MEDICINAL PLANTS

P. P. Joy J. Thomas Samuel Mathew Baby P. Skaria

Assisted by: Cini Sara Varghese S. S. Indumon P. K. Victoria Jancy Stephen Dimpl
e George P. S. Somi
1998
KERALA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Research Station
Odakkali, Asamannoor P.O., Ernakulam District, Kerala, India
PIN : 683 549, Tel: (0484) 658221, E-mail: amprs@ker.nic.in
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MEDICINAL PLANTS
I II III IV V VI VII IMPORTANCE AND SCOPE CLASSIFICATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS CUL
TIVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS PROCESSING AND UTILISATION STORAGE OF RAW DRUGS QUA
LITY AND EVALUATION TROPICAL MEDICINAL PLANTS A. Medicinal herbs B. Medicinal sh
rubs C. Medicinal climbers D. Medicinal trees VIII IX X XI GLOSSARY OF TERMS ABB
REVIATIONS NAMES OF BOTANISTS BIBLIOGRAPHY
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MEDICINAL PLANTS
I. IMPORTANCE AND SCOPE
Herbs are staging a comeback and herbal ‘renaissance’ is happening all over the
globe. The herbal products today symbolise safety in contrast to the synthetics
that are regarded as unsafe to human and environment. Although herbs had been pr
iced for their medicinal, flavouring and aromatic qualities for centuries, the s
ynthetic products of the modern age surpassed their importance, for a while. How
ever, the blind dependence on synthetics is over and people are returning to the
naturals with hope of safety and security. Over three-quarters of the world pop
ulation relies mainly on plants and plant extracts for health care. More than 30
% of the entire plant species, at one time or other, were used for medicinal pur
poses. It is estimated that world market for plant derived drugs may account for
about Rs.2,00,000 crores. Presently, Indian contribution is less than Rs.2000 c
rores. Indian export of raw drugs has steadily grown at 26% to Rs.165 crores in
1994-’95 from Rs.130 crores in 1991-’92. The annual production of medicinal and
aromatic plant’s raw material is worth about Rs.200 crores. This is likely to to
uch US $1150 by the year 2000 and US $5 trillion by 2050. It has been estimated
that in developed countries such as United States, plant drugs constitute as muc
h as 25% of the total drugs, while in fast developing countries such as China an
d India, the contribution is as much as 80%. Thus, the economic importance of me
dicinal plants is much more to countries such as India than to rest of the world
. These countries provide two third of the plants used in modern system of medic
ine and the health care system of rural population depend on indigenous systems
of medicine. Of the 2,50,000 higher plant species on earth, more than 80,000 are
medicinal. India is one of the world’s 12 biodiversity centres with the presenc
e of over 45000 different plant species. India’s diversity is unmatched due to t
he presence of 16 different agro-climatic zones, 10 vegetation zones, 25 biotic
provinces and 426 biomes (habitats of specific species). Of these, about 15000-2
0000 plants have good medicinal value. However, only 7000-7500 species are used
for their medicinal values by traditional communities. In India, drugs of herbal
origin have been used in traditional systems of medicines such as Unani and Ayu
rveda since ancient times. The Ayurveda system of medicine uses about 700 specie
s, Unani 700, Siddha 600, Amchi 600 and modern medicine around 30 species. The d
rugs are derived either from the whole plant or from different organs, like leav
es, stem, bark, root, flower, seed, etc. Some drugs are prepared from excretory
plant product such as gum, resins and latex. Even the Allopathic system of medic
ine has adopted a number of plant-derived drugs (Table: medicinal plants used in
modern medicine) which form an important segment of the modern pharmacopoeia. S
ome important chemical intermediates needed for manufacturing the modern drugs a
re also obtained from plants (Eg. diosgenin, solasodine, β-ionone). Not only, th
at plant-derived drug offers a sta le market world wide, ut also plants continu
e to e an important source for new drugs. Traditional systems of medicine conti
nue to e widely practised on many accounts. Population rise, inadequate supply
of drugs, prohi itive cost of treatments, side effects of several allopathic dru
gs and development of resistance to currently used drugs for infectious diseases
have led to increased emphasis on the use of plant materials as a source of med
icines for a wide variety of human ailments. Glo al estimates indicate that 80%
of a out 4 illion population can not afford the products of the Western Pharmac
eutical Industry and have to rely upon the use of traditional medicines which ar
e mainly derived from plant material. This fact is well documented in the invent
ory of medicinal plants, listing over 20,000 species. In spite of the overwhelmi
ng influences and our dependence on modern medicine and tremendous advances in s
ynthetic drugs, a large segment of the world population still like drugs from pl
ants. In many of the developing countries the use of plant drugs is increasing
ecause modern life saving drugs are eyond the reach of three quarters of the th
ird world’s population although many such countries spend 40-50% of their total
wealth
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on drugs and health care. As a part of the strategy to reduce the financial urd
en on developing countries, it is o vious that an increased use of plant drugs w
ill e followed in the future. Among ancient civilisations, India has een known
to e rich repository of medicinal plants. The forest in India is the principal
repository of large num er of medicinal and aromatic plants, which are largely
collected as raw materials for manufacture of drugs and perfumery products. A ou
t 8,000 her al remedies have een codified in Ayurveda. The Rigveda (5000 BC) ha
s recorded 67 medicinal plants, Yajurveda 81 species, Atharvaveda (4500-2500 BC)
290 species, Charak Samhita (700 BC) and Sushrut Samhita (200 BC) had descri ed
properties and uses of 1100 and 1270 species respectively, in compounding of dr
ugs and these are still used in the classical formulations, in the Ayurvedic sys
tem of medicine. Unfortunately, m uch of the ancient knowledge and many valua le
plants are eing lost at an alarming rate. With the rapid depletion of forests,
impairing the availa ility of raw drugs, Ayurveda, like other systems of her al
medicines has reached a very critical phase. A out 50% of the tropical forests,
the treasure house of plant and animal diversity have already een destroyed. I
n India, forest cover is disappearing at an annual rate 1.5mha/yr. What is left
at present is only 8% as against a mandatory 33% of the geographical area. Many
valua le medicinal plants are under the verge of extinction. The Red Data Book o
f India has 427 entries of endangered species of which 28 are considered extinct
, 124 endangered, 81 vulnera le, 100 rare and 34 insufficiently known species (T
homas, 1997). Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Folk (tri al) medicines are the major
systems of indigenous medicines. Among these systems, Ayurveda is most developed
and widely practised in India. Ayurveda dating ack to 1500-800 BC has een an
integral part of Indian culture. The term comes from the Sanskrit root Au (life)
and Veda (knowledge). As the name implies it is not only the science of treatme
nt of the ill ut covers the whole gamut of happy human life involving the physi
cal, metaphysical and the spiritual aspects. Ayurveda recognises that esides a
alance of ody elements one has to have an enlightened state of consciousness,
sense organs and mind if one has to e perfectly healthy. Ayurveda y and large
is an experience with nature and unlike in Western medicine, many of the concept
s elude scientific explanation. Ayurveda is gaining prominence as the natural sy
stem of health care all over the world. Today this system of medicine is eing p
ractised in countries like Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Pakistan, wh
ile the traditional system of medicine in the other countries like Ti et, Mongol
ia and Thailand appear to e derived from Ayurveda. Phytomedicines are also ein
g used increasingly in Western Europe. Recently the US Government has esta lishe
d the “Office of Alternative Medicine” at the National Institute of Health at Be
thesda and its support to alternative medicine includes asic and applied resear
ch in traditional systems of medicines such as Chinese, Ayurvedic, etc. with a v
iew to assess the possi le integration of effective treatments with modern medic
ines. The development of systematic pharmacopoeias dates ack to 3000 BC, when t
he Chinese were already using over 350 her al remedies. Ayurveda, a system of he
r al medicine in India, Sri Lanka and South-East Asia has more than 8000 plant r
emedies and using around 35,000-70,000 plant species. China has demonstrated the
est use of traditional medicine in providing the health care. China has pharma
cologically validated and improved many traditional her al medicines and eventua
lly integrated them in formal health care system. Green plants synthesise and pr
eserve a variety of iochemical products, many of which are extracta le and used
as chemical feed stocks or as raw material for various scientific investigation
s. Many secondary meta olites of plant are commercially important and find use i
n a num er of pharmaceutical compounds. However, a sustained supply of the sourc
e material often ecomes difficult due to the factors like environmental changes
, cultural practices, diverse geographical distri ution, la our cost, selection
of the superior plant stock and over exploitation y pharmaceutical industry.
4
Plants, especially used in Ayurveda can provide iologically active molecules an
d lead structures for the development of modified derivatives with enhanced acti
vity and /or reduced toxicity. The small fraction of flowering plants that have
so far een investigated have yielded a out 120 therapeutic agents of known stru
cture from a out 90 species of plants. Some of the useful plant drugs include vi
n lastine, vincristine, taxol, podophyllotoxin, camptothecin, digitoxigenin, git
oxigenin, digoxigenin, tu ocurarine, morphine, codeine, aspirin, atropine, piloc
arpine, capscicine, allicin, curcumin, artemesinin and ephedrine among others. I
n some cases, the crude extract of medicinal plants may e used as medicaments.
On the other hand, the isolation and identification of the active principles and
elucidation of the mechanism of action of a drug is of paramount importance. He
nce, works in oth mixture of traditional medicine and single active compounds a
re very important. Where the active molecule cannot e synthesised economically,
the product must e o tained from the cultivation of plant material. A out 121
(45 tropical and 76 su tropical) major plant drugs have een identified for whic
h no synthetic one is currently availa le (ta le 1). The scientific study of tra
ditional medicines, derivation of drugs through ioprospecting and systematic co
nservation of the concerned medicinal plants are thus of great importance. Ta le
1. Major plant drugs for which no synthetic one is currently availa le (Kumar e
t al, 1997). Drug Vin lastine Vin lastine Ajmalacine Rescinnamine Reserpine Quin
ine Pilocarpine Cocaine Morphine Codeine Atropine Atropine Cardiac glycosides Ar
temisinin Taxol Ber erine Pristimerin Quassinoids Plum agin Diospyrin Gossypol A
llicin Ricin Emetine Glycyrrhizin Nim idin Catechin Sophoradin Magnolol Forskoli
n Plant Catharanthus roseus Catharanthus roseus Catharanthus roseus Rauvolfia se
rpentina Rauvolfia serpentina Cinchona sp. Pilocarpus ja orandi Erythroxylum coc
a Papaver somniferum Papaver somniferum Atropa elladonna Hyoscyamus niger Digit
alis sp. Artemesia annua Taxus accata T. revifolia Ber eris Celastrus panicula
ta Ailanthus Plum ago indica Diospyros montana Gossypium sp. Allium sativum Rici
nus communis Cephaelis ipecacuanha Glycyrrhizia gla ra Azadirachta indica Acacia
catechu Sophora su prostrata Magnolia ark Coleus forskohlii
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Use Anticancer Anticancer Anticancer, hypotensive Tranquilizer Tranquilizer Anti
malarial, amoe ic dysentery Antiglucoma Topical anaesthetic Painkiller Anticough
Spasmolytic, cold Spasmolytic, cold For congestive heart failure Antimalarial,
Breast and ovary cancer, antitumour For leishmaniasis Antimalarial Antiprotozoal
Anti acterial, antifungal Antispermatogenic Antifungal, amoe iasis Amoe iasis A
ntiulcer Antiulcer Antiulcer Antiulcer Peptic ulcer Hypotensive, cardiotonic
Digitoxin, Digoxin Thevenerin, Nerrifolin Podophyllin Indicine N-oxide Elipticin
e Homoharringtonine Camptothecine
Digitalis, Thevetia Thevetia Thevetia Podophyllum emodi Heliotropium indicum Och
rosia Cephalotaxus Camptotheca acuminata
Cardio tonic Cardio tonic Cardio tonic Anticancer Anticancer Anticancer Anticanc
er Anticancer
A major lacuna in Ayurveda is the lack of drug standardisation, information and
quality control. Most of the Ayurvedic medicines are in the form of crude extrac
ts which are a mixture of several ingredients and the active principles when iso
lated individually fail to give desired activity. This implies that the activity
of the extract is the synergistic effect of its various components. In the a se
nce of pharmacopoeia data on the various plant extracts, it is not possi le to i
solate or standardise the active contents having the desired effects. Ayurvedic
pharmacopoeia compiled on modern lines and updated periodically is an urgent req
uirement. A com ination therapy integrating Ayurveda and allopathy where y the s
ide effects and undesira le reactions could e controlled can e thought of. Stu
dies can show that the toxic effects of radiations and chemotherapy in cancer tr
eatment could e reduced y Ayurvedic medications and similarly surgical wound h
ealing could e accelerated y Ayurvedic medicines. Modern science and technolog
y have an essential role to play in the process. An integrated approach for the
cultivation, conservation and preservation of important plant species through pl
ant molecular iology, plant tissue culture; research on the rationale and metho
dology of Ayurvedic medical practice; isolation of active constituents and their
development into new therapeutics; standardisation and validation of known her
al medicines and other related aspects need to e focussed upon (Sharma, 1997).
Despite the diverse nature of crops grown in the country and the existence of a
fast growing pharmaceutical sector, the share of India in world trade is quite i
nsignificant considering the large geographical area. However, this is ound to
rise rapidly with etter research inputs and efficient management of the farm se
ctor. So far, India has een involved in the export of only large volume raw mat
erial. To achieve competitive advantage we need to resort to low volume high cos
t (value) trade through value addition to the raw and unfinished products. It is
therefore, necessary to develop genetically superior planting material for assu
red uniformity and desired quality and resort to organised cultivation to ensure
the supply of raw material at grower’s end. Post harvest storage and process te
chnologies need to e developed to produce the value added finished products tha
t may e directly utilised y the industry Inventorisation of her al drugs used
in traditional and modern medicines for a country like India, appears to e a st
upendous task, where a num er of well esta lished indigenous or traditional syst
ems, including Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, Homoeopathy, Ti etan, Amchi, Yoga and Na
turopathy are practised along with modern medicine for the management of total h
ealth care system. In all these systems a large num er of plant drugs are used,
although there may e some common plants. Another pro lem in correct identificat
ion of plants is that the plant drugs in those systems of medicine are known y
their classical, Shastriya or vernacular names. It is not easy to correlate thes
e names with accepta le scientific names. One plant species can have many vernac
ular classical names and one name may refer to different plant species. Chinese,
Indian, Ara ian and other traditional systems of medicines make extensive use o
f a out 5000 plants. India is proud to e rich in iological diversity and tenth
among the plant rich countries of Asia, sixth as far as centres of diversity es
pecially agrodiversity are
6
concerned. Nearly three fourth of the drugs and perfumery products used in the w
orld are availa le in natural state in the country. India possesses almost 8% of
the estimated iodiversity of the world with around 1,26,000 species. It is one
of the 12 mega iodiversity centres with 2 hot spots of iodiversity in western
Ghats and north-eastern region. The sacred groves are a miniature ecosystem con
serving iodiversity in its pristine form. There are a out 400 families in the w
orld of flowering plants, at least 315 are represented in India. According to WH
O, around 21,000 plant species have the potential for eing used as medicinal pl
ants. A out 5000 species have een studied (ta les 2-6). There are at least 121
major plant drugs of known structure, ut none of them is currently produced thr
ough synthetic means. For developing phytomedicines as a major area of concern,
it would e essential to adopt a holistic interdisciplinary approach, have a sci
entific asis of the understanding of the plant systems, new innovations and the
ir conservation for utilisation in future on a sustaina le asis (Sharma, 1997).
Ta le 2. Plant species with therapeutic value under different plant groups (Jia
xiang, 1997). Thalophytes 230 Bryophytes 39 Pteridophytes 382 Gymnospermae 55 An
giospermae: a) Monocotyledones 676 ) Dicotyledones 3495 Total 4877 Ta le 3. Pla
nt families containing over 100 species with therapeutic value (Jiaxiang, 1997).
Family
Genera
165 45 89 91 31 46 28 34 35 30 29
Species
135 331 313 208 189 146 123 118 104 101
I. Monocots Liliaceae 45 Orchidaceae II. Dicots Compositae Leguminosae Ranuculac
eae Laminaceae Rosaceae Um elliferae Ru iaceae Euphor iaceae Asclepiadaceae
Ta le 4. Major medicinal plants that can e cultivated in India and have esta li
shed demand for their raw materials (Kumar et al, 1997). Acorus calamus Aconitum
sp. Adhatoda vasica Aloe vera
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Ammi majur Atropa acuminata Ber eris aristata Carica papaya
Catharanthus roseus Cassia senna Cephaelis ipecacuanha Cinchona spp. Dioscorea s
pp. Glycyrrhiza gla ara Hedychium spicatum Heracleum candicans Hyoscyamus sp.mut
icus Inula racemosa Juglans regia Juniperus spp. Matricaria chamomilla Papaver s
omniferum Plantago ovata Podophyllum emodi
Rauvolfia serpentina Rheum emodi Saussurea lappa Swertia chirata Urginea indica
Valeriana wallichii Zingi er officinale Bacopa monnieri Boerhaavia diffusa Dudoi
sia myoporoides Eclipta al a Gymnema sylvestre Phyllanthus amarus Piper retrofra
ctum Panax quinquefolium Sily um marialum
Ta le 5. Medicinal plants on which significant research leads have een o tained
with respect to their pharmaceutical potential for which processing and agrotec
hnology need to e esta lished (Kumar et al, 1997). Andrographis paniculata Arte
misia annum Boswellia serrata Centella asiatica Coleus forskohlii Commiphora wig
htii Curcuma longa Phyllanthus amarus Picrorhiza kurroa Sida rhom ifolia Taxus
accata Withania somnifera
Ta le 6. Plants which delay ageing process and form health food ingredients in s
everal Ayurvedic formulations (Kumar et al, 1997). Allium sativum Aloe ar adens
is Asparagus racemosus Cassia senna Curculigo orchioides Commiphora wightii Cent
alla asiatica Capsicum annum Chlorophytum arundinaceum Eclipta al a Fagopyrum es
culentum Glycyrrhiza gla ra Oenothera iennis Panax pseudoginseng Plantago ovata
Withania somnifera
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II. CLASSIFICATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS
Of the 2,50,000 higher plant species on earth, more than 80,000 species are repo
rted to have at least some medicinal value and around 5000 species have specific
therapeutic value. They are classified according to the part used, ha it, ha it
at, therapeutic value etc, esides the usual otanical classification.
1. Based on part used
i) Whole plant: Boerhaavia diffusa, Phyllanthus neruri ii) Root: Dasamula iii) S
tem:Tinospora cordifolia, Acorus calamus iv) Bark: Saraca asoca v) Leaf: Indigof
era tinctoria, Lawsonia inermis, Aloe vera vi) Flower:Biophytum sensityvum, Mimu
sops elenji vii) Fruit: Solanum species viii) Seed: Datura stramonium
2. Based on ha it
i) ii) iii) iv) v) Grasses: Cynodon dactylon Sedges: Cyperus rotundus Her s : Ve
rnonia cineria Shru s: Solanum species Clim ers: Asparagus racemosus
vi) Trees: Azadirachta indica 3. Based on ha itat
i) Tropical: Andrographis paniculata ii) Su -tropical: Mentha arvensis iii) Temp
erate: Atropa elladona
4. Based on therapeutic value
Antimalarial Anticancer Antiulcer Antidia etic Anticholesterol Antiinflammatory
Antiviral Anti acterial Antifungal Antiprotozoal Antidiarrhoeal Hypotensive Tran
quilizing Anaesthetic Spasmolytic Diuretic Astringent Anthelmentic Cardiotonic A
ntiallergic Hepatoprotective : Cinchona officinalis, Artemisia annua : Catharant
hus roseus, Taxus accata : Azadirachta indica, Glycyrrhiza gla ra : Catharanthu
s roseus, Momordica charantia : Allium sativum : Curcuma domestica, Desmodium ga
ngeticum : Acacia catechu : Plum ago indica : Allium sativum : Ailanthus sp., Ce
phaelis ipecacuanha : Psidium gujava, Curcuma domestica : Coleus forskohlii, Ali
um sativum : Rauvolfia serpentina : Erythroxylum coca : Atropa elladona, Hyoscy
amus niger : Phyllanthus niruri, Centella asiatica : Piper etle, A rus precator
ius : Quisqualis indica, Punica granatum : Digitalis sp., Thevetia sp. : Nandina
domestica, Scutellaria aicalensis : Sily um marianum, Andrographis paniculata
5. Based on Ayurvedic formulations in which used
10
a)
)
c)
d)
The ten roots of the Dasamoola (Dasamoolam) i) Desmodium gangeticum (Orila) ii)
Uraria lagopoides (Cheria orila) iii) Solanum jacquinii (Kantakari) iv) Solanum
indicum (Cheruchunda) v) Tri ulus terrestris (Njerinjil) vi) Aegle marmelos (Koo
valam) vii) Oroxylum indicum (Palakapayyani) viii) Gmelina ar orea (Kumizhu) ix)
Steriospermum suaveolens (Pathiri) x) Premna spinosus (Munja) The ten flowers o
f the Dasapushpa (Dasapushpam) i) Biophytum sensitivum (Mukkutti) ii) Ipomea max
ima (Thiruthali) iii) Eclipta prostrata (Kayyuniam) iv) Vernonia cineria (Poovam
kurunnil) v) Evolvulus alsinoides (Vishnukranthi) vi) Cynodon dactylon (Karuka)
vii) Emelia sonchifolia (Muyalcheviyan) viii) Curculigo orchioides (Nilappana) i
x) Cardiospermum halicaca um (Uzhinja) x) Aerva lanata (Cherula) The four trees
of the Nalpamara (Nalpamaram) i) Ficus racemosa (Athi) ii) Ficus microcarpa (Ith
i) iii) Ficus relegiosa (Arayal) iv) Ficus enghalensis (Peral) The three fruits
of the Triphala (Thriphalam) i) Phyllanthus em lica (Nellikka) ii) Terminalia
ellerica (Thannikka) iii) Terminalia che ula (Kadukka)
6.
Botanical classification
This is the most comprehensive and scientific classification. The various medici
nal plants are grouped elow in ta le 7 according to their Class, Series, Order,
Family, Genus and Species.
Ta le 7. Botanical classification of medicinal plants (Dey, 1984, modified)
Family CLASS SUBCLASS Series
Order Ranunculaceae
Genus (species) : I. DICOTYLEDONAE : 1. POLYGONAE : i. Thalamiflorae
: a. Ranales Thalictrum (foliolosum) Coptis (teeta) Delphinium (denudatum) Aconi
tum (ferox, heterophyllum, napellus) Actaea (spicata) Paeonia (emodi) Dillenia (
indica) Michelia (champaca) Cananga (odorata)
SUBDIVISION : ANGIOSPERMAE
Dilleniaceae Magnoliaceae Anonaceae
11
Menispermaceae
Ber eridaceae Nymphaeaceae
Order Papaveraceae
Fumariaceae Brassicaceae (Cruciferae)
Capparidaceae
Violaceae Bixaceae Flacourtiaceae Order Tamaricaceae Order Clusiaceae (Guttifera
e) Ternstroemiaceae Dipterocarpaceae
Order Malvaceae
Sterculiaceae
Tiliaceae Linaceae Erythroxylaceae Zygophyllaceae
Anona (squamosa) Tinospora (cordifolia) Anamirta (cocculus) Coscinium (fenestrat
um) Cocculus (villosus) Pericampylus (incanus) Cissampelos (pareira) Ber eris (a
ristata, lycium, asiatica) Podophyllum (emodi) Nymphaea (lotus, nouchali) Euryal
e (ferox) Nelum ium (speciosum) : . Parietales Papaver (rhoeas, somniferum) Arg
emone (mexicana) Hypecoum (procum ens) Corydalis (govaniana) Fumaria (officinali
s) Brassica (nigra, campestris, juncea) Capsella ( ursa-pastoris) Lepidium (sati
vum) Raphanus (sativus) Cleome (viscosa) Gynandropsis (pentaphylla) Maerua (aren
aria) Crataeva (religiosa) Capparis (spinosa, aphylla) Viola (odorata) Ionidium
(suffruticosum) Bixa (orellana) Gynocardia (odorata) : c. Caryophyllales Tamarix
(gallica) : d. Guttiferales Garcinia (mangostana, indica, morella) Mesua (ferre
a) Camellia (theifera) Dipterocarpus (tur inatus) Shorea (ro usta) Hopea (odorat
a) Vateria (indica) : f. Malvales Althaea (officinalis) Malva (sylvestris) Sida
(cordifolia) Pavonia (odorata) Hi iscus (sa dariffa, a elmoschus, esculentus, ro
sa-sinensis) Gossypium (her aceum) Adansonia (digitata) Bom ax (mala aricum) Hel
icteres (isora) A roma (augusta) Cola (acuminata) Grewia (asiatica) Corchorus (c
apsularis, olitorius) Linum (usitatissimum) Erythroxylum (coca, monogynum) Tri u
lus (terrestris)
Series
Order Geraniaceae
: ii. Disciflorae
: a. Geraniales Geranium (ro ertianum) 12
Oxalidaceae Balsaminaceae Rutaceae
Simaru aceae
Burseraceae
Meliaceae
Order Celastraceae Rhamnaceae Vitaceae Order Sapindaceae
Anacardiaceae
Moringaceae
Oxalis (corniculata) Impatiens (sulcata) Ruta (graveolens) Peganum (harmala) Tod
dalia (aculeata) Citrus (medica, aurantium) Feronia (elephantum) Aegle (marmelos
) Ailanthus (excelsa) Samadera (indica) Picrasma (quassioides) Boswellia (serrat
a) Garuga (pinnata) Balsamodendron (mukul, myrrha) Canarium (commune) Naregamia
(alata) Melia (azadirachta, azedarach) Amoora (rohituka) Carapa (moluccensis) So
ymida (fe rifuga) : . Celastrales Celastrus (paniculatus) Zizyphus (juju a) Vit
is (vinifera) : c. Sapindales Cardiospermum (halicaca um) Schleichera (trijuga)
Sapindus (trifoliatus) Pistacia (integerrima, lentiscus, tere inthus, vera) Mang
ifera (indica) Anacardium (occidentale) Melanorrhoea (usitata) Semecarpus (anaca
rdium) Holigarna (longifolia) Moringa (oleifera)
Series
Order Fa aceae (Papilionaceae)
: iii. Calyciflorae
: a. Rosales Trigonella (foenum-groecum) Melilotus (officinalis) Indigofera (tin
ctoria) Psoralea (corylifolia) Ses ania (aegyptiaca) Ses ania (grandiflora) Astr
agalus (verus) Alhagi (maurorum) Eschynomene (aspera) Desmodium (gangeticum) A r
us (precatorius) Lens (esculenta) Lathyrus (sativus) Mucuna (pruriens) Erythrina
(indica) Butea (frondosa) Clitoria (ternatea) Dolichos ( iflorus) Pterocarpus (
marsupium, santalinus, gla ra) Caesalpinia ( onducella, sappan) Cassia (fistula,
occidentalis, sophera, tora, o ovata, alata, angustifolia) Hardwickia (pinnata)
Saraca (indica) Tamarindus (indica) 13
Caesalpiniaceae
Mimosaceae
Rosaceae
Crassulaceae Droseraceae Hamamelidaceae Order Com retaceae Myrtaceae
Lythraceae
Onagraceae Order Caricaceae Cucur itaceae
Cactaceae Order Um elliferae (Apiaceae)
Alangiaceae
Bauhinia (variegata) Entada (scandens) Mimosa (pudica) Adenanthera (pavonina) Ac
acia (farnesiana, ara ica, catechu) Glycyrrhiza (gla ra) Prunus (amygdalus, comm
unis) Agrimonia (eupatoria) Rosa (damascena, centifolia) Cydonia (vulgaris) Bryo
phyllum (calycinum) Kalanchoe (laciniata) Drosera ( urmanni, peltata) Liquidam a
r (orientalis) Altingia (excelsa) : . Myrtales Terminalia (catappa, ellerica,
che ula, arjuna) Melaleuca (leucandendron) Psidium (gujava) Eugenia (jam olana)
Barringtonia (acutangula) Careya (ar orea) Caryophyllus (aromaticus) Eucalyptus
(glo ulus) Myrtus (communis) Ammania ( accifera) Woodfordia (flori unda) Lawsoni
a (al a) Punica (Granatum) Trapa ( ispinosa) : c. Passiflorales Carica (papaya)
Trichosanthes (dioica) Lagenaria (vulgaris) Luffa (acutangula) Benincasa (cerife
ra) Momordica (charantia) Cucumis (melo, sativus) Citrullus (colocynthis, vulgar
is) Cephalandra (indica) Cucur ita (pepo) Bryonopsis (laciniosa) Corallocarpus (
epigaeus) Opuntia (dillenii) : d. Um ellales Hydrocotyle (asiatica) Apium ( grav
eolens) Carum (carvi, copticum) Pimpinella (anisum) Foeniculum (vulgare) Ferula
(narthex, alliacea, foetida, gal aniflua) Peucedanum (graveolens) Coriandrum (sa
tivum) Cuminum (cyminum) Daucus (carota) Petroselinum (sativum) Alangium (lamarc
kii)
14
SUBCLASS
: 2. GAMOPETALAE
Series
Order Ru iaceae
: i. Inferae
: a. Ru iales Anthocephalus (cadam a) Uncaria (gam ier) Cinchona (calisaya, offi
cinalis, succiru ra) Hymenodictyon (excelsum) Oldenlandia (corym osa) Ophiorrhiz
a (mungos) Randia (dumetorum) Gardenia (lucida, gummifera) Canthium (parviflorum
) Pavetta (indica) Coffea (ara ica, ro usta) Morinda (citrifolia) Paederia (foet
ida) Ru ia (cordifolia) Cephaelis (lpecacuanha) : . Asterales Valeriana (wallic
hii) Nardostachys (jatamansi) Eupatorium (ayapana, triplinerve) Blumea (lacera)
Helianthus (annuus, tu erosus) Sieges eckia (orientalis) Enhydra (fluctuans) Ecl
ipata (al a) Guizotia (a yssinica) Achillea (millefolium) Anthemis (no ilis) Ana
cyclus (pyrethrum) Matricaria (chamomila) Artemisia (maritima, vulgaris) Calendu
la (officinalis) Saussurea (lappa) Carthamus (tinctorius) Cichorium (inty us) Ta
raxacum (officinale) Lactuca (scariola) Tagetes (erecta)
Order Valerianaceae Compositae (Asteraceae)
Series
Order Ericaceae Plum aginaceae Order Myrsinaceae Order Sapotaceae
: ii. Heteromerae
: a. Ericales Gaultheria (fragrantissima) Plum ago (zeylanica, rosea) : . Primu
lales Em elia (ri es, ro usta) : c. E enales Bassia (latifolia) Bassia ( utyrace
a) Mimusops (elengi) Diospryros (em ryopteris) Symplocos (racemosa) Styrax ( enz
oin)
E enaceae Symplocaceae Styraceae
Series
Order Oleaceae
: iii. Bicarpellatae
: a. Gentianales Jasminum (sam ac, grandiflorum) Nyctanthes (ar or-tristis) Frax
inus (flori unda, excelsior) Salvadora (persica)
Salvadoraceae
15
Apocynaceae
Asclepiadaceae
Loganiaceae Gentianaceae
Order Boraginaceae
Convolvulaceae
Solanaceae
Order Scrophulariaceae Bignoniaceae Pedaliaceae Acanthaceae
Order Ver enaceae Lamiaceae (La iatae)
Plantaginaceae
Rauvolfia (serpentina) Alstonia (scholaris) Holarrhena (antidysenterica) Wrighti
a (zeylanica) Nerium (odorum) Thevetia (neriifolia) Strophanthus (sp.) Ichnocarp
us (frutescens) Hemidesmus (indicus) Oxystelma (esculentum) Calotropis (gigantea
) Daemia (extensa) Gymnema (sylvestre) Tylophora (asthmatica) Strychnos (ignatii
, nux-vomica, potatorum) Fagraea (fragrans) Exacum ( icolor) Enicostemma (littor
ale) Canscora (decussata) Gentiana (kurroo) Swertia (chirata) : . Polymoniales
Cordia (myxa) Heliotropium (indicum) Onosma (echioides, racteatum) Argyreia (sp
eciosa) Ipomoea (hederacea, digitata, turpethum, purga) Cuscuta (reflexa) Convol
vulus (scammonia) Solanum (nigrum, dulcamara, indicum, melongena) Capsicum (frut
escens) Withania (somnifera, coagulans) Atropa ( elladonna) Datura (stramonium,
fastuosa) Hyoscyamus (niger) Nicotiana (ta acum) : c. Personales Herpestis (monn
iera) Picrorhiza (kurrooa) Oroxylum (indicum) Pedalium (murex) Sesamum (indicum)
Hygrophila (spinosa) Andrographis (paniculata) Adhatoda (vasica) Rhinacanthus (
communis) : d. Lamiales Gmelina (ar orea) Clerodendron (infortunatum) Ocimum ( a
silicum) Ocimum (sanctum) Mentha (arvensis) Origanum (vulgare) Hyssopus (officin
alis) Lallemantia (royleana) Marru ium (vulgare) Plantago (ovata)
SUBCLASS
: 3. MONOCHLAMIDEAE
Series
Nyctaginaceae
: i. Curvem ryeae
Boerhaavia (repens)
16
Amaranthaceae Chenopodiaceae
Amaranthus (spinosus) Achyranthes (aspera) Chenopodium ( otrys, am rosioides)
Series
Polygonaceae
: ii. Multiovulatae aquaticae
Rheum (emodi)
Series
Aristolochiaceae
: iii. Multiovulatae terrestris
Aristolochia (indica)
Series
Piperaceae
: iv. Microem ryeae
Piper (cu e a, longum, cha a, etle, nigrum)
Series
Myristicaceae Lauraceae
: v. Daphnales
Myristica (fragrans, mala arica) Cinnamomum (tamala, zeylanicum, glanduliferum)
Litssea (se ifera)
Series
Thymelaeaceae Santalaceae
: vi. Achlamydesporae
Aquilaria (agallocha) Santalum (al um)
Series
Euphor iaceae
: vii. Unisexuales
Euphor ia (pilulifera, neriifolia, antiquorum) Phyllanthus (em lica, urinaria, n
iruri) Jatropha (curcas) Aleurites (moluccana) Croton (tiglium) Acalypha (indica
) Mallotus (phillippinensis) Ricinus (communis) Baliospermum (montanum ) Manihot
(utilissima) Canna is (sativa) Morus (indica) Ficus ( enghalensis, elastica, re
ligiosa, hispida, cunia, glomerata, carica) Antiaris (toxicaria) Artocarpus (int
egrifolia)
Canna inaceae Moraceae
CLASS Series
Juglandaceae Myricaceae Fagaceae Salicaceae Orchidaceae
: II. MONOCOTYLEDONAE : i. Microspermae
Juglans (regia) Myrica (nagi) Quercus (infectoria) Salix (caprea) Acampe (papill
osa) Eulophia (campestris) Orchis (mascula)
Series
Musaceae Zingi eraceae
: ii. Epigynae
Musa (sapientum) Curcuma (angustifolia, aromatica, zedoaria, amada, longa) Kaemp
feria (rotunda, galanga) Hedychium (spicatum) Amomum (su ulatam) Zingi er (offic
inale, zerum et) Costus (speciosus) Elettaria (cardamomum) Alpinia (galanga, cal
carata, allughas) Maranta (arundinacea) Ananas (sativa) Iris (foetidissima) Croc
us (sativus) Curculigo (orchioides) Crinum (asiaticum) Agave (americana)
Marantaceae Bromeliaceae Iridaceae Amaryllidaceae
17
Series
Liliaceae
: iii. Coronarieae
Smilax (ferox) Asparagus (adscendens, sarmentosus) Allium (cepa, sativum) Urgine
a (indica) Scilla (indica) Colchicum (luteum) Gloriosa (super a)
Series
Aracaceae (Palmae)
: iv. Calycinae
Areca (catechu) Phoenix (sylvestris, dactylifera) Calamus (draco) Borassus (fla
elliformis) Cocos (nucifera) Lodoicea (seychellarum) Pandanus (fascicularis, odo
ratissimus)
Pandaneae
Series
Aroideae (Araceae)
: v. Nudiflorae
Pistia (stratiotes) Colocasia (antiquorum) Alocasia (indica) Scindapsus (officin
alis) Acorus (calamus)
Series
Cyperaceae Gramineae (Poaceae)
: vi. Glumaceae
Cyperus (scariosus, rotundus) Cym opogon (citratus, flexuosus, martinii, muricat
us, nardus, schoenanthus) Bam usa (arundinacea) Cynodon (dactylon) Hordeum (vulg
are) Oryza (sativa) Triticum (sativum) Saccharum (officinarum)
SUBDIVISION
Pinaceae (Coniferae)
: GYMNOSPERMAE
Juniperus (communis) Pinus (longifolia) Cedrus (deodara) A ies (we iana)
18
III. CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS
Most of medicinal plants, even today, are collected from wild. The continued com
mercial exploitation of these plants has resulted in receding the population of
many species in their natural ha itat. Vacuum is likely to occur in the supply o
f raw plant materials that are used extensively y the pharmaceutical industry a
s well as the traditional practitioners. Consequently, cultivation of these plan
ts is urgently needed to ensure their availa ility to the industry as well as to
people associated with traditional system of medicine. If timely steps are not
taken for their conservation, cultivation and mass propagation, they may e lost
from the natural vegetation for ever. In situ conservation of these resources a
lone cannot meet the ever increasing demand of pharmaceutical industry. It is, t
herefore, inevita le to develop cultural practices and propagate these plants in
suita le agroclimatic regions. Commercial cultivation will put a check on the c
ontinued exploitation from wild sources and serve as an effective means to conse
rve the rare floristic wealth and genetic diversity. It is necessary to initiate
systematic cultivation of medicinal plants in order to conserve iodiversity an
d protect endangered species. In the pharmaceutical industry, where the active m
edicinal principle cannot e synthesised economically, the product must e o tai
ned from the cultivation of plants. Systematic conservation and large scale cult
ivation of the concerned medicinal plants are thus of great importance. Efforts
are also required to suggest appropriate cropping patterns for the incorporation
of these plants into the conventional agricultural and forestry cropping system
s. Cultivation of this type of plants could only e promoted if there is a conti
nuous demand for the raw materials. There are at least 35 major medicinal plants
that can e cultivated in India and have esta lished demand for their raw mater
ial or active principles in the international trade (ta le). It is also necessar
y to develop genetically superior planting material for assured uniformity and d
esired quality and resort to organised cultivation to ensure the supply of raw m
aterial at growers end. Hence, small scale processing units too have to e esta
lished in order that the farmer is assured of the sale of raw material. Thus, cu
ltivation and processing should go hand in hand in rural areas. In order to init
iate systematic cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants high yielding varie
ties have to e selected (ta le 8). In the case of wild plants, their demonstrat
ion would require careful development work. Sometimes high yielding varieties ha
ve also to e developed y selective reeding or clonal micropropagation. The se
lected propagation materials have to e distri uted to the farmer either through
nurseries or seed anks. Systematic cultivation needs specific cultural practic
es and agronomical requirements. These are species specific and are dependent on
soil, water and climatic conditions. Hence research and development work has to
e done to formulate Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) which should include pro
per cultivation techniques, harvesting methods, safe use of fertilizers and pest
isides and waste disposal. Ta le 8. New varieties of medicinal plants developed
in India (Gupta, 1993) Crop Psyllium Plantago ovata Variety Gujarat Isa gol-1 Gu
jarat Isa gol-2 (GI-2) Characters (Institution where developed) High seed yield
(1t/ha) with synchronous maturing of seed (GAU, Anand) Seed yield of 1t/ha, mode
rately resistant to downy mildew disease(GAU, Anand)
19
Opium poppy Papaver somniferum
Jawahar Aphim-16 (JA-16) Trishna (IC-42)
Udaipur Opium (UO-285) NRBI-3 Kirtiman (NOP-4) Sweta (GS-24) Shyama (IS-34) Sarp
agandha Rauvolfia serpentina Dioscorea flori unda RS-1
FB(C)-1
Arka-Upkar
Khasi-kateri Solanum viarum
Glaxo
IIHR 2n-11
Kangaro kateri Solanum laciniatum Hen ane Hyocyamus niger
EC-113465
IC-66
Aela
Egyptian Hen ane AutoHyocyamus tetraploid muticus Senna ALFT-2 Cassia
White flowered with serrated petals, produces oval capsules maturing early at 10
5-110 days for lancing. Yield 66kg of latex averaging 10% of morphine (JNKVV, Ma
ndsur) Medium dwarf, pink flowered, serrated petals. Produces large um le-shape
d capsules, high latex and morphine content.(over JA-16) (NBPGR, Delhi) High lat
ex yield in Rajasthan tract (58kg/ha) with high morphine content (12.3%) and hig
h seed yield (1.2t/ha) (RU, Udaipur) High latex yield in central and eastern UP.
Latex yield 47-57.54kg/ha. (NBRI, Lucknow) Latex yield 45.84kg/ha, morphine con
tent 11.94% in eastern U.P. Moderately resistant to downy mildew (NDUA & T, Faiz
a ad) With pale white peduncle, produces 66.5kg latex/ha with 18% morphine (CIMA
P) Foliage erect and incised, ears lack flowering stalk. Produces 78.1% latex
with 15.5% morphine (CIMAP). High seed germination (50%). Root yields 2.5t/ha in
18 months. Roots carry 1.45-1.80% of total alkaloids; half of it yields reserpi
ne + serpentine com ined (JNKVV, Indore) A composite culture, produces fast grow
ing vines relatively free from diseases and pest attack; produces 50t/ha of fres
h tu ers in 2 years containing 3.5% diosgenin (IIHR, Bangalore) Selection throug
h hy ridisation, producing 60t of fresh tu ers containing 3.5-4.0% diosgenin (II
HR, Bangalore) Plants devoid of spines, produces high erry yield at high densit
y planting containing 2.5-3.0% solasodine (Glaxo, India). Completely devoid of s
pines, produces high erry yield at high density planting containing 2.5-3% sola
sodine (IIHR, Bangalore) Long duration crop (300 days) suita le for temperate re
gions. High solasodine content in leaves (1.8%) and mature erries (4%) (YSPHU,
Solan) Short duration (100 days), early ra i crop in plains. Yields 2.5t/ha of d
ry her with minimum 0.05% total alkaloids (NBPGR, Delhi) A mutant characterised
y yellow flower petals, produces 7.5t/ha dry her or 23kg total alkaloids/ha (
CIMAP) Vigorously growing and high seed fertile mutant, produces 4.5t/ha of dry
her or 23kg total alkaloids/ha (CIMAP) Late flowering type, tailored to produce
purely leaf crop in one harvest at 100 days. Foliage sennoside
20
angustifolia MAS-1 Japanese mint Mentha arvensis var. piperascens MAS-2 Hy -77
Siwalik
EC-41911
Ocimum gratissimum Thymol asil O. viride Sacred asil O. sanctum
Clocimum Thymol type EC-1828893
content (6.0%) (GAU, Anand) Yields fresh her of 37.2t/ha in 2 cuttings; contain
ing 0.8-1.0% oil with high leaf/stem ratio. Matures 10-15 days early. Oil yield
290kg/ha containing 83% menthol (CIMAP) Fresh her yield 69t/ha, oil 348kg/ha (C
IMAP) A tall vigorous, compact growing type, cross of MAS-2 x MA-2. Produces 78.
2t/ha fresh her , oil yield 486kg/ha with 81.5% menthol. Highly resistant to lea
f spot and rust diseases (CIMAP) Introduced from China, produces compact ushy g
rowth with thick leathery leaves, high her and oil yield. A progeny selection o
f interspecific cross etween M. arvensis and M. piperita in USSR. High her age
yield with high oil content (0.8-1%); oil contains 70-80% menthol (YSPHU, Solan)
. High her age yield with high oil content, 75% eugenol (RRL, Jammu). Her yield
3t/ha, 59kg/ha oil/annum. (CIMAP, Lucknow) Superior selection with high oil yie
ld 55l/ha in 110 days containing 53% eugenol and 19% caryophylline (NBPGR, Delhi
)
Taking into consideration the requirements of the plants selected, an agrotechno
logical package has to e developed to suit the infrastructural facilities avail
a le. Research and development work has also to e carried out in the following
areas (Silva, 1997). 1. Optimisation of agronomical conditions for cultivation 2
. Training in safe fertiliser and pesticide use 3. Development of fast growing v
arieties with disease resistance 4. Determination of maturity and time of harves
ting 5. No. of economically via le harvests 6. Methods of harvesting. Decision o
n a limited scale of exploitation of medicinal plants from wild sources has to
e ased on accurate inventories a out the kinds of plant resources, a undance an
d the feasi ility of harvesting without damage to the ecosystem. In case potenti
al candidates identified are not a undantly availa le, cultivation of them throu
gh agroforestry and community forestry programmes will have to e initiated. I t
his regard, development of n industries ased on medicinal plants can e include
d as a priority area as niche markets for these are already availa le. Organic F
arming In the recent times, agricultural scenario is witnessing a trend towards
organic farming. It is seen that agricultural products produced through organic
farming, without using any inorganic fertilisers and pesticides, fetch high dema
nd and price in the international market.. Organic farming has its root in Natur
e and it makes use of only organic materials. It o serves and learns from nature
. It elieves that soil has life and cares a out its fertility. It protects the
flora and fauna of the soil. Organic farming is not for a single crop ut it env
isages the entire farm. The main o jective of organic farming includes mulching,
crop rotation, cover cropping green manuring, animal waste, composting, io-gas
slurry, iofertilisers and organic recycling. The energy sources are windmills,
solar panels, small-scale hydroelectric projects and iogas. The changeover fro
m inorganic to organic farming is to e carried out only systematically and care
fully. Organic farming can e adopted in crops too y decreasing the
21
dose of inorganic fertilisers rather than an immediate removal and adopting orga
nic farming practices timely and correctly. Farmers have to e trained in all as
pects of organic farming including o taining certification from associations tha
t do the monitoring, starting from cultivation to final harvesting. As chemicals
cannot e used as fertilizers and pest control agents, the cultivation is la ou
r intensive requiring la our for weeding and other farming activities. Hence, de
veloping countries, which have cheap la our and unpolluted land, can opt for org
anic cultivation. Organic manure has to e prepared which leads to environment f
riendly methods of organic waste disposal. Organic farming will reduce environme
nt pollution, toxic effects due to use of pesticides and minerals and pro lems o
f iodiversity conservation. The trend for green products is also increasing and
it is expected that the industrialised countries will insist on ecola elling of
products in tune with ISO 14000 as a condition of import. This will mean that a
ny product produced has to e certified to ensure that no ecological damage what
so ever has een caused during the production process.
22
IV. PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION
Medicinal principles are present in different parts of the plant like root, stem
, ark, heartwood, leaf, flower, fruit or plant exudates. These medicinal princi
ples are separated y different processes; the most common eing extraction. Ext
raction is the separation of the required constituents from plant materials usin
g a solvent. In the case of medicinal plants, the extraction procedure falls int
o two categories (Paroda, 1993). a) Where it is sufficient to achieve within set
limits equili rium of concentration etween drug components and the solution. E
g. Tinctures, decoction, teas, etc. ) Where it is necessary to extract the drug
to exhaustion, ie., until all solvent extracta les are removed y the solvent.
Both the methods are employed depending on the requirement although in industry
the latter method is mostly used. In all industrial procedures, the raw material
is pre-treated with solvent outside the extractor efore changing the latter. T
his prevents sudden ulk volume changes (which are the main cause of channelling
during extraction) and facilitates the reaking up of the cell walls to release
the extracta les. To facilitate the extraction, the solvent should diffuse insi
de the cell and the su stance must e sufficiently solu le in the solvent. The i
deal solvent for complete extraction is one that is most selective, has the est
capacity for extraction and is compati le with the properties of the material t
o e extracted. These parameters are predetermined experimentally. The cost and
availa ility of the solvent are also taken into account. Alcohol, though widely
used, ecause of its great extractive power it is often the least selective, in
that it extracts all solu le constituents. Alcohol in various ratios is used to
minimise selectivity. The ideal alcohol ratio for woody or ark material is 75%.
For leafy material, it is often less than 50% thus avoiding extraction of the c
hlorophyll which makes purification difficult. Some materials such as alkaloids
eing solu le in acids, their extraction is facilitated y adjusting the pH in t
he acidic range. A num er of alkaloids can e extracted easily with hydrocar ons
after they have een released from com ination with organic acids y grinding w
ith alkali. It is first ground with moist calcium oxide and extracted with chlor
oform. A large num er of alkaloids can e extracted directly with aqueous acids,
organic or inorganic acids, and the alkalised extracts counter extracted with h
ydrocar ons or other apolar solvents. Experiment used for extraction with solven
ts usually comprise an extraction vessel with a heating jacket for steam heating
or fitted with electrical devices, a condenser in reflux position, a solvent re
servoir, a facility to convert to re oiler position or a separate re oiler and a
short column for solvent recovery. Some times, sophisticated and costly equipme
nt like the Carousel or the Inoxa extractor is employed. Technology for the manu
facture of standardised extracts and phytochemicals is availa le and there are m
any extracts already in the international market as drugs. A drug such as an ext
ract of Centella asiatica can e manufactured as an extract containing a standar
d quantity of asiaticoside. Similarly for senna a standardised extract of which,
containing a standard quantity of sennosides a and could easily e produced w
ith equipment that can e designed and constructed in most developing countries
(Wijesekera, 1991). The promotion and development of processing of medicinal and
aromatic plants have gained momentum recently in many developing countries. Gre
en consumerism and resurgence of interest for plant ased products, li eralised
and free market economy, increasing awareness a out iodiversity conservation an
d sustaina le use of natural resources coupled with poor socio-economic conditio
ns of native populations are ground realities for planning and harnessing the lo
w-cost and purpose oriented process technologies. UNIDO has developed a Polyvale
nt Pilot Plant with a view to ena ling developing countries to upgrade their tec
hnology for the processing of medicinal and aromatic plants. This plant incorpor
ates all salient features of a low cost, efficient, small capacity factory which
can carry out solvent extraction, solvent percolation, concentration of miscell
a, solvent recovery, steam distillation and oil separation (UNIDO, 1991; Silva,
1997). The design and
23
fa rication of the process equipment need not e over emphasised, as even if a g
ood design is availa le for adaptation, it must e done to fit the given situati
on. The polyvalent plant is characterised y simplicity of design, installation,
operation, maintenance and repair. Some of its features are 1. Modular construc
tion so as to permit increase in capacity and function y duplicating or adding
modules. 2. Simultaneous processing for more than one product, such as extractio
n at one end, production of solid extract or oleoresins at the other. 3. Standar
dised or optimised process control and measuring units, pumps and other ancillar
ies can e easily replaced. 4. All plum ing and electrical wiring are simple and
easily accessi le. 5. Multipurpose uses. Eg. Solvent/aqueous extraction, contin
uous extraction, preparation of solid extract and oleoresins, essential oil dist
illation, fractionation of essential oils and production of a solutes and concre
tes or even processing of other phytoproducts.
Formulation and Industrial Utilisation
Medicinal plants are used as raw materials for extraction of active constituents
in pure form (eg. alkaloids like quinine and quinidine from cinchona ark, emet
ine from ipecacuanha root, glycosides from digitalis leaves, sennosides from sen
na leaves), as precursors for synthetic vitamins or steroids, and as preparation
s for her al and indigenous medicines. Products such as ginseng, valerian and li
quorice roots are part of the her al and health food market, as well as the food
flavours, fragrance and cosmetic industries. Certain plant products are industr
ially exploited like liquorice in confectionery and to acco, papaine as meat ten
deriser, quinine as soft drink tonic and cinchona as wine flavour. A large quant
ity of medicinal plant material is used in the preparation of her al and medicin
al teas, eg. chamomile. These her al and food uses are of great importance, also
to the exporters from developing countries. Hundreds of medicinal plants are it
ems of commerce, however relatively small countries are used in formulated her a
l remedies. Several formulations like her al teas, extracts, decoctions, infusio
ns, tinctures, etc are prepared from medicinal plants (Kraisintu, 1997). 1. Her
al teas, Her al remedies: her al tea or infusion mixtures are mixture of ungroun
d or suita ly ground medicinal plants to which drug plant extracts, ethereal oil
s or medicinal su stances can e added. Infusion mixtures should e as homogenou
s as possi le. 2. Drug extracts: They are preparations o tained y extracting dr
ugs of a certain particle size with suita le extraction agents (menstrua). The e
xtract o tained after separation of the liquid from the drug residue is called m
iscella. It may already represent the final liquid dose form eg. as a so called
fluid extract, or e used as an intermediary product which is to e further proc
essed as quickly as possi le. 3. Aqueous drug extracts: The following degrees of
comminution are used for the extract depending on the type of plant parts. Leav
es, flowers and her s shredded (4000mm); woods, arks and roots shredded (2800mm
); fruits and seeds (2000mm). Alkaloid containing drugs powdered (700mm). 3.1. D
ecoctions: The drug in the prescri ed comminution is put in to water at a temper
ature a ove 90°C. The container is suspended in a water ath and maintained at t
his temperature for 30 minutes, with repeated stirring. The mixture is then stra
ined while still hot. 3.2. Infusions: One part of the comminuted drug is kneaded
several times in a mortar with 3-5 parts of water and left to stand for 15 minu
tes. The rest of the oiling water is then poured on to the mixture, which is su
spended in a container in a water ath and kept for 5 minutes, with repeated sti
rring at a temperature a ove 90°C. The mixture is covered and left to stand unti
l cool.
24
3.3. Macerates: The comminuted drug is left to stand, with occasional stirring,
for 30 minutes after the required quantity of water has een poured on to it at
room temperature. The extract is then strained and made up to the prescri ed wei
ght with rinsings. 3.4. Tinctures: Tinctures are extracts from drug plants prepa
red with ethanol of varying concentration, ether or mixtures of these, perhaps w
ith certain additives, in such a way that one part of drug is extracted with mor
e than two parts, ut at most ten parts, of extraction liquid. 3.5. Fluid extrac
ts: Like tinctures, they are liquid preparations, the difference eing that they
are more concentrated. 3.6. Dry extracts: They are usually very hygroscopic and
should therefore e ground and mixed under conditions which exclude moisture as
much as possi le. Intermediate and end product must also e stored under dry co
nditions. There are also liquid, semisolid, solid and controlled release formula
tions or preparations. The other dose forms are injections, implants, ocular pre
parations, inhalations and transdermal systems. Liquid formulations may e solut
ions, emulsions, colloids or suspensions in the increasing order of particle siz
e. They may e intended for administration parenterally, orally or topically inc
luding administration into ody cavities. Homogeneity for the formulations is ve
ry important, particularly where the active ingredient is present in lower conce
ntration. A generalised production scheme include the following (Kraisintu, 1997
): 1. Pre-processing: Washing, particle size optimisation, moisture reduction, r
efinement or concentration. 2. Solu lisation: Insolu les removal, product sta il
isation. 3. Primary extraction: Primary contaminations removal. 4. Purification:
Secondary contaminations removal, decolourisation, concentration, recemization
5. Derivatization (optional): Chemical modification. 6. Drying(optional): Lyophi
lization or spray drying Compounding of drugs According to the guidelines of for
mulations, a prescription is composed of four different component parts of ingre
dients as given elow (Jiaxiang, 1997). 1. The principal ingredient which provid
es the principal curative action 2. The adjuvent which strengthen the principal
action 3. The auxillary ingredient which relieves secondary symptoms or tempers
the action of principle ingredient 4. The conductant which directs action to the
affected conduit or site. It may also e a less significant auxillary ingredien
t. The introduction of a polyvalent pilot plant has een the most significant co
ntri ution of UNIDO to the development of the industrial utilisation of medicina
l and aromatic plants in developing countries. The gap that prevented the transf
er of processes and products developed on a la oratory to industry can e ridge
d y introducing pilot plant processing facility and multidisciplinary teamwork.
Many research and development institutions in developing countries lacked the s
upport of their engineering counter parts and most research therefore was confin
ed to academic pursuits. If one is to undertake commercial production of her al
medicines, the vital role played y chemical engineers in translating la oratory
findings to industrial scale outputs through pilot scale process parameter deve
lopment has to e recognised. Developing countries need to uild up technologica
l and scientific capa ilities to develop and improve the production of medicinal
principles for use in their countries and to conduct R&D to develop products fo
r export there y, ena ling countries to supply new markets which are eing creat
ed as a result of consumer orientation of societies, increasing affluence and de
mand for green products. Sustaina le use of this renewa le natural resource
25
will not only contri ute to rural industrial development and poverty alleviation
ut also to iodiversity and forest conservation. Requirement for plant ased i
ndustries Major requirements for esta lishing medicinal and aromatic plant ased
industries in developing countries are the following (Silva, 1997): - Availa il
ity of natural forest resources capa le of eing sustaina ly harvested. - Initia
tion of systematic cultivation programmes - Selection of plants for processing
ased on facilities availa le and marketa ility - Fa rication or procurement of e
quipment, provision of required services (water, energy, chemical) - Transfer of
expertise on agronomical practices, harvesting and post-harvest treatment. - Tr
aining in methods of processing and quality control - Actual processing with ass
istance from experts and NGO’s and international agencies - Packaging and storag
e of finished products - Marketing outlets In some cases the primary processed p
roduct could e used as a raw material for downstream processing such as product
ion of medicinal principles, aroma chemicals, isolates, flavours, perfumes, extr
action of pure chemicals and other consumer products. The following aspects have
to e taken into consideration in designing country specific programmes for imp
lementation. - Suita ility of climate and soil conditions - Availa ility of raw
materials - Economic enefit, if any from export as well as import su stitution
- Factors that hinder systematic cultivation and industrial production. - Approp
riate technologies that could e a sor ed - Prospects for regional, inter region
al and glo al co-operation - Inter agency co-operation and colla oration - Other
issues such as conservation, energy, employment generation and involvement of w
omen.
26
V. STORAGE OF MEDICINAL PLANTS OR CRUDE DRUGS
Dry extracts are usually very hygroscopic and should therefore e ground, mixed
under conditions, which exclude moisture as much as possi le. Intermediate and e
nd products must also e stored under dry conditions. Annealing or sealing of th
e products in suita le moisture tight synthetic foils has proved a good method f
or this. Requirement of packaging materials The general requirements of packagin
g materials are the following (Kraisintu, 1997) 1. Economical or low cost 2. Imp
ermea le as glass or metal or of accepta le permea ility to moisture, gases, vol
atile solvents etc. 3. Non reactive-relatively inert with no extraction, exchang
e or interaction 4. Easy to manufacture in a wide range of shapes, prefera ly y
a num er of manufacturing processes. 5. Easy to decorate and /or print y a ran
ge of processes 6. Good production line efficiency-performance, with the minimum
of rejects or wastage. 7. Effective as a pack(container and closure), i.e., eas
y to open and reclose and use if multidose; or open if single dose, whilst meeti
ng any special requirements such as child resistance, tamper evidence or resista
nce, etc. 8. Easy to produce and maintain clean 9. Prefera ly readily availa le
oth in terms of source of supply for raw materials and as a converted item comp
onent from several suppliers. 10. Environmentally friendly 11. A le to optimise
use of space when stacked or during transportation. Types of Packing Materials T
he common types of packaging materials currently availa le are given elow (Krai
sintu, 1997) 1. Glass: It can e found as several variants such as treated soda
glass, soda glass and non parenteral. 2. Metals: A variety of metals including t
in plate(tin coated mild steel) tin free steel, aluminium, aluminium alloys are
widely used in packaging, eing found as rigid containers, collapsi le container
s, aluminium foils, metalised coatings etc. 3. Plastics: There are five economic
al materials for rigid type of containers i.e., those ased on polyethylene (PE)
, polypropylene(PP), Polystyrene(PS), PVC and polyester. 4. Elastomeric material
s: Elastomers can e found as a wide range of asic materials (i.e., natural ru
er, synthetic polyisoprene, neoprene, nitryl, utyl, including romo-and chloro
utyl, ethylene propylene diene modified (EPDM), acid silicone elastomers.)
27
VI. QUALITY AND EVALUATION
A major lacuna in Ayurveda is the lack of drug standardisation, information and
quality control. Most of the Ayurvedic medicines are in the form of crude extrac
ts which are a mixture of several ingredients and the active principles when iso
lated individually fail to give desired activity. This implies that the activity
of the extract is the synergistic effect of its varies components. In the a sen
ce of pharmacopeic data on the various plant extracts, it is not possi le to iso
late or standardise on the active contents having the desired effects. Ayurvedic
pharmacopoeia compiled on modern lines and updated periodically is an urgent re
quirement. Research on the rationale and methodology of Ayurvedic medical practi
ce; isolation of active constituents and their development into new therapeutics
; standardisation and validation of known her al medicines and other related asp
ects are needed (Sharma, 1997). These are some pro lems concerning the proper id
entity of a num er of drug species. In many cases, a single plant species has se
veral different commercial or medicinal names in different regions. Several dist
inct species are often used under the same drug name. Another pro lem relates to
adulteration in the market samples. In other words, authentication of the otan
ical identity and ascertaining the genuineness of drug is great concern in pract
ical situation. To some extent, it can e overcome y drug characterisation whic
h is done y estimating their active principles, recording the anatomical featur
es under microscope and their curative effects y clinical trials. When the ota
nical identity of the plant is controversial, it is etter to go for estimation
of the therapeutic agent responsi le for the curative effect ascri ed to the spe
cies. The species rich in the ascri ed compound should e taken as the genuine d
rug, those with relatively small amounts may e accepted as su stitute of the or
iginal drug, and those lacking the required constituents may e rejected. Qualit
y control of the phytoproducts for human consumption and world market can e ens
ured y maintaining the quality of raw material adequacy of processing technolog
y and quality of the finished products. Thus, the quality concept commences righ
t from the choice of authentic and improved seeds (varieties) to the post harves
t treatment of the raw material and to the process control for avoiding contamin
ation. As such for developing phytoproducts, WHO’s, Good Manufacturing Practice
(GMP) must e followed to satisfy the ISO 9000 certification. Recently, ISO 1400
0 certification has also ecome necessary to safeguard the environment. This mea
ns certifying that the product has een developed without inflicting ecological
damage whatsoever. In general, during the drug production process, the raw mater
ials are su jected to macroscopic and microscopic examination and physicochemica
l parameters such as ash values, analysis of ash for major elements such as Sodi
um, Potassium and Calcium, alcohol solu le and water solu le extractive values a
nd fluorescence analysis, quantitative estimation of phytoconstituents such as t
otal tannins, total glycosides, total alkaloids, total resins and total sugars o
f the raw materials as well as the formulations was carried out. The formulation
s were also evaluated for the general parameters such as organoleptic properties
, pH, viscosity, specific gravity, optical rotation and refractive index. High P
erformance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) technique was employed to o tain ch
aracteristic HPTLC fingerprints of the individual raw materials and formulations
. Using the spectral patterns of the separated components, the presence of certa
in raw materials in the formulations could also e esta lished. Batch to atch v
ariation was also studied using HPTLC fingerprinting technique.
General scheme for quality assurance of crude drugs and raw materials
28
The general scheme for quality assurance of crude drugs and raw materials as sug
gested y Pei-Gen and Hui-zhen (1997) is given elow. 1. Importance of quality a
ssurance of crude drugs and raw material: a) Guarantee the est final pharmaceut
ical products. ) Environmental protection c) Sustaina le utilisation and develo
pment of natural resource 2. Criteria of good quality: a) Good efficacy- high ac
tive ingredient, high yield ) Good safety-less toxicity and side effects, minim
um pesticide residues, minimum heavy metals c) Purity d) Sta ility 3. Gene ank c
onservation (see also ta le 9): a) Biodiversity conservation ) To store plant g
ermplasm for future uses c) To make germplasm availa le to create new cultivars
d) Insitu conservation- gene anks of medicinal and aromatic plants in Asia e) In
vitro conservation f) Breeding 4. Biotechnology a) Plant cell culture eg. Digita
lis, Catharanthus ) Hairy root culture eg. Salvia, Glycyrrhiza uralensis, Datur
a stramoniun, Artemesia annua c) Tissue culture eg. Aloe, Crocus sativa, Mentha
d) Genetic engineering: Isolation and purification of an antifungal protein from
Phytolacca americana against American ginseng pathogens and synthesis of its ge
ne and expression in E. coli. 5. Suita le growth region: In order to get higher
quality of crude drugs and raw materials selection of the most suita le growth r
egion for relevant medicinal plant is quite important. According to the ecologic
al conditions, flora and other criteria, several regions of crude drug developme
nt have een identified. 6. GAP: Good Agrotechnological Practices. Large cultiva
tion of medicinal plants relies upon strong and continuing research. Plant varie
ties with an a undance of desired constituents can e reproduced and improved up
on under cultivation even in an entirely different area. Eg. Cultivation of Amer
ican ginseng (Panax quinquefolia) in China. Attempt should e made to select app
ropriate region ased on similar ecological conditions to introduce good cultiva
ted variety, improve yield of the desired secondary meta olite and reduce the un
desira le constituents. 7. Non polluted cultivation: In order to protect the env
ironment, to sustaina ly utilise the resources and to get a good quality of crud
e drug, non-polluted agrotechnology is rapidly developed in recent years. These
products are commonly called as “Green crude drugs” This involve iological cont
rol of insects and pathogens and use of otanical pesticides for the control of
pest and diseases. 8. Post harvest technology: Right time harvesting, good proce
ssing, good storage, extraction or distillation, quality control.
Ta le 9. Gene anks of medicinal and aromatic plants in Asia (Haq, 1993) Country
Collections Institutions
29
China India Korea Malaysia Nepal Philippines Sri Lanka Thailand
2500 1400 850 450 340 220 200 100
IMPLAD Beijing and its 3 stations NBPGR, New Delhi; CIMAP Lucknow; AMPRS Odakkal
i Medicinal plants gardens National Research council and Kuala Lumpur city counc
il gardens Royal Botanic gardens University Her al garden, Los Banos Royal Botan
ic garden, Kaudy Botanic gardens
Quality control requirement of new preparation of traditional medicines 1. Presc
ription and its asis 2. Literature and research data of physico-chemical charac
teristic concerned with quality 3. Preparation technology and its research refer
ences 4. The draft of the quality standard and explanation of medicinal material
, and medicament. 5. Literature and test data of initial sta ility for clinical
research 6. The reports of quality detection and hygiene standard detection of t
he preparation for clinical research 7. Property and specification of the packin
g material of the medicament, design draft of the la el and applied instructions
General requirement of quality control standard of medicament 1. Quantitative d
etermination of the effective compound or indicative component of 1-2 species of
main medicinal materials in the prescription 2. Qualitative identification of s
everal to half of the medicinal materials in the prescription 3. Determination o
f content of P , Cd, Hg, As and limit test of heavy metals in medicines 4. Hygie
nic standard: acteria < 1000/1gm, mould < 100/1gm, coli acillosis-nil 5. Determ
ination of pesticide residues (organic Cl and P) in the medicament The general s
cheme for quality assessment of otanicals The general scheme for quality assess
ment of otanicals as suggested y Kraisintu (1997) is as follows. I. 1. 2. 3. 4
. Assessment of crude plant materials General description of the plant Parts use
d Production of crude drugs-cultivation, harvesting, post-harvest handling, pack
ing, storage. Quality specification: Chemical or chromatographic identification,
foreign organic mater limit, ash content, acid insolu le ash content, water sol
u le extractive, alcohol solu le extract, moisture content, active constituent c
ontent, micro ial limit, pesticide residue limit, heavy metal limit, likely cont
aminants, adulterants. II. Assessment of finished products 1. Ta lets: Weight va
riation, disintegration time, identification of preservatives and active ingredi
ents, determination of extractives in various solvents, micro ial limit, heavy m
etals. 2. Solutions: pH, identification of preservatives and active ingredients,
alcohol content, micro ial limit, Sodium Saccharic content. 3. Infusions: Weigh
t variations, identification of preservatives and active ingredients, determinat
ion of extractives in various solvents, micro ial limit, heavy metals, Borax. II
I. Chemical Standardisation methods: TLC/HPTLC, HPLC,GLC,FTIR IV. Chemical Marke
rs: Specification for raw materials, quality assurance in process control, stand
ardisation of product, o taining sta ility profiles, single marker vs. fingerpri
nt.
30
V. Parameters of assay validation: Linearity, limits of quantification and detec
tion, precision, ro ustness, recovery. Complex and varia le mixtures, choice of
compounds to quantify, difficult sample preparation, lack of pure reference stan
dards, lack of methods with adequate tolerances y analytical chemistry standard
s are some of the challenges in Chemical Standardisation of plant drugs. Interna
tional scheme for quality assurance of pharmaceutics International scheme for qu
ality assurance of pharmaceutics involves the following standard practices. GAP:
Good Agricultural Practice GLP: Good La oratory Practice GMP: Good Manufacturin
g Practice GCP: Good Clinical Practice GALP: Good Analytical/Automated La orator
y Practice Quality has to e uilt into the whole process eginning from the sel
ection of propagation material to the final product reaching the consumer. It is
therefore a management system where all steps involved in the industrial utilis
ation process have to e properly and strictly controlled to produce the desired
quality products. The requirements for ISO 9000 certification have to e introd
uced and personnel trained so that enterprises could introduce the proper system
s needed for certification. The control of the quality of the raw materials, fin
ished products and of processes is an a solute necessity, if one is to produce g
oods for world markets and human use. Monographs have to e prepared for each pr
oduct to include all specifications developed. Modern analytical techniques have
to e extensively used to develop identity and quality parameters. The machiner
y and processes used in industries have to e validated to comply with internati
onal standards. It is imperative that the processed products comply with nationa
l and/or international specification. There are International Standard Organisat
ion Specification (ISO) for many of the products. In addition, countries and uy
ers can have their own requirements. Hence the products could e tailor made to
conform to the uyers’ requirements. Sometimes the requirements of the uyers ar
e more stringent and specific, demanding the application of good manufacturing p
rocedures. Associated with quality management is the compliance with current goo
d manufacturing practices. WHO requirements of good manufacturing practices have
to e introduced in every project as most developing countries fall very short
of GMP. Without GMP products can not e expected to e of required standards and
quality. The concept of safety is almost non-existent in many developing countr
ies. Safety requirements with respect to uildings, machinery and staff have to
e introduced and if possi le, safety manuals have to e prepared in order to fo
cus the attention of the management and staff on these issues. Stringent require
ments are eing introduced presently to safeguard the environment, to reduce pol
lution caused y use of synthetic materials and to conserve the iodiversity. He
nce eco-audit procedures will e required for safeguarding environmental damage.
Organic production will reduce the risks of contamination of products and the e
nvironment with synthetic chemicals. In fact ISO 14000 requirements may have to
e met in the future if the uyers insist on eco-la elling. Modern approach to s
tandardisation comprises mainly examination of organoleptic characters and quali
tative estimation of some salts, minerals, ash contents, pH value, etc. There is
one asic difference of outlook etween the Ayurvedic and modern Allopathic sys
tem regarding the therapeutic use of drugs. While in Ayurveda, whole drug is use
d, in Allopathy the isolated active ingredient present in the drug is used. Ayur
vedic drugs act moderately and gradually, ut Allopathic drugs react severely an
d quickly. Charak has prescri ed the following four standards for effective drug
s. 1. Which grow in proper season
31
2. Have attained maturity in taste, potency and smell 3. Whose smell, appearance
, taste and touch remains unvitiated y the effect of weather, fire, air and ins
ects. 4. Fresh Sushruta has propounded a general principle regarding accepta ili
ty of plants for use as medicine. A drug may e accepted for use whether it is n
ew or old provided its odour has not vitiated and its taste etc., not deteriorat
ed.
32
TROPICAL MEDICINAL PLANTS
Tropical countries are a treasure house of a wide variety of medicinal plants. S
ome species are found wild, while a num er of species have een domesticated y
the farmers. Many species have een grown in homesteads and ecome part of tradi
tional home remedies. A limited num er of species are commercially cultivated th
ough a few more have potential for large-scale production. The important tropica
l and su tropical medicinal plants are discussed here highlighting the importanc
e, medicinal and other uses, distri ution, otany, agrotechnology, chemical cons
tituents and activity. For practical convenience of the discussion in this ook,
they are classified under the following four road groups. a) Medicinal her s
) Medicinal shru s c) Medicinal clim ers d) Medicinal trees
AMBRETTE Malvaceae
A elmoschus moschatus
San: Latakasturika Hin, Guj, Ben: Mushkdana Mal: Kasthurivenda Mar: Kasthuri- h
endi Tel: Kasturi enda Tam: Varttilaikasturi Kan: Kasturi ende Ass: Gorukhiako
rai
Importance
Am rette, also popularly known as musk or Muskmallow, is an erect annual her wh
ich yields musk-like scented seeds and woos every ody through its sensuous musky
fragrance. Every part of this medicinal plant is used in one or the other way .
Seeds are effective aphrodisiac and antispasmodic, and used in tonics. They che
ck vomiting and cure diseases due to kapha and vata and are useful in treating i
ntestinal disorders, urinary discharge, nervous disorders, hysteria, skin diseas
es, snake ites, pruritus, leucoderma and general de ility. Flower infusion is c
ontraceptive. The leaves and roots are used for gonorrhoea and to treat oils an
d swellings. Am rette oil of commerce is extracted from the seeds and is used in
perfumery, flavouring, cosmetic and agar athi industries. The essential oil is
employed in non-alcoholic everages, ice-creams, candies and aked foods. The ar
omatic concrete and a solute, extracted from seeds are used as ase material for
preparing high grade perfumes, scents and cosmetics. It is also known for exalt
ing, amplifying and diffusing effects it imparts to perfumes. It lends well wit
h rose, neroli, and sandal wood oil and aliphatic aldehydes. The flowers are in
great demand for making ‘zarda’ a flavoured to acco in India. The seeds are mixe
d with tea and coffee for flavour. The seed is rich in essential amino acids and
is used as cattle or poultry feed. The stem ark yields a good quality fi re. S
eeds are used to protect woollen garments against moth and it imparts a musky od
our to sachets, hair powder, panmasala and incense. Its tender shoots are used i
n soups, green pods as vegeta le and seed husk in flower arrangements. From perf
umes to panmasalas and tonics, it is the musky musk all the way. In addition to
internal consumption, its seeds are exported to Canada, France and UK ecause of
its diversified uses (Srinivasan et al, 1997).
Distri ution
The musk plant is a native of India and it grows in the tropical su tropical and
hilly regions of the country; particularly in the states of Maharashta, Gujarat
, Madhyapresh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. More than 50 collections of the plant are
maintained y the National
33
Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi and its regional station in
Akola, Maharashtra.
Botany
A elmoschus moschatus Medicus syn. Hi iscus a elmoshus Linn. elongs to Family M
alvaceae. Muskmallow is an erect annual or iennial hirsute or hispid her of 60
-180 cm height. The leaves are simple polymorphous, usually palmately 3-7 lo ed;
lo es narrow, acute or o long-ovate, crenate, serrate or irregularly toothed, h
airy on oth surfaces. Flowers are large and right yellow with purple centre. F
ruits are fulvous, hairy and capsular. Seeds are many, su reniform, lack or gre
yish - rown and musk scented (Husain et al, 1992).
Agrotechnology
Am rette is a hardy plant which can e grown in varied climate under tropical an
d su tropical conditions. It can e grown oth as a rainfed crop and as an irrig
ated crop. It grows on well drained loamy and sandy loam soils. Loamy soils with
neutral pH and plenty of organic matter are ideal for its cultivation. Musk of
propagated through seeds. The optimum time of sowing is June-July with premonsoo
n showers. The land is prepared well y ploughing, harrowing and levelling. Well
decomposed FYM or compost is incorporated into the soil at 10 - 15 t/ha. Ridges
and furrows are formed giving a spacing of 60 - 100 cm. Seed rate is 2-3 kg/ha.
Seeds are soaked in water efore sowing for 24 hours. Two to three seeds are so
wn per hole at 60 cm spacing on one side of the ridge at a depth of 1 cm and cov
ered with a pinch of sand or loose soil. It takes 5-7 days for proper germinatio
n. After germination, extra seedlings are thinned out leaving one healthy growin
g plant per hole within 20 days. Fertilisers are applied at 120:40:40 kg N, P2O5
, K2O/ha generally. However, a dose 160:80:80 kg/ha is recommended for est yiel
ds of seed and oil. Phosphorus is applied fully as asal. N and K are applied in
3 equal doses at planting, 2 and 4 months after planting. Fertilizers are appli
ed 10 cm away from the plants. For irrigated crop, field is irrigated soon after
sowing. Irrigation is given twice a week during the initial period and once a w
eek thereafter. The field is kept weed free y regular weeding during the growin
g period (Farooqi and Khan, 1991). Musk plants suffer from pests like spider mit
es, fruit ores and leaf eating caterpillars. Diseases like powdery mildew and w
ilt are also o served on the plant. Spider mites and powdery mildew are controll
ed y spraying 30g wetta le sulphur in 10 litres of water. Pod orers can e con
trolled y spraying 20ml oxydemeton methyl in 10 litres of water. The crop start
s flowering a out 75 days after sowing. The flowers set into fruits in 34 days a
nd the pods take nearly a month to mature. Flowering and fruit setting extends f
rom Octo er to April. Harvesting is arduous. Fruits have to e plucked as soon a
s they attain lack colour; otherwise, they split and seeds scatter. Therefore,
weekly collection of pods is necessary and in all 20-25 pluckings may e require
d as it is a 170-180 days duration crop. The fruits are further dried and thresh
ed to separate seeds. The seed yield is 1-1.5 /ha
Postharvest technology
. The oil is extracted from seed y steam distillation followed y solvent extra
ction. The concrete of solvent extraction is further extracted with alcohol to g
et the a solute, that is, the alcohol solu le volatile concentrate.
Properties and activity
34
The fatty oil of seeds contain phospholipids as 2 - cephalin, phosphatidylserine
and its plasmalogen and phosphatidyl choline plasmalogen. A solute contains far
nesol and am rettolic acid lactone. β- sitosterol and its β- d - glucosides are
isolated from leaves. Petals contain β-sitosterol, flavonoid myricetin and its g
lucoside. Anthocyanins like cyanidin - 3 - sam u ioside and cyanidin - 3 - gluco
side are present in the flowers. (Chopra and Nayar, 1980) Seeds are aphrodisiac,
antispasmodic, diuretic, demulcent, antiseptic, stomachic, tonic, carminative,
antihysteric, antidiarrhoeal, ophthalmic, cardiac and antivenum.
35
DATURA Solanaceae
San: Dhustura Hin.: Kaladhatura Vellummattai Tel: Tellavummetta Ben: Dhatura
Datura metel
Mal: Ummam Kan; Dattura Tam:
Importance
Downy datura or thorn apple is an erect ranched under shru whose intoxicating
and narcotic properties have een made use of y man from ancient time. The plan
t and fruit are spasmolytic, anticancerous and anthelmintic. Leaves and seeds ar
e inhaled in whooping cough, asthma and other respiratory diseases. Root, leaf a
nd seed are fe rifuge, antidiarrhoeal, anticatarrhal and are used in insanity, c
ere ral complications and skin diseases. Leaf is antitumour, antirheumatic and v
ermicide. Flower is antiasthamatic, anaesthetic and is employed in swellings and
eruptions on face. Fruit juice is used in earache and seed decoction in ophthal
mia. For the rheumatic swellings of joints, lum ago, sciatica and neuralgia, war
m leaf smeared with an oil is used as a andage or sometimes the leaf is made in
to a poultice and applied. The root oiled with milk is used in insanity. It is
also an ingredient in the ayurvedic preparation Kanakasva used in ronchial trou
les, and the Unani formulations “Roghan dhatura” used as a massage oil for the
paralysed part. The alkaloids of pharmaceutical interest present in the plant ar
e hyoscyamine, hyoscine and meteloidine. Datura is the chief commercial source o
f hyoscine availa le from natural source. Hyoscine, in the form of hyoscine hydr
o romide, is used as a pre-anaesthetic in surgery, child irth, ophthalmology an
d prevention of motion sickness. It is also employed in the relief of withdrawal
symptoms in morphine and alcoholic addiction, paralysis agitans, postencephalet
ic parkinsonianism and to allay sexual excitement. Hyoscyamine and its salt hyos
cyamine sulphate and hyoscyamine hydro romide are used in delerium, tremour, men
ia and parkinsonianism (Kaul and Singh, (1995).
Distri ution
Datura is distri uted throughout the world, particularly the warmer regions. Dat
ura stramonium is indigenous to India. Out of 15 species reported from different
parts of the world, only 10 are known to occur in India. They are found commonl
y in wastelands, gardens and roadsides. They are distri uted in rich localities
under semi-arid and arid regions of Punja , Haryana, Rajastan, and Gujarat; the
Central Plateau of Andhra Pradesh and Maharastra and the southern peninsular reg
