Table of contents
Topic 1: Verb Tense Page 2
Introduction
Every sentence has a subject and a main verb. Verbs describe what the subject is doing. To be
able to show exactly what the subject does at any time, verbs have different forms and tenses.
In order to speak and write English correctly, you must learn the various verb forms and tenses.
Learning Hint:
To use verbs accurately, learn the standard verb forms and tenses. Memorize common irregular
verb forms that do not follow standard forms.
Verb Forms
Form Verb
Infinitive be
Past tense was (for I / he / she / it); were (for we / you / they)
-s / -es form --
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The verb be also has 3 present tense forms (am, is, are) while all other verbs have one.
Infinitive Form
The infinitive form is the plain or dictionary form. It is used when the verb's action happens in
the present and the subject is a plural noun or the pronouns I, we, you, or they:
I go to work.
We live downtown.
The past tense shows the verb's action happened in the past. It is usually made by adding -d or
-ed to the infinitive. The past tense is formed differently for most irregular verbs:
We lived downtown.
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The past participle is used with the verb have (have / has / had) to create the present and past
perfect tenses. The past participle form is also used to modify nouns and pronouns. One
example is the phrase sliced bread.
The past participle is usually the same as the past tense form. Only some irregular verbs have a
past participle that is different than their past tense form.
Working
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Buying
Eating
The present participle can modify nouns and pronouns. One example is the phrase running
water. When used as a noun (example: smoking is bad), the present participle is known as a
gerund. The present participle is also used to create the progressive tense.
-S Form
The -s form of a verb is made from the infinitive of the verb. This form is used when the verb's
action is in the present and the subject is third-person singular. Third-person singular is a
singular noun (examples: desk, John), or a singular indefinite pronoun (examples: everybody,
someone), or the personal pronouns he / she / it.
How the -s form is made depends on the last letter of the verb:
Verb Types
Irregular Verbs
Many verbs do not follow the rules to make the different forms. They are called irregular
verbs. No single rule explains how to make their past tense and past participle forms. The
irregular verbs must be memorized. These are some of the common irregular verbs:
do did done
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Helping Verbs
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Another important type of verb is the helping or auxiliary verb. Helping verbs show tense and
can show person, number, voice or mood. These verbs combine with a main verb to form a
verb phrase. A main verb is an infinitive, a present participle or past participle. These are verb
phrase examples:
will give
can go
Some helping verbs combine with main verbs to show time and voice. These helping verbs are
shall, will, have (has / had), do (does / did) and the forms of be (am / is / are / was / were /
been / being):
Modal Verbs
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Helping verbs such as can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, and would
are used to add extra meaning to main verbs. These helping verbs are called modals. They
show a necessity, possibility, ability, permission, prediction or responsibility:
The helping verb do (does) or its past tense did is used together with the infinitive of a verb to
ask questions, make the negative form, or to show added importance:
She does not sleep well. She did not sleep well.
Verbals
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A verbal (nonfinite verb) is no longer a verb. It is a verb form used as a noun, an adjective, or
an adverb. A verbal can never be a main verb.
Verb Tenses
Tense shows the time of a verbs action or being. There are three verb tenses: simple, perfect,
and progressive. Each tense has past, present and future forms.
Note: Because tense shows time, a time word in a sentence helps to decide what tense is being
used. Most time words can only go with a certain tense. These are some examples:
every hour / day / last week / month next week / month today
week
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sometimes
today
Simple Tense
The simple tenses show that an action or state of being is past, present, or future. The present
tense shows action that is happening now as a person speaks or writes. The present tense is also
used to describe actions that are factual or habitual (commonly repeated over a period of time).
The present tense uses the verbs infinitive or the -s form for third person singular subject.
The past tense shows action that has finished as a person speaks or writes. The past tense uses
the verbs past tense form.
The future tense shows action that has not happened yet as a person speaks or writes. The
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future tense uses the helping verb will or shall plus the verbs infinitive.
