(Shownontheleft)

Stablepopulation:Birthratesanddeathratesinbalance.

Contractingpopulation:Agrowthratebelowreplacementlevel.


Canadasbirthrateanddeathratehavebeendroppingsteadily,meaningthepopulationis
gettingolder
Theincreasingnumberofelderlypeopleputstrainsonsocial/medicalservices
Lesschildrentolookafteragingparentsmeansmorelongtermcarefortheelderly
ThenumberofimmigrantsenteringCanadaisaroundthe200000mark
Moremoneyisnowspentonhandlingrefugeeclaimsthanprocessingregularimmigration
Theagingpopulationhasbeendeclaredbythegovernmentasthegreatestfuturechallenge

Populationdistribution:thewaypeoplearespacedovertheEarthssurface.
Ecumene:permanentlyinhabitedplaces.

Approximately35%oftheworldslandisnotgoodforsettlement.

Populationdensity:Thenumberofpeopleinagivenarea.
Crudedensities:Calculatedbydividingthepopulationofacountrybyitsarea.
Nutritionaldensity:howmuchnutritionincaloriescanbeproducedfrotheland.

Worldpopulationwillcontinuetogrowinthe21stcentury
Agestructureisimportantindealingwithhowfastapopulationwillincrease
Developingcountriesarelikelytohaveafasterpopulationincrease

51

LIVINGSTANDARDS
EachyeartheUNpublishesaHumanDevelopmentReport,rankingitsmembercountries
accordingtothreemeasures:
o Adultliteracy
o Lifeexpectancy
o PercapitaGDP(grossdomesticproduct)
GrossDomesticProduct:Thetotalvalueofallgoodsandservicesproducedinacountryin
oneyear.DividingthisbythepopulationofthecountrygivesyoutheaverageGDPper
capita(perperson).
Infrastructure:Thingssuchastransportationandcommunicationslinks,electricpowerdistribution
systems,schoolsandhospitals.

FirstWorldCountries:developedcountries,themostwealthycountries.
SecondWorldCountries:Newlyindustrializedcountrieswhoarebuildinguptheirindustriesand
infrastructure.
ThirdWorldCountries:Developingcountrieswithoutmoderninfrastructureormanyindustries.

TheHighlyIndebtedPoorCountries:DevelopingcountriesatthebottomoftheUNHuman
DevelopmentIndexwhoareindebttothedevelopednations.

Qualityoflifeincludeshealth,levelsofnutrition,lifeexpectancy,literacy,thestatusof
womenandchildren,freedomofspeech,economicfreedomandtheenvironment
Povertyisalsomeasuredindifferentways
o Onemeasuresetstheabsolutepovertylineindevelopingcountriesatlessthana
dollarperpersonperday.TheWorldBankestimatesthatwiththis,1.3billion
peoplelivebelowthepovertyline.
Almost800millionpeopleindevelopingcountriesarestarvingormalnourished

Debt:AfterWorldWarII,TheInternationalMonetaryFundandTheWorldBankweresetuptoprovide
loanstohelpcountriesimprovetheirlivingstandards.Theyencouragedthecountriestoinvestin
projectstoboosteconomicgrowth,howevermanyoftheprojectsfailed.Asthedevelopingcountries
couldnotrepaythecompaniesandbeganborrowingfromWesternbanks,theyaccumulatedgross
amountsofdebt.

Structuraladjustmentprograms:Programsthatrequireindebtedcountriestorestructuretheir
economybywelcomingforeigninvestment,increasingexportsandturninggovernmentservicesoverto
theprivatesectorinreturnforloansfromtheWorldBankandInternationalMonetaryFund.
Multinationalcompanies:Largecompaniesthatoperateinmorethanonecountry,oftenwithalotof
politicalpower.
Bilateralaid:Assistancefromonegovernmenttoanother.
Multilateralaid:Assistancefundedbyanumberofgovernmentsandusuallyinvolveslargescale
projects.
Tiedaid:Aidgivenwithconditionsattached.

CanadasForeignAidProgram:

52

 TheCanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgencyandseveralNGOssupportforeignaid
countriesallaroundtheworld

TheCleanWaterCrisis
Anestimated1.2billionpeoplearoundtheworldlacksafewater
80%oftheworldsdiseasesarecauseinsomewaybycontaminatedwater
Ex.Cholera,typhoid,malaria,leprosyandbilharzias

EpidemicssuchasHIV/AIDSandmalariaarestillwidespreadintheworld
Pandemic:anepidemicthatoccursoverawidegeographicarea.