ion of Tamil Nadu. Datura innoxia is indigenous to Mexico and is distri uted in
Latin American countries. A wealth of genetic stock on genotypes and varieties a
re maintained in several research institutes in Germany, Bulgaria, USSR and Pola
nd.
Botany
The genus Datura, elonging to the family solanaceae, consists of annual and per
ennial her s, shru s and trees. Three species,viz, Datura metel Linn., D. stramo
nium Linn. and D. innoxia Mill. are medicinally important. D. innoxia mill. and
D. metel Linn. (var. al a, and var, fastuosa) are the choice drug plants, rich i
n hyoscine. D. metel Linn. is the most common in India. The names, D. metel Linn
., D. fastuosa Linn., D. al a Nees., D. fastuosa Linn. var. al a (Nees) C.B. Cla
rke and D. metel Linn. var. fastuosa (Linn.) Safford are synonymously used y ma
ny workers. Two varieties are often noted in D. metel Linn., namely the white fl
owered var. al a and purple flowered var. fastuosa. D. metel Linn. is an erect s
ucculent ranched undershru divaricate often purplish ranches and ovate pu esc
ent leaves which are o lique at the ase of lamina. Flowers are large, solitary,
short pedicelled, purplish outside and white inside. Fruits are su -glo ose cap
sules covered all over with numerous, fleshy prickles, irregularly reaking when
mature. Seeds are numerous, smooth, yellowish rown. (warrier et al, 1994).
Agrotechnology
Datura grows well in a wide range of climate from tropical to temperate conditio
ns. The plant thrives est in areas of low rainfall where winter and monsoon rai
ns are followed
36
 y long dry periods. Areas with annual rainfall elow 1000mm with mean temperatu
re of 1015oC in winter and 27 - 28oC in May-June are ideal. The crop cannot stan
d frost, high rainfall or high temperature in the plains in May-June. It grows o
n majority of soils, however, alkaline or neutral clay loam soil or those tendin
g to saline-alkaline reaction rich in organic matter are ideal for vigorous grow
th. The clayey, acidic, water-logged or moisture deficient soils do not suit thi
s crop. The plant is propagated y seeds ut it is characterised y poor and oft
en erratic seed germination which can e improved either y leaching out the inh
i itor from the seeds or y alternate freezing and thawing of seeds. The optimum
season for raising the crop is Ra i in tropical and su tropical areas while Kha
rif in temperate areas. The seeds can e roadcast sown or seedlings can e rais
ed in nursery and then transplanted. Seed rate is 7-8 kg/ha for roadcasting and
2-3 kg/ha. for transplanting. The field is ploughed and disced adequately to pr
oduce fine seed ed. In the case of direct seeding, seeds are drilled in rows ta
ken 45-60 cm apart. The plants are thinned to keep a spacing of 30-45 cm at the
time of first weeding. In the case of transplanting 4-6 weeks old seedlings are
planted at 45-60 x 30-45 cm spacing. The field should e irrigated immediately a
fter sowing or planting if soil moisture is inadequate. Thereafter 3-4 irrigatio
ns may e given if sufficient rainfall is not received. Application of organic m
anure at 10-15 t/ha and fertilisers at 60:40:40 kg N, P2O5 and K2O/ha is recomme
nded for the crop for etter growth and yield N may e applied in 3-4 equal spli
t doses at planting and after each weeding which is required 2-3 times during th
e growing season. Application of micronutrients is reported to improve the alkal
oid contents. No major insect pest is known to attack this crop. However, leaf s
pot, wilt and mosaic diseases cause damage to this crop. Leaf spot is caused y
Alternaria tennuissima (Nees) Wiltshire and characterised y rown round to oval
spots, ecoming necrotic at later stage which leads to withering and dropping o
f leaves. Wilt is caused y Sclerotium rolfsii Sace; it starts with dropping of
leaves and finally wilting of the entire plant. Root and foot wilt, caused y Co
rticium solani, appears as damping off of seedlings and mature plants. Datura di
stortion mosaic is characterised y yellowing of the veins followed y inward ro
lling and distortion of leaves with a reduction in plant size. For reducing the
impact of these diseases, field sanitation, use of resistant varieties, crop rot
ation for 3-4 years and fungicide application should e resorted to. For the pur
pose of leaf and top, harvesting is done as soon as flowering starts. Entire top
containing leaves and twigs is cut, dried in shade and stored in gunny ags. Fo
r seed and fruit, fully grown fruits, still green are picked 2-3 times efore fi
nal harvest when the entire plant is cut from the ase and dried in the open. Th
e dried fruits are then thrashed with a stick to separate the seeds. The seed yi
eld is 1-1.5 t/ha. (Husain, 1993; Kaul and Singh, 1995)
Properties and activity
The alkaloids hyoscyamine and hyoscine (scopolamine) and meteloidine are found i
n all parts of the plant. The total alkaloid content is 0.26 - 0.42 % Fruits con
tain daturaolone and daturadiol while roots contain additionally ditigloyloxy tr
opane derivatives, tigloidine, apohyoscine, norhyoscine, norhyocyamine, cusiohyg
rine and tropine. Other alkaloids isolated from the plant are apohyoscyamine, DL
-scopolamine, normeteloidine, tigloylputrescine, scopine, nortigloidine, tropine
, psuedo valeroidine, fastudine, fastunine, fastusinine, 7-hydroxy-3, 6-ditigloy
loxytropane (2) datura nolone and fastusic acid. The physiological effects of hy
oscyamine are qualitatively the same as those of its recemic derivative atropine
. This is relatively more active in its paralysing affect on nerve endings and l
ess active in its stimulant action on the central nervous system. The sedative a
nd hypnotic action of hyoscyamine is weaker than that of hyoscine. Atropine has
a stimulant action on the central nervous system and depresses the nerve endings
to the secretary glands and plain muscles. The plant or the different alkaloids
have narcotic, anthelmintic, spasmolytic anaesthetic, sedative, ophthalmic, ant
icancerous, antitumour, antirheumatic, antiasthmatic, antidiarrhoeal and anticat
arrhal activities. (Thakur et al, 1989).
37
ASPARAGUS Liliaceae
Asparagus racemosus
San, Mar, Hin, Mal: Satavari; Ben: Shatamuli, Guj: Ekalkanto, Tel: Pilligadalu,
Philithaga Tam: Ammaikodi, Kilwari, Kan: Aheru alli, Ori: Manajolo
Importance
Asparagus is a clim ing undershru with widespread applications as diuretic, coo
ling agent and an excellent safe her al medicine for ante-natal care. It is usef
ul in nervous disorders, dyspepsia, diarrhoea, tumours, inflammations, vitiated
conditions of vata and pitta, urning sensation, hyperdipsia, ophthalmopathy, ne
phropathy, hepatopathy, strangury, scalding of urine, throat infections, tu ercu
losis, cough, ronchitis, gleet, gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, leprosy, epilepsy, fat
igue, hyperacidity, colic haemorrhoids, hypertension, a ortion, agalactia, cardi
ac and general de ility (Warrier et al, 1993). Shatavari is descri ed in Rigveda
and Atharvaveda. In Ayurvedic classics it is prescri ed as a cooling agent and
uterine tonic. It is the main ingredient in ayurvedic medicines like shatavari g
ulam and shatavari ghrtam. Besides quenching thirst, its root juice helps in coo
ling down the ody from summer heat, curing hyper-acidity and peptic ulcer. It c
ontains good amount of mucilage which soothes the inner cavity of stomach. It re
lieves urning sensation while passing urine and is used in urinary tract infect
ions. It contains an anticancer agent asparagin which is useful against leukaemi
a. It also contains active antioxytocic saponins which have got antispasmodic ef
fect and specific action on uterine musculature. It is very good relaxant to ute
rine muscles, especially during pregnancy and is used to prevent a ortion and pr
e-term la our on the place of progesterone preparations. Its powder oiled with
milk is generally used to prevent a ortion. It increases milk production in cows
and uffaloes. Its preparations in milk helps in increasing reast milk in lact
ating women. Its proper use helps in avoiding excessive lood loss during period
s. It clears out infections and a normalities of uterine cavity and hence it is
used to rectify infertility in women. The leaves are used to prepare toilet soap
s. The plant has also ornamental value oth for indoor and out door decorations
(Syamala, 1997).
Distri ution
The plant is found wild in tropical and su tropical India including Andaman and
Nico ar Islands. It is distri uted from mean sea level upto 1500m in the Himalay
as from Kashmir eastwards. The crop is cultivated in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Predesh and northern states in India. However, most of the requirement of the in
dustry is met through wild collections from forests. It is also grown in gardens
.
Botany
Satavari, Asparagus racemosus Willd. elongs to the lily family, Liliaceae. Aspa
ragus adscendens Rox ., A. filicinus Lam., A. gonoclados Baker, A. officinalis L
inn. and A. sarmentosus Willd. are the other important medicinal plant species o
f the genus. A. racemosus Willd. is an armed clim ing undershru with woody tere
te stems and recurved or rarely straight spines. The tu erous succulent roots ar
e 30cm to 100cm or more in length, fascicled at the stem ase, smooth tapering a
t oth ends. Young stems are very delicate, rittle and smooth. Leaves are reduc
ed to minute chaffy scales and spines; cladodes triquetrous, curved in tufts of
2-6. Flowers are white fragrant in simple or ranched recemes
38
on the naked nodes of the main shoots or in the axils of the thorns. Fruits are
glo ular or o scurely 3-lo ed, pulpy erries, purplish lack when ripe; seeds wi
th hard and rittle testa.
Agrotechnology
The plant comes up well under a wide range of tropical and su tropical climate.
Fertile moist sandy loam soils are ideal for its cultivation though it grows in
a wide range of soils. Better root development is o served in soils in increased
proportion of sand. However, a decline in the yield of the crop is noticed in s
oils containing previous year’s residue of the roots. Asparagus plant is est gr
own from its tu erous roots even though it can e successfully propagated throug
h seeds. Since root tu ers are of commercial value seed propagation provides eco
nomic advantage to the farmers. Seeds usually start germinating after 40 days an
d average germination is 70% (Tewari and Misra, 1996). For the cultivation of th
e crop, the land is ploughed well with pre-monsoon showers and seed nurseries ar
e raised on seed eds of approximately 1m width, 15cm height and suita le length
. Seed nursery should e irrigated regularly and kept weed free. With the onset
of monsoon in June-July the main field is ploughed thoroughly and pits of size 3
0cm cu e are dug at a spacing of 60-100cm. Tiwari and Misra (1996) have reported
that irrespective of more num er of roots and higher fresh weight per plant und
er wider spacings, the per hectare yields were highest in the closer spacing of
30cm x 30cm. The pit is filled with a mixture of top soil and well decomposed FY
M or compost applied at 10 - 15 t/ha and the seedlings are transplanted. Applica
tion of N, P2O5 and K2O at 60:30:30 kg/ha increases the root yield. Regular irri
gation and weeding are required to realize higher yields. Standards are to e pr
ovided for training the plant (Sharma et al, 1992). Few pests and diseases are o
served on this crop. Harvesting the crop after two years provided higher root y
ield than annual harvests in pots as well as in field experiments. Irrigating th
e field prior to harvest ena les easy harvesting of the root tu ers. The average
yield is 10 - 15 t/ha of fresh root tu ers though yields over 60t/ha have een
reported.
Properties and Activity
Asparagus roots contain protein 22%, fat 6.2%, Car ohydrate 3.2%, Vitamin B 0.36
%, Vitamin C 0.04% and traces of Vitamin A. It contains several alkaloids. Alcoh
olic extract yields asparagin- an anticancer agent. It also contains a num er of
antioxytocic saponins, viz. Shatavarisn - I to IV (Syamala, 1997). Leaves conta
in rutin, diosgenin and a flavonoid glycoside identified as quercetin - 3 - gluc
uronide. Flowers contain quercetin hyperoside and rutin. Fruits contain glycosid
es of quercetin, rutin and hyperoside while fully ripe fruits contain cyanidin -
3 - galactoside and cyanidin - 3 - glucorhamnoside. Root is demulcent, diuretic
, aphrodisiac, tonic, alterative, antiseptic, antidiarrhoeal, glalctogogue and a
ntispasmodic. Aerial part is spasmolytic, antiarrhythmic and anticancer. Bark is
anti acterial and antifungal.
39
GREATER AMMI Apiaceae
Importance
Ammi majus
Greater Ammi, also known as Bishop’s weed or Honey plant is an annual or iennia
l her which is extensively used in the treatment of leucoderma (vitiligo) and p
soriasis. The compounds responsi le for this are reported to e furocoumarins li
ke ammoidin (xanthotoxin), ammidin (imperatorin) and majudin ( ergapten) present
in the seed. Xanthotoxin is marketed under the trade name “Ox soralen” which is
administered orally in doses of 50 mg t.d. or applied externally as 1% liniment
followed y exposure of affected areas to sunlight or UV light for 2 hours. It
is also used in “Suntan lotion”. Meladinine is a y-product of Ammi majus proces
sing, containing oth xanthotoxin and imperatorin sold in various formulations i
ncreases pigmentation of normal skin and induces repigmentation in vitiligo. Imp
eratorin has antitumour activity. Fruit or seed causes photosensitization in fou
ls and sheep.
Distri ution
The plant is indigenous to Egypt and it grows in the Nile Valley, especially in
Behira and Fayoom. It is also found in the asin of the Mediterranean Sea, in Sy
ria, Palestine, A yssinia, West Africa, in some regions of Iran and the mountain
s of Kohaz (Ramadan, 1982). It grows wild in the wild state in A otta ad, Mainw
ali, Mahran and is cultivated in Pakistan. The crop was introduced to India in t
he Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, in 1955 through the courtesy of UNESCO.
Since then, the crop has een grown for its medicinal fruit in several places i
n Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Kashmir and Tamil Nadu.
Botany
Ammi majus Linn. elongs to the family Apiaceae (Um elliferae). A. visnaga is an
other related species of medicinal importance. A. majus is an annual or einnial
her growing to a height of 80 to 120 cm. It has a long tap root, solid erect s
tem, decompound leaves, light green alternate, variously pinnately divided, havi
ng lanceolate to oval segments. Inflorescence is axillary and terminal compound
um els with white flowers. The fruits are ri ed, ellipsoid, green to greenish
rown when immature, turning reddish rown at maturity and having a characteristi
c tere inthinate odour ecoming strong on crushing with extremely pungent and sl
ightly itter taste.
Agrotechnology
Ammi is relatively cold loving and it comes up well under su tropical and temper
ate conditions. It does not prefer heavy rainfall. Though the plant is iennial
it ehaves as an annual under cultivation in India. A mild cool climate in the e
arly stages of crop growth and a warm dry weather at maturity is ideal. It is cu
ltivated as a winter annual crop in ra i season. A wide variety of soils from sa
ndy loam to clay loam are suita le. However, a well drained loamy soil is the e
st. Waterlogged soils are not good. Being a hardy crop, it thrives on poor and d
egraded soils. The plant is seed propagated. Seeds germinate within 10-12 days o
f sowing. The est time of sowing is Octo er and the crop duration is 160-170 da
ys in north India. Crop sown later gives lower yield. The crop can e raised eit
her y direct sowing of seed or y raising a nursery and then transplanting the
crop. Seed rate is 2 kg/ha. The land is rought to
40
a fine tilth y repeated ploughing and harrowing. Ridges and furrows are then fo
rmed at 4560 cm spacing. Well decomposed FYM at 10-15 t/ha and asal fertilisers
are incorporated in the furrows. Seeds eing very small are mixed with fine san
d or soil, sown in furrows and covered lightly with a thin layer of soil. A fert
ilizer dose of 80:30:30 kg N, P2O5 and K2O/ha is generally recommended for the c
rop while 150:40:40 kg/ha is suggested in poor soils for etter yields. The furo
coumarin content of Ammi majus is increased y N fertiliser and the N use effici
ency increases with split application of N at sowing, ranching and at flowering
. For o taining high yields it is essential to give one or two hoeings during No
vem er to Fe ruary which keeps down the weeds. If winter rains fail, one irrigat
ion is essential during Novem er to January. As the harvesting season is spread
over a long period of time, two irrigations during March and April meets the req
uirements of the crop (Chadha and Gupta, 1995). White ants and cut worms are rep
orted to attack the crop which can e controlled y spraying the crop with 40g c
ar aryl in 10 l of water. Damping off and powdery mildew are the common diseases
of the crop. Seed treatment with organomercuric compounds is recommended for da
mping off. To control powdery mildew the crop is to e sprayed with 30g wetta le
sulphur in 10 l of water whenever noticed. The crop flowers in Fe ruary. Flower
ing and maturity of seed is spread over a long period of two months. The primary
um els and the early maturing secondary um els are the major contri utors to yi
eld. A little delay in harvesting results in the shattering of the seed which is
the main constraint in the commercial cultivation of the crop and the main reas
on for low yields in India. So ti et al (1978) have reported increased yield y
50 - 60% y the application of planofix at 5 ppm at flower initiation and fruit
formation stages. The optimum time of harvest is the mature green stage of the f
ruit in view of the reduced losses due to shattering and maximum contents of fur
ocoumarins. The primary um els mature first within 35-45 days. These are harvest
ed at an interval of 2-4 days. Later, the early appearing secondary um els are h
arvested. Afterwards, the entire crop is harvested, stored for a couple of days
and then threshed to separate the seeds. The seed yield is 900-1200 kg/ha.
Postharvest technology
The processing of seed involves solvent extraction of powdered seeds, followed
y chilling and liquid extraction and chromatographic separation after treatment
with alcoholic HCl. Bergapten, xanthotoxin and xanthotoxol can e separated. Xan
thotoxol can e methylated and the total xanthotoxin can e purified y charcoal
treatment in acetone or alcohol.
Properties and activity
Ammi majus fruit contains amorphous glucoside 1%, tannin 0.45%, oleoresin 4.76%,
acrid oil 3.2%, fixed oil 12.92%, proteins 13.83% and cellulose 22.4%. This is
one of the richest sources of linear furocoumarins. Ivie (1978) evaluated the fu
rocoumarin chemistry of taxa Ammi majus and reported the presence of xanthotoxin
, ergapten, imperatorin, oxypencedanin, heraclenin, sexalin, pa ulenol and many
other compounds. Furocoumarins have actericidal, fungicidal, insecticidal, lar
vicidal, moluscicidal, nematicidal, ovicidal, viricidal and her icidal activitie
s (Duke, 1988).
41
PERIWINKLE Apocynaceae
Catharanthus
roseus
San: Nityakalyani; Hin: Sada ahar, Baramassi; Mal: Ushamalari, Nityakalyani Tel:
Billaganeru; Tam: Sudukattu mallikai; Pun: Rattanjot; Kan: Kasikanigale, Nitya
Mallige
Importance
Periwinkle or Vinca is an erect handsome her aceous perennial plant which is a c
hief source of patented cancer and hypotensive drugs. It is one of the very few
medicinal plants which has a long history of uses as diuretic, antidysenteric, h
aemorrhagic and antiseptic. It is known for use in the treatment of dia etes in
Jamaica and India. The alkaloids vin lastine and vincristine present in the leav
es are recognized as anticancerous drugs. Vin lastine in the form of vin lastin
sulphate is availa le in market under the trade name "VELBE" and Vincristine sul
phate as "ONCOVIN" (Eli Lilly). Vin lastine is used in com ination with other an
ticancer agents for the treatment of lymphocytic lymphoma, Hodgkin’s disease, te
sticular carcinoma and choriocarcinoma. Vincristine is used in acute leukemia, l
ymphosarcoma and Wilm’s tumour. Its roots are a major source of the alkaloids, r
au asine (ajmalicine), reserpine and serpentine used in the preparation of antif
i rillic and hypertension-relieving drugs. It is useful in the treatment of chor
iocarcinoma and Hodgkin
s disease-a cancer affecting lymph glands, spleen and li
ver. Its leaves are used for curing dia etes, menorrhagia and wasp stings. Root
is tonic, stomachic, hypotensive, sedative and tranquilliser (Narayana and Dimri
,1990 ).
Distri ution
The plant is a native of Madagascar and hence the name Madagascar Periwinkle. It
is distri uted in West Indies, Mozam ique, South Vietnam, Sri Lanka , Philippin
es and Australia . It is well adapted to diverse agroclimatic situations prevale
nt in India and is commercially cultivated in the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnatak
a, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Assam. USA, Hungary, West Germany, Italy, Netherl
ands and UK are the major consumers.
Botany
Catharanthus roseus (Linn.) G.Don. syn. Vinca rosea Linn. elongs to the family
Apocynaceae. It is an erect highly ranched lactiferous perennial her growing u
p to a height of one metre. Leaves are o long or ovate, opposite, short-petioled
, smooth with entire margin. Flowers are orne on axils in pairs . There are thr
ee flower colour types , pink, pink-eyed and white. Calyx with 5 sepal, green, l
inear, su ulate. Corolla tu e is cylindrical with 5 petals, rose-purple or white
with rose-purple spot in the centre; throat of corolla tu e hairy, forming a co
rona-like structure. The anthers are epipetalous orne on short filaments inside
the ulging distal end of corolla tu e converging conically a ove the stigma. T
wo characteristic secretary systems, namely a column like nectarium on oth side
s of pistil and a secretory cringulam circling the papillate stigma with a presu
med role in pollination fecundation process are present . Ovary icarpellary, a
sally distinct with fused common style and stigma. The dehiscent fruit consists
of a pair of follicles each measuring a out 25 mm in length and 2.3 mm in diamet
er, containing up to thirty linearly arranged seeds with a thin lack tegumen. O
n maturity, the follicles split along the length dehiscing the seeds.
Agrotechnology
Periwinkle grows well under tropical and su tropical climate. A well distri uted
rainfall of 1000 mm or more is ideal. In north India the low winter temperature
s adversely affect the crop growth. It can grow on any type of soil ,except thos
e which are highly saline, alkaline or waterlogged. Light soils, rich in humus a
re prefera le for large scale cultivation since harvesting of the roots ecome e
asy .
42
Catharanthus is propagated y seeds . Fresh seeds should e used since they are
short-via le. Seeds can e either sown directly in the field or in a nursery and
then transplanted. Seed rate is 2.5 kg/ha for direct sowing and the seeds are d
rilled in rows 45 cm apart or roadcasted. For transplanted crop the seed rate i
s 500gm/ha. Seeds are sown in nursery and transplanted at 45x 30cm spacing after
60 days when the seedlings attain a height of 15-20cm Nursery is prepared two m
onths in advance so that transplanting coincides with the on set of monsoons. Ap
plication of FYM at the rate of 15 t/ha is recommended. An alternate approach is
to grow leguminous green manure crops and incorporate the same into the soil at
flowering stage. Fertilisers are recommended at 80:40:40 kg N:P2O5:K2O/ha for i
rrigated crop and 60:30:30 kg/ha for rainfed crop. N is applied in three equal s
plits at planting and at 45 and 90 days after planting. 4 or 5 irrigations will
e needed to optimise yield when rainfall is restricted. Fortnightly irrigations
support good crop growth when the crop is grown exclusively as an irrigated cro
p. Weeding is carried out efore each topdressing. Alternatively, use of fluchlo
raline at 0.75 kg a.i. /ha pre-plant or alachlor at 1.0 kg a.i. per ha as pre-em
ergence to weeds provides effective control of a wide range of weeds in periwink
le crop. Detopping of plants y 2cm at 50% flowering stage improves root yield a
nd alkaloid contents. No major pests, other than Oleander hawk moth, have een r
eported in this crop . Fungal diseases like twig light (top rot or die ack ) ca
used y Phytophthora nicotianae., Pythium de aryanum, P. utleri and P. aphanide
rmatum; leaf spot due to Alternaria tenuissima, A. alternata, Rhizoctonia solani
and Ophio olus catharanthicola and foot-rot and wilt y Sclerotium rolfsii and
Fusarium solani have een reported. However, the damage to the crop is not very
serious. Three virus diseases causing different types of mosaic symptoms and a p
hyllody or little leaf disease due to mycoplasma-like organisms have also een r
eported; the spread of which could e checked y uprooting and destroying the af
fected plants. The crop allows 3-4 clippings of foliage eginning from 6 months.
The flowering stage is ideal for collection of roots with high alkaloid content
. The crop is cut a out 7 cm a ove the ground and dried for stem, leaf and seed.
The field is irrigated, ploughed and roots are collected. The average yields of
leaf, stem and root are 3.6, 1.5and 1.5 t/ha, respectively under irrigated cond
itions and 2.0, 1.0 and 0.75t/ha, respectively under rainfed conditions on air d
ry asis. The harvested stem and roots loose 80% and 70% of their weight, respec
tively. The crop comes up well as an undercrop in eucalyptus plantation in north
India. In north western India a two year crop sequence of periwinkle-senna-must
ard or periwinkle-senna- coriander are recommended for higher net returns and pr
oductivity (Krishnan,1995).
Properties and activity
More than 100 alkaloids and related compounds have so far een isolated and char
acterised from the plant. The alkaloid contents in different parts show large va
riations as roots 0.14-1.34%, stem 0.074-0.48%, leaves 0.32-1.16%, flowers 0.005
-0.84%, fruits 0.40%, seeds 0.18% and pericarp 1.14% (Krishnan et al, 1983). The
se alkaloids includes monomeric indole alkaloids, 2-acyl indoles, oxindole, α-me
thylene indolines, dihydroindoles, bisindole nd others. Dry le ves cont in vinb
l stine (vinc leucobl stine or VLB) 0.00013-0.00063%, nd vincristine (leurocris
tine or LC) 0.0000003-0.0000153% which h ve ntic ncerous ctivity (Virm ni et 
l, 1978). Other lk loids reported re vincoside, isovincoside (strictosidine),
c th r nthine, vindolinine, lochrovicine, vincolidine, jm licine (r ub sine), r
eserpine, serpentine, leurosine, lochnerine, tetr hydro lstonine, vindoline, per
ic lline, perivine, periformyline, perividine, c rosine, leurosivine, leurosidin
e nd rovidine. The different lk loids possessed ntic ncerous, ntidi betic, d
iuretic, ntihypertensive, ntimicrobi l, ntidysenteric, h emorrh gic, ntifibr
illic, tonic, stom chic, sed tive nd tr nquillising ctivities.
43
LONG PEPPER Piper ce e
Introduction
Piper longum
S n: Pipp li; Hin, Ben, Pun: Pipl mul; K n, M l:Thipp li ; T m: Thippili; M r: P
impli; Tel: Pippp loo; Ass: Piplu. Long pepper is  slender rom tic climber who
se spike is widely used in yurvedic nd un ni systems of medicine p rticul rly
for dise ses of respir tory tr ct. Pip l risht , Pipp ly s v , P nch kol , Pipp 
l y dil uh , nd L v n  bh sk r chur n re common yurvedic prep r tions m de ou
t of the dry spikes of fem le types. Ittrif l f ul di, Ang ruy -i-k bir nd M ju
n kh d r re well known un ni prep r tions of long pepper. Its roots lso h ve s
ever l medicin l uses. The root is useful in bronchitis, stom ch che, dise ses
of spleen nd tumours . Fruit is useful in v t  nd k ph , sthm , bronchitis, 
bdomin l compl ints, fever, leucoderm , urin ry disch rges, tumours, piles, inso
mni  nd tuberculosis. Root nd fruit re used in gout nd lumb go. The infusion
of root is prescribed fter p rturition to induce the expulsion of pl cent . Th
e root nd fruit decoction re used in cute nd chronic bronchitis nd cough. I
t cont ins the lk loid piperine which h s diverse ph rm cologic l ctivities, i
ncluding nerve depress nt nd nt gonistic effect on electroshock nd chemo-shoc
k seizures s well s muscul r incoordin tion.
Distribution
The pl nt is  n tive of Indo-M l y  region. It w s very e rly introduced to Eur
ope nd w s highly reg rded s  fl vour ingredient by the Rom ns. The Greek n m
e "Peperi", the L tin "Piper" nd the English "Pepper" were derived from the S n
skrit n me "Pipp li". It grows wild in the tropic l r in forests of Indi , Nep l
, Indonesi , M l ysi , Sri l nk , Rhio, Timor nd the Philippines. In Indi , it
is seen in Ass m, West Beng l, Utt r Pr desh, M dhy  Pr desh, M h r shtr , Ker l
, K rn t k . nd T mil N du. It is lso cultiv ted in Beng l, Chir punchi re  o
f Ass m, Akol -Amr v ti region of M h r shtr , An m l i hills of T mil N du, Ori
ss , Uduppi nd M ng lore regions of K rn t k . Bulk of Indi n long pepper comes
from its wild growth in Ass m, Shillong nd West Beng l, supplemented by import
s from Sri L nk  nd Indonesi  (Visw n th n,1995)
Bot ny
Piper longum Linn. is  member of Piper ce e f mily. The pl nt is  gl brous per
enni l under-shrub with erect or sub-sc ndent nodose stem nd slender br nches,
the l tter re often creeping or tr iling nd rooting below or r rely sc ndent r
e ching  few metres height. Le ves re simple, ltern te, stipul te, nd petiol
te or ne rly sessile; lower ones bro dly ov te, cord te; upper ones oblong, ov 
l, ll entire, smooth, thin with reticul te ven tion; veins r ised bene th. It f
lowers ne rly throughout the ye r. Inflorescence is spike with unisexu l sm ll 
chl mydeous densely p cked flowers nd form very close clusters of sm ll greyish
green or d rker grey berries. Fem le spikes with short thick st lk v rying from
1.5 to2.5 cm in length nd 0.5 to 0.7 cm in thickness. A number of geogr phic l
r ces re v il ble in different groclim tic regions of Indi ; the most popul 
r being Ass m, West Beng l nd Nep l r ces. Piper officin rum DC; syn. Ch vic  o
fficin rum Miquel, Piper pepuloides nd Piper ch b  Hunter re the other rel ted
species of import nce.
Agrotechnology
Long pepper is  tropic l pl nt d pted to high r inf ll re s with high humidit
y. An elev tion of 100-1000 m is ide l. It needs p rti l sh de to the tune of 20
-30% for best growth. The n tur l h bit t of the pl nt is on the borders of stre
ms. It is successfully cultiv ted in well dr ined forest soils rich in org nic
m tter. L terite soils with high org nic m tter content nd moisture holding c p
city re lso suit ble for cultiv tion. Long pepper is prop g ted by suckers or
rooted vine cuttings.15-20 cm long 3-5 nodded rooted vine cuttings est blishes
very well in polyb gs. The best time for r ising nursery is M rch-April. Norm l
irrig tion is given on ltern te d ys. The rooted cuttings will
44
be re dy for tr nspl nting in 2 months time. With the onset of monsoon in June t
he field is ploughed well nd brought to good tilth. 15-20 cm r ised beds of con
venient length nd bre dth re t ken. On these beds, pits re dug t 60 x 60 cm
sp cing nd well decomposed org nic m nure t 100 g/pit is pplied nd mixed wit
h the soil. Rooted vine cuttings from polyb gs re tr nspl nted to these pits. G
p filling c n be done fter one month of pl nting.The crop needs he vy m nuring
t the r te of 20 t FYM/h  every ye r. Applic tion of he vy dose org nic m tter
nd mulching incre se w ter retention in the soil nd control weeds. Sm ll dose
s of chemic l fertilisers c n lso be used. The crop needs irrig tion once  wee
k. Sprinkler irrig tion is ide l. With irrig tion the crop continues to produce
spikes nd off-se son produce will be v il ble. However, it is reported th t un
irrig ted crop fter the onset of monsoon grows vigorously nd shows much h rdin
ess th n the irrig ted crop. Crop losses c n be he vy due to pests nd dise ses.
Me ly bugs nd root grubs, tt ck the pl nt p rticul rly during summer. Infeste
d pl nts show yellowing nd stunted growth. Applic tion of systemic insecticides
like nuv cron or dimecron will control the pests. Adults nd nymphs of Helopelt
is theivor  severely feeds on the foli ge which c n be controlled by 0.25% neem
kernel suspension. Rotting of le ves nd vines during monsoon se son is c used b
y Colletotrichum glorosporiodes nd necrotic lesions nd blights on the le ves d
uring summer is c used by Colletotrichum nd Cercospor  spp. These dise ses c n
be controlled by spr ying of 1% Borde ux mixture repe tedly. A virus like dise s
e ch r cterised by yellowing nd crinkling of le ves, stunted growth nd product
ion of spikes of sm ller size nd inferior qu lity w s lso recently reported. T
he vines st rt flowering six months fter pl nting nd flowers re produced lmo
st throughout the ye r. The spikes m ture in 2 months time. The optimum st ge of
h rvest is when the spikes re bl ckish green. The pungency is highest t this
st ge. Spikes re h nd picked when they become m ture nd then dried. The yield
of dry spike is 400 kg /h  during first ye r, incre ses to 1000kg during third y
e r nd there fter it decre ses. Therefore, fter 3 ye rs the whole pl nt is h r
vested. The stem is cut close to the ground nd roots re dug up. Aver ge yield
is 500 kg dry roots/h  (Visw n th n,1995). Piper longum c n lso be cultiv ted 
s n intercrop in pl nt tions of coconut, sub bul nd euc lyptus.
Post h rvest technology
The h rvested spikes re dried in sun for 4-5 d ys until they re perfectly dry.
The green to dry spike r tio is 10:1.5 by weight. The dried spikes h ve to be s
tored in moisture proof cont iners. Stem nd roots re cle ned, cut into pieces
of 2.5-5 cm length, dried in sh de nd m rketed s pipl mool. There re three gr
des of pipl mool, b sed on the thickness. The commerci l drug consists 0.5-2.5
cm long ,0.5-2.5 mm thick, cylindric l pieces dirty light brown in colour nd pe
culi r odour with  pungent bitter t ste, producing numbness to the tongue.
Properties nd ctivity
The spike of long pepper cont ins 4-5% piperine, pipl rtin, piperol ct m, N-isob
utyl dec  tr ns-2-tr ns-4-dien mide nd pipor dione lk loides, besides 0.7 % es
senti l oil. Roots g ve the lk loids piperine, piperlongumine (pipl rtine) nd
piperlonguminine; ses mine, methyl 3, 4, 5-trimethoxy cinn m te. Stem g ve tri c
out ne 22, 23 dihydrostigm sterol. Fruit essenti l oil cont ins piperidine, c ry
ophyllene nd sesquiterpene lcohol (At l et l, 1975 ). The root is plungent, h
ot, stom chic, l x tive, nthelmintic nd c rmin tive. The fruit is sweetish, pu
ngent, hot, stom chic, phrodisi c, lter tive, l x tive, ntidysenteric, emmen 
gogue, bortif cient, diuretic nd tonic. The essenti l oil is ntimicrobi l nd
nthelmintic. N-isobutyl-dec -tr ns-2-tr ns-4-dien mide is ntitubercul r. Pipe
rine is hypotensive, ntipyretic, n leptic, nd nerve stimul nt (W rrier et l,
1995).
SERPENTWOOD Apocyn ce e
45
R uvolfi  serpentin 
S n: S rp g ndh  T m: Chiv n melpodi
Hin: Ch ndr bh g  K n: Sutr nbhi
M l: S rp g ndhi, Am lpori Tel: P t l g ndhi
Introduction
Serpentwood is n erect, evergreen , perenni l undershrub whose medicin l use h 
s been known since 3000 ye rs. Its dried root is the economic l p rt which cont 
ins  number of lk loids of which reserpine, rescinn mine, deserpidine, j m l 
cine, jm line, neo jm lin, serpentine, α-yohimbine re ph rm cologic lly import
nt. The root is  sed tive nd is used to control high blood pressure nd cert 
in forms of ins nity. In Ayurved  it is lso used for the tre tment of insomni ,
epilepsy, sthm , cute stom ch che nd p inful delivery. It is used in sn ke-
bite, insect stings, nd ment l disorders. It is popul r s "M dm n's medicine"
mong trib ls. 'Serpumsil’ ta let for high lood pressure is prepared from Rauvo
lfia roots. Reserpine is a potent hypotensive and tranquillizer ut its prolonge
d usage stimulates prolactine release and causes reast cancer. The juice of the
leaves is used as a remedy for the removal of opacities of the cornea.
Distri ution
Rauvolfia serpentina is native to India. Several species of Rauvolfia are o serv
ed growing under varying edaphoclimatic conditions in the humid tropics of India
, Nepal, Burma, Thailand, Bangladesh, Indonesia , Cam odia, Philippines and Sri
Lanka. In India, it is cultivated in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tamil N
adu, Orissa, Kerala, Assam, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh (Dutta and Virmani, 1
964). Thailand is the chief exporter of Rauvolfia alkaloids followed y Zaire, B
angladesh, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Nepal. In India, it has ecome an endangered
species and hence the Government has prohi ited the exploitation of wild growin
g plants in forest and its export since 1969.
Botany
Plumier in 1703 assigned the name Rauvolfia to the genus in honour of a German p
hyscian -Leonhart Rauvolf of Augs urg. The genus Rauvolfia of Apocynaceae family
comprises over 170 species distri uted in the tropical and su tropical parts of
the world including 5 species native to India. The common species of the genus
Rauvolfia and their ha itat as reported y Trivedi (1995) are given elow. R. se
rpentina Benth. ex Kurz.(Indian serpentwood) - India ,Bangladesh, Burma, Sri Lan
ka, Malaya, Indonesia R. vomitoria Afz. (African serpentwood) - West Africa, Zai
re, Rwanda, Tanzania R. canescens Linn. syn. R. tetraphylla (American serpentwoo
d) - America, India R. mom asina - East Africa , Kenya, Mozam ique R. eddomei -
Western ghats and hilly tracts of Kerala R. densiflora - Maymyo, India R. micro
carpa - Thandaung R. verticillata syn. R. chinensis - Hemsl R. peguana - Rangoon
-Burma hills R. caffra - Nigeria, Zaire, South Africa R. riularis - Nmai valley
R. o scura - Nigeria, Zaire R. serpentina is an erect perennial shru generally
15-45 cm high, ut growing upto 90cm under cultivation. Roots nearly verticle, t
apering up to 15 cm thick at the crown and long giving a serpent-like appearance
, occasionally ranched or tortuous developing small fi rous roots. Roots greeni
sh-yellow externally and pale yellow inside, extremely itter in taste. Leaves
orn in whorls of 3-4 elliptic-lanceolate or o ovate, pointed. Flowers numerous
orne on terminal or axillary cymose inflorscence. Corolla tu ular, 5-lo ed, 1-3
cm long, whitish-pink in colour. Stamens 5, epipetalous. Carpels 2, connate, sty
le filiform with large ifid stigma. Fruit is a drupe, o liquely ovoid and purpl
ish lack in colour at maturity with stone containing 1-2 ovoid wrinkled seeds.
The plant is cross-pollinated, mainly due to the protogynous flowers (Sulochana
,1959).
46
Agrotechnology
Among the different species of Rauvolfia, R. serpentina is preferred for cultiva
tion ecause of higher reserpine content in the root . Though it grows in tropic
al and su tropical areas which are free from frost, tropical humid climate is mo
st ideal. Its common ha itats receive an annual rain fall of 1500-3500 mm and th
e annual mean temperature is 10-38 °C. It grows up to an elevation of 13001400m
from msl. It can e grown in open as well as under partial shade conditions. It
grows on a wide range of soils. Medium to deep well drained fertile soils and cl
ay-loam to silt-loam soils rich in organic matter are suita le for its cultivati
on. It requires slightly acidic to neutral soils for good growth. The plant can
e propagated vegetatively y root cuttings, stem cuttings or root stumps and y
seeds. Seed propagation is the est method for raising commercial plantation. S
eed germination is very poor and varia le from 10-74%. Seeds collected during Se
ptem er to Novem er give good results. It is desira le to use fresh seeds and to
sock in 10% sodium chloride solution. Those seeds which sink to the ottom shou
ld only e used. Seeds are treated with ceresan or captan efore planting in nur
sery to avoid damping off. Seed rate is 5-6 kg/ha. Nursery eds are prepared in
shade, well rotten FYM is applied at 1kg/m2 and seeds are di led 6-7cm apart in
May-June and irrigated. Two months old seedlings with 4-6 leaves are transplant
ed at 45-60 x 30 cm spacing in July -August in the main field. Alternatively, ro
oted cuttings of 2.5-5cm long roots or 12-20cm long woody stems can also e used
for transplanting. Hormone (Seradix) treatment increases rooting . In the main
field 10-15 t/ha of FYM is applied asally. Fertilisers are applied at 40:30:30k
g N: P 2O5 :K2O/ha every year. N is applied in 2-3 splits. Monthly irrigation in
creases the yield. The nursery and the main field should e kept weed free y fr
equent weeding and hoeing. In certain regions intercroping of soy ean, rinjal,
ca age, okra or chilly is followed in Rauvolfia crop. Pests like root gru s (An
omala polita), moth (Deilephila nerii), caterpillar (Glyophodes vertumnalis), l
ack ugs and weevils are o served on the crop, ut the crop damage is not seriou
s. The common diseases reported are leaf spot (Cercospora rauvolfiae, Corynespor
a cassiicola), leaf lotch (Cercospora serpentina), leaf light (Alternaria tenu
is), anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides), die ack (Colletotrichum dema
trium), powdery mildew (Leviellula taurica), wilt (Fusarium oxysporum), root-kno
t (Meloidogyne sp.), mosaic and unchy top virus diseases. Field sanitation, pru
ning and urning of diseased parts and repeated spraying of 0.2% Dithane Z-78 or
Dithane M-45 are recommended for controlling various fungal diseases. Rauvolfia
is harvested after 23 years of growth. The optimum time of harvest is in Novem
er -Decem er when the plants shed leaves, ecome dormant and the roots contain m
aximum alkaloid content. Harvesting is done y digging up the roots y deeply pe
netrating implements (Guniyal et al, 1988).
Postharvest technology
The roots are cleaned washed cut into 12-15cm pieces and dried to 8-10% moisture
. The dried roots are stored in polythene lined gunny ags in cool dry place to
protect it from mould. The yield is 1.5-2.5 t/ha of dry roots. The root ark con
stitutes 40-45% of the total weight of root and contri utes 90% of the total alk
aloids yield.
Properties and activity
Rauvolfia root is itter, acrid, laxative, anthelmintic, thermogenic, diuretic a
nd sedative. Over 200 alkaloids have een isolated from the plant. Rauvolfia ser
pentina root contains 1.4-3% alkaloids. The alkaloids are classsified into 3 gro
ups, viz, reserpine, ajmaline and serpentine groups. Reserpine group comprising
reserpine, rescinnamine, deserpine etc act as hypotensive, sedative and tranquil
lising agent. Overdose may cause diarrhoea, radycardia and drowsiness. Ajmaline
, ajmalicine, ajmalinine, iso-ajmaline etc of the ajmaline group stimulate centr
al nervous system, respiration and intestinal movement with slight hypotensive a
ctivity. Serpentine group comprising serpentine, sepentinine, alstonine etc is m
ostly antihypertensive. (Husain,1993; Trivedi, 1995; Iyengar, 1985).
47
BAEL Rutaceae
San: Bilva, Sriphal Mar, Ben: Baela
Aegle marmelos
Hin, Ben, Ass: Bael Mal: Koovalam Tel: Marendu, Bilvapondu Guj: Bilviphal Tam: V
ilvam Kan: Bilvapatra
Importance
Bael or Bengal quince is a deciduous sacred tree, associated with Gods having us
eful medicinal properties, especially as a cooling agent. This tree is popular i
n ‘Shiva’ and ‘Vishnu’ temples and it can e grown in every house. Its leaves ar
e trifoliate sym olizing the ‘Thrimurthies’-Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, with spear sh
aped leaflets resem ling “Thrisoolam” the weapon of Lord Shiva. Many legends, st
ories and myths are associated with this tree. The leaflets are given to devotee
s as ‘prasadam’ in Shiva temples and as ‘Tulasi’ in Vishnu temples. Every part o
f the tree is medicinal and useful. The roots are used in many Ayurvedic medicin
es for curing dia etes and leprosy. It is an ingredient of the ‘dasamoola’. The
Bark is used to cure intestinal disorders. Leaves contain an alkaloid rutacin wh
ich is hypoglycaemic. ‘Two leaves efore reakfast’ is said to keep dia etes und
er control. Leaves and fruits are useful in controlling diarrhoea and dysentery.
Fruit pulp is used as ‘shampoo’ and cooling agent. It is also a rich source of
car ohydrate, protein, fat, fi re, minerals and vitamin B and C. Fruit pulp is u
sed to cure mouth ulcers as it is the richest natural source of ri oflavin (1191
units/ 100 g). ‘Bael shar at’ is prepared y mixing the fruit pulp with sugar,
water and tamarind juice, which is very useful for stomach and intestinal disord
ers. The rind of the fruit is used for dyeing and tanning. The aromatic wood is
used to make pestles in oil and sugar mills and also to make agricultural implem
ents (Rajarajan, 1997).
Distri ution
Bael tree is native to India and is found growing wild in Su -Himalayan tracts f
rom Jhelum eastwards to West Bengal, in central and south India. It is grown all
over the country, especially in the premises of temples and houses.
Botany
Aegle marmelos (Linn.) Corr.ex Rox . elongs to the citrus family Rutaceae. The
golden coloured ael fruit resem les a golden apple and hence the generic name A
egle. The specific name marmelos is derived from marmelosin contained in the fru
it (Nair, 1997). Aegle marmelos is a medium sized armed deciduous tree growing u
pto 8m in height with straight sharp axillary thorns and yellowish rown shallow
ly furrowed corky ark. Leaves are alternate, trifoliate and aromatic; leaflets
ovate or ovate-lanceolate, crenate, pellucidpunctate, the laterals su sessile an
d the terminal long petioled. Flowers are greenish-white, sweet scented, orne o
n axillary panicles. Fruit is glo ose, woody erry with golden yellow rind when
ripe. Seeds are numerous o long, compressed and em edded in the orange rown swe
et gummy pulp.
Agrotechnology
Bael comes up well in humid tropical and su tropical climate. It grows on a wide
range of soils from sandy loam to clay loam. North Indian varieties are preferr
ed to South Indian types for large scale cultivation. Twelve varieties are culti
vated in North India for
48
their fruits. Kacha, Ettawa, Seven Large, Mirsapuri and Deo Reo Large are variet
ies meant specially for ‘Shar at’. The plant is propagated mainly y seeds and r
arely y root cuttings. Seeds are freshly extracted from ripe fruits after remov
ing the pulp and then dried in sun. Seeds are soaked in water for 6 hours and so
wn on seed eds which are covered with rotten straw and irrigated regularly. See
ds germinate within 15-20 days. One month old seedlings can e transplanted into
poly ags which can e planted in the field after 2 months. Budded or grafted pl
ants as well as new saplings arising from injured roots can also e used for pla
nting. Grafted plants start yielding from the 4th year while the trees raised fr
om seeds ear fruits after 7-10 years. Planting is done in the main field with o
nset of monsoon in June-July at a spacing of 6-8m. Pits of size 50cm3 are dug. P
its are filled with a mixture of top soil and 10kg of well decomposed FYM and fo
rmed into a heap. Seedlings are transplanted in the middle of the heap and mulch
ed. Chemical fertilisers are not usually applied. The dose of organic manure is
increased every year till 50kg/tree of 5 years or more. Regular irrigation and w
eeding are required during early stages of growth. No serious pests and diseases
are noted in the crop. Bael tree flowers during April. The flowers are aromatic
with pleasant and heavenly odour. The fruits are set and slowly develop into ma
ture fruits. Fruits are seen from Octo er-March. A single tree ears 200-400 fru
its each weighing 1-2 kg. Roots can e collected from mature trees of age 10 yea
rs or more. Tree is cut down a out 1m from the ground. The underground roots are
carefully dug out. Roots with the attached wood is then marketed (Rajarajan,199
7).
Properties and activity
Bael is reported to contain a num er of coumarins, alkaloids, sterols and essent
ial oils. Roots and fruits contain coumarins such as scoparone, scopoletin, um e
lliferone, marmesin and skimmin. Fruits, in addition, contain xanthotoxol, imper
atorin and alloimperatorin and alkaloids like aegeline and marmeline identified
as N-2-hydroxy-2-[ 4 (3’,3’-dimethyl allyloxy) phenyl] ethyl cinnamide. β- sitos
terol and its glycoside are also present in the fruits. Roots and stem arks con
tain a coumarin - aegelinol. Roots also contain psoralen, xanthotoxin, 6,7-dimet
hoxy coumarin, tem amide, mermin and skimmianine. Leaves contain the alkaloids -
O-(3,3-dimethyl allyl)-halfordinol, N-2-ethoxy-2 (4-methoxy phenyl) ethyl cinna
mide, N-2-methoxy-2-(4-3’,3’-dimethyl allyloxy) phenyl] ethyl cinnamide, N- 2[4-
(3’,3’-dimethyl allyloxy) phenyl] ethyl cinnamide, N-2-hydroxy-2-[4-(3’,3’-dimet
hyl allyloxy) phenyl] ethyl cinnamide, N-4-methoxy steryl cinnamide and N-2-hydr
oxy-2-(4hydroxy phenyl) ethyl cinnamide. Mermesinin, rutin and β-sitosterol - β-
D-glucoside are also present in the leaves (Husain et al, 1992). Root, ark, lea
ves and fruits are hypoglycaemic, astringent and fe rifuge. Root, stem and ark
are antidiarrhoeal and antivenin. Leaf is antiinflammatory, expectorant, anticat
arrhal, antiasthamatic, antiulcerous and ophthalmic. Flower is emetic. Unripe fr
uit is stomachic and demulcent. Ripe fruit is antigonorrhoeal, cardiotonic, rest
orative, laxative, antitu ercular, antidysenteric and antiscor utic. Seed is ant
helmintic and antimicro ial (Warrier et al, 1993).
49
INDIAN GOOSEBERRY Euphor iaceae
San: Amalaka, Adiphala Tel: Amalakam Hin, Mar: Amla Kan: Amalaka
Phyllanthus
Ben: Amlaki Guj: Am ala
em lica
Mal, Tam: Nelli Kas: Aonla
Importance
Indian goose erry or em lic myro alan is a medium sized tree the fruit of which
is used in many Ayurvedic preparations from time immemorial. It is useful in hae
morrhage, leucorrhaea, menorrhagia, diarrhoea and dysentery. In com ination with
iron, it is useful for anaemia, jaundice and dyspepsia. It goes in com ination
in the preparation of triphala, arishta, rasayan, churna and chyavanaprash. Sanj
ivani pills made with other ingredients is used in typhoid, snake- ite and chole
ra. The green fruits are made into pickles and preserves to stimulate appetite.
Seed is used in asthma, ronchitis and iliousness. Tender shoots taken with ut
ter milk cures indigestion and diarrhoea. Leaves are also useful in conjunctivit
is, inflammation, dyspepsia and dysentery. The ark is useful in gonorrhoea, jau
ndice, diarrhoea and myalgia. The root ark is astringent and is useful in ulcer
ative stomatitis and gastrohelcosis. Liquor fermented from fruit is good for ind
igestion, anaemia, jaundice, heart complaints, cold to the nose and for promotin
g urination. The dried fruits have good effect on hair hygiene and used as ingre
dient in shampoo and hair oil. The fruit is a very rich source of Vitamin C (600
mg/100g) and is used in preserves as a nutritive tonic in general weakness (Dey,
1980).
Distri ution
Indian goose erry is found through out tropical and su tropical India, Sri Lanka
and Malaca. It is a undant in deciduous forests of Madhya Pradesh and Darjeelin
g, Sikkim and Kashmir. It is also widely cultivated.
Botany
Phyllanthus em lica Linn. syn. Em lica officinalis Gaertn. elongs to Euphor iac
eae family. It is a small to medium sized deciduous tree growing up to 18m in he
ight with thin light grey, ark exfoliating in small thin irregular flakes. Leav
es are simple, many su sessile, closely set along the ranchlets, distichous lig
ht green having the appearance of pinnate leaves. Flowers are greenish yellow in
axillary fascicles, unisexual; males numerous on short slender pedicels; female
s few, su sessile; ovary 3-celled. Fruits are glo ose, 1-5cm in diameter, fleshy
, pale yellow with 6 o scure vertical furrows enclosing 6 trigonous seeds in 2-s
eeded 3 crustaceous cocci. Two forms Amla are generally distinguished, the wild
ones with smaller fruits and the cultivated ones with larger fruits and the latt
er are called ‘Banarasi’(Warrier et al, 1995).
Agrotechnology
Goose erry is quite hardy and it prefers a warm dry climate. It needs good sunli
ght and rainfall. It can e grown in almost all types of soils, except very sand
y type. A large fruited variety “Cham akad Large“ was located from the rain shad
ow region of the Western Ghats for cultivation in Kerala. Amla is usually propag
ated y seeds and rarely y root suckers and grafts. The seeds are enclosed in a
hard seed coat which renders the germination difficult. The seeds can e extrac
ted y keeping fully ripe fruits in the sun for 2-3 days till they split open re
leasing the seeds. Seeds are soaked in water for 3-4 hours and sown on
50
previously prepared seed eds and irrigated. Excess irrigation and waterlogging
are harmful. One month old seedlings can e transplanted to polythene ags and o
ne year old seedlings can e planted in the main field with the onset of monsoon
. Pits of size 50 cm3 are dug at 6-8m spacing and filled with a mixture of top s
oil and well rotten FYM and planting is done. Amla can also e planted as a wind
reak around an orchard. Irrigation and weeding are required during the first ye
ar. Application of organic manure and mulching every year are highly eneficial.
Chemical fertilisers are not usually applied. No serious pests or diseases are
generally noted in this crop. Planted seedlings will commence earing from the 1
0th year, while grafts after 3-4 years. The vegetative growth of the tree contin
ues from April to July. Along with the new growth in the spring, flowering also
commences. Fruits will mature y Decem er-Fe ruary. Fruit yield ranges from 30-5
0kg/tree/year when full grown (KAU,1993).
Properties and Activity
Amla fruit is a rich natural source of vitamin C. It also contains cytokinin lik
e su stances identified as zeatin, zeatin ri oside and zeatin nucleotide. The se
eds yield 16% fixed oil, rownish yellow in colour. The plant contains tannins l
ike glucogallia, corilagin, che ulagic acid and 3,6-digalloyl glucose. Root yiel
ds ellagic acid, lupeol, quercetin and βsitosterol (Thakur et al, 1989). The fru
it is diuretic, laxative, carminative, stomachic, astringent, antidiarrhoeal, an
tihaemorrhagic and antianaemic.
51
INDIAN BDELLIUM Burseraceae
San: Gugulu, Mahisaksah, Koushikaha, Devadhupa Hin:Gugal Mal:Gulgulu Tam, Tel: G
ukkulu
Commiphora mukul
Kan: Guggul Ben: Guggul
Importance
Indian dellium is a small, armed, deciduous tree from the ark of which gets an
aromatic gum resin, the ‘Guggul’ of commerce. It is a versatile indigenous drug
claimed y ayurvedists to e highly effective in the treatment of rheumatism, o
esity, neurological and urinary disorders, tonsillitis, arthritis and a few oth
er diseases. The fumes from urning guggul are recommended in hay- fever, chroni
c ronchitis and phytises. The price of guggulu gum has increased ten fold in te
n years or so, indicating the increase in its use as well as decrease in natural
plant stand. It has een listed as a threatened plant y Botanical Survey of In
dia (Dalal, 1995) and is included in the Red Data Book (IUCN) and over exploited
species in the country (Billare,1989).
Distri ution
The center of origin of Commiphora spp. is elieved to e Africa and Asia. It is
a widely adapted plant well distri uted in arid regions of Africa ( Somalia, Ke
nya and Ethiopia in north east and Madagascar, Zim a we, Botswana, Zaire in sout
h west Africa), Ara ian peninsula (Yemen, Saudi Ara ia and Oman). Different spec
ies of Commiphora are distri uted in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnata
ka states of India and Sind and Baluchistan provinces of Pakistan (Tajuddin et a
l, 1994). In India, the main commercial source of gum guggul is Rajasthan and Gu
jarat.
Botany
The genus Commiphora of family Burseraceae comprises a out 185 species. Most of
them occur in Africa, Saudi Ara ia and adjoining countries. In India only four s
pecies have een reported. They are C. mukul(Hook. ex Stocks) Engl. syn. Balsamo
dendron mukul (Hook. ex Stocks), C. wightii (Arnott) Bhandari, C.stocksiana Engl
., C. erryi and C.agallocha Engl. In early studies a out the flora of India, th
e ‘guggul’ plant was known as Commiphora mukul(Hook. ex Stocks) Engl. or Balsamo
dendron mukul (Hook. ex Stocks). It was renamed as C. rox urghii y Santapau in
1962. According to Bhandari the correct Latin name of the species is C. wightii(
Arnott) Bhandari, since the specific name ‘wightii’ was pu lished in 1839, prior
to ‘rox urghi’ in 1848 (Dalal and Patel, 1995). C. mukul is a small tree upto 3
-4m height with spinescent ranching. Stem is rownish or pale yellow with ash c
olored ark peeling off in flakes. Young parts are glandular and pu escent. Leav
es are alternate, 1-3 foliate, o ovate, leathery and serrate (sometimes only tow
ards the apex). Lateral leaflets when present only less than half the size of th
e terminal ones. Flowers small, rownish red, with short pedicel seen in fascicl
es of 2-3. Calyx campanulate, glandular, hairy and 4-5 lo ed. Corolla with rown
ish red, roadly linear petals reflexed at apex. Stamens 8-10, alternatively lon
g and short. Ovary o long, ovoid and stigma ifid. Fruit is a drupe and red when
ripe, ovate in shape with 2-3 celled stones. The chromosome num er 2n= 26 (Warr
ier et al, 1994; Tajuddin et al, 1994).
Agrotechnology
Guggal eing a plant of arid zone thrives well in arid- su tropical to tropical
climate. The rainfall may average etween 100mm and 500mm while air temperature
may vary etween 40°C in summer and −3°C during winter. Maximum relative humidit
y prevails during rainy season (83% in the morning and 48% in the evening).Wind
velocity remains between 20 25 km/hour during the year is good. Though they pref
er hard gypseous soil, they are found over sandy to silt loam soils, poor in org
anic matter but rich in several other minerals in arid tracks of western India (
Tajuddin et al, 1994). Plants are propagated both by vegetatively and seeds. Pla
nts are best raised from stem cuttings from the semi woody (old) branch. For thi
s purpose one metre long woody stem
52
of 10mm thickness is selected and the cut end is treated with IBA or NAA and pla
nted in a well manured nursery bed during June July months; the beds should be g
iven light irrigation periodically. The cuttings initiate sprouting in 10 15 day
s and grow into good green sprout in 10 12 months. These rooted plants are suita
ble for planting in the fields during the next rainy season. The cuttings give 8
0 94% sprouting usually. Air layering has also been successfully attempted and p
rotocol for meristem culture is available in literature. Seed germination is ver
y poor (5%) but seedling produce healthier plants which withstand high velocity
winds. The rooted cuttings are planted in a well laid out fields during rainy se
ason. Pits of size 0.5m cube are dug out at 3 4 m spacing in rows and given FYM
and filler soil of the pit is treated with BHC (10%) or aldrin (5%) to protect t
he new plants from white ants damage. Fertilizer trials have shown little respon
se except due to low level of N fertilization. Removal of side branches and low
level of irrigation supports a good growth of these plants. The plantation does
not require much weeding and hoeing. But the soil around the bushes be pulverise
d twice in a year to increase their growth and given urea or ammonium sulphate a
t 25  50g per bush at a time and irrigated. Dalal et al (1989) reported that cer
cospora leaf spot was noticed on all the cultures. Bacterial leaf blight was als
o noticed to attack the cultures. A leaf eating caterpillar (Euproctis lanata Wa
lker) attack guggal, though not seriously. White fly (Bemisia tabaci) is observe
d to suck sap of leaves and such leaves become yellowish and eventually drop. Th
ese can be effectively controlled by using suitable insecticide. Stem or branch
having maximum diameter of about 5cm at place of incision, irrespective of age i
s tapped. The necrotic patch on the bark is peeled off with a sharp knife and Bo
rdeaux paste is applied to the exposed (peeled off ) surface of the stem or bran
ch. A prick chisel of about 3cm width is used to make bark  deep incisions and w
hile incising the bark, the chisel is held at an acute angle so that scooped sus
pension present on the body of the chisel flows towards the blade of the chisel
and a small quantity of suspension flows inside the incised bark. If tapping is
successful, gum exudation ensures after about 15 20 days from the date of incisi
on and continues for nearly 30 45 days. The exuded gum slides down the stem or b
ranch, and eventually drops on the ground and gets soiled. A piece of polythene
sheet can be pouched around the place of incision to collect gum. Alternatively,
a polythene sheet can be spread on the ground to collect exuded gum. A maximum
of about 500g of gum has been obtained from a plant (Dalal, 1995).
Post harvest technology
The best grade of guggul is collected from thick branches of tree. These lumps o
f guggul are translucent. Second grade guggul is usually mixed with bark, sand a
nd is dull coloured guggul. Third grade guggul is usually collected from the gro
und which is mixed with sand, stones and other foreign matter. The final grading
is done after getting cleansed material. Inferior grades are improved by sprink
ling castor oil over the heaps of the guggul which impart it a shining appearanc
e (Tajuddin et al, 1994).
Properties and Activity
The gum resin contains guggul sterons Z and E, guggul sterols I V, two diterpeno
ids  a terpene hydrocarbon named cembreneA and a diterpene alcohol  mukulol, α-c
mphrone nd cembrene, long ch in liph tic tetrols- oct dec n-1,2,3,4-tetrol, e
icos n-1,2,3,4-tetrol nd non dec n-1,2,3,4-tetrol. M jor components from essent
i l oil of gum resin re myrcene nd dimyrcene. Pl nt without le ves, flowers n
d fruits cont ins myricyl lcohol, β-sitosterol and fifteen aminoacids. Flowers
contain quercetin and its glycosides as major flavonoid components, other consti
tuents eing ellagic acid and pelargonidin glucoside (Patil et al, 1972; Purusho
thaman and Chandrasekharan, 1976). The gum resin is itter, acrid, astringent, t
hermogenic, aromatic, expectorant, digestive, anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, an
odyne, antiseptic, demulcent, carminative, emmenagogue, haematinic, diuretic, li
thontriptic, rejuvenating and general tonic. Guggulipid is hypocholesteremic (Hu
sain et al, 1992; Warrier et al, 1994).
53
INDIAN GINSENG Solanceae
Importance
Withania somnifera
San: Aswagandha, Varahakarni Hin: Asgandh, Punir Mal: Amukkuram Tam: Amukkira Te
l: Vajigandha Mar: Askandha Guj: Ghoda Kan: Viremaddinagaddi Indian ginseng or W
inter cherry is an erect ranching perennial undershru which is considered to
e one of the est rejuvenating agents in Ayurveda. Its roots, leaves and seeds a
re used in Ayurvedic and Unani medicines, to com at diseases ranging from tu erc
ulosis to arthritis. The pharmacological activity of the plant is attri uted to
the presence of several alkaloids and withaniols. Roots are prescri ed in medici
nes for hiccup, several female disorders, ronchitis, rheumatism, dropsy, stomac
h and lung inflammations and skin diseases. Its roots and paste of green leaves
are used to relieve joint pains and inflammation. It is also an ingredient of me
dicaments prescri ed for curing disa ility and sexual weakness in male. Leaves a
re used in eye diseases. Seeds are diuretic. It is a constituent of the her al d
rug ‘Lactare’ which is a galactagogue. Aswagandha was o served to increase cell-
mediated immunity, prevent stress induced changes in adrenal function and enhanc
e protein synthesis. Milk fortified with it increases total proteins and ody we
ight. It is a well known rejuvenating agent capa le of imparting long life, yout
hful vigour and intellectual power. It improves physical strength and is prescri
ed in all cases of general de ility. Aswagandha powder (6-12g) twice a day alon
g with honey and ghee is advised for tu erculosis in Sushruta Samhita. It also p
rovides sound sleep (Prakash, 1997).
Distri ution
Aswagandha is elieved to have oriental origin. It is found wild in the forests
of Mandsaur and Bastar in Mandhya Pradesh, the foot hills of Punja , Himachal Pr
adesh, Uttar Pradesh and western Himalayas in India. It is also found wild in th
e Mediterranean region in North America. In India it is cultivated in Madhya Pra
desh, Rajastan and other drier parts of the country.
Botany
Aswagandha elongs to the genus Withania and family Solanaceae. Two species, viz
, W. coagulans Dunal and W. somnifera Dunal are found in India. W. coagulans is
a rigid grey under shru of 60-120cm high. W. somnifera is erect, evergreen, tom
entose shru , 30-75cm in height. Roots are stout, fleshy, cylindrical, 1-2cm in
diameter and whitish rown in colour. Leaves are simple, ovate, gla rous and opp
osite. Flowers are isexual, inconspicuous, greenish or dull yellow in colour o
rn on axillary um ellate cymes, comprising 5 sepals, petals and stamens each; th
e two celled ovary has a single style and a ilo ed stigma. The petals are unite
d and tu ular. The stamens are attached to the corolla tu e and ear erect anthe
rs which form a close column or cone around the style. Pollen production is poor
. The fruit is a small erry, glo ose, orange red when mature and is enclosed in
persistent calyx. The seeds are small, flat, yellow and reniform in shape and v
ery light in weight. The chromosome num er 2n = 48. The cultivated plants have s
iza le differences from the wild forms not only in their morphological character
s ut also in the therapeutical action, though the alkaloids present are the sam
e in oth (Kaul, 1957). Some otanists, therefore, descri ed the cultivated plan
t distinct from wild taxa and have coined a new name W. aswagandha (Kaul, 1957)
which is contested y Atal and Schwarting (1961).
Agrotechnology
Asgandh is a tropical crop growing well under dry climate. The areas receiving 6
00 to 750mm rainfall is est suited to this crop. Rainy season crop requires rel
atively dry season and the roots are fully developed when 1-2 late winter rains
are received. Sandy loam or light red soils having a pH of 7.5- 8.0 with good dr
ainage are suita le for its cultivation. It is usually cultivated on poor and ma
rginal soils. Withania is propagated through seeds. It is a
54
late kharif crop and planting is done in August. Seeds are either roadcast-sown
or seedlings are raised in nursery and then transplanted. Seed rate is 10-12 kg
/ha for roadcasting and 5kg/ha for transplanting. In direct sown crop plants ar
e thinned and gap filling is done 25-30 days after sowing. Seeds should e treat
ed with Dithane M-45 at 3g/kg of seeds efore sowing. Seeds are sown in the nurs
ery just efore the onset of rainy season and covered with light soil. Seeds ger
minate in 6-7 days. When seedlings are six weeks old they are transplanted at 60
cm in furrows taken 60cm apart. The crop is mainly grown as a rainfed crop on re
sidual fertility and no manure or fertilizers are applied to this crop generally
. However, application of organic manure is eneficial for realizing etter yiel
ds. It is not a fertilizer responsive crop. One hand weeding 25-30 days after so
wing helps to control weeds effectively. No serious pest is reported in this cro
p. Diseases like seedling rot and light are o served. Seedling mortality ecome
s serious under high temperature and humid conditions. The disease can e minimi
zed y use of disease free seeds and treatment with thiram or deltan at 3-4g/kg
seed efore sowing. Further, use of crop rotation, timely sowing and keeping fie
ld well drained also protect the crop. Spraying with 0.3% fytolan, dithane Z-78
or dithane M-45 will help controlling the disease incidence. Spraying is repeate
d at 15 days interval if the disease persists. Aswagandha is a crop of 150-170 d
ays duration. The maturity of the crop is judged y the drying of the leaves and
reddening of erries. Harvesting usually starts from January and continues till
March. Roots, leaves and seeds are the economical parts. The entire plant is up
rooted for roots, which are separated from the aerial parts. The erries are plu
cked from dried plants and are threshed to o tain the seeds. The yield is 400500
kg of dry roots and 50-75kg seeds per hectare.
Post harvest technology
The roots are separated from the plant y cutting the stem 1-2cm a ove the crown
. Roots are then cut into small pieces of 7-10cm to facilitate drying. Occasiona
lly, the roots are dried as a whole. The dried roots are cleaned, trimmed, grade
d, packed and marketed. Roots are carefully hand sorted into the following four
grades. Grade A : Root pieces 7cm long, 1-1.5cm diameter, rittle, solid, and pu
re white from outside. Grade B : Root pieces 5cm long, 1cm diameter, rittle, so
lid and white from outside. Grade C : Root pieces 3-4cm long, less than 1cm diam
eter and solid. Lower grade : Root pieces smaller, hollow and yellowish from out
side.
Properties and activity
Aswagandha roots contain alkaloids, starch, reducing sugar, hentriacontane, glyc
osides, dulcital, withaniol acid and a neutral compound. Wide variation (0.13-0.
31%) is o served in alkaloid content. Majumdar (1955) isolated 8 amorphous ases
such as withanine, somniferine, somniferinine, somnine, withananine, withananin
ine, pseudowithanine and withasomnine. Other alkaloids reported are nicotine, tr
opine, pseudotropine, 3,α-tigloyloxytrop ne, choline, cuscudohygrine, n ferine,
n hygrine nd others. Free mino cids in the roots include sp rtic cid, glyc
ine, tyrosine, l nine, proline, tryptoph n, glut mic cid nd cystine. Le ves c
ont in 12 with nolides, lk loids, glycosides, glucose nd free mino cids. Ber
ries cont in  milk co gul ting enzyme, two ester ses, free mino cids, f tty o
il, essenti l oil nd lk loids. Methods for lk loid’s analysis in Asgandh root
s have also been reported (Majumdar, 1955; Mishra, 1989; Maheshwari, 1989). With
ania roots are astringent, bitter, acrid, somniferous, thermogenic, stimulant, a
phrodisiac, diuretic and tonic. Leaf is antibiotic, antitumourous, antihepatotox
ic and antiinflammatory. Seed is milk coagulating, hypnotic and diuretic.
55
NEEM
Importance
Azadirachta indica
Meliaceae
San: Nimbah, Prabhadrah Hin, Ben: Nim, Nim Mal: Aryaveppu Tel: Vepa Ori: Nimba T
am: Vembu, Veppu Pun: Bakam,Bukhain Guj: Limba Kan: Bevu Mar: Limbu Neem or marg
ose tree, also known as Indian lilac is a highly exploited medicinal plant of In
dian origin, widely grown and cultivated throughout India. Every part of the tre
e, namely root, bark, wood, twig, leaf, flower, fruit, seed, kernel and oil has
been in use from time immemorial in the Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicine.
Nimbarishta, nimbadi churna and nimbharidra khand are well known preparations.
It is valuable as an antiseptic, used in the treatment of small pox. Small twigs
are used as tooth brushes and as a prophylactic for mouth and teeth complaints.
Extract from the leaves are useful for sores, eczema and skin diseases. Boiled
and smashed leaves serve as excellent antiseptic. Decoction of leaves is used fo
r purifying blood. Neem oil is used in soaps, toothpaste and as a hair tonic to
kill lice. Seed is used in snake bite. The fruits and leaves being renewable, pr
ovide sustainable returns. Different parts of the fruit are separated into compo
nents and each one produces derivatives of varying chemical nature and utility.
Neem derivatives are now used in agriculture, public health, human and veterinar
y medicines, toiletries, cosmetics and livestock production. Applications as pes
ticides, allied agrochemicals, plant nutrients and adjuvants for improving nitro
gen use efficiency are of much importance. Neem kernel suspension (1%) is a hous
e hold insecticide. Pesticide formulations containing azadirachtin are now comme
rcially available in India, USA, Canada, Australia and Germany. Neem cake is ric
h in N, P, K, Ca and S. Neem Meliacins like epinimbin and nimbidin are commercia
lly exploited for the preparation of slow and extended release of nutrients incl
uding nitrification inhibitors (Eg. Nimin). Extracts of neem seed oil and bark c
heck the activity of male reproductive cells and prevents sperm production. Neem
seed oil is more effective than the bark for birth control. Neem based commerci
al products are also available for diabetes treatment (Nimbola, JK 22), contrace
ptive effect (Sensal, Nim 76) and mosquito/ insect repelling (Srivastava, 1989;
Tewari, 1992; Parmer and Katkar, 1993; Pushpangadan et al, 1993; Mariappan, 1995
).
Distribution
Neem is a native of the Siwalik deccan parts of South India. It grows wild in th
e dry forests of Andra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. It has spread to Pakis
tan, Bangladesh , Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Middle East Sudan an
d Niger. It is now grown in Australia, Africa, Fiji, Mauritious, Central and Sou
th America, the Carribeans, Puerto Rico and Haiti. The largest known plantation
of nearly 50,000 trees is at Arafat plains en route to Mecca in Saudi Arabia for
providing shade to Haj pilgrims (Ahmed, 1988).
Botany
The genus Azadirachta of family Meliaceae comprises two species: A. indica A. Ju
ss syn. Melia azadirachta Linn. and A. excelsa (Jack) Jacobs syn. A. integrifoli
a Mers., the latter being found in Philippines, Sumatra, Malaya, Borneo and New
Guinea. Neem is a hardy medium to large, mostly evergreen tree attaining 20m hei
ght and 2.5m girth. It has a short bole with wide spreading branches and glabrou
s twigs forming a round to oval crown. The bark is thick, dark gray with numerou
s longitudinal furrows and transverse cracks. Leaves are imparipinnately compoun
d, alternate, exstipulate and 20 38cm long. Inflorescence is long, slender, axil
lary or terminal panicle. Flowers are white or pale yellow, small, bisexual, pen
tamerous and bracteate. Stamens 10; filaments unite to form a moniliform tube. G
ynoecium is tricarpellary and syncarpous, ovary superior, trilocular. Each carpe
l bears two collateral ovules on parietal placentation. Fruit is one seeded drup
e with woody endocarp, greenish yellow when ripe. Seed ellipsoid, cotyledons thi
ck fleshy and oily. Neem has chromosome number 2n = 28. Neem trees tend to becom
e deciduous for a brief period in dry ecology. Ecotypes, exhibiting morphologica
l variation in root growth, leaf size, contents, bole length , canopy, infloresc
ence, fruit bearing, seed size, shape and quality exist in natural populations.
56
Agrotechnology
Neem grows in tropical arid regions with high temperatures, altitudes between 50
m and 1000m, as little rainfall as 130mm/yr and long stretches of drought. Well
drained sunny hill places are ideal. It grows on most kinds of soils including d
ry, stony, shallow, nutrient deficient soils with scanty vegetation, moderately
saline and alkali soils, black cotton, compact clays and laterite crusts. Howeve
r, silty flats, clayey depressions and land prone to inundation are not conduciv
e for its growth (Chaturvedi, 1993). Soil pH of 5.0 to 10.0 is ideal. It brings
surface soil to neutral pH by its leaf litter. It has extensive and deeply penet
rating root system capable of extracting moisture and nutrients even from highly
leached poor sandy soils. Neem propagates easily by seed without any pretreatme
nt, though it can be regenerated by vegetative means like root and shoot cutting
s. Seeds are collected from June to August. These remain viable for 3 5 weeks on
ly which necessitates sowing within this short time. Seeds may be depulped and s
oaked in water for 6 hours before sowing. Seeds are sown on nursery beds at 15x5
cm spacing, covered with rotten straw and irrigated. Germination takes 15 30 day
s. Seedlings can be transplanted after two months of growth onwards either to po
lybags or to mainfield. Neem can be grown along with agricultural crops like gro
undnut, bean, millets, sorghum and wheat. It is also suitable for planting in ro
adsides, for afforestation of wastelands and under agroforestry system. For fiel
d planting, pits of size 50 75 cm cube are dug 5 6m apart, filled with top soil
and well rotten manure, formed into a heap, and seedling is planted at the centr
e of the heap. FYM is applied at 10 20 kg/plant every year. Chemical fertilizers
are not generally applied. Irrigation and weeding are required during the first
year for quick establishment. More than 38 insect pests are reported on Neem wh
ich may become serious at times. The important ones are seed and flower insect (
Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood), defoliators (Boarmia variegata Moore and Eurema sp.
), sap suckers ( Helopeltes antonii Signoret and Pulvinaria maxima Green) , root
feeders (Hototrichia consanguinea Blanchard), mealy bug (Pseudococus gilbertens
is), scale insect (Parlatoria orientalis) and a leaf webber (Loboschiza Koenigia
na)(Beeson, 1941, Bhasin et al, 1958, Parmar, 1995). They can be controlled by t
he application of 0.01 0.02% monocrotophos or dimethoate. No serious diseases ar
e reported in Neem. Flowering starts after 5 years. In India flowering is during
January May and fruits mature from May August. The leaves are shed during Febru
aryMarch and a full grown tree produces about 350 kg dry leaves and 40 50 kg ber
ries per annum. Fresh fruits give 60% dry fruits which yield 10% kernel which co
ntains 45% fixed oil, on an average. After 10 years of growth the wood can be cu
t and used as timber.
Properties and Activity
Dry Neem leaves contain carbohydrates 47 51%, crude protein 14 19%, crude fiber
11 24%, fat 2 7%, ash 7 9%, Ca 0.8 2.5% and P 0.1 0.2%. Leaves also contain the
flavanoid quercetin, nimbosterol (β-sitosterol), kaempferol and myricetin. Seed
and oil contains desacetylnim in, azadirachtin (C35H44O16), nim idol, meliantrio
l ,tannic acid, S and amino acids. Neem cake contain the highest sulphur content
of 1.07% among all the oil cakes. Trunk ark contains nim in 0.04%, nim inin 0.
001%, nim idin 0.4%, nim osterol 0.03%, essential oil 0.02%, tannins 6.0 %, marg
osine and desacetylnim in (Atal and Kapur, 1982; Thakur et al 1989). Neem ark i
s itter, astringent, acrid, refrigerant, depurative, antiperiodic, vulnerary, d
emulcent, insecticidal, liver tonic, expectorant and anthelmintic. Leaves are i
tter, astringent, acrid, depurative, antiseptic, ophthalmic, anthelmintic, alexe
teric, appetizer, insecticidal, demulcent and refrigerant. Seed and oil are itt
er, acrid, thermogenic, purgative, emollient, anodyne, anthelmintic depurative,
vulnerary, uterine stimulant, urinary astringent, pesticidal and antimicro ial (
Warrier et al, 1993).
57
CINCHONA
San: Cinchona, Kunayanah
Cinchona spp.
Hin: Kunain Mal: Cinchona, Quoina
Ru iaceae
Tam: Cinchona
Importance
Cinchona, known as Quinine, Peruvian or Crown ark tree is famous for the antima
larial drug ‘quinine’ o tained from the ark of the plant. The term cinchona is
elieved to e derived from the countess of cinchon who was cured of malaria y
treating with the ark of the plant in 1638. Cinchona ark has een valued as a
fe rifuge y the Indians of south and central America for a long time. Over 35 a
lkaloids have een isolated from the plant; the most important among them eing
quinine, quinidine, cinchonine and cinchonidine. These alkaloids exist mainly as
salts of quinic, quinovic and cinchotannic acids. The cultivated ark contains
7-10% total alkaloids of which a out 70% is quinine. Similarly 60% of the total
alkaloids of root ark is quinine. Quinine is isolated from the total alkaloids
of the ark as quinine sulphate. Commercial preparations contain cinchonidine an
d dihydroquinine. They are useful for the treatment of malarial fever, pneumonia
, influenza, cold, whooping couphs, septicaemia, typhoid, amoe ic dysentery, pin
worms, lum ago, sciatica, intercostal neuralgia, ronchial neuritis and interna
l hemorrhoids. They are also used as anesthetic and contraceptive. Besides, they
are used in insecticide compositions for the preservation of fur, feathers, woo
l, felts and textiles. Over doses of these alkaloids may lead to deafness, lind
ness, weakness, paralysis and finally collapse, either comatose or deleterious.
Quinidine sulphate is cardiac depressant and is used for curing arterial fi rill
ation.
Distri ution
Cinchona is native to tropical South America. It is grown in Bolivia, Peru, Cost
a Rica, Ecuador, Colum ia, Indonesia, Tanzania, Kenya, Zaire and Sri Lanka. It w
as introduced in 1808 in Guatemala,1860 in India, 1918 in Uganda, 1927 in Philip
pines and in 1942 in Costa Rica. Roy Markham introduced the plant to India. The
first plantation was raised in Nilgiris and later on in Darjeeling of West Benga
l. The value of the tree was learnt y Jessuit priests who introduced the ark t
o Europe. It first appeared in London pharmacopoeia in 1677 (Husain, 1993).
Botany
The quinine plant elongs to the family Ru iaceae and genus Cinchona which compr
ises over 40 species. Among these a dozen are medicinally important. The commonl
y cultivated species are C. calisaya Wedd., C. ledgeriana Moens, C. officinalis
Linn., C. succiru ra Pav. ex Kl., C. lancifolia and C. pu escens. Cinchona speci
es have the chromosome num er 2n=68. C. officinalis Linn. is most common in Indi
a. It is an evergreen tree reaching a height of 10-15m. Leaves are opposite, ell
iptical, ovate- lanceolate, entire and gla rous. Flowers are reddish- rown in sh
ort cym iform, compound cymes, terminal and axillary; calyx tu ular, 5-toothed,
o conical, su tomentose, su -campanulate, acute, triangular, dentate, hairy; cor
olla tu e 5 lo ed, densely silky with white depressed hairs, slightly pentagonal
; stamens 5; style round, stigma su mersed. Fruit is capsule ovoid-o long; seeds
elliptic, winged margin octraceous, crinulate-dentate (Biswas and Chopra, 1982)
.
Agrotechnology
58
The plant widely grows in tropical regions having an average minimum temperature
of 14°C. Mountain slopes in the humid tropical areas with well distri uted annu
al rainfall of 1500-1950mm are ideal for its cultivation. Well drained virgin an
d fertile forest soils with pH 4.5-6.5 are est suited for its growth. It does n
ot tolerate waterlogging. Cinchona is propagated through seeds and vegetative me
ans. Most of the commercial plantations are raised y seeds. Vegetative techniqu
es such as grafting, udding and softwood cuttings are employed in countries lik
e India, Sri Lanka, Java and Guatemala. Cinchona succiru ra is commonly used as
root stock in the case of grafting and udding. Hormonal treatment induces ette
r rooting. Seedlings are first raised in nursery under shade. Raised seed eds of
convenient size are prepared, well decomposed compost or manure is applied , se
eds are roadcasted uniformly at 2g/m2, covered with a thin layer of sand and ir
rigated. Seeds germinate in 10-20 days. Seedlings are transplanted into polythen
e ags after 3 months. These can e transplanted into the field after 1 year at
1-2m spacing. Trees are thinned after third year for extracting ark , leaving 5
0% of the trees at the end of the fifth year. The crop is damaged y a num er of
fungal diseases like damping of caused y Rhizoctoria solani, tip light y Phy
tophthora parasatica, collar rot y Sclerotiun rolfsii, root rot y Phytophthora
cinnamomi, Armillaria mellea and Pythium vexans. Field sanitation, seed treatme
nt with organo mercurial fungicide, urning of infected plant parts and spraying
1% Bordeaux mixture are recommended for the control of the diseases (Crandall,
1954). Harvesting can e done in one or two phases. In one case, the complete tr
ee is uprooted, after 8-10 years when the alkaloid yield is maximum. In another
case, the tree is cut a out 30cm from the ground for ark after 6-7 years so tha
t fresh sprouts come up from the stem to yield a second crop which is harvested
with the under ground roots after 6-7 years. Both the stem and root are cut into
convenient pieces, ark is separated, dried in shade, graded, packed and traded
. Bark yield is 9000-16000kg/ha (Husain, 1993).
Properties and activity
Over 35 alkaloids have een isolated from Cinchona ark, the most important amon
g them are quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, cinchonidine, cinchophyllamine and id
ocinchophyllamine. There is considera le variation in alkaloid content ranging f
rom 4% to 20%. However, 6-8% yield is o tained from commercial plantations. The
non alkaloidal constituents present in the ark are itter glycosides, α-quinovi
n, cinchofulvic, cinchot nnic nd quinic cids,  bitter essenti l oil possessin
g the odour of the b rk nd  red coloring m tter. The seed cont ins 6.13% fixed
oil. Quinine nd its deriv tives re bitter, stringent, crid, thermogenic, fe
brifuge, oxytocic, nodyne, nti-b cteri l, nthelmintic, digestive, depur tive,
constip ting, nti pyretic, c rdiotonic, ntiinfl mm tory, expector nt nd c lc
if cient (W rrier et l, 1994; Bh kuni nd J in, 1995).
59
GLORY LILY Lili ce e
S n : L ng li, Vis ly , Agnishik ,Sh kr pushpi, G rbh gh tini M l: Menthonni T m
: Akkinichil m Guj: Dudhiy  v chn g K n: N ngulik  Ben: Bish l nguli Ori: D ngog
h n 