Perfect Tense
The perfect tenses show that an action was or will be finished BEFORE another time or action
happens. The perfect tenses are made with the helping verb have (have / has / had) plus the
verbs past participle. All subjects use had for the past perfect tense. All subjects use will have
or shall have for the future perfect tense. The infinitive have or has for singular third person is
used for the perfect present tense.
Examples:
The present perfect tense can also show that an action started in the past and is still going on in
the present.
Examples:
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He has worked for three hours. (Action started in the past and is still going on.)
She has always written in a diary. (Action started in the past but continues now.)
Progressive Tense
The progressive tenses show continuing action. They can also show how long an action has
been going on for an amount of time in the present, past, or future. A verb's present participle
joins with some forms of the verb be (am, is, are, was, were) to make the simple progressive
tenses.
Tense Example
He / she / it is working.
The past progressive can show an action that happened in the past and was not finished:
He was doing his work. (He was working, but he may not have finished the work.)
The perfect tense form plus been plus the verbs present participle makes the perfect
progressive tenses:
Tense Example
Future Perfect Progressive I / he / she / it / they / we / you will have been working.
Not all verbs can make a progressive tense. Verbs that have qualities not able to show change
cannot make the progressive tense. These are some of the verbs:
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Examples:
Introduction
Proper sentences must have subject-verb agreement. Subject-verb agreement means the subject
and verb match. A singular subject must have a singular verb. A plural subject must have a
plural verb.
Singular Plural
The employee has gone to work. The employees have gone to work.
Learning Hint:
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To make sure you use the correct verb form with the subject, use the following steps:
Subjects
There are rules to follow to help decide what form the subject or verb is in. The subject of a
sentence is usually a noun or pronoun.
Some nouns plural form is irregular. The irregular ones have to be remembered. Common ones
include:
Singular Plural
man men
child children
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criterion criteria
medium media
Some nouns with plural form are usually regarded as singular in meaning. Such words include
athletics, economics, news, politics, mathematics and statistics.
Example:
Measurements and figures ending in -s may be singular when the amount they refer to is a unit:
Examples:
Note: These words and amounts are plural when they describe single items instead of a whole:
Compound Subjects
A compound subject, two or more subjects joined by and, takes a plural verb.
Examples:
The president, the CEO and the sale manager are having a meeting.
Exception:
When the parts of the subject form a single idea or refer to a single thing, the verb is singular.
Examples:
(The subject is one person who is both the new president and CEO.)
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Collective Nouns
A collective noun names a group of people or things. Examples are army, audience,
government, family, group, team, and public. Although a collective noun looks plural, its
considered to be one unit, a whole, so it is singular.
Examples:
Exception: Number as a collective noun can be singular or plural. When a comes before
number, it is always plural. When the comes before number, it is always singular.
Examples:
Some words that can be part of the subject need to be remembered as always being singular or
always plural.
Words that are always singular: anyone, anything, no one, nothing, neither, either,
what, whatever, whoever, somebody, something, someone, each, everyone, everything,
and everybody. All of these words are known as indefinite pronouns. These words do
not refer to a specific person or thing.
Examples:
Neither is right.
Examples:
Some indefinite pronouns can be singular or plural depending on what comes after them: some,
all, most, any, and none. Whether they are singular or plural depends on the meaning of the
nouns they refer to.
Examples:
Relative Pronouns
The relative pronouns who, which and that do not have different singular and plural forms.
When used as a subject, its verb should agree with the noun it refers to.
Examples:
The manager should listen to the people who work for him.
When parts of a subject are joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with the part closest to it. If the
closest part is singular, the verb is singular. If the closest part is plural, the verb is plural.
Examples:
Neither the secretary nor the receptionist knows the phone number.
(Manager is singular but employees is plural. Employees is closest to the verb so the verb is
plural.)
(He is singular but they is plural. They is closest to the verb so the verb is plural.)
Verbs
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Knowing whether the verb is in its singular or plural form shows which form the subject must
be in. The singular present tense of many verbs is formed by adding -s or -es. Irregular verb
forms have to be remembered.
eats eat
am / is are
bring brings
ate ate
was were
brought brought
The subject and verb still need to match when other words come between them. Such words
are usually a phrase that starts with a preposition like of, by, with, from, and to.