URBANIZATION
Urbanization:themovementofpeopletocities.
CAUSES:
o Mechanization:theuseofmachinerydisplacedworkersinmining,fishingand
farming.
o Industrialization:Theswitchtoaneconomydependentonmanufacturingindustries
encouragedtheconcentrationofmanufacturingsiteswhichbecamedestinations
forworkersleavingruralareas.
o Technologicalchangeinfuelsources:Theswitchfromfirewoodtocoalandthen
petroleummeantenergysuppliescouldbebroughttothecitymucheasier.
Urbanareasaregrowing1.5xfasterthantheworldpopulationgrowth
Inmigration:Peoplemovingintocities.
Squatting:Livingonlandthatyoudonotown.
Pushfactors:Factorsthatpushpeopletoleavetheirruralhomes.
Pullfactors:Factorsthatattractpeopletomovetothecity.

Site:thephysicalcharacteristicsofthelandonwhichacityisbuilt.
Situation:therelationshipbetweenthecityanditssurroundings.
Ifsiteandsituationcanaccommodatetherightkindsofactivities,acommunitymaybebuilt
However,communitiesmaydieiftheirsite/situationcannotsustainthem
Basicactivities:AKAtownformingactivities.Examplesincludeindustries,tourism,militaryfacilitiesand
transportation.
Nonbasicactivities:AKAtownservingactivitiessuchasgrocerystores,churches,parksandother
recreationalfacilities.
Themultipliereffect:Whenthecreationofonejobislinkedtoothermultiplejobsbeingcreated
somewhereelse.Thisleadstounequalgrowthindifferentcommunities.

CITYFORMS
Politicalandreligiouscitiesdesignedtoserveimportantreligious/politicalfunctionssuchasa
nationalcapitalorholycentre.
Organiccities:Citiesthathaveevolvednaturallyinwaysthatfitthephysicallandscape.Urban
functionsblendtogether.

53

 Plannedcities:Designedtokeepurbanfunctionsapart,withseparateareasforhomes,shops
andindustries.Thesecitiesarelinkedbytransportation.
Transitcities:Madeupofsubcentreslikedtoacitycorethroughtransportationservices.Urban
functionsarearrangedalongtransitlinesforquiteadistance.
Automobilecities:Citiesthatexpandoutwardsinalldirectionsfromthecitycore.Roadslink
urbanfunctionswhichareseparatedinzones.Thesecitiesarelargeandusuallycontainsuburbs.

Highdensitylife:Wheremanypeopleliveclosetogether.

NorthAmericanshavebegantopreferlivinginsuburbs,whichhavepoppedupinalmost
everycityonthecontinent.Carsarenowusedfrequently,pollutingtheenvironmentand
requiringthechangingofwaterbodiestomakeroadwaysmoreefficient.
Centersofcitiesareusuallythemostdesirablepiecesofland;theyarecalledPeakvalue
intersectionsasthecostsarehighest.Landattheseareaswouldguaranteeagreaterchance
atsuccessfulbusiness.
Lawsestablishwhatuseswillbepermittedoncertainlands
OfficialPlan:abroadplanforgrowthanddevelopmentthatisusuallydrawnupbyacity
afterlengthyconsultationswithitspeople.
ByLaws:Locallawsorrulesthatensurepeoplerespectthelandusezones
Sustainablecities:Citiesthatdonotcompromisethequalityoflifeforfuturegenerations.
Characteristicsofsuchcitiesincludeaneffectivetransportsystem,aixoflanduses,a
varietyofaffordablehousing,aneffectiveinfrastructure,civicamenitiessuchasparksand
maximumuseofalternativeenergies.

UrbanProblems:
EnergyConsumption:Citiesuse80%ofenergy.Alternativesourcesofenergywouldbeideal.
Transportation:Mosturbandwellersusecarstocommuteincities,causingmorepollution.
Food:Almostallfoodincitiesmustbeimported,resultinginmorepollution.
Wastes:NorthAmericansarethemostwastefulpeopleonEarth.Recyclinghasbecome
increasinglypopular;howevermoremustbedonetocontroltheamountofwastethatpours
intolandfills.
Density:Toomanycitieswastespace.Theprocessofinfillingcouldincreasedensitybyrezoning
andrebuildingareastoaccommodateahigherpopulation.