Glorios  superb 
Hin : K lih ri P n: K ri ri M r: N g k ri  Tel : Ad vin bhi
Import nce
Glory lily is  gl brous herb ceous climber which yields different types of trop
lone lk loids of medicin l import nce. The m jor lk loids re colchicine, 3-de
methyl colchicine nd colchicoside. There is nother lk loid gloriosine which p
romises to be even more effective th n colchicine in pl nt breeding for inducing
polyploidy. The genus h s import nce in the orn ment l horticulture due to its
bright flowers nd wiry climbing stem. The roots nd rhizomes re used in tr dit
ion l system of medicine. Its bortif cient nd ntipyretic properties h ve been
mentioned in ncient cl ssics “Ch r k ”. The n me G rbh gh tini is due to this
bortif cient ctivity. They re useful in the tre tment of infl mm tions, ulcer
s, scroful , hemorrhoids, pruritus, dyspepsi , helminthi sis, fl tulence, interm
ittent fevers nd debility. The root is given intern lly s n effective ntidot
e g inst cobr  poison. A p ste of the root is lso used s n nodyne; pplic t
ions in bites of poisonous insects, sn ke bites, scorpion sting, p r sitic skin
dise ses nd leprosy (N dk rni,1954; Ch udhuri nd Th kur; 1994).
Distribution
The pl nt is distributed throughout tropic l Indi  upto n ltitude of 2500m nd
in And m n isl nds. It is lso cultiv ted in tropic l nd South Afric , M d g s
k r, Indonesi  nd M l si . It is reported to be cultiv ted in some p rts of Eur
ope. In Indi  it w s cultiv ted in RRL, J mmu in 1960s. Recently it w s t ken up
by Indi n Council of Agricultur l Rese rch(ICAR). Cultiv tion of the pl nt is m
ostly confined to the Southern st tes of Indi  besides its collection from wild
sources.
Bot ny
Glorios  superb  Linn. belongs to Lili ce e f mily. It is  gl brous climbing he
rb with tuberous root stock grows over hedges nd sm ll trees. Stem is 6m long w
hich grows to  height of 1.2-1.5m before the stem br nches. Le ves re simple,
ltern te or whorled, sessile, ov te-l nceol te, 17x4.5cm, tip elong ting into 
spir lly coiled tendril, b se cord te nd m rgin entire. Flowers re l rge in t
ermin l r cemes; peri nth segments 6, line r, flexuosus nd deflexed, b s l h lf
bright yellow, upper h lf red; st mens 6; ov ry gl brous, 3-celled. Fruits re
c psules, line r-oblong, upto 6.8cm long, 3 equ l lobes, one or two lobes shorte
r in m lformed fruits; green dried to p le nd then bl ck colour, dehisced into
three sections. Seeds re ov l in sh pe, test  spongy, embryo cylindric, 30-150
seeds per c psule, p le or nge tt ched to the sutures. Tubers re cylindric, l 
rge, simple, ‘V’ shaped with the two limps equal or unequal in lenth pointed tow
ards end brownish externally and yellowish internally. (Narain, 1977)
Agrotechnology
60
This is a rainy season plant and sprouts well in warm, humid and tropical condit
ions. It should be grown in sun as the plants in shade become weedy and thin and
move towards light. G. superba is a shallow rooted plant and grows well in a va
riety of soils either clay or sand through out India. It grows well in a light p
orous soil with good drainage. For vigorous growth, greater blooms and strong tu
ber, a mixture of soil, sand and compost manure is recommended. The propagation
is mainly by tubers, by division of rhizomes. Seeds remain dormant for 6 9 month
s and due to hard seed coat, about 20 30 days are required for germination and s
eeds may take 3 4 years before it matures to flower. Treatment of seeds by gibbe
rellin(1 3 ppm) resulted in higher yield of colchicine in the plant and higher p
roduction of tubers. In tissue culture, young sprouts are cultured on Murashige
and Skoog’s medium (Msb) supplemented with kinetin (1 4 mg/l). Direct regenerati
on of the explants are obtained. The seeds and rhizomes are sown usually in the
last week of June to mid July. The rhizomes are planted by splitting carefully i
nto two from their ‘V’ shaped joints ( two buds being at the extreme end of each
rhizome) in lines 20cm apart at a distance of 20cm (while seeds are sown in lin
es at a distance of 4 6cm apart). They are watered regularly when the plants are
growing. After green shoots appear 2 3 showers are weekly. The irradiation of t
he plant at 42% natural sunlight intensity increased the production of tuber and
colchicine. They usually takes 6 10 weeks to flower after sprouting and then se
t on fruits. The fruits ripen at the end of October and after that aerial shoot
eventually dies, leaving the fleshy tubers underground. The tubers are dug out w
ith great care. An individual plant produces 50g tubers on an average. The avera
ge yield is approximately 4000 5000kg of rhizomes and 1000 kg of seed per hectar
e. The content of colchicine is usually 0.358% and 1.013% in tubers and seeds, r
espectively.
Post harvest technology
Lixivation of the material is done with 70% ethyl alcohol. Concentrated under va
cuum to one third of its volume and extracted with chloroform for colchicine and
related substances concentration of the aqueous phase to syrup which is extract
ed 6 8 times with a mixture of CHCl3  alcohol (4:1) to yield colchicoside.
Properties and activity
The flowers, leaves and tubers contain colchicine, superbin, N formyl deacetyl c
olchicine, demethyl colochicine and lumicolchicine. Tubers also contain gloriosi
ne. Leaves in addition, contain chelidonic acid, 2 hydroxy 6 methoxy benzoic aci
d and β-sitosterol glucoside. Colchicine, demethyl colchicine and colchicoside h
ave een reported from seeds. Rhizome is oxytocic, anticancerous, antimalarial,
stomachic, purgative, cholagogue, anthelmintic, alterative, fe rifuge and antile
protic. Leaf is antiasthmatic and antiinflammatory. Root shows antigonorrhoeic a
nd anti iotic activity. This plant has poisonous effect to enviroment and livest
ock. The toxic properties are due to presence of alkaloids chiefly colchicine (C
lewer et al, 1915).
61
LIQUORICE Papilionaceae
San: Yashtimadhu Tel: Yashtimadhukam
Glycyrrhiza gla ra
Hin: Jathimadh Mal: Irattimadhuram Ben: Yashtomadhu Pun:Muleti
Tam:Athimadhuram
Importance
Liquorice or Muleti is a perennial her or undershru a out 1m high. Its dried p
eeled or unpeeled underground stems and roots constitute the drug which is an im
portant constituent of all cough and catarrh syrups, throat lozenges and pastill
es. This has een used in medicine for more than 4000 years. Hippocrates (400 BC
) mentioned its use as a remedy for ulcers and quenching of thirst. Dioscorides,
the father of Greek medicine descri ed this drug in detail and considered it us
eful for maintaining shape of arteries and in urning stomach, trou le of liver
and kidney, sca ies, healing of wounds and as a remedy for eye diseases. It has
een used in Ara system of medicine for more than 600 years from where it has
een adopted to modern medicine (Gi son, 1978). The commercial name of the dried
rhizome and root of the plant is liquorice which is used as flavouring agent and
the taste coorigent in pharmaceutical and confectionery industries and its prod
ucts are widely reported to e useful in ulcer therapy. Glycyrrhizin, a triterpe
ne glucoside, is the principal constituent of G. gla ra which is 50 times sweete
r than sugar.
Distri ution
Liquorice is native to Mediterranean region, South Europe and Middle East. It is
widely distri uted in Spain, Italy, Greece, Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkey, p
arts of USSR and China. However its cultivation is limited to small areas in USS
R, UK, and USA. In India, it grows in Punja and Jammu and Kashmir. Semi arid ar
eas of Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarath states are suita le for the cultivation o
f Liquorice. However, its commercial cultivation has not yet een possi le and t
he domestic requirement is largely met through imports.
Botany
Glycyrrhiza gla ra Linn. elongs to the family Papilionaceae. The word Glycyrrhi
za is of Greek origin meaning ‘sweet’ and gla ra means ‘smooth’ which refers to
smooth fruit of the species. This is a tall perennial, self pollinated her or u
ndershru a out 1m high with long cylindrical urrowing rootstock and horizontal
creeping stolons which reach 1.5-1.8m in length. Leaves are alternate, pinnate
with 9-17 leaflets. Leaflets are yellowish-green, 2.5-5cm long, ovate and o tuse
. Flowers are pale lue arranged in a raceme and 1.25cm long. Calyx is glandular
and pu escent. The pods are gla rous, red to rown having 3-4 seeds. Rhizome is
soft, flexi le and fi rous with light yellow colour and a characteristic sweet
taste.
Agrotechnology
This plant thrives well in su tropical areas with very warm summers and cool win
ters with a rainfall not exceeding 500mm. Semi-arid and arid areas in su tropica
l zones
62
are not suita le for the cultivation of this crop. It does not tolerate high hum
idity and waterlogged conditions. Well drained light loam soils which are rich i
n calcium and magnesium with slightly alkaline pH and free from stones are ideal
for this crop. There are a num er of varieties of this crop among which Spanish
, Russian and Persian liquorice are quite common. Commercial varieties are Typic
a, Regel and Herd. This is propagated y seed, ut usually multiplied vegetative
ly either through crown cuttings or stolon pieces. In the case of crown cuttings
, 10-15cm long crown pieces with 2-3 uds are planted vertically at a distance o
f 0.6-0.7m in rows 1-1.5m apart. However, most of the liquorice is propagated th
rough stolon pieces of the a ove size planted horizontally, prefera ly on ridges
during spring at the same distance as a ove. Rapid clonal propagation is also p
ossi le y tissue culture technique. Murashige and Skoog’s medium supplemented w
ith 6- enzylaminopurine and indole-3-acetic acid favoured multiple shoot product
ion without any intervening callus phase. These regenerated plantlets can e tra
nsferred to earthen pots in the glass house and after a rief hardening phase, t
hese are transplanted in the field with a high rate (90-95%) of survival. This p
lant normally does not require much fertilizers ut in deficient soils, it is e
tter to apply 10-15 tonnes FYM per hectare efore planting. The field should e
immediately irrigated after planting in spring and after the crop has sprouted,
it requires very little irrigation. Space etween the rows should e kept free f
rom weeds. Short term vegeta les like carrot or ca age can e planted etween t
he rows for additional income. In order to produce good rhizome, flowering shoot
s are clipped. No serious disease except leaf spot caused y Cercospora cavarae
has een reported in this crop. Roots are ready for harvesting after 3-4 years.
The root is dug when the top has dried during autumn (Novem erDecem er). A trenc
h 60cm deep is dug along the ridges and the entire root is lifted. Broken parts
of the root left in the soil, sprout again and give another crop after 2-3 years
. Thus liquorice once planted properly can e harvested for 10-15 years.
Postharvest technology
Harvested roots are cut into pieces of 15-20cm long and 1-2cm in diameter. They
are washed and dried upto 6-8% moisture in the sun and shade alternately which r
educes the weight y 50%. The average yield of dried roots varies from 1-3 tonne
s per hectare depending on the variety, soil and climatic conditions.
Properties and activity
Roots gave a num er of compounds the most important ieng a glucoside, glycyrrhi
zin which gave glycyrrhetinic acid on enzyme hydrolysis. Root also contains flav
ans, flavones, iso-flavanoes and coumarins including a 4-methyl coumarin, liqcou
marin, gla ridin, gla rene, 4’-0-methyl and 3’-methoxygla ridin, formononetin, s
alicylic acid, 0-acetyl salicylic acid which has een isolated first time from n
ature, hispagla ridins A and B and 4’0methylgla ridin.On hydrolysis it also gave
two molecules of d-glucuronic acid, each linked with β1-2 linkage to 3-hydroxyl
of the sapogenin (Elgamal et al, 1969) Glycyrrhizin is antidiuretic, antiinflam
matory, expectorant, antiulcerous, antihistamine. Glycyrrhizic acid is antiviral
. The roots are emetic, tonic, diuretic, demulcent, mild laxative, aphrodisiac,
trichogenous, expectorant, emmenagogue, alexipharmic, alterant and intellect pro
moting.
63
64
GREATER GALANGAL
Alpinia galanga
Zingi eraceae
Hin:Kulainjan; Mal:Aratta, Chittaratha; Tam:Arattai; San:Sugandhamula, Rasna; Gu
j: Kolinjan; Kan: Dum a-rasmi; Mar: Kosht-Kulinjan; Tel: Pedda-dumparash-tram
Importance
The greater galangal, Java galangal or Siamese ginger is a perennial aromatic rh
izomatous her . This plant is cultivated for its rhizome in tropical areas of so
uth and East India. Because of the presence of essential oil, the rhizomes are u
sed in ronchial trou les and as a carminative. They are also useful in vitiated
conditions of vata and kapha, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammations, stomatopathy
, pharyngopathy, cough, asthma, hiccough, dyspepsia, stomachalgia, o esity, dia
etes, cephalagia, tu ercular glands and intermittent fevers. It is one of the in
gredients of medicated “Pan” used for removing the foul smell of the mouth and g
etting relief in throat inflammation. In Ayurveda, “Rasna-saptak-kwath” and “Ras
na-adikamath” are used as antiinflammatory decoctions. In Unani, it is an ingred
ient of aphrodisiac preparations, “Majun Mugawivi ma Mumsik”, “Majun Samagh”, an
d antispasmodic nervine tonic “Majun Cho chine” and “Lu a Motadil”. It is also
used in “Arq Pan” as a cardiac stimulant and carminative.
Distri ution
The Java galangal is mainly distri uted in Eastern Himalayas and South-West Indi
a. This is very common in West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Kerala, Karnataka and throu
ghout the Western Ghats. It is cultivated also in these places. They are also fo
und in countries like Sri Lanka and Malaya.
Botany
Alpinia galanga (Linn.) Willd. elongs to the family Zingi eraceae. It is a pere
nnial her , a out 2m high with lower portion covered with smooth leaf sheaths. T
he leaves are roadly lanceolate, 30-60cm long and 10-15cm road. The flowers ar
e arranged in erect, terminal panicles. composed of numerous spreading dichotomo
us ranches each with two to six, pale greenish-white faintly fragrant flowers.
Fruits 1.25 cm long, o long, constricted in the middle or even pear shaped, thre
e sided and deep orange red in colour. Seeds are ash coloured, three angled, fin
ely striated towards the hilum. Both the seeds and rhizomes have pungent aroma.
Apinia calcarata (Linn.) Willd is another species of the genus with much medicin
al importance. It is shorter in stature ut stronger in aroma than Alpinia galan
ga.
Agrotechnology
Siamese Ginger comes up well in tropical climate. It grows on a wide range of cl
imates and soils. Well drained hilly areas and places of 1400m high altitude are
good for its cultivation. This is commercially propagated vegetatively y rhizo
mes. The field should e ploughed to a good tilth. All the stones and pe les sh
ould e removed. Organic manures at 10t/ha are applied during land preparation.
Seed eds are prepared with 1m readth, 2m length and 15cm height. Small pits are
made at 25cm spacing a ove the seed eds and 5cm long rhizomes are planted. Seed
eds are covered with dried leaves. It is irrigated immediately after planting.
Regular weeding is needed during the initial stages of crop growth. This is cult
ivated also as an intercrop in coconut or ru er plantations. Rhizomes are
65
dug out after cutting the top portions when the crop reaches 1.5-2 years of matu
rity. The average yield is 10-15 tonnes of fresh rhizomes/ha and the driage is 2
5-30%. The collected rhizomes are washed and cut into pieces of 5cm long and dri
ed in sun for 4 days efore sale.
Properties and Activity
The rhizome contains tannins and flavonoids, some of which have een identified
as kaempferide, galangin and alpinin. Seeds contain 1’-acetoxychavicol acetate a
nd 1’-acetoxy eugenol acetate, antiulcer principles caryophyllenols I and II, n-
pentadecane, 7-heptadecane and fatty acid methyl esters. Rhizomes yield essentia
l oil containing methyl cinnamate, cineole and d-pinene and sesquiterpenoids. Fr
esh rhizome yielded 18 monoterpenoids of which α-pinene, β-pinene and limonene a
s major compounds and 17 oxygen containing monoterpenoids with cineol, terpinen-
4-o1, and α-terpineol s minor compounds. The rhizomes re bitter, crid, thermo
genic, rom tic, nervine tonic, stimul nt, revulsive, c rmin tive, stom chic, di
sinfect nt, phrodisi c, expector nt, broncho-dil tor, ntifung l, febrifuge, n
tiinfl mm tory nd tonic. Rhizome is CVS nd CNS ctive, diuretic, hypothermic.
Seed is ntiulcer tive. Rhizome spr y in ether, over  sp ce showed high knock d
own v lues g inst houseflies. Alcohol (50%) extr ct of rhizome is nti- mphet m
inic. Un ni physici ns consider it good for impotence.
66
COMMON INDIGO
Indigofer  tinctori 
P pilion ce e
S n:Nilini, R nj ni, Nilik , Neel m, Aklik , Asit , Bh dr ; Ben, Guj:Nil; Hin:Go
uli; M l: Neel m ri; T m: Averi; Tel: Aviri, Nili; K n: Nili; M r: N li; Ori: Ne
li
Import nce
Common indigo or Indi n indigo is  br nching shrub which grows upto 2m high. Ni
li is  reputed drug produced from this pl nt which is used in yurved  for the
promotion of h ir growth nd it forms  m jor ingredient of prep r tions like ni
libhring di oil. This is the origin l source of n tur l indigo. Due to ntitoxic
property it is lso  good remedy for poisons. According to Bh v pr k s , nili
is purg tive in ction, bitter, hot, cures giddiness, bdomin l enl rgement, v t
r kt , gout nd intestin l obstruction. The decoction or powder of the pl nt is
used in whooping cough, bronchitis, p lpit tion of the he rt, enl rgement of th
e liver nd spleen, dropsy, dise ses of lungs nd kidney, epilepsy nd nervous d
isorders. A poultice of the le ves is recommended in skin dise ses, piles, ulcer
nd h emorrhoids. A wine gl ss full juice of the le ves is dministered in the
morning with or without milk for three d ys to those who h ve been bitten by m d
dogs. Root decoction is given in c lculous dise ses nd used s n ntidote to
rsenic poisoning. The seed of the pl nt is powered nd steeped in rr ck or rum
, yield  tincture, which is used to distroy lice. Indigo, the dye extr cted fro
m the le ves, is  soothing b lm for burns nd sc lds, insect stings nd nim l
bites. The synonyms vis ghni nd sodh ni indic te the ntitoxic nd l x tive pro
perties of the drug nili, respectively (Aiyer nd Kol mm l, 1960).
Distribution
This pl nt is distributed in South nd South E st Asi , tropic l Afric  nd is i
ntroduced in tropic l Americ . In Indi , it is found lmost throughout nd culti
v ted in m ny p rts.
Bot ny
Indigofer  tinctori  Linn. syn. I. summ tr n  G ertn, Pigmentum indicum belongs
to P pilion ce e f mily. This is  br nching shrub which grows upto 2m high. Ste
ms nd br nches re green; br nchlets silvery pubescent. Le ves re ltern te, s
tipul te, imp ripinn te nd got 7-13 le flets which re elliptic-oblong, membr n
eous,1.7x0.9cm, shortly mucron te, p le green or bluish. Flowers re sm ll, rose
-coloured in xill ry r cemes. C lyx 5-cleft, g mosep lous; coroll  p pilion ceo
us; st mens di delphous; ov ry sessile with  short incurved style ending in  c
pit te stigm . Pods re line r, cylindric l, 25cm long, deflexed h ving 8-12 se
eds.
Agrotechnology
The Indi n indigo requires good sunlight nd grows well in hilly re s. This is
usu lly prop g ted by seeds. Seeds re very sm ll nd the seed r te is 3kg/h . S
eeds require pretre tment for good germin tion s the seed co t is h rd. Seeds 
re mixed with s nd nd ground gently to bre k the seed co t. An ltern te method
for enh ncing germin tion is dipping the seeds in boiling w ter for  second. A
fter pretre tment seeds re bro dc sted. Bro dc st the seeds prefer bly mixed wi
th s nd 2 or 3 times its volume to ensure uniform cover ge. The seedbeds should
be covered with str w nd irrig ted. Seeds germin te within 15 d ys. Seedlings 
re re dy for tr nspl nting fter one month. For the l nd prep r tion, the soil i
s brought to fine tilth by ploughing 2 or 3 times. C ttle m nure should be ppli
ed t the
67
r te of 10t/h  s b s l dressing nd incorpor ted into soil long with l st plou
ghing. The best time for sowing is September-October. Weeding h s to be done two
times; 3 weeks fter sowing nd 6 weeks fter sowing. Pl nts st rt flowering 2-
3 months fter sowing. H rvesting is done by cutting the pl nts t this time, t
 height of bout 10cm from ground level. Irrig te pl nts fter h rvest. Subseq
uent h rvests c n be m de t 1.5-2 months interv l. Four to five cuttings c n be
t ken in n ye r depending on the growth. A few pl nts per plot re left withou
t cutting to set seeds. Ripe pods re to be h rvested in the e rly morning to pr
event loss of seeds by sh ttering during h rvest.
Properties nd Activity
A blue dyestuff is obt ined from the indigofer  which does not exist re dy forme
d, but is produced during ferment tion from nother gent existing in the pl nt,
known s indoc n. Indoc n is yellow morphous of  n useous bitter t ste with 
n cid re ction, re dily soluble in w ter, lcohol nd ether. An rtifici l prod
uct indigotine is m nuf ctured chemic lly nd used s  substitute. Indirubin is
nother component of the pl nt. The pl nt is deobstruent, lter tive, ntitoxic
, nti sthm tic nd ntiepileptic. Aeri l p rt is hypoglyc emic, CNS depress nt
nd ntitoxic. The le ves, flowers nd tender shoots re considered to be coolin
g, demulcent nd lter tive. Le f is ntiinfl mm tory. Root nd stem is l x tive
, expector nt, ntitumourous, febrifuge, nticeph l lgic, ntidote for sn ke bit
e, nthelmintic nd promotes growth of h ir. Root is divertic. Indirubin is nti
neopl stic nd h s toxicity. Nili is ntitoxic, purg tive nd l x tive. Indigo i
s s id to produce n use  nd vomiting.
68
MALABAR NUT
Adh tod  beddomei
Ac nth ce e
S n:V s k , V s ; Hin:Adus ; M l:Chitt d lot k m; T m:Adutot ; Tel:Add s r mu
Import nce
M l b r nut or Adh tod  is  l rge evergreen gl brous perenni l shrub, 1.2m in h
eight. It is cultiv ted for medicin l uses, fencing, m nure nd s n orn ment l
pl nt in pots lso. The shrub is the source of the drug v s k  well known in th
e indigenous systems of medicines for bronchitis. V s k  le ves, flowers, fruits
nd roots re extensively used for tre ting common cold, cough, whooping cough,
chronic bronchitis nd sthm . It h s sed tive, expector nt, ntisp smodic nd
nthelmintic ctions. The juice of the le ves cures vomiting, thirst, fever, der
m tosis, j undice, phthisis, h em tenesis nd dise ses due to the morbidity of k
ph  nd pitt . The le f juice is especi lly used in n emi  nd h emorrh ge, in
tr dition l medicine. Flowers nd le ves re considered effic cious g inst rhe
um tic p inful swellings nd form  good pplic tion to sc bies nd other skin c
ompl ints. M ny yurvedic medicines re tr dition lly prep red out of v s k  lik
e v s risht m, v s k s v m nd v s h reeth ki which re effective in v rious il
ments of respir tory system. The drug VASA prep red from this pl nt forms n ing
redient of prep r tions like V liy  r sn di k s y m, Chy v n pr s m, Gulgulutikt
k m ghrt m, etc. The lk loid v sicinone isol ted from the pl nt is n ingredie
nt in cert in llop thic cough syrups lso.
Distribution.
V s k  is distributed ll over Indi  upto n ltitude of 2000m. This pl nt grows
on w stel nd nd sometimes it is cultiv ted lso.
Bot ny
Adh tod  beddomei C.B.Cl rke Syn. Justici  beddomei (Cl rk) Bennet belongs to th
e f mily Ac nth ce e. This is  l rge gl brous shrub. Le ves re opposite, ov te
, l nceol te nd short petioled upto 15cm long, 3.75cm bro d, m in nerves bout
8 p irs. Flowers re white with l rge br cts, flower he ds short, dense or conde
nsed spikes. Fruits re c psules with  long solid b se. Another pl nt Adh tod 
zeyl nic  Medicus, syn. Adh tod  v sic  Nees, Justici  dh tod  Linn. of the s m
e genus is  very closely rel ted pl nt which is most commonly equ ted with the
drug VASA. This is seen growing wild lmost throughout Indi  while A. beddomei i
s seen more under cultiv tion. The l tter is c lled Chitt d lod k m bec use of i
ts sm ller st ture, sm ller le ves nd flowers.
Agrotechnology
V s k  is seen lmost in ll types of clim te. It prefers lo my soils with good
dr in ge nd high org nic content. It c n be grown well both in hilly nd pl in
l nds. Commerci l prop g tion is by using 15-20cm long termin l cuttings. This i
s either grown in polyb gs first, then in the field or pl nted directly. The pl 
nt is cultiv ted s  pure crop or mixed with pl nt tion crops. The l nd is plou
ghed repe tedly to  good tilth nd the surf ce soil is broken upto  depth of 1
5cm nd mixed with fertilizers. The beds re prep red with 1m bre dth nd 3-4m l
ength. The cuttings re pl nted during April-M y into the beds t  sp cing of 3
0x30cm. FYM is given t 5-10t/h  in the first ye r. Regul r irrig tion nd weedi
ng re necess ry. H rvesting is t the end of second or third ye r. Roots re co
llected
69
by digging the seedbeds. Stems re cut 15cm bove the root. Stems nd roots re
usu lly dried nd stored.
Properties nd Activity
Le ves yield essenti l oil nd n lk loid v sicine. Roots cont in v sicinol nd
v sicinone. Roots lso cont in v sicoline, dh todine, nisotine nd v sicolino
ne. Sever l lk loids like quin zoline nd v licine re present in this pl nt. T
he pl nt is bitter, stringent, refriger nt, expector nt, diuretic, ntisp smodi
c, febrifuge, depur tive, styptic nd tonic. V sicine is bronchodil tor, respir 
tory stimul nt nd hypotensive in ction, uterine stimul nt, uterotonic, bortif
cient comp r ble with oxytocin nd methyligin. Uterotonic ction of v sicine is
medi ted through the rele se of prost gl ndins.
70
COOMB TEAK
Gmelin  rbore 
Verben ce e
S n: Gumbh ri; Hin:G m ri, Jug ni-chuk r; M l: Kumizhu, Kumpil; Guj: Shew n; Pun
:Gumb r; M r: Shiv n s l; K n: Kummud ; T m: Uni, Gum di; Tel: Gumm di;
Import nce
Coomb te k, C nd h r tree or K shmeeri tree is  moder te sized, un rmed, decidu
ous tree which is  vit l ingredient of the ”d s mul ” (group of ten roots). The
whole pl nt is medicin lly very import nt. It promotes digestive power, improve
s memory, overcomes giddiness nd is lso used s n ntidote for sn ke bite nd
scorpion sting. Roots re useful in h llucin tion, fever, dyspepsi , hyperdipsi
, h emorrhoids, stom ch lgi , he rt dise ses, nervous disorders, piles nd burn
ing sens tion. B rk is used in fever nd dyspepsi . Le f p ste is good for ceph 
l gi  nd le f juice is  good w sh for foul ulcers nd is lso used in the tre 
tment of gonorrhoe  nd cough. Flowers re recommended for leprosy, skin nd blo
od dise ses. The fruits re used for promoting the growth of h ir nd in n emi 
, leprosy, ulcers, constip tion, str ngury, leucorrhoe , colpitis nd lung dise 
se. Wood is one of the best nd most reli ble timber of Indi . It is used for m 
king furniture, pl nks, c rri ges, printing boxes, music l instruments, sh fts,
xles, picture fr mes, jute bobbins, c lipers, ship buildings, rtifici l limbs
nd stethoscopes. In south Indi  the b rk of the tree is used by rr ck m nuf ct
urers to regul te the ferment tion of toddy. The pl nt is lso grown in g rden o
r venues (Dey, 1988; Siv r j n nd Indir , 1994).
Distribution
The pl nt is found wild throughout Indi  from the foot of Him l y s to Ker l  n
d An d m ns, in moist, semideciduous nd open forests upto n ltitude of 1500 m
. It is lso distributed in Sri L nk  nd Philippines.
Bot ny
Gmelin  rbore  Roxb. Syn. Premn  rbore  Roth. belongs to F mily Verben ce e. I
t is n un rmed deciduous tree growing up to 20m height with whitish grey corky
lenticell te b rk, exfloli ting in thin fl kes. Br nchlets nd young p rts re c
lothed with fine white me ly pubescence. Le ves re simple, opposite, bro dly ov
te, cord te, gl ndul r, gl brous bove when m ture nd fulvous-tomentose bene t
h. Flowers brownish yellow in termin l p nicle. C lyx c mp nul te, pubescent out
side nd with 5 lobes. Coroll  showy brownish yellow with short tube nd oblique
limbs. St mens 4, didyn mous nd included. Ov ry is 4 ch mbered with one ovule
e ch; style slender ending in  bifid stigm . Fruits re fleshy ovoid drupes, or
nge yellow when ripe. Seeds 1 or 2, h rd nd oblong.

Agrotechnology
Coomb te k is  sun loving pl nt. It does not toler te drought. But it grows in
light frost. R inf ll higher th n 2000mm nd loose soil re ide l. The best meth
od of prop g tion is by seeds but r rely prop g ted vegit tevely by stem cutting
s lso. Seed form tion occurs in M y-June. Seeds re dried well before use. They
re so ked in w ter for 12 hours before sowing. Seed r te is 3kg/h . Seeds re
sown in nursery beds shortly before r ins. Seeds germin te within one month. See
dlings re tr nspl nted in the first r iny se son when they re
71
7-10cm t ll. Pits of size 50cm cube re m de t  sp cing of 3-4m nd filled wit
h s nd, dried cowdung nd surf ce soil, over which the seedlings re tr nspl nte
d. 20kg org nic m nure is given once  ye r. Irrig tion nd weeding should be do
ne on  regul r b sis. The common dise se reported is sooty mould c used by Cort
icium s lmonicolor which c n be controlled by pplying  suit ble fungicide. The
tree grows f st nd m y be re dy for h rvesting fter 4 or 5 ye rs. This pl nt
is coppiced nd tr ded. The roots re lso used for medicin l purposes. The tree
m y st nd up to 25 ye rs.
Properties nd Activity
Roots nd he rt wood of Coomb te k re reported to cont in gmelinol, hentri cont
nol, n-oct cos nol nd β-sitosterol. The roots contain sesquiterpenoid and apio
sylskimmin, a coumarin characterised as um elliferone-7-apiosyl glucoside and gm
elofuran. The heart wood gives ceryl alcohol, cluytyl ferulate, lignans, ar oreo
l, gmelonone, 6”- romo isoar oreol, lignan hemiacetal and gummidiol. Leaves yiel
d luteolin, apigenin, quercetin, hentriacontanol, β-sitosterol, quercetogenin an
d other flavons. Fruits contain utyric acid, tartaric acid, and saccharine su s
tances (Asolkar et al, 1992; Dey, 1988). The roots are acrid, itter, tonic, sto
machic, laxative, galactogogue, demulcent, anti ilious, fe rifuge and anthelmint
ic. Bark is itter, hypoglycaemic, antiviral, anticephalalgic and tonic. The lea
ves are demulcent, antigonorrhoeic and echic. Flowers are sweet, refrigerant, a
stringent and acrid. Fruits are acrid, refrigerant, diuretic, astringent, aphrod
isiac, trichogenous, alterant and tonic (Warrier et al; 1995).
72
INDIAN BEECH
Pongamia pinnata
Papilionaceae
San: Karanj; Hin: Karanja, Dittouri; Ben: Dehar karanja; Mal: Ungu, Pongu; Guj,
Mar, Pun: Karanj; Kan: Hongae; Tel: Kangu; Tam: Puggam; Ass: Karchaw; Ori: Koran
jo
Importance
Indian eech, Pongam oil tree or Hongay oil tree is a handsome flowering tree wi
th drooping ranches, having shining green leaves laden with lilac or pinkish wh
ite flowers. The whole plant and the seed oil are used in ayurvedic formulations
as effective remedy for all skin diseases like sca ies, eczema, leprosy and ulc
ers. The roots are good for cleaning teeth, strengthening gums and in gonorrhoea
and scrofulous enlargement. The ark is useful in haemorhoids, eri eri, ophtha
lmopathy and vaginopathy. Leaves are good for flatulence, dyspepsia, diarrhoea,
leprosy, gonorrhoea, cough, rheumatalgia, piles and oedema. Flowers are given in
dia etes. Fruits overcomes urinary disease and piles. The seeds are used in inf
lammations, otalgia, lum ago, pectoral diseases, chronic fevers, hydrocele, haem
orrhoids and anaemia. The seed oil is recommended for ophthalmia, haemorrhoids,
herpes and lum agoThe seed oil is also valued for its industrial uses. The seed
cake is suggested as a cheap cattle feed. The plant enters into the composition
of ayurvedic preparations like nagaradi tailam, varanadi kasayam, varanadi ghrta
m and karanjadi churna. It is a host plant for the lac insect. It is grown as a
shade tree. The wood is moderately hard and used as fuel and also for making agr
icultural implements and cartwheels.
Distri ution
The plant is distri uted throughout India from the central or eastern Himalaya t
o Kanyakumari, especially along the anks of streams and rivers or each forests
and is often grown as an avenue tree. It is distri uted in Sri Lanka, Burma, Ma
laya, Australia and Polynesia.
Botany
Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Pierre syn. P. gla ra Vent., Derris indica (Lam.) Benne
t, Cystisus pinnatus Lam. comes under family Papilionaceae. P. pinnata is a mode
rate sized, semi-evergreen tree growing upto 18m or more high, with a short ole
, spreading crown and greyish green or rown ark. Leaves imparipinnate, alterna
te, leaflets 5-7, ovate and opposite. Flowers lilac or pinkish white and fragran
t in axillary recemes. Calyx cup-shaped, shortly 4-5 toothed, corolla papilionac
eous. Stamens 10 and monadelphous, ovary su sessile, 2-ovuled with incurved, gla
rous style ending in a capitate stigma. Pod compressed, woody, indehiscent, yel
lowish grey when ripe varying in size and shape, elliptic to o liquely o long, 4
.0-7.5cm long and 1.7-3.2cm road with a short curved eak. Seeds usually 1, ell
iptic or reniform, wrinkled with reddish rown, leathery testa.
Agrotechnology
The plant comes up well in tropical areas with warm humid climate and well distr
i uted rainfall. Though it grows in almost all types of soils, silty soils on ri
ver anks are most ideal. It is tolerant to drought and salinity. The tree is us
ed for afforestation, especially
73
in watersheds in the drier parts of the country. It is propagated y seeds and v
egetatively y rootsuckers. Seed setting is usually in Novem er. Seeds are soake
d in water for few hours efore sowing. Raised seed eds of convenient size are
prepared, well rotten cattle manure is applied at 1kg/m2 and seeds are uniformly
roadcasted. The seeds are covered with a thin layer of sand and irrigated. One
month old seedlings can e transplanted into poly ags, which after one month ca
n e planted in the field. Pits of size 50cm cu e are dug at a spacing of 45m, f
illed with top soil and manure and planted. Organic manure are applied annually.
Regular weeding and irrigation are required for initial esta lishment. The tree
s flower and set fruits in 5 years. The harvest season extends from Novem er- Ju
ne. Pods are collected and seeds are removed y hand. Seed, leaves, ark and roo
t are used for medicinal purposes. Bark can e collected after 10 years. No seri
ous pests and diseases are reported in this crop.
Properties and Activity
The plant is rich in flavonoids and related compounds. Seeds and seed oil, flowe
rs and stem ark yield karanjin, pongapin, pongagla rone, kanugin, desmethoxykan
ugin and pinnatin. Seed and its oil also contain kanjone, isolonchocarpin, karan
jachromene, isopongachromene, gla rin, gla rachalcone, gla rachromene, isopongaf
lavone, pongol, 2’methoxy-furano[2”,3”:7,8]-flavone and phospholipids. Stem- ark
gives pongachromene, pongaflavone, tetra-O-methylfisetin, gla ra I and II, lanc
eolatin B, gamatin, 5-methoxyfurano[2”,3”:7,8]-flavone, 5-methoxy-3’,4’-methelen
edioxyfurano[2”,3”:7,8]-flavone and αsitosterol. He rtwood yields chromenoch lco
nes nd fl vones. Flowers re reported to cont in k njone, g m tin, gl br  s pon
in, k empferol, γ-sitosterol, quercetin lycocides, ponalabol, isoponalabol,
6-methoxy isoponalabol, lanceolatin B, 5-methoxy-3’,4’methelenedioxyfurano[8,
7:4”,5”]-flavone, fisetin tetramethyl ether, isolonchocarpin, ovalichromene B, p
onamol, ovalitenon, two triterpenes- cycloart-23-ene,3β,25 diol and friedelin a
nd a dipeptide aurantinamide acetate. Roots and leaves give kanugin, desmethoxyk
anugin and pinnatin. Roots also yield a flavonol methyl ether-tetra-O-methyl fis
etin. The leaves contain triterpenoids, gla rachromenes I and II, 3’-methoxypong
apin and 4’-methoxyfurano[2”,3”:7,8]-flavone also. The gum reported to yield pol
ysaccharides (Thakur et al, 1989; Husain et al, 1992). Seeds, seed oil and leave
s are carminative, antiseptic, anthelmintic and antirheumatic. Leaves are digest
ive, laxative, antidiarrhoeal, echic, antigonorrheic and antileprotic. Seeds ar
e haematinic, itter and acrid. Seed oil is styptic and depurative. Karanjin is
the principle responsi le for the curative properties of the oil. Bark is sweet,
anthelmintic and elexteric.
74
ECLIPTA Asteraceae
Eclipta prostrata
San: Bhrngarajah, Tekarajah; Hin: Bhamgra, Mocakand, Ba ri; Ben: Kesutthe, Kesra
j; Mal: Kannunni, Kayyonni, Kayyunnni; Tam: Kayyantakara, Kaikeri; Kan: Kadiggag
araga; Tel: Guntagalijeran; Ara : Kadim-el- int
Importance
Eclipta is one of the ten auspicious her s that constitute the group dasapuspam
which is considered to destroy the causative factors of all unhealthy and unplea
sant features and estow good health and prosperity. The mem ers of this group c
ure wounds and ulcers as well as fever caused y the derangement of the tridosas
- vata, pitta and kapha. It is used in hepatitis, spleen enlargements, chronic
skin diseases, tetanus and elephantiasis. The leaf promotes hair growth and use
as an antidote in scorpion sting. The root is used as an emetic, in scalding of
urine, conjuctivitis and as an antiseptic to ulcers and wound in cattle. It is u
sed to prevent a ortion and miscarriage and also in cases of uterine pains after
the delivery. The juice of the plant with honey is given to infants for expulsi
on of worms. For the relief in piles, fumigation with Eclipta is considered ene
ficial. A decoction of the leaves is used in uterine haemorrhage. The paste prep
ared y mincing fresh plants has got an antiinflammatory effect and may e appli
ed on insect ites, stings, swellings and other skin diseases. In Ayurveda, it i
s mainly used in hair oil, while in Unani system, the juice is used in “Ha Misk
een Nawaz” along with aconite, triphala, Croton tiglium, Piper nigium, Piper lon
gum, Zingi er officinale and minerals like mercury, sulphur, arsenic, orax, etc
. for various types of pains in the ody. It is also a constituent of “Roghan Am
la Khas” for applying on the hair and of “Majun Murrawah-ul-arwah”.
Distri ution
This plant is widely distri uted in the warm humid tropics with plenty of rainfa
ll. It grows commonly in moist places as a weed all over plains of India.
Botany
Eclipta prostrata (Linn) Linn. syn. E. al a Hassk. is an annual, erect or postra
te her , often rooting at nodes. Leaves are sessile, 2.5-7.5cm long with white a
ppressed hairs. Floral heads are 6-8 mm in diameter, solitary and white. Fruit i
s an achene, compressed and narrowly winged. Sometimes, Wedelia calendulacea, wh
ich resem les Eclipta prostrata is used for the same purpose. The leaves contain
stigmasterol, α-terthienylmeth nol, wedelol ctone, dismethylwedelol ctone nd d
ismethylwedelol ctone-7-glucoside. The roots give hentri cont nol nd hept cos n
ol. The roots cont in poly cetylene substituted thiophenes. The eri l p rt is r
eported to cont in  phytosterol, β-amyrin in the n-hexane extract and luteolin-
7-glucoside, β-glucoside of phytosterol, a glucoside of a triterpenic acid and w
edelolactone in polar solvent extract. The polypeptides isolated from the plant
yield cystine, glutamic acid, phenyl alanine, tyrosine and methionine on hydroly
sis. Nicotine and nicotinic acid are reported to occur in this plant. The plant
is anticatarrhal, fe rifuge, antidontalgic, a sor ent, antihepatic, CVS active,
nematicidal, ovicidal and spasmolytic in activity. The alcoholic extract of enti
re plant has een reported to have antiviral activity against Ranikhet disease v
irus. Aqueous extract of the plant showed su jective improvement of vision in th
e case of refractive errors. The her al drug Trefoli, containing extracts of the
plant in com ination with others, when administered to the patients of viral he
patitis, produced excellent results.
Properties and Activity
75
TERMINALIA Com retaceae
Terminalia spp.
The genus Terminalia includes a large group of medicinally valua le trees. They
elong to the family Com retaceae. The most important medicinal species of the g
enus Terminalia are the following. 1) T. arjuna (Rox .ex DC) Wight & Arn. San: A
rjunah, Kaku hah; Hin: Arjun, Kahu, Kahua; Mal: Marutu, Nirmarutu, Venmarutu, At
tumarutu, Pulamatti; Tam: Attumarutu, Nirmarutu, Vellaimarutu, Marutu; Kan: Madd
i. It is a large evergreen tree commonly found in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Peni
nsular and India. It has uttressed trunk and spreading crown with drooping ran
ches. Bark is smooth, grey outside and flesh coloured inside, flaking off in lar
ge flat pieces. Leaves are simple, su -opposite, o long or elliptic, coriaceous,
crenulate, pale dull green a ove, pale rown eneath, often unequal sided, nerv
es 10-15 pairs and reticulate. Flowers are white, arranged in panicles of spikes
with linear racteoles. Fruits are ovoid or o long with 5-7 short, hard angles
or wings, the lines on the wings o lique and curving upward (Warrier et al 1996)
. The ark is useful in fractures, ulcers, urethrorrhoea, leucorrhoea, dia etes,
vitiated conditions of pitta, anaemia, cardiopathy, fatigue, asthma, ronchitis
, tumours, internal and external haemorrhages, cirrhosis of the lever and hypert
ension. It is used in fractures and the powdered ark is taken with milk. The a
rk powder is diuretic and has a general tonic effect in cases of cirrhosis of li
ver. The ark has een considered y the ayurvedic physicians as well as y mode
rn practitioners as a cardiac tonic. It is given as a decoction with milk (NRF,
1998). In Ayurveda, “Arjunaghrita” and “Arjunarishta” are two important cardioto
nic preparations of this drug. Fruits contain flavanones - arjunone and 5,7,2’,
4’ - tetramethoxy flavone and a chalcone - cerasidin. Other constituents are β-s
itosterol, friedelin, methyloleanolate, gallic acid, ellagic acid and arjunic ac
id. Bark gave a triterpene arjungenin, triterpene glucosides I, II and III. Stem
ark gave flavones - aicalein and arjunolone characterised as 6,4’ dihydraxy -
7-methoxy flavone. Stem ark yields oxalic acid and tannins esides complex gly
cosides (Bhatra et al, 1980). Bark is alexertic, styptic, antidysenteric, astrin
gent, antiasthmatic, fe rifuge, expectorant, cardiotonic aphrodisiac and diureti
c. Fruit is deo struent. Stem- ark is CVS and CNS active, diuretic and a ortifac
ient. Aerial part is CNS depressant and semen coagulant. 2) T. alata Heyne ex Ro
th. Syn. T. tomentosa (Rox . Ex. Dc.) W & A. San: Dharaphala, Saradru, Sajada; H
in. Ain; Ben: Asan, Paishal; Mal: Tehm ara; Tam: Karramarda, Karu Murutha, Marud
am, Pudavam. This tree is distri uted in Himalaya from Kangra eastwords to Goalp
ara in Assam and southwards throughout the Peninsular India, upto 1200 m. The a
rk of the tree is widely used in ulcers, fractures, ronchitis and diarrhoea. Hy
drolysis of the gum gives oligosaccharides, disaccharides and monosaccharides. L
eaves and fruits give β-sitosterol. Bark is diuretic, antihaemorrhagic, styptic,
cardiotonic and semen coagulant. 3) T. ellirica (Craertn.) Rox . San: Aksha, A
nilaghanaka, Baheduka, Harya, Kalinda; Hin: Bulla, Sagona; Ben: Bahera, Baheri;
Tam: Akkam, Kalanduri, Tani; Tel: Bhutavasamu Tadi, Tandra, Vi hutakamu. Belliri
c Myro alan is distri uted throughout India, upto 900 m. Its ark is used in ana
emia and leucoderma. The fruit is used in ronchitis, strangury, sore throat, di
seases of eye, nose, heart and ladder, hoarseness and piles. It forms an import
ant constituent of the ayurvedic drug ‘triphala’. Furits contain β-sitosterol, g
allic and ellagic acids, ethyl gallate, galloyl glucose, che ulagic acid and a c
ardiac glucoside ellaricanin. Alcoholic extract of
76
the fruit possesses ile-stimulating activity. Alcoholic extract, 30 mg/kg does
not affect lood pressure and respiration, ut a higher dose of 60 mg/kg produce
s a fall in lood pressure. Furit has anticancerous and flower has spermicidal a
ctivity. Bark is mild diuretic. Fruit is astringent, antidropsical, antileprotic
, antiinflammatory, antidiarrhoeal, anti ilious, stomachic, antiasthmatic, tonic
, anticephalgic, echic, anthelmintic and attenuant. Kernel is narcotic. Semi-ri
pe fruit is purgative. Gum is demulcent (Husain et al, 1992) 4) T. ialata steud
. White Chugalam or silver grey wood is a common tree of Andaman Islands. Its a
rk is used as a cardiac stimulant. 5) T. Catappa Linn. San: Grahadruma; Hin: Bad
am; Ben: Bangla Badam: Tam: Natuvdom, Vadhamkottai; Tel: Vedam, Voda Movettilla;
Mar: Jangli Badama, Nat Badam. Indian Almond or Tropical Almond is a popular tr
ee cultivated throughout the warmer parts of India including Andaman Islands and
other adjacent island. Oil from the kernel is a su stitute for almond oil. The
leaf is used in sca ies and colic. Husk and endocarp contain tannins and pentosa
ns. Oil from kernel contains oleic, linoleic, palmitic and stearic acids. Heart
wood and stem ark contains β-sitosterol and its palmitate. Heartwood in additio
n contains terminolic acid and triterpenic methyl esters. The aerial part of the
plant is diuretic. The ark is astringent, mild diuretic, cardiotonic and antid
ysenteric. Leaf is sudorific, antirheumatic, antileprotic and anticephalalgic. 6
) T. Coriacea (Rox .) syn. T. tomentosa (Rox . ex. DC.) W. & A. var.
coriacea (Rox .) C. B. Clarke
Tam: Anaimikkuvam, Sadagam; Kan: Banapu; Tel: Tani. Leathery Murdah is a tree co
mmonly used as a cardiac stimulant. It is widely distri uted in the drier and wa
rmer parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu upto 1350 m and in Central India. It
s ark is mainly used as a cardiac stimulant and in atonic diarrhoea and callous
ulcer. It is also CVS active. 7) T. myriocarpa Heurck. & Muell. Arg. Ben: Panis
aj; Ass: Hollock, Jhalna. Hollock is a tree of the Himalayas widely distri uted
from Nepal to Arunachal Pradesh and in Assam at 1000 m. The ark is cardiac stim
ulant and mild diuretic. Bark give β-sitosterol, fructose and 4,4’,5,5’,6,6’ - h
exadydroxy diphenic acid dilactone. Bark also contains tannis - ellagic, gallic,
che ulinic and che ulagic acids. 8) T. Pallida Brandis. Tam: Vellai Kadukkay; T
el: Tella Karaka, Velama Karka. The plant is distri uted throughout south India,
upto 600m. Its ark is a mild diuretic. 9) T. Paniculata Roth. Mal: Marutu, Pe
Marutu, Ven Marutu; Tam: Pei Kadukai, Ven Maruthu, Ilai Kadukkay, Marudu, Pullat
ti; Tel: Nimiri, Pulamaddi, Putamanu, Pulanallamanu; Kan: Maruva, Matti. Floweri
ng Murdah is a tree which is widely used in opium poisoning. It is distri uted i
n the Western and Eastern Ghats, upto 1200m. The ark is used in parotitis and f
lowers in opium poisioning. Heart wood give 3, 3’-0-di-methylellagic acid and 3,
4,3’0-trimethyl flavellagic acid, β-sitosterol, an uncharacterized triterpene ca
r oxylic acid; a glycoside 3,3’ di-0 - methyl ellagic acid - 4 - monoglucoside a
nd 0 - penta methyl flavellogic acid. The stem ark is anticancerous, diuretic,
cardiotonic CVS active and shows antagonism of amphetamine hyperactivity. Flower
is anticholerin (Husain et al, 1992)
77
10) Terminalia che ula Retz. Syn. Myro alanus che ula (Retz.) Gaertner Eng: Che
ulic myro alan; San, Ben: Haritaki; Hindi:Harara, Harir, Har; Mal:Kadukka; Ass:H
ilikha; Kan:Alale; Mar:Ha ra,Hirada; Ori:Harida; Guj:Hirdo; Pun:Helela; Tam:Amag
ola; Tel:Karaka Che ulic myro alan is a medium deciduous tree, the fruit of whic
h is a common constituent of “Triphala” capa le of imparting youthful vitality a
nd receptivity of mind and sense. It is a major constituent in the ayurvedic pre
parations like A hayarishta, A haya modak, Haritaki khand, Triphaladi churnam an
d Agastya rasayanam. In allopathy it is used in astringent ointments. In unani s
ystem, it is used as a lood purifier. The pulp of the fruit is given in piles,
chronic diarrhoea, dysentery, costiveness, flatulence, asthma, urinary disorders
, vomiting, hiccup, intestinal worms, ascites and enlarged spleen and liver. Pow
der of the fruit is used in chronic ulcers and wounds, carious teeth and leedin
g ulceration of the gums. The ark is a good cardiac tonic. The fruit is valua l
e for its tannins and dyes. The wood is used for uilding purposes, agricultural
implements, plywood and match ox industries. It is also grown as a shade tree.
The plant is found throughout India chiefly in deciduous forests, on dry slopes
upto 900m especially in Bengal, Tamil Nadu, West coast and Western Ghats. The p
lant is also reported in Sri Lanka, Nepal and Burma. Terminalia che ula Retz. sy
n. Myro alanus che ula (Retz.) Gaertner comes under family Com retaceae. It is a
medium sized deciduous tree with a cylindrical ole, rounded crown, spreading
ranches with dark rown ark and rownish gray heartwood. Leaves are simple, alt
ernate or su opposite, ovate or elliptic ovate with short petioles earing 2 gla
nds elow the lades. Flowers pale yellow or white in 4-10cm long axillary spike
s. Calyx tu e hairy pale yellow and 5 lo ed; no petals. Stamens consist of 10 fi
laments su ulate, anthers small; ovary inferior, 1-celled with 2-3 pendulous ovu
le. Fruit is a drupe, ovoid glossy, gla rous, faintly angled and yellow to orang
e rown in colour. Seeds are hard and pale yellow. Kernel oil of Che ulic myro a
lan contains 6 fatty acids viz. Palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, arachidic an
d ehenic acid. The fruits contain che ulinic acid, tannic acid, gallic acid, ch
e ulin and tannin. Leaves contain terpenes and saponins and β-sitosterol is pres
ent in the ark (Beri, 1970; Khalique and Nizamuddin, 1972; Miglani and Chawla,
1974). Fruits are astringent, purgative, tonic, carminative, alternative and ant
ispasmodic. Flowers and fruits are antiviral and hypoglycaemic. Wood is oxytocic
and hypothermic (Husain et al, 1992).
Agrotechnology
Terminalia species are, in general, su tropical trees. Young plants prefer shade
while the matured plants tolerate light frost and drought. It grows well in hil
ly areas. This is propagated y seeds. Natural multiplication happens rarely due
to the poor seeds germination. Seeds soaked in water for 48 hours efore sowing
in seed eds which should e covered with straw after sowing. It is watered imme
diately. Usually it takes 3-5 months to germinate. It can e transferred to poly
ags at two-leaf stage. One-year-old seedlings are ready for transplanting. For
transplanting, pits are made of 50cm cu e at a spacing of 4m. Organic manure, ad
ded regularly, promotes growth. Irrigation is required during first year. Weeds
should e removed regularly. This plant grows slowly. It fruits within 6-7 years
. This is continued for many years. It is coppiced well. Fruits are collected im
mediately after falling down or covered with soil to protect it from pests. Frui
ts dried well in sun and used or stored. The hard seed coat is removed efore so
wing.
78
COLEUS Lamiaceae
Coleus spp.
The genus Coleus of the family Lamiaceae (La iatae) comprises a num er of her ac
eous medicinal plants which are particularly employed in home remedies for vario
us ailments. Three species are most popular and commonly cultivated. They are Co
leus aromaticus, C. vettiveroides and C. forkoshlii.
1. Coleus aromaticus Benth. syn. C. am oinicus Lour., Plectranthus am oinicus (L
our.) Spreng.
Eng: Country orage, Indian orage; San: Karpuravalli, Sugandhavalakam; Hin: Pat
harchur; Ben: Paterchur; Mal: Panikkurkka, kannikkurkka; Tam: Karpuravalli; Kan:
karpurahalli; Tel: Sugandhavalkam. It is found through out the tropics and cult
ivated in homestead gardens. It is a large succulent aromatic perennial her wit
h hispidly villous or tomentose fleshy stem. Leaves are simple, opposite, roadl
y ovate, crenate and fleshy. Flowers are pale purplish in dense whorls at distan
t intervals in a long slender raceme. Fruits are or icular or ovoid nutlets. The
leaves are useful in cephalagia, otalgia, anorexia, dyspepsia, flatulence, coli
c, diarrhoea, cholera, halitosis, convulsions, epilepsy, cough, asthma, hiccough
, ronchitis, strangury, hepatopathy and malarial fever (Warrier et al,1995).
2. Coleus vettiveroides K.C. Jaco , syn. Plectranthus vettiveroides (Jaco ) Sing
h & Sharma.
San: Valakam, Hri eram; Hin: Valak; Mal: Iruveli; Tam: Karuver; Tel: Karuveru, I
t is seen in tropical countries and cultivated in gardens. It is a small profuse
ly ranched, succulent aromatic her with quadrangular stems and ranches and de
ep straw coloured aromatic roots. Leaves are glandular hairy, roadly ovate with
dentate margins and prominent veins on the ark. Blue flowers are orne on term
inal racemes. Fruits are nutlets. The whole plant is useful in hyperdipsia, viti
ated conditions of pitta, urning sensation, strangury, leprosy, skin diseases,
leucoderma, fever, vomiting, diarrhoea, ulcers and as hair tonic.
3. Coleus forskohlii Briq. syn. C. ar atus Benth.
Hin: Garmai Kan: Magani eru, Makandi eru Guj: Maimul It is a perennial aromatic
her grown under tropical to temperate conditions for its carrot-like tu ers whi
ch are used as condiments in the preparation of pickles. Its tu erous roots are
an exclusive source of a diterpenoid forskolin which has the unique property of
activating almost all hormone sensitive adenylate cyclase enzymes in a iologica
l system. It is useful in the treatment of congestive heart failure, glaucoma, a
sthma, cancer and in preventing immature greying of hair (Hegde,1997).
Agrotechnology
The Coleus group of plants grows in tropical to su tropical situations and in wa
rm temperate climatic zone on mountains of India, Nepal, Burma, Sri Lanka, Thail
and and Africa. It comes up well on the sun exposed dry hill slopes from 300m to
1800m altitude. A well drained medium fertile soil is suita le for its cultivat
ion. it is propagated vegetatively through stem and root cuttings. Vine cuttings
to a length of 10-15cm from the top portion are most ideal for planting. The la
nd is ploughed or dug to a depth of 15-20cm and ridges are formed 30cm apart. Vi
ne cuttings are planted on the ridges at 30cm spacing after incorporating asal
manure. 10t of FYM and NPK at 50:50:50kg/ha are incorporated into the soil. Top
dressing of N and K is also suggested for improved yields. Weeding and earthing
up at 45 days after planting along with topdressing is highly eneficial. Bacter
ial wilt and root knot nematode are reported in the crop. Drenching the soil wit
h fungicide, deep ploughing in the summer, urning of crop residues and crop rot
ation are helpful to tide over the disease and pest pro lem. The crop can e har
vested after 5-6 months.
79
Properties and Activity
The medicinal property of Coleus am oinicus is attri uted to codeine, carvacrol,
flavones, aromatic acids and tannins present in the plant. The essential oil fr
om the plant contains carvacrol, ethyl salicylate, thymol, eugenol and chavicol.
Leaves also contain cirsimaritin, β-sitosterol-β-D-glucoside and oxalacetic aci
d. Leaves are itter, acrid, thermogenic, aromatic, anodyne, appetising, digesti
ve, carminative, stomachic, anthelmintic, constipating, deodorant, expectorant,
diuretic and liver tonic. Coleus vettiveroides is itter, cooling, diuretic, tri
chogenous and antipyretic. Coleus forskohlii roots are rich in diterpenoids like
forskolin, coleonols, coleons, ar atusin, cyclo utatusin, coleosol, coleol, co
leonone, deoxycoleonol, 7-deacetylforskolin and 6-acetyl-7-deacetylforskolin. It
s root is spasmolytic, CNS active, hypothermic and diuretic. Forskolin is ronch
odialative and hypotensive (Hussain et al,1992). Forskolin is also useful in pre
venting the clotting of lood platelets, in reducing intraocular pressure in gla
ucoma and as an aid to nerve regeneration following trauma (Sharma, 1998)
80
TINOSPORA Menispermaceae
Importance
Tinospora cordifolia
Tam: Amridavalli Ori: Gulochi
San: Amrita, Guduchi; Hin, Ben: Giloe; Mal: Amritu, Chittamritu; Kan: Amrita all
i; Tel: Tivantika, Tippatige; Pun: Batindu
Tinospora is a common clim ing shru which is used in medicine, usually in the f
resh state, though it is commercially availa le in the dried state. It is pro a
ly the most useful preparation acting as a tonic and aphrodisiac. As a tonic it
is est given in infusion with or without milk. It is a popular remedy for snake
- ite and leprosy. It is generally prescri ed in general de ility, dia etes, fev
er, jaundice, skin diseases, rheumatism, urinary diseases, dyspepsia, gout, gono
rrhoea and leucorrhoea. It is a constituent of several preparations like guducha
yado churna, gududyadi kwath, guduchilouha, amritarista, sanjivanivati, guduchi
taila, amiritastak kwath, etc. The juice mixed with the pulp of long pepper and
honey is a house hold remedy for gonorrhoea. Several oils for external applicati
ons are prepared with amrita and applied to skin diseases, rheumatic affections
and other nervous complaints. A small quantity of ruised stem soaked for three
hours in half a litre of water and strained com ined with ammonium acetate is ad
ministered in intermittent and milder forms of fevers. It is rendered more agree
a le with cinnamon, cloves and other aromatics. (Viswanathan, 1997).
Distri ution
The plant is widely seen in tropical countries like India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka an
d in Andaman Islands. It is mostly found trailing on forest trees, fences and he
dges along the oundaries.
Botany
Tinospora cordifolia (Willd) Miers ex Hk. f & Thoms. syn. Menispermum cordifoliu
m Willd, Cocculus cordifolius (Willd) DC. elongs to the family Menispermaceae.
It is a clim ing shru with rough corky ark. Leaves are gla rous, cordate 5-10c
m road, acute or accuminate. The plant is dioecious. Male flowers are in fascic
les; sepals oval; petals half the length of sepals. Female flowers are usually s
olitary, having ovary on the fleshy receptacle. Fruits are red when ripe.
Agrotechnology
Giloe requires a warm humid tropical climate. It thrives well in deep fertile so
ils which are rich in organic matter. It is propagated vegetatively y stem cutt
ings. A out 1015cm long stem cuttings having at least 2 nodes are planted in the
field or poly ags. Treatment of cut ends with hormones gives etter results. Th
e usual planting time is with the onset of monsoon in May-June. Usually it is pl
anted along oundaries or near y tall trees and allowed to trail on the trees or
hedges and hence regular spacing is not followed. While planting, adequate amou
nts of organic manure are applied. Once the plant is esta lished no much managem
ent is needed. The stem is the most economic part. Harvesting can e commenced a
fter one year and usually partial harvesting is followed depending on the necess
ity. The stem and root should e collected in hot season when the concentration
of the itter principle is the highest. A full grown well ramified plant may giv
e 2-3kg vines, which are cut into smaller pieces and traded either fresh or afte
r drying. The plant contains cordifol, tinosporidine, tinosporide, per erilin, h
eptacosanol, βsitosterol, cordifolone, tinosporon, tinosporic acid, tinosporol,
cordifolide, tinosporine, magnoflorine and tem etarine (Husain et al,1992). The
plant is antigonorrhoric, stomachic, antispasmodic, antiinflammatory, stimulant,
diuretic, emetic, antidia etic, aphrodisiac, antiperiodic, antileprotic antirhe
umantic and tonic. The root is an emetic in large doses. The tincture and extrac
t are alterative and tonic and in a less degree antiperiodic and diuretic. (Dey,
1980).
Properties and Activity
81
DESMODIUM Fa aceae
Importance
Desmodium gangeticum
San: Anshumati, Salaparni; Hin, Ben: Salpani; Mal: Orila; Tam:Pulladi; Tel: Gita
naram Kan: Murelehonne; Mar: Darh; Guj: Salwan; Ori: Salaparni Pun: Shalpurhi De
smodium is a small shru which is the chief of the ten ingredients in the Dasamu
la kwatha of Hindu medicine. Roots are useful in vitiated conditions of vata, an
orexia, dyspepsia, haemorrhoids, dysentery, strangury, fever, gout, inflammation
s, cough, asthma, ronchitis, cardiopathy and de ility. The unani preparation “A
rq dashmul” contains these roots. It is considered a curative for leucorrhoea an
d for pains due to cold (Warrier et al, 1995).
Distri ution
The plant is widely distri uted in the tropics and su tropics. It grows wild in
the forests of India up to 1500m. It is also cultivated in the plains and in the
lower Himalayas.
Botany
Desmodium gangeticum (Linn.) DC. syn. Hedysarum gangeticum Linn., Desmodium gang
eticum var. maculatum (Linn.) Baker., elongs to the family Fa aceae (Papilionac
eae). It is an erect diffusely ranched undershru , 90-120cm in height with a sh
ort woody stem and numerous prostrate ranches provided with soft grey hairs. Le
aves are unifoliate, ovatelanceolate, mem ranceous and mottled with grey patches
. Flowers are white, purple or lilac in elongate lax, terminal or axillary racem
es. Fruits are moniliform, 6-8 jointed, gla rescent pods, joints of pods separat
ely pu escent with hooked hairs, joint separating when ripe into indehiscent one
seeded segments. Seeds are compressed and reniform.
Agrotechnology
Desmodium can grow in a variety of climate and soils. However, it prefers tropic
al and su tropical climatic conditions. Although it can grow on all types of soi
ls, waterlogged and highly alkaline soils are not suita le. Light sandy loam is
preferred for commercial cultivation. It is propagated through seeds. Seeds can
e planted directly in the field or seedlings raised on the nursery eds and tra
nsplanted. Transplanting always gives etter results in commercial cultivation,
as it gives assured crop stand. Planting is done at a spacing of 40x20cm on flat
eds or ridges. Organic manures are applied at the time of land preparation and
thoroughly mixed with the soil. A little quantity of phosphatic and nitrogenous
fertilizers are also applied for etter crop growth. The inter-row spaces etwe
en plants, oth in the field and nursery should e kept free from weeds y frequ
ent weeding and hoeing as the plant suffers from weed competition, especially du
ring early stages of growth. Manual hand weeding is usually done. Irrigation of
seedlings just after planting is good for crop esta lishment. Although it can e
cultivated as a rainfed crop under humid tropical conditions, irrigation every
month is eneficial during summer. The root is the economic part and harvesting
can e commenced after 8-9 months. A out 500- 700kg roots can e harvested from
a hectare of land per year.
Properties and Activity
The root contains gangetin, gangetinin, desmodin, N,N-dimethyl tryptamine, hypap
horine, hordenine, candicine, N-methyl tyramine and β-phenyl ethyl amine. The to
tal alkaloid fraction showed hypotensive activity. The root is itter, antiinfla
mmatory, analgesic, aphrodisiac, constipating, diuretic, cardiotonic, expectoran
t, astringent, antidiarrhoeal, carminative, antiemetic, fe rifuge and anti-catar
rhal (Thakur et al, 1989).
82
GARLIC Liliaceae
Importance
Allium sativum
San: Lasunah, Rasonah; Hin:Lasun, Lahasun; Ben: Lashan; Mal: Vellulli; Kan: Bell
uli; Tam: Vellaipuntu; Mar: Lasunas; Ass: Naharu; Tel:Vellulli, Tella-gadda; Guj
: Lasan Garlic is one of the important ul crops used as a spice or condiment w
ith medicinal value throughout the world. It possesses high nutritive value. Its
preparations are useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and vata, cough, whoopi
ng cough, ronchitis, asthma, fever, facial paralysis, flatulence, colic, consti
pation, atonic dyspepsia, helminthiasis, duodenal ulcers, pulmonary and laryngea
l tu erculosis, opthalmopathy, cardiopathy, fatigue, leucoderma, leprosy, hyster
ia, haemorrhoids, sciatica, otalgia, lum ago, swellings, splenopathy, hepatopath
y, pneumonopathy, anthralgia, sore eyes, ear ache and dental caries (Kumar et al
, 1997).
Distri ution
Garlic is a native of Southern Europe and it is cultivated all over the world..
It is grown throughout India; Gujarat and Orissa eing the leading states.
Botany
The genus Allium of Liliaceae family comprises a num er of species. The importan
t ones are the following: A. sativum Linn. syn. A. porrum Linn. A. cepa Linn. A.
ampeloprasum Linn. A. ascalonicum Linn. A. leptophyllum Wall. A. macleanii Bake
r. A. schoenoprasum Linn. A. tu erosum Rox . Allium sativum is a scapigerous foe
tid perennial medicinal her with underground compound ul s covered over y out
er white thin scales and with simple smooth, round stem, surrounded at the otto
m y tu ular leaf sheath. The leaves are simple, long, flat and linear. The flow
ers are small and white arranged in rounded um els mixed with small ul ils. The
entire um el is enclosed in a tear-drop-shaped mem ranous spathe. Flowers are u
sually sterile (Warrier et al, 1993).
Agrotechnology
Garlic can e grown under a wide range of climatic conditions. It prefers modera
te temperature in summer as well as in winter. Short days are very favoura le fo
r the formation of ul s. Garlic requires well drained loamy soils rich in humus
, with fairly good content of potash. Garlic is propagated y cloves or ul lets
. In the hills, sowing is done in April and May. Types with old and compact clo
ves and thick white covering sheath are preferred for planting. Ootty-1 garlic i
s an improved variety y clonal selection released from TNAU, Coim atore. Garlic
may e roadcast, planted in furrows or di led at the rate of 150-200kg cloves
/ha. In furrow planting, cloves are dropped 7.5-10cm apart in furrows 15cm deep
and covered lightly with loose soil. Cloves may e di led 5 to 7.5cm deep and 7
.5cm apart in rows which are 15cm apart with their growing end upwards and then
covered with loose soil. A asal dose of 60kg N and 50kg each of P2O5 and K2O ar
e applied along with 25t/ha of FYM. 60kg N is given as topdressing 45 days after
planting. First irrigation is given immediately after sowing and su sequent irr
igations are given at 10-15 days interval depending upon the soil moisture avail
a ility. The last irrigation should e given 2-3 days efore harvesting to facil
itate easy harvest and minimum damage to ul s. First weeding and hoeing is to
e done at one month after sowing followed y a second weeding one month after fi
rst interculture. Hoeing at a out two and a half months from sowing loosens the
soil and helps in setting of igger and well-filled ul s. Garlic is attacked y
Thrips ta acii which
83
causes withering of leaves. Application of methyl demeton 25EC or dimethoate 30E
C at 1ml/l will check the pest incidence. Leaf spot caused y Alternaria solanii
can e controlled y spraying Dithane M.45 at fortnightly intervals at 2.5g/l o
f water. Garlic is harvested when the tops turn yellowish or rownish and show s
igns of drying up. The plants are uprooted, tied into small undles and kept in
shade for 2-3 days for curing. Average yield of garlic is 6-8t/ha. ( Kumar et al
, 1997.)
Properties and activity
Garlic ul is reported to contain volatile oil, alliin ( S-allyl-L-cysteine sul
foxide), S-methyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide and allinase. It is rich in vitamins like
thiamine, ri oflavine and niacin. Volatile oil contains allicin (diallyl thiosu
lphinate), an active odour principle of garlic. Other major compounds present ar
e diallyl disulphide, diallyl trisulphide, allyl methyl trisulphide and allyl me
thyl disulphide (Husain et al., 1992). Garlic ul is antirheumatic, stimulant,
diaphoretic, expectorant, diuretic, antispasmodic, astringent, antiparalytic, an
tileprotic, aperient, fe rifuge, carminative, stomachic, alterative and emmenago
gue. The essential oil is hypocholestrolemic, hypotensive, antitumour and antidi
a etic. Diallyl disulphide and diallyl trisulphide from essential oil have larvi
cidal action. Bul s also have anti- acterial, and anti-fungal activity.
84
POMEGRANATE Punicaceae
San: Dadimah; Hin: Anar, Dhalim; Ben: Dalim; Mal: Urumampazham, Matalam, Talimat
alam, Matalanarakam; Tel: Dadima; Mar: Dalim a; Guj: Dadam; Ass: Dalin
Punica granatum
Tam: Madalai, Madalam; Kan :Dalim e;
Importance
Pomegranate has long een esteemed as food and medicine and as a diet in convale
scence after diarrhoea. The rind of the fruit is highly effective in chronic dia
rrhoea and dysentery, dyspepsia, colitis, piles and uterine disorders. The powde
red drug oiled with uttermilk is an efficacious remedy for infantile diarrohoe
a. The root and stem ark are good for tapeworm and for strengthening the gums.
The flowers are useful in vomiting, vitiated conditions of pitta, ophthalmodynia
, ulcers, pharyngodynia and hydrocele. An extract of the flowers is very specifi
c for epistaxis. The fruits are useful in anaemia, hyperdipsia, pharyngodynia, o
phthalmodynia, pectoral diseases, splenopathy, ronchitis and otalgia. The fruit
rind is good for dysentery, diarrhoea and gastralgia. Seeds are good for sca ie
s, hepatopathy and splenopathy. The important preparations using the drug are Da
dimadighrtam, Dadimastaka churnam, Hinguvacadi churnam, Hingvadi gulika, etc (Si
varajan et al, 1994, Warrier et al, 1995).
Distri ution
Pomegranate is a native of Iran, Afghanistan and Baluchistan. It is found growin
g wild in the warm valleys and outer hills of the Himalaya etween 900m and 1800
m altitude. It is cultivated throughout India, the largest area eing in Maharas
tra.
Botany
Punica granatum Linn. elongs to the family Punicaceace. It is a large deciduous
shru up to 10m in height with smooth dark grey ark and often spinescent ranc
hlets. Leaves are opposite, gla rous, minutely pellucid-punctuate, shining a ove
and right green eneath. Flowers are scarlet red or sometime yellow, mostly so
litary, sometimes 2-4 held together. Stamens are numerous and inserted on the ca
lyx elow the petals at various levels. Fruits are glo ose, crowned y the persi
stent calyx. Rind is coriaceous and woody, interior septate with mem raneous wal
ls containing numerous seeds. Seeds are angular with red, pink or whitish, flesh
y testa (Warrier et al, 1995).
Agrotechnology
Pomegranate is of deciduous nature in areas where winters are cold, ut on the p
lains it is evergreen. A hot dry summer aids in the production of est fruits. P
lants are grown from seeds as well as cuttings. Mature wood pieces cut into leng
ths of a out 30cm are planted for rooting. The rooted plants are planted 4.5-6m
apart. When planted close, they form a hedge which also yields fruits. Normal cu
ltivation and irrigation practices are satisfactory for the pomegranate. An appl
ication of 30-45kg of FYM annually to each tree helps to produce superior qualit
y fruits. The pomegranate may e trained as a tree with a single stem for 3045cm
or as a ush with 3 or 4 main stems. In either case suckers arising from the ro
ots and similar growths from the trunk and main ranches are removed once a year
. Shortening of long slender ranches and occasional thinning of ranches should
e done. The fruit has a tough rind and hence transportation loss is minimum (I
CAR, 1966).
Properties and Activity
Pomegranate fruit rind gives an ellagitannin named granatin B, punicalagin, puni
calin and ellagic acid. Bark contains the alkaloids such as iso-pelletierine, ps
eudopelletierine, methyl isopelletierine, methyl pelletierine, pelletierine as w
ell as iso-quercetin, friedelin, Dmannitol and estrone. Flowers give pelargonidi
n-3, 5-diglucoside apart from sitosterol, ursolic acid, maslinic acid, asiatic a
cid, sitosterol-β-D-glucoside and gallic acid. Seeds give malvidin pentose glyco
side. Rind gives pentose glycosides of malvidin and pentunidin. Fluoride, calciu
m, magnesium, vitamin C and phosphate are also reported from fruits. Leaves give
elligatannins-granatins A and B and punicafolin.
85
Rind of fruit is astringent, fruit is laxative. Bark of stem and root is anthelm
intic, and fe rifuge. Rind of fruit and ark of stem and root is antidiarrhoeal.
Pericarp possesses antifertility effect. Fixed oil from seeds are anti acterial
. Bark, fruit pulp, flower and leaf are antifungal. Aerial part is CNS depressan
t, diuretic and hypothermic. The flower uds of pomegranate in com ination with
other plants showed excellent response to the patients of Giardiasis (Mayer et a
l, 1977; Singhal et al, 1983).
86
CURRY LEAF Rutaceae
San: Kalasakh, Kaidaryah Mal: Kariveppu, Karuveppu Tel: Karivepaku
Murraya
Hin: Mithinim, Katnim Tam: Kariveppilai, Karuveppu Ass: Narasingha, Bishahari
Koenigii
Ben: Barsunga Kan: Kari Baeva
Importance
Curry leaf, a plant of homestead gardens has gained importance as a commercial c
rop and is cultivated for its culinary and medicinal value. The plant is highly
esteemed for its leaves which promote appetite and digestion and destroy pathoge
nic organisms. It is reported to e useful in emaciation, skin diseases, hemopat
hy, worm trou les, neurosis and poisons. They are useful in vitiated conditions
of kapha and pitta, hyperdipna, colic, flatulence, diarrhoea, dysentery, vomitin
g, inflammations and foul ulcers. “Kaidaryah” drug is prepared using this plant
which improves voice, stimulates digestion and destroys concocted poisons in the
system. The important preparations using the drug are Kalasadi kasayam, Pamanta
ka tailam, Jatyadi tailam, Jatyadi ghrtam, etc (Sivarajan et al,1994).
Distri ution
Curry leaf is seen in the foot of the Himalaya and Bashahi eastwards to Sikkim a
nd Peninsular India, upto 1700m. It is also found in Sri Lanka, Burma, Indo-Chin
a, South China and Hainan. Commercial cultivation in India is limited to Tamil N
adu and Karnataka states.
Botany
The genus Murraya of the family Rutaceae includes the following species: M. Koen
igii (Linn.) Spreng. syn. Bergera koenigii Linn. M. Exotica Linn. syn. M. panicu
lata (Linn.) Jack. Murraya koenigii is a small aromatic tree with dark grey ark
and closely crowded spreading dark green foliage. Leaves are imparipinnate and
alternate. Leaflets are alternate, o liquely ovate or somewhat rhom oid, gland d
otted and strongly aromatic. Flowers are white, arranged in much ranched termin
al corym ose cymes and fragrant. Fruits are su glo ose or ellipsoid erries, pur
plish lack when ripe and 2-seeded (Warrier et al, 1995).
Agrotechnology
Curry leaf tree does not choose a specific climate and can come up even in dry c
limate too. In places where minimum temperature goes elow 13°C, the growth of t
he shoot will e slightly affected. It comes up well in light textured red soils
. DWD-1 and DWD-2 are two improved varieties released from UAS, Dharwad. Curry l
eaf is propagated y seed. Main field is to e ploughed repeatedly. A spacing of
90-120cm is followed on either side. Pits of size 30cm3 are dug out one month
efore planting and filled with top soil mixed with well decomposed FYM at the ti
me of planting. Healthy seedlings are planted in the centre of the pits. Then lo
ng furrows are formed connecting all the pits to facilitate easy irrigation. The
seedlings are irrigated once in 5-7 days upto 3 years and once in 15 days after
wards. The field should e kept free from weeds. Plants may e trained and prune
d to maintain a ush of 1m in height. For etter growth and yield, each plant is
fertilised with 20kg of FYM esides 150:25:50g of N, P2O5, K2O/ year. Attack of
aphids in the vegetative stage can e controlled y spraying of dimethoate at 2
ml/l of water. Leaves from such sprayed plants should e harvested only after 10
days. Spraying car endazim at 1g/l can take care of leaf spot diseases. The cro
p comes to first harvest at the end of first year. The yield of leaves account t
o 400kg/ha at the end of first year, 2000 to 2200kg/ha in the second and third y
ear harvested at an interval of four months and 2500kg/ha in the fourth year har
vested at three months interval. From fifth year onwards it is harvested at 2.5-
3 months interval giving an yield of 3500-5000kg/ha (Kumar et al, 1997).
Properties and Activity
All parts of the plant, especially the leaves are rich in car azole alkaloids. T
hese include mem ers with (i) C13 - skeleton -murrayanin, mukoeic acid, mukonine
and
87
mukonidine; (ii) C18 - skeleton including gerinim ine, koenim ine, murrayacine,
koenigine and koenigicine (koenidine); and (iii) C23- skeleton containing mahani
m ine, mahanim icine, isomahanim icine, mahanine, mahanim inine, murrayayazoline
, murrayazolinine, murrayazolidine, cyclomahanim ine and icyclomahanim icine. O
ther car azole ases include mukoline, mukolidine (C13 group, from roots), mukon
icine (C18 from leaves), the iogenetically significant mukonal (C13, stem- ark)
, mahanim oline (C23, root- ark), isomurrayazoline (C23, stem- ark). The leaves
gave a coumarin glucoside, scopolin also. Essential oil from leaves contained β-
caryophylline, β-gurjunene, β-elemene, βphellandrene, β-thujene as major constit
uents. The roots, ark and leaves are itter, acrid, astringent, cooling, aromat
ic, demulcent, depurative, anthelmintic, fe rifuge, stomachic, appetising, carmi
native, antiinflammatory and antiseptic. Aerial part is spasmolytic and antiprot
ozoal. Root is antiprotozoal, CVS active and has effect on nictitating mem rane.
Leaf is hypoglycaemic (Hussain et al,1992).
88
COSTUS Zingi eraceae
Importance
Costus speciosus
San: Pushkara, Kashmeera, Kemuka; Hin: Ke u, Keyu, Kust; Ben: Keu, Kura Mal: Cha
nnakkizhangu, Channakoova; Tam: Kostam; Mar: Penva; Tel: Kashmeeramu Costus is o
ne of the plants which contains diosgenin in its rhizome. It is widely used as s
tarting material in the commercial production of steroidal hormones. The rhizome
s are useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta, urning sensation, flatu
lence, constipation, helminthiases, leprosy, skin diseases, fever, hiccough, ast
hma, ronchitis, inflammation and aneamia. It is used to make sexual hormones an
d contraceptives (Warrier et al,1994).
Distri ution
The plant is widely distri uted in Asia and other tropical countries like India,
Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and China. In India, it occurs mostly in Arunachal P
radesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Tripura and Kerala.
Botany
Costus speciosus (Koenig.) Sm. elonging to the family Zingi eraceae consists of
two varieties viz., var. nepalensis Rose., found only in Nepal and Arunachal Pr
adesh and var. argycophyllus Wall., having a wide distri ution in India. The pla
nt is a succulent her with long leafy spirally twisted stems, 2-3m in height an
d horizontal rhizomes. Leaves are simple, spirally arranged, o lanceolate or o l
ong, gla rous a ove, silky pu escent eneath with road leaf sheaths. Flowers ar
e white, large, fragrant, arranged in dense terminal spikes. Bracts are right r
ed. The single stamen present is perfect, lip large with incurved margins. Fruit
s are glo ose or ovoid capsules with o ovoid or su - glo ose seeds (Warrier et a
l,1994).
Agrotechnology
Costus can e raised under a wide range of agroclimatic conditions. It prefers s
andy loam soil for good growth. Propagation is y rhizomes. The est season for
planting is AprilMay. The seed rate recommended is 2-2.4t/ha. The spacing adopte
d is 50x50cm. After an initial ploughing FYM or poultry manure should e applied
at the rate of 30t/ha and the field is to e ploughed again irrigated and prepa
red to o tain a fine seed ed. Furrows are opened and the rhizome pieces are pla
ced horizontally at a depth of 8-10cm and covered with soil. Care is taken to pl
ace the eye uds facing upwards. After 70-75 days a out 90-95% sprouting is o ta
ined. Desiccation of the young sprouts have een o served in the hot summer mont
hs, necessitating li eral water supply during the period. As Septem er-Novem er
is the period of maximum tu erization at least two irrigations should e given a
t that time. One during the sprouting period of the crop followed y two more ke
eps the crop fairly free of weeds. Application of 37t/ha of poultry manure and f
ertilizers, 60kg P2O5 and 40kg K2O /ha as a asal doze, along with 80kg N/ha app
lied in 3 equal split dozes will take care. Crop is harvested at the end of seve
n months. Harvesting includes 2 operations, cutting the aerial shoots and diggin
g out the rhizomes. Cost of production of diosgenin ranges from Rs. 271300/kg (A
tal, et al,1982).
Properties and Activity
Tu ers and roots contain diosgenin, 5α-stigm st-9(11)-en-3β ol, sitosterol-β-Dgl
ucoside, dioscin, prosapogenins A and B of dioscin, gracillin and quinones. Vari
ous saponins, many new aliphatic esters and acids are reported from its rhizomes
, seeds and roots. Seeds, in addition, contain α- tocopherol. S ponins from seed
s re hypotensive nd sp smolytic. Rhizomes possess ntifertility, nticholinest
r se, ntiinfl mm tory, stimul nt, depur tive nd nthelmintic ctivities (Huss 
in et l, 1992).
89
ECLIPTA Aster ce e
Eclipt  prostr t 
S n: Bhrng r j h, Tek r j h; Hin: Bh mgr , Moc k nd, B bri; Ben: Kesutthe, Kesr 
j; M l: K nnunni, K yyonni, K yyunnni; T m: K yy nt k r , K ikeri; K n: K digg g
r g ; Tel: Gunt g lijer n; Ar b: K dim-el-bint