Examples:
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The profits earned by the computer industry have dropped in the past year.
When doing a question, first figure out what is the subject of the sentence.
Then decide if the subject is singular or plural. Use the rules. Lastly, decide which verb form
will match with the subject.
Note 1: When two verb answers agree with the subject, then the verb TENSE must be looked
at. Check for time words to help decide what verb tense is correct for the sentence.
Example:
(B) cleans
(C) clean
(D) cleaner
He is a singular subject so a singlular verb is needed. Both (A) and (B) are singular verbs. (A),
not (B), is the correct answer. The word yesterday shows that the action is in the past so the
verb must be in the past tense.
Note 2: When two verb answers match the subject and both are the correct tense, then decide
which verb makes sense.
Example:
She is a singular subject so a singlular verb is needed. Both (C) and (D) are singular verbs.
Only (D) can complete the sentence correctly. The sentence does not make sense if (C) is used.
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Introduction
How well you understand many kinds of grammar are tested. Your knowledge of vocabulary is also
tested. For this section, the correct answer may be a noun, verb, adjective, or adverb. The correct choice
may also depend on its form. Should it be singular or plural? Is it the right tense for the sentence?
Should it be comparative or superlative? These are some things to think about. Finally, does the choice
you pick make sense? Read through the sentence with your answer.
Learning Hint:
With word families, the possible answers are four forms of the SAME word. Memorize common noun
forms, adjectives, adverbs, and verb forms.
Word Forms
Word families tests how well you know the various types of words that can be made from one word. A
word can go from noun to verb to adjective to adverb by changing the ending of the word.
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Example:
Finale (noun, thing) -> finalist (noun, person) -> finalize (verb) -> final (adjective) -> finally (adverb)
Remember the common word endings used to make the different kinds of words:
-ation -ful
-ian -ish
-ism -ive
-ment -ous
-ness
-ship
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-or
-er
The correct answer is (B). An adverb is needed to complete the sentence. Carefully is the only adverb.
Adverbs modify verbs. How did the manager read the report? He read it carefully. Answer (A) is an
adjective. Answer (C) and (D) are verb forms.
The correct answer is (D). There is no main verb in this sentence. Was is only acting as a helping verb.
The correct verb form must have a past tense form to agree with was. Only explained is both a main
verb and in the past tense. Answer (A) is the present tense verb form. Answer (B) is a noun. Answer (C)
is an adjective.
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Introduction
Every noun can be counted, but not all nouns are counted the same way. There are two main
types of nouns: count nouns and non-count nouns.
Learning Hint:
Memorize the most common non-count nouns and remember to use singular verbs with these
nouns.
Count Nouns
All count nouns have a singular and plural form and are used in agreement with singular or
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plural verbs. Count nouns are things that exist as separate and distinct individual units. Count
nouns are generally individual persons, places or objects that can be recognized by our senses.
Names of objects with a finite and specific shape bottle, computer, table, office, building
Examples:
Each office comes equiped with a computer, a desk and two chairs.
Non-Count Nouns
Non-count nouns only have one form and are always used in agreement with singular verbs.
Many non-count nouns are wholes that cannot be cut into parts or counted individually. Non-
count nouns also include most shapeless objects and abstract ideas.
Nouns that are whole and made up of smaller parts sand, rice, sugar
Foods that can be purchased in various forms meat, bread, fruit, coffee
Substances that can change shape or have various oil, tea, milk, wood, iron, glass, water, wind,
forms rain, fire, ice
Groups of things that have different sizes and shapes clothing, furniture, luggage, cash
Abstract concepts, often with endings -ness, -ance, - efficiency, progress, intelligence, beauty
ence, -ity
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Examples:
Although non-count nouns are considered uncountable, there are times when it is necessary to
explain how much of it there is or to be able to quantify it in some way. This can be done by
using a measurement word or counter in combination with the non-count noun. The most
common measurement words are bar, slice, piece, glass, game and cube.