PATTERNSINECONOMICDEVELOPMENT

Economicdisparity:Whenmoneyisspentonluxuryitemsfortherichwhileothermembersofsociety
arestarvingandstrugglingunderthepovertyline.
Economy:thesumofalleconomicactivitiesthattakeplaceinacountry.

Economicactivities:Processesthatproducewealthandmaintainqualityoflife.
Moneyeconomy:includesallprocessesofproducing/distributing/consuming

54

 Nonmoneyeconomy:includesforexample,theenvironmentorvolunteerwork
(contributingtothemoneysectorinanindirectway)

Primaryindustries:Thosethatextractnaturalresourcesfromthephysicalenvironment.
Secondaryindustries:Concernedwithmanufacturingandconstruction.
Tertiaryindustries:Providesservicestobothbusinessesandindividuals.

Agglomeration:Anotherwordforconcentration.
Economiccore:Acoreareathatleadstheeconomicgrowthofaregionwhichusuallyhashigherrates
ofpayandattractmoreinvestmentmoney.
Periphery:Areasonthesidesoftheeconomiccore.
RegionalDisparity:Anunevendistributionofwealthandadvantages.
Coreandperipherypatternsmeanthateconomicopportunitiesarenotevenlyspread

Outmigration:Whenskilledandeducatedpeopleleavetoseekeconomicsuccessinareasthatseemto
havemoreopportunities.

TraditionalEconomy:Dependslargelyonprimaryindustriessuchasfarming.
SubsistenceAgriculture:Atypeofagriculturepracticedinmany3rdWorld/Developingcountrieswhere
theyconsumewhattheyproduce,farmingwithlowlevelsoftechnology.
DevelopingEconomy:Achangeintheeconomybroughtforthbytechnologicalinnovationsie.The
IndustrialRevolution.
Industrialized/DevelopedEconomy:Diverseeconomieswithmanyareasofwealthgeneration,where
tertiaryindustriesnowemploythemajorityofworkers.

Developmentfactors:
Availablenaturalresources
Stablepoliticalsystem
Aliteratepopulation
Anopenattitudetowardschangeandprogress

Agribusiness:Farminghasbeguntoevolveintoagribusiness,whicharefarmbusinessesownedby
corporationscontrolledbyshareholders.Theyproducespecializedproductstomeetindustrialdemands.
Computersareintegraltothisbusiness.
Averticallyintegratedbusiness:Abusinessthatcontrolsalltheinputsituses.

NonrenewableresourcesResourcesthatcanonlybeusedonce,suchaspetroleum.Theyarebeing
usedupveryquickly.
RenewableResources:Thosethatregenerateovertimesuchasforests.
SustainableDevelopment:Aconceptthatrequireseconomiesthatdonotharmtheabilityoffuture
generationstosustainthemselves.
Scarcity:Economicdecisionsarenowbasedonthis.Thisconceptdealswiththefactthatresourcesare
inlimitedsupplyandshouldbeusedinthemostefficientwaypossible.

55

Decentralization:Theprocessofmovingeconomicopportunitiesoutoftheeconomiccoreofanarea
andmovingthemouttotheperiphery.Governmentsoftenusecashincentivestoencourage
developmentelsewhere.Certaineconomieshaveevenforcedrelocation.
SunsetIndustries:Wheneconomicforcesmakesomeindustriesunabletocompete.Duetoachangein
conditions,theyarenolongerabletomakeaprofit.

Regionaldisparitieshavebecomeagreatproblemanddespiteattemptstomoveeconomic
resources,attemptshavebeenineffective
Somesaythereisnowaytocombatthisnaturalflowoftheeconomy

ENVIRONMENT
Biosphere:Thezoneofearth,waterandairinwhichwelive.
Inthe20thcentury,concernfortheenvironmentbegantoincreaseasthegovernment
begantoaskcitizenstoreduceresourceconsumption
Agenda21anactionplanproducedbyagatheringofheadsofstatein1992inRiode
Janeiro,Braziltolookatwaysofharmonizingeconomicgrowthalongwithasafe
environment.Itencouragedthedevelopmentofasustainableworldeconomy,however
littleprogresshasbeenseen.