Import nce
Eclipt  is one of the ten uspicious herbs th t constitute the group d s pusp m
which is considered to destroy the c us tive f ctors of ll unhe lthy nd unple 
s nt fe tures nd bestow good he lth nd prosperity. The members of this group c
ure wounds nd ulcers s well s fever c used by the der ngement of the tridos s
- v t , pitt  nd k ph . It is used in hep titis, spleen enl rgements, chronic
skin dise ses, tet nus nd eleph nti sis. The le f promotes h ir growth nd use
s n ntidote in scorpion sting. The root is used s n emetic, in sc lding of
urine, conjuctivitis nd s n ntiseptic to ulcers nd wound in c ttle. It is u
sed to prevent bortion nd misc rri ge nd lso in c ses of uterine p ins fter
the delivery. The juice of the pl nt with honey is given to inf nts for expulsi
on of worms. For the relief in piles, fumig tion with Eclipt  is considered bene
fici l. A decoction of the le ves is used in uterine h emorrh ge. The p ste prep
red by mincing fresh pl nts h s got n ntiinfl mm tory effect nd m y be ppli
ed on insect bites, stings, swellings nd other skin dise ses. In Ayurved , it i
s m inly used in h ir oil, while in Un ni system, the juice is used in “H b Misk
een N w z” long with conite, triph l , Croton tiglium, Piper nigium, Piper lon
gum, Zingiber officin le nd miner ls like mercury, sulphur, rsenic, bor x, etc
. for v rious types of p ins in the body. It is lso  constituent of “Rogh n Am
l  Kh s” for pplying on the h ir nd of “M jun Murr w h-ul- rw h”.
Distribution
This pl nt is widely distributed in the w rm humid tropics with plenty of r inf 
ll. It grows commonly in moist pl ces s  weed ll over pl ins of Indi .
Bot ny
Eclipt  prostr t  (Linn) Linn. syn. E. lb  H ssk. is n nnu l, erect or postr 
te herb, often rooting t nodes. Le ves re sessile, 2.5-7.5cm long with white 
ppressed h irs. Flor l he ds re 6-8 mm in di meter, solit ry nd white. Fruit i
s n chene, compressed nd n rrowly winged. Sometimes, Wedeli  c lendul ce , wh
ich resembles Eclipt  prostr t  is used for the s me purpose. The le ves cont in
stigm sterol, α-terthienylmeth nol, wedelol ctone, dismethylwedelol ctone nd d
ismethylwedelol ctone-7-glucoside. The roots give hentri cont nol nd hept cos n
ol. The roots cont in poly cetylene substituted thiophenes. The eri l p rt is r
eported to cont in  phytosterol, β-amyrin in the n-hexane extract and luteolin-
7-glucoside, β-glucoside of phytosterol, a glucoside of a triterpenic acid and w
edelolactone in polar solvent extract. The polypeptides isolated from the plant
yield cystine, glutamic acid, phenyl alanine, tyrosine and methionine on hydroly
sis. Nicotine and nicotinic acid are reported to occur in this plant. The plant
is anticatarrhal, fe rifuge, antidontalgic, a sor ent, antihepatic, CVS active,
nematicidal, ovicidal and spasmolytic in activity. The alcoholic extract of enti
re plant has een reported to have antiviral activity against Ranikhet disease v
irus. Aqueous extract of the plant showed su jective improvement of vision in th
e case of refractive errors. The her al drug Trefoli, containing extracts of the
plant in com ination with others, when administered to the patients of viral he
patitis, produced excellent results.
Properties and Activity
90
BRAHMI Scrophulariaceae
Importance
Bacopa monnieri
San: Brahmi, Sarasvati; Hin: Barami, Jalnim; Ben: Boihim-sak; Mal: Brahmi, Nir r
ahmi; Tam: Nirpirami, Piramiyapundu; Kan, Mar: Nir rahmi Brahmi or Thyme leaved
gratiola is an important drug in Ayurveda for the improvement of intelligence an
d memory and revitalisation of sense organs. It clears voice and improves digest
ion. It is suggested against dermatosis, anaemia, dia etes, cough, dropsy, fever
, arthritis, anorexia, dyspepsia, emaciation, and insanity. It dispels poisonous
affections, splenic disorders and impurity of lood. It is useful in vitiated c
onditions of kapha and vata, iliousness, neuralgia, ascites, flatulence, lepros
y, leucoderma, syphilis, sterility and general de ility. The whole plant is used
in a variety of preparations like Brahmighrtam, Sarasvataristam., Brahmitailam,
Misrakasneham, etc. In unani Majun Brahmi is considered as a rain tonic.
Distri ution
The plant grows wild on damp places and marshy lands in the major part of the pl
ains of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and other tropical countr
ies.
Botany
Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Pennell. syn. Monniera cuneifolia Michx., Herpestis monn
iera (Linn.) H.B. & K. elongs to the family Scrophulariaceae. It is a prostrate
, juicy, succulent, gla rous annual her rooting at the nodes with numerous asce
nding ranches. Leaves are simple, opposite, decussate, sessile, o ovate-o long
or spatulate, entire, fleshy, o scurely veined and punctate. Flowers are pale l
ue or whitish, axillary, solitary, arranged on long slender pedicels. Fruits are
ovoid, acute, 2-celled, 2-valved capsules and tipped with style ase. Seeds are
minute and numerous (Warrier et al, 1993).
Agrotechnology
The plant grows throughout the warm humid tropics upto 1200m elevation. Brahmi g
ets esta lished well in water logged fields. The plant is propagated vegetativel
y y stem cuttings. Land is prepared y ploughing 2 or 3 times. Two to three ton
nes/ha of cowdung or compost is applied and the field is again ploughed and leve
lled. Stem cuttings, 10cm long are spread at a spacing of 20cm. Waterlogging to
height of 30cm is always required. Rooting may start within 15-20 days. It will
spread over the field within 6 months. Regular application of organic manure wil
l take care of the manurial requirement. Weeding once in a month is required. Ca
re should e taken to maintain water level at a height of 30cm during the growth
period. No serious pests or diseases are noted in this crop. Harvesting commenc
es from sixth months onwards. Brahmi leaves can e collected once a month. After
3 years, the whole crop is harvested and removed. Fresh cultivation can e carr
ied out in the same field.
Properties and Activity
Earlier workers have reported the isolation of the alkaloids rahmine and hespes
tine and a mixture of 3 alkaloids from the leaves. Mannitol and saponins were re
ported later. Su sequent work descri ed isolation of some C27, C29, and C31 hydr
ocar ons and etulic acid from this plant material. A systematic examination has
resulted in the isolation and identification of two saponins designated as aco
sides A and B. Bacoside A has chemical structure represented as 3-(α-L- r binopy
r nosyl)-O-βD-glucopyranoside-10, 20-dihydroxy-16-ketodammar-24-ene. The mixture
of acosides A and B on hydrolysis give four sapogenins, glucose and ara inose.
The constitution of acogenin A, has een esta lished as 3β-30-dihydroxy-20(5)-
25-epoxy-22-methyl-24-nor-dammar-22-en-16-one. Bacogenin A2 has een shown to e
an isomer of acogenin A, differing in configuration at C-20. Bacogenin A4 has
een identified as e elin lactone. The plant is reported to have shown ar itura
te hypnosis potentiation effect. The plant is anticancerous and improves learnin
g a ility. It is used as a tranquilliser. The plant is astringent, itter, sweet
, cooling, laxative, intellect promoting, anodyne, carminative, digestive, antii
nflammatory, anticonvulsant, depurative, cardiotonic, ronchodialator, diuretic,
emmenagogue, sudorfic, fe rifuge and tonic (Basu et al, 1947; Rastogi et al 196
0).
91
INDIAN CROCUS Zingi eraceae
Kaempferia rotunda
San: Bhumicampaka, Bhucampaka, Hallakah Hin: A huyicampa Mal: Chengazhuneerkizhe
ngu, Chengazhuneerkuva Tam: Nerppicin Kan: Nelasampiga Tel: Bhucampakamu, Kondak
aluva Mar: Bhuichampa
Importance
The tu ers of Indian crocus are widely used as a local application for tumours,
swellings and wounds. They are also given in gastric complaints. They help to re
move lood clots and other purulent matter in the ody. The juice of the tu ers
is given in dropsical affections of hands and feet, and of effusions in joints.
The juice causes salivation and vomiting. In Ayurveda, the improvement formulati
ons using the her are Chyavanaprasam, Asokarishtam, Baladthatryaditailam, Kalya
nakaghritham, etc. The drug “HALLAKAM” prepared from this is in popular use in t
he form of powder or as an ointment application to wounds and ruises to reduce
swellings. It also improves complexion and cures urning sensation, mental disor
ders and insomnia (NRF, 1998; Sivarajan et al, 1994).
Distri ution
The plant is distri uted in the tropics and su -tropics of Asia and Africa. The
plant grows wild in shaded areas which are wet or humid, especially in forests i
n South India. It grows in gardens and is known for their eautiful flowers and
foliage. It is also cultivated as an intercrop with other commercial crops.
Botany
Kaempferia rotunda Linn. elonging to the family Zingi eraceae is an aromatic he
r with tu erous root-stalk and very short stem. Leaves are simple, few, erect,
o long or ovatelanceolate, acuminate, 30cm long, 10cm wide, variegated green a o
ve and tinged with purple elow. Flowers are fragrant, white, tip purple or lila
c arranged in crowded spikes opening successively. The plant produces a su glo o
se tu erous rhizome from which many roots earing small o long or rounded tu ers
arise (Warrier et al, 1995).
Agrotechnology
The plant is a tropical one adapted for tropical climate. Rich loamy soil having
good drainage is ideal for the plant. Laterite soil with heavy organic manure a
pplication is also well suited. Planting is done in May-June with the receipt of
4 or 5 pre-monsoon showers. The seed rate recommended is 1500-2000kg rhizomes/h
a. Whole or split rhizome with one healthy sprout is the planting material. Well
developed healthy and disease free rhizomes with the attached root tu ers are s
elected for planting. Rhizomes can e stored in cool dry place or pits dug under
shade plastered with mud or cowdung. The field is ploughed to a fine tilth, mix
ed with organic manure at 10-15t/ha. Seed eds are prepared at a size of 1m rea
dth and convenient length. Pits are made at 20cm spacing in which 5cm long piece
s of rhizomes are planted. Pits are covered with organic manure. They are then c
overed with rotten straw or leaves. Apply FYM or compost as asal dose at 20 t/h
a either y roadcasting and ploughing or y covering the seed in pits after pla
nting. Apply fertilisers at the rate of 50:50:50 kg N, P2O5 and K2O/ha at the ti
me of first and second weeding. After planting, mulch the eds with dry or green
leaves at 15 t/ha. During heavy rainy months, leaf rot disease occurs which can
e controlled y drenching 1% Bordeaux mixture. The crop can e harvested after
7 months maturity. Drying up of the leaves is the indication of maturity. Harve
st the crop carefully without cutting the rhizome, remove dried leaves and roots
. Wash the rhizome in water. They are stored in moisture-proof sheds. Prolonged
storage may cause insect and fungus attack (Prasad et al, 1997). The tu ers cont
ain crotepoxide and β-sitosterol. Tu er contains essential oil which give a comp
ound with melting point 149oC which yielded enzoic acid on hydrolysis. The tu e
rs are acrid, thermogenic aromatic, stomachic, antiinflammatory, sialagogue, eme
tic, antitumour and vulnerary.
92
Properties and activity
93
SWEET FLAG Araceae
San: Vaca, Ugragandha, Bhadra; Tam: Vasampu; Kan: Bajai; Hin: Bacc, Gor acc; Tel
: Vasa Vadaja
Acorus calamus
Ben: Bach; Mal:Vayampu;
Importance
The sweet flag is an important medhya drug, capa le of improving memory power an
d intellect. It is used in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha, stomatopathy,
hoarseness, colic, flatulence, dyspepsia, helminthiasis, amenorrhoea, dismenorrh
oea, nephropathy, calculi, strangury, cough, ronchitis, odontalgia, pectoralgia
, hepatodynia, otalgia, inflammations, gout, epilepsy, delirium, amentia, convul
sions, depression and other mental disorders, tumours, dysentery, hyperdipsia, h
aemorrhoids, intermittent fevers, skin diseases, num ness and general de ility.
It is reportedly useful in improving digestion, clearing speech and curing diarr
hoea, dysentery, a dominal o struction and colic. It is also useful in infantile
fever, cough ronchitis and asthma. The drug is reported to cure hysteria, insa
nity and chronic rheumatic complaints. The rhizome is an ingredient of preparati
ons like Vacaditaila, Ayaskrti, Kompancadi gulika, Valiya rasnadi kashaya, etc.
Distri ution
The plant is a native of Europe. It is distri uted throughout the tropics and su
tropics, especially in India and Sri Lanka. It is found in marshes, wild or cul
tivated, ascending the Himalayas upto 1800m in Sikkim. It is plentiful in marshy
tracts of Kashmir and Sirmoor, in Manipur and Naga Hills.
Botany
Acorus calamus Linn. elonging to the family Araceae is a semi-aquatic rhizomato
us perennial her . Rhizome is creeping, much ranched, cylindrical or slightly c
ompressed, light rown or pinkish rown externally, white and spongy within. Lea
ves are right green, distichous, ensiform, ase equitant, thickened in the midd
le and with wavy margins. Flowers are light rown and densely packed in sessile
cylindric spadix. Fruits are o long, tur inate erries with a pyramidal top. See
ds are few and pendant from the apex of the cells (Warrier et al, 1993). Another
species elonging to the genus Acorus is A. gramineus Soland, the roots of whic
h are used in tonic, antiseptics and insecticidal preparations (Chopra et al, 19
56).
Agrotechnology
Acorus is a hardy plant found growing from tropical to su tropical climates. It
needs a good and well distri uted rainfall throughout the year. It needs ample s
unlight during the growth period as well as after harvest for drying the rhizome
s. It may e cultivated in any good ut fairly moist soil. It is usually grown i
n areas where paddy can e grown. It comes up well in clayey soils and light all
uvial soils of river ank. The field is laid out and prepared exactly as for ric
e, irrigated sufficiently and after ploughing twice, watered heavily and again p
loughed in the puddle. Sprouted rhizome pieces are used for planting and pressed
into the mud at a depth of a out 5cm at a spacing of 30x30cm. The rhizomes are
planted in such a way that the plants in the second row comes in etween the pla
nts of the first row and not opposite to them. FYM is to e applied at 25t/ha. F
ertilisers are applied at 25:50:60 kg N:P2O5:K2O/ha/yr. Whole of FYM and 1/3 of
N, P2O5 and K2O are to e added in the field during March - April as a asal dos
e. The remaining 2/3 of nutrients is to e given in two equal split doses at 4 m
onths and 8 months after planting. The field is to e regularly irrigated. A out
5 cm of standing water is to e maintained in the field in the eginning. Later
, it is to e increased to 10 cm as the plant grows. The field is to e regularl
y weeded. A out 8 weedings are to e carried out in all. At each weeding the pla
nts are pressed into the soil. The plant is attacked y mealy ugs. Both shoot a
nd root mealy ugs can e controlled y spraying the shoot and drenching the roo
ts of grown up plants with 10 ml Methyl parathion or 15ml Oxydemeton methyl or 2
0ml Quinalphos in 10 litres of water. The crop is ready for harvest at the end o
f first year. The field is to e dried partially so that sufficient moisture is
left in the
94
soil to facilitate deep digging. The leaves start turning yellow and dry, indica
ting maturity. The rhizome will e at a depth of 60cm and having a out 30-60cm s
pread. Therefore, harvesting is to e done carefully. The rhizomes are to e cut
into 5-7.5cm long pieces and all the fi rous roots are to e removed. Yield of
rhizome is a out 10t/ha (Farooqi et al, 1991).
Properties and Activity
Rhizomes, roots and leaves yield essential oil. The important constituents of th
e Indian oil are asarone and its β-isomer. Other constituents are α nd β-pinene
, myrcene, camphene, p-cymene, camphor and linalool, sesquiterpenic ketones like
asarone, calamone, calacone, acolamone, iso-acolamone, acoragermacrone, epishyo
unone, shyo unone and isoshyo unone. Alcohol present is preisocalamendiol. Sesq
uiterpene hydrocar ons like elemene, elemane and calarene are also present. Tric
yclic sesquiterpenes  presentare caryophyllene, humulene, guaiene,   S-guaizulene,
arcurcumene,δ-ca inene,  ca inane, calamenene,
 calacorene,
 ihy rocalacorene(ca
lamenene),
 ca alene an selinene. Roots yiel acoric aci as a
 main constituent
in
 a ition
 to choline. Plant also yiel s a flavone iglycosi e- luteolin 6,8-C-
iglucosi
 e. β-asarone is the major
 constituent of essential oil from
 rhizome (D
an iya et al, 1958,1959; Raqui u oula, 1967).  Rhizome is insectici al, pisici a
l, spasmolytic, hypothermic,  CNS active an analgesic. Essential oil is anticonv
ulsant. Rhizome is acri , itter, thermogenic, aromatic, intellect promoting, em
etic, laxative, carminative,  stomachic, anthelmintic,
  emmenagogue, iuretic, ale 
xeteric, expectorant, ano yne, antispasmo ic, aphro isiac, antiinflammatory,  su
orific, antipyretic, sialagogue, insectici al, tranquillizer,  se ative, analgesi
c,
 antithermic, antiasthmatic, hypotensive, respiratory epressant, aperitive an
tonic.
95
CATECHU Mimosaceae
Importance
Acacia
catechu
Mal: Karingali; Tam: Karunkali;
  
San:Kha irah; Hin:Khair, Khaira; Ben: Kuth; Tel: San ra, Khan iramu; Kan: Kaggal
i
     
Catechu is a meium eci uous tree commonly use as a loo purifier an for leo
prosy an leuco
 erma. Catechu or Cutch tree ark is  useful
 in melancholia,conju
nctivitis an haemoptysis. It is useful in vitiate conitions of kapha an pitt
a, catarrh, cough, pruritus,
 leprosy, leuco erma,
 skin
 iseases, helminthiasis,
anorexia, iarrhoea, ysentery, foul ulcers an woun s, haemoptysis, haematemesi 
s, haemorrhages, intermittent
 fever, inflammations, o ontopathy,  anaemia, ia et
es, splenomegaly an pharyngo yna. The gummy extract of the woo (kath) is usefu 
l in laryngopathy, flatulence, anorexia, ulcers, woun s, helminthiasis,   leuco er
ma, leoprosy, skin iseases, urorrhea, colporrhagia,
 erysipelas
 an o ontopathy.
For leprosy, root, leaf, flower, ark an fruits are ma e into a ecoction whic 
h is given orally aswell as for external
 ressing.
 In Unani system it is  use i
n “Marham Kharish Ja i ” for skin iseases. “Kha irarisht” is an oral me icine,
while “Marham” is for external application.
Distri ution
    
It is
 wi ely istri
 ute in tropical
 countries. In In ia,
 it is o serve from th
e In us eastwar s to Assam an throughout Peninsular In ia.
Botany
The genus Acacia elonging to thefamily Mimosaceae consistsof a num er of spec 
ies. The important
 ones are liste as elow: A. catechu  Will . A. caesia Will .
A. ara ica Will . A. concinna DC. A. farnesiana Will . A. ferruginea DC. A.inst
ia W. & A. syn. A. caesia Will . A. jacquemontii
 Benth. A. leucophloea Will . A.
mo esta Wall. A. pinnata (Linn.) Will . A. pycnantha Benth. A. senegal   Will . A
. suma Buch-Ham. syn. A.suma Kurz. A. catechu is a mo erate  size  eci uous tre
e, 9-12m in height with ark greyish
 or rown rough ark an hooke short spines
. Leaves are ipinnately compoun
 , leaflets
 30-50 pairs, main rachis pu escent w
ith a large conspicuous
 glan
 near the mi le of the rachis. Flowers are
 pale ye
llow,
 sessile in pe uncle axiallary spikes.
 Fruits
 are flat rown po s, shiny a
n with a triangular eak at the apex  an narrowe at the ase. See s are 3-10 p
er po . The gummy extract of the woo is commercially  known as ‘ Kath’ or‘Cutch
’. The cutch availa le in the market is  rittle, of ifferent
 shapes an ark r
own in colour. On reaking, it is foun to e shiny an form crystal like pieces
(Warrier et al, 1993).
Agrotechnology   
Catechu
 is suite tohilly areas an rocky places.
 The plant is propagate
 y se
e s. See s are soake in water for 6 hours an sown in see
 e s. See s germinate
within
 a month. At four-leaf stage, see lings
 are plante in poly ags. Two mont
hs ol see lings fromthe poly ags are use for transplanting.  Pits of size 50cm
cu
 e are
   taken at
 a istance of 4-5m etween
 plants an fille
 with topsoil, sa
n an rie cow ung in 1:1:1 ratio.  See lings are plante in these pits. Applic
ationof organic manure every
 year uring the rainy season
 is
 eneficial. Regula
r wee ing is to e carrie out. Pruning of ranches an ten er shoots
96
   
eveloping from the ase of the plant can e one from  secon year onwar s. Tree
is to e grown as single stemme
 one. Flowering an fruiting commences  fromfou
rth year
 onwar s. At the en of tenth year, the tree can e cut an heartwoo co
llecte (Prasa et al, 1997).

Properties
 an Activity  
Heartwoo contains
 kaempferol,
 ihy ro kaempferol, taxifolin, iso rhamnetin(+)af
zelchin, a imericprocyani in,  quercetin, (-)epi-catechin, (-)catechin, fisetin
, quercetagetin
 an (+)-cyani
 anol. The main constituent of heartwoo is catechi

n an catechu tannic aci . Catechin  is a mixtureof at least four isomers an L(
-)epicatechin has een isolate an characterise (Rao et al,1948;  Husain et al,
1992). The ark is anthelmintic, antipyretic, antiinflammatory
 an antileprotic.
The flowers
 are antigonorrhoeic.
 The cutch from woo is anthelmintic,
 tonic an
aphro isiac. Bark an cutch are anti  iarrhoeal, astringent an stomachic.  Cyani
anol is hepatoprotective. The woo is hypoglycaemic, antiinflammatory an hypot
ensive. The stem is spasmolytic an antiviral (Husain et al, 1992).
97
SOLANUMS Solanaceae
Solanum
spp.

Solanums comprise a very important group of me icinal plants having multifarious
uses. These plants elong to the
 family Solanaceae an genus  Solanum.
 A num er
of species are reporte to e me icinal which are riefly escri e elow.

1. S. anguivi Lam. syn. S. in icum auct. non Linn.
Eng: Poison erry; San: Brhati, Simhi; Hin: Barhauta, Birhatta; Mal: Puthirichun
a, Cheruchun a; Tam: Karimulli,
 Puthirichun ai; Kan: Ramagulla;  Tel: Cittimulag
a, Tellamulaka It is foun throughout the
 tropics, in plains an at low elevatio
ns. It is much ranche , very prickly un ershru ,0.3-1.5m in height. Leaves are
simple, large, ovate, su entire, sinuate  or lo e .Flowers are lue in extra-ax
illary cymes having stellately hairy an prickly pe uncles. Fruits  are glo ose
erries, re ish or ark yellow
 with smooth or minutely  pitte see
 s. Its roots a
re useful in vitiate con itions of vata an kapha, o ontalgia,  yspepsia, flatu
lence, colic, verminosis, iarrhoea, pruritus,  leprosy, skin iseases,
 strangury
 
, cough,
 asthma, ronchitis, amenorrhoea,
 ysmenorrhoea, fever, car
 iac isor er
s an vomiting. Roots itter, acri , astringent, thermogenic, anoyne, igestive 
, carminative,
 anthelmintic, stomachic,
 constipating, resolvent, emulcent,   epu
rative, iuretic, expectorant, aphro isiac, emmenagogue, fe rifuge an car ioton
ic.

2. S. ulcamara Linn.  
Eng: Bittersweet, Bitter night  shae; San: Kakmachi; Pun: Ru a arik It is  foun
in tropical situations in In ia  an Sikkim.The plant  isrich in alkaloi al glyc 
osi es like solamarine, tomati enol,solaso ine an sola ulcine. The erry an t
wig are alterative,
 antisyphilitic,
  iaphoretic,
 resolvent, narcotic, iuretic,
antirheumatic an use in liver isor ers an psoriasis.
3. S. erianthum
 D. Don, syn. S. ver ascifolium
 auct. non Linn. 
San: Vi ari; Hin: Asheta;
 Mal: Malachun a; Tam: Malaichun
 ai, Anaisun aikkai
 Pun
: Kalamena; Tel:Rasaga i The plant is istri ute  over
 the tropical
 an su trop
ical zones of In ia. The plant
 contains alkaloi s an steroi
 al
 sapogenins. Leav
es an fruits contain solaso ine, solasoiene, solaflori ine, iosgenin,  vespert
ilin an pregnenolone. The plant is CNS epressant, antiinflammatory an useful
in urns.
4. S. melongena Linn. 
Eng: Brinjal, Egg plant;San: Varttaki; Hin:
 Bengan, Ba anjan; Mal: Vazhuthina T
am: Kattirikkai;
 Kan: Ba anekaya, Do a a ane; Tel: Vankaya,  Niruvanga It is mai
nly cultivate as a vegeta le throughout  the tropics
 an su tropics. It is an er
ect or suffrutescent, her
 aceous,
 arme or unarme perennial shru . Leaves are s
imple, large, entire an lo e . Flowers are lue,  in clusters of 2-5. Fruits
 are
large, white, yellow or ark purple erries of ifferent   shapes
 cappe with thi
ck persistent
 calyx. See s are many, yellow or cream an iscoi . The
 roots, lea

ves an unripe fruits are useful in cholera,  ronchitis,
 asthma, o ontalgia an
fever. The roots
 are laxative, analgesic an car iotonic. Leaves  are sialagogue,
narcotic
 an antiherpetic.
 The unripe fruits are itter, acri , sweet, aphro is
iac, car iotonic an haematinic.
5. S. melongena var. incanum (Linn.) Prain syn. S. incanum Linn., S. coagulens F
orsk.
San: Brihati; Hin: Baigan; Mal: Cheruvazhuthina It is a her aceous prickly plant
foun in warm humi tropics. It is grown almost throughout the year in the plai
ns an uring summer
 on the hills. It grows 0.6-2m in height. Leaves are simple,
alternate lo e . Flowers are lue or white, 5 lo e , calyx with spines. Fruits
  
are ellipsoi erries.
 The plantis a constituent
 of the asamoola whichhelps t
o overcome
 vitiate tri oshas an cures yspepsia, fever, respiratory an car ia
c isor ers,
98
  
skin ailments, vomiting,
 ulcers an poisonous affections.
 In Ayurve a the formul
ations like Brihatya i Kashaya, ashamoolarishta, In ukantaghritam, Dasamoolahar

ithaki, etc are the important
 preparations with the roots. It is also use in th
e treatment of toothache an sore throat. The fruit is reporte to stimulate the
intrahepatic meta olism of cholesterol. Roots are antiasthmatic an stimulant.
Leaves are use in cholera, ronchitis an asthma. Fruits are useful in liver co
mplaints.
6. S. nigrum Linn. syn.
 S. ru rum Mill.
Eng: Black night sha e; San: Kakamachi; Hin: Makoy,  Gurkkamai; Mal: Karimthakkal
i; Tam: Manathakkali,  Milagutakkali; Kan: Kakarn i; Tel: Kamachi,
 KachiIt is se
en wil throughout In ia. It is an erect, ivaricately ranche , unarme , suffru 
tescent annual her . Leaves are ovate or olong, sinuate-toothe or lo e an gl
a rous. Flowers are 3-8 in extra-axillary  rooping suum ellate cymes. Fruits ar
e purplish
 lack or re ish erries. See s are
 many,
 iscoi , yellow, minutely p
itte . The whole plant is useful in vitiate con itions of tri osha, rheumatalgi
a, swellings, cough, asthma, ronchitis, woun s, ulcers, flatulence, yspepsia, 
strangury, hepatomegaly,
 otalgia, hiccough, opthalmopathy,  vomiting, car iopathy

, leprosy,
 skin
 iseases, fever, splenomegaly, haemarrhoi
 s, nephropathy, ropsy
an general e ility. The plant  is itter, acri
 , emollient, antiseptic,
 antiin

flammatory,
 expectorant,
 ano yne, vulnerary, igestive, laxative,
 iuretic, car
iotonic, epurative, iaphoretic, fe rifuge, rejuvenating, se ative, alterant an
tonic.
7. S. spirale Rox .   
Hin: Munguskajur
 It is seen wil in Assam an Khasi hills in In ia. Its root is
iuretic an narcotic.
8. S. stramoniifolium
 Jacq., syn. S. ferox auct. non Linn. 
San: Gar ha  a; Hin:
 Ram aigan; Mal: Anachun a; Tam: Anaichun ai; Tel: Mulaka It
is
 o serve in In ia in the states of Assam, Maharashtra, Karnataka
 an Tamil Na
u. Its
 erries contain glycoalkaloi s such as solasonine an solaso ine. Its ro
ots an erries  are echic, antiasthmatic, antirheumatic, antiviral, anticancero
us an spermici al.
 
9.S. surattense Burm. F. syn. S. xanthocarpum schra . & Wen l., S. jacquinii Wi
ll .    
Eng: Yellow- errie nightsha e; San: Kantakari, Ni ig hika; Hin: Remgani,Kateli;
Mal: Kantakarichun a;  Tam:Kantankattiri;  Kan: Nelagulli; Tel:  Callamulaga
  It i
s foun throughout
 In ia an  Pakistan in ry situations as wee on roa si es an
wastelan s. It is prickly, iffuse, right green, suffrutescent, perennial  un e
rshru
 , with zigzag
 ranches. Leaves are ovate-o long, hairy on oth si es an a
rme on the mi ri an the nerves. Flowers  are luish purple, in extra-axillary
cymes. Fruits are  gla rous, glo ular rooping erry, yellow or white with green
veins, surroun e y the calyx. See s are many, small,  reniform, smooth an yell
owish rown. Thewhole plant is useful in vitiate con itions of vata an kapha,
helminthiasis, ental caries,  inflammations, flatulence, constipation, yspepsi
a, anorexia, leprosy, skin iseases,  hypertension,
 fever, cough, asthma, ronchi
tis, hiccough, lum ago, haemorrhoi s an epilepsy.  The
 plant is itter, acri , t
hermogenic, anthelmintic,  antiinflammatory,
 ano yne, igestive, carminative, app
etiser,stomachic, epurative, su orific, fe rifuge,expectorant, laxative, stim
ulant, iuretic, rejuvenating,
  emmenagogue an aphro isac. Fruits contain solaso
nine, solamargine an solaso ine.
10. S. torvum
 Sw.  
Eng:
 West In ian
 Turkey Berry; Hin, Ben: Tit aigan; Mal: Kattuchun a; Kan: Ka u
Sun e; Tam: Sun aikai, Amarakai; Tel: Kun avustic, Kotuvestu; Ass: Hathi hekuri
It is seen throughout tropical
 In
 ia, particularly in Orissa,
 Bihar an Manipur.
The plant is CVS
 active an use in splenomegaly.
 Fruits an leaves contain sol
asonine, solaso ine, juru ine, juru i ine, torvonin, torvogenin, chlorogenin, pa
 
niculogenin, sisalogenone, neosolaspigenin an solaspigenin.
11. S. trilo atum Linn.
99
 
Eng: Clim ing Brinjal; San: Alarka; Mal: Tutavalam;
 Tam: Tu uvalai;
 Kan: Mullumu
sta; Tel: Telavuste
 It is mostly seen in South
 an Western In ia. The plant cont
ains alkamine an solamarine. The erry an flowers
 are echic an use in ronc
hitis. The alkaloi solamarine is anti iotic an possesses antitumour activity.
12. S. viarum Dunal, syn.
 S.KhasianumC. B. Clarke 
Hin:Kantakari It is wi ely istri ute in Khasi, Jaintia an Naga hills of Assa
m an Manipur upto 2000m an in Sikkim, West Bengal, Orissa
 an in the
 Niligiris

. The plant an erries contain solasonine (which
 on hy
 rolysis yiel
 s solaso in
e), solamargine, khasianine, nantigenin,
 solaso ine, iosgenin an saponin-solak
hasianin.
 The
 plant is spasmolytic an CNS active.
 The erry is a source of sola
so ine use in the synthesis of corticosteroi al hormones.
Agrotechnology
The agrotechnology for the solanaceous  group of plants are almost similar.  They
come up verywell in tropical an su tropical  climate upto 2000m altitu e. They
can
 e raise on a variety of soils  goo in organic matter.  Propagation
 is y se
e s.The seelings are first raise in the nursery an transplante to the main
fiel 30-45 ays after  sowing when the plants attain 8-10cm height. During rainy
season, planting is one on  ri ges while uring summer
 infurrows, at a spacing
ranging from 30-90cm epen
 ing upon
 the stature an sprea ing ha it of  theplan
t. The transplante see lings shoul e given temporary  sha e for 2-4
 ays urin
g summer.
 FYM or compost  at 20-25t/ha is applie at the time of lan preparation
. A mo erate  fertiliser  ose of 75:40:40
 N, P2O5, K2O/ha may e given. P is give
n as asal ose, N an   K are applie in
 2-3 split oses.One or two intercultura 
l operations
  are nee e to control wee s.
  The plants
 nee earthing  up after wee
ing an top ressing.
  Irrigation is nee e at 3-4 aysinterval uring summer  an
 on alternate ays uring fruiting perio . Plants nee staking to
 avoi lo ging
 ue to heavy earing. Shoot orers, mealy
 ugs, leaf we
 ers an miners
 are note
on the
 crop, which can e controlle
 y spraying mil
 insectici es. Root
 knot
nemato e, wilting an mosaic iseases are also note on thecrop.  Fiel sanitati
on, crop rotation an urning of crop resi ues are recommen e .
100
STROBILANTHES Acanthaceae
San: Sahacarah, Sairyakah; Tam: Kurunji, Sinnakurunji Hin: Karvi, Kara;
Stro ilanthes ciliatus
Mal: Karimkurunji, Kurunji;
Importance 
Stro ilanthes is an important shru use in the treatment of rheumatism. The roo
ts are useful in rheumatalgia,
 lum ago, siatica, limping, chest congestion, stra
ngury, fever,
 leuco
 erma, skin iseases, inflammations, cough, ronchitis, o ont
algia an general e ility. The  leaves an ark are useful in whooping cough, fe
ver,
 ronchitis, ropsy, leuco erma, leprosy, pouritus, inflammations, scrofula
an fever (Warrier et al, 1995).
Distriution   
It is istri ute in tropical countries, suchas In ia, Sri Lanka, Pakistan an
in a few su tropical countries. It is o serve in In ia, throughout
 the evergree
n forests of Western Ghats upto 1200m. It is also cultivate .
Botany
The genus Stro ilanthes elonging to the family Acanthaceae consists of 3 specie
s namely, S. ciliatus Nees.,syn. Nilgirianthus ciliatus  (Nees) Bremek S. auricul

atus Nees. an
 S. callisus
  Nees. S. ciliatus is a
 slen er shru with suquan ran
gular white otte ark green or purple
 stems an ranches. Leaves are ark gree
n, elliptic, accuminate at oth en s, serrate,
 gla rous with6-7 pairs of main n
erves. Flowers are white to lilac,
  arrange in axillary slen er gla rous spikes.

Fruits are very rarely forme . A ventitious
 roots arise
 from a few asal no es
also. The main roots as well as the no al roots are use as raw rugs (Warrier e
t al, 1995).
Agrotechnology   
Stro ilanthes
 prefers silty loam soil,  mixe
 with san , for goo growth. It grow
s a un antly in river  anks, lowlan san plains. The est  season
 of planting is
May-June. The  fiel is
 to e ploughe
  to a fine tilth an mixe with 5-7t/ha of
FYM/compost/ rie  cow ung. See e s of size 3m length, 0.5m wi th an 15cm hei
ght are to e ma e in which 10cm long stem cuttings are to e plante  at a spaci

ng of 30cm
 etween plants. Rooting occurs within 20 ays. Two wee ings shoul e
carrie out at 2 months an 4 months afterplanting, followe y organic manure
application. Irrigation is  not a must ut uring summer  months it is eneficial
.
 The plant is  not attacke  y any serious pests or iseases. Harvesting can e
one atthe en of  the secon year. For this
 the plants
  are to e cut, roots
 ug
out an collecte
 . Roots are to e washe well, rie in
 sun an markete . Root
s, leaves an ark constitute the economic parts (Prasa et al, 1997).

Properties an Activity   
The leaves an stem yiel essential oil which is  of goo me icinal value.  The ro
ots
 are itter, sweet, thermogenic, emollient, iuretic,
 fe rifuge,
 iaphoretic,
epurative,
 antiinflammatory
 an tonic. Leaves an ark are iaphoretic, expect
orant, epurative an fe rifuge.
101
FENUGREEK Fa aceae
Importance
Trigonella foenum-graecum
San: Methika, Methi, Kalanusari; Hin: Meti, Mutti; Ben, Mar: Methi; Mal: Uluva;
Tam: Ventayam; Kan: Mentya, Menlesoppu;  Tel: Mentulu, Mentikura;Ara : Hula  aha
Fenugreek
 or Greek Hayes is cultivate as a leafy vegeta le, con iment an as me
icinal plant.
 The
 leaves are refrigerant an aperient an are given  internally
for vitiate
 con itions
 of pitta.
 A poultice of the leaves is applie for swelli
ngs
 an urns. See s are use for fever, vomiting, anorexia,  cough, ronchitis  a
n colonitis. In the famous Malayalam
  treatises like ‘Pa hyam’ ‘Kairali’ an ‘Ar
uno hayam’, uluva is recommen e for use as kalanusari inDhanvantaram
 formulati
ons of ‘Astaghra ayam’.
 An  infusion
 of the see s is a goo cool
 rink for small
pox patients. Pow ere
 see s fin application in veterinary me icine. An aqueous
extract of the see s possesses anti acterial property (Kumar et al, 1997; Warri
er et al, 1995).
Distri ution  
Fenugreek is a native of South Eastern
 Europe an West Asia. In In ia fenugreek

is grown in a out 0.30 lakh ha pro ucing annually a out 30,000
 tonnes of see s.
The major states growing fenugreek
 are Rajasthan, Ma hya Praesh, Gujarat, Uttar
Pra esh, Maharashtra, Punja an Karnataka. It is grown wil in Kashmir an Pun
ja .
Botany
Trigonella foenum-graecum Linn. elongs to family, Fa aceae. It is an annual her
, 30-60cm in height, leaves are light green, pinnately trifoliate, leaflets too
the , flowers are white or yellowish white, papilionaceous an axillary.
 Fruits

are legumes, 5-7.5cm
 long, narrow,
  curve , tapering with a slen er point an con
taining 10-20 eeply furrowe see s per po . There are two species of the genus
Trigonella
 which are of economic importance viz. T. foenum
 graecum, the common m
ethian T.  corniculata, the Kasuri methi. These two  iffer in their growth ha i
t an yiel . The latter one is a slow growing type an remains in rosette con it
ion uring most of the vegetative growth perio (Kumar et al, 1997; Warrier et a
l, 1995).
Agrotechnology    
Fenugreek has a wi e a apta ility an is successfully cultivate  oth in the tro
picsas well as temperate regions. It  is tolerant to frost an freezing weather.
It oes well in places receiving mo erate  or low rainfall areas ut not in heav
y rainfall area. It can e grown on a wi e variety of soils ut clayey loam isr
elatively etter. The optimum soil pH shoul e 6-7 for its etter growth an e
velopment.  Some of the improve cultivars  availa le for cultivation are CO1 (TNA
U),
 Rajen ra Kanti (RAU), RMt-1(RAU)
  an Lam Selection-1 (APAU).
 Lan is prepare
 y ploughing
 thrice
 an e s of uniform size are prepare
 . Broa casting the
 se
e on the e an raking the surface to cover the see s is normally  followe
 . Bu
t to facilitate intercultural operations, line sowing is also a vocate in rows
at 20-25cm apart. Sowing in the plainsis generally in Septemer-Novemer while
in the hills it  is from March. The see rate is 20-25kg/ha  an the see s germina
te within 6-8 ays. Besi es 15t of FYM, a fertiliser  ose of 25:25:50kg
 NPK/ha i
s recommen e . Entire P,K an half N are to e applie asally an the remaining
half N 30 ays after sowing. First irrigation  is to e given immeiately  after
sowingan su sequent irrigations at 7-10 ays interval.  Hoeing an wee ing
 are
to e one uring the early stages of plant growth an thinning at 25-30 ays to
have a spacing
 of 10-15cm etween plants an to retain  1-2 plants per hill. Roo 
t rot
 (cause y Rhizoctonia
 solani) is a serious isease an can e controlle
y renching car en azim 0.05% first at the onsetof the isease an another aft
er one monthof first  application.
 In a out 25-30 ays, young shoots are nippe o
ff 5cm a ove groun level an su sequent cuttings of leaves may e taken after 1
   
5 ays. It is a visa le totake 1-2
 cuttings
 efore the cropis allowe
 for flow
ering an fruiting
 when po
 s are rie , the plants are pulle out, rie in the
sun an see s are threshe y eating with stick or y ru ing with
102
        
han s. See s are  winnowe , cleane an rie in the sun. They  may
 e store in g
unny ags line with paper.  An yiel of 1200-1500kg of see s an a out 800-1000k
g of leaves may e o taine per hectare in crops grown for oth the purposes (Ku
mar et al, 1997).

Properties
 an Activity 
See s contain sapogenins- iosgenin,  its 25-epimer(yamogenin),
 tigogenin, gitogen
in, yuccagenin,
 25-2-spirosta-3-5-
 iene an its β-epimer.
 See s also contain a C

27-steroi
 al sapogenin-pepti
 e ester-fenugreekine. See s, in a ition,
 contain 4
-hy
 roxyleucine
 an saponins-fenugrins A-E:two furostanol glycoxi es-trigonellox
i e C an (255)-22-O-methyl52-firostan-3β,22,26,triol-3-O-α-rh
 mnopyr ns syl(1-2
) C-β-D-glucopyranosyl (1-3)-β-Dglucopyranoxi e-26-O-β-D-glucopyranoxi
 e. Other
chemical
 constituents are sterols-β-sitosterol an cholesterol,
 flavone Cglycosi

es-vitexin,
 iso-vitexin, vitexin-2”-O-P-coumarate
  an vicenin-2.
 Flavonoi squer
cetin an luteolin,  flavonoi glycosi e-vicenin-I.  Invitro see ling callus cultu
re gave flavonoi  s-luteolin an vitexin-1-glycosi e. An essentialoil is also re
porte
 from see s. Leaves gave saponins-gracecunins  A-G, flavonoi s- kaempferol
an quercetin; sterols-βsitosterol,
 sapogenins-
 iosgenin, gitogenin coumarin-sco
poletin is also reporte from the plant. See s are itter, mucilaginous, aromati
c, carminative,
 tonic, iuretic, thermogenic,
 galactagogue,
 astringent, emollien
t, amophro isiac, antirheumatic,
 CNS epressant  an antiimplantation. Fenugreeki
ne
 is hypoglycaemic, iuretic, hypotensive, car iotonic, antiphlogistic. It show
e 80% inhi ition of vaccina virus.
103
LEADWORT Plum aginaceae
Plum ago spp.
 
The genus Plum ago elonging to the  family Plum aginaceae is a popular an me ic
inally very important
 group of me icinal plants.
 Three
 species, namely P. rosea,
P. zeylanica an P. auriculata have een i entifie . Among these P. rosea  an P
. zeylanica
 are importantones. Plum ago, in general is an esteeme reme y for l
euco erma an other skin iseases.The synonyms of fire like agnih, vahnih, etc.
are attri ute to this rugto in icate the  very urning  action ofthe root, ca
using listers on the skin ( aranah). The rug is use only after a equate curin
g an purification. Root is the officinal part an it enters into the compositio
n of preparations like Citrakasavam, Dasamularista, Gulgulutiktaka kasaya, Yogar
ajachurna, etc.

1. P. rosea Linn.syn.P. in ica Linn.
Eng: Rosy-flowere Lea wort; San: Citrakah,  Dhahanah; Hin: Lalcitra, Raktacitra;
Ben: Lalchita; Mal: Kotuveli, Chettikko uveli, Chuvannakotuveli; Tam: Chenkotuv  
eli, Cittiramulam; Kan: Kempacitramula; Tel: Yerracitramulam Rosy-flowere lea  w
ort or Fire plant is a native of Coroman el Coast. It is foun throughout  In ia,
in moist situations as well as cultivate . The roots are useful in yspepsia, c
olic, inflammations,
 cough, ronchitis, helmenthiasis,  haemorrhoi s, elephantias
is, chronic an intermittent fever,  leprosy, leuco
 erma,
 ringworm, sca ies, hepa
tosplenomegaly, amenorrhoea, o ontalgia, vitiate con itions of vata,  kapha an
anaemia.
 It is a pretty su scan ent perennial shru with semi-woo y striate stem
s an flexi le ranches. Leaves are simple, alternate o long, short  cuneate at t
he ase passing into a very shortamplexicaul, exauriculate, an re ish petiole
. Flowers
 are right re , arrange in long terminal spikes. The calyx ri s are c
overe
 with stipitate, ifarious an su sessile glan . Corolla  tu e is slen er a
n four times as long as the calyx. The stout roots are cylin rical, irregularly
ent, light yellowish rown with smooth surface having short transverse  shallow
fissures at the regions of the ents.  A light yellowish juice excu es from the
cut surface. A healthy plant may pro uce 18-20 stout  roots (Warrier et al, 1995)
. The chemical  constituents
 inclu e plum agin an sitosterol  glucosi e. Clinical
trials have emonstrate that plum agin oil from  P. in ica is useful in common
wart (Satyavati et al, 1987). The roots are acri , astringent, thermogenic, anth
elmintic, constipating,
 expectorant,
 antiinflammmatory,
 a ortifacient, alterant,
anti-perio ic, carminative, igestive, su orific, narcotic,
 gastric, nervous st
imulant an rejuvenating. Root is a powerful sialogogue an vesicant.
2. P. zeylanica Linn.
 
Eng:White flowere Lea wort; San:Chitraka; Hin, Ben:Chitarak, Chitra; Mal:Vellak
otuveli Tam: Sittragam,
 Chittiramoolam; Kan: Vahini;  Mar: Chitraka; Tel:  Chitram

ulam White flowere Lea wort or Chitarak  is foun wil in peninsular
 In ia an m
ostly in West Bengal. Root is use externally in leprosy an other  skin iseases
or o stinate
 character, aphthae, a
 scesses, influenza, piles an anasarca. Juic
e is use externally in sca ies an ulcers.  One of the important preparations of
Chitrak is “Yograjguggal”, prescri e for arthritis,  rheumatism, etc. The other
well known preparations  are “Chitrak A ivati” an “ Chitraka Haritaki”. In Unan 
i system it is an ingre ient of “Aqaruva-iKa  ir”,
 “Ha Ashkhar”, “Ma’jun Bala  ur
”, “Ma’jun Raig Mahi”, etc. It is a ranche un ershru . Roots arelong an tu e
rous. Stem is striate. Leaves are simple, alternate, short  petiole , ovate or ov
ate-o long, acute
 with entire or wavy margin, 7x3.8cm an gla rous. Flowers are
white, arrange
 in terminal spikes.
 Calyx
 is tu ular, glan ular-hairy.
 Corolla t
u
 e is slen er; lim rotate an 5 lo e . Stamens are 5 on a isc. Style is slen
er with 5 stigmatic ranches. Fruit is mem ranous capsule enclose within   the  p
ersistent calyx. The roots of P.  zeylanica have een exhaustively stu ie
 an na
phthaquinones
 have een  isolate , namely, plum agin, 3-chlroplum agin, roserone
(Si hu et al, 1971; Pa hye et
104
  
al, 1973), 3,3’- iplum agin(Chitranone), zeylanone an iso-zeylanone an a couma 
rin, elliptinone (Sankaram
 et al, 1976, 1979). It also contains 1,2(3)-tetrahy r
o-3,3’- iplum agin an plum azeylanone. The leaf is antirheumatic. Root is appet

iser, su orific, relieves pain, vasicant, iuretic, caustic, anti iarrhoeal
 an
expellent of phlegmatic tumours. Root isuterine stimulant. Root an fruits have
antiimplantation
 activity. Plum
 agin in uces antiimplantation, has a ortifacien

t an antiovulatory activity an causes selective testicular lesions in ogs.  It
is also a mitotic inhi itor. In lower concentration
 it ehaves like a spin le,
poison ut in higher concentration it exhi its ra iomimetic, nucleotoxic an cyc
lotoxic
 effects. It also has anti acterial, antifungal an anticoagulant activit
ies an shows antagonism to amphetamine hyperactivity in mice.
3. P. auriculata Lam. syn. P. capensis  
Eng: Blue flowere Lea wort; Mal: Neelakotuveli The lue flowere Lea wort is of
ten grown in gar ens throughout In ia (Moos, 1976; Chunekar, 1982; Sharma, 1983)
. It is anative of Cape Province in South Africa. It is a constituent of many A
yurve ic rugs (KAU, 1991). The plant is a su shru growing to a height of 1-1.5
m. Leaves are elliptic to o ovate, 3-4 x 1.5-2cm. Inflorescence is a racemeof l
ength 3-4cm. Corolla is lue to violet. Stamens are 5 in num er. Flowers an fru
its may e upto 12 in num er (Matthew, 1995).
Agrotechnology 
The plant is grown in tropical to su tropical ecosystems. Warm humi tropical  cl
imate
 is most suite . They come
 up well in almost all types of eep an well ra
ine soils. It is propagate vegetatively y stem cuttings. Threestem cuttings
of size 15cm long are plante in poly ags of  size 14x10cm. IAA  an IBA treatment
s will improve rooting of cuttings.
  The lan is to
 e ploughe
  well. A out 4 ton
nes of FYM are to e applie , mixe thoroughly an see e of size 50cm rea th
, 1.5cm height
 an convenient length are to e prepare . On these e s pits are
taken at a istance of 25cman the roote plants aretransplante from the poly
ags. Regular irrigation an weeing are to e carrie out. Inthe secon year w
ith the onset of monsoon,
 see e s are again refreshe after  a ing aout 4 tonn
es of FYM. At the en of secon year tu ers are collecte . Care shoul e taken
to wear gloves, else the chemical
 plum agin present
 in the roots
 will
 cause urn
ing sensation.
 The collecte tu ers are washe , tie into un les an markete .
Plum ago yiel s a out 7-10t tu ers/ha with goo management (Prasa et al, 1997).
105
MESUA Clusiaceae
Mesua
nagassarium
San: Nagapuspah, Nagakesarah; Hin: Nagakesar; Ben: Nagkesar, Nagesar; Mal: Nagap
puvu, Nagachempakam, Nanku, Vayanavu, Churuli, Eliponku; Tam: Nagappu, Nanku; Ka
n: Nagasampige; Tel: Nagakesaramu, Gajapuspam; Mar, Guj: Nagchampa
Importance  
Mesua or Ironwoo tree,commonly known as Nagapushpam   is an important me icinal
plant which fin s varie uses in Ayurve  a, Si ha an Unani.  Leaves are  use in
the
 form of poultice which is applie to hea in severecol s. Bark an roots in
ecoction
 or infusion or tincture is a etter  tonic an  are useful in gastritis
an ronchitis. Fixe oil expresse from  see s is use as an application for cu
taneous affections,
 sores,
  sca ies, woun
 s, etc. an as an em rocation
 in rheuma
tism.
 Drie flowers pow  ere an mixe with ghee,  or a paste ma e of flowers
 wit
h a ition of utter an sugar, are given in lee ing piles as well as ysentery
with mucus. They are also useful in thirst, irrita  ility of the stomach, excess
ive perspiration,
 cough with much expectoration, yspepsia,
 etc. Leaves an flow
ersare use in scorpion stings. Syrup of the flower u s is given  for the cure
of ysentery
 (Na karni et al, 1976). In
 Ayurve a, it
 is an ingre ient of “Nagake
shara-a i-Churna”, use for acillary ysentery  an in “Naga Keshara Yoga”, for
piles. In Unani system, the rug is an  ingre ient of large num er of recipes lik
e, “Jawarish Shehryaran” a stomach an liver tonic, “Ha Pachaluna”, an appetise
r, “Halwa-i-supari pack” a general tonic, etc. (Thakur et al, 1989).
Distri ution   
The plant occurs in su -tropical totropical areas of East In ia, An aman Islan
s an Western Ghats, upto an altitu e of 1500m.
Botany
Mesua nagassarium (Burm.f.) Kosterm.
 syn.M. ferrea auct. non Linn. elongs to t
he family
 Clusiaceae.
 It is a me ium size to large evergreen tree, 18-30m in he
ight an with re ish rown ark which peels off inthin flakes. Leavesare simp
le,opposite,
 thick, lanceolate, coriaceous, covere with waxy loom un erneath,
an re when young, acute or acuminate an with inconspicuous nerves. Flowers a
re white, veryfragrant, axillary or terminal, solitary or in pairs. Stamens  are
numerous, gol en yellow,
  much shorter than
 the petals.
 Fruits are ovoi with a
conical
 point surroun
 e y the enlarge sepals. See s are 1-4 in num er, angula
r, ark rown an smooth (Warrieret al, 1995). The flowers of Ochrocarpus  longi
folius are alsosometimes referre to as Nagakesara. This tree is foun in the W
est Coast of In ia (Thakur et al, 1989).
Agrotechnology 
The plant prefers plains, river anks or places which o not experiences moisture
stress for its luxuriantgrowth.Silty loam soil is suita le for its cultivatio
n.
 The plant is propagate
  y see s. See  formation occurs in Novem er-March.  Se
e s are to e collecte an sown in see e s or poly ags. 3-4 months ol see  lin
gs are use for transplanting.
 Pits of size 45cm cu e are to
  e taken at  ista
a 
nce of 3-3.5m
 an  fille with a mixture of 10kg
 FYM, san an  top soil an ma e
into amoun . See lings are to  e transplante into small han pitstaken  on thes
e mouns. FYM is to e applie twice a year. Regular irrigation an wee ingare
to e one. The  tree flowers
 inthe fourth year. Flowers can e collecte , rie
in the sun an markete (Prasa et al,1997).

Properties
 an Activity
See oil gives 4-phenyl coumarin analogues-mesuol,
 mammeigin,
 mesuagin, mammeisi
n an mesuone. Bark gives ferruols A an B. Heartwoo gives xanthoneseuxanthone,
    
mesuaxanthones A an B an a tetroxygenate xanthone
 name ferraxanthone.
 Stame

ns give α nd β-amyrin,β-sitosterol, iflavonoi s-mesuaferrones
 A an B, an m
esuanic aci . Bark yiel s a lupeol-type
 triterpenoi
 also name guttiferol.
  See
oil is rich in oleic, stearic an palmitic aci s. Linoleic, arachi ic an linol
enic aci s are also present.
106
    
Mesuaxanthones A an B an euxanthone are antiinflammatory, CNS epressant an a
ntimicro ial. The essential oil from the stamens is anti
 acterial, antifungal, a
nthelmintic an that from fruit is antifungal. Oral a ministration of acompoun
preparation
 containing Mesua ferrea (flowers),
 Foeniculum vulgare (see  s), Curc
uma zeo aria (tu ers), Nigella
 sativa (see s), Terminalia che ula (see s) an T.
arjuna (stem- ark) exhi ite antiimplantation activity
 in rats. An Ayurve ic
 pr
eparations containing M. ferrea has haemostatic an astringent properties an is
particularly
  useful in uterine lee ing. Aerialpart is CVS active, spasmolytic

an iuretic. Phenol containing
 fraction ofsee oil is antiasthmatic
 an antia 
naphylaxis. Bark is use as tonic after chil irth. Bark  an unripe fruit is su
orific.
 Leaf
 an flower is an anti ote for snake
 ite an scorpion sting. Flower
u is anti ysenteric.Flower is stomachic an expectorant. See oil is antirheu
matic. Unripe fruit an flower is astringent (Husain et al,1992).
107
BAUHINIA Caesalpiniaceae
Bauhinia variegata
 
San: Kancanarah,
 Kovi arah; Hin:
 Kancanar; Ben: Rakta Kanchan; Tam:
 Sigappu-man
arai Mal: Man aram,Chuvannaman aram, Malayakatti, Kongu, Konguman
 aram; Tel: Da
eva Kanchanamu, Man ara; Kan: Ullipe, Kanchavala, Kempu Man ara
Importance
     
In tra itional
 me icine, Bauhinia
 is extensively use
 in glan ular iseases an 
as an anti ote to poison. The rug is also reporte to e useful in ysentery,
iarrhoea, piles an worms (Kurup et al,  1979; Sharma et al, 1983). They are usef
ul in vitiate con itions of kapha an pitta,  iarrhoea, ysentery, skin isease
s, leprosy, intestinal worms, tumours, woun s, ulcers, inflammations,
  scrofula,
protoptosis,
 haemorrhoi s, haemoptysis, cough, menorrhagia an ia etics. Usiras
avam an
 Can anasavam are some of the preparations using the rug. An important
Ayurve ic preparation, “Kanchnar
 Guggal” contains ark of this  plant. In Unani s
ystem,
 the flowers are use in “Ha
 Mussafi Khun”, for skin iseases, the ark i
s use in “Sufuf Kalan”-an aphro isiac.
Distri ution    
The
 plant is istri
 ute in the Su-Himalayan tracts from the In us eastwar s an

throughout the ry forests of In ia, ascen ing to 1300m. It is also cultivate
throughout the plains.
Botany  
Bauhinia variegata
 Linn. syn.
 B. can i a Rox . elonging to the family Caesalpin
iaceae
 is a mo erate
 size eci uous tree with vertically
 cracke grey ark, woo
mo erately har , greyish rown with  irregular arker patches. Leaves are
 of 2
leaflets, connate for a out two-thir s up. Leaflets
 are ovate with roun e apex,
10-15cm long, pu escent eneath
 when
 young an  coriaceous. Flowers are white or
pink, the uppermost petal arker an variegate usually appearing efore
 the le
aves in short axillary
 or terminal
 racemes. Stamens
 are 5 an stameno es a sent.
Fruits are flat ehiscent po s with 10-15 see s (Warrier et al, 1993). Other im
portant species of the genus Bauhinia are as follows.
1. B. tomentosa Linn.   
It isthe yellow orgol en flowere
 one, commonly
 known
 as Manja
 Man aram. It is
foun in Africa an Asia. In In ia it  is foun wil in ry eci uous forests  an
often cultivate
 . The plant is anti ysenteric, anti ote for snake ite an scor
pion sting an also use in liver complaints.
 The ark
 is astringent.
 Root
 ark
is vermifuge. Fruit is iuretic. See is tonic, woun healing an aphro isiac.
2. B. purpurea Linn.   
Pink Bauhinia
 or Camel’s
 Foot tree is foun in South an S. E. Asia. In In ia, i
t is foun in eci uous forests.Root is carminative
 an tonic. Bark is astringe
nt an anti iarrhoeal
 an  is use
 in ulcer an goitre.
 Flowers are laxative.
 The
experimental stu ies con ucte y Sijoria an Prasa (1979) on animals in icate
that B. purpurea is very effective in normalising the thyroi glan .
3. B. racemosa Lam.
 
The plant
 is foun in Su -Himalayan tracts,
 in U.P, West Bengal, Central an Sou
th In ia. The leaf is anticephalalgic an antimalarial. Barkis astringent, anti
iarrhoeal.
 The see s are anti acterial. Stem- ark is CVS an CNS active, hypoth
ermic an anticancerous.
4. B. mala arica Rox . 
Mala ar Mountain
 E ony is foun in Su -Himalayan
 tracts,
 from Kumaon to West Ben
gal, ascen
 ing to 1350m, Assam, Bihar an South In ia. The flowers of this plant
are anti ysenteric.
108
 5. B. retusa Rox .  
The plantis istri ute in north-western
 Himalayas from the Beas eastwar s, Him
achal Pra esh,
 U.P., Orissa,
 M.P. an A.P. The gum ofthe plant is emmenagogue,

iuretic an can e use externally in sores. The see is hypoglycaemic an hypo
cholesterolaemic. The aerial part is CVS active an has effect on respiration.
6. B. vahlii W.&A.     
Camel’s
 Foot clim
 er is foun in Punja , Bihar,
 Assam, Ma hy Pra
 esh, An ra Pra
esh an Tamil Na u. Leaf is emulcent. See is tonic an aphro isiac. Stem is CV
S active, antiarrhythmic an spasmolytic.
Agrotechnology
  
Well raine hilly  areas
 are i eal  for the cultivation ofBauhinia. The plant is
see propagate
   . See s are
 forme in Fe ruary-March. See s are to e collecte 
from the rie po s, soake in water for 12hours efore sowing in see e s.  At
four-leave stage they are to e transferre to poly ags. Two month ol see ling
s frompoly ags  are use for fiel planting.  Pits of size 60cm  cu eare to e ta
ken
 an fille with
 10kg rie cow ung  mixe with
 topsoil an forme into a moun
. On these see lings are to e plante  at a istance of 67.5m. Irrigation is to
e given in  the first year. Two wee ings an application
 of organic manure
 once
is require in a year. The plant is not attacke y any serious pests an isea
ses. The plantflowers  on the
 thir year. At the en  of tenth year the tree can
e cut an woo use for me icinal purposes (Prasa et al, 1997).

Properties an activity   
Flowers
 contain flavanoi
 s-kaempferol-3-galactosi e an kaempferol-3rhamnoglucos 
i e. Stem ark yiel s hentriacontane,
 octacosanol
 an stigmasterol. Stem yiel s
β-sitisterol, lupiol an a flavanone  glycosi
 e-5, 7- imethoxyflavanone 4-O-α-Lr
h mnopyr noside-β-D-glucopyranosi e. See s possess   human loo agglutinating act
ivity.
 Stem ark is hypothermic, CNS active an epressant.
 Bu , flower, leaf an
stem ark are anti acterial.  Stem possesses juvenoi
 activity.
 Bark is alterati
ve, tonic, antileprotic
 an antirheumatic. Bu is anti ysenteric. Root is carmin
ative an anti ote for snake
 ite. Bark, flower an root promote suppuration. Bar
k an u are astringent an vermifuge (Husain et al, 1992).
109
 
GYMNEMA Asclepia aceae
Gymnema sylvestre
 
San: Mesasrngi,
 Ma hunasini; Hin: Gu mar, Merasimgi; Ben: Merasingi;
 Mal: Chakka
rakolli,
 Ma hunasini; Tam: Sirukurumkay, Sakkaraikkolli; Kan: Ka hasige; Tel: Po
apatra; Mar: Kavali
Importance  
Gymnema, Australian Cowplant, Small  In ian Ipecacuanha  or Periploca of the woo s
is a woo y clim er. It is reporte to cure cough, yspnoea, ulcers, pitta, kaph
a an pain in the eyes. The plant  is useful in inflammations, hepatosplenomegaly

, yspepsia, constipation, jaun ice, haemorrhoi s, strangury, renal an vesical
calculi, helminthiasis, car iopathy,  cough,
 asthma, ronchitis, intermittent  fev
er, amenorrhoea, conjuctivitis an leuco erma. The fresh leaves when chewe  have
the remarka le property of paralysing the sense of  taste for
 sweet
 an itter
 s
u stancefor some time (Warrieret al, 1995). The  rug
 is escri e as a estroy
er of ma humeha
 (glycosuria) an other urinary isorers. Root has long een rep
ute as  a reme y for snake
 ite.
 Leaves triturate an mixe with castor oil are 
applie to  swollen glan s an enlargement of internal viscera as the liver an s
pleen (Na
 karni, 1954). The rug is use  to strengthen the function
 of heart, cu
re jaun ice, piles, urinary
 calculi, ifficult micturition an intermittent feve
rs (Sharma,1983).
 The rug enters
 into the composition of preparations like Ayas
krti, Varuna i kasaya, Varuna ighrtam, Mahakalyanakaghrtam, etc. They suppress t
he activity of
 taste of tongue for sweet taste an for this reason it was consi
ere thatit estroys sugar, hence the name  Ma hunashini or Gurmar an has een
prescri e as an anti- ia etic. The cru e rug as well as its rie aqueous extr
act is mainly use in ronchial trou les.
Distri ution 
It
 is a tropical clim er. It mainly grows in Western
 Ghats, Konkan,
 Tamil Na
 u a
n some parts of Bihar. The plant is cultivate
 in plains of In ia ut the rug
is mainly important from Afghanistan an Iran.
Botany
Gymnema sylvestre
 (Retz.)R. Br. syn. Asclepias germinata
 Rox . elonging to the
family Asclepia aceae is a large, woo y much ranche clim er with pu escent you
ng parts. Leaves
 are simple,
  opposite,
 elliptic or ovate, more or less pu escent

on oth si es, ase roun e or corate. Flowers are small, yellow an arrange
in um ellate cymes. Fruits are slen er an folliclesare upto 7.5cm long (Warrie

r et al, 1995). Two allie species, G. hirsutum
 foun in Bun elkh
 an Bihar an
Western
 Ghats an G. montanum  growing wil in Eastern Ghats an Konkan are also
use for the same purpose an are also calle “Gurmar” (Thakur et al, 1989).
Agrotechnology    
The plant
 can e propagate oth y see s an stem cuttings. See lings  are to e
raise
  in poly ags. Pits
 of size
 50cm cu e are to e taken, fille with 10kg r
ie cow ung or FYM an covere with topsoil. On these pits a out 3-4 months  ol
see lings are to e transplante from poly ags. Trailing can e facilitate y e
recting
 poles an tying the plants  to the poles. The plant will attain goo spre
a within one year. Regular wee ing, irrigation
 an organic manure  application a
re eneficial. The  plant is not attacke y any serious pests or iseases. Leave
s can e collecte  from the first year onwar
 s at
 an internal of one week.
 This

can e continue for 10-12 years. Fresh or rie leaves can e markete (Prasa
et al, 1997).

Properties an Activity 
Nonacosane an hentriacontane were isolate  from
 the hexane extract of leaves.  A
n attempt to isolate nitrogenous compoun s le to  the isolation of amino aci s s
uch as leucine, iso-leucine, valine, allanine an γ- amynobutyric acid. Isolatio
n of trimethyl amine oxide was of particular interest. An alkaloid ynamine whic
h is a trace constituent was isolated and identified (Sinsheimer et al, 1967). A
ntisweet constituent of the leaves has been found to be a
110
mixture of triterpene saponins. These have been desinated as ymnemic acids A,B
,C and D which have the ymnemaenin and ymnestroenins as the alycones of ym
nemic acid A and B and ymnemic acid C and D respectively. These are hexahydroxy
triterpenes the latter bein partially acylated. The suar residues are lucuro
nic acid and alacturonic acid while ferulic and anelic acids have been attache
d as the carboxylic acid. Chewin of leaves reduces sensitivity to sweet substan
ces. Effects of ymnema extracts had been variable. While verifyin the effect o
f G. sylvestre leaves on detoxification of snake venom, it has been reported tha
t a toxic component of venom ATP and ymnemate bind at the same site inhibitin
venom ATP-ase. The active principles which have been identified as lycosides (7
ymnemic acids) suest that the topical and selective anaesthetic effect of th
e plant miht result from the competition of the receptor sites between lycosid
es and the sweet substances (Warren et al, 1969). The leaves are antidiabetic an
d insulinotropic. Gymnemic acid is antiviral. The plant is bitter, astrinent, a
crid, thermoenic, antiinflammatory, anodyne, diestive, liver tonic, emetic, di
uretic, stomachic, stimulant, anthelmintic, alexipharmic, laxative, cardiotonic,
expectorant, antipyretic and uterine tonic.
111
INDIAN SENNA Caesalpiniaceae
Importance
Cassia senna
San: Svarnapatri; Hin: Sanay, Sana Ka Patt; Ben: Sonamukhi; Mal: Sunnamukki, Cho
nnamukki, Nilavaka; Tam: Nilavirai, Nilavakai; Tel: Netatanedu Indian Senna or
Tinnevelly senna is a shrub very hihly esteemed in India for its medicinal valu
e. The leaves are useful in constipation, abdominal disorders, leprosy, skin dis
eases, leucoderma, splenomealy, hepatopathy, jaundice, helminthiasis, dyspepsia
, couh, bronchitis, typhoid fever, anaemia, tumours and vitiated conditions of
pitta and vata (Warrier et al,1994). It is used in Ayurvedic preparations; “Panc
ha Sakara Churna”, “Shat Sakara Churna” and “Madhu Yastyadi Churna” used for con
stipation. Its use is widespread in Unani system and some of the important produ
cts of this system containin senna are “Itrifal Mulayyin”, “Jawarish Ood Mulayy
in”, “Hab Shabyar”, “Sufuf Mulliyin”, “Sharbat Ahmad Shahi”, etc. used as a mild
laxative (Thakur et al, 1989).
Distribution
The plant is of Mediterranean oriin. It is found in Somalia, Saudi Arabia, part
s of Pakistan and Kutch area of Gujarat. It is larely cultivated in Tirunelveli
, Ramanathapuram, Madurai and Salem districts of Tamil Nadu.
Botany
The enus Cassia, belonin to the family Caesalpiniaceae, comprises of a number
of species, namely, C. senna Linn. syn. C. anustifolia Vahl. C. absus Linn. C.
alata Linn. C. auriculata Linn. C. burmanni Wiht. syn. C. obovata (Linn.) Coll
ad. C. lauca Lam. C. javanica Linn. C. mimosoides Linn. C. obtusifolia Linn. sy
n. C. tora Linn. C. occidentalis Linn. C. pumila Lam. C. slamea Lam. C. acutifol
ia Delile. C. sophera Linn. C. senna is a shrub or undershrub, 60-75cm in heiht
with pale subterete or obtusely anled erect or spreadin branches. Leaves are
paripinnate. Leaflets are 5-8 in number, ovate-lanceolate and labrous. Flowers
are yellowish, many and arraned in axillary racemes. Fruits are flat leumes, 
reenish brown to dark brown and nearly smooth (Chopra et al,1980, Warrier et al,
1994). In commerce, the leaves and pods obtained from C. senna are known as “ Ti
nnevelly Senna” and those from C. acutifolia Delile. as “Alexandrian Senna”. The
leaves of C. acutifolia are narrower than C. senna, otherwise both resemble to
a lare extent (Thakur et al, 1989). All the true Sennas have the portions of th
eir leaves unequally divided. In some kinds the lower part of one side is reduce
d to little more than a line in breadth, while the other is from a quarter to ha
lf an inch in breadth. The dru known under the name of East Indian Senna is nea
rly free from adulteration; and as its properties appear identical with those of
the Alexandrian and the price bein less, it probably will supersede it in ene
ral practice. Its size and shape readily identify it (Graves, 1996).
Arotechnoloy
The plant requires a mild subtropical climate with warm winters which are free f
rom frost for its rowth. Semiarid areas with adequate irriation facilities are
ideal for
112
cultivation. Areas havin hih rainfall, humidity and poor drainae are not suit
able. Liht or medium loamy soils with adequate drainae and pH varyin from 7.0
-8.2 are preferable. In South India both summer and winter crops are possible. T
he plant is propaated by seeds. The seed rate required is 15-20k/ha. Seeds are
sown in October-November (winter rainfed crop) or in February-March (irriated
crop). Hiher seed rate is required for unirriated crop. Seeds are sown in line
s 30cm apart. Application of 5-10t of FYM/ha before plantin or raisin a reen
manure crop is beneficial. About 40k N and 25-50k P2O5/ha applied as basal dre
ssin and 40k N/ha applied in 2 split dozes as top dressin ave better yield.
While the rainfed crop is rown without irriation, the irriated crop requires
5-8 liht irriations durin the entire rowin season. The crop requires 2-3 we
edins and hoeins in order to keep it free from weeds. Alternaria alternata cau
ses leaf spot and dieback but the disease is not serious. In North India, the pl
ant is attacked by the larvae of butterfly Catopsilia pyranthe which can be cont
rolled by plantin the crop in March-April instead of June-July. Under irriated
conditions, the first crop is obtained after 90 days of plantin. The leaves ar
e stripped by hand when they are fully reen, thick and bluish-reen in colour.
The second crop is taken 4 weeks after the first harvest and the third 4-6 weeks
after the second one. The last harvest of leaves is done when the entire crop i
s harvested alon with the pods. Yield under irriated conditions is nearly1.4t
of leaves and 150k pods/ha and under unirriated conditions is 500-600k leaves
and 80-100k pods/ha. The leaves are dried in thin layers under shade so as to
retain the reen colour and the pods are hun for 10-12 days to et dried. The l
eaves and pods are cleaned, raded and marketed (Husain et al, 1993).
Properties and Activity
Leaves contain lucose, fructose, sucrose and pinnitol. Mucilae consists of al
actose, arabinose, rhamnose and alacturonic acid. Leaves also contain sennoside
-C(8,8’dilucoside of rhein-aloe-emodin-dianthrone). Pods contain sennosides A a
nd B, lycoside of anthraquinones rhein and chrysophanic
 acid. Seeds contain β-s
itosterol (Husain et al, 1992). Leaves an po s also contain0.33% β-sterol an
flavonols-kaempferol, kaempferin, an iso-rhamnetin. Sennosi
 e content of C. acu
tifolia is higher ranging from 2.5% to 4.5% as compare to C. angustifolia
 rangi
ng from 1.5 % to 2.5%. The purgative activity of Senna is attri ute
 to its senn
osi es. The po s cause lesser griping than the leaves. Leaf an po is laxative.