Examples:
Some nouns can be a count or non-count noun depending on the meaning of the noun used.
Normally the non-count meaning is abstract and general while the count meaning is concrete
and specific. Nouns that can be both include light, glass, sound, business, fire, life, noise,
space, thought, success, work, war, pleasure.
Examples:
The city at night is full of bright lights. Sound travels through space slower than light.
He has two papers due next week. We will wrap the gift with paper.
Indications of what kind of noun is in a sentence can be determined by the quantity term or
article used with the noun:
This and that can be used with either singular count nouns or non-count nouns.
Some, any, most, more, all, alot of, no, none of the can be used with plural count
nouns or non-count nouns.
The article the is not a useful indicator since it can be used with both types of count
nouns and non-count nouns.
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Introduction
Adjectives and adverbs can be used to make comparisons. They are used to show what is
different or similar about two or more things. There are three kinds of possible comparisons:
equal, comparative and superlative.
Learning Hint:
Forming the comparative and superlative forms usually depends on the number of syllables in
the adjective. Learn the rules for each type of adjective and adverb. Do not combine the two
ways of forming comparisons in a single sentence.
Equal Comparison
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An adjective or adverb is used to show that two things share a quality in the same amount. A
quality shared in the same amount means that the two things are equal is some way. The form
used to make this kind of comparison is as adjective / adverb as. The as as comparison is better
known as a correlative conjunction.
Adjective Examples:
Adverb Examples:
Comparative
To show a difference or to show that there is only a similarity between two things, the
comparative form must be used. An adjective or adverb is made into the comparative form in
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one of two ways. The way that is used depends on the number of syllables the adjective or
adverb has:
Adjectives:
new newer 1
hot hotter 1
cute cuter 1
pretty prettier 2
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lonely lonelier 2
Examples:
Adverbs:
fast faster 1
Examples:
The new copier prints pages more quickly than the old one.
The word than is usually used following the comparative form in a sentence.
Incorrect: She gets lots of benefits because she's been here more longer.
Correct: She gets lots of benefits because she's been here longer.
Superlative
If the comparison is between three or more things then the superlative form must be used. An
adjective or adverb is made into the superlative form in one of two ways. The way that is used
depends on the number of syllables contained in the adjective or adverb:
Adjectives:
new newest 1
hot hottest 1
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cute cutest 1
pretty prettiest 2
Examples:
Adverbs:
fast fastest 1
Examples:
The word the is always used before the superlative form in a sentence.
Incorrect: She types the most fastest out of all the secretaries.
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There are some irregular adjectives and adverbs. They do not make the comparative or
superlative the same way that other ones do. They do not use either -er / -est or more / most.
Their comparative and superlative forms have to be remembered:
ADJECTIVES
ADVERBS
Examples:
Incorrect: The software we bought the muchest of came from an online supplier.
Correct: The software we bought the most of came from an online supplier.
Not ALL adjectives and adverbs can have a comparative or superlative form.
No type of comparison is possible with certain adjectives and adverbs. They cannot show a
greater or lesser amount, so they can only have one form. Some of these words are perfect,
unique, dead, impossible, and infinite.
Example:
(Unique means one of a kind. There is no other like it, so it is not possible for one
president to be more or less unique than another one.)
The comparisons must make sense. You cannot compare things that are very different. They
must be similar. Apples and oranges are both fruits, but they are still two different kinds of
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Examples:
Incorrect: The English that is spoken in Canada is close to the United States.
Correct: The English that is spoken in Canada is close to that of the United States.
Introduction
Adverbs are words that are used to help describe verbs. Adverbs can also be used to describe
adjectives and other adverbs. Adverbs of frequency are ones that describe when or how often
something is done. There are two types: adverbs of definite frequency and adverbs of indefinite
frequency.
Learning Hint:
Common ones are hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly. Other ones are once a month,
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every month, and every other month. In each one, month can be replaced with hour, day, week,
or year. Any exact number of times that happen in a given time period are also adverbs of
definite frequency: twice a week, twice a year, three times a month, four times a year, once
every five years, and so on.