Only3%ofthewaterintheworldisfreshwater
Groundwater:Undergroundwater
Farmersinthelaterhalfofthe20thcenturybegantousedrillstotapthegroundwaterin
aquifiersbeneaththeirland.Thewatersupplyseemedendless.Thewaterinaquifierscome
fromwaterseepingthroughthesurfaceofporousrocks(calledpermeablerocks).However,
sometimesthewateristrappedinbetweenlayersofimpermeablerock,whichdoesnot
allowwatertoseethrough.
Surfacewaterssuchaslakesandriversarealsobeingabused
Theyareusedfordisposalofsewageandsuchcontaminationruinstheecosystemsofmany
naturalareas

HoleintheOzoneLayer:
Ozonelayer:AthinlayerofO3thatis1550kmabovetheEarthssurface.Itistheonlygasinthe
atmospherethancanblocktheUVraysofthesun.
Inthe1980s,itbecameapparentthattheOzonelayerwasthinning
Thiswasmostevidentinthenorthernandsouthernpoles,whereholesopenedinthelayers
especiallyinthespring
Chemicalsdestroythelayer
TheUnitedNationsEnvironmentalProgramhasbeenworkingtophaseouttheuseof
thesechemicals.In1987,allindustrialnationsagreedtocuttheiruseofsuchchemicalsin
anagreementcalledTheMontrealProtocol.
Gasesintheatmospheretraptheheatenergyfromthesun,causingGlobalWarming,a
gradualtemperatureriseduetotheCO2intheatmosphere.

EffectsofGlobalWarming

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 HeatwavesarelinkedtoGlobalWarming
Glaciersaremeltingandsealevelsarerising
Diseasesappearbecauseofincreasedtemperaturesandtheearlyarrivalofspring
Coralreefsarelosingtheircolourasthealgaethatgivethemthecolourcantadaptto
warmerweather
Permafrost:Thepermanentlyfrozensubsoilthatismelting,causingsinkingshorelinesinthe
Arctic.
KyotoProtocol:SignedbyCanadain1997,itpromisedtoreducegreenhousegasemissions
by6percentby2012.Countriesnotmeetingtheirreductiontargetscouldbuycreditsfrom
othercountrieswhohademissionsbelowtheallottedlevels.
Alternativesourcesofenergy:Windturbines,solarpanels,tidalpower,etc.
Soils
Soilisabasicprimaryresource,thebasisofthebiosphereandprovidessurvivalforplant
andanimallife
Only11%ofthelandonEarthcangrowcropsbutsoilisbeinglostanddegradedaroundthe
world
Desertification:Landturningintodesert
CAUSES:Poorfarmingtechniques,irrigationinaridareashasmadesoilstoosaltytogrow,
soilsintropicalcountriesarenutrientpoorandsoilonslopesiswashedaway,potentially
turningthelandintoadesert

DependenceonChemicals
Theincreasinguseofpesticidesandherbicidescanseepintogroundwaterandstreams
Thiskillsinsectsalsoandoffsetsachainreactionwithinecosystems
GeneticallyModifiedFoods:Plantsarealteredbysplicingagenefromanotherorganism
intothem,makingthemmoreresistanttodiseasesorpests.Theycostlessastheyrequire
lesspesticides
Thegeneralpublicdisagreedwiththeidea,afraidoflongtermeffectsofgenetically
modifiedfoodsandsotheywereremovedfrommanyshelvesandcompaniesallaroundthe
world

DecliningForests
AlmosthalftheforestsonEarthhavebeenclearedorreduced
Tropicalrainforestsarestorehousesofbiodiversity:thevarietyoflifeonEarth.Theyalso
absorbCO2andgiveoffoxygen.Deforestationcontributesheavilytoglobalwarminginthis
way.Italsoimpactswindpatterns,precipitationlevelsandtemperaturesbeyondtheforests
themselves.
Temperateforests:Canadahas1/3oftheworldsborealconiferousforestandallofthe
worldsredandwhitepine,usedforloggingandrecreation.Theforestsarebeingdestroyed
andtheAboriginalsworryabouttheirnationaltreasuresbeingthreatened.In1992,the
CanadiangovernmentendorsedTheTriCouncilCommitmentonProtectedAreas,which
plannedtocompleteanetworkofprotectedareasbytheendof2000.
Stewardship:thecarefulmanagementofresourcessotheyaresustainable.

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