The leaves are astringent, itter, sweet, acri , thermogenic,  cathartic, epura
tive, liver tonic, anthelmintic, cholagogue, expectorant an fe rifuge.
113
NAGADANTI Euphor iaceae
San: Danti; Hin: Danti;
Baliospermum montanum
 
Mal: Danti, Naga anti; Tam: Nakatanti; Tel: Nelaji i
Importance  
Danti or Naga anti is a stout
 unershru with numerous flowers. Root, which is t
he officinal part, is use in a ominal pain, constipation,  calculus,
 general an
asarca, piles,
 helminthic
 manifestations,
 sca ies, skin
 isor ers, suppurative u
lcers
 an iseases cause y the mor i ity of kapha an pitta.
 Root
 paste is app
lie to painful swellings an piles. Leaves cure  asthma an see s are use in sn
ake ite (Kurup et al, 1979; Sharma, 1983). The rug forms an important constitue
nt of preparations like Dantyarishta, Dantiharitakileham, Kaisoraguggulu gulika,
etc.(Sivarajan et al, 1994).
Distri ution 
The plant is foun throughout the su -Himalayan
 tracts
 from Kashmir to Khasi Hil
ls. It is common in West Bengal, Bihar an Central an Peninsular In ia.
Botany  
Baliospermum montanum (Will .) Muell-Arg. syn. B. axillare
 Bl., B. polyan rum Wt
. elongs to the family Euphro iaceae. It is a stout un er-shru 0.9-1.8m in hei 
ght with her aceous ranches from the roots. Leaves are simple, sinuate-toothe
 ,
upper ones small, lower
 ones large an sometimes palmately 3-5 lo e . Flowers a
re numerous, arrange in axillary racemes with  male flowers
 a ove an a few  fema
les elow. Fruits
 are capsules, 813mm long an o ovoi . See s are ellipsoi smoo
th an mottle (Warrier et al,1993).
Agrotechnology  
The tropical plant is suite to almost all  soils. It can e cultivate either as
pure crop or  intercrop. It ispropagate vegetatively y cuttings. A out 15-20c
m long roote cuttings  are use
 forplanting.
  Pits ofsize  50cm cu e are  to e t
aken at 3mspacing an fille  with  rie cow ung, san an top  soil an forme i
nto
 a moun . On these moun s, roote cuttings  are to e plante at
 2 cuttings/mo
un . Cuttings esta lish within one month. Wee ing is to e carrie out at this t
ime.
 Application of organic manure after every 6 months is eneficial.  Irrigatio
n uringsummer months is prefera le. The  plant is not attacke y any serious p
ests or iseases.   Roots can e collecte at the en of secon year. The roots ar
e to e cut  an rie in sun efore marketing. The yiel is a out one tonne root
/ha (Prasa et al,1997).

Properties an Activity 
Roots contain iterpenes, aliospermin, montanin,  phor ol-12-eoxy-13-O-palmitat 
e, phor ol-12- eoxy-16-hy roxy-13-O-palmitate an phor ol-12- eoxy-5β-hy  roxy-13
– myristate (Ogura et al, 1978). Alcoholic extract of plant showe hypotensive 
activity in experimentalanimals (Bhakuni  et al, 1971). Antilukaemic  an cytotox
icactivitieshave een emonstrate  in the esters of oth 12- eoxyphor ol an 1
2- eoxy-16-hy
 roxyphor ol, isolate from B. montanum (King-horn,  1979). The root
s are acri , thermogenic,
 purgative, antiinflammatory, ano
 yne, igestive,
 anthe
lmintic, iuretic, iaphoretic,  ru efacient,
 fe rifuge an tonic. See is purgat
ive, stimulant, ru efacientan anti  ote for snake ite. See oil is antirheumati 
c. Leaf is antiasthmatic an woun healing. Root an see oil is cathartic an a
nti ropsical. Stem is anti- ontalgic.
114
PURGING CROTON Euphor iaceae
San: Jepalah, Danti ijah Hin: Jamalgota Tam: Nervalam, Sevalamkottai Tel: Nepala
Ben: Jaypal
Croton tiglium
Mal: Nirvalam
Importance
Purging croton or croton oil plant, a small evergreen
 tree with separate
 male an
female flowers, is one among the seven poisons escri e in Ayurve
 a. The rug
is well known for its rastic
 purgative property. The rug is foun to
 e usefu
l in ascites, anasarca, col , cough, asthma, constipation,
 calculus, ropsy, fev
er an enlargement
 of the a ominal viscera.
 The see paste is a goo applicatio
n for skin iseases, painful swellings an alopacia. The see -oil is useful in c
hronic ronchitis, laryngeal affections,  arthritis
 an lock jaw. Misraka-sneham
is an important preparation using the rug (Na karni, 1954; Dey, 1980; Sharma, 1
983).
Distriution   
It is istri ute throughout North In ia. It is cultivate in Assam, West Bengal
an South In ia.
Botany
Croton tiglium Linn. elongs to the familyEuphor iaceae. It is a small evergree
ntree, 4.56.0m in height with ash coloure smooth ark an young shoots sprinkl  
e with stellate
 hairs. Leaves are o long to ovate-lanceolate, o tuse or roun e
at
 the 2-glan e ox, acuminate, mem raneous, yellowish
  green an minutely toot 
he . Flowers are small,
 unisexual, males on
 slen er pe icels, females largeran
on short thick pe icels.Fruits are ovoi
 or o long trigonous
 capsules. See s a
re smooth, testa lack an enclosing re ish rown oily en osperm (Warrier et al
,1994). Other species elonging to the genus Croton are as follows:
 C. aromaticu
s Linn. C. cau atus
 Geisel C. jouera Rox . C. mala aricus Be . C. o longifolius
Rox . C. polyan rus Rox . syn. Baliospermum montanum Muell-Arg. C. reticulatus(
Chopra et al, 1980)
Agrotechnology      
The plant  is propagate y see s. See s are to e sown on see e s an a out 2 m
onths ol see lings areuse for  transplanting.
   Pits ofsize  50cm cu e are to e
taken at 3m  spacing an
 fille with rie cow
 ung, san an topsoil an forme

into a moun . The see lings are to e plante on these moun s. Irrigation uring
summer
 months is eneficial. Application  of organic manure after every 6 months
is esira le. Wee ing is to e carrie out one  month after transplanting.  The p
lant
 is not attacke y any serious pests or iseases. Fruits are forme at
 the

en
 of first year. Fruits when ripen an start
  to crack
  are to e collecte
 , ri
e in sun, then  the outer shell is remove an again rie for one ay efore ma
rketing (Prasa et al,1997).

Properties an activity 
Oil contains phor  ol myristate  acetate ( Husain et al, 1992). See  s contain
 upto
20% protein an  30-50% lipi  s. Iso-guanine-D-ri ose (crotonisi e) an saccharos
 
e were isolate from the see  s. In fractionation of croton oil, liqui -liqui  i
stri ution
 proce ures prove to e the separation  tools of choice. The per hy  ro
genate parent
 hy rocar on of phor ol is a perhy rocyclopropa enzulene calle ti
gliane an phor ol is 1, 1aα, 1bβ, 4, 4a, 7aα, 7b, 8, 9, 9 -dec hydro-4 β, 7α, 9
β, 9aαtetr hydroxy-3-(hydroxymethyl)-1, 1, 6, 8α tetr methyl-5-H-cycloprop [3,4]
benz [1.2-e] zulen-5one. Phorbol,  tetr cylic diterpene with  5, 7, 6 nd 3-
membered ring h s 6 oxygen functions. Phorbol ccounts for 3.4% nd 4- deoxy- 4α
- phorbol for 0.29% of the weight of croton oil. Twentyfive phorbol-12, 13-diest
ers h ve been detected (Hecker et l, 1974). A toxin croton 1, mol. wt 72,000 h 
s been isol ted from the seeds (Lin et l, 1978). Phorbol myrist te cet te cti
v tes nitroblue tetr zolium reduction in hum n polymorphs. Seed nd oil is purg 
tive, rubef cient nd nti-dote for sn kebite. The seeds nd oil re crid, bitt
er, thermogenic, emollient, dr stic purg tive, digestive, c rmin tive, nthelmin
tic, ntiinfl mm tory, vermifuge, deterent, di phoretic, expector nt, vesic nt,
irrit nt nd rubef cient.
115
ALSTONIA Apocyn ce e
S n: Vis ghni, An d n ; M l: An liveg m;
Alstoni  venen t 
T m: Sinn pp l i; K n: Add s rp 
Import nce
Alstoni  is  l rge shrub with str ight bole nd growing upto bout 6m height. T
he roots re useful in skin dise ses, erysipel s, leprosy, cobr  bite nd other
venomous bites, epilepsy, f tigue, fever nd ot lgi . The fruits re useful in s
yphilis, ins nity nd epilepsy. The pl nt is believed to repel sn kes.
Distribution
The pl nt is distributed throughout Indi  in deciduous forests in re s up to 18
00m elev tion.
Bot ny
Alstoni  venen t  R.Br., belonging to the f mily Apocyn ce e, is  l rge shrub t
o sm ll tree up to 6m in height with greyish brown b rk nd bright yellow h rd 
nd woody root. Le ves re simple, rr nged in whorls of 3-6, membr nous, l nceol
te, m rgins w vy, finely cumin te, m in nerves numerous, close, p r llel nd u
nited by inter m rgin l nerve. Flowers re white, rr nged in termin l sub umbel
l te cymes or in r cemes. Fruits re fusiform with st lked nd be ked follicles,
t pering t both ends. Seeds re m ny fl ttened with  tuft of h ir t e ch end
(W rrier et l, 1993). Other import nt species belonging to the genus Alstoni 
re the following.
1. A. schol ris R. Br.
This tree is common throughout Indi . The b rk is v lu ble in debility nd fter
effects of fever, chronic di rrhoe , dysentery nd c t rrh l fever. The milky j
uice is pplied to ulcers nd rheum tic p ins, mixed with oil nd dropped into e
r to relieve e r che. Dit nin is the ctive principle of the b rk, possessing p
owerful febrifuge properties. The b rk is stringent, tonic nd febrifuge (N dk 
rni, 1998).
2. A. spect bilis R. Br.
It is  l rge evergreen tree seen in tropic l forests of And m ns. The b rk cont
ins lk loids such s lston mine, dit mine, echit mine nd echitenine (Chopr 
et l,1980)
Agrotechnology
The pl nt is prop g ted m inly by seeds. Seeds re to be sown on seedbeds nd ge
rmin ted ones re to be tr nsferred to polyb gs. About three months old seedling
s re used for tr nspl nting. If seeds re not v il ble, thin stem cuttings c n
be pl nted in polyb gs nd rooted cuttings used. Pits of size 60cm cube re to
be t ken t 3m sp cing, filled with dried cowdung, s nd nd topsoil nd m de int
o  mound. To this mounds seedlings from polyb gs re to be tr nspl nted. Irrig 
tion is essenti l during e rly st ges of growth. Applic tion of org nic m nure e
very ye r is benefici l. Regul r weeding is to be done. The pl nt is not tt cke
d by ny serious pests or dise ses. Flowers re formed in the first ye r itself.
It c n be used for medicin l purposes fter seven ye rs of growth. Fruits nd r
oots re the economic l p rts (Pr s d et l,1997).
Properties nd Activity
The pl nt is  rich source of indole lk loids. Alk loids re present in v rious
p rts. Stem b rk nd root cont in venen tine, lstovenine, 3-dehydro lstovenine
nd reserpine. Stem b rk cont ins venoxidine (venen tine Nb -oxide), nhydro ls
ton tine, kopsinine, ven lstonine, ven lstonidine(ven lstonine-6,7-epoxide), ech
itovenine nd veneserpine. Fruits cont in echitovenidine, (+)minovincinine, echi
toserpidine, echitoserpine, echitoveniline, 11-methoxy echitovonidine, 11-methox
y (-) minovinicinine, echitoserpiline, (-)vinc difformine, 11-methoxy()vinc diff
ormine nd venoterpine. Le ves cont in echitoven ldine, echitoveniline, lstolen
ine, de cetyl ku mmiline, polynuridine, dihydropolynuridine nd r uc ffrininolin
e. The yellow tint in b rk is bec use of the presence of ∆3- lstovenine. A numbe
r of indole lk loids h ve been further isolted from the pl nt. In ddition to
lk loids fruits cont in β-amyrin acetate an lupeol ester of β-hy roxy aci (Hu
sain et al,1992). The root
 is itter, astringent,
 thermogenic,  epurative, antit

oxic, fe rifuge
 an ano yne. The alkaloi alstoveninein lower oses  exhi ite m
onoamine oxi ase inhi itor activity, while  in higher oses it showe marke cent
ral stimulant effect. Veninatine
 exhi ite reserpine like activity. Alcoholic ex
tract of the fruits showe initial activation
 effect on acetylcholine esterase,
followe alternately y inhi ition an activation of the enzyme.
116
 
HOLOSTEMMA Asclepia aceae
Importance
Holostemma
 
a a-ko ien
San: Jivanti; Hin: Chirvel, Charivel; Mal:Atapathiyan,
  Atapotiyan, Atakotiyan;
Tam: Palaikkirai; Tel: Palagurugu; Mar: Du urli, Shi o i; Guj: Kharner, Khiravel
Holostemma is a twining shru with large flowers. The roots of Holostemma are u
seful in ophthalmopathy,
  orchitis, cough, urning sensation,
 stomachalgia, const
ipation, fever an tri oshas.
 The leaves, flowers an fruits
 are eaten as vegeta

le.
 The root is also
 use in spermatorrhoea. It is use in preparations
 of Vi a
rya iganam, Dhanwan haram thaila, Manasamithravatakam,
 Balarishta an Anuthaila.
It is also useful in eye iseases an it imparts resistance to iseases.
Distri ution  
The
 plant occurs in tropical countries. In In ia, it is foun
 in Himalayas, Dehr
a un, Konkan, Bom ay, Deccan, Karnataka, Kerala an Tamilna u. It grows over he
ges an inopen forests especiallyon the lower slopes of the hills. It is also
istri ute in Sri Lanka, Burma an W. China.
Botany  
Holostemma
 a a-ko ien Schult. syn. Holostemma annulare
 (Rox .) K. Schum., Holost
emma rhee ii Wall. elongs to the family Asclepia aceae. It is a laticiferous
 tw

ining shru with large conspicuous
 flowers. Leaves are simple, opposite an cor
ate. Flowers are purple, arrange
 inaxillary um ellate
 cymes. Fruits are thick
follicles, 9 cm long, cylin rical
 an luntly
 pointe
 . The roots
 are long upto 1
m or more, irregularly twiste , thick an cylin rical. When ry it is yellowish
rown to rown lack in colour with nearly smooth surface earing white  scars a
n small epressions. A mature root is a out 1-2 cm thick when extracte for use
(Warrier et al, 1995).
Agrotechnology 
Holostemma prefers a tropical climate.
 Theplant is propagate  vegetatively y s
tem cuttings, ut mainly y see s. The  see  s are collecte
   the
from  plantin Nov
em er-Decem er efore eing isperse . See s are cleane , rie an store for s
owing.
 The store see s after
 soaking in water for 4-5  hours are sown in the see
e s. A out one month ol see lings  are
  then plante
 in poly ags of size 14x10c
m which are fille with soil, san an  rie cowung in 1:1:1 ratio, respectivel  
y. Poly ags shoul e kept in sha e an irrigate . A out 1-1.5 month ol see  lin
gs are rea yfor transplanting.
  Pits
 of 30cm cu e size are taken  at 11.2m istan
ce an fille
 with 10kg  rie cow ung an san . This  is covere withsurface soi
l an forme into a moun . See lings are transplante on to the moun s fromthe
poly ags carefully. Regular irrigation is to e given till flowering.  To ai in
trailing, staking is given one month after planting. Flowering  an fruiting
 occu
rs in Novem er-Decem
 er. Harvesting can  e one at
 the en of secon year when t
he vines start rying up. Harvesting is one y igging up the tu ers. The  tu er
s are cut into pieces of 10cm length an rie in sun efore sale (Prasa et al,
1997).

Properties an activity

Holostemma tu ers give α- myrin,  lupeol nd β-sitosterol.
  Alanine, aspartic aci
, glycine, serine, threonine an valine were etecte chromatographically (Hussa
in et al, 1992). The root is anti ia etic, antigonorrhoeic,  echic, alterative,
tonic, lactative, ophthalmic, emollient, stimulant, aphro isiac, expectorant an
galactagogue.
117
ASHOKA Caesalpiniaceae
San:Asoka, Gatasokah; Tam: Asogam;
Saraca asoca 
Hin:Asok, Asoka; Ben:Ashok; Mal:Asokam; Kan:Asoka a, Aksunkara; Tel: Asokamu, Va
njalamu
Importance      
Ashoka, the sacre tree of Hin us an Bu hists, possesses varie me icinal uses
. The ark is useful in yspepsia, fever, ipsia, urning sensation, visceromega
ly, colic,
 ulcers, menorrhagia,
 metropathy,
 leucorrhoea an pimples. The leaf ju
ice mixe
  with cumin see s is use for treating
 stomachalagia.
  The floweres are
consi ere to e uterine tonic an are use in vitiate con itions of  pitta,
 syp
hilis, cervical a initis,hyper ipsia, urning sensation, haemorrhoi
 s, ysenter
y, sca ies in chil ren
 an inflammation. The well-known Ayurve ic preparations a
re ”Ashokarishta” an “Ashokaghrita”.
  Ashokarishta is prescri e in leucorrhoea,
haematuria, menorrhagia an other iseases of genitourinary system of females.
Distri ution   
Ashoka is foun almost throughout
 In ia, except North-Western In ia, upto 750m.
It is also foun in the An aman Islan s.
Botany     
Saraca asoca (Rox .) e Wil e. syn. S. in ica auct. non Linn.
 isame ium size
evergreen tree growing upto 9m height with numerous sprea ing an rooping gla r
ous ranches. Leaves are pinnate, 30-60cm long having  2-3pairs of lanceolate
 le
aflets. Flowers are orange or orange
 yellow, arrange
 in ense
 corym s an  very 
fragrant.
 Fruits areflat lackpo s, leathery
 an compresse
 with 4-8 see s/po
. See s are ellipsoi o long an compresse . The ark is ark rown to grey or
lack with a wartysurface. The thickness varies from 5mm to 10mm. The entire cut
surface
 turns re ish on exposure to air. Polyalthia longifolia (Annonaceae) is
equate with the name Asoka y some (Kapoor & Mitra, 1979; Chunekar, 1982) an
is often use as an a ulterant of the genuine Asoka ark or as a su stitute (War
rier et al,1996).
Agrotechnology    
Asoka grows well in areas with well istri ute rainfall  an in slightly sha y a
reas. Asoka requires soil rich in organic mater an moisture. The est season of
planting is June-July. It is  also grown  in summer,
 if irrigation
 facilities
 are
availa le. The
 plant is see  propagate . See s are forme
 usually
  uring Fe rua
ry-April. See s are collecte when they are ripen  an  fall own an are sown aft
er
 soaking in water for 12 hourson the prepare e s. See  s germinate
 within 20
ays. The sees are then plante in poly ags. 2-month-ol seelings from the po
ly ags are use for transplanting.
 Square  shape
  pits  of
 60cm epth are taken  at
3m spacing an fille with topsoil, san an rie cow ung. On this the see lin
gs are plante . Application of FYM at 10kg/tree/yearis highly eneficial. Chemi
cal fertilisers are not usually  applie . Irrigation uring  summer months is esse
ntial. No serious
 pests or iseases are generally  note in this crop. If properl
y cultivate , Asoka can e cut after 20 years an the ark collecte  . It is cut
at a height
 of 15cm from the soil
 level. If given irrigation an fertilisers, th
e cut woo will sprout
 again an harveste again after 5 years. This
 can e cont
inue . When it is ifficult to cut the tree, the ark can e peele off from one
si e first. When the ark grows  an cover that part, the other si e can e peel
e off. This is also continue (Prasa et al, 1997; Karshakasree, 1998).

Properties an Activity
  
Flowers give β-sitosterol,
 flavonoi s an flavone  glycosi es-quercetin, kaempfer
ol-3-O-β-Dglucosi
 e, quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucosi
   e. The anthocyanins
 present
 are p
elargoni in-3, 5- iglucosi e an cyana in-3, 5- iglucosi e. Bark yiel s catechol
 
an sterols-(24ζ )-24-methyl cholest-5-en-3β-ol, (22E, 24ζ )-24-ethylcholesta-5
, 22-dien-3 β-ol and (24ζ )-24-ethyl cholest-5-en-3β-ol, a wax containing n-alka
nes, esters and free primary alcohols. Alcoholic extract and glycoside P2 from s
tem ark is oxytoxic. Aerial part is CNS active, hypothermic, CNS depressant and
diuretic. Stem ark is anticancerous, has spasmodic action on ra it intestine
and cardiotonic action in frog and dog. Seed is antifungal. Stem ark is astring
ent, antileucorrhoeic, anti ilious and uterine sedative. Flower is uterine tonic
, antidia etic and antisyphilitic. Stem ark and flower is anti ilious (Husain e
t al, 1992).
118
GARDEN RUE Rutaceae
Ruta chalepensis
San: Gucchapatra; Hin: Pismaram, Sada , Satari; Ben: Ermul; Mal: Aruta, Nagatali
; Tam: Aruvadam, Arvada; Kan: Sada u, Nagadali; soppu, Simesdanu; Tel: Sadapa, A
ruda Importance Common rue or Garden rue also known as Her of Grace due to its
service in the Roman Catholic Church for sprinkling the holy water among the con
gregation, is an aromatic perennial her . The plant is useful in vitiated condit
ions of kapha and vata, strangury, fever, flatulence, colic, amenorrhoea, epilep
sy and hysteria. The oil acts as a stimulant for uterine and nervous systems. Th
e fresh leaves are used for rheumatalgia. The juice o tained from the leaves is
given to children for helminthic infections and is good for odontalgia and otalg
ia (Warrier et al, 1996). The dried leaves, powdered and com ined with aromatics
, are given as a remedy for dyspepsia and with the fresh leaves a tincture is ma
de which is used as an external remedy in the first stages of paralysis (Nadkarn
i, 1998).
Distri ution
The plant is a native of South Europe and it is found in su tropical countries.
It is commonly cultivated in Indian gardens.
Botany
Ruta chalepensis Linn.syn. R. graveolens Linn. var. angustifolia Sensu Hook. f.
elongs to the family Rutaceae. It is an aromatic perennial her growing upto 75
cm height. Leaves are compound, shortly petiolate with ultimate segments o long
or o ovate-o long. Flowers are yellow. Fruits are capsules and shortly pedicelle
d (Warrier et al, 1996).
Agrotechnology
The plant is suited to areas which are a out 1000m a ove mean sea level and with
moderate rainfall and sunlight. The plant can e propagated either y seeds or
stem cuttings. Seeds are to e sown in seed eds. Stem cuttings of length 20-25cm
are to e planted in poly ags for rooting. A out 3-4 months old seedlings can
e transplanted to pots and harvested when plants attain 6-8 months age. In highl
ands land is to e ploughed to a fine tilth, mixed with organic manure and seedl
ings are to e transplanted at a spacing of 45cm etween plants. Irrigation is e
ssential during summer months. Regular weeding is to e done. The plant is not a
ttacked y any serious pests and diseases. Harvesting commences from sixth month
onwards. The economic part is the whole plant and the oil extracted from it (Pr
asad et al, 1997).
Properties and Activity
Roots contain coumarins-xanthyletin and (-)- yakangelicin. The alkaloids are rut
acridone-epoxide, gravacridonol and its monomethyl ether, gravacridonchlorine, f
uracridone, 1-hydroxy-3-methoxy-N-methylacridone, iso-gravacridonechlorine, dict
amine, r-fragarine and skimmianine. Skimmianine is also present in leaves and st
em. Leaves and stem also contain graveolinine (1-methyl-2(3’,4’-methylenedioxyph
enol)-4-methoxyquinoline). Aerial parts give coumarins ergapten, xanthotoxin an
d psoralen. Coumarinimperatin has also een reported from the plant. Her contai
ns alkaloids such as kokusagenine, rutamine(methylgraveoline) and graveoline(1-m
ethyl-2(3’,4’methylenedioxyphenyl)-4-quinoline). Tissue culture of the plant giv
es furacridone alkaloids1-hydroxyrutacridone-epoxide, rutagravin and gravacridon
ol. Gravacridondiol and its glucoside have een o tained from the root tissue cu
lture. The essential oil from leaves, stem and root yielded aliphatic ketones in
cluding 2-nonanone (10-35%), undecyl-2-acetate (0.515%), 2-nonyl acetate (trace-
10%), nonylacetate, nonanol, 2-nonylpropionate, 2nonylpropionate, 2-undecanol an
d its esters. The oil from roots gave pregeijerene also. The plant is spasmolyti
c which is due to the presence of ergapten, xanthotoxin, the essential oil and
a coumarin. It is also antispasmodic, emmenagogue, irritant, a ortifacient and a
nti- acterial. Leaf is analgesic, antirheumatic, antihysteric and anthelmintic (
Husain et al, 1992).
119
GREEN CHIRETTA Acanthaceae
San: Bhunim ah, Kiratatiktah Mal: Nilaveppu, Kiriyattu
Andrographis paniculata
Hin: Kakamegh, Kalpanath Tam: Nilavempu Ben: Kalmegh Kan: Kreata
Importance
Kalmegh, the Great or Green Chiretta is a ranched annual her . It is useful in
hyperdipsia, urning sensation, wounds, ulcers, chronic fever, malarial and inte
rmittent fevers, inflammations, cough, ronchitis, skin diseases, leprosy, pruri
tis, intestinal worms, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, diarrhoea, dysentery, haemo
rrhoids and vitiated conditions of pitta (Warrier et al, 1993). It is used to ov
ercome sannipata type of fever, difficulty in reathing, hemopathy due to the mo
r idity of kapha and pitta, urning sensation, cough, oedema, thirst, skin disea
ses, fever, ulcer and worms. It is also useful in acidity and liver complaints (
Aiyer and Kolammal, 1962). The important preparations using the drug are Tiktaka
gheta, Gorocandi gulika, Candanasava, Panchatiktam kasaya, etc. (Sivarajan et al
, 1994). A preparation called “Alui” is prepared y mixing powdered cumin (Cumin
ium cyminum) and large cardamom (Amomum su ulatum) in the juice of this plant an
d administered for the treatment of malaria (Thakur et al, 1989). It is also a r
ich source of minerals.
Distri ution
The plant is distri uted throughout the tropics. It is found in the plains of In
dia from U.P to Assam, M.P., A.P, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, also cultivated in gard
ens.
Botany
Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall ex. Nees elongs to the family Acanthacea
e. It is an erect ranched annual her , 0.3-0.9m in height with quadrangular ra
nches. Leaves are simple, lanceolate, acute at oth ends, gla rous, with 4-6 pai
rs of main nerves. Flowers are small, pale ut lotched and spotted with rown a
nd purple distant in lax spreading axillary and terminal racemes or panicles. Ca
lyx-lo es are glandular pu escent with anthers earded at the ase. Fruits are l
inear capsules and acute at oth ends. Seeds are numerous, yellowish rown and s
u -quadrate (Warrier et al,1993). Another species of Andrographis is A. echioide
s (Linn.) Nees. It is found in the warmer parts of India. The plant is a fe rifu
ge and diuretic. It contains flavone-echiodinin and its glucoside-echioidin (Hus
ain et al, 1992).
Agrotechnology
The est season of planting Andrographis is May-June. The field is to e ploughe
d well, mixed with compost or dried cowdung and seed eds of length 3m, readth 1
/2m and 15cm height are to e taken at a distance of 3m. The plant is seed propa
gated. Seeds are to e soaked in water for 6 hours efore sowing. Sowing is to
e done at a spacing of 20cm. Seeds may germinate within 15-20 days. Two weedings
, first at one month after planting and the second at 2 month after planting are
to e carried out. Irrigation during summer months is eneficial. The plant is
not attacked y any serious pests or diseases. Flowering commences from third mo
nth onwards. At this stage, plant are to e collected, tied into small undles a
nd sun-dried for 4-5 days. Whole plant is the economic part and the yield is a o
ut 1.25t dried plants/ha (Prasad et al, 1997).
Properties and Activity
Leaves contain two itter su stances lactone “andrographolid” and “kalmeghin”. T
he ash contains sodium chloride and potassium salts. Plant is very rich in chlor
ophyte. Kalmeghin is the active principle that contains 0.6% alkaloid of the cru
de plant. The plant contains diterpenoids, andrographolide, 14-deoxy-11-oxo-andr
ographolide, 14-deoxy11,12-dihydroandrographolide, 14-deoxy andrographolide and
neoandrographolide (Allison et al, 1968). The roots give flavones-apigenin-7,4-d
io-O-methyl ether, 5-hydroxy-7,8,2’,3’tetramethoxyflavone, andrographin and pani
colin and α-sitosterol (Ali et l, 1972;
120
Govind ch ri et l, 1969). Le ves cont in homo ndrogr pholide, ndrogr phosterol
nd ndrogr phone. The pl nt is vulner ry, ntipyretic, ntiperiodic, nti-infl
mm tory, expector nt, depur tive, sudorific, nthelmintic, digestive, stom chic
, tonic, febrifuge nd chol gogue. The pl nt is ntifung l, ntityphoid, hep top
rotective, ntidi betic nd cholinergic. Shoot is ntib cteri l nd le f is hypo
tensive(G rci  et l, 1980). This is used for the infl mm tion of the respir tor
y tr ct. In Chin , rese rchers h ve isol ted the ndrogr pholide from which solu
ble deriv tive such s 14-deoxy-11, 12-dehydro- ndrogr pholide which forms the s
ubject of current ph rm cologic l nd clinic l studies. Apigenin 7,4’-O-dimethyl
ether isolated from A. paniculata exhi its dose dependent, antiulcer activity i
n shay rat, histamine induced ulcer in guinea pigs and aspirin induced ulcers in
rats. A crude su stance isolated from methanolic extract of leaves has shown hy
potensive activity. Pre-treatment of rats with leaf (500mg/kg) or andrographolid
e (5mg/kg) orally prevented the car on tetrachloride induced increase of lood s
erum levels of glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminase in liver and prevented hepato
cellular mem rane.
121
WORM KILLER Aristolochiaceae
San: Kitamari Hin: Kiramar, Kitamar Tam: Atutinnappalai
Aristolochia
racteolata
Mal: Attuthottappala, Atuthinnappala
Importance
The racteated irthwort or worm killer is a perennial prostrate her . As the na
me suggests it is a killer of intestinal worms especially roundworms. It is also
used in vitiated conditions of kapha and vata, constipation, inflammations, ame
norrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, foul ulcers, oils, syphilis, gonorrhoea, dyspepsia, co
lic, skin diseases, ec ema, artheralgia and intermittent fevers. The plant is an
insect repellent due to the presence of aristolochic acid, which is poisonous t
o man and livestock. Plant is also used against scorpion sting. Seeds ground in
water to form a lotion and used for softening hair. Powdered root is used in fer
tility control.
Distri ution
The plant is found in Sri Lanka, Ara ian countries and tropical Africa. In India
, the plant is grown in Deccan and Carnatic Plateau.
Botany
Aristolochia racteolata Lam. syn. A. racteata Ret . elongs to the family Aris
tolochiaceae. It is a perennial prostrate her with weak, gla rous stems. Leaves
are simple, alternate, reniform or roadly ovate, cordate at the ase with a wi
de sinus upto 7.5cm in diameter, reticulately veined. Flowers are solitary with
a large sessile or icular ract at the ase. Perianth tu e is cylindric with dar
k purple tip having revolute margins. Fruits are o long-ellipsoid 12-ri ed gla
rous capsules. Seeds are deltoid with slightly cordate ase (Warrier et al, 1993
) Another important species elonging to the genus Aristolochia is A. indica Lin
n. The plant grows wild throughout the low hills and plains of India from Nepal
to West Bengal and South India. It is a valua le anti-dote to snake ite and to
ites of poisonous insects as scorpion, etc. It is given in cases of cholera and
diarrhoea after macerating with lack pepper corns. The juice of the leaves has
stimulant, tonic and antiperiodic properties.
Agrotechnology
Shady areas and well-drained soils are most suited to Aristolochia. The plant ca
n e seed propagated. 3-month-old seedlings raised in poly ags are required for
transplanting. Pits of si e 50cm cu e are to e taken at a distance of 3m and fi
lled with sand, topsoil and dried cowdung. To these pits, the seedlings are to
e transplanted. Regular irrigation and organic manure application is eneficial.
The plant is to e trailed on iron wires tied to poles. The plant is not attack
ed y any serious pests or diseases. Plant attains good spread within one year.
Leaves can e collected for the next 10 years. Roots and leaves constitute the e
conomic parts (Prasad et al, 1997).
Properties and Activity
Leaves and fruits yield ceryl alcohol, β-sitosterol and aristolochic acid. Root
contains aristolochic acid. Seeds give an alkaloid magnoflorine, aristolochic ac
id, fatty oil comprising palmitic, stearic, lignoseric and oleic acids and β-sit
osterol. The plant is anthelmintic, cathartic, antiperiodic and emmenagogue. Lea
f is antigonorrhoeic, larvicidal and used in ec ema on children’s leg and ulcers
. The plant is oxytocic (Husain et al,1992).
122
FICUS Moraceae
Ficus spp.
The genus Ficus constitutes an important group of trees with immense medicinal v
alue. It is a sacred tree of Hindus and Buddhists. Among the varied num er of sp
ecies, the most important ones are the four trees that constitute the group “Nal
pamaram”, namely, F .racemosa, F. microcarpa, F. enghalensis and F. religiosa (
Athi, Ithi, Peral and Arayal respectively).
1. Ficus racemosa Linn. syn. F. glomerata Rox .
Eng: Cluster fig, Country fig San: Udum arah, Sadaphalah Hin: Gular, Umar Ben: J
agya dumur Mal, Tam, Kan: Athi Tel: Udam aramu, Paidi Gular fig, Cluster fig or
Country fig, which is considered sacred, has golden coloured exudate and lack
ark. It is distri uted all over India. Its roots are useful in treating dysenter
y. The ark is useful as a wash for wounds, highly efficacious in threatened a o
rtions and recommended in uropathy. Powdered leaves mixed with honey are given i
n vitiated condition of pitta. A decoction of the leaves is a good wash for woun
ds and ulcers. Tender fruits (figs) are used in vitiated conditions of pitta, di
arrhoea, dyspepsia and haemorrhages. The latex is administered in haemorrhoids a
nd diarrhoea (Warrier et al, 1995). The ripe fruits are sweet, cooling and are u
sed in haemoptysis, thirst and vomiting (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer et al, 1957; Moos
, 1976). Nalpamaradi coconut oil, Candanasava, Valiya Arimedastaila, Dinesavalya
di Ku ham u, A hra hasma, Valiya candanaditaila, etc. are some important prepara
tions using the drug (Sivarajan et al, 1994). It is a moderate to large-si ed sp
reading laticiferous, deciduous tree without many prominent aerial roots. Leaves
are dark green and ovate or elliptic. Fruit receptacles are 2-5cm in diameter,
su glo ose or pyriform arranged in large clusters on short leafless ranches ari
sing from main trunk or large ranches. Figs are smooth or rarely covered with m
inute soft hairs. When ripe, they are orange, dull reddish or dark crimson. They
have a pleasant smell resem ling that of cedar apples. The ark is rusty rown
with a fairly smooth and soft surface, the thickness varying from 0.5-2cm accord
ing to the age of the trunk or ark. Surface is with minute separating flakes of
white tissue. Texture is homogeneously leathery (Warrier et al, 1995). Stem- ar
k gives gluanol acetate, β-sitosterol, leucocyanidin-3-O-β-D-glucopyrancoside, l
eucopelargonidin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, leucopelargonidin -3-O-α-L-rh mnopyr n
oside, lupeol, ceryl behen te, lupeol cet te nd α- myrin cet te. Stem- b rk i
s hypoglyc emic nd nti-protozo l. G ll is CVS ctive. B rk is tonic nd used i
n rinder pest dise ses of c ttle. Root is ntidysenteric nd ntidi betic. Le f
is ntibilious. L tex is ntidi rrhoe l nd used in piles. B rk nd syconium is
stringent nd used in menorrh gi  (Hus in et l, 1992).
2. Ficus microc rp  Linn. f. syn. F. retus  uct. Non. Linn.
S n: Pl ks h; Hin, Ben: K m rup; M l: Ithi, Ithiy l; T m: K llicci, Icci; K n: I
tti; Tel: Pl ks  Pl ks h is the Ficus species with few br nches nd m ny dventi
tious roots growing downw rd. It is widely distributed throughout Indi  nd in S
ri L nk , S. Chin , Ryuku Isles nd Brit in. Pl k s h is one of the five ingredi
ents of the group p nchv lk l  i.e, five b rks, the decoction of which is extens
ively used to cle r ulcers nd  douche in leucorrhoe  in children. This decocti
on is dministered extern lly nd intern lly with s tisf ctory results. Pl ks h
is ccl imed s cooling, stringent, nd cur tive of r kt pitt  dosh s, ulcers,
skin dise ses, burning sens tion, infl mm tion nd oedem . It is found to h ve g
ood he ling property nd is used in prep r tion of oils nd ointments for extern
l pplic tion in the tre tment of ulcers (Aiyer nd Kol mm l, 1957). The stem-b
rk is used to prep re Usir s v , G ndh t il , N lp m r di t il , V liy  m rm gu
lik , etc. (Siv r j n et l, 1994). The b rk nd le ves re used in wounds, ulce
rs, bruises, fl tulent colic, hep top thy, di rrhoe , dysentery, di betes, hyper
dipsi , burning sens tion, h em orrh ges, erysipel s, dropsy, ulcer tive stom ti
tis, h emoptysis, psychop thy, leucorrhoe  nd coporrh gi  (W rrier et l,1995)
F. microc rp  is  l rge gl brous evergreen tree with few eri l roots. Le ves 
re shortpetioled, 5-10cm long, 2-6cm wide nd pex shortly nd bluntly picul te
or slightly em rgin te. M in l ter l nerves re not very prominent nd stipules
re l nceol te. Fruit recept cles re sessile nd globose occurring in xill ry
p irs. It is yellowish when ripe without ny ch r cteristic smell. B rk is d rk
grey or brown with  smooth surf ce except for the lenticels. Outer b rk is cor
ky nd crust ceous thin nd firmly dherent to inner tissue. Inner b rk is light
nd flesh coloured with firbrous texture (W rrier et l, 1995). It is lso equ 
ted with m ny other species of the genus. viz. F.
123
infectori  Roxb., F. rnotti n  Miq, F. l cor Buch-H m nd F. t lboti King (cf.
N dk rni, 1954, Singh nd Chunek r, 1972; K poor nd Mitr , 1979; Sh rm , 1983).
The b rk cont ins t nnin, w x nd s ponin. B rk is ntibilious. Powdered le ves
nd b rk is found very good in rheum tic he d che. The b rk nd le ves re str
ingent, refriger nt, crid nd stom chic.
3. Ficus bengh lensis Linn.
Eng: B ny n tree; S n: Ny grodh h, V t h; Hin: B t, B rg d; Ben: B r, Bot; M r:
V d ; M l: Per l, V t vriksh m; T m: Al m r m, Per l; K n: Al ; Tel: Pedd m rri;
Guj: V d B ny n tree is  l ticiferous tree with reddish fruits, which is wound
round by eri l dventitious roots th t look like m ny legs. It is found in the
Sub-Him l y n tr ct nd Peninsul r Indi . It is lso gr wn throughout Indi . It
is widely used in tre tment of skin dise ses with pitt  nd r kt  predomin nce.
Stem-b rk, root -b rk, eri l roots, le ves, veget tive buds nd milky exud te
re used in medicine. It improves complexion, cures erysepel s, burning sens tio
n nd v gin l disorders, while n infusion of the b rk cures dysentery, di rrhoe
, leucorrhoe , menorrh gi , nervous disorders nd reduces blood sug r in di bet
es. A decoction of the veget tive buds in milk is benefici l in h emorrh ges. A
p ste of the le ves is pplied extern lly to bcesses nd wounds to promote supp
ur tion, while th t of young eri l roots cure pimples. Young twigs when used s
 tooth brush strengthen gum nd teeth (N dk rni, 1954; Aiyer nd Kol mm l, 195
7; Mooss,1976). The drug forms n import nt constituent of formul tions like N l
p m r di Coconut oil, S rib dy s v , Kumkum di t il , Kh dir  gulik , V liy c nd
n di t il , C nd n s v , etc. (Siv r j n et l, 1994). The eri l roots re use
ful in obstin te vomiting nd leucorrhoe  nd re used in osteom l ci  of the li
mbs. The buds re useful in di rrhoe  nd dysentery. The l tex is useful in neur
lgi , rheum tism, lumb go, bruises, n sitis, ulorrh gi , ulitis, odontop thy, h
emorrhoids, gonorrhoe , infl mm tions, cr cks of the sole nd skin dise ses (W 
rrier et l, 1995). It is  very l rge tree up to 30m in height with widely spre
ding br nches be ring m ny eri l roots functioning s prop roots. B rk is gree
nish white. Le ves re simple, ltern te, rr nged often in clusters t the ends
of br nches. They re stipul te, 10-20cm long nd 5-12.5cm bro d, bro dly ellip
tic to ov te, entire, cori ceous, strongly 3-7 ribbed from the b se. The fruit r
ecept cles re xill ry, sessile, seen in p irs globose, brick red when ripe nd
enclosing m le, fem le nd g ll flowers. Fruits re sm ll, crust ceous, chenes
, enclosed in the common fleshy recept cles. The young b rk is somewh t smooth w
ith longitudin l nd tr nsverse row of lenticels. In older b rk, the lenticels 
re numerous nd closely sp ced; outer b rk e sily fl kes off. The fresh cut surf
ce is pink or flesh coloured nd exudes plenty of l tex. The inner most p rt of
the b rk djoining the wood is ne rly white nd fibrous (W rrier et l, 1995).
The b rk yields fl v noid compounds A, B nd C; A nd C re identified s differ
ent forms of  leuco nthocy nidin nd compound B  leuco nthocy nin. All the 3 w
ere effective s hypoglyc emic gents. Le ves give friedelin, β-sitosterol, flav
onoids- quercetin-3-galactoside and rutin. Heart wood give tiglic acid ester of
ψ taraxasterol. Bark is hpoglcemic, tonic, astringent, antidiarrhoeal and anti
diabetic. Latex is antirheumatic. Seed is tonic. Leaf is diaphoretic. Root fibre
is antigonorrhoeic. Aerial root is used in debilit and anaemic dsenter (Husa
in et al, 1992).
.4.
Ficus religiosa Linn.
Eng:Peepal tree, Sacred fig; San:Pippalah, Asvatthah; Hin:Pippal, Pipli, Pipar;
Mal:Araal Ben: Asvatha; Tam: Arasu, Asvattam; Kan: Aswatha; Tel: Ravi; Mar: Ash
vata, Pimpala Peepal tree or Sacred fig is a large deciduous tree with few or no
aerial roots. It is common throughout India, often planted in the vicinit of t
he temples. An aqueous extract of the bark has an antibacterial activit against
Staphlococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. It is used in the treatment of gono
rrhoea, diarrhoea, dsenter, haemorrhoids and gastrohelcosis. A paste of the po
wdered bark is a good absorbent for inflammator swellings. It is also good for
burns. Leaves and tender shoots have purgative properties and are also recommend
ed for wounds and skin diseases. Fruits are laxative and digestive. The dried fr
uit pulverized and taken in water cures asthma. Seeds are refrigerant and laxati
ve. The latex is good for neuralgia, inflammations and haemorrhages (Warrier et
al, 1995). Decoction of the bark if taken in hone subdues vatarakta (Nadkarni,
1954; Aier and Kolammal, 1957; Mooss, 1976; Kurup et al, 1979). The important p
reparations using the drug are Nalpamaradi taila, Saribadasava, Candanasava, Ka
rnasulantaka, Valiamarma gulika etc (Sivarajan et al, 1994).
124
It is a large deciduous tree with few or no aerial roots. It is often epiphtic
with the drooping branches bearing long petioled, ovate, cordate shin leaves. L
eaves are bright green, the apex produced into a linear-lanceolate tail about ha
lf as long as the main portion of the blade. The receptacles occurring in pairs
and are axillar, depressed globose, smooth and purplish when ripe. The bark is
gre or ash coloured with thin or membranous flakes and is often covered with cr
ustose lichen patches. The outer bark is not of uniform thickness, the middle ba
rk in sections appear as brownish or light reddish brown. The inner part consist
s of laers of light ellowish or orange brown granular tissue (Warrier et al, 1
995). Bark gives β-sitosterol and its glucoside. Bark is hypoglycaemic. Stem ar
k is antiproto oal, anthelmintic and antiviral. Bark is astringent, antigonorrhe
ic, fe rifuge, aphrodisiac and antidysenteric. Syconium, leaf and young shoot is
purgative (Husain et al, 1992).
Agrotechnology
Ficus species can e cultivated in rocky areas, unused lands, or other wasteland
s of the farmyard. The plant is vegetatively propagated y stem cuttings. A few
species are also seed propagated. Stem cuttings of pencil thickness taken from t
he ranches are to e kept for rooting. Rooted cuttings are to e transplanted t
o prepared pits. No regular manuring is required. Irrigation is not a must as a
plant is hardy. The plant is not attacked y any serious pests or diseases. Bark
can e collected after 15 years. Ficus species generally has an economic life s
pan of more than hundred years. Hence ark can e regularly collected from the t
ree. Root, ark, leaves, fruits and latex form the economic parts (Prasad et al,
1995).
125
WEST INDIAN MEDLAR Sapotaceae
San: Bakulah Hin: Bakul, Maulsiri Ben: Bakul
Mimusops elengi
Mal: Ilanji, Elanji
Tam: Magilam, Ilanci Barsoli, Bolsari
Importance
Tel: Pogada
Kan: Pagademara Guj:
Spanish cherry, West Indian Medlar or Bullet wood tree is an evergreen tree with
sweetscented flowers having ancient glamour. Garlands made of its flowers are e
ver in good demand due to its long lasting scent. Its ark is used as a gargle f
or odontopathy, ulitis and ulemorrhagia. Tender stems are used as tooth rushes.
It is also useful in urethrorrhoea, cystorrhoea, diarrhoea and dysentery. Flowe
rs are used for preparing a lotion for wounds and ulcers. Powder of dried flower
s is a rain tonic and is useful as a snuff to relieve cephalgia. Unripe fruit i
s used as a masticatory and will help to fix loose teeth. Seeds are used for pre
paring suppositories in cases of constipation especially in children (Warrier et
al,1995). The ark and seed coat are used for strengthening the gum and enter i
nto the composition of various her al tooth powders, under the name of “Vajradan
ti”, where they may e used along with tannin-containing su stances like catechu
(Acacia catechu), pomegranate (Punica granatum) ark, etc. The ark is used as
snuff for high fever accompanied y pains in various parts of the ody. The flow
ers are considered expectorant and smoked in asthma. A lotion prepared from unri
pe fruits and flowers is used for smearing on sores and wounds. In Ayurveda, the
important preparation of Mimusops is “Bakuladya Taila”, applied on gum and teet
h for strengthening them, whereas in Unani system, the ark is used for the dise
ases of genitourinary system of males (Thakur et al, 1989).
Distri ution
It is cultivated in North and Peninsular India and Andaman Islands. It is grown
as an avenue tree in many parts of India.
Botany
Mimusops elengi Linn. elongs to the family Sapotaceae. It is an evergreen tree
with dark grey fissured ark and densely spreading crown. Leaves are o long, gla
rous and leathery with wavy margins. Flowers are white, fragrant, axillary, sol
itary or fascicled. Fruits are ovoid or ellipsoid erries. Seeds are 1-2 per fru
it, ovoid, compressed, greyish rown and shiny (Warrier et al, 1995). Other impo
rtant species elonging to the genus Mimusops are M. hexandra Rox . and M. kauki
Linn. syn. Manilkara kauki Du .(Chopra et al, 1980).
Agrotechnology
Mimusops prefers moist soil rich in organic matter for good growth. The plant is
propagated y seeds. Fruits are formed in Octo er-Novem er. Seeds are to e col
lected and dried. Seeds are to e soaked in water for 12 hours without much dela
y and sown on seed eds. Via ility of seeds is less. After germination they are t
o e transferred to poly ags. Pits of si e 45cm cu e are to e taken and filled
with 5kg dried cowdung and top soil. To these pits, a out 4 months old seedlings
from the poly ags are to e transplanted with the onset of monsoon. Addition of
10kg FYM every year is eneficial. Any serious pests or diseases do not attack
the plant. Flowering commences from fourth year onwards. Bark, flowers, fruit an
d seeds are the economic parts. β-sitosterol and its glucoside, α-spin -sterol,
quercitol, t r xerol nd lupeol nd its cet te re present in the eri l p rts
s well s the roots nd seeds. The eri l p rts in ddition g ve quercetin, dih
ydroquercetin, myricetin, glycosides, heder genin, ursolic cid, hentri cont ne
nd β-carotene. The ark contained an alkaloid consisting largely of a tiglate e
ster of a ase with a mass spectrum identical to those of la urinine and iso-ret
ronecanol and a saponin also which on hydrolysis gave β-amyrin and rassic acid.
Seed oil was comprised of capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, arachidi
c, oleic and linoleic acids. Saponins from seed are spermicidal and spasmolytic.
The aerial part is diuretic. Extract of flower (1mg/kg ody weight) showed posi
tive diuretic action in dogs. Bark is tonic and fe rifuge. Leaf is an antidote f
or snake ite. Pulp of ripe fruit is antidysenteric. Seed is purgative. Bark and
pulp of ripe fruit is astringent (Husain et al, 1992).
Properties and Activity
126
CASTOR Euphor iaceae
San: Erandah, Pancangulah; Hin: Erandi, Erand; Tam: Amanakku, Kootaimuttu, Amana
kkam Ceti; Erandamu, Amudamu
Ricinus communis
Ben: Bherenda; Mal: Avanakku; Kan: Haralu, Manda, Oudla; Tel:
Importance
Castor is a perennial evergreen shru . The Sanskrit name erandah descri es the p
roperty of the drug to dispel diseases. It is considered as a reputed remedy for
all kinds of rheumatic affections. They are useful in gastropathy such as gulma
, amadosa, constipation, inflammations, fever, ascitis, strangury, ronchitis, c
ough, leprosy, skin diseases, vitiated conditions of vata, colic, coxalgia and l
um ago. The leaves are useful in urns, nyctalopia, strangury and for athing an
d fermentation and vitiated conditions of vata, especially in rheumatoid arthrit
is, urodynia and arthralgia. Flowers are useful in urodynia and arthralgia and g
landular tumours. Seeds are useful in dyspepsia and for preparing a poultice to
treat arthralgia. The oil from seeds is a very effective purgative for all ailme
nts caused y vata and kapha. It is also recommended for scrotocele, ascites, in
termittent fever, gulma, colonitis, lum ago, coxalgia and coxitis (Warrier et al
, 1996). Oil is also used for soap making. Fresh leaves are used y nursing moth
ers in the Canary Island as an external application to increase the flow of milk
. Castor oil is an excellent solvent of pure alkaloids and as such solutions of
atropine, cocaine, etc. is used in ophthalmic surgery. It is also dropped into t
he eye to remove the after-irritation caused y the removal of foreign odies.
Distri ution
It is a native of N. E. tropical Africa. It is found throughout India, cultivate
d and found wild upto 2400m.
Botany
Ricinus communis Linn. elongs to the family Euphor iaceae. It is a monoecious e
vergreen shru growing upto 4m. Leaves are alternate, palmatifid, 6-10 lo ed, ea
ch 1nerved with many lateral nerves and peltate. Lo es are lanceolate, thinly pu
escent elow, margin serrate and apex acuminate. Paniculate racemes are termina
l with male flowers elow, female ones a ove. Perianth is cupular, splitting int
o 3-5 lo es, laceolate, valvate, margin inrolled and acuminate. Filaments of sta
men are connate and repeatedly ranched with divergent anther cells. Sepals are
5, su -equal, lanceolate, valvate and acute. Ovary is glo ose, echinate, 3-locul
ar with 3 ovules and pendulous. Styles are 3, stout, papillose, stigmatiferous.
Capsules are 3-lo ed and prickly with o long seeds having smooth testa and mar l
ed, shiny and carunculate. R. ron e King and R. africanus are two good garden v
arieties which are known as Italian and East Indian Castors, respectively (Mathe
w, 1983, Grieve and Leyel, 1992).
Agrotechnology
Castor is cultivated oth in the plains and the hills. As it has deep root syste
m it is hardy and capa le of resisting drought. It does not withstand waterloggi
ng and frost. It requires hard dry climate for proper development of fruits and
seeds. It requires a welldrained soil, prefera ly sandy loam or loamy sand. High
soil fertility is of less importance as compared to the good physical condition
of the soil. It cannot tolerate alkalinity. It is generally grown in red loamy
soils, lack soils and alluvial soils. The plant is seed propagated. The seed ra
te required is 5-12 kg/ha (pure crop) and 3 kg/ha (mixed crop). Seeds are to e
sown on a hot ed early in March. When the plants come up individual plant is to
e planted in a separate pot filled with light soil and plunged into a fresh ho
t ed. The
127
young plants are to e kept in glass houses till early June where they are harde
ned and kept out. The suita le season of growing is kharif season. The crop is u
sually sown in April and planting is done in early July. The land is to e ploug
hed 2-3 times with the onset of rains and is repeated after rain. The spacing re
commended is 60X90cm in case of pure crop ut it is seldom cultivated pure. It i
s usually grown mixed with crops such as jowar, arhar, chilly, groundnut, cowpea
, cotton, etc. 10-15t FYM/ha and 50kg N, 50kg P2O5 and 20kg K2O/ha will e suffi
cient. Addition of neem cake is eneficial as it increases oil content. There sh
ould e sufficient moisture in the field at the time of sowing. A month after pl
anting, weeding and earthing up is to e done. The plant is attacked y hairy ca
terpillar, castor semilooper, castor seed caterpillar, etc. which can e managed
y integrated pest management measures. The leaf light disease occurring in ca
stor can e controlled y spraying with Bordeaux mixture 2-3 times at 15 days in
terval. Harvesting of ripe fruits can e done from the end of Novem er till the
end of Fe ruary. The fruit ranches are picked when they are still green to avoi
d splitting and scattering of the seeds. The pods are to e heaped up in the sun
to dry. Then the seeds are to e eaten with stick and winnowed. Roots, leaves,
flowers, seeds and oil constitute the economic parts. The average yield is 500-
600kg/ha (Thakur, 1990).
Properties and Activity
The eancoat yielded lupeol and 30-norlupan-3β-ol-20-one. Roots, stems and leave
s contain several amino acids. Flowers gave apigenin, chlorogenin, rutin, coumar
in and hyperoside. Castor oil is constituted y several fatty acids (Husain et a
l, 1992). Seed coat contained 1. 50-1. 62% lipids and higher amounts of phosphat
ides and non-saponifia le matter than seed kernel. Fresh leaves protected agains
t liver injury induced y car on tetra chloride in rats while cold aqueous extra
ct provided partial protection (Rastogi et al, 1991). Root and stem is antiproto
oal and anticancerous. Root, stem and seed are diuretic. The roots are sweet, a
crid, astringent, thermogenic, carminative, purgative, galactagogue, sudorific,
expectorant and depurative. Leaves are diuretic, anthelmintic and galactagogue.
Seeds are acrid, thermogenic, digestive, cathartic and aphrodisiac. Oil is itte
r, acrid, sweet, antipyretic, thermogenic and viscous (Warrier et al, 1996). Cas
tor oil forms a clean, lightcoloured soap, which dries and hardens well and is f
ree from smell. The oil varies much in activity. The East Indian is the more act
ive, ut the Italian has the least taste. Castor oil is an excellent solvent of
pure alkaloids. The oil furnishes se acic acid and caprylic acid. It is the most
valua le laxative in medicines. It acts in a out 5 hours, affecting the entire
length of the owel, ut not increasing the flow of ile, except in very large d
oses. The mode of its action is unknown. The oil will purge when ru ed into the
skin (Grieve and Leyel, 1992).
128
CUCURBITS Cucur itaceae
The family Cucur itaceae includes a large group of plants which are medicinally
valua le. The important genera elonging to the family are Trichosanthes, Lagena
ria, Luffa, Benincasa, Momordica, Cucumis, Citrullus, Cucur ita, Bryonopsis and
Corallocarpus. The medicinally valua le species of these genera are discussed e
low.
1. Trichosanthes dioica Rox .
Eng: Wild Snake-gourd; San: Meki,Pargavi, Parvara, Patola; Hin: Palval, Parvar B
en: Potol; Mal: Kattupatavalam, Patolam; Tam: Kom uppudalai; Tel: Kommupotta Wil
d snake-gourd is a slender-stemmed, extensively clim ing, more or less sca rous
and woolly her found throughout the plains of N. India, extending to Assam and
W. Bengal. Tendrils are 2-4 fid. Leaves are 7.5x5cm in si e, ovate-o long, corda
te, acute, sinuatedentate, not lo ed, rigid, rough on oth surface and with a pe
tiole of 2cm. Flowers are unisexual. Male flowers are not racemed ut woolly out
side. Calyx tu e is 4.5cm long, narrow, teeth linear and erect. Anthers are free
. Fruit is 5.9cm long, o long or nearly spherical, acute, smooth and orange-red
when ripe. Seeds are half-ellipsoid, compressed and corrugated on the margin (Ki
rtikar and Basu, 1988). The unripe fruit of this is generally used as a culinary
vegeta le and is considered very wholesome and specially suited for the convale
scent. The tender shoots are given in decoction with sugar to assist digestion.
The seeds are useful for disorders of the stomach. The leaf juice is ru ed over
the chest in liver congestion and over the whole ody in intermittent fevers (N
adkarni, 1998). The fruit is used as a remedy for spermatorrhoea. The fresh juic
e of the unripe fruit is often used as a cooling and laxative adjunct to some al
terative medicines. In ilious fever, a decoction of patola leaves and coriander
in equal parts is given. The fruit in com ination with other drugs is prescri e
d in snake ite and scorpion sting (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). Fruits contain free
amino acids and 5-hydroxy tryptamine. Fatty acids from seeds comprise elaeostea
ric, linoelic, oleic and saturated acids. The aerial part is hypoglycaemic. Leaf
and root is fe rifuge. Root is hydragogue, cathartic and tonic. Unripe leaf and
fruit is laxative (Husain et al, 1992). The plant is alterative and tonic. Leav
es are anthelmintic. Flower is tonic and aphrodisiac. The ripe fruit is sour to
sweet, tonic, aphrodisiac, expectorant and removes lood impurities. The other i
mportant species elonging to the genus Trichosanthes are as follows. T. palmata
Rox . T. cordata Rox . T. nervifolia Linn. T. cucumerina Linn. T. anguina Linn.
T. wallichiana Wight. syn. T. multilo a Clarke
2. Lagenaria vulgaris Ser. syn. Cucur ita Lagenaria Linn. ; Rox .
Eng: Bottle gourd San: Ala u Mal: Katuchuram, Churakka Hin: Lauki, Jangli-khaddu
Tam: Soriai-kay Ben: Lau, Kodu Tel: Surakkaya
Bottle gourd is a large softly pu escent clim ing or trailing her which is said
to e indigenous in India, the Molucas and in A yssinia. It has stout 5-angled
stems with ifid tendrils. Leaves are ovate or or iculate, cordate, dentate, 5-a
ngular or 5-lo ed, hairy on oth surfaces. Flowers are large, white, solitary, u
nisexual or isexual, the males long and
129
females short peduncled. Ovary is o long, softly pu escent with short style and
many ovules. Fruits are large, usually ottle or dum - ell-shaped, indehiscent a
nd polymorphous. Seeds are many, white, hori ontal, compressed, with a marginal
groove and smooth. There are sweet fruited and itter-fruited varieties (Kirtika
r and Basu, 1988). The fruit contains a thick white pulp which, in the cultivate
d variety (kodu) is sweet and edi le, while in the smaller wild variety (tamri)
it is itter and a powerful purgative. The seeds yield clear limpid oil which is
cooling and is applied to relieve headache. The pulp of the cultivated forms is
employed as and adjunct to purgatives and considered cool, diuretic and anti il
ious, useful in cough, and as an antidote to certain poisons. Externally it is a
pplied as a poultice. The leaves are purgative and recommended to e taken in th
e form of decoction for jaundice (Nadkarni, 1998). In the case of sweet-fruited
variety, the stem is laxative and sweet. The fruit is sweet oleagenous, cardioto
nic, general tonic, aphrodisiac, laxative and cooling. In the case of itter-fru
ited variety, the leaves are diuretic, anti ilious; useful in leucorrhoea, vagin
al and uterine complaints and earache. The fruit is itter, hot, pungent, emetic
, cooling, cardiotonic, anti ilious; cures asthma, vata, ronchitis, inflammatio
ns ulcers and pains.
3. Luffa acutangula ( Linn. ) Rox .
Eng: Ridged gourd; San: Dharmargavah, Svadukosataki; Hin: Tori, Katitori; Ben: G
hosha Mal: Peechil, Peechinga; Tam: Pikangai, Prikkangai; Tel: Birakaya; Kan: Ka
dupadagila Ridged gourd or ri ed gourd is a large monoecious clim er cultivated
throughout India. It is with 5-angled gla rous stems and trifid tendrils. Leave
s are or icular-cordate, palmately 5-7 lo ed, sca rous on oth sides with promin
ent veins and veinlets. Flowers are yellow, males arranged in 12-20 flowered axi
llary racemes. Female flowers are solitary, arranged in the axils of the males.
Ovary is strongly ri ed. Fruits are o long-clavate with 10-sharp angles 15-30cm
long, tapering towards the ase. Seeds are lack, ovoid-o long, much compressed
and not winged (Warrier et al, 1995). The leaves are used in haemorrhoids, lepr
osy, granular-conjunctivitis and ringworm. The seeds are useful in dermatopathy.
The juice of the fresh leaves is dropped into the eyes of children in granular
conjunctivitis, also to prevent the lids from adhering at night on account of ex
cessive meihomian secretion (Nadkarni, 1998). Fruits are demulcent, diuretic, to
nic, expectorant, laxative and nutritive. The seeds are itter, emetic, catharti
c, expectorant and purgative. The other important species of the genus Luffa are
: L. aegyptiaca Mill. L. acutangula var. amara Clarke L. echinata Rox .
4. Benincasa hispida (Thum .) Cogn. syn. B. cerifera Savi.
Eng: Ash gourd, White gourd melon; San: Kusmandah; Hin: Petha, Raksa; Ben: Kumra
Mal: Kumpalam; Tam: Pusanikkai; Kan: Bile Kum ala; Tel: Bodigummadi Ash gourd o
r White gourd melon is a large trailing gourd clim ing y means of tendrils whic
h is widely cultivated in tropical Asia. Leaves are large and hispid eneath. Fl
owers are yellow, unisexual with male peduncle 7.5-10cm long and female peduncle
shorter. Fruits are roadly cylindric, 30-45cm long, hairy throughout and ultim
ately covered with a waxy loom. The fruits are useful in asthma, cough, dia ete
s, haemoptysis, hemorrhages from internal organs, epilepsy, fever and vitiated c
onditions of pitta. The seeds are useful in dry cough, fever, urethrorrhea, syph
ilis, hyperdipsia and vitiated conditions of pitta (Warrier et al,1993). It is a
rejuvenative drug capa le of improving intellect and physical strength. In Ayur
veda, the fresh juice of the fruit is administered as a specific in haemoptysis
and other haemorrhages from internal organs. The fruit is useful in insanity, ep
ilepsy and other nervous diseases, urning sensation, dia etes, piles and dyspep
sia. It is a
130
good antidote for many kinds of vegeta le, mercurial and alcoholic poisoning. It
is also administered in cough, asthma or respiratory diseases, heart diseases a
nd catarrah. Seeds are useful in expelling tapeworms and curing difficult urinat
ion and ladder stones. The important formulations using the drug are Kusmandara
sayana, Himasagarataila, Dhatryadighrita, Vastyamantakaghrita, Mahaukusmandakagh
rita, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). Fruits contain lupeol, β-sitosterol, n -tria
contanol, vitamin B, mannitol and amino acids. The fruit is alterative, laxative
, diuretic, tonic, aphrodisiac and antiperiodic. Seed and oil from seed is anthe
lmintic (Husain et al, 1992).
5. Momordica charantia Linn.
Eng: Bitter gourd, Carilla fruit San: Karavellam Mal: Kaypa, Paval Tam: Pavakkai
, Paval, Pakar Hin: Karela, Kareli Tel: Kakara
Bitter gourd or Carilla fruit is a ranched clim ing annual which is cultivated
throughout India. It is a monoecious plant with angled and grooved stems and hai
ry or villous young parts. Tendrils are simple, slender and elongate. Leaves are
simple, or icular, cordate and deeply divided into 5-7 lo es. Flowers are unise
xual, yellow and arranged on 5-10cm long peduncles. Fruits are 5-15cm long with
3-valved capsules, pendulous, fusiform, ri ed and eaked earing numerous trian
gular tu ercles. Seeds are many or few with shining sculptured surface. The root
s are useful in coloptosis and ophthalmopathy. The leaves are useful in vitiated
conditions of pita, helminthiasis, constipation, intermittent fever, urning se
nsation of the sole and nyctalopia. The fruits are useful in skin diseases, lepr
osy, ulcers, wounds, urning sensation, constipation, anorexia, flatulence, coli
c, helminthiasis, rheumatalgia, gout, dia etes, asthma, cough, dysmenorrhoea, im
purity of reast milk, fever and de ility. Seeds are useful in the treatment of
ulcers, pharyngodynia, and o structions of the liver and spleen. The leaves and
fruits are used for external application in lum ago, ulceration and one fractur
es and internally in leprosy, haemorrhoids and jaundice (Warrier et al, 1995). T
he drug improves digestion, calms down sexual urge, quells diseases due to pitta
and kapha and cures anaemia, anorexia, leprosy, ulcers, jaundice, flatulence an
d piles. Fruit is useful in gout, rheumatism and complaints of liver and spleen
(Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer and Kolammal, 1966; Mooss, 1976; Kurup et al, 1979). Kacc
oradi taila is an important preparation using the drug (Sivarajan et al, 1994).
The seeds give triterpene glycosides, named momordicosides A, B, C, D and E, whi
ch are glycosides of cucur it-5-en-triol, tetraol or pentaol. Leaves and vines g
ive tetracyclic triterpenes-momordicines I, II and III ( itter principles). Imma
ture fruits give several non- itter and 2 itter cucur itacin glycosides. Four o
f the non- itter glycosides, momordicosides F1, F2, G and I and the itter momor
dicosides; K and L have also een characteri ed. Fruits, seeds and tissue cultur
e give a polypeptide which contained 17 types of amino acids and showed hypoglyc
aemic activity. Fruits also give 5-hydroxy tryptamine and a neutral compound cha
rantin (a steroidal glucoside), diosgenin, cholesterol, lanosterol and β-sitoste
rol. Leaf is emetic, purgative and anti ilious. Fruit is stomachic, tonic, carmi
native, fe rifuge, antirheumatic and hypoglycaemic. Root is astringent. Fruit an
d leaf is anti-leprotic. Fruit, leaf and root are a ortifacient and anti-dia eti
c. Leaf and seed is anthelmintic. Seed oil possesses antifeeding and insecticida
l properties. Unsaponifia le matter from seed oil exhi ited pronounced inhi itor
y activity against gram negative acteria. Seed and fruit are hypoglycaemic, cyt
otoxic and anti-feedant (Husain et al, 1992). Other important species elonging
to the genus Momordica are as follows. M. dioica Rox . M. cochinchinensis Spreng
. M. tu erosa Cogn. M. alsamina Linn.
131
6. Cucumis melo Linn. syn. C. melo Linn. var. cultis Kur ., C. pu escens Willd.,
C. callosus (Rottl.) Cogn.
Eng: Sweet melon San, Hin: Khar uja Tam: Chukkari-kai, Thumatti-kai, Mulampa ham
Ben: Kharmul Mal: Mulam Tel: Khar uja-dosha
Sweet melon is a creeping annual extensively cultivated throughout India, found
wild in India, Baluchistan and tropical Africa. The stem is creeping, angular an
d sca rous. Leaves are or icular-reniform in outline, 5-angled or lo ed, sca rou
s on oth surfaces and often with soft hairs. Lo es of leaves are not very deep
nor acute and with 5cm long petiole. Female peduncle is 5cm. Fruit is spherical,
ovoid, elongate or contorted, gla rous or somewhat hairy, not spinous nor tu er
culate. Cucumis melo includes two varieties, namely, C. melo var. momordica syn.
C. momordica Rox . C. melo var. utilissimus Duthie & Fuller. syn. C. utilissimu
s Rox . The fruit is eaten raw and cooked. Its pulp forms a nutritive, demulcent
, diuretic and cooling drink. It is eneficial as a lotion in chronic and acute
ec ema as well as tan and freckles and internally in cases of dyspepsia. Pulp mi
xed with cumin seeds and sugar candy is a cool diet in hot season. Seeds yield s
weet edi le oil which is nutritive and diuretic, useful in painful discharge and
suppression of urine. The whole fruit is useful in chronic ec ema (Kirtikar & B
asu, 1988). Seeds contain fatty acids-myristic, palmitic, oleic, linoleic; aspar
agine, glutamine, citrulline, lysine, histidine, arginine, phenylalanine, valine
, tyrosine, leucine, iso-leucine, methionine, proline, threonine, tryptophan and
crystine. Seed is tonic, lachrymatory, diuretic and urease inhi itor. Fruit pul
p is ec emic. Fruit is tonic, laxative, galactagogue, diuretic and diaphoretic.
The rind is vulnerary (Husain et al, 1992).
7. Cucumic sativus Linn.
Eng: Cucum er, Common cucum er; San: Trapusah; Hin, Ben: Khira; Tam: Vellarikkai
, Pippinkai; Kan: Mullusavte; Tel: Dosekaya Mal: Vellari
Cucum er is a clim ing annual which is cultivated throughout India, found wild i
n the Himalayas from Kumaon to Sikkim. It is a hispidly hairy trailing or clim i
ng annual. Leaves are simple, alternate, deeply cordate, 3-5 lo ed with oth sur
faces hairy and denticulate margins. Flowers are yellow, males clustered, earin
g cohering anthers, connective crusted or elevated a ove the cells. Females are
solitary and thickly covered with very ul ous ased hairs. Fruits are cylindric
al pepo of varying si es and forms. Seeds are cream or white with hard and smoot
h testa. The fruits are useful in vitiated conditions of pitta, hyperdipsia, ur
ning sensation, thermoplegia, fever, insomnia, cephalgia, ronchitis, jaundice,
haemorrhages, strangury and general de ility. The seeds are useful in urning se
nsation, pitta, constipation, intermittent fevers, strangury, renal calculus, ur
odynia and general de ility (Warrier et al, 1994). The leaves oiled and mixed w
ith cumin seeds, roasted, powdered and administered in throat affections. Powder
ed and mixed with sugar, they are powerful diuretic (Nadkarni, 1998). The fruits
and seeds are sweet, refrigerant, haemostatic, diuretic and tonic. Other import
ant species elonging to the genus are: C. trigonus Rox . syn. C. pseudo-colocyn
this C. prophetarum Linn. 8. Citrullus colocynthis (Linn. ) Schrader. syn. Cucum
is colocynthis Linn.
132
Eng: Colocynth, Bitter apple; San: Visala, Mahendravaruni; Hin: Badi indrayan, M
akkal Ben: Makhal; Mal: Kattuvellari (Valutu), Valiya pekkummatti; Tel: Etti-puc
hcha Tam: Paitummatti, Petummatti; Colocynth or Bitter apple is found, cultivate
d and wild, throughout India in warmer areas. It is an extensively trailing annu
al her with ifid tendrils angular ranching stems and wooly tender shoots. Lea
ves are deeply divided, lo es narrow thick, gla rous or somewhat hairy. Flowers
are unisexual, yellow, oth males and females solitary and with pale-yellow coro
lla. Fruit is a glo ose or o long fleshy indehiscent erry, 5-7.5cm in diameter
and variegated with green and white. Seeds are pale rown. The fruits are useful
in tumours, ascites, leucoderma, ulcers, asthma, ronchitis, urethrorrhea, jaun
dice, dyspepsia, constipations, elephantiasis, tu ercular glands of the neck and
splenomegaly (Warrier et al, 1994). It is useful in a normal presentations of t
he foetus and in atrophy of the foetus. In addition to the a ove properties, the
root has a eneficial action in inflammation of the reasts, pain in the joints
; externally it is used in ophthalmia and in uterine pains. The fruit and root,
with or without is ru ed into a paste with water and applied to oils and pimpl
es. In rheumatism, equal parts of the root and long pepper are given in pill. A
paste of the root is applied to the enlarged a domen of children (Kirtikar and B
asu, 1988). The fruit is useful in ascites, iliousness, jaundice, cere ral cong
estion, colic, constipation dropsy, fever, worms and sciatica. Root is given in
cases of a dominal enlargement, cough, asthma, inflammation of the reast, ulcer
s, urinary diseases and rheumatism. Oil from seeds is used for poisonous ites,
owel complaints, epilepsy and also for lackening the hair (Nadkarni, 1954; Dey
, 1980). The important formulations using the root and fruit are A hayarista, Ma
hatiktakam kasaya, Manasamitravatakam, Cavikasava, Madhuyastyadi taila, etc. (Si
varajan et al, 1994). The powder is often used as an insecticide. The extract sh
ould never e given without some aromatic to correct its griping tendency (Nadka
rni, 1998). Fruit contains a glycoside- colocynthin, its aglycone-α-el terin, ci
trulluin, citrullene nd citrullic cid. Unripe fruit cont ins p-hydroxy benzyl
methyl ester. Roots cont in αel terin nd hentri cont ne (Hus in et l, 1992). C
olocynth is, in moder te doses, dr stic, hydrogogue, c th rtic nd diuretic. In
l rge doses, it is emetic nd g stro-intestin l irrit nt nd in sm ll doses, it
is expector nt nd lter tive. Colocynthin is  c th rtic nd intensely bitter p
rinciple. It h s  purg tive ction. All p rts of the pl nt re very bitter. The
fruit h s been described s c th rtic (N dk rni, 1982).
9. Citrullus vulg ris Schr d. syn. C. l n tus (Thunb.) M ts. & N k i.
Eng: W ter melon; M l: Th nnim th n; S n: T r mbuj ; Hin: T rbuj; T m: Pitch , D
h rbusini Ben: T rbuz
W termelon is n extensively climbing nnu l which is l rgely cultiv ted through
out Indi  nd in ll w rm countries. It h s thick ngul r br nching stems. Tendr
ils re bifid, stout nd pubescent. Le ves re long, deeply divided or moder tel
y lobed, gl brous or somewh t h iry nd h rdly sc brous. Petiole is  little sho
rter th n the limb nd villous. C lyx-lobes re n rrowly l nceol te, equ lling t
he tube. Coroll  is yellow within, greenish outside nd villous. Lobes re ov te
-oblong, obtuse nd prominently 5-nerved. Fruit is sub-globose or ellipsoid, smo
oth, greenish or clouded, often with  gl ucous w xy co ting. Flesh is juicy, re
d or yellowish white. Seeds re usu lly m rgined. C. vulg ris v r. fistulosus Du
thie & Fuller. syn. C. fistulosus h s its fruit bout the size of sm ll turnip,
the seeds of which re used medicin lly. The fruit is t steless when unripe nd
sweet when ripe. The unripe fruit is used to cure j undice. Ripe fruit cures k p
h  nd v t  nd c uses biliousness. It is good for sore eyes, sc bies nd itchin
g. The seeds re tonic to the br in nd used s  cooling
133
medicine. An emulsion of the seeds is m de into  poultice with the pounded le v
es nd pplied hot in c ses of intestin l infl mm tions (Kirtik r nd B su, 1988
). Fruit juice is good in quenching thirst nd it is used s n ntiseptic in ty
phus fever with cumin nd sug r. It is used s  cooling drink in str ngury nd
ffections of urin ry org ns such s gonorrhoe ; in hep tic congestion nd intes
tin l c t rrh. The bitter w termelon of Sind is known s “Kirbut” nd is used s
 purg tive. Seeds yield  fixed oil nd proteids; citrullin. Seeds re cooling
, demulcent, diuretic, vermifuge nd nutritive. Pulp is cooling nd diuretic. Fr
uit-juice is cooling nd refreshing (N dk rni, 1982).
10. Curcurbit  pepo Linn. syn. Pepo vulg ris et P. verrucosus Moench Meth.
Eng: Pompion, Pumpkin, Veget ble M rrow; Hin, Ben: K dim h, Kond , Kumr , S fedk
k du; Tel: Bud degumm di, Pottigumm di S n: K rk ru, Kurk ru, Kushm ndi M l: M t
h n, M th 
Pompion or Pumpkin is  climbing herb which is considered to be  n tive of Amer
ic  nd cultiv ted in m ny p rts of Indi . The stem nd le ves re with  h rsh
prickly rm ture. Foli ge is stiff, m or less rigid nd erect. Le ves re with 
bro d tri ngul r ore pointed outline nd often with deep lobes. Coroll  is most
ly with erect or spre ding (not drooping) pointed lobes, the tube n rrowing tow 
rds the b se. Peduncle is strongly 5- ngled nd little or much exp nding ne r th
e fruit. The fruit is cooling nd stringent to the bowels, incre ses ppetite,
cures leprosy, ‘k ph  nd v t ’, thirst, fatigue and purifies the blood. The lea
ves are used to remove biliousness. Fruit is good for teeth, throat and ees and
allas thirst. Seeds cure sore chests, haemoptsis, bronchitis and fever. It is
good for the kidne and brain. The leaves are used as an external application f
or burns. The seeds are considered anthelmintic. The seeds are largel used for
flavouring certain preparations of Indian hemp, and the root for a nefarious pur
pose, viz., to make the preparation more potent. The seeds are taeniacide, diure
tic and demulcent. The fruit is cooling, laxative and astringent. The leaves are
digestible, haematinic and analgesic. The other important species belonging to
the genus Cucurbita is C. maxima Duchena, the seeds of which are a popular remed
 for tape-worm and oil as a nervine tonic (Kirtikar & Basu, 1988).