Examples:
Adverbs of indefinite frequency include always, usually, never, often, very often, rarely,
sometimes, seldom, once in a while, repeatedly, typically, hardly ever, and occasionally.
Adverbs of indefinite frequency occur in the middle of the sentence. Where exactly it is placed
depends on the type of verbs in the sentence. There are three possible places:
1. Between the subject and the main verb UNLESS the verb is a form of be: is, am, are, was,
were.
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Examples:
Examples:
3. Between the helping verb and the main verb. This is always true, even when the main verb is
a verb form of be.
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Examples:
Usage note: Some indefinite frequency adverbs can be placed at the beginning or end of a
main clause: usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes, once in a while, and occasionally.
Examples:
Introduction
In word choice, how well you understand many kinds of grammar are tested. Your knowledge
of vocabulary is also tested. You will see many commonly confused words. The right answer
may be a noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition or conjunction. The questions with four
answers listed are related in some way. The words may look or sound similar, but have
different meanings. Words that are opposite in meaning might also be used. Sometimes more
than one word may seem to be the right choice. Picking the right one will depend on knowing
how and when a word is used in English. These words may have similar meanings (for
example, house and home) or grammatical use (for example, much and many). Only one
choice can work properly in the sentence.
Learning Hint:
This is one of the most difficult parts of learning English because there are many words that
sound or look the same, but have different meanings. Pay close attention to each answer choice
and check whether it fits in the context of the sentence.
Common Examples
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Words with similar spelling, words that rhyme, words that sound alike, or words that are
opposite that do not have similar meanings:
The correct answer is (D). An adjective is needed to complete the sentence. Plain is the only
adjective that makes sense. (A) is an adjective used to describe people, not things (paper). (B)
is a noun that sounds like (A). (C) is a noun that rhymes with vein and plain.
The correct answer is (B). A noun is needed to complete the sentence. (B) is a noun meaning
writing materials. (C) is a singular noun which does not make sense in this sentence. (A) is an
adjective meaning unmoving. (D) is an adjective with the opposite meaning of (A).
The correct answer is (C). An adjective needed to complete the sentence. Good is the only
adjective. (A) is a noun. (D) is an adverb. (B) is also an adverb. To use well, the sentence
would be, The boss thinks we are doing the job well. How is the job being done? It is being
done well. You cannot say, The boss thinks we are doing the job good.
(C) along
(D) beside
The correct answer is (B). Between compares exactly two things. Among always compares
more than two. The prepositions along and beside are not used for comparisons.
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Topic 8 – Prepositions
Introduction
Prepositions are used to show a connection between two words in a sentence. There are many
different prepositions in English which makes it difficult to choose the right preposition to use
in a sentence.
For example, there are more than 30 prepositions that may be used to describe the relationship
between a desk and something else. Here are some examples:
These are the most common prepositions: about, above, according to, across, after, afterward,
against, along, along with, among, around, as, at, because of, before, behind, below, beneath,
beside, between, beyond, by, concerning, despite, down, downward, during, except, except for,
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for, from, in, inside, instead of, into, like, near, next to, of, off, on, onto, out, outside, over,
past, regarding, round, since, through, throughout, to toward, under, underneath, unlike, until,
up, upon, with, within, without.
Learning Hint:
To use prepositions accurately, memorize the most common prepositions and how they are
used to describe the relationship between two things.
Prepositional Phrases
Prepositions always link a noun, a pronoun, or a word acting as a noun to another word in the
sentence. The noun type normally comes after the preposition and is called the object of the
preposition. The preposition plus its object and any other words describing the object is called
a prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrases act as adjectives or adverbs, and add details to a
sentence. They can tell the location of something, or when, how, and where something
happens.
Examples:
The man runs on a trail by the water. The man runs instead of walking.
The man runs before eating breakfast. The man is running to catch a bus.
The man runs past the library every day. The man runs with his large dog.
The man runs along the side of the road. The man runs like a professional athlete.
