M ANUFACTURING

P ROCESS OF C HEESE
A Written Report

ORDONIO, Mark Angelo A.

ChE 41 - B
January 8, 2010
 DEFINITION

Cheese is a solid or semisolid food product prepared from the milk of cows,
ewes, goats, or other mammals. Most cheese today is made from cows' milk.
Cheese has been made since prehistoric times—it is one of the world’s oldest
food products—for thousands of years, people have raised animals for milk,
turning their surplus milk into cheese. It is an important item in the diet of almost
all peoples, because it is relatively easy to make and can be preserved for fairly
long periods of time.

According to the National Dairy Council, "All cheese is made from milk, but
different manufacturing and aging processes are used to produce the array of
cheese available today. Cheese is made by coagulating or curdling milk, stirring
and heating the curd, draining off the whey (the watery part of milk), collecting
and pressing the curd, and in some cases ripening. Cheese can be made from
whole, 2%, low fat, 1 % low fat or fat-free milk, or combinations of these milks.
About one third of all milk produced each year in the United States is used to
make cheese. In 1998, 9.7 billion pounds of natural and processed cheeses were
produced."

Cheese can be broadly categorized as acid or rennet cheese, and natural or

process cheeses. Acid cheeses are made by adding acid to the milk to cause the
proteins to coagulate. Fresh cheeses, such as cream cheese or queso fresco, are
made by direct acidification. Most types of cheese, such as cheddar or Swiss, use
rennet (an enzyme) in addition to the starter cultures to coagulate the milk. The
term ―natural cheese‖ is an industry term referring to cheese that is made directly
from milk. Process cheese is made using natural cheese plus other ingredients
that are cooked together to change the textural and/or melting properties and
increase shelf life.

ETYMOLOGY

The word cheese ultimately comes from Latin caseus from which the modern
word casein is closely derived. The earliest source is from the proto-Indo-
European root kwat-, which means "to ferment, become sour". When the Romans
began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries' supplies, a new word started to
be used: formaticum, from caseus formatus, or "molded cheese" (as in "formed",
not "moldy"). It is from this word that we get the French fromage, Italian
formaggio, Catalan formatge, Breton fourmaj and Provençal furmo. Cheese itself
is occasionally employed in a sense that means "molded" or "formed".

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 HISTORY

It was believed that the first cheese was produced inadvertently, probably
through the practice of carrying milk in pouches made from animal stomachs.
Bacteria in milk and digestive juices from the stomach worked together to form a
curd and then crude cheese.

Cheesemaking may originate from nomadic herdsmen who stored milk in vessels
made from the sheep’s' and goats' stomachs. Because their stomach linings
contained an ideal mix of lactic acid, wild bacteria as milk contaminants and
rennet, the milk would ferment and coagulate. A product reminiscent of yogurt
would have been produced, which, through gentle agitation and the separation of
curds from whey would have resulted in the production of cheese; the cheese
being essentially a concentration of the major milk protein, casein, and milk fat.
The whey proteins, other minor milk proteins, and the lactose are all removed in
the cheese whey.

Cheesemaking artifacts dating from 2000 BC have been found. Romans

developed a large cheese industry, and later cheesemaking became a specialty of
monasteries. Many European abbeys developed secret recipes, and particular
varieties began to be developed in certain region of Europe.

NUTRITIONAL IMPORTANCE

Milk conversion to cheese is an excellent method because virtually all the fat and
most of the protein are retained, and the latter is partially digested. However,
nearly all the sugar (lactose) and some of the minerals, protein, and vitamins
escape into the whey. Today, cheese whey is condensed or dried and used for
animal feeds or special dietary human foods.

Because cheese is a high-protein food, it is an ideal nutritional replacement for

meat in a vegetarian diet. It is rich in the essential amino acids, calcium, protein,
phosphorus, other minerals and vitamins, and has a high calorific value. A 30-
gram (1.1 oz) serving of Cheddar cheese contains about 7 grams (0.25 oz) of
protein and 200 milligrams of calcium. Nutritionally, cheese is essentially
concentrated milk: it takes about 200 grams (7.1 oz) of milk to provide that much
protein, and 150 grams (5.3 oz) to equal the calcium.