11. Corallocarpus epigaeus Benth. ex Hook. f. sn. Bronia epigaea Wight.

San: Katunahi; Hin: Akasgaddah; Mal: Kadamba, Kollankova Tam: Akashagarudan, Gol
lankovai; Tel: Murudonda, Nagadonda Corallocarpus is a prostrate or climbing her
b distributed in Punjab, Sind, Gujarat, Deccan, Karnataka and Sri Lanka. It is m
onoecious with large root which is turnip-shaped and slender stem which is groov
ed, zigzag and glabrous. Tendrils are simple, slender and glabrous. Leaves are s
ub-orbicular in outline, light green above and pale beneath, deepl cordate at t
he base, angled or more or less deepl 3-5 lobed. Petiole is long and glabrous.
Male flowers are small and arranged at the tip of a straight stiff glabrous pedu
ncle. Calx is slightl hair, long and rounded at the base. Corolla is long and
greenish ellow. Female flowers are usuall solitar with short, stout and glab
rous peduncles. Fruit is stalked, long, ellipsoid or ovoid. Seeds are priform,
turgid, brown and with a whitish corded margin. It is prescribed in later stages
of dsenter and old veneral complaints. For external use in chronic rheumatism
, it is made into a liniment with cumin seed, onion and castor oil. It is
134
used in case of snakebite where it is administered internall and applied to the
bitten part. The root is given in sphilitic rheumatism and later stages of ds
enter. The plant is bitter, sweet, alexipharmic and emetic. The root is said to
possess alterative and laxative properties (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). Root cont
ains a bitter principle like Breonin (Chopra et al, 1980).
Agrotechnolog
Cucurbits can be successfull grown during Januar-March and SeptemberDecember.
For the rainfed crop, sowing can also be started after the receipt of the first
few showers. The seed rate and spacing recommended for the cucurbits are given b
elow: Plants Bitter gourd Snake gourd Bottle gourd Ash gourd Pumpkin Cucumber/Me
lon Water melon Seed rate (kg/ha) 5.0-6.0 3.0-4.0 3.0-4.0 0.75-1.00 1.0-1.5 0.5-
0.75 1.0-1.5 Spacing (m) 2.0x2.0 2.0x2.0 3.0x3.0 4.5x2.0 4.5x2.0 2.0x1.5 2.0x3.0
Pits of 60cm diameter and 30-45cm depth are to be taken at the desired spacing.
Well rotten FYM or vegetable mixture is to be mixed with topsoil in the pit and
seeds are to be sown at 4-5/pit. Unhealth plants are to be removed after 2 week
s and retained 2-3 plants/pit. FYM is to be applied at 20-25t/ha as basal dose a
long with half dose of N (35kg/ha) and full dose of P (25kg) and K (25kg). The r
emaining dose of N (35kg) can be applied in 2 equal split doses at fortnightl i
ntervals. During the initial stages of growth, irrigation is to be given at an i
nterval of 3-4 das and at alternate das during flowering and fruiting periods.
For trailing cucumber, pumpkin and melon, dried twigs are to be spread on the g
round. Bitter gourd, bottle gourd, snake gourd and ash gourd are to be trailed o
n Pandals. Weeding and raking of the soil are to be conducted at the time of fer
tilizer application. Earthing up ma be done during rain season. The most dread
ed pest of cucurbits is fruit flies which can be controlled b using fruit traps
, covering the fruits with polthene, cloth or paper bags, removal and destructi
on of affected fruits and lastl spraing with Carbarl or Malathion 0. 2% suspe
nsion containing sugar or jagger at 10g/l at fortnightl intervals after fruit
set initiation. During rain season, down mildew and mosaic diseases are severe
in cucurbits. The former can be checked b spraing Mancozeb 0.2%. The spread o
f mosaic can be checked b controlling the vectors using Dimethoate or Phosphami
don 0.05% and destruction of affected plants and collateral hosts. Harvesting to
be done at least 10 das after insecticide or fungicide application (KAU,1996).
135
MEDICINAL YAMS Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea spp.
The growing need for steroidal drugs and the high cost of obtaining them from an
imal sources led to a widespread search for plant sources of steroidal sapogenin
s, which ultimatel led to the most promising one. It is the largest genus of th
e famil constituted b 600 species of predominantl twining herbs. Among the tw
ining species, some species twine clockwise while others anti-clockwise (Miege,
1958). All the species are dioceous and rhizomatous. According to Course (1967)
, this genus is named in honour of the Greek phsician Pedenios Dioscorides, the
author of the classical Materia Medica Libri Quinque. Some of the species like
D. alata and D. esculenta have been under cultivation for a long time for their
edible tubers. There are about 15 species of this genus containing diosgenin. So
me of them are the following (Chopra et al, 1980). D. floribunda Mart. & Gal. D.
composita Hemsl; sn. D. macrostacha Benth. D. deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb; sn.
D. nepalensis Sweet ex Bernardi. D. aculeata Linn. sn. D. esculenta D. alata L
inn. sn. D. atropurpurea Roxb. D. Globosa Roxb; D. purpurea Roxb; D. rubella Ro
xb. D. bulbifera Linn. sn. D. crispata Roxb. D. pulchella Roxb.; D. sativa Thun
b. Non Linn. D. versicolor Buch. Ham. Ex Wall. D. daemona Roxb. sn. D. hispida
Dennst. D. oppositifolia Linn. D. pentaphlla Linn. sn. D. jacquemontii Hook. f
. D. triphlla Linn. D. prazeri Prain & Burkil sn. D. clarkei Prain & Burkill D
. deltoidea Wall. var. sikkimensis Prain D. sikkimensis Prain & Burkill Among th
e above said species, D. floribunda, D. composita and D. deltoidea are widel gr
own for diosgenin production.
1.
D. floribunda Mart. & Gal
D. floribunda Mart. & Gal. is an introduction from central America and had wide
adaptation as it is successfull grown in Karnataka, Assam, Meghalaa, Andaman a
nd Goa. The vines are glabrous and left twining. The alternate leaves are borne
on slender stems and have broadl ovate or triangular ovate, shallowl cordate,
coriaceous lamina with 9 nerves. The petioles are 5-7cm long, thick and firm. Va
riegation in leaves occurs in varing degrees. The male flowers are solitar and
rarel in pairs. Female flowers have divericate stigma which is bifid at apex.
The capsule is obovate and seed is winged all round. The tubers are thick with 
ellow coloured flesh, branched and growing upto a depth of 30cm (Chadha et al, 1
995).
2.
D. composita Hemsl.
D. composita Hemsl. according to Knuth (1965) has the valid botanical name as D.
macrostacha Benth. However, D. composita is widel used in published literatur
e. It is a Central American introduction into Goa, Jammu, Bangalore, Anaimalai H
ills of Tami Nadu and Darjeeling in W. Bengal. The vines are right twinning and
nearl glabrous. The alternate leaves have long petioles, membraneous or coriace
ous lamina measuring upto 20x18cm, abruptl acute or cuspidate-acuminate, shallo
wl or deepl cordate, 7-9 nerved. The fasciculate-glomerate inflorescence is si
ngle or branched with 2 or 3 sessile male
136
flowers having fertile stamens. Male fascicle is 15-30cm long. The female flower
s have bifid stigma. Tubers are large, white and deep-rooted (upto 45cm) (Chadha
et al, 1995).
3.
D. deltoidea Wall. ex. Griseb.
D. deltoidea Wall. ex. Griseb. is distributed throughout the Himalaas at altitu
des of 1000-3000m extending over the states of Jammu-Kashmir, H. P, U. P, Sikkim
and further into parts of W. Bengal. The glabrous and left twining stem bears a
lternate petiolate leaves. The petioles are 5-12 cm long. The lamina is 5-15cm l
ong and 4-12cm wide widel cordate. The flowers are borne on axillar spikes, ma
le spikes 8-40cm long and stamens 6. Female spikes are 15cm long, 3. 5cm broad a
nd 4-6 seeded. Seeds are winged all round. Rhizomes are lodged in soil, superfic
ial, horizontal, tuberous, digitate and chestnut brown in colour (Chadha et al,
1995). D. deltoidea tuber grows parallel to ground covered b small scale leaves
and is described as rhizome. The tubers are morphologicall cauline in structur
e with a ring of vascular bundles in oung tubers which appear scattered in matu
re tubers (Purnima and Srivastava, 1988). Visible buds are present unlike in D.
floribunda and D. composita where the buds are confined to the crown position (S
elvaraj et al, 1972).
Importance of Diosgenin
Diosgenin is the most important sapogenin used as a starting material for snthe
sis of a number of steroidal drugs. For commercial purposes, its β-isomer, yamog
enin is also taken as diosgenin while analysing the sample for processing. Vario
us steroidal drugs derived from diosgenin y artificial synthesis include cortic
osteroids, sex hormones, ana olic steroids and oral contraceptives. Corticostero
ids are the most important group of steroidal drugs synthesi ed from diosgenin.
First group of corticosteroids regulates car ohydrate and protein meta olism. Th
e second group consists of aldosterone, which controls alance of potassium, sod
ium and water in the human ody. The glucocorticoids in the form of cortisone an
d hydrocortisone are used orally, intramuscularly or topically for treatment of
rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatic fever, other collegen diseases, ulcerative colit
is, certain cases of asthma and a num er of allergic diseases affecting skin, ey
e and the ear. These are also used for treatment of gout and a variety of inflam
mations of skin, eye and ear and as replacement therapy in Addison’s diseases. T
he minerato corticoides, desoxycorticosterone or desoxycortone are used in resto
ring kidney functions in cases of cortical deficiency and Addison’s disease. Bot
h male and female sex hormones are also synthesi ed from disosgenin. The main ma
le sex hormone (androgen) which is produced from disogenin is testosterone. The
main female sex hormones produced are oestrogen and progesterone. Recently oestr
ogen has also een used in cosmetic lotions and creams to improve the tone and c
olour of skin. One of the main uses of progesterone during recent years has een
as antifertility agent for oral contraceptives. These artificial steroids have
increased oral activity and fewer side effects, as they can e used in reduced d
oses. Oral contraceptives are also used for animals like pigs, cows and sheep to
control fertility and to give irth at a prescri ed period in a group of animal
s at the same time. These compounds are also used to reduce the interval etween
the lactation periods to have more milk and meat production. Anti-fertility com
pounds are also used as a pest-control measure for decreasing the multiplication
of pests like rodents, pigeons and sea gulls (Husain et al, 1979). Although yam
tu ers contain a variety of chemical su stances including car ohydrates, protei
ns, alkaloids and tannins, the most important constituents of these yams are a g
roup of saponins which yield sapogenins on hydrolysis. The most important sapoge
nin found in Dioscorea are diosgenin, yamogenin and pannogenin. Diosgenin is a s
teroid drug precursor. The diogenin content varies from 2-7% depending on the ag
e of the tu ers. Saponins including 5 spirastanol glucoside and 2 furostanol glu
coside, 4 new steroid saponins, flori unda saponins C, D, E and F. Strain of A a
nd B are o tained from D. flori unda (Husain et al, 1979). Rhi omes of D. deltoi
dea are a rich source of diosgenin
137
and its glycoside. Epismilagenin and smilagenone have een isolated from D. delt
oidea and D. pra eri (Chakravarti et al, 1960; 1962). An alkaloid dioscorine has
een known to occur in D. hispida (Bhide et al,1978). Saponin of D. pra eri pro
duced a fall of lood pressure when given intravenously and saponin of D. deltoi
dea has no effect on lood pressure (Chakravarti et al,1963). Deltonin, a steroi
dal glycoside, isolated from rhi omes of D. deltoidea showed contraceptive activ
ity (Biokova et al, 1990).
Agrotechnology
Dioscorea species prefer a tropical climate without extremity in temperature. It
is adapted to moderate to heavy rainfall area. Dioscorea plants can e grown in
a variety of soils, ut light soil is good, as harvesting of tu ers is easier i
n such soils. The ideal soil pH is 5.5-6.5 ut tolerates fairly wide variation i
n soil pH. Dioscorea can e propagated y tu er pieces, single node stem cutting
s or seed. Commercial planting is normally esta lished y tu er pieces only. Pro
pagation through seed progeny is varia le and it may take longer time to o tain
tu er yields. IIHR, Bangalore has released two improved varieties, FB( c ) -1, a
vigorously growing strain relatively free from diseases and Arka Upkar, a high
yielding clone. Three types of tu er pieces can e distinguished for propagation
purpose, vi . (1) crown (2) median and (3) tip, of which crowns produce new sho
ots within 30 days and are therefore preferred. Dipping of tu er pieces for 5 mi
nutes in 0.3% solution of Benlate followed y dusting the cut ends with 0.3% Ben
late in talcum powder in moist sand eds effectively checks the tu er rot. The t
reatment is very essential for o taining uniform stand of the crop. The est tim
e of planting is the end of April so that new sprouts will grow vigorously durin
g the rainy season commencing in June in I ndia. Land is to e prepared thorough
ly until a fine tilth is o tained. Deep furrows are made at 60cm distance with t
he help of a plough. The stored tu er pieces which are ready for planting is to
e planted in furrows with 30cm etween the plants for one year crop and 45cm e
tween the plants for 2 year crop at a out 0.5 cm elow soil level. The new sprou
ts are to e staked immediately. After sprouting is complete, the plants are to
e earthed up. Soil from the ridges may e used for earthing up so that the orig
inal furrows will ecome ridges and vice versa. Dioscorea requires high organic
matter for good tu er formation. Besides a asal do e of 18-20t of FYM/ha, a com
plete fertili er dose of 300kg N, 150kg P2O5 and K2O each are to e applied per
hectare. P and K are to e applied in two equal doses one after the esta lishmen
t of the crop during May-June and the other during vigorous growth period of the
crop (AugustSeptem er). Irrigation may e given at weekly intervals in the init
ial stage and afterwards at a out 10 days interval. Dioscorea vines need support
for their optimum growth and hence the vines are to e trailed over pandal syst
em or trellis. Periodic hand weeding is essential for the first few months. Inte
rcropping with legumes has een found to smother weeds and provide extra income.
The major pests of Dioscorea are the aphids and red spider mites. Aphids occur
more commonly on young seedlings and vines. Young leaves and vine tips eventuall
y die if aphids are not controlled. Red spider mites attack the underside of the
leaves at the ase near the petiole. Severe infestations result in necrotic are
as, which are often attacked y fungi. Both aphids and spider mites can e very
easily controlled y Kelthane. No serious disease is reported to infect this cro
p. The tu ers grow to a out 25-30 cm depth and hence harvesting is to e done y
manual la our. The est season for harvesting is Fe -March, coinciding with the
dry period. On an average 50-60t/ha of fresh tu ers can e o tained in 2 years
duration. Diosgenin content tends to increase with age, 2.5% in first year and 3
-3.5% in the second year. Hence, 2 year crop is economical (Kumar et al, 1997).
138
IPECAC Ru iaceae
Importance
Cephaelis ipecacuanha
Ipecac is a small evergreen her with much ranched eaded roots. It is used in
powdered form or as liquid total extract, syrup and tincture. Ipecac syrup in sm
all doses is used as an expectorant, as it is well tolerated y children. It is
used in treatment of whooping cough. Ipecac with opium as in Dover’s powder is u
sed as a diaphoretic, tincture and syrup. Emetine hydrochloride in the form of i
njection is used for treatment of amoe ic dysentery. Emetine ismuth iodide is a
lso given orally for amoe ic dysentery. Ipecac is also used as gastric stimulant
and as an anti-inflammatory agent in rheumatism.
Distri ution
The plant is a native of Bolivia and Bra il. It is cultivated in Mungpoo, near D
arjeeling and on the Nilgiris, especially New Kallar, and at the Rung ee Cinchon
a plantation in Sikkim.
Botany
Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) A. Rich. syn. Psychotria ipecacuanha Stokes. elon
gs to the family Ru iaceae. The plant grows upto 0.7m high, with slender cylindr
ical stem. When mature the roots are dark rown and have transverse furrows givi
ng it a eaded appearance. A ove ground stem is quadrangular and trailing with f
ew or new ranches. Leaves are opposite near the top of the plant and alternate
elow, 5-10x3-6cm area, dark green a ove and pale green underneath. Flowers are
white, sessile, funnel-like, less than 1cm wide and are orne in dense clusters.
Fruit is purple with two stones containing single seed (Husain, 1993).
Agrotechnology
Ipecac prefers an average rainfall ranging etween 2000-3000mm and evenly distri
uted. Maximum temperature should not exceed 38°C and the minimum not elow 10°C
. It thrives well in tropical mild humid climates similar to Malaysian rain fore
sts. Virgin forest soils rich in humus are ideal for Ipecac. It prefers deep med
ium fertile soils which are acidic and rich in humus, potash and magnesium. Soil
should e well drained and protected from wind and storm. As Ipecac grows only
in shade, it can e cultivated as an intercrop, or planted in artificially shade
d eds. The plant is propagated oth y seeds and vegetatively y root, stem and
leaf cuttings. Vegetative propagation is preferred to maintain genetic uniformi
ty of the plant. Most of the commercial plantations are raised y seeds. Raised
seed eds of 2x6m si e are made and are mixed with well rotten leaf compost and
sand. These are provided with shade on the top as well as on the sides. Seeds ar
e drilled or roadcasted in the eds and watered regularly. Seeds take 3-5 month
s to germinate. Seed treatment with limewater for 48 hours or H2O2 improves germ
ination. It has een o served that providing mulch or lack polythene in nursery
eds improves germination as well as results in control of weeds. The suita le
season of planting is January-March in West Bengal. Seedlings are planted in pro
duction eds at a spacing of 10x10cm after they are 8-12 weeks old. In West Beng
al, it is a practice to transfer seedlings to other nursery eds efore eing tr
ansferred to final production seed eds. FYM and leaf compost application is requ
ired during second and third year. Super phosphate applications is found to impr
ove root growth. Frequent irrigation is required. Waterlogging should e avoided
. Both the seed eds
139
and production eds should e kept free from weeds. Seedlings are often attacked
y damping off fungi like Rhi octonia sp. in nursery. It is etter to treat the
seeds with a suita le seed dressing fungicide efore planting. Fusarium wilt ca
used y F. moniliforme has een reported from India. The plants are ready for ha
rvesting after 4 years. The roots should e dug out, washed and dried in the sun
. Rhi ome and root are the economical parts (Husain, 1993).
Properties and Activity
Ipecac root contains 2.2-2.5% total alkaloids. The main alkaloids are cephaeline
and emetine. In addition, it also contains psychotrine and psychotrine ethyl et
her. The drug also contains a crystalline glucosidal tannin, starch and calcium
oxalate (60-70% of the alkaloids is emetine). Root contains minor amounts of O-m
ethyl psychotrine, emetamine, protoemetine and others. Other constituents of ipe
cac include choline, glycoside-ipecoside, saponins, resins, tannins-ipecacuanhin
, an allergen composed of mixture of glycoproteins, ipecacuanhic acid, a neutral
monoterpene acid and calcium oxalate. Cephaeline could e converted into emetin
e on methylation. The powdered dried rhi ome and root cause severe asthmatic att
acks and vasomotorrhinitis. Emetine hydrochloride is anti-amoe ic. Root is emeti
c, expectorant and diaphoretic (Husain et al, 1992).
140
CURCUMA Zingi eraceae
Curcuma spp.
The genus Curcuma elonging to the family Zingi eraceae comprises of a num er of
species which are medicinally very important. Among them, the most important sp
ecies are descri ed elow.
1. C. amada Rox .
English: Mango ginger Mal: Mangainchi San: Amrardrakam, Karpuraharida Tam: Manka
yinci Hin: Ama-haldi Tel: Mamidi Allam
Mango ginger is cultivated in Gujarat and found wild in parts of West Bengal, U.
P, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. It is a rhi omatous aromatic her with a leafy tuf
t and 60-90cm in height. Leaves are long, petiolate, o long-lanceolate, tapering
at oth ends, gla rous and green on oth sides. Flowers are white or pale yello
w, arranged in spikes in the centre of tuft of the leaves. Lip is semi-elliptic,
yellow, 3-lo ed with the mid lo e emarginate. The rhi omes are useful in vitia
ted conditions of pitta, anorexia, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, ruises, wounds
, chronic ulcers, skin diseases, pruritus, fever, constipations, strangury, hicc
ough, cough, ronchitis, sprains, gout, halitosis, otalgia and inflammations (Wa
rrier et al, 1994). The fresh root possesses the smell of green mango and hence
the name mango ginger. The rhi omes are used externally in the form of paste as
an application for ruises and skin diseases generally com ined with other medic
ines. Tu ers ru ed with the leafjuice of Caesalpinia onduc is given for worms
(Nadkarni, 1982). The essential oil contains α-pinene, α- nd β-curcumene, campho
r, cuminyl alcohol, myristic acid and turmerone. Car-3-ene and cis-ocimene contr
i ute the characteristic mango odour of the rhi ome. Rhi ome is CNS active, hypo
thermic and it shows potentiation of amphetamine toxicity. Tu er is trypsin inhi
itor and is effective against Vi rio cholerae (Husain et al, 1992). The rhi ome
s are itter, sweet sour, aromatic, cooling, appetiser, carminative, digestive,
stomachic, demulcent, vulnerary, fe rifuge, alexertic, aphrodisiac, laxative, di
urectic, expectorant, antiinflammatory and antipyretic (Warrier et al, 1994).
2. C. aromatica Salis .
Eng: Wild turmeric; San: Aranyaharidra, Vanaharidra; Hin: Ban-haridra, Jangli-ha
ldi; Ben: Ban Haland; Mal, Tam: Kasturimanjal, Kattumanjal; Tel: Adavi-pasupu; K
an: Kadarasina Wild turmeric or Cochin turmeric or Yellow eodoary is found wild
throughout India and cultivated in Bengal and Kerala. It is a perennial tu erou
s her with annulate, aromatic yellow rhi ome which is internally orange-red in
colour. Leaves are elliptic or lanceolateo long, caudate-acuminate, 30-60cm long
, petioles as long or even longer, racts ovate, recurved, more or less tinged w
ith red or pink. Flowers are pink, lip yellow, o ovate, deflexed, su -entire or
o scurely three lo ed. Fruits are dehiscent, glo ose, 3-valved capsules. Rhi ome
s are used in com ination with astringents and aromatics for ruises, sprains, h
iccough, ronchitis, cough, leucoderma and skin eruptions (Warrier et al, 1994).
The rhi omes have an agreea le fragrant smell and yield a yellow colouring matt
er like turmeric, and the fresh root has a camphoraceous odour. The dried rhi om
e is used as a carminative and aromatic adjunctant to other medicines (Nadkarni,
1998). Essential oil contains α- nd -β-curcumene, d-camphene and p-methoxy cinn
amic acid. The colouring matter is curcumin. Numerous sesquiterpenoids of germac
rone and guaiane skeletons have een identified recently. Rhi ome has effect on
respiration. It is spasmolytic and shows antagonism of amphetamine hyperactivity
. Rhi ome is an anti-dote for snake ite and carminative (Husain et al, 1992).
141
3. C. longa Linn. syn. C. domestica Valeton.
Eng: Turmeric; San: Haridra, Varavarnini; Hin: Haldi, halda; Ben: Haldi; Mal: Ma
njal, Pachamanjal, Varattumanjal; Tam: Mancal; Kan: Haldi, Arasina; Tel: Pasapu
Turmeric is cultivated all over India, particularly in W. Bengal, T. N and Mahar
ashtra. It is a perennial her , 60-90cm in height, with a short stem and tufts o
f erect leaves. Rhi ome is cylindric, ovoid, orange coloured and ranched. Leave
s are simple, very large, petiole as long as the lade, o long-lanceolate, taper
ing to the ase upto 45cm long. Flowers are pale yellow, arranged in spikes conc
ealed y the sheathing petioles and flowering racts are pale green (Warrier et
al, 1994). Turmeric occupies an important position in the life of Indian people
as it forms an integral part of the rituals, ceremonies and cuisine. Due to the
strong antiseptic properties, turmeric has een used as a remedy for all kinds o
f poisonous affections, ulcers and wounds. It gives good complexion to the skin
and so it is applied to face as a depilatory and facial tonic. The drug cures di
seases due to mor id vata, pitta and kapha, dia etes, eye diseases, ulcers, oede
ma, anaemia, anorexia, leprosy and scrofula. It purifies lood y destroying the
pathogenic organisms. A paste of turmeric alone, or com ined with a paste of ne
em (A adirachta indica) leaves, is used to cure ringworm, o stinate itching, ec 
ema and other parasitic skin diseases and in chicken pox and small pox. The drug
is also useful in cold, cough, ronchitis, conjunctivitis and liver affections
(Nadkarni, 1954; Kurup et al,1979; Kolammal, 1979). The rhi ome is the officinal
part and is an important ingredient of formulations like Nalpamaradi taila, Jat
yadi taila, Narayana gula, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). Turmeric paste mixed wi
th a little limejuice and saltpetre and applied hot is a popular application to
sprains and ruises. In smallpox and chickenpox, a coating of turmeric is applie
d to facilitate the process of sca ing. The smoke produced y sprinkling powder
ed turmeric over urnt charcoal will relieve scorpion sting when the part affect
ed is exposed to the smoke for a few minutes. Turmeric and alum powder in the pr
oportion of 1:20 is lown into the ear in chronic otorrhoea (Nadkarni, 1998). “H
aridra Khand”, a compound containing powdered turmeric, sugar and many other ing
redients is a well-known preparation for cold, cough and flu, and for skin disea
ses. In Unani system, roasted turmeric is an ingredient of “Ha Narkachur”, used
as antidysenteric for children (Thakur et al, 1989). Essential oil contains ar-
turmerone, and ar-curcumene as major constituents. Some of the other compounds a
re α- nd β-pinene, sa inene, myrcene, α-terpinene, limonene, pcymene, perillyl 
lcohol, turmerone, eugenol, iso-eugenol, eugenol methyl ether nd isoeugenol met
hyl ether. Curcumin nd rel ted compounds h ve lso been reported s m jor const
ituents of the rhizomes. Recently  number of sesquiterpenes h ve been reported
from C. long , viz., the sesquiterpenoids of germ cr ne, bis bol ne nd gu in ne
skeletons (Hus in et l, 1992). The study of sesquiterpenes h s reve led  new
compound curlone (Kisoy et l, 1983). The cryst lline colouring m tter curcumin
(0. 6%) is diferuloyl meth ne (M thews et l, 1980). Stigm sterol, cholestrol, β
-sitosterol and fatty acids, mainly straight chain dienoic acids are reported (M
oon et al, 1977). Curcumin, the colouring agent and major constituent of C. long
a, is said to possess local as well as systemic antiinflammatory property which
has een found to compare favoura ly with phenyl uta one (Srimal and Dhawan, 197
3). An extract of the crude drug ‘akon’ containing the rhi omes exhi ited intens
ive preventive activity against car on tetrachloride induced liver injury invivo
and invitro. The liver protecting effects of some analogs of ferulic acid and p
-coumaric acid, pro a le meta olites of the curcuminoids have een also evaluate
d (Kiso et al, 1983). Curcumin is antiinflammatory. Rhi ome is antiproto oal, sp
asmolytic, CNS active, antiparasitic, antispasmodic, anti acterial, antiarthriti
c, anthelmintic, carminative, antiperiodic, emollient, anodyne, laxative, dirure
tic, expectorant, alterative, alexertive, fe rifuge, opthalmic and tonic.
142
4. C. edoaria (Berg.) Rosc. syn. C. erum et Rox ; Amomum edoaria Christm.
Eng: Round edoary; San: Kachura, Shati; Hin: Kakhur; Ben: Sati; Kan: Kachora Ma
l: Manjakoova, Adavi-kacholam; Tam: Kichiliki hangu, Nirvisham; Tel: Kacheramu T
he round edoary or Zerum et is mostly found in India and S. E. Asia. The plant
has 4-6 leaves with 20-60cm long lamina. The leaf lamina is o long-lanceolate, f
inely acuminate and gla rous on oth the surfaces. Flower stalk is 20-25cm long,
emerging efore the leaves. Flowers are yellow, while the flowering ract is gr
een tinged with red. Calyx is 8mm long, corolla tu e is twice as long as the cal
yx. Capsule is ovoid, trigonous, thin smooth and ursting irregularly. Tu ers ar
e palmately ranched and camphoraceous (Thakur et al, 1989). The identity of the
plant sources of the drug Karcura is a matter of de ate. There is difference of
opinion among men of Ayurveda, as to whether Sati and Karcura are the same drug
or different. Many authors consider them different and equate Sati with Hedychi
um spicatum Smith. and Karcura with C. edoaria, oth elonging to Zingi eraceae
(Kurup et al,1979; Chunekar 1982; Sharma, 1983). Some others treat them to e t
he same and equate it with C. edoaria (Kirtikar and Basu, 1918; Vaidya, 1936; N
adkarni, 1954; Kapoor and Mitra, 1979). However, the source of Karcura in Kerala
in the recent times has een Kaempferia galanga of the same family. The rhi ome
of C. edoaria is used as appetiser and tonic, particularly prescri ed to ladie
s after child irth. In case of cold, a decoction of long pepper (Piper longum),
cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum), edoary and honey is given. In Ayurveda it is an in
gredient of “Braticityadi kwatha”, used in high fever (Thakur et al, 1989). Root
is useful in flatulence and dyspepsia, and as a corrector of purgatives. Fresh
root checks leucorrhoeal and gonorrhoeal discharges. Root powder is a good su st
itute for many foreign foods for infants. For worms, the juice from the tu ers i
s given to children. Juice of the leaves is given in dropsy (Nadkarni, 1982). It
is an odoriferous ingredient of the cosmetics used for the cure of chronic skin
diseases caused y impure or deranged lood (Nadkarni, 1998). Essential oil fro
m rhi omes contains α-pinene, d-c mphene, cineole, d-c mphor, sesquiterpenes nd
sesquiterpene lcohols (Hus in et l, 1992). The novel sesquiterpenoids which h
ve been isol ted nd ch r cterised re cuzerenone, epi-cuzerenone, isofur noger
merene, curcum diol, curcumol, curcumenol, iso-curcumenol, procurcumenol, dehydr
ocurdione (Hikino et l, 1968, 1971, 1972), germ crone-4, 5-epoxide, germ crone,
germ crone fur nodienone, curcumenol, iso-curcumenol, curcum nolides A nd B n
d curcumenone (Shiob r  et l, 1985). The st rch left fter the extr ction is pu
rified nd sold s  commodity of cott ge industry in West-Beng l under the n me
‘Shoti’ (Rao et al, 1928). Ethl-p methox-cinnamate has been isolated from the
alcoholic extract of the plant (Gupta et al, 1976). Rhizome is stomachic, diure
tic, and carminative and gastrointestinal stimulant. Other important species of
Curcuma genus are C. angustifolia Roxb. (Vellakoova) C. caesia Roxb. (Black ging
er) C. leucorhiza Roxb. C. pseudomontana Grah. C. rubescens Roxb.
Agrotechnolog
Curcuma species are tropical herbs and can be grown on different tpes of soils
both under irrigated and rainfed conditions. Rich loam soils having good draina
ge are ideal for the crop. The plant is propagated b whole or split mother rhiz
omes. Well developed, health and disease free rhizomes are to be selected. Rhiz
omes are to be treated with copper oxchloride fungicides and stored in cool, dr
 place or earthen pits plastered with mud and cowdung. The best season of plant
ing is during April with the receipt of pre-monsoon showers. The land is to be p
repared to a fine tilth during Februar-March. On receipt of premonsoon showers
in April, beds of size 3x1.2m with a spacing of 40cm between beds are to be prep
ared. Small pits are to be taken in the beds in rows with a spacing of 25-40cm.
143
Finger rhizomes are to be planted flat with buds facing upwards and covered with
soil or dr powdered cattle manure. The crop is to be mulched immediatel after
planting and 50 das after first mulching. Cattle manure or compost is to be ap
plied as basal dose at 20-40t/ha at the time of land preparation or b spreading
over the beds after planting. Application of NPK fertilizers is beneficial and
found to increase the ield considerabl. Weeding is to be done twice at 60 and
120 das after planting, depending upon weed intensit. Earthing up is to be don
e after 60 das. No major incidence of pest or disease is noticed in this crop.
Leaf blotch and leaf spot can be controlled b spraing Bordeaux mixture or 0.2%
Mancozeb. Shoot borers can be controlled b spraing 0.05% Dimethoate or 0.025%
Quinalphos. Time of harvest usuall extends from Januar-March. Harvesting is g
enerall done at about 7-10 months after planting depending upon the species and
variet. Harvested rhizomes are to be cleaned of mud and other materials adheri
ng to them. Good fingers separated are to be used for curing (KAU, 1996).
144
INDIAN SARASAPARILLA Asclepiadaceae
Hemidesmus
indicus
San: Anantamulah, Sariba; Hin: Anantamul, Magrabu; Ben: Anantamul; Mal: Nannari,
Naruninti, Narunanti; Tam: Nannari, Saribam; Tel: Sugandipala; Kan: Namadaballi
Importance
Indian Sarasaparilla or Countr Sarasaparilla is a climbing slender plant with t
wining wood stems and a rust-coloured bark. The roots are useful in vitiated co
nditions of pitta, burning sensation, leucoderma, lepros, skin diseases, prurit
us, asthma, bronchitis, hperdipsia, opthalmopath, hemicrania, epileptic fits,
dspepsia, helminthiasis, diarrhoea, dsenter, haemorrhoids, strangur, leucorr
hoea, sphilis, abcess, arthralgia, fever and general debilit. The leaves are u
seful in vomiting, wounds and leucoderma. The stems are bitter, diaphoretic and
laxative and are useful in inflammations, cerebropath, hepatopath, nephropath
, sphilis, metropath, leucoderma, odontalgia, cough and asthma. The latex is g
ood for conjunctivitis (Warrier et al, 1995). The important formulations using t
he drug are Saribadasava, Pindataila, Vidaradi leha, Draksadi kasaa, Jatadi
ghrita, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). The Hemidesmus root powdered and mixed wi
th cow’s milk is given with much benefit in the case of strangur. In the form o
f srup, it has demulcent and diuretic proportions. The root, roasted in plantai
n leaves, then beaten into a mass with cumin and sugar and mixed with ghee is a
household remed in genito-urinar diseases. The hot infusion of the root-bark w
ith milk and sugar is a good alterative tonic especiall for children in cases o
f chronic cough and diarrhoea (Nadkarni, 1998). It has been successfull used in
the cure of venereal diseases where American Sarasaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis L
inn.) has failed. Native doctors utilize it in nephritic complaints and for sore
mouths of children (Grieve and Leel, 1992).
Distribution
Hemidesmus is distributed throughout India, the Moluccas and Sri Lanka.
Botan
Hemidesmus indicus (Linn.) R. Br. sn. Periploca indica Linn. belongs to the fam
il Asclepiadaceae. It is a perennial, slender, laticiferous, twining or prostra
te, wir shrub with wood rootstock and numerous slender, terete stems having th
ickened nodes. Leaves are simple, opposite, ver variable from elliptic-oblong t
o linear-lanceolate, variegated with white above and silver white and pubescent
beneath. Flowers are greenish purple crowded in sub-sessile cmes in the opposi
te leaf-axils. Fruits are slender follicles, clindrical, 10cm long, tapering to
a point at the apex. Seeds are flattened, black, ovate-oblong and coma silver
white. The tuberous root is dark-brown, coma silver white, tortuous with transv
ersel cracked and longitudinall fissured bark. It has a strong central vascula
ture and a pleasant smell and taste (Warrier et al, 1995). The Aurvedic texts m
ention two varieties, viz. a krsna or black variet and a sveta or white variet
(Aier, 1951) which together constitute the pair, Saribadvaam. The drug is kno
wn as Sariba. Svetasariba is H. indicus. Two plants, namel, Ichnocarpus fructes
cens (Apocnaceae) known as pal-valli in vernacular and Crptolepis buchanani (A
sclepidaceae) known as Katupalvalli (Rheeds, 1689) are equated with black variet
 or Krsnasariba (Chunekar, 1982; Sharma, 1983).

145
Agrotechnolog
Hemidesmus is propagated through root cuttings. The root cuttings of length 3-5c
m can be planted in polbags or in the field. The can be planted in flat beds o
r on ridges. Planting is done usuall at a spacing of 50x20cm. Heav application
of organic manure is essential for good growth and root ield. Inorganic fertil
izers are not usuall applied. Frequent weeding and earthing up are required, as
the plant is onl slow growing. Provision of standards for twining will further
improve the growth and ield of the plant.
Properties and Activit
The twigs of the plant give a pregnane ester diglcoside named desinine. Roots g
ive β-sitosterol, 2-hydroxy-4-methoxy en aldehyde, α- myrin, β-amyrin and its a
cetate, hexatriacontane, lupeol octacosonate, lupeol and its acetate. Leaves, st
em and root cultures give cholesterol, campesterol, β-sitosterol and 16-dehydro-
pregnenolone. Leaves and flowers also give flavonoid glycosides rutin, hyperosid
e and iso-quercitin (Husain et al,1992). “Hemidesmine”- a crystalli i le princip
le is found in the volatile oil extracted from roots. Some suggest that it is on
ly a stearoptene. It also contains some starch, saponin and in the su erous laye
r, tannic acid (Grieve and Leyel, 1992). The root is alterative, fe rifuge, anti
leucorrhoeic, antisyphilitic, demulcent, diaphoretic, diuretic, tonic, galactoge
nic, antidote for scorpion-sting and snake- ite, antidiarrhoeal, lood purifier,
antirheumatic and aperitive. Essential oil from root is anti- acterial and the
plant is antiviral (Husain et al, 1992).
146
INDIAN SENNA Caesalpiniaceae
Importance
Cassia senna
San: Svarnapatri; Hin: Sanay, Sana Ka Patt; Ben: Sonamukhi; Mal: Sunnamukki, Cho
nnamukki, Nilavaka; Tam: Nilavirai, Nilavakai; Tel: Netatangedu Indian Senna or
Tinnevelly senna is a shru very highly esteemed in India for its medicinal valu
e. The leaves are useful in constipation, a dominal disorders, leprosy, skin dis
eases, leucoderma, splenomegaly, hepatopathy, jaundice, helminthiasis, dyspepsia
, cough, ronchitis, typhoid fever, anaemia, tumours and vitiated conditions of
pitta and vata (Warrier et al,1994). It is used in Ayurvedic preparations; “Panc
ha Sakara Churna”, “Shat Sakara Churna” and “Madhu Yastyadi Churna” used for con
stipation. Its use is widespread in Unani system and some of the important produ
cts of this system containing senna are “Itrifal Mulayyin”, “Jawarish Ood Mulayy
in”, “Ha Sha yar”, “Sufuf Mulliyin”, “Shar at Ahmad Shahi”, etc. used as a mild
laxative (Thakur et al, 1989).
Distri ution
The plant is of Mediterranean origin. It is found in Somalia, Saudi Ara ia, part
s of Pakistan and Kutch area of Gujarat. It is largely cultivated in Tirunelveli
, Ramanathapuram, Madurai and Salem districts of Tamil Nadu.
Botany
The genus Cassia, elonging to the family Caesalpiniaceae, comprises of a num er
of species, namely, C. senna Linn. syn. C. angustifolia Vahl. C. a sus Linn. C.
alata Linn. C. auriculata Linn. C. urmanni Wight. syn. C. o ovata (Linn.) Coll
ad. C. glauca Lam. C. javanica Linn. C. mimosoides Linn. C. o tusifolia Linn. sy
n. C. tora Linn. C. occidentalis Linn. C. pumila Lam. C. slamea Lam. C. acutifol
ia Delile. C. sophera Linn. C. senna is a shru or undershru , 60-75cm in height
with pale su terete or o tusely angled erect or spreading ranches. Leaves are
paripinnate. Leaflets are 5-8 in num er, ovate-lanceolate and gla rous. Flowers
are yellowish, many and arranged in axillary racemes. Fruits are flat legumes, g
reenish rown to dark rown and nearly smooth (Chopra et al,1980, Warrier et al,
1994). In commerce, the leaves and pods o tained from C. senna are known as “ Ti
nnevelly Senna” and those from C. acutifolia Delile. as “Alexandrian Senna”. The
leaves of C. acutifolia are narrower than C. senna, otherwise oth resem le to
a large extent (Thakur et al, 1989). All the true Sennas have the portions of th
eir leaves unequally divided. In some kinds the lower part of one side is reduce
d to little more than a line in readth, while the other is from a quarter to ha
lf an inch in readth. The drug known under the name of East Indian Senna is nea
rly free from adulteration; and as its properties appear identical with those of
the Alexandrian and the price eing less, it pro a ly will supersede it in gene
ral practice. Its si e and shape readily identify it (Graves, 1996).
Agrotechnology
The plant requires a mild su tropical climate with warm winters which are free f
rom frost for its growth. Semiarid areas with adequate irrigation facilities are
ideal for
147
cultivation. Areas having high rainfall, humidity and poor drainage are not suit
a le. Light or medium loamy soils with adequate drainage and pH varying from 7.0
-8.2 are prefera le. In South India oth summer and winter crops are possi le. T
he plant is propagated y seeds. The seed rate required is 15-20kg/ha. Seeds are
sown in Octo er-Novem er (winter rainfed crop) or in Fe ruary-March (irrigated
crop). Higher seed rate is required for unirrigated crop. Seeds are sown in line
s 30cm apart. Application of 5-10t of FYM/ha efore planting or raising a green
manure crop is eneficial. A out 40kg N and 25-50kg P2O5/ha applied as asal dre
ssing and 40kg N/ha applied in 2 split do es as top dressing gave etter yield.
While the rainfed crop is grown without irrigation, the irrigated crop requires
5-8 light irrigations during the entire growing season. The crop requires 2-3 we
edings and hoeings in order to keep it free from weeds. Alternaria alternata cau
ses leaf spot and die ack ut the disease is not serious. In North India, the pl
ant is attacked y the larvae of utterfly Catopsilia pyranthe which can e cont
rolled y planting the crop in March-April instead of June-July. Under irrigated
conditions, the first crop is o tained after 90 days of planting. The leaves ar
e stripped y hand when they are fully green, thick and luish-green in colour.
The second crop is taken 4 weeks after the first harvest and the third 4-6 weeks
after the second one. The last harvest of leaves is done when the entire crop i
s harvested along with the pods. Yield under irrigated conditions is nearly1.4t
of leaves and 150kg pods/ha and under unirrigated conditions is 500-600kg leaves
and 80-100kg pods/ha. The leaves are dried in thin layers under shade so as to
retain the green colour and the pods are hung for 10-12 days to get dried. The l
eaves and pods are cleaned, graded and marketed (Husain et al, 1993).
Properties and Activity
Leaves contain glucose, fructose, sucrose and pinnitol. Mucilage consists of gal
actose, ara inose, rhamnose and galacturonic acid. Leaves also contain sennoside
-C(8,8’diglucoside of rhein-aloe-emodin-dianthrone). Pods contain sennosides A a
nd B, glycoside of anthraquinones rhein and chrysophanic acid. Seeds contain β-s
itosterol (Husain et al, 1992). Leaves and pods also contain 0.33% β-sterol and
flavonols-kaempferol, kaempferin, and iso-rhamnetin. Sennoside content of C. acu
tifolia is higher ranging from 2.5% to 4.5% as compared to C. angustifolia rangi
ng from 1.5 % to 2.5%. The purgative activity of Senna is attri uted to its senn
osides. The pods cause lesser griping than the leaves. Leaf and pod is laxative.
The leaves are astringent, itter, sweet, acrid, thermogenic, cathartic, depura
tive, liver tonic, anthelmintic, cholagogue, expectorant and fe rifuge.
148
NAGADANTI Euphor iaceae
San: Danti; Hin: Danti;
Baliospermum montanum
Mal: Danti, Nagadanti; Tam: Nakatanti; Tel: Nelajidi
Importance
Danti or Nagadanti is a stout undershru with numerous flowers. Root, which is t
he officinal part, is used in a dominal pain, constipation, calculus, general an
asarca, piles, helminthic manifestations, sca ies, skin disorders, suppurative u
lcers and diseases caused y the mor idity of kapha and pitta. Root paste is app
lied to painful swellings and piles. Leaves cure asthma and seeds are used in sn
ake ite (Kurup et al, 1979; Sharma, 1983). The drug forms an important constitue
nt of preparations like Dantyarishta, Dantiharitakileham, Kaisoraguggulu gulika,
etc.(Sivarajan et al, 1994).
Distri ution
The plant is found throughout the su -Himalayan tracts from Kashmir to Khasi Hil
ls. It is common in West Bengal, Bihar and Central and Peninsular India.
Botany
Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Muell-Arg. syn. B. axillare Bl., B. polyandrum Wt
. elongs to the family Euphro iaceae. It is a stout under-shru 0.9-1.8m in hei
ght with her aceous ranches from the roots. Leaves are simple, sinuate-toothed,
upper ones small, lower ones large and sometimes palmately 3-5 lo ed. Flowers a
re numerous, arranged in axillary racemes with male flowers a ove and a few fema
les elow. Fruits are capsules, 813mm long and o ovoid. Seeds are ellipsoid smoo
th and mottled (Warrier et al,1993).
Agrotechnology
The tropical plant is suited to almost all soils. It can e cultivated either as
pure crop or intercrop. It is propagated vegetatively y cuttings. A out 15-20c
m long rooted cuttings are used for planting. Pits of si e 50cm cu e are to e t
aken at 3m spacing and filled with dried cowdung, sand and top soil and formed i
nto a mound. On these mounds, rooted cuttings are to e planted at 2 cuttings/mo
und. Cuttings esta lish within one month. Weeding is to e carried out at this t
ime. Application of organic manure after every 6 months is eneficial. Irrigatio
n during summer months is prefera le. The plant is not attacked y any serious p
ests or diseases. Roots can e collected at the end of second year. The roots ar
e to e cut and dried in sun efore marketing. The yield is a out one tonne root
/ha (Prasad et al,1997).
Properties and Activity
Roots contain diterpenes, aliospermin, montanin, phor ol-12-deoxy-13-O-palmitat
e, phor ol-12-deoxy-16-hydroxy-13-O-palmitate and phor ol-12-deoxy-5β-hydroxy-13
– myristate (Ogura et al, 1978). Alcoholic extract of plant showed hypotensive
activity in experimental animals (Bhakuni et al, 1971). Antilukaemic and cytotox
ic activities have een demonstrated in the esters of oth 12-deoxyphor ol and 1
2-deoxy-16-hydroxyphor ol, isolated from B. montanum (King-horn, 1979). The root
s are acrid, thermogenic, purgative, antiinflammatory, anodyne, digestive, anthe
lmintic, diuretic, diaphoretic, ru efacient, fe rifuge and tonic. Seed is purgat
ive, stimulant, ru efacient and antidote for snake ite. Seed oil is antirheumati
c. Leaf is antiasthmatic and wound healing. Root and seed oil is cathartic and a
ntidropsical. Stem is anti-dontalgic.
149
ALSTONIA Apocynaceae
San: Visaghni, Anadana; Mal: Analivegam;
Alstonia venenata
Tam: Sinnappalai; Kan: Addasarpa
Importance
Alstonia is a large shru with straight ole and growing upto a out 6m height. T
he roots are useful in skin diseases, erysipelas, leprosy, co ra ite and other
venomous ites, epilepsy, fatigue, fever and otalgia. The fruits are useful in s
yphilis, insanity and epilepsy. The plant is elieved to repel snakes.
Distri ution
The plant is distri uted throughout India in deciduous forests in areas up to 18
00m elevation.
Botany
Alstonia venenata R.Br., elonging to the family Apocynaceae, is a large shru t
o small tree up to 6m in height with greyish rown ark and right yellow hard a
nd woody root. Leaves are simple, arranged in whorls of 3-6, mem ranous, lanceol
ate, margins wavy, finely acuminate, main nerves numerous, close, parallel and u
nited y inter marginal nerve. Flowers are white, arranged in terminal su um el
late cymes or in racemes. Fruits are fusiform with stalked and eaked follicles,
tapering at oth ends. Seeds are many flattened with a tuft of hair at each end
(Warrier et al, 1993). Other important species elonging to the genus Alstonia
are the following.
1. A. scholaris R. Br.
This tree is common throughout India. The ark is valua le in de ility and after
effects of fever, chronic diarrhoea, dysentery and catarrhal fever. The milky j
uice is applied to ulcers and rheumatic pains, mixed with oil and dropped into e
ar to relieve earache. Ditanin is the active principle of the ark, possessing p
owerful fe rifuge properties. The ark is astringent, tonic and fe rifuge (Nadka
rni, 1998).
2. A. specta ilis R. Br.
It is a large evergreen tree seen in tropical forests of Andamans. The ark cont
ains alkaloids such as alstonamine, ditamine, echitamine and echitenine (Chopra
et al,1980)
Agrotechnology
The plant is propagated mainly y seeds. Seeds are to e sown on seed eds and ge
rminated ones are to e transferred to poly ags. A out three months old seedling
s are used for transplanting. If seeds are not availa le, thin stem cuttings can
e planted in poly ags and rooted cuttings used. Pits of si e 60cm cu e are to
e taken at 3m spacing, filled with dried cowdung, sand and topsoil and made int
o a mound. To this mounds seedlings from poly ags are to e transplanted. Irriga
tion is essential during early stages of growth. Application of organic manure e
very year is eneficial. Regular weeding is to e done. The plant is not attacke
d y any serious pests or diseases. Flowers are formed in the first year itself.
It can e used for medicinal purposes after seven years of growth. Fruits and r
oots are the economical parts (Prasad et al,1997).
Properties and Activity
The plant is a rich source of indole alkaloids. Alkaloids are present in various
parts. Stem ark and root contain venenatine, alstovenine, 3-dehydroalstovenine
and reserpine. Stem ark contains venoxidine (venenatine N -oxide), anhydroals
tonatine, kopsinine, venalstonine, venalstonidine(venalstonine-6,7-epoxide), ech
itovenine and veneserpine. Fruits contain echitovenidine, (+)minovincinine, echi
toserpidine, echitoserpine, echitoveniline, 11-methoxy echitovonidine, 11-methox
y (-) minovinicinine, echitoserpiline, (-)vincadifformine, 11-methoxy()vincadiff
ormine and venoterpine. Leaves contain echitovenaldine, echitoveniline, alstolen
ine, deacetylakuammiline, polynuridine, dihydropolynuridine and raucaffrininolin
e. The yellow tint in ark is ecause of the presence of ∆3- lstovenine. A numbe
r of indole lk loids h ve been further isol ted from the pl nt. In ddition to
lk loids fruits cont in β-amyrin acetate and lupeol ester of β-hydroxy acid (Hu
sain et al,1992). The root is itter, astringent, thermogenic, depurative, antit
oxic, fe rifuge and anodyne. The alkaloid alstovenine in lower doses exhi ited m
onoamine oxidase inhi itor activity, while in higher doses it showed marked cent
ral stimulant effect. Veninatine exhi ited reserpine like activity. Alcoholic ex
tract of the fruits showed initial activation effect on acetylcholine esterase,
followed alternately y inhi ition and activation of the en yme.
150
PURGING CROTON Euphor iaceae
San: Jepalah, Danti ijah Hin: Jamalgota Tam: Nervalam, Sevalamkottai Tel: Nepala
Ben: Jaypal
Croton tiglium
Mal: Nirvalam
Importance
Purging croton or croton oil plant, a small evergreen tree with separate male an
d female flowers, is one among the seven poisons descri ed in Ayurveda. The drug
is well known for its drastic purgative property. The drug is found to e usefu
l in ascites, anasarca, cold, cough, asthma, constipation, calculus, dropsy, fev
er and enlargement of the a dominal viscera. The seed paste is a good applicatio
n for skin diseases, painful swellings and alopacia. The seed-oil is useful in c
hronic ronchitis, laryngeal affections, arthritis and lock jaw. Misraka-sneham
is an important preparation using the drug (Nadkarni, 1954; Dey, 1980; Sharma, 1
983).
Distri ution
It is distri uted throughout North India. It is cultivated in Assam, West Bengal
and South India.
Botany
Croton tiglium Linn. elongs to the family Euphor iaceae. It is a small evergree
n tree, 4.56.0m in height with ash coloured smooth ark and young shoots sprinkl
ed with stellate hairs. Leaves are o long to ovate-lanceolate, o tuse or rounded
at the 2-glanded ox, acuminate, mem raneous, yellowish green and minutely toot
hed. Flowers are small, unisexual, males on slender pedicels, females larger and
on short thick pedicels. Fruits are ovoid or o long trigonous capsules. Seeds a
re smooth, testa lack and enclosing reddish rown oily endosperm (Warrier et al
,1994). Other species elonging to the genus Croton are as follows: C. aromaticu
s Linn. C. caudatus Geisel C. jouera Rox . C. mala aricus Bedd. C. o longifolius
Rox . C. polyandrus Rox . syn. Baliospermum montanum Muell-Arg. C. reticulatus(
Chopra et al, 1980)
Agrotechnology
The plant is propagated y seeds. Seeds are to e sown on seed eds and a out 2 m
onths old seedlings are used for transplanting. Pits of si e 50cm cu e are to e
taken at 3m spacing and filled with dried cowdung, sand and topsoil and formed
into a mound. The seedlings are to e planted on these mounds. Irrigation during
summer months is eneficial. Application of organic manure after every 6 months
is desira le. Weeding is to e carried out one month after transplanting. The p
lant is not attacked y any serious pests or diseases. Fruits are formed at the
end of first year. Fruits when ripen and start to crack are to e collected, dri
ed in sun, then the outer shell is removed and again dried for one day efore ma
rketing (Prasad et al,1997).
Properties and activity
Oil contains phor ol myristate acetate ( Husain et al, 1992). Seeds contain upto
20% protein and 30-50% lipids. Iso-guanine-D-ri ose (crotoniside) and saccharos
e were isolated from the seeds. In fractionation of croton oil, liquid-liquid di
stri ution procedures proved to e the separation tools of choice. The per hydro
genated parent hydrocar on of phor ol is a perhydrocyclopropa en ulene called ti
gliane and phor ol is 1, 1aα, 1bβ, 4, 4a, 7aα, 7b, 8, 9, 9 -dec hydro-4 β, 7α, 9
β, 9aαtetr hydroxy-3-(hydroxymethyl)-1, 1, 6, 8α tetr methyl-5-H-cycloprop [3,4]
benz [1.2-e] zulen-5one. Phorbol,  tetr cylic diterpene with  5, 7, 6 nd 3-
membered ring h s 6 oxygen functions. Phorbol ccounts for 3.4% nd 4- deoxy- 4α
- phorbol for 0.29% of the weight of croton oil. Twentyfive phorbol-12, 13-diest
ers h ve been detected (Hecker et l, 1974). A toxin croton 1, mol. wt 72,000 h 
s been isol ted from the seeds (Lin et l, 1978). Phorbol myrist te cet te cti
v tes nitroblue tetr zolium reduction in hum n polymorphs. Seed nd oil is purg 
tive, rubef cient nd nti-dote for sn kebite. The seeds nd oil re crid, bitt
er, thermogenic, emollient, dr stic purg tive, digestive, c rmin tive, nthelmin
tic, ntiinfl mm tory, vermifuge, deterent, di phoretic, expector nt, vesic nt,
irrit nt nd rubef cient.
151
ASHOKA C es lpini ce e
S n:Asok , G t sok h; T m: Asog m;
S r c  soc 
Hin:Asok, Asok ; Ben:Ashok; M l:Asok m; K n:Asok d , Aksunk r ; Tel: Asok mu, V 
nj l mu
Import nce
Ashok , the s cred tree of Hindus nd Buddhists, possesses v ried medicin l uses
. The b rk is useful in dyspepsi , fever, dipsi , burning sens tion, visceromeg 
ly, colic, ulcers, menorrh gi , metrop thy, leucorrhoe  nd pimples. The le f ju
ice mixed with cumin seeds is used for tre ting stom ch l gi . The floweres re
considered to be uterine tonic nd re used in viti ted conditions of pitt , syp
hilis, cervic l dinitis, hyperdipsi , burning sens tion, h emorrhoids, dysenter
y, sc bies in children nd infl mm tion. The well-known Ayurvedic prep r tions 
re ”Ashok risht ” nd “Ashok ghrit ”. Ashok risht  is prescribed in leucorrhoe ,
h em turi , menorrh gi  nd other dise ses of genitourin ry system of fem les.
Distribution
Ashok  is found lmost throughout Indi , except North-Western Indi , upto 750m.
It is lso found in the And m n Isl nds.
Bot ny
S r c  soc  (Roxb.) de Wilde. syn. S. indic  uct. non Linn. is  medium sized
evergreen tree growing upto 9m height with numerous spre ding nd drooping gl br
ous br nches. Le ves re pinn te, 30-60cm long h ving 2-3 p irs of l nceol te le
flets. Flowers re or nge or or nge yellow, rr nged in dense corymbs nd very
fr gr nt. Fruits re fl t bl ck pods, le thery nd compressed with 4-8 seeds/pod
. Seeds re ellipsoid oblong nd compressed. The b rk is d rk brown to grey or b
l ck with  w rty surf ce. The thickness v ries from 5mm to 10mm. The entire cut
surf ce turns reddish on exposure to ir. Poly lthi  longifoli  (Annon ce e) is
equ ted with the n me Asok  by some (K poor & Mitr , 1979; Chunek r, 1982) nd
is often used s n dulter nt of the genuine Asok  b rk or s  substitute (W r
rier et l,1996).
Agrotechnology
Asok  grows well in re s with well distributed r inf ll nd in slightly sh dy 
re s. Asok  requires soil rich in org nic m ter nd moisture. The best se son of
pl nting is June-July. It is lso grown in summer, if irrig tion f cilities re
v il ble. The pl nt is seed prop g ted. Seeds re formed usu lly during Febru 
ry-April. Seeds re collected when they re ripen nd f ll down nd re sown ft
er so king in w ter for 12 hours on the prep red beds. Seeds germin te within 20
d ys. The seeds re then pl nted in polyb gs. 2-month-old seedlings from the po
lyb gs re used for tr nspl nting. Squ re sh ped pits of 60cm depth re t ken t
3m sp cing nd filled with topsoil, s nd nd dried cowdung. On this the seedlin
gs re pl nted. Applic tion of FYM t 10kg/tree/ye r is highly benefici l. Chemi
c l fertilisers re not usu lly pplied. Irrig tion during summer months is esse
nti l. No serious pests or dise ses re gener lly noted in this crop. If properl
y cultiv ted, Asok  c n be cut fter 20 ye rs nd the b rk collected. It is cut
t  height of 15cm from the soil level. If given irrig tion nd fertilisers, th
e cut wood will sprout g in nd h rvested g in fter 5 ye rs. This c n be cont
inued. When it is difficult to cut the tree, the b rk c n be peeled off from one
side first. When the b rk grows nd cover th t p rt, the other side c n be peel
ed off. This is lso continued (Pr s d et l, 1997; K rsh k sree, 1998).
Properties nd Activity
Flowers give β-sitosterol, flavonoids and flavone glycosides-quercetin, kaempfer
ol-3-O-β-Dglucoside, quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucoside. The anthocyanins present are p
elargonidin-3, 5-diglucoside and cyanadin-3, 5-diglucoside. Bark yields catechol
 and sterols-(24ζ )-24-methyl cholest-5-en-3β-ol, (22E, 24ζ )-24-ethylcholesta-5
, 22-dien-3 β-ol and (24ζ )-24-ethyl cholest-5-en-3β-ol, a wax containing n-alka
nes, esters and free primary alcohols. Alcoholic extract and glycoside P2 from s
tem ark is oxytoxic. Aerial part is CNS active, hypothermic, CNS depressant and
diuretic. Stem ark is anticancerous, has spasmodic action on ra it intestine
and cardiotonic action in frog and dog. Seed is antifungal. Stem ark is astring
ent, antileucorrhoeic, anti ilious and uterine sedative. Flower is uterine tonic
, antidia etic and antisyphilitic. Stem ark and flower is anti ilious (Husain e
t al, 1992).
152
GREEN CHIRETTA Acanthaceae
San: Bhunim ah, Kiratatiktah Mal: Nilaveppu, Kiriyattu
Andrographis paniculata
Hin: Kakamegh, Kalpanath Tam: Nilavempu Ben: Kalmegh Kan: Kreata
Importance
Kalmegh, the Great or Green Chiretta is a ranched annual her . It is useful in
hyperdipsia, urning sensation, wounds, ulcers, chronic fever, malarial and inte
rmittent fevers, inflammations, cough, ronchitis, skin diseases, leprosy, pruri
tis, intestinal worms, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, diarrhoea, dysentery, haemo
rrhoids and vitiated conditions of pitta (Warrier et al, 1993). It is used to ov
ercome sannipata type of fever, difficulty in reathing, hemopathy due to the mo
r idity of kapha and pitta, urning sensation, cough, oedema, thirst, skin disea
ses, fever, ulcer and worms. It is also useful in acidity and liver complaints (
Aiyer and Kolammal, 1962). The important preparations using the drug are Tiktaka
gheta, Gorocandi gulika, Candanasava, Panchatiktam kasaya, etc. (Sivarajan et al
, 1994). A preparation called “Alui” is prepared y mixing powdered cumin (Cumin
ium cyminum) and large cardamom (Amomum su ulatum) in the juice of this plant an
d administered for the treatment of malaria (Thakur et al, 1989). It is also a r
ich source of minerals.
Distri ution
The plant is distri uted throughout the tropics. It is found in the plains of In
dia from U.P to Assam, M.P., A.P, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, also cultivated in gard
ens.
Botany
Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall ex. Nees elongs to the family Acanthacea
e. It is an erect ranched annual her , 0.3-0.9m in height with quadrangular ra
nches. Leaves are simple, lanceolate, acute at oth ends, gla rous, with 4-6 pai
rs of main nerves. Flowers are small, pale ut lotched and spotted with rown a
nd purple distant in lax spreading axillary and terminal racemes or panicles. Ca
lyx-lo es are glandular pu escent with anthers earded at the ase. Fruits are l
inear capsules and acute at oth ends. Seeds are numerous, yellowish rown and s
u -quadrate (Warrier et al,1993). Another species of Andrographis is A. echioide
s (Linn.) Nees. It is found in the warmer parts of India. The plant is a fe rifu
ge and diuretic. It contains flavone-echiodinin and its glucoside-echioidin (Hus
ain et al, 1992).
Agrotechnology
The est season of planting Andrographis is May-June. The field is to e ploughe
d well, mixed with compost or dried cowdung and seed eds of length 3m, readth 1
/2m and 15cm height are to e taken at a distance of 3m. The plant is seed propa
gated. Seeds are to e soaked in water for 6 hours efore sowing. Sowing is to
e done at a spacing of 20cm. Seeds may germinate within 15-20 days. Two weedings
, first at one month after planting and the second at 2 month after planting are
to e carried out. Irrigation during summer months is eneficial. The plant is
not attacked y any serious pests or diseases. Flowering commences from third mo
nth onwards. At this stage, plant are to e collected, tied into small undles a
nd sun-dried for 4-5 days. Whole plant is the economic part and the yield is a o
ut 1.25t dried plants/ha (Prasad et al, 1997).
Properties and Activity
Leaves contain two itter su stances lactone “andrographolid” and “kalmeghin”. T
he ash contains sodium chloride and potassium salts. Plant is very rich in chlor
ophyte. Kalmeghin is the active principle that contains 0.6% alkaloid of the cru
de plant. The plant contains diterpenoids, andrographolide, 14-deoxy-11-oxo-andr
ographolide, 14-deoxy11,12-dihydroandrographolide, 14-deoxy andrographolide and
neoandrographolide (Allison et al, 1968). The roots give flavones-apigenin-7,4-d
io-O-methyl ether, 5-hydroxy-7,8,2’,3’tetramethoxyflavone, andrographin and pani
colin and α-sitosterol (Ali et l, 1972;
153
Govind ch ri et l, 1969). Le ves cont in homo ndrogr pholide, ndrogr phosterol
nd ndrogr phone. The pl nt is vulner ry, ntipyretic, ntiperiodic, nti-infl
mm tory, expector nt, depur tive, sudorific, nthelmintic, digestive, stom chic
, tonic, febrifuge nd chol gogue. The pl nt is ntifung l, ntityphoid, hep top
rotective, ntidi betic nd cholinergic. Shoot is ntib cteri l nd le f is hypo
tensive(G rci  et l, 1980). This is used for the infl mm tion of the respir tor
y tr ct. In Chin , rese rchers h ve isol ted the ndrogr pholide from which solu
ble deriv tive such s 14-deoxy-11, 12-dehydro- ndrogr pholide which forms the s
ubject of current ph rm cologic l nd clinic l studies. Apigenin 7,4’-O-dimethl
ether isolated from A. paniculata exhibits dose dependent, antiulcer activit i
n sha rat, histamine induced ulcer in guinea pigs and aspirin induced ulcers in
rats. A crude substance isolated from methanolic extract of leaves has shown h
potensive activit. Pre-treatment of rats with leaf (500mg/kg) or andrographolid
e (5mg/kg) orall prevented the carbon tetrachloride induced increase of blood s
erum levels of glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminase in liver and prevented hepato
cellular membrane.
154
GARDEN RUE Rutaceae
Ruta chalepensis
San: Gucchapatra; Hin: Pismaram, Sadab, Satari; Ben: Ermul; Mal: Aruta, Nagatali
; Tam: Aruvadam, Arvada; Kan: Sadabu, Nagadali; soppu, Simesdanu; Tel: Sadapa, A
ruda Importance Common rue or Garden rue also known as Herb of Grace due to its
service in the Roman Catholic Church for sprinkling the hol water among the con
gregation, is an aromatic perennial herb. The plant is useful in vitiated condit
ions of kapha and vata, strangur, fever, flatulence, colic, amenorrhoea, epilep
s and hsteria. The oil acts as a stimulant for uterine and nervous sstems. Th
e fresh leaves are used for rheumatalgia. The juice obtained from the leaves is
given to children for helminthic infections and is good for odontalgia and otalg
ia (Warrier et al, 1996). The dried leaves, powdered and combined with aromatics
, are given as a remed for dspepsia and with the fresh leaves a tincture is ma
de which is used as an external remed in the first stages of paralsis (Nadkarn
i, 1998).
Distribution
The plant is a native of South Europe and it is found in subtropical countries.
It is commonl cultivated in Indian gardens.
Botan
Ruta chalepensis Linn.sn. R. graveolens Linn. var. angustifolia Sensu Hook. f.
belongs to the famil Rutaceae. It is an aromatic perennial herb growing upto 75
cm height. Leaves are compound, shortl petiolate with ultimate segments oblong
or obovate-oblong. Flowers are ellow. Fruits are capsules and shortl pedicelle
d (Warrier et al, 1996).
Agrotechnolog
The plant is suited to areas which are about 1000m above mean sea level and with
moderate rainfall and sunlight. The plant can be propagated either b seeds or
stem cuttings. Seeds are to be sown in seedbeds. Stem cuttings of length 20-25cm
are to be planted in polbags for rooting. About 3-4 months old seedlings can b
e transplanted to pots and harvested when plants attain 6-8 months age. In highl
ands land is to be ploughed to a fine tilth, mixed with organic manure and seedl
ings are to be transplanted at a spacing of 45cm between plants. Irrigation is e
ssential during summer months. Regular weeding is to be done. The plant is not a
ttacked b an serious pests and diseases. Harvesting commences from sixth month
onwards. The economic part is the whole plant and the oil extracted from it (Pr
asad et al, 1997).
Properties and Activit
Roots contain coumarins-xanthletin and (-)-bakangelicin. The alkaloids are rut
acridone-epoxide, gravacridonol and its monomethl ether, gravacridonchlorine, f
uracridone, 1-hdrox-3-methox-N-methlacridone, iso-gravacridonechlorine, dict
amine, r-fragarine and skimmianine. Skimmianine is also present in leaves and st
em. Leaves and stem also contain graveolinine (1-methl-2(3’,4’-methlenedioxph
enol)-4-methoxquinoline). Aerial parts give coumarins bergapten, xanthotoxin an
d psoralen. Coumarinimperatin has also been reported from the plant. Herb contai
ns alkaloids such as kokusagenine, rutamine(methlgraveoline) and graveoline(1-m
ethl-2(3’,4’methlenedioxphenl)-4-quinoline). Tissue culture of the plant giv
es furacridone alkaloids1-hdroxrutacridone-epoxide, rutagravin and gravacridon
ol. Gravacridondiol and its glucoside have been obtained from the root tissue cu
lture. The essential oil from leaves, stem and root ielded aliphatic ketones in
cluding 2-nonanone (10-35%), undecl-2-acetate (0.515%), 2-nonl acetate (trace-
10%), nonlacetate, nonanol, 2-nonlpropionate, 2nonlpropionate, 2-undecanol an
d its esters. The oil from roots gave pregeijerene also. The plant is spasmolti
c which is due to the presence of bergapten, xanthotoxin, the essential oil and
a coumarin. It is also antispasmodic, emmenagogue, irritant, abortifacient and a
nti-bacterial. Leaf is analgesic, antirheumatic, antihsteric and anthelmintic (
Husain et al, 1992).
155
WORM KILLER Aristolochiaceae
San: Kitamari Hin: Kiramar, Kitamar Tam: Atutinnappalai
Aristolochia
bracteolata
Mal: Attuthottappala, Atuthinnappala
Importance
The bracteated birthwort or worm killer is a perennial prostrate herb. As the na
me suggests it is a killer of intestinal worms especiall roundworms. It is also
used in vitiated conditions of kapha and vata, constipation, inflammations, ame
norrhoea, dsmenorrhoea, foul ulcers, boils, sphilis, gonorrhoea, dspepsia, co
lic, skin diseases, eczema, artheralgia and intermittent fevers. The plant is an
insect repellent due to the presence of aristolochic acid, which is poisonous t
o man and livestock. Plant is also used against scorpion sting. Seeds ground in
water to form a lotion and used for softening hair. Powdered root is used in fer
tilit control.
Distribution
The plant is found in Sri Lanka, Arabian countries and tropical Africa. In India
, the plant is grown in Deccan and Carnatic Plateau.
Botan
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. sn. A. bracteata Retz. belongs to the famil Aris
tolochiaceae. It is a perennial prostrate herb with weak, glabrous stems. Leaves
are simple, alternate, reniform or broadl ovate, cordate at the base with a wi
de sinus upto 7.5cm in diameter, reticulatel veined. Flowers are solitar with
a large sessile orbicular bract at the base. Perianth tube is clindric with dar
k purple tip having revolute margins. Fruits are oblong-ellipsoid 12-ribbed glab
rous capsules. Seeds are deltoid with slightl cordate base (Warrier et al, 1993
) Another important species belonging to the genus Aristolochia is A. indica Lin
n. The plant grows wild throughout the low hills and plains of India from Nepal
to West Bengal and South India. It is a valuable anti-dote to snake bite and to
bites of poisonous insects as scorpion, etc. It is given in cases of cholera and
diarrhoea after macerating with black pepper corns. The juice of the leaves has
stimulant, tonic and antiperiodic properties.
Agrotechnolog
Shad areas and well-drained soils are most suited to Aristolochia. The plant ca
n be seed propagated. 3-month-old seedlings raised in polbags are required for
transplanting. Pits of size 50cm cube are to be taken at a distance of 3m and fi
lled with sand, topsoil and dried cowdung. To these pits, the seedlings are to b
e transplanted. Regular irrigation and organic manure application is beneficial.
The plant is to be trailed on iron wires tied to poles. The plant is not attack
ed b an serious pests or diseases. Plant attains good spread within one ear.
Leaves can be collected for the next 10 ears. Roots and leaves constitute the e
conomic parts (Prasad et al, 1997).
Properties and Activit
Leaves and fruits ield cerl alcohol, β-sitosterol and aristolochic acid. Root
contains aristolochic acid. Seeds give an alkaloid magnoflorine, aristolochic ac
id, fatty oil comprising palmitic, stearic, lignoseric and oleic acids and β-sit
osterol. The plant is anthelmintic, cathartic, antiperiodic and emmenagogue. Lea
f is antigonorrhoeic, larvicidal and used in ec ema on children’s leg and ulcers
. The plant is oxytocic (Husain et al,1992).
156
FICUS Moraceae
Ficus spp.
The genus Ficus constitutes an important group of trees with immense medicinal v
alue. It is a sacred tree of Hindus and Buddhists. Among the varied num er of sp
ecies, the most important ones are the four trees that constitute the group “Nal
pamaram”, namely, F .racemosa, F. microcarpa, F. enghalensis and F. religiosa (
Athi, Ithi, Peral and Arayal respectively).
1. Ficus racemosa Linn. syn. F. glomerata Rox .
Eng: Cluster fig, Country fig San: Udum arah, Sadaphalah Hin: Gular, Umar Ben: J
agya dumur Mal, Tam, Kan: Athi Tel: Udam aramu, Paidi Gular fig, Cluster fig or
Country fig, which is considered sacred, has golden coloured exudate and lack
ark. It is distri uted all over India. Its roots are useful in treating dysenter
y. The ark is useful as a wash for wounds, highly efficacious in threatened a o
rtions and recommended in uropathy. Powdered leaves mixed with honey are given i
n vitiated condition of pitta. A decoction of the leaves is a good wash for woun
ds and ulcers. Tender fruits (figs) are used in vitiated conditions of pitta, di
arrhoea, dyspepsia and haemorrhages. The latex is administered in haemorrhoids a
nd diarrhoea (Warrier et al, 1995). The ripe fruits are sweet, cooling and are u
sed in haemoptysis, thirst and vomiting (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer et al, 1957; Moos
, 1976). Nalpamaradi coconut oil, Candanasava, Valiya Arimedastaila, Dinesavalya
di Ku ham u, A hra hasma, Valiya candanaditaila, etc. are some important prepara
tions using the drug (Sivarajan et al, 1994). It is a moderate to large-si ed sp
reading laticiferous, deciduous tree without many prominent aerial roots. Leaves
are dark green and ovate or elliptic. Fruit receptacles are 2-5cm in diameter,
su glo ose or pyriform arranged in large clusters on short leafless ranches ari
sing from main trunk or large ranches. Figs are smooth or rarely covered with m
inute soft hairs. When ripe, they are orange, dull reddish or dark crimson. They
have a pleasant smell resem ling that of cedar apples. The ark is rusty rown
with a fairly smooth and soft surface, the thickness varying from 0.5-2cm accord
ing to the age of the trunk or ark. Surface is with minute separating flakes of
white tissue. Texture is homogeneously leathery (Warrier et al, 1995). Stem- ar
k gives gluanol acetate, β-sitosterol, leucocyanidin-3-O-β-D-glucopyrancoside, l
eucopelargonidin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, leucopelargonidin -3-O-α-L-rh mnopyr n
oside, lupeol, ceryl behen te, lupeol cet te nd α- myrin cet te. Stem- b rk i
s hypoglyc emic nd nti-protozo l. G ll is CVS ctive. B rk is tonic nd used i
n rinder pest dise ses of c ttle. Root is ntidysenteric nd ntidi betic. Le f
is ntibilious. L tex is ntidi rrhoe l nd used in piles. B rk nd syconium is
stringent nd used in menorrh gi  (Hus in et l, 1992).
2. Ficus microc rp  Linn. f. syn. F. retus  uct. Non. Linn.
S n: Pl ks h; Hin, Ben: K m rup; M l: Ithi, Ithiy l; T m: K llicci, Icci; K n: I
tti; Tel: Pl ks  Pl ks h is the Ficus species with few br nches nd m ny dventi
tious roots growing downw rd. It is widely distributed throughout Indi  nd in S
ri L nk , S. Chin , Ryuku Isles nd Brit in. Pl k s h is one of the five ingredi
ents of the group p nchv lk l  i.e, five b rks, the decoction of which is extens
ively used to cle r ulcers nd  douche in leucorrhoe  in children. This decocti
on is dministered extern lly nd intern lly with s tisf ctory results. Pl ks h
is ccl imed s cooling, stringent, nd cur tive of r kt pitt  dosh s, ulcers,
skin dise ses, burning sens tion, infl mm tion nd oedem . It is found to h ve g
ood he ling property nd is used in prep r tion of oils nd ointments for extern
l pplic tion in the tre tment of ulcers (Aiyer nd Kol mm l, 1957). The stem-b
rk is used to prep re Usir s v , G ndh t il , N lp m r di t il , V liy  m rm gu
lik , etc. (Siv r j n et l, 1994). The b rk nd le ves re used in wounds, ulce
rs, bruises, fl tulent colic, hep top thy, di rrhoe , dysentery, di betes, hyper
dipsi , burning sens tion, h em orrh ges, erysipel s, dropsy, ulcer tive stom ti
tis, h emoptysis, psychop thy, leucorrhoe  nd coporrh gi  (W rrier et l,1995)
F. microc rp  is  l rge gl brous evergreen tree with few eri l roots. Le ves 
re shortpetioled, 5-10cm long, 2-6cm wide nd pex shortly nd bluntly picul te
or slightly em rgin te. M in l ter l nerves re not very prominent nd stipules
re l nceol te. Fruit recept cles re sessile nd globose occurring in xill ry
p irs. It is yellowish when ripe without ny ch r cteristic smell. B rk is d rk
grey or brown with  smooth surf ce except for the lenticels. Outer b rk is cor
ky nd crust ceous thin nd firmly dherent to inner tissue. Inner b rk is light
nd flesh coloured with firbrous texture (W rrier et l, 1995). It is lso equ 
ted with m ny other species of the genus. viz. F.
157
infectori  Roxb., F. rnotti n  Miq, F. l cor Buch-H m nd F. t lboti King (cf.
N dk rni, 1954, Singh nd Chunek r, 1972; K poor nd Mitr , 1979; Sh rm , 1983).
The b rk cont ins t nnin, w x nd s ponin. B rk is ntibilious. Powdered le ves
nd b rk is found very good in rheum tic he d che. The b rk nd le ves re str
ingent, refriger nt, crid nd stom chic.
3. Ficus bengh lensis Linn.
Eng: B ny n tree; S n: Ny grodh h, V t h; Hin: B t, B rg d; Ben: B r, Bot; M r:
V d ; M l: Per l, V t vriksh m; T m: Al m r m, Per l; K n: Al ; Tel: Pedd m rri;
Guj: V d B ny n tree is  l ticiferous tree with reddish fruits, which is wound
round by eri l dventitious roots th t look like m ny legs. It is found in the
Sub-Him l y n tr ct nd Peninsul r Indi . It is lso gr wn throughout Indi . It
is widely used in tre tment of skin dise ses with pitt  nd r kt  predomin nce.
Stem-b rk, root -b rk, eri l roots, le ves, veget tive buds nd milky exud te
re used in medicine. It improves complexion, cures erysepel s, burning sens tio
n nd v gin l disorders, while n infusion of the b rk cures dysentery, di rrhoe
, leucorrhoe , menorrh gi , nervous disorders nd reduces blood sug r in di bet
es. A decoction of the veget tive buds in milk is benefici l in h emorrh ges. A
p ste of the le ves is pplied extern lly to bcesses nd wounds to promote supp
ur tion, while th t of young eri l roots cure pimples. Young twigs when used s
 tooth brush strengthen gum nd teeth (N dk rni, 1954; Aiyer nd Kol mm l, 195
7; Mooss,1976). The drug forms n import nt constituent of formul tions like N l
p m r di Coconut oil, S rib dy s v , Kumkum di t il , Kh dir  gulik , V liy c nd
n di t il , C nd n s v , etc. (Siv r j n et l, 1994). The eri l roots re use
ful in obstin te vomiting nd leucorrhoe  nd re used in osteom l ci  of the li
mbs. The buds re useful in di rrhoe  nd dysentery. The l tex is useful in neur
lgi , rheum tism, lumb go, bruises, n sitis, ulorrh gi , ulitis, odontop thy, h
emorrhoids, gonorrhoe , infl mm tions, cr cks of the sole nd skin dise ses (W 
rrier et l, 1995). It is  very l rge tree up to 30m in height with widely spre
ding br nches be ring m ny eri l roots functioning s prop roots. B rk is gree
nish white. Le ves re simple, ltern te, rr nged often in clusters t the ends
of br nches. They re stipul te, 10-20cm long nd 5-12.5cm bro d, bro dly ellip
tic to ov te, entire, cori ceous, strongly 3-7 ribbed from the b se. The fruit r
ecept cles re xill ry, sessile, seen in p irs globose, brick red when ripe nd
enclosing m le, fem le nd g ll flowers. Fruits re sm ll, crust ceous, chenes
, enclosed in the common fleshy recept cles. The young b rk is somewh t smooth w
ith longitudin l nd tr nsverse row of lenticels. In older b rk, the lenticels 
re numerous nd closely sp ced; outer b rk e sily fl kes off. The fresh cut surf
ce is pink or flesh coloured nd exudes plenty of l tex. The inner most p rt of
the b rk djoining the wood is ne rly white nd fibrous (W rrier et l, 1995).
The b rk yields fl v noid compounds A, B nd C; A nd C re identified s differ
ent forms of  leuco nthocy nidin nd compound B  leuco nthocy nin. All the 3 w
ere effective s hypoglyc emic gents. Le ves give friedelin, β-sitosterol, flav
onoids- quercetin-3-galactoside and rutin. Heart wood give tiglic acid ester of
ψ taraxasterol. Bark is hpoglcemic, tonic, astringent, antidiarrhoeal and anti
diabetic. Latex is antirheumatic. Seed is tonic. Leaf is diaphoretic. Root fibre
is antigonorrhoeic. Aerial root is used in debilit and anaemic dsenter (Husa
in et al, 1992).
.4.
Ficus religiosa Linn.
Eng:Peepal tree, Sacred fig; San:Pippalah, Asvatthah; Hin:Pippal, Pipli, Pipar;
Mal:Araal Ben: Asvatha; Tam: Arasu, Asvattam; Kan: Aswatha; Tel: Ravi; Mar: Ash
vata, Pimpala Peepal tree or Sacred fig is a large deciduous tree with few or no
aerial roots. It is common throughout India, often planted in the vicinit of t
he temples. An aqueous extract of the bark has an antibacterial activit against
Staphlococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. It is used in the treatment of gono
rrhoea, diarrhoea, dsenter, haemorrhoids and gastrohelcosis. A paste of the po
wdered bark is a good absorbent for inflammator swellings. It is also good for
burns. Leaves and tender shoots have purgative properties and are also recommend
ed for wounds and skin diseases. Fruits are laxative and digestive. The dried fr
uit pulverized and taken in water cures asthma. Seeds are refrigerant and laxati
ve. The latex is good for neuralgia, inflammations and haemorrhages (Warrier et
al, 1995). Decoction of the bark if taken in hone subdues vatarakta (Nadkarni,
1954; Aier and Kolammal, 1957; Mooss, 1976; Kurup et al, 1979). The important p
reparations using the drug are Nalpamaradi taila, Saribadasava, Candanasava, Ka
rnasulantaka, Valiamarma gulika etc (Sivarajan et al, 1994).
158
It is a large deciduous tree with few or no aerial roots. It is often epiphtic
with the drooping branches bearing long petioled, ovate, cordate shin leaves. L
eaves are bright green, the apex produced into a linear-lanceolate tail about ha
lf as long as the main portion of the blade. The receptacles occurring in pairs
and are axillar, depressed globose, smooth and purplish when ripe. The bark is
gre or ash coloured with thin or membranous flakes and is often covered with cr
ustose lichen patches. The outer bark is not of uniform thickness, the middle ba
rk in sections appear as brownish or light reddish brown. The inner part consist
s of laers of light ellowish or orange brown granular tissue (Warrier et al, 1
995). Bark gives β-sitosterol and its glucoside. Bark is hypoglycaemic. Stem ar
k is antiproto oal, anthelmintic and antiviral. Bark is astringent, antigonorrhe
ic, fe rifuge, aphrodisiac and antidysenteric. Syconium, leaf and young shoot is
purgative (Husain et al, 1992).
Agrotechnology
Ficus species can e cultivated in rocky areas, unused lands, or other wasteland
s of the farmyard. The plant is vegetatively propagated y stem cuttings. A few
species are also seed propagated. Stem cuttings of pencil thickness taken from t
he ranches are to e kept for rooting. Rooted cuttings are to e transplanted t
o prepared pits. No regular manuring is required. Irrigation is not a must as a
plant is hardy. The plant is not attacked y any serious pests or diseases. Bark
can e collected after 15 years. Ficus species generally has an economic life s
pan of more than hundred years. Hence ark can e regularly collected from the t
ree. Root, ark, leaves, fruits and latex form the economic parts (Prasad et al,
1995).
159
WEST INDIAN MEDLAR Sapotaceae
San: Bakulah Hin: Bakul, Maulsiri Ben: Bakul
Mimusops elengi
Mal: Ilanji, Elanji
Tam: Magilam, Ilanci Barsoli, Bolsari
Importance
Tel: Pogada
Kan: Pagademara Guj:
Spanish cherry, West Indian Medlar or Bullet wood tree is an evergreen tree with
sweetscented flowers having ancient glamour. Garlands made of its flowers are e
ver in good demand due to its long lasting scent. Its ark is used as a gargle f
or odontopathy, ulitis and ulemorrhagia. Tender stems are used as tooth rushes.
It is also useful in urethrorrhoea, cystorrhoea, diarrhoea and dysentery. Flowe
rs are used for preparing a lotion for wounds and ulcers. Powder of dried flower
s is a rain tonic and is useful as a snuff to relieve cephalgia. Unripe fruit i
s used as a masticatory and will help to fix loose teeth. Seeds are used for pre
paring suppositories in cases of constipation especially in children (Warrier et
al,1995). The ark and seed coat are used for strengthening the gum and enter i
nto the composition of various her al tooth powders, under the name of “Vajradan
ti”, where they may e used along with tannin-containing su stances like catechu
(Acacia catechu), pomegranate (Punica granatum) ark, etc. The ark is used as
snuff for high fever accompanied y pains in various parts of the ody. The flow
ers are considered expectorant and smoked in asthma. A lotion prepared from unri
pe fruits and flowers is used for smearing on sores and wounds. In Ayurveda, the
important preparation of Mimusops is “Bakuladya Taila”, applied on gum and teet
h for strengthening them, whereas in Unani system, the ark is used for the dise
ases of genitourinary system of males (Thakur et al, 1989).
Distri ution
It is cultivated in North and Peninsular India and Andaman Islands. It is grown
as an avenue tree in many parts of India.
Botany
Mimusops elengi Linn. elongs to the family Sapotaceae. It is an evergreen tree
with dark grey fissured ark and densely spreading crown. Leaves are o long, gla
rous and leathery with wavy margins. Flowers are white, fragrant, axillary, sol
itary or fascicled. Fruits are ovoid or ellipsoid erries. Seeds are 1-2 per fru
it, ovoid, compressed, greyish rown and shiny (Warrier et al, 1995). Other impo
rtant species elonging to the genus Mimusops are M. hexandra Rox . and M. kauki
Linn. syn. Manilkara kauki Du .(Chopra et al, 1980).
Agrotechnology
Mimusops prefers moist soil rich in organic matter for good growth. The plant is
propagated y seeds. Fruits are formed in Octo er-Novem er. Seeds are to e col
lected and dried. Seeds are to e soaked in water for 12 hours without much dela
y and sown on seed eds. Via ility of seeds is less. After germination they are t
o e transferred to poly ags. Pits of si e 45cm cu e are to e taken and filled
with 5kg dried cowdung and top soil. To these pits, a out 4 months old seedlings
from the poly ags are to e transplanted with the onset of monsoon. Addition of
10kg FYM every year is eneficial. Any serious pests or diseases do not attack
the plant. Flowering commences from fourth year onwards. Bark, flowers, fruit an
d seeds are the economic parts.
Properties and Activity
β-sitosterol and its glucoside, α-spin -sterol, quercitol, t r xerol nd lupeol
nd its cet te re present in the eri l p rts s well s the roots nd seeds.
The eri l p rts in ddition g ve quercetin, dihydroquercetin, myricetin, glycos
ides, heder genin, ursolic cid, hentri cont ne nd β-carotene. The ark contain
ed an alkaloid consisting largely of a tiglate ester of a ase with a mass spect
rum identical to those of la urinine and iso-retronecanol and a saponin also whi
ch on hydrolysis gave β-amyrin and rassic acid. Seed oil was comprised of capri
c, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, arachidic, oleic and linoleic acids. Sap
onins from seed are spermicidal and spasmolytic. The aerial part is diuretic. Ex
tract of flower (1mg/kg ody weight) showed positive diuretic action in dogs. Ba
rk is tonic and fe rifuge. Leaf is an antidote for snake ite. Pulp of ripe fruit
is antidysenteric. Seed is purgative. Bark and pulp of ripe fruit is astringent
(Husain et al, 1992).
160
HOLOSTEMMA Asclepiadaceae
Importance
Holostemma
ada-kodien
San: Jivanti; Hin: Chirvel, Charivel; Mal: Atapathiyan, Atapotiyan, Atakotiyan;
Tam: Palaikkirai; Tel: Palagurugu; Mar: Dudurli, Shidodi; Guj: Kharner, Khiravel
Holostemma is a twining shru with large flowers. The roots of Holostemma are u
seful in ophthalmopathy, orchitis, cough, urning sensation, stomachalgia, const
ipation, fever and tridoshas. The leaves, flowers and fruits are eaten as vegeta
le. The root is also used in spermatorrhoea. It is used in preparations of Vida
ryadiganam, Dhanwandharam thaila, Manasamithravatakam, Balarishta and Anuthaila.
It is also useful in eye diseases and it imparts resistance to diseases.
Distri ution
The plant occurs in tropical countries. In India, it is found in Himalayas, Dehr
adun, Konkan, Bom ay, Deccan, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamilnadu. It grows over hed
ges and in open forests especially on the lower slopes of the hills. It is also
distri uted in Sri Lanka, Burma and W. China.
Botany
Holostemma ada-kodien Schult. syn. Holostemma annulare (Rox .) K. Schum., Holost
emma rheedii Wall. elongs to the family Asclepiadaceae. It is a laticiferous tw
ining shru with large conspicuous flowers. Leaves are simple, opposite and cord
ate. Flowers are purple, arranged in axillary um ellate cymes. Fruits are thick
follicles, 9 cm long, cylindrical and luntly pointed. The roots are long upto 1
m or more, irregularly twisted, thick and cylindrical. When dry it is yellowish
rown to rown lack in colour with nearly smooth surface earing white scars a
nd small depressions. A mature root is a out 1-2 cm thick when extracted for use
(Warrier et al, 1995).
Agrotechnology
Holostemma prefers a tropical climate. The plant is propagated vegetatively y s
tem cuttings, ut mainly y seeds. The seeds are collected from the plant in Nov
em er-Decem er efore eing dispersed. Seeds are cleaned, dried and stored for s
owing. The stored seeds after soaking in water for 4-5 hours are sown in the see
d eds. A out one month old seedlings are then planted in poly ags of si e 14x10c
m which are filled with soil, sand and dried cowdung in 1:1:1 ratio, respectivel
y. Poly ags should e kept in shade and irrigated. A out 1-1.5 month old seedlin
gs are ready for transplanting. Pits of 30cm cu e si e are taken at 11.2m distan
ce and filled with 10kg dried cowdung and sand. This is covered with surface soi
l and formed into a mound. Seedlings are transplanted on to the mounds from the
poly ags carefully. Regular irrigation is to e given till flowering. To aid in
trailing, staking is given one month after planting. Flowering and fruiting occu
rs in Novem er-Decem er. Harvesting can e done at the end of second year when t
he vines start drying up. Harvesting is done y digging up the tu ers. The tu er
s are cut into pieces of 10cm length and dried in sun efore sale (Prasad et al,
1997).
Properties and activity
Holostemma tu ers give α- myrin, lupeol nd β-sitosterol. Alanine, aspartic acid
, glycine, serine, threonine and valine were detected chromatographically (Hussa
in et al, 1992). The root is antidia etic, antigonorrhoeic, echic, alterative,
tonic, lactative, ophthalmic, emollient, stimulant, aphrodisiac, expectorant and
galactagogue.
161
BLACH MUSALE
Curculigo orchioides
Amaryllidaceae
San: Musali; Hin: Kalimusali, Mushali; Ben: Talamuli; Mal: Nilappana; Guj: Musal
ikand Tam: Nilapanai; Tel: Nelatadi Kelangu; Kan: Neladali
Importance
Musali is a small, geophilous her , the tu erous rootstock of which is used as a
rejuvenating and aphrodisiac drug. It cures mor id vata and pitta, improves com
plexion and is useful in general de ility, deafness, cough, asthma, piles, skin
diseases, impotence, jaundice, urinary disorders, leucorrhoea and menorrhagia (N
adkarni, 1954; Aiyer and Kolammal, 1963; Mooss, 1978). Rootstock is the officina
l part and it enters into the Ayurvedic formulations like Vidaryadighrta, Vidary
adi lehya, Marmagulika, Musalyadi churna etc. The Pharmacognosy of C. orchioides
has een discussed y Aiyer, Kolammal (1963), Raghunathan, and Mitra (1982). A
i liographical study on C. orchioides has een done y Pandey et al (1983). Dis
tri ution The plant is found in all districts of India from near sea level to 23
00m altitude, especially in rock crevices and laterite soil. It has een recorde
d to occur in the su tropical Himalayas from Kumaon eastwards ascending to 1800
m, the Khasia hills, Bengal, Asssam, Konkan, Kanara, the western peninsula and M
adras extending south as far as a Cape Comerin. It is also distri uted in Sri La
nka, Japan, Malaysia and Australia.
Botany
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. syn. C. mala arica Wight, C. revifolia Dryand, Hyp
oxis dulcis Stand elongs to the family Amaryllidaceae. Musali is a small her ac
eous plant with cylindrical rootstock. Leaves are simple, sessile, crowded on th
e short stem with sheathing leaf ases. Flowers are right yellow. Seeds are la
ck, deeply grooved in wavy lines. A detailed description of the plant is as foll
ows (Victoria, 1998). Rootstock is straight, cylindrical, tu erous, 5-22cm long,
0.5-0.8 cm thick, rownish surfaces marked with closely spaced prominent transv
erse wrinkles in the upper or asal half. It ears a few stout lateral roots of
5 or more cm long. Lateral roots are dull white in colour and spongy externally.
The fresh cut surfaces of the rootstock has a starch white colour and mucilagin
ous. A few fi rous roots also occur. Leaves are sessile or short petiolate with
sheathing ases, 15-45x1.2-2.5 cm si e, linear or linear lanceolate, mem ranous,
gla rouus or sparsely sofly hairy and plicate in ud. The leaf tips when contac
ts the soil, develops roots and produce adventitious uds. Inflorescence is axil
lary, scapose racemose, the scape very short and hidden among the ases of leave
s underground, clavte, flattened with the pedicels, racts and the ovary conceal
ed in the leaf sheaths. The lower ig flowers on the scape are mostly isexual a
nd the upper small ones staminate. Flowers are epigynous right yellow, isexual
or unisxual with lanceolate, mem ranous ract.. Perianth gamophyllous, rotate &
six lo ed, locate at the top of a slender sterile long extension of the ovary
y means of which the perianth is exposed a ove the ground. Perianth lo es simila
r, elliptic o long 1.2-1.6 cm long, 0.2-0.3 cm road, outer lo es hairy on the
ack, inner ones sparsely hairy along nerves. Stamens 6 in num er, filamentous fi
liform, short 2mm long, adnate to the ase of the perianth lo es, Anthers linear
or linear lanceolate, asifixed and sagittate,.Ovary inferior, hidden among the
leaves usually elow the ground, tricarpellary syncarpous, lanceolate and trilo
cular with a fairly long slender eak or extension -the stipe. Ovules many in ea
ch cell attached y a distinct long funicle. Style short columnar, 2mm with a 3
lo ed stigma. Lo es elongate, erect and appressed. Fruit is a capsule a out 1.5-
2cm long, 8mm road, o long, gla rescent with a slender eak and spongy septa. S
eeds 1-many, o long, lack, shiny with crustaceous testa grooved deeply in wavy
lines.
162
Properties and Activity
Rao and Beri (1951) have identified glucose, mannose, xylose and glucuronic acid
from the rootstock of C. orchioides. The rootstock is also reported to contain
glycoside, polysaccharides (hemicellulose and other polysaccharides), starch, re
sin, tannin, mucilage, fat and calcium oxalate. The hexane extract contains an a
lkaloid-lycorine, sterols including β-sitosterols and sapogenin identified as yu
ccagenin (Rao et al, 1978). The flavone glycoside from the rootstock has een id
entified as 5,7- dimethoxy glucopyranoside (Yadav et al, 1974; Sharma et al 1975
). Mehta et al (1980) have isolated a num er of fatty acids from C. orchioides r
oot oil y GLC techniques. They are palmitic, oleic, linolenic linoleic, arachid
ic and ehenic acid. Ku o et al (1983) isolated a new phenolic glycoside namely,
curculigoside from the rhi omes and its structure has een elucidated as 5hydro
xy-2-0-β-d-glucopyranosyl en l 1,2,6-dimethoxy en oate. Yamasaki et al (1994)
developed HPLC method for estimating the curculigoside content in curculigo rhi 
ome. Two new aliphatic hydroxy ketone 27-hydroxy tricontan-6-one (M. P. 84-85o C
) and 23hydroxy tricontan-2-one (M. P. 109-110 o C) were isolated from the rhi o
me y Misra et al (1984). They also isolated 21-hydroxy tetracontan-20-one and 4
-methyl heptade canoic acid from the root stock. Porwal et al (1988) have isolat
ed and identified three new compounds from the rhi ome as Nacetyl-N-hydroxy-2-ca
r amic acid methyl ester, 3-acetyl-5-car omethoxy-2H-3,4,5,6-tetrahydro1,2,3,5,6
-oxatetra ine and N, N, N
, N
-tetra methyl succinamide. The rhi omes of C. orch
ioides yielded a new phenolic glycoside corchioside a, characterised as orcinol-
3-β-D-xylopyranosyl- (1→6)β-D-glucopyranoside and hentriacontanol (Garg et al, 1
989). A new aliphatic compound has een isolated from the rhi omes and character
ised as 25dihydroxy-33-methyl pentatricontan-one (Mehta et al, 1990). Misra et a
l (1990) isolated a new natural triterpene alcohol-Curculigol charactrised as 24
-methy cycloart-7-en-3- eta-20-diol. A novel pentacyclic triterpene has een iso
lated from the rhi omes of C.orchioides and characterised as 31methyl-3-oxo-20-u
rsen-28-oic acid (Metha and Gawarikar,1991). Xu and Xu (1992) and Xu et al (1992
a, ) have isolated 13 cycloartane type. Triterpene glycosides from C. orchioid
es rhi ome and characterised them as curculigo saponin A-M. The root stock are m
ucilaginous, sweet, cooling, itter, emollient, diuretic, aphrodisiac, depurativ
e, alternative, appetiser, carminative, viriligenic, antipyretic and tonic (Siva
rajan and Indira, 1994; Warrier et al, 1994). The uterine stimulant activity of
the flavone glycoside extracted from C. orchioides has een studied y Dhawan an
d Saxena (1958), Sharma et al (1975) and Dhar et al (1979). The plant extract of
C. orchioides showed hypoglycaemic, spasmolytic and anticancer properties (Dhar
et al,1968). Phagocytic activity (Ku o et al, 1983) and immunoadjuvant activity
(Oru et al, 1982) of phenolic glycosides, curculigoside isolated from the rhi o
me of the plant have een reported. Porwal and Mehta (1985) discussed the medici
nal importance of the plant and its use in indigenous system of medicine as a to
nic. Sharma et al (1991) reported the influence of MAK an ayurvedic food supplem
ent constituting C. orchioides against Dimethyl en  anthracene induced mammary
tumours in rats. Samanta (1992) reported the modulation of male infertility y A
yurvedic drug, which constitutes C. orchioides. Immunostimulant activity of C. o
rchioides has een demonstrated y Saxena (1992). Immunological activites of cur
culigo saponin G were assayed in mice and the results showed that it promoted pr
oliferation of spleen lymphocyctes very significantly and increased the weight o
f the thymus in vivo in mice (Xu et al,1992). Pharmacological studies in China,
on the alcoholic extract o tained from the plant showed several active effects s
uch as adaptogenic, anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsant, sedative, androgenic and
immunopromoting activities (Xu et al, 1992). Curculigo orchioides is distri uted
widely throughout the country. The demand of the raw materials and derivatives
of the plant for the indigenous drug industries are satisfied mainly from the wi
ld source, depleting the natural population and thus the species have ecome ext
inct or endangered. Ansari (1993) have reported C. orchioides as a threatened pl
ant from Madhulia forest of Garakhpur. Augustin and Sou a (1995) also considered
the plant as an endangered species. As the information on the cultivation of C.
orchioides is scanty, it is very necessary to develop suita le agrotechniques fo
r the domestication and large-scale cultivation of the plant.
163
STRYCHNINE Loganiaceae
TREE
Strychnos
nux-vomica
San: Karaskara; Hin: Kajra, Kuchila; Mal: Kanjiram; ; Tam: Itti, Kagodi, Kanjira
i Mar:Jharkhatchura; Kan: Hemmushti, Ittangi; Tel: Mushti, Mushidi; Ori: Kora, K
achila Importance It is a large deciduous tree, with simple leaves and white fra
grant flowers. Strychnos is highly toxic to man and animals producing stiffness
of muscles and convulsions, ultimately leading to death. However, in small doses
it can also serve as efficacious cure forms of paralysis and other nervous diso
rders. The seeds are used as a remedy in intermittent fever, dyspepsia, chronic
dysentery, paralytic and neuralgic affections, worms, epilepsy, chronic rheumati
sm, insomnia and colic. It is also useful in impotence, neuralgia of face, heart
disease, spermatorrhoea, skin diseases, toxins, wounds, emaciation, cough and c
holera. Leaves are applied as poultice in the treatment of chronic wounds and ul
cers and the leaf decoction is useful in paralytic complaints. Root and root ar
k used in fever and dysentery (Nadkarni, 1982; Kurup et al, 1979).
Distri ution
The plant is distri uted throughout India in deciduous forests up to 1200m. It i
s also found in Sri Lanka, Siam, Indochina and Malaysia.
Botany
Strychnos nux-vomica Linn. is a large tree elonging to the family Loganiaceae.
Leaves are simple, opposite, or icular to ovate, 6-11.5x6-9.5cm, coriaceous, gla
rous, 5 nerved, apex o tuse, acute or apiculate, transverse nerves irregular an
d inconspicuous. Inflorescence is many flowered terminal cymes, 2.5-5cm across.
Bracts (5mm) and racteoles (1.5mm) small. Flowers are white or greenish white a
nd fragrant. Calyx 5 lo ed, pu escent and small (2mm). Corolla salver shaped, tu
e cylindrical slightly hairy near the ase within and greenish white, tu e much
elongate than the lo es. Tu e 7mm and lo es 2.5mm long. Lo es 5 and valvate. St
amens 5, filaments short, 0.1mm long. Anthers 1.5mm su exerted, linear o long. O
vary 1.5 mm, pu escent, 2 celled, ovules one to many. Style 9mm, stigma capitate
. Fruit is a erry, 5-6cm diameter, glo ose, indehiscent, thick shelled, orange
red when ripe with fleshy pulp enclosing the seeds. Seeds 1-many, discoid, compr
essed, coin like, concave on one side and convex on the other, covered with fine
grey silky hairs. The leaf fall is during Decem er (do not shed all the leaves
at a time) and new foliage appears in Fe ruary. Flowering is during March - Apri
l and fruiting during May Decem er. Fruits take a out 8-9 months to mature.
Properties and Activity
Strychnine and rucine are the most important and toxic alkaloids present in the
plant. They occur not only in the seeds ut also in roots, wood, ark, fruit pu
lp and hard fruit shells. The minor alkaloids present in the plant are vomicine,
α-colubrine, β-colu rine, pseudostrychnine and N-methyl-sec-pseudo rucine (nova
cine). Loganin a glycoside is also present (Warnat, 1932; Martin et al, 1953; Gu
ggis erg et al, 1966; Bisset and Chaudhary, 1974). Chatterji and Basa (1967) rep
orted vomicine as the major constituent alkaloid along with unidentified alkaloi
d in leaves and identified another alkaloid kajine (N-methyl pseudostrychnine) f
rom the leaves of very young plants. Root ark of S. nux-vomica yeilded 4-hydrox
y-3-methoxy strychnine, 4 hydroxy strychine, nor-macusine, a new alkaloid 12β, 1
3α dihydro-12α-hydroxy isostrychnine n med protostrychnine (B ser et l, 1979) m
ethoxy strychnine, nd m v curine (Guggisberg et l, 1966). Le ves nd root b rk
lso yeilded 11 new lk loids. 10-hydroxy strychnine, 3-12-dihydroxystrychnine,
12-hydroxy–11- methoxy strychnine, 3-12-dihydroxy164
11-methoxy strychnine,12-hydroxy strychnine-N- oxide 12-hydroxy-11-methoxy stryc
hnineN-oxide-19,20–dihydro isostrychnine, 16α, 17β dihydro-17α-hydroxy isostrych
nine, Omethyl-m cusine B, 16-epi-o-methyl–m cusine B nd normelinone B (B ser n
d Bisset, 1982). De nd D tt  (1988) isol ted 5 terti ry indole lk loids viz. s
trychnine, brucine, vomicine, ic jine nd nov cine from S.nux-vomic  flowers. Bi
sset et l (1989) isol ted nd identified two phenolic glycosides s lidroside n
d cuchiloside –  compound consisting of s lidroside nd n tt ched xylose unit
, from the fruit of S.nux-vomic . Rodriguez et l (1979) isol ted n indole lk 
loid from the seeds of S. nuxvomic  nd identified s  3-methoxy ic jine. A new
lk loid 15-hydroxy strychnine h s been isol ted from the seeds nd the structu
re of the lk loid est blished by spectroscopic d t  (G leffi et l, 1979). C i
et l (1990 ) isol ted 4 new lk loids isobrucine, isobrucine N-oxide, isostrych
nine N-oxide nd 2 hydroxy–3-methoxy strychnine from the he t tre ted seeds of S
. nuxvomic  nd the structure of the lk loids were determined by 13 CNMR (C i e
t l, 1994). C i et l (1990 b) studied the ch nges in the lk loid composition
of the seeds during drug processing. S ily et l (1994) determined the miner l e
lements in Strychnos nux-vomic . Cors ro et l (1995) reported polys cch rides f
rom the seeds of Strychnos species. Seeger nd Neum nn (1986) reviewed the physi
co-chemic l ch r cteristics, occurrence, identific tion, utilis tion, poisoning,
toxicity, kinetics, differenti l di gnosis nd ther peutic uses of strychnine 
nd brucine. Aspergillus niger, A. fl vus nd Pencillium citrinum showed regul r
ssoci tion with Strychnos seeds nd effectively deterior ted the lk loid conte
nt of the seeds (Dutt , 1988; Dutt  nd Roy, 1992). Nicholson (1993) described t
he history, structure nd synthesis of strychnine which occur in the seeds of S.
nux-vomic . R w l nd Michoud (1991) developed  gener l solution for the synth
esis of 2 z bicyclo (3.3.1) non ne substructure of Strychnos lk loids. Vill r e
t l (1984) nd H y k w  et l (1984) developed HPLC method for the n lysis of
strychnine nd brucine. Gr f nd Wittliner (1985), Kostennikov  (1986) nd G ito
nde nd Joshi (1986) suggested different methods for the ss y of strychnine nd
brucine. Bi l  et l, (1996) developed new method for the ss y of lk loids in
S. nuxvomic . The seeds re bitter, crid, lexeteric, phrodisi c, ppetiser,
ntiperiodic, nthelmintic, digestive, febrifuge, emmen gogue, purg tive, spin l
, respir tory nd c rdi c stimul nt nd stom chic. The b rk is bitter, nd tonic
nd febrifuge (N dk rni, 1954; Kurup et l, 1979; W rrier et l, 1996). The qu 
rternery lk loid from the root b rk of the Sri L nk n pl nt exhibited muscle-re
l x nt ctivity (B ser nd Bisset, 1982). Antimicrobi l ctivity of indole lk l
oid isol ted from the Strychnos nux-vomic  w s studied by Verpoorte et l, 1983.
Shukl  et l (1985) ev lu ted the effic cy of R sn digugglu compound consisting
of S. nux-vomic , on rheum toid rthritis nd found to be effective in reducing
infl mm tory oedom  nd rheum toid rthritis. It lso exhibited n lgesic ctiv
ity. A compound Un ni formul tion cont ining S. nux-vomic  signific ntly ttenu 
ted withdr w l intensity in morphine dependent r ts (Z t r et l, 1991). Sh h n 
et l (1994) studied the effect of Un ni drug combin tion (UDC) h ving Strychno
s nux-vomic  on the bstinence syndrome in moder tely nd severely morphine depe
ndent r ts. The UDC strikingly suppressed the bstinence syndrome w s seen to po
ssess centr l depress nt nd n lgesic ction. Melone et l (1992) reported bruc
ine-leth lity in mice. P nd  nd P nd  (1993) nd S ty n r y n n et l (1994) re
ported ntig stric ulcer ctivity of nux vomic  in Sh y r ts. B nerjee nd P l (
1994) reported the medicin l pl nts used by the trib ls of pl in l nd in Indi  f
or h ir nd sc lp prep r tion nd S. nux-vomic  being used to cure lopeci  (b l
dness) by the trib ls. Trip thi nd Ch ur si  (1996) studied the effect of S. nu
x-vomic  lcohol extr ct on lipid peroxid tion in r t liver.
165
IX. ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE TEXT
% o C α β γ @ a.i. Ass Ben Ca CNS CVS D e et al FYM  GLC Guj ha Hin HPLC hr ie
k K Kan Kas l L m M&AP Mal Mar M N O O P p pp Pun Raj S San sp, spp t Tam Tel
TLC var viz vol yr Per cent Deree Celsius Alpha Beta Gamma At the rate of Activ
e inredient Assamese Benali Calcium Central nervous system Central venal syste
m Dextro-rotatory Example and others Farm yard manure ram Gas liquid chromator
aphy Gujarathi hectare Hindi Hih pressure (performance) liquid chromatoraphy h
our that is kilo Potassium Kannada Kashmiri litre Levo-rotatory metre, milli Med
icinal and aromatic plants Malayalam Marathi Manesium Nitroen Oxyen Oxyen Ph
osphorus pae paes Punjabi Rajasthani Sulphur Sanskrit species tonne Tamil Telu
u Thin layer chromatoraphy variety namely volume year