The words in bold are prepositions. The underlined words are the object of the preposition.
Together they are a prepositional phrase. Each one adds details like how or where or when the
man runs.
Note: Prepositional phrases can never be a sentence. They do not have a subject or main verb.
Some prepositions are always used with certain nouns, adjectives and verbs. The preposition
and other word work together as a single prepositional form.
Noun Examples: belief in, concern for, hope for, love of, need for, reason for, understanding
of.
Adjective Examples: aware of, angry at, interested in, made of, married to, sorry for, sure of.
Verb Examples: work for, look up, pay for, trust in, think about, belong to, give up, study for,
talk about.
Some prepositions are always used with certain times or place or direction.
Time
At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day:
In is used with other parts of the day, with months, years, or seasons:
To show longer periods of time, the prepositions most commonly used are:
Places
The prepositions in, at, and on are used with different kinds of places:
In Used before large places (name of a country, state, We stopped in the park.
province, county or city) and small places (a room,
building, park, car, boat).
At Used with specific addresses. Can also be used with some We live at 441 Main Street.
small places: class, school, the library, home, work and the
office.
On Used before middle-sized places: a ship, train, plane, and We took the boat on the river.
the name of a street, road, coast, or river.
To show something is higher than something else, use above or over. To show something is
lower than a place, use under, underneath, below, or beneath.
Examples:
TOEIC GRAMMAR GUIDE 34
The book is on a shelf above the desk. The painting hangs over the desk.
The disk is underneath the file folder. The computer is kept under the desk.
Cargo is kept below the main deck. We ate lunch beneath the trees.
To show the location of something in relation to something else, use the following
prepositions:
She parked her car next to mine. His folder is among the others.
Direction
Some words that show a location do not use any preposition: home, upstairs, downstairs,
downtown, uptown, inside (noun), outside (noun).
Onto Used to show movement towards a surface He put his cup onto the table.
Into used to show movement towards the interior of a volume He jumped into the pool.
It would also be correct to say, He jumped in the pool. In and on can be used with many verbs
showing motion. In / into and on / onto can both be used to show that a motion is finished.
However, only in and on can show the location of the subject as a result of an action (verb):
Examples
The preposition to also shows direction when used with verbs of motion: move, go, transfer,
walk, run, swim, ride, drive, fly, or travel. The preposition toward can be used also with these
verbs except transfer. To is used to show a specific location. Toward is used to only show a
general location.
Examples
(Transfer means to go from one place to another, specific, place so toward cannot be used.)
Another use of to is to show a goal that will be reached. For a physical place, the form is to
plus a noun: to work, to school, to the library. For a purpose or reason, the form is to plus the
infinitive of a verb: to go, to get, to reach.
Examples
Unnecessary Prepositions
Sometimes prepositions are used when they are not needed. They might be heard in
conversation, but they are not grammatically correct. These are some examples: call up, off of,
inside of, outside of, stir up, finish up, sit down, return back, help out, fall over, out of,
escape from, jump up, open up, except for, later on. In each, the preposition in bold should
NOT be used.
TOEIC GRAMMAR GUIDE 36
Examples
(Jump already means to go up into the air and come back down.)
Introduction
There are rules to follow to make a proper sentence in English. You learn what words must be
used to make a sentence. You learn how to add words to make sentences express more detail.
You learn when each type of word can and cannot be used. It is not easy to understand all the
rules, or to remember them all. So mistakes are sometimes made when creating sentences. One
common type of error is to use too many words. The extra word may be an article, a verb, a
pronoun, a preposition, an adjective, a conjunction, or an entire phrase. Using words with the
same meaning in one sentence is another kind of unnecessary word error. Sometimes a
sentence can be written with less words if the word order is changed. In this section, you will
need to use all of your knowledge of grammar. Read through the question. Decide if each
answer choice MUST be in that sentence to make it work.
Learning Hint:
Read the sentence out loud and pay attention to how the sentence sounds. If a phrase sounds
awkward or incorrect, check to see if there are extra words that are not needed.