166
X. NAMES OF BOTANISTS
Alef. Alst Ar Backer Bal Bartl. Batsch Bedd Boj Borss Braun Blanquet Burkill Ca
v Christm Clark Colebr Collet. Corr Coss Cramer Crepin. Czern. De Wilde Desv Die
ls Don Druce Dunal Eberm Ehrh Ener, Forsk Friis G. Don Gaenep Ganep Gandich Gau
d Gilib. Guerke Haw Haworth Herrm. Heyne Hout Houtt Hunter J. Burm Jacq Jowitt J
uss Juss Ker-Gawler Koch Koeni Kosterm Kunth Kuntze Kurz L. Herit Alston, Arthu
r Huh Grafit Backer, Cornelis Andries Balansa, Benedict F.G. Bartlin A.J.G.K.
Batsch Beddome, Richard Henry Bojer, Wenceslas Borssum Waalkes Burkill, Issac He
nry Cavanilles, Antonio Jose Christmann, Gottlieb, Friedrich Colebrooke, Henry T
homas
Louis H. Cramer
De Wildeman, Emile Auust(e) Joseph Desvaux, Auuste Nicaise Diels, Friedrich Lu
uri Emil Don, Geore Druce, Geore Claride Dunal, Michel Felix J.F. Ehrhart F
orsskal, Pehr Friis, Ib Don, Geore Gane pain, Francois Gaudichaud - Beaupre, C
harles J.E. Gilibert Gurke (Guerke), Robert Louis Auust Maximilian Haworth, Adr
ian
Heyne, Benjamin Houttuyn, Martin W. Hunter Jacquin, Nicolaus Jussieu, Adrien Hen
ri Laurent de Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de Ker Gawler, John Bellenden Koch, Grun
ber Christian Theodar Koeni, Johann Gerhard Kostermans, Andre Joseph Gulliaume
Henri Kunth, Karl Siismund Kuntze, Carl Ernst Kurz, W. Sulpiz L’Heritier, Char
les Louis 167
Labill Less Link Lippold Lour M. R. Maire Maton Medicus Mich Miers Millsp Miq Mo
on Murray Nash Nees Oken Ortea Osb Parker Pellet Pennell Perr. Pers Pierre Poir
et Poisson Prain Radlk Raeush Rafin Rehd. Rendle Retz Robs Rosc Roth S. M. Almei
da S. Manso Sarent Schott Schrank Schult Sims Skeels Sonner Spraue Spren Stap
f Steud Stocks Suresh Sw Swartz Swinle Taub Thonn Thumb Thw Urban
Labillardiere, Jacques Julien Houtton de Lessin, Christian Friedrich Link, Joha
nn Heinrich Friedrich Lippold, Hans Loureiro, Joao de Maire, Rene Charles Joseph
Ernest Maton, William Geore Medikus, Friedrich Casimir Miers, John Millspauh,
Charles Frederick Miquel, Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Moon, Alexander Murray, Johan
Andreas Nash, Geore Valentine Nees von Esenbeck, Christian Gottfried Daniel Ok
en, Lorenz Ortea, Casimiro Gomez Osbeck, Pehr
Pennell, Francis Whittier T.A. Perry floreat Persoon, Christiaan Hendrik Pierre,
Jean Baptiste Louis Poiret, Jean Louis Marie Prain David Radlkofer, Ludwi Adol
ph Timotheus Rauschel, Ernst Adolph Rafinesque - Schmaltz, Constantine Samuel Re
hder, Alfred Rendle, Alfred Barton Retzius, Anders Jahan Robson, Norman K.B. Ros
coe, William Roth, Albrecht Wilhelm Silva Manso Antonio Luiz Patricio da C.S. Sa
rent Schott, Heinrich Wilhelm Schrank, Franz Paulavon Schultes, Josef Auust Si
ms, John Skeels, Homer collar Sonnerat, Pierre Spraue, Thomas Archibald Sprene
l, Curt Polycarp Joachim Stapf, Otto Steudel, Ernst Gottlieb von
Swartz, Olof Peter O. Swartz Swinle, Walter Tennyson Taubert, Paul Hermann Wilh
elm Thonnin, H. Thunber, Carl Peter Thwaites, Geore Henry Kendrick Urban, In
atz
168
Vahl Vent Voit Voit Watt Wills
Vahl, Jens Lorenz Moestue Ventenat, Etienne Pierre Voit, Johann Otto
169
GLOSSARY
Abortifacient Abscess Absorbent Acne Acrid Aalactia Aue Albuminuria Alexipharm
ic Alexiteric Alopecia Alterative Amenorrhoea Amentia Anaemia Analeptic Analesi
c Anaphrodisiac Anasarca Anaesthetic Anodyne Anorectic Anorexia Anthelmintic Ant
iasthmatic Antibiotic Anticoaulant Antidiarrheal Antidote Antidote Antidyspepti
c Antiemetic Antihemorrhaic Antihypertensive Antiinflammatory Antilithich Antip
eriodic Antiphloistic Antipruritic Antipyretic Antirachitic Antirheumatic Antis
corbutic antiscrofulous Antiseptic Antispsmodic Antitussive Antiuric Anuria Aper
ient Aphrodisiac Aphthae Apoplexy Arthralia Arthritis Ascites Asphyxia Astrine
nt An aent that induces abortion A localised collection of pus caused by suppur
ation in a tissue Any aent which attracts and sucks up ases or secretions from
a wound. An inflammatory disease occurrin in or around the sebaceous lands Bi
tin, punent Absence or failure of secretion of milk Malaria The presence of se
rum albumin and serum lobulin in the urine Antidote to poison Protective to inf
ectious diseases Loss of hair-a malady in which the hair falls from one or more
circumscribed round or oval areas, leavin the skin smooth and white. Causin a
favorable chane in the disordered functions of the body or metabolism Failure o
f menstruation An arrest of the development of the mind from birth to early ae.
Lack of enouh blood in the body causin paleness Havin a restorative or stimu
latin effect, as on the central nervous system Relievin pain Havin the power
to lessen or inhibit sexual feelin Diffused dropsy in the skin and subcutaneous
tissue Inducin loss of feelin or consciousness A medicine that allays pain La
ckin appetite A condition of havin lost the appetite for food Destroyin or ex
pellin worms Relievin asthma Killin disease causin microoranisms Inhibitin
the clottin of blood Preventin or controllin diarrhea An aent which neutral
izes or opposes the action of a poison Substance that counteracts the effects of
a poison Relievin dyspepsia or indiestion Stoppin emesis or vomitin Control
lin bleedin Reducin hih blood pressure Controllin inflammation An aent whi
ch prevents the formation of calculi or promotes their dilution Preventin the r
eular recurrence of a disease Actin aainst heat or inflammation Preventin or
relievin itchin Counteractin fever Preventin or curin rickets A condition
that causes inflammation and pain in the joints and muscles Actin aainst scurv
y Treatin scrofula or tubercular swellins of the lymph lands A chemical steri
lisin substance to kill or control pathoenic microbes Opposin spasms or convu
lsions Controllin or preventin couh Counteractin excessive acidity in the ur
ine Complete cessation of the secretion and excretion of urine A laxative or mil
d cathartic A dru which stimulates sexual desire Ulcer on the surface of a muco
us membrane A sudden loss of consciousness Pain in joint Inflammation of a joint
Abnormal accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity Inability to breath Cau
sin soft tissues or drawin toether
170
Atrophy Balanitis Bechic Beriberi Blennorrhaia Brachycardiac Bronchopathy Bubo
Cachexia Calculus Calefacient Calibration
Calmative Carbuncle Carcinoenic Carcinoma Cardiac Cardiac depressant Cardiodyni
a Cardiokinetic Cardiopalmus Cardiopathy Cardiotonic Carminative Cataplexy Catar
act Catarrh Cathartic Cephalalia Cephalic Cephalopathy Cerebropathy Cholaoue
Cholera Cicatrizin Cirrhosis Colic Colitis Collyrium Colonalia Colonitis Colon
orrhaia Colpitis Colpoptosis Colporrhaia Coma Conjunctivitis Consumption Contr
aceptive Contusion Convulsion Corn Counterirritant Coxalia Coxitis Croup Cystal
ia

Wastin of a tissue or oran A condition of inflammation of the penis or of the

clitoris Anythin which relieves or cures couh A deficiency disease caused by i
mbalance of carbohydrate and vitamin B Free dischare of mucus Makin the heart
beat slower Any disease of the bronchi An inflammatory swellin of a lymph land
Depressed habit of mind A concretion formed in any part of the body usually com
pounds of salts of oranic or inoranic acids A remedy which ives rise to a sen
sation of warmth Demonstratin that a measurin device produces results within t
he specified limits of those produce by a reference standard device over an appr
opriate ran of measurements Sedative An infection of the skin and subcutaneous
tissue by Staphylococcus aureus Causin cancer A malinant epithelial tumour eve
ntually becomin fatal Relatin to the heart Slowin the action of the heart Pai
n in the reion of the heart Reulatin or strenthenin the heartbeat Palpitati
on of the heart A morbid condition of the heart Keepin the heart functionin no
rmally Dru causin the release of stomach or intestinal as A condition marked
by abrupt attacks of muscular weakness Opacity in the crystalline lens of the ey
e which may be partial or complete A condition in which the mucous membranes of
the nose and breathin passaes are inflamed, often chronically Havin the power
of cleanin the bowels-purative Headache A remedy for disorders of the head An
y disease of the head Any disorder of the brain A dru which causes increased fl
ow of bile into the intestine A severe infectious epidemic disease due to Vibrio
cholerae Promotin the rowth Proressive fibrous tissue overrowth in an oran
A severe spasmodic ripin pain Inflammation of the colon An eye-salve or eye-w
ash Pain in the colon Inflammation of the colon Hemorrhae from the colon Inflam
mation of the vaina Prolapse of the vaina Hemorrhae from the vaina The state
of complete loss of consciousness Inflammation of the conjunctiva Pulmonary tub
erculosis Any aent or device used to prevent conception An injury to tissue tha
t does not break the skin A violent involuntary contraction of the skeletal musc
ulature A small circumscribed painful horny rowth An aent that causes local in
flammation of an area Pain in the hip Inflammation of the hip joint Any conditio
n caused by respiratory obstruction Pain in the urinary bladder
171
Cystitis Cystodynia Cystorrhea Dandruff Deconestant Demulcent Dental caries Den
talia Dentifrice Deobstruent Deodorant Depurative Dermatitis Dermatopathy Derma
tophytosis Desiccatin Diaphoresis Diaphoretic Diestive Diphtheria Discutient D
isinfectant Diuretic Dizziness Dropsy
Dru
Dru product Dru substance
Dysmenorrhoea Dysopia Dyspepsia Dysphonia Dyspnoea Dystocia Dysuria Ecbolic Ecla
mpsia Eczema Edema Elephantiasis Elixir Embrocate Emetic Emmenaoue Emollient E
mphysema Empyema Encephalitis Encephalopathy Enuresis Epilepsy Epistaxis Errhine
Erysipelas
Inflammation of a bladder, especially the urinary bladder Pain in the urinary bl
adder Mucous dischare from the bladder Dead scarf-skin separatin in small flak
es Relievin conestion, as of the mucous membrane Soothin Decay of teeth Tooth
ache Any liquid, paste or powder used for cleansin the teeth. Relievin or remo
vin obstruction Removin the odour An aent that purifies blood Irritation or i
nflammation of the skin Any skin disorder A superficial infection of the skin ca
used by a funus Deprivin of moisture Sweatin A dru which induces perspiratio
n Improvin diestion A specific infectious disease caused by virulent strains o
f a Bacillus Removin tumours Havin a lethal effect upon erms Promotin the fl
ow of urine Sensation of imbalance of a stable relationship with the immediate e
nvironment An excessive accumulation of clear or watery fluid in any of the tiss
ues or cavities of the body An aent that is used therapeutically to treat disea
ses. It may also be defined as any chemical aent and/or bioloical product or n
atural product that affects livin processes A finished dosae form, for e., a
tablet, capsule or solution that contains a dru substance An active inredient
that is intended to furnish pharmacoloical activity or other direct effect in d
ianosis, cure, mitiation, treatment or prevention of diseases or to effect the
structure or any function of the human body Difficult or painful menstruation D
efective vision Indiestion Difficulty or pain in speakin Difficulty in breathi
n Difficult parturition Difficulty or pain while passin urine Tendin to incre
ase contractions of the uterus and thus facilitate childbirth An attack of convu
lsion associated with hypertension in prenancy A noncontaious inflammatory dis
ease of the skin with much itchin and burnin Fluid retention by the body causi
n swellin and discomfort Gross lymphatic edema of the limbs leadin to hypertr
ophy A dru capable of prolonin life indefinitely To moisten and rub Causin v
omitin Medicine intended to restore the mensus Softenin A patholoic accumulat
ion of air in tissues or orans Accumulation of pus in a body cavity Inflammatio
n of the brain and spinal cord due to infection Any deenerative brain disease I
nvoluntary voidin of urine An affection of the nervous system resultin from ex
cessive or disordered dischare of cerebral neurons Bleedin from the nose An a
ent causin increased nasal dischare An inflammatory disease enerally affectin
 the face marked by a briht redness

172
Escharotic Euphoriant Expectorant Extract Febrifue Felon Filariasis Fistula Fla
tulence Frenzy Galactoenic Galactooue Galactorrhea Ganrene Gastralia Gastro
dynia Gastroenteritis Gastrohelcosis Gastromealy Gastropathy Germicidal Ginivi
tis Glaucoma Gleet Glycosuria Goitre Gonorrhoea Gout Gripe Haematemesis Haematur
ia Haemoptysis Haemorrhoid Haemostatic Halitosis Hallucinoenic Heart palpitatio
ns Helminthiasis Hemaoue Hematinic Hematorrhea Hemicrania Hemipleia Hemolytic
Hepatalia Hepatic Hepatitis Hepatodynia Hepatomealy Hepatopathy Hepatosis Her
nia
of the skin A caustic substance that creates a mass of dead cells or scab Produc
in a sense of bodily comfort and well-bein and the absence of pain or distress
Aidin the secretion of the mucous membrane of the air passaes and the removal
of fluid by spittin A concentrate of dried, less volatile aromatic plant part
obtained by solvent extraction with a polar solvent Anythin which reduces fever
A deep infection around the nails of toes or finers Infection with filarial ne
matode worms An open channel from the anus or rectum to the skin near the anus P
resence of excessive as in the stomach or intestine Violent temporary mental de
ranement Promotin the flow of milk Medicine that promotes secretion of milk Ex
cessive or spontaneous flow of milk Necrosis and putrefaction of tissue due to l
ack of blood supply Pain in the stomach Pain in the stomach Inflammation of the
mucous coat of the stomach and intestine due to bacterial infection Ulceration o
f the stomach Enlarement of the stomach Any disease of the stomach Causin dest
ruction of micro-oranisms Inflammation of the inival marins around the teeth
accompanied by swellin and bleedin Increased intraocular pressure and its con
sequences Chronic dischare of thin mucous from the vaina Excretion of suar in
the urine Enlarement of the thyroid land An inflammatory disease of the enit
ourinary passaes characterized by pain and dischare A disease of purine metabo
lism characterized by attacks of arthritis with an associated raised level of se
rum uric acid A sharp pain in the stomach Vomitin of blood The presence of bloo
d in the urine Spittin of blood A bleedin pile Havin the power to arrest blee
din Offensive odour of the breath Producin hallucinations Abnormally rapid and
irreular beatin of the heart Morbid state due to infestation with worms An a
ent that promotes the flow of blood Stimulatin the formation of blood cells and
hemolobin Copious hemorrhae Headache confined to one side Paralysis of one si
de of the body Destructive to red blood cells Pain in the liver Havin to do wit
h the liver Inflammation of the liver; jaundice Pain in the liver Enlarement of
the liver Any disease of the liver Downward displacement of the liver The protr
usion of an internal oran throuh a defect in the wall of the anatomical cavity
in which it lies.
173
Herpes Herpetic Hydraoue Hydrocele Hydrophobia Hyperdenosis Hyperdipsia Hyperd
iuresis Hyperemesis Hyperhydrosis Hyperorexia Hyperpraxia Hypertension Hypertens
ive Hyperthermia Hypnotic Hypochonodriasis Hypolycement Hypotension Hypotensive
Hypothermia Hysteria Impetio Impotence Infusion Insanity Insecticide Insomnia
Installationqualification Intermittent fever Intoxication Irritant Jaundice Kidn
ey stone Lactation Lactifue Larynitis Laxative Lentio Lesion Leucoderma Leuco
rrhoea Leukaemia Liniment Linthontriptic Lithiasis Lumbao Malinant Mammillitis
Masticatory Melalia Melancholia Menolipsis
Inflammation of the skin or mucous membrane with clusters of deep seated vesicle
s Treatin skin eruptions Promotin expulsion of water or serum A circumscribed
collection of fluid in the tunica vainalis testis Exaerated fear of water as
in rabies Proliferation of landular tissue Intense thirst of relatively brief d
uration Excessive secretion of urine Excessive vomitin Excessive perspiration E
xcessive appetite Abnormal activity; restlessness Hih arterial blood pressure T
endin to rise the blood pressure A very hih body temperature Inducin sleep or
a state resemblin sleep A state of mind in which the sufferer is much preoccup
ied with his health Lowerin the level of blood suar in the body A fall in bloo
d pressure below the normal level Tendin to lower blood pressure Greatly decrea
sed temperature A neurotic disorder with varyin symptoms An inflammation of the
skin associated with discrete vesicles due to streptococcal infection Inability
to perform the sexual act due to failure of the reflex mechanism A hot extract
of either a plant part or its exudate with either water or an oranic solvent. M
ental disease of a rave kind Any aent which kills or destroys insects The cond
ition of bein unable to sleep Documented verification that all key aspects of t
he installation adhere to the appropriate codes and approved desin intentions a
nd that manufacturers recommendations are duly considered A reularly recurrin
fever General condition which results followin the absorption and diffusion in
the body of a soluble poison An aent that causes inflammation Yellowin of the
skin and other tissues caused by the presence of bile piments Small, hard stone
that may form in the kidneys and cause intense pain The secretion of milk by ma
mmals Retardin or causin cessation of the secretion of milk Inflammation of th
e larynx Havin the action of loosenin the bowel A brownish or yellowish spot f
ound on the skin, enerally on the hands, arms or face often caused by exposure
to sunliht A wound Any white area on the skin An abnormal mucous dischare from
the vaina Blood cancer A liquid or thin paste applied to the skin to work as a
pain reliever An aent that effects the dissolution of a calculus The formation
of calculus of any kind Pain in mid or lower back Threatenin life or tendin t
o cause death Inflammation of the nipple A substance that is chewed to increase
the flow of saliva Pain in the limbs A mental illness in which the predominant s
ymptom is melancholy, depression of spirits, unhappiness and misery Temporary ce
ssation of menstruation
174
Menorrhaia Menostasis Metropathy Metroptosis Metrorrhaia Metrorrhea Micturitio
n Mirai ne Morbid Mumps Myalia Mydriasis Mydriatic Myrinitis Narcotic Nasitis
Nauseant Nepholithiasis Nephralia Nephritis Nephropathy Neuralia Neurasthenia
Notalia Nyctalopia Obesity Odontalia Odontopathy Oleainous Opacity Operation
qualification Ophthalmia Ophthalmodynia Ophthalmopathy Opthalmitis Orchialia Or
chiopathy Orchitis Ostalia Osteomalacia Otalia Otopathy Otopyorrhea Pancreatit
is Parapleia Parkinsonism partiurient Pectoral Pectoralia Performancequalifica
tion Pertussis Pharynitis Pharynodynia Pharynopathy Phythisis Pneumonia Pneum
onopathy
Excessive or proloned menstruation Failure of menstruation Any uterine disease
Prolapse of the uterus Uterine, bleedin, usually of normal amount occurrin at
completely irreular intervals, the period of flow sometimes bein proloned Abn
ormal uterine dischare The act of passin urine A periodic condition with local
ised headaches, frequently associated with vomitin and sensory disturbances Rel
atin to disease Epidemic parotitis, an acute infectious disease caused by a vir
us Muscular pain Dilation of the pupil A dru that dilates the pupil Inflation o
f the tympanic membrane A dru that induces sleep Inflation of the nose An aent
that causes nausea Presence of renal calculi Pain in the kidney Inflation of th
e kidneys Disease of the kidneys A painful affection of the nerves due to functi
onal disturbances or neuritis Nervous debility Pain in the back Niht blindness
An excessive accumulation of fat in the body Toothache Any disease of the teeth
Oily, reasy An opaque or non-transparent area documented verification that the
system or sub system performs as intended throuhout all anticipated operatin r
anes Referrin to conjunctivitis Pain in the eye Any disease of the eye Inflati
on of the eye ball Pain in the testis Any disorder of the testis Inflammation of
the testis characterised by hypertrophy and pain Pain in the bones Softenin of
the bones, resultin from vitamin D deficiency Pain in the ear Any disease of t
he ear Purulent dischare from the ear Inflammation of the pancreas Stroke affec
tin one side Parkinson’s disease characterised by riidity of muscles and tremo
r of the hands Inducin the contractions of labour at childbirth Effective in di
seases of the chest Pain in the chest Documented verification of the appropriate
ness of critical process parameters, operatin ranes and system reproducibility
over an appropriate time period Whoopin couh Inflammation of the mucous membr
ane and underlyin part of the pharynx Pain in the pharynx Any disease of the ph
arynx Any wastin disease in which the whole body or part of the body is involve
d Inflammation of lun tissue Any disease of the luns
175
Pneumonosis Pneumorrhaia Poliomyelitis Poultice Procreant Proctalia Proctoptos
is Prophylactic Prurio Pruritus Psoriasis Psoriasis plantaris Psychopathy Ptyal
ism Purative Pyorrhoea Pyrexia Rachialia Radiculalia Radiculitis Ramitis Rect
alia Rectitis Refrierant Renal Renal calculi Renopathy Resolvent Resorptive Re
storative Resuscitative Retinitis Revulsive Rheumarthritis Rheumatalia Rhinali
a Rhinitis Rhinodynia Rhinopathy Rickets Roborant Rubefacient Sarcocele Scabies
Scald Scaldin of urine Scleritis Scrofula Scurvy Sedative Sialooue Sinovitis
Sinusitis Somatalia Somnifacient Somnolence
Any lun disorder A severe haemoptysis An acute inflammation of the anterior hor
n cells of the spinal cord due to an enterovirus infection A soft mush prepared
by various substances with oily or watery fluids The dru which beets Pain in t
he rectum Prolapse of the rectum Pertainin to the prevention of the development
of a disease An eruption of the skin causin severe itchin Itchin A condition
characterised by the eruption of circumscribed discrete and confluent reddish,
silvery scaled lesions Psoriasis of the sole Any disease of the mind Excessive s
ecretion of saliva Stron laxative A dischare of pus A condition characterised
by the presence of pus Pain in the vertebral column Neuralia of the nerve roots
Inflammation of spinal nerve roots Inflammation of a nerve root Pain in the rec
tum Inflammation of the rectum Coolin Relatin to the kidneys Calculi relatin
to kidney Any disease of the kidney Causin resolution of a tumour or swellin A
idin reabsorption of blood from bruises Havin the power to restore or renew he
alth The act of restorin to life Inflammation of the retina Causin revulsion i
n drawin away of blood from a patholoical area to another area Rheumatoid arth
ritis Rheumatic pain Pain in the nose Inflammation of the nasal mucous membrane
Pain in the nose Any disease of the nose A disturbance of the calcium/phosphorus
metabolism which occurs in the rowin child as a result of vitamin D deficienc
y A strenthenin aent Havin the action of counter irritant Fleshy swellin or
tumour of the testis Sarcoptic infestation of the human skin particularly a con
taious skin disease caused by invasion of the epidermis The lesion caused by co
ntact with a hot liquid or vapour Severe burnin sensation durin micturition In
flammation of the sclera Tuberculous cervical adenitis with or without ulceratio
n A deficiency disease due to lack of Vitamin C Actin on the central nervous sy
stem to produce sleep An aent that increases the flow of saliva Inflammation of
the synovial membrane of a joint Inflammation affectin the mucal epithelium of
a sinus Body pain Causin sleep Sleepiness
176
Soporific Spanomenorrhea Spasmolytic Splenalia Splenitis splenohepatomealy Spl
enomealy Splenopathy Stimulant Stomachalia Stomachic Stomatalia Stomatitis St
omatopathy Stomatorrhaia Stupefacient Styptic Sudorific Suppurative Syphilis Sy
rup Taeiniacide Tetanus Thermopleia Thrombosis Tincture Tonic Tonsilitis Toxaem
ia Tranquilizer Trauma Trichoenous Ulemorrhaia Ulitis Ulocace Ulorrhaia Ulorr
hea Unuent Urelcosis Ureteralia Ureteritis Urethritis Urethrorrhaia Urethrorr
hea Urocyst Urocystitis Urodynia Urolithiasis Uro-edema Uropathy Urorrhaia Uror
rhea Uroschesis Urticaria Uteralia Uterine sedative
Inducin sleep Scanty menstruation Helpin to relieve cramps and other muscle co
ntractions Pain in the spleen Inflammation of the spleen Enlarement of spleen a
nd liver Enlarement of the spleen Any disease of the spleen Makin a body oran
active Pain in the stomach Aidin the stomach and diestion Pain in the mouth G
eneralised inflammation of the oral mucosa Any disorder of the mouth Hemorrhae
from the mouth Inducin stupor Havin the power to arrest bleedin Actin to inc
rease perspiration Pus formin A contaious venereal disease A water and suar s
olution to which are added flavourin, medicinal, or some other desired inredie
nts An aent that kills tapeworms An infective disease due to the toxins of Clos
tridium tetani Sun stroke A blood clot that may partially or wholly block the fl
ow of blood throuh a blood vessel A medication that has its medicinal aent dis
solved in alcohol An aent that is used to ive strenth to the system Inflammat
ion of the tonsil The condition of eneral poisonin caused by the entrance of s
oluble bacterial toxins into the blood Dru employed to calm or sedate people or
animals A patholoical alteration of the supportin tissues of a tooth due to a
bnormal occlusion Stimulatin the rowth of hair Bleedin from the ums Inflamma
tion of the ums Ulceration of the ums Hemorrhae from the ums Bleedin from t
he ums Ointment Ulceration of the urinary tract Pain in the ureter Inflammation
of the ureter Inflammation of the urethra Flow of blood from the urethra Abnorm
al dischare from the urethra The urinary bladder Inflammation of the urinary bl
adder Pain on urination Urinary calculi Edema due to infiltration of urine Any d
isease of the urinary tract Excessive secretion of urine Involuntary flow of uri
ne Retention of urine Itchin, inflamed skin caused by an alleric reaction to a
dru, food, or substance in the environment; also called hives Pain in the uter
us An aent that relaxes the muscles of the uterus
177
Uteritis Vainitis Vainodynia Vainopathy Validation
Vasoconstrictor Vasodilator Vermifue Verminosis Vertio Vesical Vesicant Viscer
omealy Vulnerary Wart Wash
Inflammation of the uterus Inflammation of the vaina Pain in the vaina Any dis
ease of the vaina Establishin documented evidence which provides a hih deree
of assurance that a specific process will consistently produce a product meetin
 its pre-determinant specifications and quality attributes An aent that narrow
s blood vessel openins, restrictin the flow of blood throuh them An aent tha
t expands blood vessels, allowin more blood to flow throuh them A dru that ex
pels worms Morbid state due to infestation with worms Dizziness Referrin to the
urinary bladder A counter irritant stron enouh in some cases to cause blister
in Abnormal enlarement of the viscera Soothin or healin wounds and sores A c
ircumscribed cutaneous excrescence Liquid medicinal preparation for external use
178
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185
VIII. Database on tropical medicinal plants
Scientific Name Family Distribution India Habit Shrub Propaation Part used Seed
Seed Activity/Properties Diuretic, demulcent,antiseptic, carminative Cytotoxic,
antifertility, abortifacient Hypothermic, CNS active, analesic, aphrodisiac An
thelmintic, antiinflammatory, hypotensive Anthelmintic, expectorant, emetic, ano
dyne Cardiac, stimulant, diuretic, astrinent, Stomachic, tonic, anti-flatulent,
tranquilizer Astrinent, diuretic Abelmoschus moschatus Malvaceae (Linn.) Medic
us Abrus precatorius Linn. Papilionaceae
Plains and hills of India India, Sri Lanka
climber
seed
Roots, leaves, seeds Seed, root, bark, leaves Bark, heart wood
Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet Acacia catechu Willd.
Malvaceae
herb
Seed
Mimosaceae
India
tree
seed
Acalypha fruticosa Forsk. Euphorbiaceae Acalypha indica Linn. Euphorbiaceae
India India
Shrub herb Leaves, roots, stalks, flower seed Whole plant
Achyranthes aspera Linn.
Amaranthaceae
India herb India
herb
Acorus calamus Linn.
Araceae
herb
rhizome
rhizome
Adhatoda beddomei C. B. Acanthaceae Clarke Adhatoda zeylanica Acanthaceae Medicu
s Aele marmelos (Linn.) Rutaceae Corr. Aerva lanata (Linn.) Juss. Amaranthaceae
Hills of Kerala
shrub
Lower Himalayan shrub ranes Forest of himalayan Small tree tracts, central and
S. India Tropics and subUnder shrub tropics, Africa, Asia herb India S. India tr
ee Small tree
Seed and veetatively Seed, veetatively Seed, root
Whole plant mainly root Leaves, root, bark, Expectorant, diuretic, flowers alter
ative Root, stem, Hypolycaemic, leaves, fruits antifunal, CVS active Anthelmin
tic, diuretic, anti-inflammatory,antibacteria Antilithic Bark, leaf Roots, fruit
s Antispasmodic, antiasthamatic Antiprotozoal, hypolycaemic Immunomodulator, hy
polycaemic, anticancer Stimulant, diuretic, expectorant, emmenaoue Stimulant,
diuretic, expectorant, emmenaoue Anti-inflammatory, hypotensive Anthelmintic,
purative, oxytocic CVS & CNS active, diuretic, hypothermic, antiulcerative CVS
& CNS active, diuretic, hypothermic, antiulcerative CVS & CNS active, diuretic,
hypothermic, antiulcerative Antimalarial, hypotensive, anthelmintic Depurative,
febrifue Galactoenic, emollient
Aeratum conyzoides Linn. Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Alanium salviifolium (Linn. f
.) Wan. Albizia lebbeck (Linn.) Benth. Allium cepa Linn.
Asteraceae Simarubaceae Alaniaceae
Mimosaceae
Liliaceae
India, Burma, Sri Lanka, Africa, Australia India
Tree
seed
herb
Bulb
Bark, flower, seeds, leaves, roots Bulb, seed
Allium cepa var. areatum Allium sativum Linn.
Liliaceae
India
herb
Bulb
Bulb, seed
Liliaceae
All over India
herb
Cloves, bulblets veetative
bulbs
Aloe barbadensis Mill.
Liliaceae
India, Florida, W.Indies, Asia
herb
Leaf juice, Elio (dried um) rhizome
Alpinia alluhas Rosc.
Ziniberaceae
W.hats, Sri Lanka, herb Malaya, China, India W.hats, Sri Lanka, herb Malaya, C
hina, India Himalaya, Assam, Bihar, W. hats herb
rhizome
Alpinia calcarata Rosc.
Ziniberaceae
rhizome
rhizome
Alpinia alana Sw.
Ziniberaceae
rhizome
rhizome
Alstonia scholaris (Linn.) R. Br. Alstonia venenata R. Br. Amaranthus spinosus L
inn.
Apocynaceae
India especially W. tree Ghats India India, native of America shrub herb
seed
Bark, leaves, milky exudate Roots, fruits Root, leaf
Apocynaceae Amaranthaceae
seed, veetative seed
186
Amomum subulatum Roxb. Amorphophalus companulatus (Roxb.) Bl. Anacardium occiden
tale Linn. Anacyclus pyrethrum DC Androraphis paniculata Nees Anisochilus carno
sus Wall.
Ziniberaceae
Araceae Anacardiaceae Asteraceae Acanthaceae Lamiaceae
E. Himalaya, Benal, Sikkim, Assam India Tropics Benal, Arabia India, Sri Lanka
herb
Seed, rhizome Corm seed
Seed, oil
herb tree herb herb
Corm, seed Bark, leaf, fruit root Whole plant Leaves, oil
N. Circars, Mysore, herb Malabar S.India, Sri Lanka India Java, Sri Lanka, Malay
a, Burma Tropics Tropical India, E. Archipelao Native of Mexico, India india In
dia India herb tree tree tree palm seed seed seed Seed
Stimulant, stomachic alexipharmic, astrinent Antiasthmatic, antiemetic Anthelmi
ntic, antiasthmatic Cardiac stimulant, sialooue Antipyretic, alterative, febri
fue Stimulant, diaphoretic, expectorant
Anisomeles malabarica R. Lamiaceae Br. Annona squamosa Linn. Annonaceae Antiaris
toxicaria (Pers.) Lesch. Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker Areca catechu L
inn. Moraceae Meliaceae Arecaceae
Leaves, essential Stimulant, diaphoretic, oil astrinent Whole plant Purative,
suppurative seeds Bark, seed febrifue Anthelmintic, astrinent, anticancer
Aremone mexicana Linn. Papaveraceae
Annual
seed
Seed or kernal, root, tender leaves, catechu Milky juice, seed, Astrinent, fres
h root anthelmintic, aperient Leaves, root antipholistic Diestive, diuretic, a
nthelmintic Antidote, leprosy, dropsy
Aryreia speciosa Sweet Aristolochia bracteolata Ham. Aristolochia indica Linn.
Convolvulaceae Aristolochiaceae Aristolochiaceae
Climbin shrub twiner twiner
Seed, ve., Root, rhizome
Artemisia pallens Artemisia vularis Linn.
Asteraceae Asteraceae
Poona, Alndi, Jejuri Sub shrub tree Seed
Roots, leaves, fruits Stimulant, emmenaoue, alexiteric Whole plant
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Artocarpus hirsutus Lam. Asparaus racemosus Willd
. Averrhoa bilimbi Linn.
Moraceae
India
tree
Seed
Moraceae Liliaceae Oxalidaceae
Tree India, Andaman and climber Nicobar islands India, Burma Ever reen tree Eve
r reen tree Tree
Seed Seed, root Seed
Averrhoa carambola Linn. Oxalidaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Azima tetracant
ha Lam. Meliaceae India, Africa
Seed Seed
Antipyretic, anthelmintic Leaves, flowerin Anthelmintic, tops antiseptic, expec
torant Roots, leaves, Antidiarrhoeal. fruits. Seeds, Astrinent, wood, latex car
minative, tonic Bark, leaves. fruits Astrinent, anaphrodisiac Tuberous roots Sp
asmolytic, anticancer fruit Astrinent, stomachic, refrierant, coolin Leaves,
root, fruit Laxative, refrierant, Bark, leaves, flower, seeds, oil Leaves, root
s Antiviral, anthelmintic, insectcide, antiseptic diuretic
Salvadoraceae
Decan, Sri Lanka, Coromandal coast Throuhout India in wet places Sub Himalayan
tracts, W.Benal, Bihar India, Lower Himalaya herb Seeds, veetative veetativel
Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Pennell Baliospermum solanifolium (J. Burm.) Suresh Bamb
usa bambos Druce
Scrophulariaceae
Whole plant
Barbiturate, hyponosis potentiation effect CVS active, hypotensive, diuretic Emm
enaoue, anthelmintic, astrinent, stimulant
Euphorbiaceae
Under shrub
Roots, leaves, seeds Interior stalks, youn shoots, leaves
Poaceae
Thorny bambo
Seed, tiller
Barleria mysorensis Bauhinia purpurea Linn. Bauhinia racemosa Lam.
Acanthaceae Caesalpiniaceae Caesalpiniaceae
Malabar, Travancore shrub S.Asia, India Bark, flower, root Leaf, bark Astrinent
, carminative, laxative Astrinent, anthelmintic, cephalalic
187
Bauhinia tomentosa Bauhinia varieata Linn.
Caesalpiniaceae Caesalpiniaceae Sub-Himalayan tracts, Dry forests Throuhout Ind
ia Tree seed Root, bark Hypothermic, CNS active, anti-bacterial Astrinent, anti
pyretic, anti-septic
Biophytum sensitivum (Linn.) DC. Blepharis boerhaavifolia Blepharistemma corymbo
sa Boerhaavia diffusa Linn.
Oxalidaceae
herb
seed
Whole plant
Acanthaceae Rhizophoraceae Nyctainaceae India
Under shrub
Creepin herb veetative
Herb and root
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Bombacaceae
India
Tree
seed
Brassica campestris Linn. Brassiccaceae Brassica juncea (Linn.) Czern. & Coss. B
rassica oleracea Linn. var. botrytis Linn. Breynia patens Benth. Bridelia crenul
ata Roxb. Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae
India India India
herb herb herb Shrub Tree Climbin shrub
seed seed seed
Laxative, diuretic, expectorant, emetic, purative, anthelmintic, febrifue Gum,
seed, Astrinent, leaves, fruit, bark, demulcent, diuretic, flower aphrodisiac,
emetic Stem, root, Aperient, diuretic, leaves, seeds rubefacient Seed, oil Aspe
rient, stimulant, emmenoue
Bridelia scandens (Roxb.) Euphorbiaceae Willd. Bryonia sp. Cucurbitaceae
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Papilionaceae Taub. Caesalpinia bonduc (Linn.) Caesalpin
iaceae Roxb. Caesalpinia sappan Linn. Caesalpiniaceae
India, Tropical Himalya, Sri Lanka, South East Asia, Malaysia India Deciduous tr
ee S.India, W.Benal
seed
Climbin herb seed
Gum, seeds, flower, bark, leaves Seeds, nuts, root, bark, leaves Heart wood
Anthelmintic, astrinent, aperient Antiperiodic, antispasmodic, anthelmintic, fe
brifue Anti-cancer, antiinflammatory, semen coaulatin
Tree
seed
Cajanus cajan (Linn.) Millsp. Calamus travancoricus Bedd. ex Hook. f. Callicarpa
tomentosa (Linn.) Murray Calotropis iantea (Linn.) R. Br.
Papilionaceae Arecaceae Verbenaceae Asclepiadaceae India
shrub
seed
Seeds, beans, leaves Tender leaves Root, bark febrifue
shrub Milky shrub seed
Whole plant
Calycopteris floribunda Combretaceae Lam. Canana odorata Hook. f. Annonaceae &
Thom. Capparis sepiaria Linn. Capparis zeylanica Linn. Capsicum annum Capparidac
eae Capparidaceae Solanaceae
India
Woody shrub tree seed
Depurative, anthelmintic, expectorant Leaves, fruits, root Stimulant, anthelmint
ic, laxative Oil from flowers Anti-rheumatism, antimalarial, antidiarrhoeal
S.India
shrub Climbi shrub
India
Annual shrub
fruit
Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn. Careya arborea Roxb.
Sapindaceae
Throuhtout India
Herb
Roots, leaves, seeds seed Bark, leaves, flower, fruits
Lecythidaceae
Deciduous tree India Soft wood tree Herb
Carica papaya Linn.
Caricaceae
Seed, mount Fruits, latex layerin
Thermoenic, diestive, carminative, cardio tonic Antibacterial, hypotensive, an
tirheumatism Astrinent, thermoenic, expectorant Anti-fertility, anticoaulant,
anthelmintic
Carum bulbocastanum Koch Carum carvi Linn.
Apiaceae Apiaceae
Oil
Stomachic, carminative
188
Caryota urens Linn.
Arecaceae
Tree Shrub Throuhout India Throuhout india Tree Under shrub
seed
Juice, spirit, nuts
Cascabela thevetia (Linn.) Apocynaceae Lippold Cassia fistula Linn. Caesalpiniac
eae Cassia occidentalis Linn. Cassia sophera Linn. Caesalpiniaceae Caesalpiniace
ae
Seed seed seed
Whole plant Whole plant leaves
Anti-viral, anti-cacer, hypolycaemic Diuretic, antibacterial Spasmolytic, anthe
lmintic, antiseptic Astrinent Hypotensive, sciative, stomachic
Throuhout tropical Under shrub India Tree India herb Deciduous shrub Climbin s
hrub Tree India herb
Casuarina equisetifolia Linn. Catharanthus roseus (Linn.) G. Don Catunaream nut
ans (DC.) Tiruv. Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Juss. ex Ganep. Ceiba pentata (Linn.) G
aertn. Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn. Chukrasia
tabularis A. Juss. Cicca acida (Linn.) Merr.
Casuarinaceae Apocynaceae Rubiaceae Vitaceae Bombacaceae Apiaceae
seed seed
Wood, bark, leaves Whole plant
Berry
Astrinent, refrierant
veetative
Gum, root, youn Alterative, laxative, leaf antidiabetic Whole plant Nerve tonic
, brain tonic Seed, seed oil Bark Amoebicidal, analesic, diuretic Astrinent, s
pasmolytic, diuretic
Chenopodiaceae Meliaceae
herb
Euphorbiaceae
Tree
seed oil Bark, oil Stimulant, carminative
Cinnamomum camphora Lauraceae Nees & Eberm. Cinnamomum verum Presl Lauraceae Cis
sampelos pareira Linn. Menispermaceae Cissus quadranularis Linn. Citrus auranti
folia (Christm.) Swinle Vitaceae Rutaceae
Everreen veetative tree Ever reen seed aromatic tree Climbin plant Tendril c
limber Thorny tree seed
Citrus limon (Linn.) Burm. Rutaceae f. Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. Cleistanthus
collinus (Roxb.) Benth. & Hook. f. Clematis triloba Heyne ex Roth Cleome ynandr
a Linn. Cleome viscosa Linn. Rutaceae Euphorbiaceae Ranunculaceae Capparidaceae
Capparidaceae India
Thorny shrub seed
Stimulant, diuretic, expectorant, febrifue Root, bark, leaves Stomachic, diuret
ic, anthelmintic Whole palnt Aphrodisiac, carminative Fruit juice, rind of Stoma
chic, fruit antiscorbutic, anthelmintic Rind of fruit, fruit Stomachic, juice ca
rminative, antiscorbutic
seed tree Whole plant leaves Herb herb seed seed Whole plant antifunal, anthelm
intic, carminative Anthelmintic, Hypolycaemic Antispasmolytic, expectorant, car
minative Antiinflammatory, demulcent, vermifue Purative, diuretic, laxative Hy
polycaemic, antiprotozoal Cardio tonic, anticonvalasant stimulant Purative, re
frierant, antacid Dietetic, nervous stimulant Poison, anticancer,astrinent Alt
erative, sedative
Clerodendrum phlomidis Linn. f. Clerodendrum serratum (Linn.) Moon Clerodendrum
viscosum Vent. Clitoria ternatea Linn. Coccinia randis (Linn.) Voit. Cocculus
hirsutus (Linn.) Diels. Cochlospermum reliiosum (Linn.) Alst. Cocos nucifera Li
nn.  Coffea arabica Linn.
Verbenaceae Verbenaceae
Drier parts of India india
shrub
seed
bark Roots, leaves
Woody shrub seed
Verbenaceae Papilionaceae Cucurbitaceae
india India India
shrub climber climber
seed seed
leaves
Menispermaceae
Tropical& subtropical India India S. India, Sri Lanka, Archipelao S.India, Sri
lanka
shrub
Seeds, roots, leaves Veetatively Roots, leaves, by stem fruits cuttins Roots,
leaves
Cochlospermaceae Arecaceae Rubiaceae
Deciduous tree Tree Lare shrub
seed seed seed
Leaves, flowers, um Flowers, roots, fruit, oil, ash Seeds, leaves
189
Coffea robusta Coix lacryma-jobi Linn. Coldenia procumbens Linn. Coleus amboinic
us Lour. Coleus zeylanicus (Benth.) Cramer Colocasia esculenta (Linn.) Schott Co
mmiphora caudata (Wt. & Arn.) Enl. Commiphora mukul (Hook. ex Stocks) Stocks
Rubiaceae Poaceae Borainaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Araceae Burseraceae Burserace
ae Africa, Asia, Rajasthan, A.P, Assam, M.P India Perennial herb Tree Small tree
India India Perennial rass herb herb
seed seed Roots,seeds Leaves Stem cuttin leaves Stem cuttin leaves corm seed S
eed, veetative cuttins, rafts seed seed Leaves, corms Roots, leaves Roots, le
aves Styptic,stimulant, rubefacient Astrinent, aphrodisiac, diuretic Nypolipaem
ic, hypocholesteraemic, aphrodisiac Diuretic, cathartic,depurative Antirheumatic
appetisin, diestive
Connarus monocarpus Linn. Coriandrum sativum Linn.
Connaraceae Apiaceae India
Shrub Herb
Fruit, root fruit Aromatic, stimulant, carminative, antibilious Thermoenic, ano
dyne, opthalmic Hypotensive, antifertility Laxative, rubefacient Expectorant, di
estive, haematinic

Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr. Costus speciosus (Koen.) Sm. Crataeva re

liiosa Hook. f. & Thom. Cressa cretica Linn. Crossandra infundibuliformis Crota
laria juncea Linn. Croton tilium Linn.
Menispermaceae Ziniberaceae Capparidaceae Convolvulaceae Acanthaceae Papilionac
eae Euphorbiaceae
W.hats of T.N and Climbin Kerala shrub India Herb Small tree India Shrub Shrub
Stem cuttin stem rhizome rhizome Bark, stem Whole plant
seed N.India Tree seeds
Leaves, roots, seeds seeds
Astrinent, expectorant Diestive, carminative, antiinflammatory
Cryptolepis buchanani Roem. & Schult. Curculio orchioides Gaertn. Curcuma amada
Roxb.
Asclepiadaceae Amaryllidaceae Sub tropical Himalaya, W.Ghats India
Climber
Whole plant Root Hypolycaemic, spasmolytic, anticancer Appetiser, carminative,
diestive, demulcent Demulcent, anthelmintic Spasmolytic, carminative, stimulant
Anti-inflammatory, emollient, depurative Emetic, alexipharmic Thermoenic, carm
inative, depuratve Anthelmintic, laxative, aphrodisiac
Ziniberaceae
Rhizomatous rhizome aromatic herb Herb rhizome rhizome
rhizomes
Curcuma anustifolia Roxb. Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Curcuma lona Linn. Cyathul
a prostrata (Linn.) Bl. Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook. f. & Thom. Cymbopoon citrat
us (DC.) Stapf Cymbopoon flexuosus (Steud.) Wats. Cymbopoon martinii var. moti
a Roxb. Cymbopoon martinii var. sofia Cymbopoon nardus (Linn.) Rendle Cymbopo
on nardus var. confertiflorus x C. jawarancusa Cymbopoon pendulus Wats. Cymbopo
on winterianus

Ziniberaceae Ziniberaceae Wild throuhtout india India India India India Keral
a India India India
rhizome rhizome
Herb
Ziniberaceae Amaranthaceae Menispermaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poace
ae
Herb India Twinin herb Perennial rass Perennial rass Perennial rass Perennia
l rass Perennial rass Perennial rass Perennial rass Perennial rass
rhizome
rhizome roots Roots, leaves
Seed, slips seed, slips seed, slips seed, slips seed, slips
Whole plant
Oil Leaf, oil Antiseptic, carminative, rubefacient
Poaceae
India
slips
Poaceae Poaceae
India
seed, slips slips
India
190
Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers. Cyperus rotundus Linn Dalberia latifolia Roxb.
Poaceae Cyperaceae Papilionaceae
India Tropics India
Perennial rass Herb
veetative
Whole plant
Haemostat, vulnerary Antiinflammatory, antipyretic, analesic Anthelmintic, anti
pyretic, analesic Emetic, narcotic, anodyne, antispasmodic astrinent Antiinfla
mmatory., aphrodisiac, analesic
Ve. by tuber Bulbous tuber seed Whole plant
Datura metel Linn.
Solanaceae
India
Sub-shrub
seed
Whole plant
Delonix reia (Boj.) Rafin. Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees Desmodium anet
icum DC. Desmodium yrans DC. Desmodium pulchellum Backer Desmodium triflorum (L
inn.) DC. Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf Dioscorea bulbifera Linn. Dioscorea flori
bunda
Caesalpiniaceae Poaceae Papilionaceae Papilionaceae Papilionaceae Papilionaceae
Poaceae Dioscoreaceae Dioscoriaceae Native of Central America, India, China Indi
a Lower hills and plains of india India
Tree
seed leaf
Under shrub shrub
seed seed seeds
Roots
Bark, flower Whole plant
Perennial seeds herb Perennial rass Climbin herb Tuber climber Tuber, stem cut
tins seeds
Antidiarrhoeal, antihaemorrhae Expectorant, alactooue Astrinent, diuretic A
ntidysenteric, antisyphilic Carbohydrale, protein metabolism Carminative, astrin
ent, laxative, aphrodisiac, anaemia Astrinent, diuretic, tonic

Tuber, leaf tubers

Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. Dolichos biflorus Backer Ecbolium viride (Forsk.) Me
rr. Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn.
Ebenaceae
Tree
Unripe fruit, leaf, fruit, bark seeds
Papilionaceae Acanthaceae Asteraceae Sri Lanka, India, Africa, Malaya India
twiner Shrub herb
seeds
seed
Whole plant
Elephantopus scaber Linn. Asteraceae India Elettaria cardamomum Maton Embelia ri
bes Burm. f. Ziniberaceae
Riid herb Perennial herb India Climbin shrub herb
Roots, leaves Seed, sucker seed
Antihepatic, hematicidal, CVS active Astrinent, alterative, febrifue Anticepha
lalia, antiemetic Contraceptive, acaricidal, antibacterial Sudorific, vulnerary
Myrsinaceae
Fruits, roots, leaves Whole plant
Emilia sonchifolia DC. Ensete superbum Entada pursaetha DC. Erythrina varieata
Linn.
Asteraceae Musaceae Mimosaceae Papilionaceae
India
Tropics India, Sri lanka, Thailand, Laos Australia, India Australia, India Brazi
l, India Tree Seed, stem cuttin seed seed seed seed seed
seeds Bark, leaves
irritant Galactooue, anthelmintic
Eucalyptus citriodora Myrtaceae Hook. Eucalyptus lobulus Labill. Myrtaceae Eupa
torium triplinerve Vahl Asteraceae Euphorbia hirta Linn. Euphorbia nivulia Buch.
Ham. Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae
Tree Tree Sub shrub Stralin herb Tree
Dried leaves, um, oil Febrifue, carminative, antiseptic Dried leaves, Diaphore
tic,antiperiodi flower tops, twis c, expectorant Seed, leaves Galactooue, diu
retic, aphrodisiac Expectorant, diestive, stomachic, abortive Whole plant Laxat
ive, antibacterial, alexipharmic
Euphorbia thymifolia Linn. Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia tirucalli Linn. Euphorbia tir
ucalli Linn. Euphorbia triona Haw. Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae
India
Herb
Milky juice Tree
191
Evolvulus alsinoides (Linn.) Linn. Excoecaria aallocha Linn. Ficus benalensis
Linn.
Convolvulaceae Euphorbiaceae Moraceae India Sub-Himalaya, Peninsular India
Herb Tree Tree seed
Whole plant leaves Aerial root, bark, leaves, buds, fruits, latex Root, leaves
Tonic, alterative, febrifue Purative, alterative Hypolycaemic, astrinent,
Ficus exasperata Vahl
Moraceae Antiasthmatic, antidysenteric Ve. by stem Root, bark, leaves Astrinen
t, acrid cuttin bark Astrinent, antiseptic
Ficus heterophylla Linn. f. Moraceae Ficus microcarpa Linn. f. Ficus racemasa Li
nn. Moraceae Moraceae India Sub_Himalayam tracts Ever reen tree India Tree
Ficus reliiosa Linn.
Moraceae
Tree
seed
Flacourtia indica Merr. Flacourtia janomas (Lour.) Raeusch. Garcinia ummi-utt
a (Linn.) Robs. Geophila reniformis Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis Glorios
a superba Linn.
Flacourtiaceae Small tree Flacourtiaceae Clusiaceae Deciduous shrub Trees
Bark, leaves, tender shoots, fruits, seeds, latex Root, fruit
Antibacterial, hypolycaemic, anthelmintic Depurative, diuretic
seed
Bark, leaves, fruits Astrinent, refrierant, diaphoretic Leaves, dried fruits A
strinent, thermoenic, constipation
Rubiaceae Urticaceae Liliaceae Tropical India, S. Africa Roots, rhizomes Climbin
 herb Seed, rhizome, tissue culture Whole plant Oxytoxic, uterine, stimulant

Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC. Glycyrrhiza labra Linn.

Rutaceae
Papilionaceae
Mediterranean reion, S. Europe, Middle East India India, Afanistan, Iran
Under shrub
Gmelina arborea Roxb.
Verbenaceae
Tree climber
Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. Asclepiadaceae
Antiinflammatory, antianaemic, antirheumatic Seed, crown Roots, dried stem Antid
iuretic, cuttin, expectorant, emetic, stolon diuretic pieces Whole plant Hypol
ycaemic, antiviral, stomachic veetatively Whole plant Antidiabetiic
Hedyotis corymbosa (Linn.) Lam. Helicteres isora Linn.
Rubiaceae Sterculiaceae
Suffruticose annual Lare shrub Herb
Whole plant Root, bark, fruits roots
Aperient, pectoral, refrierant Demulcent, lactifue Errhine Antibacterial, anti
viral Demulcent, febrifue, emollient Aphrodisiac, antiscorbutic, antibilious Ap
erient, antirheumatic, resolvent
Heliotropium indicum Linn. Borainaceae Hemidesmus indicus (Linn.) R. Br. Hibisc
us rosa-sinensis Linn. Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn. Asclepiadaceae Malvaceae Malvac
eae,
Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn.
Malvaceae
India, Sri Lanka, Twiner Ve. by root Roots, leaves, Moluccas stem Tropical Afri
ca, Asia Ever reen Stem cuttin Roots, leaves, woody shrub flower Tropical Afri
ca, Seed, leaf Asia, warmer parts of India Root, flower, bark W.Benal, Peninsul
ar India, Andaman &Nicibar islands Deciduous tree Tree India, Sri Lanka, Burma,
W.China India Twiner shrub seed, root cuttin roots Root, fruit, stem Bark, leav
es, seeds
Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Don Holoptelea interifolia (Roxb.) Planch. Ho
lostemma ada-kodien Schult. Homonoia riparia Lour.
Apocynaceae
Carminative, expectorant, anthelmintic
Ulmaceae Asclepiadaceae Euphorbiaceae
Antidiabetic, antiviral Diuretic, antionorrhoea, antisyphilitic Febrifue, anth
elmintic,
Huonia mystax Linn.
Linaceae
Peninsular india
Scandent shrub
Root, bark
192
antiinflammatory Hybanthus enneaspermus Violaceae (Linn. f.) Muell. Hydnocarpus
laurifolia Flacourtiaceae (Dennst) Sleum. Hyrophila schulli (Ham.) Acanthaceae
M. R. & S. M. Almeida Ichnocarpus frutescens (Linn.) R. Br. Indiofera tinctoria
Linn. Apocynaceae Papilionaceae India India India W.hats India herb Tree Shrub
Whole plant Seed oil Roots, leaves, seeds, ashes Leaf, root, stalk seed Whole p
lant Root Antileperotic, diuretic Diuretic, antiinflammatory, aphrodisiac Febrif
ue, antisyphilitic, Antipiretic, anticephalic Aphrodisiac, alactoenic, cholo
oue

Climbin shrub shrub Climber

Ipomoea mauritiana Jacq. Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea pes-tiridis Linn. Convolvulaceae Ixora coccinea Linn. Rubiaceae Shrub F
lower, root Antileucoderma, antidiarrhoeal, sedative Anthelmintic, diuretic emme
naoue Emmenaoue Purative
Jasminum randiflorum Linn. Jasminum sambac Ait. Jatropha curcas Linn.
Oleaceae Oleaceae Euphorbiaceae India
Jatropha landulifera Roxb.
Euphorbiaceae
Jatropha ossypifolia Linn. Euphorbiaceae Justicia betonica Acanthaceae
Tropical America, India, Andaman & Nicobar islands S.India, Shrub W.Benal,Andam
an & Nicobar islands India Shrub Shrub
Twinin ever reen shrub Climbin shrub Shrub
Stem cuttin Leaves, flower Stem cuttin Whole plant Nut, whole plant
Oil, root
Antirheumatic, antiparalytic, purative Emmenaoue, purative, emetic Emetic, a
ntiperiodic, insecticide
Leaves, bark, seed Bark, leaves, root stalks
Justicia endarussa Linn. Acanthaceae f. Justicia wynadensis Acanthaceae Kaempfe
ria alana Linn. Ziniberaceae
Under shrub W. hats India Under shrub Perennial herb rhizome Root, leaves, bark
, Emetic, antiperiodic stalks Tuber Stimulant, expectorant, diuretic, carminativ
e tuber Thermoenic, sialaoue, vulneray Pulp, leaves Emetic, purative
Kaempferia rotunda Linn. Laenaria siceraria
Ziniberaceae Cucurbitaceae
India India
Aromatic herb rhizome Climber
Lantana camara Linn. var. Verbenaceae aculeata Moldenke Lawsonia inermis Linn. L
ythraceae Leea indica Merr. Leucas aspera (Willd.) Spr. Limnophila indica (Linn.
) Druce Limonia acidissima Linn. Vitaceae Lamiaceae Scrophulariaceae Rutaceae
India India India India
Ever reen shrub Ever reen shrub Shrub Annual herb Deccumbent herb Deciduous tr
ee
seed
Whole plant Whole plant Root, leaves
seed
Whole plant
Antirheumatic, antimalarial Antibacterial, antiinflammatory Astrinent, sudorifi
c, acrid Insecticidal, antipyretic
S.India
Fruit, leaves oil
Antiscorbutic, antibilious, demulcent
Lippia nodiflora Mich. Litchi chinensis Sonner.
Verbenaceae Sapindaceae China, India W.hats Tree w.hats Tropics India Tree Her
b seed Rhizome Anthelmintic Rhizome Astrinent, refrierant, aphrodisiac Berry,
leaves Fruit, leaves Leaves, root antiseptic
Lobelia nicotianifolia Roth Lobeliaceae ex Roem. & Schult. Macarana peltata (Ro
xb.) Euphorbiaceae Muell.-Ar. Maesa indica Wall. Myrsinaceae Manifera indica L
inn. Anacardiaceae
Maranta arundinacea Linn. Ziniberaceae
193
Melia azedarach Linn.
Meliaceae
India, Sub Himalaya Japan, J & K, UP, Punjab
Tree
seed
Bark, leaves flower oil oil
Antidiarrhoeal, deobstruent, diuretic Carminative, expectorant, antifunal Antii
nflammatory, CNS depressant
Mentha arvensis Linn.
Lamiaceae
Aromatic herb sucker
Mesua naassarium (Burm. f.) Kosterm. Michelia champaca Linn.
Clusiaceae
Manoliaceae
North eastern India Tree Andaman & Nicobar islands Eastern Himalaya, Ever reen
Assam, S.India tree Tropical America, Tropical India North Andaman & Nicobar isl
ands Peninsular India Under shrub
Seed
Flower oil
seed
Mimosa pudica Linn.
Mimosaceae
seed
Mimusops eleni Linn.
Sapotaceae
Tree
Seed
Bark, root, flower Expectorant, fruit, oil abortifacient, contraceptive Root, le
aves, Purative, stem antidropsical, antiinflammatory Bark, flower, Spermicidal,
fruit, seed spasmolytic, diuretic
Mirabilis jalapa Linn.
Nyctainaceae
Root, leaves, stem Purative, antidropsical, antiinflammatory Herb Bihar, Khari
hills, India Sub-Himalayan tracts, UP, India India, Andaman & Nicobar islands In
dia Deciduous tree Tree Root, leaves, Seed, Veetative seed Antidiarrhoeal
Molluo oppositifolia Linn. Aizoaceae Morinda umbellata Linn. Morina oleifera L
am. Rubiaceae Morinaceae
Mucuna pruriens (Linn.) DC. Mukia maderaspatana (Linn.) M. Roemer Murraya koeni
ii (Linn.) Spren. Musa paradisiaca Linn. var. sapientum Kuntze
Papilionaceae Cucurbitaceae Rutaceae Musaceae
Climber Climber Shrub Tall herb
sucker
Mussaenda frondosa Linn. Rubiaceae
Tropical Himalaya, Dehra Dun
Scandent shrub Seed
Myristica frarans Houtt.
Myristicaceae
Moluccas, T.N, Tree Kerala, A.P, Assam W.hats, TN, Karnataka India Under shrub
Shrub Terrestrial orchid Outer Himalya, Assam, W.Benal Warmer India Lare shrub
Nareamia alata Wt. & Arn. Nerium oleander Linn. Nervilia araoana Gaud.
Meliaceae Apocynaceae Orchidaceae
Seed
Root, bark, leaves, Abortifacient, seed spasmolytic, antibacterial, Root, leaves
, Emmenaoue, seed antichorein, vermifue Root, leaves, Carminative, sudorific,
tender shoot aperient Bark, root, leaves Febrifue, tonic, stomachic Root, leav
es, fruit, Anthelmintic, stem antiscorbutic, depurative Whole plant Vermifue, d
iuretic, antiasthmatic, spasmolytic Seed, aril Antibacterial, antidiarrhoeal, ab
ortifacient, Root, leaves, stem Cholaoue, antibilious Root, leaves, bark Cardi
o tonic, CNS active, spasmolytic Whole plant Galactooue, diuretic Leaves Antii
nflammatory, febrifue, cholaoue Root stalk, flower Stomachic, antidiarrhoeal
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn. Nymphaea rubra Roxb. Ochrocarpus lonifolius Ocim
um americanum Linn. Ocimum basilicum Linn.
Oleaceae Nymphaeaceae Clusiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae
Tree Lower hills of India Punjab Branched seed herb Aromatic herb seed Carminati
ve, diaphoretic, stimulant Flower, seed, root Carminative, antidysenteric, stimu
lant, demulcent Whole plant Antiparalytic, antionorrhoea Whole plant
Ocimum ratissimum Lamiaceae Linn. Ocimum ratissimum Lamiaceae Linn. var. cloci
mum Ocimum tenuiflorum Linn. Lamiaceae
India
seed seed
India
Under shrub
seed
Operculina turpethum (Linn.) S. Manso Opuntia dillenii (KerGawler) Haworth
Convolvulaceae Cactaceae
India
Climber Shrub
Leaves, root, seed Expectorant, diaphoretic, enito urinary deseases Root Purat
ive, antidote, antiinflammatory Stem cuttin Whole plant Antionorrhoeic, antiin
flammatory, purative,
194
Oroxylum indicum (Linn.) Vent. Orthosiphon stamineus Benth. Oueinia dalberioid
es
Binoniaceae
India
Tree
Root, bark, fruit, seed
Astrinent, carminative, purative, spasmolytic
Lamiaceae Papilionaceae
Herb Deciduous tree Annual or perennial herb India Bark Astrinent, acrid, sudor
ific, styptic
Oxalis corniculata Linn. Pavetta indica Linn.
Oxalidaceae Rubiaceae
Phoenix dactylifera Linn.
Arecaceae
Dry reions of Gujarat, Rajastan, Punjab Coromandal coast Throuhout warmer part
s of India S.India, Kashmir India, Himalaya W.Indies, tropical America Himalaya,
Kashmir to Bhutan India
Tree
Phoenix pusilla Gaertn.
Arecaceae
Tree Herb Tree Annual herb seed Seed Seed
Phyllanthus amarus Euphorbiaceae Schum. & Thonn. Phyllanthus emblica Linn. Eupho
rbiaceae Physalis minima Linn. Pimenta racemosa J. W. Moore Pinus Roxburhii Sar
ent Solanaceae Myrtaceae

Pinaceae
Coniferous tree Perennial root Stem climber
Piper betle Linn.
Astrinent, anodyne, antiseptic Root, leaves, Purative, wood antidropsical, ant
icephalalic Fruit, um, fresh Antiasthmatic, sap expectorant, astrinent, antid
iarrhoeal Fruit pulp, seed, Febrifue, um antidiarrhoeal, laxative Whole plant
Antihepatotoxic, antibacterial Root, bark, leaves, Antiviral, CVS active fruit,
Leaves, fruit Diuretic, purative, antionorrhoeic Fruit, leaf, oi, seed Carmina
tive, stomachic, antiseptic, fever Pine oil Antiseptic, expectorant, carminative
, stimulant cuttin Leaves, oil, root Antispasmodic, carminative, stimulant
Whole plant
Piper chaba Hunter Piper lonum Linn.
Piperaceae piperaceae W.India, Nepal, W.Ghats Climber Veetative Root, dried spi
kes Antitubercular, anthelmintic, antibacterial Fruit Antibacterial, anthelminti
c, hypertensive Whole plant Antitubercular, emollient, diuretic Root Sialooue,
vesicant, stimulant
Piper nirum Linn.
Piperaceae
Eastern and weatern Climber hats, TN, Keara India
Veetative
Pistia stratiotes Linn.
Araceae
Plumbao indica Linn.
Plumbainaceae
Native of Sikkim, India India India
Herb
Veetative
Plumbao zeylanica Linn. Plumbainaceae Plumeria rubra Linn. Poostemon patchoul
i Hook. f. Polyalthia lonifolia Benth. & Hook. f. Ponamia pinnata (Linn.) Pier
re Portulaca oleracea Linn. Pothos scandens Linn. Premna interifolia Linn. Apoc
ynaceae Lamiaceae Annonaceae Papilionaceae Portulacaceae Araceae Verbenaceae
Herb Tree
Veetative
Leaves, root
Uterine, stimulant, abortifacient Root, bark, flower, Cathartic bechic, fruit an
tidontalic
Stem cuttin Drier parts of India India India Tree Tree seed Bark Febrifue, fun
itoxic Antibacterial, antifunal, insecticidal Liver, spleen, kidney complaints
Antileptic, lactooue Antirheumatic, stimulant, bechic, astrinent Diuretic, a
ntidropsical Laxative, diuretic, lithontriptic Antilithic, spasmolytic Astrinen
t, antibilious, antirheumatic Haemostatic, antiemetic
Seed, ve by Leaves, seed, root root Whole plant Depurative, antiscorbutic Root,
stem Whole plant
Costal reions of India India India Himalaya India Tree Lare tree Perennial und
er shrub Small tree
Premna latifolia Roxb.
Verbenaceae
Leaves, bark Kernal oil Kernal, tender branch Root seed Root, leaves, flower, fr
uit
Prunus amydalus Batsch Rosaceae Prunus cerasoides D. Don Rosaceae Pseudarthria
viscida (Linn.) Wt. & Arn. Psidium uajava Linn. Papilionaceae Myrtaceae
195
Psoralea corylifolia Linn.
Papilionaceae
India
Annual herb
Root, leaves, seed Antidiarrhoeal, diaphoretic febrifue Seed Leaves, stem, Hypo
lycaemic, bark, heart wood, CVS active um Heart wood Antibilious, diaphoretic,
febrifue Root, seed, flower, antifertility, fruit antibacterial, hypothermic R
oot, leaves, seed Appetisin, antibacterial, anodyne Root, seed Antiarrhythmic,
antihypertensive Stem Carminative, astrinent, diestive Whole plant Blister pro
ducer, depurative Root, leaves, Antiprotozoal, flower, seed anticancer Root Diur
etic, CNS active Antineoplastic, antiinflammatory Decreases capillary fraility
Diuretic, demulcent Coolin, diuretic, alactooue Antidiabetic, astrinent Exp
ectorant CVS active, antibacterial, antifunal Oxytocic, CNS active Emetic, hypo
thermic CNS depressent, antifunal Anticephalalia, antidiarrhoeal Astrinent, a
ntiinflammatory Astrinent, anticephalalic Astrinent, febrifue, stomachic Ant
iparalytic, aphrodisiac Anabolic, emolient
Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Pterocarpus santalinus Linn. Punica ranatum Linn.
Papilionaceae
Tropical S.India
Tree
Papilionaceae Punicaceae
AP Iran, Afhanistan, India
Deciduous tree Shrub
seed Seed, air layerin
Raphanus sativus Linn. Rauvolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth. ex Kurz. Rhaphidophor
a pertusa Schott Rhinacanthus nastus (Linn.) Kurz. Ricinus communis Linn.
Brassicaceae Apocynaceae Araceae Acanthaceae Euphorbiaceae India India
Herb Herbaceous Seed under shrub Stout climber Under shrub Tree Seed
Rotula aqautica Lour. Rubia cordifolia Linn. Ruta raveolens Linn.
Borainaceae Rubiaceae Rutaceae
India Hilly dists. Of India India Climber herb Herb Giantic rass Perennial ra
ss Woody climber Herb Tree Seed
Ve. by stem Root Ve. by seed Whole plant, oil Stem cuttin Root, stem Stem cut
tin Root, stem Root
Saccharum arundinaceum Poaceae Retz. Saccharum spontaneum Poaceae Linn. Salacia
reticulata Wt. Celastraceae
India, Andaman & Nicobar islands Coromandal coast Dry reion of India
Sansevieria Roxburhiana Haemodoraceae Schult. Santalum album Linn. Santalaceae
Tender shoot, rhizome Heart wood
Saraca asoca (Roxb.) De Wilde Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voit. Saussurea lappa
C. B. Clarke Scaevola taccada
Caesalpiniaceae Asclepiadaceae Asteraceae Goodeniaceae
India, Andaman & Nicobar islands W.Benal Kashmir, HP, UP India
Tree Twiner Sub shrub Shrub
Seed
Bark, leaves, flower, seed Stem, root Root Leaves, stem, bark, fruit Bark, kerna
l, oil, seed Bark, leaf juice Root,
Seed
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Sapindaceae Oken Sesbania randiflora Papilionaceae (
Linn.) Poiret Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae
Sub Himalayas, Lare tree Kashmir, W.Benal Assam, W.Benal Soft wooded tree War
mer parts of India Plain of India
seed
Sida cordifolia Linn.
Malvaceae
Root, seed
Sida rhombifolia Linn. ssp. Malvaceae retusa (Linn.) Borss. Solanum americanum M
ill. Solanaceae Solanum khasianum C. B. Solanaceae Clarke
Hotter parts of India Sub shrub
Whole plant
seed Khasi, Naa hills, Assam Shrub seed Spasmolytic, Synthesis of corticosteroi
dal hormone Seed Stimulant, anticholesterolemic Root, berry, leaves Antiasthmati
c, antirheumatic Fruit Spasmolytic Berries
Solanum melonena Linn. Solanaceae var. insanum (Linn.) Prain Solanum surattense
Burm. Solanaceae F. Solanum torvum Swartz Solanaceae Solanum violaceum Ortea S
olanaceae
India India India
Perennial herb Perennial under shrub
seed seed seed
196
Solanum virinianum Linn. Solanaceae Sphaeranthus africanus Linn. Sphaeranthus i
ndicus Linn. Spilanthes calva DC. Asteraceae Asteraceae India Herb Whole plant W
hole plant Diuretic, alterative, aphrodisiac Diuretic, expectorant, febrifue, s
tomachic
Asteraceae
India India India Tree Tree
Spondias pinnata (Linn. f.) Anacardiaceae Kurz. Stereospermum Binoniaceae suave
olens DC.
Strychnos nux-vomica Loaniaceae Linn. Strychnos potatorum Linn. Loaniaceae f.
Symplocos cochinSymplocaceae chinensis (Lour.) S. Moore Syzyium aromaticum (Lin
n.) Merr. Syzyium cumini (Linn.) Skeels Myrtaceae
India S.India, W. Benal Himalaya, Kashmir
Tree Deciduous tree Tree
Seed, Ve
Seed
India
Ever reen tree Lare tree
seed
Myrtaceae
India
seed
Syzyium jambos (Linn.) Myrtaceae Alst. Syzyium zeylanicum DC. Myrtaceae Tabern
aemontana Apocynaceae divaricata (Linn.) Roem. & Schult. Tamarindus indica Linn.
Caesalpiniaceae
India India Sub-Himalaya, W.Benal, Assam India
Lare shrub
seed seed
Antidontalia, spasmolytic Bark, leaves Antidiestive, antiscorbutic Root, bark,
flower Diuretic, antiinflammatory, aphrodisiac, antibilious Bark, leaves, seed
Spasmolytic, muscle relaxant Leaves, unripe Diaphoretic, fruit, seed alexeteric,
demulcent Bark CNS & CVS active, hypotensive, antiinflammatory Dried flower, bu
d Carminative, oil antispasmolytic, antiemetic, stimulant Bud, leaves Astrinent
, carminative, diuretic, antidiabetic Bark, leaves, fruit Astrinent, diuretic S
timulant, vermifue, antirheumatic Latex, root, flower Antiinflammatory, antidia
rhhoeal Root,ashes, leaves, flower, fruit, seed Root, wood, bark Antionorrhoea,
purative, antiasthmatic Diuretic, anthelmintic, expectorant, anticephalalia R
oot, leaves, seed Anthelmintic, oil alexipharma Bark CVS & CNS active, diuretic,
abortifacient Bark, kernal, fruit astrinent, cardio tonic, stimulant, anticanc
er Bark, oil from Diuretic, astrinent, kernal, leaves cardio tonic Fruit, flowe
r, stem, Antispasmodic, bark hypolycaemic Flower, bark Anticholerin, diuretic,
cardio tonic Bark Root, bark, fruit, leaves Root Cardiac stimulant Whole plant
Shrub
cuttin
Tree
seed
Tectona randis Linn. f.
Verbenaceae
India
Tree
Tephrosia purpurea Pers.
Papilionaceae
India Perennial herb MP, Bihar India Tree Tree Seed Seed
Terminalia arjuna Wt. & Arn. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Terminalia cat
appa Linn. Terminalia chebula Retz.
Combretaceae Combretaceae
Combretaceae Combretaceae
India
Tree
Seed Seed
Terminalia paniculata Roth Combretaceae
India, sub Himalaya, Tree deciduous forest Western and Tree eastern hats Drier
parts of India Tree Ever reen tree India India
Terminalia tomentosa Wt. & Arn. Thespesia populnea (Linn.) Sol. ex Corr. Tiliaco
ra acuminata (Lam.) Miers Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook. f. & Thom. Tinospo
ra malabarica (Lam.) Miers Trachyspermum Roxburhianum (DC.) Spraue Traia invo
lucrata Linn.
Combretaceae Malvaceae Menispermaceae Menispermaceae
Menispermaceae
India
Apiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Warmer reion of India
Astrinent, antibilious, antiviral Antidote, CVS active hypothermic Climber shru
b Stem cuttin Stem, leaves, root Antiviral, hypolycaemic, anticancer Climber s
hrub Stem, leaves, root Antiviral, hypolycaemic, anticancer Herb Fruit Emetic,
emmenaoue, antiasthmatic Twinin herb Root, fruit Diaphoretic, alterative
197
Tribulus terrestris Linn. Trichopus zeylanicus
Zyophyllaceae Dioscoreaceae
India India India
Trichosanthes cucumerina Cucurbitaceae Linn. Tridax procumbens Linn. Trionella
foenumraecum Linn. Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Typha elephantina Roxb. Ty
phonium flaelliforme Uraria laopoides (Linn.) Desv. Urinea indica Kunth Aster
aceae Papilionaceae
Annual or perennial herb Herb Seed, suckers Climber Seed
Fruit, leaves Leaves, Whole plant
Antileprotic, haemostatic CNS active, hypothermic Cytotoxic aainst human carcin
omal cells
Herb Wild India Kashmir, Herb Punjab, Upper Ganetic plains Climber Seed Leaves,
seed Diuretic, CNS depressive, hypotensive Root, leaves Bacteriostatic, emetic,
cathartic Ripe fruit, rhizome Astrinent, antidysenteric
Asclepiadaceae Typhaceae Araceae Papilionaceae Liliaceae
India
Herb
Ve.
Bulb
Expectorant, cyanoenetic Antipyretic,
Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Hook. ex G. Don Vanilla planifolia Vernonia anthelminti
ca Willd. Vernonia cinerea (Linn.) Less. Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash Vite
x neundo Linn.
Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Herb Annual herb
Root, juice
Poaceae Verbenaceae
India
Shrub
Vitex trifolia
Verbenaceae
Aromatic shrub Tendril climber
Vitis vinifera Linn.
Vitaceae
Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr.
Asteraceae
Anthelmintic, stomachic, diuretic Whole plant Astrinent, diaphoretic, antirheum
atic slips Whole plant CNS active, antimicrobial Stem cuttin Antiinflammatory,
analesic, CNS depressant Leaves, root, fruit, Antiinflammatory, expectorant, em
menaoue Stem cuttin Ripe fruit, leaves, Haematinic, stem, flower rejuvenatin
suppurative juice of leaves Alterative, anticephalalic Seed Root, leaves Anabo
lic, alactooue, CNS active Antibiotic, abortifacient Tonic, aphrodisiac, febr
ifue Antidropscidal, stimulant, stomachic Astrinent, antidiarrhoeal
Seed
Withania somnifera (Linn.) Solanaceae Dunal Woodfordia floribunda Salisb. Wriht
ia tinctoria (Roxb.) R. Br. Ziniber officinale Rosc. Lythraceae Apocynaceae Zin
iberaceae

Drier parts of India

Under shrub
India, Himalaya Central peninsular India
Shrub Tree Perennial rhizomatous herb
Seed
Flower Leaves, bark, seed Rhizome
Rhizome
Zizyphus ruosa Lam.
Rhamnaceae
Bark
198
IX. Scientific, Enlish and vernacular names of tropical medicinal plants
Scientific Name Abelmoschus moschatus (Linn.) Medicus Abrus precatorius Linn. Ab
utilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet Acacia catechu Willd. Acacia intsia Willd. Enlish
Ladie’s Finer, Okra Wild liquorice Sanskrit Hindi Benali Mushkdana Malayalam K
asthurivenda Tamil Varttilai-kasturi Kannada Kasturi-bende Lata kasturika Guj
Gunja Atibala
Guncai Kanhi
Chimhati Potari
Kunni Ooram Karinali Incha Balamunja
Kuntumani Tutti Karumkali
Gunji Shrimud riida Kaali
Cutch tree, Black catechu Soap bark
Khadirah
Khair, Khaira Kuth
Acalypha fruticosa Forsk. Acalypha indica Linn. Indian acalypha Achyranthes aspe
ra Linn. Acorus calamus Linn. Adhatoda beddomei C. B. Clarke Adhatoda zeylanica
Medicus Aele marmelos (Linn.) Corr. Aerva lanata (Linn.) Juss. Aeratum conyzoi
des Linn. Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Alanium salviifolium (Linn. f.) Wan. Albizia
chinensis (Osb.) Merr. Albizia lebbeck (Linn.) Benth. Allium cepa Linn. Allium
cepa var. areatum Allium sativum Linn. Allophyllus serratus Radlk. Aloe barba
densis Mill. Alpinia alluhas Rosc. Alpinia calcarata Rosc. Alpinia alana Sw.
Prickly chaff flower plant Sweet fla
Sinni Kuppaimeni Nayuruvi Vasampu Adutoda Adatodai Vilvam Cerupulai Pumpillu Per
umaram Alani Katturinjil Vahe Venkayam Irulli
Chinni Kuppi Utraniida Bajai
Haritamanjari Apamanah
Kuppikhokhli Muktajari Circita Apan Buch Bakas Bakas Baela Chaya Uchunti
Kuppameni Vankadaladi Vayampu Chittadalotakam Aadalotakam Koovalam Cherula Appa
Perumaram, Poniliam Ankolam Vaaka Nenmenivaka Ull, Savalla Chuvannulli
Ura andha , Vaca Vasa Adusa Vasaka Bilva Sriphal Bhadra Visamustih Mahanimba A
rusha Bel Chaya Visadodi Maharukh Dhera kanujera Siris Pyaj
Malabar nut Bael tree Holy fruit tree
Adumuttada Bilvapatra
Goat weed
Nayitulasi Dodda Guddadaoni Hottubane Doddabae Nirulli
Sae leaved alanium
Ankolah Sirisha
Akar kanta Amluki Siris Pyanj
Siris tree Onion Small onion Garlic
Shirisha Palanduh
Lasunah Triputah
Lahasun Tippani Ghikumari Taro
Lashan
Veluthulli
Vellaipuntu
Belluli Sisidale Lolesara
Mukkannanpezhu Amalai Ghrtkumar Kattarvazha Malayinjikkuva Chittaratha, Kolinchi
Aratha, Chittaratha Ezhilampala Analiveam Kanta-notiya Mullancheera Dadmari Ba
ri elachi Ol Kalluruvi Perelam Chena Sirukattalai
Indian aloe
Ghrta kumari Taraka
Lesser alanal Kulanjan Chatwan
Greater alanal Suandhamul Kulainjam Rasna Alstonia scholaris Devil tree Sapta
parnah Shaitan ka (Linn.) R. Br. jat Alstonia venenata R. Alstonia Visahni Br.
Amaranthus Prickly Tanduliya Katalichaulai spinosus Linn. amaranthus Ammannia ba
ccifera Blisterin Aniarva Dadmari Linn. ammania Amomum subulatum Greater Ela
Bari elachi Roxb. cardomom Amorphophalus Elephant foot Arsahana Zaminkand compa
nulatus yam (Roxb.) Bl. Anacardium Cashew-nut tree Vrkkaphalah Kaju occidentale
Linn. Anacyclus pyrethrum Pellitory Akara-karava Akara-kara DC
Arattai Elilappalai Sinnappalai Kulluk-kirai Nirumel neruppu Periya yelam Karnai
kilanu
Dumbarasmi Janthalla Addasarpa Malluharivesoppu
Dodda-yelakkai Suvarna adde
Hiji-badam Akara-kara
Kasumavu Akkikaruka
Mundiri Akkirakkaram
Gerubija
199
Androraphis paniculata Nees Anisochilus carnosus Wall. Anisomeles malabarica R.
Br. Annona squamosa Linn. Antiaris toxicaria (Pers.) Lesch. Aphanamixis polysta
chya (Wall.) Parker Areca catechu Linn.
Green chiretta
Bhunimbah
Kakameh Punjiri-kapat Codhara Sitaphal
Kalmeh
Kiryath Mathilkkoorka, Karppooravalli Karimthumba
Nilavempu Karpuravalli
Kreata Doddapatri
Malabar catmint Vaikuntah Mahadronah Custard apple Sitaphalam Upas tree Rohituka
tree Valakala Rohitakah
Irattaipeyamaratti Karitumbe Sitaphalam Atta Ali Semmaram Sitaphala Ajanapatte M
ullumanthala
Ata
Harinhara
Tikataraj
Aatha, Seethappazham Maravuri, Arayanalli Chemmaram
Arecanut palm Betelnut palm Aremone mexicana Prickly poppy Linn. Mexican poppy
Aryreia speciosa Sweet Aristolochia bracteolata Ham. Aristolochia indica Linn.
Artemisia pallens Artemisia vularis Linn. Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Artocar
pus hirsutus Lam. Asparaus racemosus Willd. Averrhoa bilimbi Linn. Averrhoa car
ambola Linn. Elephant creeper Woolly mornin creeper Worm killer Bracteated birt
hwort Indian birthwort Davana Indian worm weed Fleabane Jack-fruit tree Wild jac
k Asparaus Cucumber tree
Puah Bramhadandi
Supari Bharband
Supari Siyalkanta
Kamuku, Adackamaram Brahmadanthi
Pakkurnamaram Ponnumatai
Adike Datturi
Samudrapalak Samandara ka-pat Kitamari Kitamar
Gouli
Samudrappacha
Samuttirapalai
Samudravalli
Aaduthinnappala, Adutinnappalai Easwaramooli Isharmul Garudakkodi, Karalakam Dav
ana Makkippoovu Isvaramuli Davanam Makkippu
Adumuttaadi
Isvari
Isvarmul
Gopataputtipalai Davana Manjapatre
Damanakah
Davanah
Naadoni
Panasah Lakucah Satavari Brihaddala
Kathal
Kanthal
Plavu Aanjili
Palavu Anjali Ammaikodi Tamarattai Tamarattai
Halasu Hebbalasu Aheuballi Kamarakshi kamarakshi
Satavari Kamarana
Shatamuli Kamarak Kamarak
Satavari Vilimbi Aarampuli
Carambola, Star fruit, Chinese ooseberry Azadirachta indica A. Marosa tree Jus
s. Indian lilac Azima tetracantha Mistletoe Lam. Berrythorn Bacopa monnieri Thym
e-leaved (Linn.) Pennell ratiola Baliospermum Castor oil plant solanifolium (J.
Burm.) Suresh Bambusa bambos Thorny bamboo Druce Spiny bamboo Barleria mysorens
is Bauhinia purpurea Linn. Bauhinia racemosa Lam. Bauhinia tomentosa Bauhinia va
rieata Linn. Biophytum sensitivum (Linn.) DC. Blepharis boerhaavifolia Blephari
stemma corymbosa Boerhaavia diffusa Linn. Bombax ceiba Linn.
Karmaranha Kamarana
Nimbah Kundali Brahmi Danti
Nim
Nim
Aaryaveppu Essanku Brahmi Naadandi
Vembu Ichanka Mulsana Nirpirami Nakatanti
Bervu Bileevuppi Nirbrahmi Danti
Kantaarkim Trikantaati ai Barami Boihimsak Jalnim Danti Danti
Vamsah
Kantabams
Kutuasi
Mula Chulli
Munil
Bidiau
Camel’s foot tree Vanaraja
Lalkachna
Sveta kanchan Kachnal St.Thomas tree Aswamantaka Kachnar Kancanar
Rakta kanchan Banraj Kanchan Rakta kanchan Jhalai
Mountain ebony Kancanarah
Velutha mandaram Mandaram, Malayathi Kanjanam, Kattathi Chuvanna mandaram Mukkut
ti, Nilamthenu Murikoottipacha
Mandari Manthari Arikka Kanjani Siappu mandari
Kempukanjivala Vana samtie Kadatti Ullippe
Jhullapuspah
Lajjalu
tintanali
Howeed Piweed Red silk cotton tree
Punarnava Salmali
Neerkuruntha, Arumarachedi Gadahpurna Gandhapurna Thazhuthama Semal Rokto simul
Mullilavu
Saatarani Mullilavu
Sanadike komma Boonaadamara
200
Brassica campestris Linn. Brassica juncea (Linn.) Czern. & Coss. Brassica olerac
ea Linn. var. botrytis Linn. Breynia patens Benth. Bridelia crenulata Roxb. Brid
elia scandens (Roxb.) Willd. Bryonia sp. Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Caesalpin
ia bonduc (Linn.) Roxb. Caesalpinia sappan Linn. Cajanus cajan (Linn.) Millsp. C
alamus travancoricus Bedd. ex Hook. f. Callicarpa tomentosa (Linn.) Murray Calot
ropis iantea (Linn.) R. Br. Calycopteris floribunda Lam. Canana odorata Hook.
f. & Thom. Capparis sepiaria Linn. Capparis zeylanica Linn. Capsicum annum Card
iospermum halicacabum Linn. Careya arborea Roxb. Carica papaya Linn.
Swedish turnip, White mustard Indian mustard, Red mustard Cauliflower
Katasarshapa Kalisarson Sarsapah Rajika Rayi
Kalisarsan Raisarisha
Velutha kaduku Kaduku Katuu Sasave
Cauliflower
Bahupraja
Kalamahoma d
Punarmurina Mulluvena Cherupanichi
Bahupatra Flame of the forest Fever nut Bonduc nut Brazil wood Red ram Pieon p
ea Palasah Latakaranjah Patranah Tuvari
Garunaru
Mala
Kanjikkottam Parasa Kalicikkai Patunam Tuvarai Muttua Galia Patrana Kariudu
Nayibettu
Dhak Palas Plasu Palas Kantikaranja Natakaranja Kazhanchi Patam Tuvari Dhal Bak
am Arhar Chappanam, Sappanam Thuvara Cheruchooral, Kattuchooral Bestra Massand
ari Akanda Kattuthekku Erikku Pullanni
Vettilaippattai Erukku Minnarkoti
Ardri Ekka Kuppasa
Giantic swallow Arkah wort Susavi
Madar Kokkarai
Ylan-ylan Kakadoni Jal kanthari Gitoranj Red chilly Raktamarciah Lalmirca Kapa
lphoti Kumbi Lalmorich Kaliakara
Pachachempakam Manoranjitham Kakkathondi Karthotti Mulaku Karunjarai Tondai Mila
ay Mudukkottan Kumbi Ayma Pappali Shema-sheraam Shimai- jeerakam Kuntalpanai

Apoorva sakpaka Kadukattari Mullukattari Mensinakai Ani-balli Kavalu mara

Heart’s pea Indravalli Balloon vine Wild uava Katabhi Slow match tree Papaya
Lataphatkari Uzhinja, Valliuzhinja Kamber Pezhu
Erandakarkati Pappita Kala-azim Jeera Mari ka jat Jira
Kappa/Kappalam Seema jeerakam Carum Choondappana Manja arali
Paranimarai
Carum Bulbous caraway bulbocastanum Koch Carum carvi Linn. Caraway Caryota urens
Linn. Cascabela thevetia (Linn.) Lippold Cassia fistula Linn. Elephant’s palm S
ritalah Fish tail palm
Baani
Indian laburnum Golden shower
Kitamalah
Amaltas
Sonali
Kanikkonna
Konnai
Kakkaemara
Cassia occidentalis Nero coffee Linn. Stinkin weed Cassia sophera Linn. Senna
sophera Casuarina equisetifolia Linn. Catharanthus roseus (Linn.) G. Don Catunar
eam nutans (DC.) Tiruv. Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Juss. ex Ganep. Ceiba pentata (
Linn.) Gaertn. Beef wood Periwinkle
Kasamardah Kasamarda
Kasaumdi Kasunda Janlisaru
Kalkashunda Ponnaveeram Kalkashunda Ponnanthakara Jau Kattadi
Ponnavirai Pon-navarai Savukku
Doddataassa Kasamardah Chabaku
Nityakalyani
Sudabahar
Ushamalari, Sudukattumallikai Nityamallie Savakkottappacha Kara Tripadi Kattupi
randai
Godhapadi
Goalilata
White silk cotton Sweta salmali Saphed tree simal
Shwet simul Panjimaram, Seemappoola
Pancu Ilavum
Apurani
201
Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn. Chukrasia tabular
is A. Juss. Cicca acida (Linn.) Merr. Cinnamomum camphora Nees & Eberm. Cinnamom
um verum Presl Cissampelos pareira Linn. Cissus quadranularis Linn. Citrus aura
ntifolia (Christm.) Swinle Citrus limon (Linn.) Burm. f. Citrus maxima (Burm.)
Merr. Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. & Hook. f. Clematis triloba Heyne ex
Roth Cleome ynandra Linn. Cleome viscosa Linn. Clerodendrum phlomidis Linn. f.
Clerodendrum serratum (Linn.) Moon Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. Clitoria ternatea
Linn.
Indian pennywort Mandukaparni Brahmamand Tholkhuri uki Sweet pi weed Chikrassy
Country ooseberry Camphor tree Chanana Lavaliphala Karpurah Harfarauri Kapur Ch
ikrassi Hariphal
Kudanal, Vallarai Kudakan, Muthil Kattayamodakam Chuvanna akil Arinelli Karppoo
ram Chunda-kadalai Arinelli Indu Karpooram Ilavarnam Karuwa Appatta kodi Perand
ai Elummicchchai Periya elumichai Pambalimasu Nilappalai
Kadu Kodu- vama Dallmaris Aranelli Karpoora
Cinnamon Velvet leaf
Darusita Ambastha
Darucini Akanadi
Dalchini Akanadi Harjora
Karuva Malathani
Padavali Manjora-valli Nimbae
Adament creeper Aszthisanhara Hadjora Country lime Rouh lemon Forbidden fruit M
aha- nimbu
Chanalamparanda Kazi-nimbu Kazi-nimbu Vadukappulinarakam Bara-nimbu Bara-nebu
Cherunarakam Mahanimbu Karlajuri Bablumas Odaku
Madhukarkati Chakotra Indrayava Garari
Chakotre Bodadaraa
Bowstrin hemp Lahuparnika Murhari Ajaandha Wild mustard Clerodendrum Beetle k
iller Varada Vatani Anaravalli Hulhul Hurhur Urani Bharan Bomanhati Ansarisha
Hulhuria
Perumkurumba Aadunarivelam Kattukaduku, Ariyavila Peruvelum Cheruthekku Navelai
Naykaduu Thazhuthazhi Chirutekku
Morhari
Naadusaive Tai Gantubaranji
Clerodendrum Clitoria
Bhantaka Aparajita
Bhant Aparajit
Bhant Aparajit
Periyilam, Peruvelam Sankhupushpam
Peruilai Kannikkotti Girikarniballi
Coccinia randis (Linn.) Voit. Cocculus hirsutus (Linn.) Diels. Cochlospermum r
eliiosum (Linn.) Alst. Cocos nucifera Linn.  Coffea arabica Linn. Coffea robust
a Coix lacryma-jobi Linn. Coldenia procumbens Linn. Coleus amboinicus Lour. Cole
us zeylanicus (Benth.) Cramer Colocasia esculenta (Linn.) Schott Commiphora caud
ata (Wt. & Arn.) Enl. Commiphora mukul (Hook. ex Stocks) Stocks Connarus monoca
rpus Linn. Coriandrum sativum Linn.
Ivy ourd Broom creeper Ink berry Yellow flowered cotton tree Coconut tree Arabi
an coffee Robusta coffee Job’s tears
Bimbika
Kanturi
Telkucha
Koval
Kovai-kodi
Tonde-kayee Daadiballi Arasina
P[ataluaruda Patalaarudi Huyer h Girisalmalika Galal
Pathalaarudakko Kattukkoti di Seemappanji Konjillam
Narikela
Nariyal Kawa Kawa
Narikel Kafi Kafi
Thenu Kappi Kappi Kakkappalunku Cherupulladi
Tenkaimaram Kaapi Kaapi Kunthumani Seruppadai karpuravalli
Tenu Kafi Kafi Kolti-baeja
Gavendhukah Gurusamkru Gurur Tripakshee Tripunki Pathurchur Paterchur
Indian borae Country borae
Karpuravalli
Panikkoorkka Iruveli
Karpurahalli
Taro Coco yam
Alupam
Kaccalu
Kachu
Chembu Kilippanjimaram
Chaembu
Kachchi
Indian bdellium
Guulu
Guul
Guul
Gululu
Gukkalu
Guul
Kurial Coriander Dhanyakam Dhaniam Dhane Malli Kottamalli Kothambari
202
Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr. Cosmostima racemosa Wt. Costus speciosu
s (Koen.) Sm. Crataeva reliiosa Hook. f. & Thom. Cressa cretica Linn. Crossandr
a infundibuliformis Crotalaria juncea Linn. Croton tilium Linn. Cryptolepis buc
hanani Roem. & Schult. Curculio orchioides Gaertn. Curcuma amada Roxb. Curcuma
anustifolia Roxb. Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Curcuma lona Linn. Cyathula prostr
ata (Linn.) Bl. Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook. f. & Thom. Cymbopoon citratus (DC.)
Stapf Cymbopoon flexuosus (Steud.) Wats. Cymbopoon martinii var. motia Roxb.
Cymbopoon martinii var. sofia Cymbopoon nardus (Linn.) Rendle Cymbopoon nardu
s var. confertiflorus x C. jawarancusa Cymbopoon pendulus Wats. Cymbopoon wint
erianus Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers. Cyperus rotundus Linn Dalberia latifolia
Roxb. Datura metel Linn. Delonix reia (Boj.) Rafin. Dendrocalamus strictus (Ro
xb.) Nees Desmodium aneticum DC. Desmodium yrans DC. Desmodium pulchellum Bac
ker Desmodium triflorum (Linn.) DC. Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf
Tree turmeric
Daruharida
Jhar-I-haldi
Haldi achch Maramanjal
Maramancal
Maramanjali
Costus Tree leaved caper
Pushkara Varunah Rudanti
Kust Barna Rudravanti
Kura Barun Rudravanti
Vattolam, Vaduvalli Channakuva Neermathalam Azhukanni Kanakambaram, Padathikoni
ni Kilukki Neervalam Kilippalvalli
Gharahuroo Kostam Narvala Vuppu mari kazhantu Pavillakurinja Sanappu Nervalam Pa
alkodi Chanakosta Bilpatri
Abbolie Sanabu Japala Adavi palchedi
Sun hemp Purin croton
Sanabu Jepulah
Sanabu Jamalota Karnata
Sanpat Jaypul
Musali Mano iner Wild arrow root Wild turmeric Turmeric Amradrakam Tavakshira
Kalimusali Amahaldi Tikhur
Talamuli Amada Tikhur Ban haland Haldi
Nilappana Manainchi Vellakkuva, Kattumanjal Kasthurimanjal Manjal Cherukadaladi
Nilapanai Mankayinci Kua Kasturimanjal Mancal Cirukatalati Patakilanka Vasanapul
lu
Neladali Ambahaldi
Aranyaharidra Janli haldi Haridra Haldi
Kadarasina Anasina
Small prickly Raktapamara Lal circita chaff flower plant h Pata root Patha Path
West Indian lemon rass East Indian Lemonrass Bhustarah Gandhatran
Padakkizhanu, Padathali Gandhabena Injippullu Injippullu
Majjiehallu
Palmarosa, Dhyamakah Rosha rass Palmarosa, Ginerrass Ceylon citronella Guchch
a rass Jamrosa
Gandhabei
Palmarosa Palmarosa
Munkilppul
Gaijini
Kamakher
Ceylon citronella Jamrosa
Kamachi pillu
Jammu Lemonrass Java citronella Dhub rass Barmuda rass Nut rass Niladurva Mu
sta Durba Dub
Jammu inchippullu Java citronella Karuka Muthana Eetti, Veetti Neela ummam Gulm
ohar, Alasippumaram Kallanmula Orila Thozhukanni, Ramanamachedi Kattumuthira Nil
amparanda Balidarbha Siruppullai Darbhaibhul Arukampillu Koral Itti Vellum matta
i Hariali Tuneadde Ibadi Dattura
Naarmotha Motha Shisham Kaladhutara Sitsal Dhatura
East Indian rose Shishapa wood Datura Dhustura Gulmohar Male bamboo Desmodium Va
nsha Salaparni
Banskaban Salparni
karael Salapani
Kalmoonil Pulladi
Bidiru Murelehonne
Jatsalpan Tripadi Sacrificial rass Darbah Kudalia Davoli
Garh tapi Kodalia Darbha
Jenukkadi
203
Dioscorea bulbifera Potato yam Linn. Dioscorea floribunda Medicinal yam Diospyro
s melanoxylon Roxb. Dolichos biflorus Backer Dreea volubilis (Linn. f.) Hook. f
. Ecbolium viride (Forsk.) Merr. Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn. Elephantopus sc
aber Linn. Elettaria cardamomum Maton Embelia ribes Burm. f. Emilia sonchifolia
DC. Ensete superbum Entada pursaetha DC. Erynium foetidum Linn. Erythrina varie
ata Linn. Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. Persimmon Horse ram

Ratalu
Banalu
Kachil, Pannikizhanu Marunnukachil Ebony Muthira Velipparuthi Odiyamadantha Kay
yonni, Kayyunni Aanachuvadi Elam Wizhal Muyalcheviyan Kalluvazha
Kodi kilanu
Heenasaru
Dirhapatraka Abnus Kulattha Hemajivanti Kulatti Nakchikkni Udajati Tekarajuah H
astipadi Ela Vidanah Sasarutih Bhamra Gobhi Elaci Vavidan Hirankhun
Kend Kirti kalai Titakuna Udajati Kesraj Gajilata Chotti elaci Birana Sudhimud
i
Karum dumbi Kollu Kodippalai Nilambari Kayyantukara Anashovadi Elam Vayu-vilama
Muyalccevi
Abanasi Hurali Dudhike Kappukarni Kaddiaaruu Nayee nalie Yelakkai Vayuvilan
a

Blue fox tail Nail dye Trailin eclipta Prickly leaved elephant’s foot Cardamom
Embelia
Elephant creeper African coriander Indian coral tree Eucalyptus Paribhadrah
Barabi chian Gila ach
Malamanjadi, Kakkavalli Africanmalli
Chillu
Doddakampi
Dadap pamkara
Palitamadar Murikku Yukkali
Kalyana murukku Harivana
Eucalyptus lobulus Blue um tree Labill. Eupatorium triplinerve Ayapana tea Vah
l Euphorbia hirta Linn. Australian asthma weed Euphorbia nivulia Buch.-Ham. Euph
orbia thymifolia Linn. Euphorbia tirucalli Petroleum plant Linn. Milk bush Eupho
rbia tirucalli Linn. Euphorbia triona Haw. Evolvulus alsinoides (Linn.) Linn. E
xcoecaria aallocha Blindin tree Linn. Ficus benhalensis Banyan tree Linn. Fic
us exasperata Vahl Ficus heterophylla Linn. f. Ficus microcarpa Linn. f. Ficus r
acemosa Linn. Cluster fi Ficus reliiosa Linn. Peepal tree Sacred fi
Nilanirasa Ayaparnah Naarjun
Yukeliptas Ayaparna Lal-dudhi Ayapani Barokherni
Yukkali Aiyappana, Mrithasanjeevani Nilappala
Karpoora maram Ayappani
Taila
Amampatihaiarasi Akkiida
Patra-snuhi Dudhika Trikantaka
Sij Dudhiya Sehund
Sij Dudiya Lankasy
Ilakkalli Nilappala Thirukkalli
Naa kalli Sittrapaladi
Katathuhar
Thirukkalli Kallimullu Visnukrantha Aaru Nyarodhah Syamakranth a Ganwa Ganwa
Barad Bot Vishnukranthi Komatti Peral Therakam Trayamana Plaksah Udumbarah Pip
palah Asvatam Kamarup Gular umar Pippal Bhuii-damar Vallitherakam Kamrup Itthi
Thirukkali
Mundukalli
Vishnukrantamu Kampetti Alamaram
Vishnukranti Tilla Ala
Kodi athi Kallicci Atti Arasu
Adavibende Itti Atti Aswatha
Jaa dumur Atthi Asvatha Arayal
Flacourtia indica Governor’s plum Ahori Merr. Flacourtia janomas Puneala plum
Vikankatha (Lour.) Raeusch. Garcinia ummi-utta Gamboe Vrksamlah (Linn.) Robs.
Kancu Paniyala Bilatti-amli
Binja Paniyala
Ahori Neernelli, Thaleesapathram Kudampuli, Kudappuli
Sattaikala Vayyinkarai Kodukappuli
Nakkeharau Hulumanike Punarpuli
204
Geophila reniformis Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis Gloriosa superba Linn.
Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC. Glycyrrhiza labra Linn. Gmelina arborea Roxb.
Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. Hedyotis corymbosa (Linn.) Lam. Helicteres isora Linn.
Karinkudunal Aanachoriyanam Glory lily Visalya Kalihari Bisha Ashshoura Menthon
ni Kuttippanal Akkini chilam Kattukonci Nanulika Kasarkana
Asvasakothah Giriti
Liquorice Coomb teak Periploca of the woods
Yastimadhu Gumbhari Madhunasini Parpatah Avarttani Vrscikali Sariba Anantamul On
drapuspi
Jatimadh Gamari Merasimi Daman pappar Marodphali Siriyari Anantamul Jasum Patwa
Yastomadhu Irattimadhuram Gomari Merasini Kumizhu, Kumbil Chakkarakkolli Parpad
akappullu Atmora Hatisura Anantamul Joba Lal mista Bopla kurchi Idampiri-valampi
ri Thekkada Naruneendi, Nannari Chemparathi Mathippuli Pooparuthi Kudakappala
Athimadhuram Uri Gumadi Sakkarakolli Parpataam Valampiri Telkedukkai Nannari Ce
mparutti Sivappu kasmakkai Attu paruthi Kutasapalai
Athimadhura Kummuda Kadhasie Parpatahullu Kempukaveri Celubaladaidha Namadabat
hi Dasavala Pulicha keera
East Indian screw tree Heliotropium indicum Indian turnsole Linn. Hemidesmus ind
icus Indian (Linn.) R. Br. sarasaparilla Hibiscus rosaShoe-flower plant sinensis
Linn. Hibiscus sabdariffa Roselle Linn. Hibiscus tiliaceus Yellow mallow Linn.
Holarrhena Tellichery bark pubescens (Buch.Ham.) Don Holiarna arnottiana Hook.
f. Holoptelea interifolia Indian elm (Roxb.) Planch. Holostemma adaHolostemma k
odien Schult. Homonoia riparia Lour. Huonia mystax Linn. Climbin flax Hybanthu
s enneaspermus (Linn. f.) Muell. Hydnocarpus laurifolia (Dennst) Sleum. Hyrophi
la schulli (Ham.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida Ichnocarpus frutescens (Linn.) R. Br. In
diofera tinctoria Linn. Ipomoea mauritiana Jacq. Ipomoea pes-tiridis Linn. Ixo
ra coccinea Linn.
Bala Kalina
Bopla Kurci kuda
Kodasana Karche Holiar Tapasiida
Cheru, Charu Cirabilvah Jivanti Jalavetasah Kamsamarah Amburuha Rattan-purus Nun
-boro Cibil Chirvel Jalbent Aavil, Njettavil Adapathian Aattuvanchi, Kallurvanch
i Mothirakkanni Orilathamara
Karunjari Avali Kanji Palaikkirai Kattuarali Mothirakkanni Purusharatnam
Sannapasanabela Mrema
Maroti tree
Tuvarakah
Calmoaru
Marotti
Maravattai
Vayalchulli
Black creeper
Ulpalasariba
Kalidudhi
Shyamalata
Palvalli
Udarkkoti
Kappunabadaberu
Indian indio Giant potato Tier’s foot
Nilika Kairividari
Nil Bhilaykand
Nil
Neelamari, Neelichedi Bhumikumar Palmuthukku a Pulichuvadi Thechi, Chethi Pichak
am, Pichi Kudamulla
Averi Palmudamai Pulichovadi Cetti Pichi Kotimalliae Kundumallie Katalamanakk
u Adalai Kattuamanaku
Nili Nadakumbala
Jasminum randiflorum Linn. Jasminum sambac Arabian jasmine Mallika Ait. Jatroph
a curcas Linn. Purin nut Dravanti Jatropha landulifera Roxb. Jatropha ossypi
folia Tua-tua Linn. Nikumbu
Flame of the Paranti woods Spanish jasmine Jati
Ranam Jati Mohra Junli erand Undarbilyu
Rajana Jati Mohri
Kiskara Malliae Dundumallie Belioudalu Karithrukuharalu Hattielai karalu
Pahari erand Kadalavanakku, Kattavanakku Lalbheranda Kannatti Chuvannakadalavana
kku
205
Justicia betonica Justicia endarussa Linn. f. Justicia wynadensis Kaempferia a
lana Linn. Kaempferia rotunda Linn. Laenaria siceraria Lantana camara Linn. va
r. aculeata Moldenke Lawsonia inermis Linn. Leea indica Merr. Vatani
Paduthamara Nilanairundi Jaatmadari Vathamkolli Kurinji chandumula Kacholam, K
achooram Bhucampakah Abhuichamp Bhuichampa Chenazhineera kizhanu Katutumbi Tit
alauki Kodalau Churakka Caturani Caturan Arippu Karcurah Candramula Kaccolam N
erppicin Sorakkai Arisimalar Kacora Nelasampie Kadusore Kaduulabi Vataikkoti K
arinekki
Indian crocus Bottle ourd Wild sae
Henna
Medhini Chatri Dronapuspi Ambuja Kapitthah Vashira
Mehanti
Mehandi
Mylanchi
Marutani Ottanali Tumbai
Madurani Gadhapatri Tumbe
Kurkurjihava Kurkurjihava Manippiranda Chota lalkusa Kuttra Katbel Bhuikora Leec
hi Leechi Nala Chota halkusa Karpur Kathbel Thumba Mananari Vilarmaram Neerthip
pali Litchi Kattupukayila
Leucas aspera Thumbe (Willd.) Spr. Limnophila indica (Linn.) Druce Limonia acidi
ssima Elephant apple Linn. Lippia nodiflora Mich. Litchi chinensis Sonner. Lobel
ia nicotianifolia Wild tobacco Roth ex Roem. & Schult. Macarana peltata (Roxb.)
Muell.-Ar. Maesa indica Wall. Manifera indica Linn. Maranta arundinacea Linn.
Melia azedarach Linn. Mentha arvensis Linn. Mesua naassarium (Burm. f.) Koster
m. Michelia champaca Linn. Mimosa pudica Linn. Cuckoo’s joy Arrow root Pride of
India Mint Mesua Golden champa Sensitive plant
Vilankaymaram Podutalaei Ilichi Upperichedi
Bela
Devanala
Nala
Kandele
Vattakkanni Ramjanu Amrah Tavaksri Mahanimbah Pudina Naapuspam Champakah Lajjal
u Bakulah Krishnakeli Phanija Pitadaru Siruh Shalmali Atmaupta Tirkoskai Muna
na Tut Gonca Aumaki Sajna Tut Alkushi Bilari Amb Tikhor Mahanimb Pudina Naakes
ar Champaka Lajjavanti Bakul Gulabbas Jima Am Ararut Ghoranim Podina Naesar Cha
mpaka Lajak Bakul Krishnakeli Jima Kattuvizhal Mavu Kochikuva, Kuva Malaveppu Pu
dina Naakesaram, Churuli Chempakam, Champaka Thottavadi Elenji Anthimalari Kaip
pujeerakam Kudalchurukki Muria, Morina Kambilimaram, Yusham Naikurana Mukkappe
ram Vamari Mamaram Kuvai Malaivempu Putina Naappu Sempakam Thottalvadi Ilanci P
attarasu Kachantari Nuna Murunkai Kambali Punaikkali Musumusukkai
Upalie Tanipela Mavu Kavihettu Turakabevu Chetamaruu Naasampie Sampie Nacik
eidi Raademara Chandra mallie Parpataka Poppili Muruna Brahmadaru Nasuanni
Mimusops eleni West Indian Linn. Medlar Mirabilis jalapa Linn. Four O’ clock pl
ant Molluo oppositifolia Bitter cumin Linn. Morinda umbellata Linn. Morina ole
ifera Drum-stick tree Lam. Morus acedosa Griff. Mucuna pruriens (Linn.) DC. Muki
a maderaspatana (Linn.) M. Roemer Murraya koeniii (Linn.) Spren. Musa paradisi
aca Linn. var. sapientum Kuntze Mussaenda frondosa Linn. Myristica frarans Hout
t. Cowhae
Curry leaf Adam’s fi
Kalasakh Kadali
Mithipam Kela
Barsuna Kela
Kariveppu Vazha, kadalivazha Vellila Jathi
Kariveppalai Kadalivalai
Kari baeva Balehannu
White lady Nutme tree
Sriparnah Jati
Bedina Jayphal
Na-balli Jaiphal
Vellai-ilai Jatimaram
Bello-tiida Jajikal
206
Houtt. Nareamia alata Wt. & Arn. Nerium oleander Linn. Nervilia araoana Gaud.
Nyctanthes arbortristis Linn. Nymphaea rubra Roxb. Ochrocarpus lonifolius Ocimu
m americanum Linn. Ocimum basilicum Linn. Ocimum ratissimum Linn. Ocimum ratis
simum Linn. var. clocimum Ocimum tenuiflorum Linn. Operculina turpethum (Linn.)
S. Manso Opuntia dillenii (KerGawler) Haworth Oroxylum indicum (Linn.) Vent. Ort
hosiphon stamineus Benth. Oueinia dalberioides Benth. Oxalis corniculata Linn.
Pavetta indica Linn. Phoenix dactylifera Linn. Phoenix pusilla Gaertn. Phyllant
hus amarus Schum. & Thonn. Phyllanthus emblica Linn. Physalis minima Linn. Pimen
ta racemosa J. W. Moore Pinus roxburhii Sarent Piper betle Linn. Piper chaba H
unter Piper lonum Linn. Piper nirum Linn. Goanese ipecacuanh Indian oleander T
riparnika Karavirah Padmacarini Niht jasmine Indian red water lily Indian laure
l Hoary basil Sweet basil Shrubby basil Clocimum Sacred basil Indian jalap Prick
ly pear Indian trumphrt tree Java tea Chariot tree Inda Indian sorrel Date palm
Small wind date palm Caneri Kharjurah Parusakah Tamalaki Indian ooseberry Sunb
erry Bayberry Chirpine Betel pepper Benal pepper Lon pepper Black pepper Saral
ah Tambulavalli Chavika Pippali Maricam Kumbhika Amlaka Mrdukuncika Amrulsak Kha
jur Palavat Jaramala Amla Bhui amla Amlaki Amrul Khajur Surasah Trivirt Vidara S
yonakah Poojatulasi Tarbut Naphana Sonapatha Tulsi Dudhkalami Naphana Sona Par
ijatah Tinparni Karavira Sthalapadma Harsinhar Harsinhar Karabi Nilanarakam Ar
ali Orilathamara Pavizhamulla Nilanaraam Sivappu arali Orilattamarai Pavillamal
lie Allittamarai Surabunnai Nayttulaci Tirunitturu Elumicha tulasi Parijata Bil
itavarai Saruni Nayitulasi Kamakasturi Elumicha tulasi Nelarina Kanailu
Aruna kamala Chhota kamal Punna Nakesar Aranyatulasi Barbari Vridha tulasi Van
tulasi
Rakta kamal Velutha ambal Nakesar Kalatulasi Punna Katturamathulasi
Babauitulasi Babauitulasi Ramathulasi Ram tulasi Ram tulasi Karpoorathulasi, Kat
tuthrithavu Clocimum Krishnathulasi Thrikolpakkonna Palakakkalli, Naathali Pala
kappayyani Poochameesa
Karuttutulasi Kumbham Naadali Palayudaycci
Karitulasi Siade Dabbualli Tattuna
Tinisah
Tinnas
Tinis
Thodukara Puliyaral Pavatta Eenthappana Chitteenthal Keezharnelli Nelli
Narivenai
Karimutalae
Pavattai Periccamkay Siruintu Kilanelli Neli Tottakali Kattukaruva Caraladevadar
u Ilaikkodi
Pavetae Kajjuri Indu Kirunelli Amalaka Guddahannu Gandamanasu Sarala Viliyadabal
li Chavya
Bandhapariy Bandhapariy Njottanjodiyan a a Cheenamulaku Sarala Pan Chab Piplamul
Kalimirc Jalkumbhi saralaacah Charalam Pan Choi Piplamul Kalimirch Takapana La
lchita Vettila Benlathippali Thippali Kurumulaku Kodappayal Chethikkoduveli Vel
lakkoduveli Poomaram Pachapat Debdari Pachila Aranamaram Poovallikodi Karanja Un
u/ Ponu
Thippili Milau Ayastamarai Cittramulam Sittaraam Kallimandarai Kadir pachai As
ou Bilichinee Ganialu Puam
Thippali Olli manasu Antharanaae Kempucitramala Vahini Kadusampie Patchetene
Assoti
Pistia stratiotes Linn. Water letuce Plumbao indica Linn. Plumbao zeylanica Li
nn. Plumeria rubra Linn. Red flowered leadwort White flowered leadwort Poodo tr
ee
Chitraka
Chitarak
Chitarak
Ksiracampaka Golenci Pacholi Ulkatah Debdari Ameta Karanj Karanja
Poostemon Patchouli patchouli Hook. f. Polyalthia lonifolia Mast tree Benth. &
Hook. f. Polyonum chinense Linn. Ponamia pinnata Indian beech (Linn.) Pierre
Honae
207
Portulaca oleracea Linn. Pothos scandens Linn. Premna interifolia Linn. Premna
latifolia Roxb. Prunus amydalus Batsch Prunus cerasoides D. Don Pseudarthria vi
scida (Linn.) Wt. & Arn. Psidium uajava Linn. Psoralea corylifolia Linn. Pteroc
arpus marsupium Roxb. Pterocarpus santalinus Linn. Punica ranatum Linn. Raphanu
s sativus Linn. Rauvolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth. ex Kurz. Rhaphidophora pertu
sa Schott Rhinacanthus nastus (Linn.) Kurz. Ricinus communis Linn. Rotula aqauti
ca Lour.
Indian parselane Brihalloni
Baralunia
Baraloniya
Cheriyaolicheera Karikkirai Aanapparuva, Paruvakkodi Munja Nappa Anaparua Mann
ui Pacha mullai
Dudaorai Adkebiluballi Takkila
Headache tree Dusky fire brand mark Almond tree Bird cherry
Animanthah
Arni Bakar
Ganiari Gohara
Badama Padmakah Salaparni
Badam Patmakath
Badam Padmak
Badham Pathimukham Moovila
Vadumai Patumuam Neermalli Koyya Karpoam Venai
Budami Padmaka
Guava tree Babchi Indian kino tree
Perukah Vakucai Asanah
Amrud Bakuci Bijasal
Peyara Bavachi Pitsal
Pera Karkolari Vena
Keli Somaraji Hannemara Raktachandanam Dalimbe Mulani Sutranbli
Red sandal wood Raktachandan Raktachanda Raktachanda Rakthachandanam Sivappu ah
na na chandanam Pomeranate Dadimah Dhalim Dalim Mathalam Madalam Radish Serpent
wood Mulika Sarpaandha Muli Mula Mullanki Sarpaandhi, Amalpori Elithandan Jui
pana Bherenda Naamulla Aavanakku Kallurvanchi Manjistha Ermul Ten Kaara Manch
atti Arootha Amadarbha Kusadarbha Ekanayakam Murva Murba Muramachi Mullanki Chiv
an Amalpodi Anaittippali Naamalli Amanakku Seppunirini Manjitti Aruvadam Munji
Pekkarimpu Ponkoranti Marul
Chandrabha Chandra a
Snake jasmine Castor
Sphotyabhuja nam Yuthikaparni Palakjuhi Erundah Erand
Naamalli Maralu
Rubia cordifolia Linn. Indian madder Ruta raveolens Linn. Garden rue Saccharum
Devil suarcane arundinaceum Retz. Saccharum Thatch rass spontaneum Linn. Salac
ia reticulata Wt.
Pasanabheda h Manjistha Mamjith Gucchapatra Munjah Kasah Vairi Pismaram Sudab Ra
msar Kas
Manjusta Sadabu Munji Darbhe Ekanayakam Marua
Sansevieria Indian bow strin Murva roxburhiana Schult. hemp Santalum album Lin
n. Saraca asoca (Roxb.) De Wilde Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voit. Saussurea lap
pa C. B. Clarke Scaevola taccada Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken Sesbania randi
flora (Linn.) Poiret Sida acuta Burm. f. Sida cordifolia Linn. Sida rhombifolia
Linn. ssp. retusa (Linn.) Borss. Solanum americanum Mill. Sandal tree Ashoka Moo
n plant Chandanah Asoka Somavalli
Santal Asoka Somlata
Chandan Ashoka Som-lata
Chandanam Asokam Somalatha
Chandanam Asoam Somam
Bavanna Asokada Somlata
Costus Fan flower
Kustah
Kuth
Kottam Bhadraksham
Kostam Vellamuttaam Pumarata Attikkirai Malaitani Nilatutti Kuruntotti
Kostha
Lac tree, Ceylon Mukulakah oak Swamp pea Aastayah Horn bean leaved Bala sida Ba
la Brela Bala
Kasum Hathya Bariara Bariar Jamlimethi
Kusum Bak Bonmethi Brela Pitabala
Poovam Aathi Kurunthotti Kattooram Aanakkurunthotti
Saade Aasi Vishakkadi Kadira-baeru Ceruparuva
Manithakkali
208
Solanum khasianum C. B. Clarke Solanum melonena Linn. var. incanum (Linn.) Prai
n Solanum surattense Burm. F. Solanum torvum Swartz Solanum violaceum Ortea Sph
aeranthus africanus Linn. Sphaeranthus indicus Linn. Spilanthes acmella var. olr
acea C. B. Clarke Spilanthes calva DC. Spondias pinnata (Linn. f.) Kurz. Stereos
permum suaveolens DC. Strychnos nuxvomica Linn. Strychnos potatorum Linn. f. Sym
plocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) S. Moore Syzyium aromaticum (Linn.) Merr. Syzyi
um cumini (Linn.) Skeels Syzyium jambos (Linn.) Alst. Syzyium zeylanicum DC. T
abernaemontana divaricata (Linn.) Roem. & Schult. Tamarindus indica Linn. Tecton
a randis Linn. f. Tephrosia purpurea Pers. Terminalia arjuna Wt. & Arn. Termina
lia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Terminalia catappa Linn. Terminalia chebula Retz.
Terminalia paniculata Roth Terminalia tomentosa Wt. & Arn. Thespesia populnea (L
inn.) Sol. ex Corr. Tiliacora acuminata (Lam.) Miers
Chunda Brihati Baian Cheruvazhuthina
Yellow berried nihtshade West Indian Turkey berry
Kantakari
Remani Tit-baian Tit-baian
Kantakarichunda Kattuchunda Putharichunda Velutha adakkamanian Adakkamanian Kupp
amanjal
Kantakattiri Sundai-kai
Nelaulli Kadu sunde
East Indian lobe Mundi thistle
Mundi
Murmuria Rashiera
Visnukkarantai
Gorakmundi
Paracress Ho plum Amratakah Patala Strychinine tree Karaskara
Pipulka Amra Paral Kajra Nirmali Bholiya Ambra Parul Kuchila Nirmali
Akkikaruka Ambazham Pathiri Kanjiram Kadakam, Thettamparal Pachhotti Ampalam Pad
iri Itti Akkolam Kamblivetti
Sannavanamuli Ambatemarra Hude Ittani Anduu Lodha
Clearin nut tree Tiktaphala Lodhrah
Clove
Grambu
Black plum Rose apple
Jambuh Campeyah
Jamun
Jam
Njaval Chamba, Jamba Njara
Njaval Champai Maruni Nantiyavattam
Jambuva Pannerale Nerkal Nantibattu
Gulab jamun Gulab jamb
East Indian rosebay Tamarind tree Teak Wild indio White murdah Belleric myrobal
an Indian almond Chebulic myrobalan Flowerin murdah Black murdah Portia tree
Nandivrksah
Chandni
Nanthiarvattam
Tintrini Sakah Sarapunkah Arjunah Aksha Grahadruma Haritaki Marutu Dharaphala Ha
ripuccah
Ampli Saaun Sarphomka Arjun Bulla Budam Harara
Tentaul Seun Bannilach Arjun Bahera Benla Haritaki
Valanpuli Thekku Kozhinjil Neermaruthu Thanni Nattubadham Kadukka Poomaruthu
Puli amilam Tekku Kattukkolincai Atumaruttu Tani Nattuvadom Amaola Pei Karramar
da Cilanti
Amli Tea Phanike Arjun Vibhita Badami Alale Maruva Matti Aini Arasi Kuri
Ain Paraspipal
Asan Palaspipal
Karimaruthu Poovarasu Vallikkanjiram
Baamushad Tilakora a Amrita Giloe Giloe
Tinospora cordifolia Tinospora (Willd.) Hook. f. & Thom. Tinospora malabarica (L
am.) Miers Trachyspermum Ajowan roxburhianum (DC.) Spraue
Chittamrithu
Amridavalli
Amritaballi
Sudarsana Ajamoda
Gurch Ajmud
Padma ulancha Randhsni
Kattamrithu Ayamodakam
Patchiundih Asamatavomam Ajamodhavoma
209
Traia involucrata Indian stinin Linn. nettle Tribulus terrestris Puncture vin
e Linn. Trichopus zeylanicus Trichosanthes cucumerina Linn. Tridax procumbens Li
nn. Trionella foenumraecum Linn. Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Typha eleph
antina Roxb. Typhonium flaelliforme Uraria laopoides (Linn.) Desv. Urinea ind
ica Kunth Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Hook. ex G. Don Vanilla planifolia Vernonia a
nthelmintica Willd. Vernonia cinerea (Linn.) Less. Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.)
Nash Vitex neundo Linn. Vitex trifolia Vitis vinifera Linn. Wedelia chinensis
(Osbeck) Merr. Withania somnifera (Linn.) Dunal Woodfordia floribunda Salisb. Wr
ihtia tinctoria (Roxb.) R. Br. Ziniber officinale Rosc. Zizyphus ruosa Lam. S
nake ourd
Dusparsa Goksurah Varahi Cicindah
Barhantia Gokharu
Bichati Gokhrru
Kodithoova Njerinjil Aaroyappcha
Kanchori Nerinci
Turaci Nealu
Paraval
Banchichan Kattupadavalam a Thelkuthi Methi Antamul Hola Uluva Vallippala Aatt
udarbha Karinthakara
Putaval
Kripodla
Fenureek Indian ipoecacuanh Elephant rass
Methi Lataksiri Eraka
Methi Antamul Mohitrina
Ventayam Naippalai Anai korai
Menlesoppu Nipaladaberu Jambuhallu
Prishniparni Indian squill Vanda Kolakanda Rasna
Pithavana Janlipyaz Rasna
Chakulia Janlipyaz Rasna
Cheria Orila Kattulli Maravazha Nari venayam Adavi irulli Bandanike
Vanilla Purple fleabane Ash-coloured fleabane Vetiver Five leaved chaste tree Th
ree leaved chaste tree Common rapevine Somraji Aranyajiraka Sahadevi Usirah Nir
undi Sinduvarah Draksa Baksi Sahadeyi Khas Samhalu Saphed samhalu Drakh Somraj
Kuksim Khas-khas Samalu Pani Anur
Vanilla Kattujeerakam Poovankurunthal Ramacham Karinochi Vellanochi Munthiri Kat
tu shiraam Kadujirae
Poovamkurunthal Sahadevi Vettiver Nirkundi Nirnochi Kotumuntiri Kalsarji Amukkir
am Dhattari Tantampalai Inci Todari Vattiveru Lakki-idda Nekkinocci Draksah Gun
taalaaru Viremaddinaadi Bela Kirikodasie Ardraka Belahadu Kanika
Indian insen Fire-flame bush Pala indio Giner
Pitabhrinaraj Pitabhamar Kesraj Manjakkayyunni ah a Ashwaandha Asandah Ashva
andah Amukkiram Dhataki Svetakutajah Ardrakam Davi Dudhi Adarak Churna Dawai In
drajalu Ada Thathiri Danthappala Inji Thodali
210
Correct citation: Joy, P.P., Thomas, J., Mathew, S., and Skaria, B.P. 2001. Medi
cinal Plants. Tropical Horticulture Vol. 2. (eds. Bose, T.K., Kabir, J., Das, P.
and Joy, P.P.). Naya Prokash, Calcutta, pp. 449-632