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Incorrect: Despite leaving 10 minutes early, the worker arrived late nonetheless.
Extra words:
Incorrect: The secretary was annoyed when the copier broke on down.
Correct: The secretary was annoyed when the copier broke down.
Incorrect: I will have buy a new car. (Mixed up verb tense formation.)
Correct: I will buy a new car. (Future tense of irregular verb buy is will buy.)
Correct: I will have bought a new car. (Future perfect form: will have + verbs past
participle.)
Right after a noun, do not also use a pronoun that replaces the noun.
Unnecessary phrase:
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Incorrect: It was a project which was very complex in structure and very ambitious in
nature.
Topic 10 – Pronouns
Introduction
Pronouns take the place of nouns in sentences. Pronouns work in sentences the same way as
nouns. Pronouns are used so that nouns are not repeated. A pronoun generally refers back to a
noun that was written earlier. There are many different kinds of pronouns. Each kind has
different forms and rules for when it is used.
Learning Hint:
Check whether the pronoun used in a sentence matches the noun or subject of the sentence.
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns refer to a specific person or persons. The personal pronouns are I, you, he,
she, it, we and they. Personal pronouns change form depending on their role in a sentence. The
subjective case means the pronoun is used as the subject of a sentence or a clause. The
subjective personal pronouns are I, he, she, you, it, we and they.
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Examples:
The other cases are objective and possessive. Objective case means a pronoun usually is the
object of the verb or a preposition in a sentence. Objective pronouns are me, him, her, us and
them.
Examples:
Note: When there is a linking verb in a sentence, the pronoun that follows it must be in the
subjective, not objective, case. A common linking verb is any form of the verb be such as is,
are, was and were.
The possessive case pronoun shows ownership. The possessive pronouns are my, mine, our,
ours, his, her, hers, their, theirs.
Examples:
Note: Only the personal pronouns have these three cases. All other types of pronouns only
have their regular (dictionary) form and a possessive case. The exception is the relative
pronoun who. Whom is the objective case and whose is the possessive case.
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns are which, that, and who / whom. Relative pronouns relate groups of words
to nouns or other pronouns.
Example:
The secretary gave three boxes to the mailman who entered the office.
That and which can only refer to things. Who and whom can only refer to people. Who is used
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as the subject of a sentence or a clause. Whom is always the object of a verb or prepositional
phrase.
Examples:
Intensive Pronouns
Intensive pronouns add emphasis to a noun or another pronoun. The form of an intensive
pronoun is a personal pronoun plus -self: himself, herself, myself, yourself, themselves,
ourselves.
TOEIC GRAMMAR GUIDE 41
Example:
Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns show that the sentence subject also receives the action of the verb in the
sentence. Reflexive pronouns have the same form as intensive ones: a personal pronoun plus -
self.
Example:
Note: Objective or possessive pronouns are mistakenly used when a reflexive one is needed.
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns function as nouns, but they do not replace a noun. Indefinite pronouns
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Example:
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns identify or point to nouns. Demonstrative pronouns include this, that
and such.
Example:
Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns introduce questions. Interrogative pronouns include who, which and
what.
Example:
One general rule for all pronouns is that a singular noun must be replaced with a singular
pronoun. Also, a plural noun must be replaced with a plural pronoun.
Examples:
Note: It is important to remember that any word with an every, like everybody, everyone, or
everything is singular, not plural. Therefore, every type words need a singular pronoun like his
or her, and not a plural one like their.
Another general rule is that the pronoun must have the same gender (feminine, masculine or
neuter) as the noun it replaces.
Examples:
Topic 11 – Conjunctions
Introduction
Conjunctions are words that join together words, phrases or clauses. Conjunctions are used to
show a relationship between the words, phrases or clauses. Conjunctions also show agreement
or disagreement between ideas. There are four types of conjunctions. Only three types will be
covered: coordinating, subordinating and correlative.
Learning Hint:
Memorize the most commonly used conjunctions shown below and when they are used to
show relationships between words and phrases.
Coordinating Conjunctions
The coordinating conjunctions and, but, nor and or always join words or word groups of the
same kind: two or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, independent clauses and
dependent clauses.
Examples:
The chair was old but comfortable. (Two adjectives joined by but.)
Amanda worked every day and partied every night. (Two verbs joined by and.)
The conjunctions for and so cannot connect words, phrases or dependent clauses. They can
only join independent clauses. For shows cause. So shows result.
Examples:
They stayed late at the office, for they had work to do.
(Cause: They had work to do. Result: They stayed late at the office.)
TOEIC GRAMMAR GUIDE 44
While the word yet is usually used as an adverb, it can also be a conjunction. Like but, it shows
contrast.
Examples:
She read through the contract carefully, yet she could not understand it all.
Incorrect: The manager sent a notice to all staff, but written by her assistant.
(The words before but form a clause. What follows but is only a phrase, not a clause.)
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Correct: The manager sent a notice to all staff, but her assistant wrote it.
Subordinating Conjunctions
Examples:
The main office is in an old building where the alarms need to be updated.
Note: Make sure the subordinating conjunction is placed at the start of the dependent clause.
The subordinating junction after must be before the dependent clause their vacation ends. They
have to go back to work is the independent clause.
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are pairs of coordinating conjunctions that work together. They are
always used as a pair. The words, phrases, or clauses that correlative conjunctions put together
must be the same type: nouns go with other nouns, verbs go with other verbs, adjectives go
with other adjectives, and so on. These are the common ones:
Examples:
2. The delivery was made neither in the morning nor in the afternoon.
Incorrect: Leave behind not only your cellphone but your computer.
Correct: Leave behind not only your cellphone but also your computer.
Incorrect: They will teach only not new skills but also new knowledge.
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Correct: They will teach not only new skills but also new knowledge.
Topic 12 – Conditionals
Introduction
Conditionals are statements with an if clause. They show a result depending upon a set of
conditions. The result can be very different because there are many ways that objects and
actions can interact. The if clause controls what the result can be. Knowing the rules for if
clauses let you understand how conditionals work. There are two kinds of conditional
sentences: real and unreal. Each kind of conditional sentence has an if clause and a result
(main) clause.
Learning Hint:
Identify whether the conditional is real or unreal. Then use the correct verb tense for both the if
clause and the result clause.
Real Conditionals
Real conditionals express facts and what is absolute (completely true). They also express very
likely or possible results, or state something that is done regularly.
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Example:
The "if" clause is always written in the present tense. The result clause is written in the present
or future tense.
1. Present tense verbs for both the result and if clause means the statement is true or a habit or a
fact. Do not use helping verbs have, has, do, does plus the verb in the result clause.
Examples:
If water boils, it becomes a gas. (Incorrect: If water boils, it has become a gas.)
TOEIC GRAMMAR GUIDE 48
Exception: Statements of fact about something done regularly can be made in the past. Simple
past tense for the if clause and result clause is used.
Example:
2. A statement of a true, future result has the future tense in the result clause. The future tense
is will plus a verb infinitive.
Examples:
3. A statement of a possible future result has a helping verb plus the main verb in the result
clause. Only the helping verbs may, might, can, could, and should are used.
Examples:
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Unreal Conditionals
Unreal conditionals express not true, very unlikely or not possible results.
Example:
For a present unreal condition, the if clause is written in the past tense. The result clause
contains would, could, or might plus a verb.
Examples:
They could send him the contract if they found his address.
You might find the stapler if you looked in the bottom drawer.
2. When the verb in the if clause is a form of the verb be, it is always written as were, even for
a singular subject.
Examples:
This sentence suggests what might happen, but it is not likely to happen.
3. For a past unreal condition, the if clause is written in the past perfect tense. The result clause
is written with would, could, might, plus have plus a verb in the past tense:
TOEIC GRAMMAR GUIDE 50
Examples:
They could have made more money if they had invested sooner.
If Michelle had become the sales representative, we would have had many new clients.
If you had listened at the meeting, you might have learned all about the new CEO.
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