Cheese is valued for its portability, long life, and high content of fat, protein,
calcium, and phosphorus. Cheese is more compact and has a longer shelf life
than milk. Cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-
priced milk, and lower shipping costs. The long storage life of some cheese,
especially cheese that encased in a protective rind, allows selling when markets
are favorable.

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 RAW MATERIALS USED

There are four components that are used in making cheese: milk, starter cultures,
coagulants and rennet, and finally salt and other additives.

MILK

The main ingredient in cheese is milk. Cheese is made using cow, goat, sheep, or
a blend of these milks. Milk, can be broken down into its essential parts that play
a role in making cheese.

Milk contains fat, protein, enzymes, vitamins, lactose, and ash. The fat in milk
helps to provide flavor even when cheese is made from skim milk which has only
one percent of fat. The protein in milk exists in two forms: as a
suspension/colloidal (casein) and in a soluble form (whey proteins). However,
consider the first type of protein as a densely woven mesh rather like a string vest
suspended freely in the aqueous phase of milk. As long as the milk remains
sweet, this structure is unaffected and the milk remains totally fluid. If the milk
acidifies (i.e. goes sour) without the presence of coagulating enzymes, the
structure changes quite suddenly at the 'iso-electric point' and a fragile curd is
formed that collapses with the slightest agitation into tiny fragments. A typical
example is the fine mass we see when milk sours naturally. By adding rennet, at
just the right time before the milk would go completely sour, the structure of the
casein is changed radically to form a solid curd called para-casein. This can then
be cut with knives and saved to be collected as grains of curd for subsequent
processing.

The enzymes in milk come from the cow and have an effect on the quality of raw
milk and the ripening of cheese. Milk also contains important vitamins that
promote growth such as A, B, D, E, and K. The lactose in milk is the main sugar
and provides the energy for the started cutlers. Ash in milk is made up of metallic
components such as sodium, potassium, calcium, manganese, iron, and copper;
the most important of these is calcium which helps with the growth of bones.

Cheese can be made using pasteurized or raw milk. Cheese made from raw milk
imparts different flavors and texture characteristics to the finished cheese. For
some cheese varieties, raw milk is given a mild heat treatment (below
pasteurization) prior to cheese making to destroy some of the spoilage organisms
and provide better conditions for the cheese cultures. Cheese made from raw
milk must be aged for at least 60 days to reduce the possibility of exposure to
disease causing microorganisms (pathogens) that may be present in the milk.

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 STARTER CULTURES

Cultures for cheese making are called lactic acid bacteria (LAB) because their
primary source of energy is the lactose in milk and their primary metabolic
product is lactic acid. There is a wide variety of bacterial cultures available that
provide distinct flavor and textural characteristics to cheeses.

Starter cultures are used early in the cheese making process to assist with
coagulation by lowering the pH prior to rennet addition. The metabolism of the
starter cultures contribute desirable flavor compounds, and help prevent the
growth of spoilage organisms and pathogens. Typical starter bacteria include
Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis or cremoris, Streptococcus salivarius subsp.
thermophilus, Lactobacillus delbruckii subsp. bulgaricus, and Lactobacillus
helveticus.

The acid-producing bacteria can directly suppress disease-producing bacteria

under normal conditions. This is why fermented milk products are among the
safest foods to take in their natural state.

COAGULANTS AND RENNET

Coagulants and rennet are used to coagulate milk. To coagulate milk is to change
it from a fluid to a thickened mass.

The type of coagulant used depends on the type of cheese desired. For acid
cheeses, an acid source such as acetic acid (the acid in vinegar) or gluconodelta-
lactone (a mild food acid) is used. For rennet cheeses, calf rennet or, more
commonly, rennet produced through microbial bioprocessing is used. Rennet is a
natural complex of enzymes produced in any mammalian stomach to digest the
mother's milk, and is often used in the production of cheese. Rennet contains
many enzymes, including a proteolytic enzyme (protease) that coagulates the
milk, causing it to separate into solids (curds) and liquid (whey). The active
enzyme in rennet is called chymosin or rennin but there are also other important
enzymes in it, e.g., pepsin or lipase. There are non-animal sources for rennet that
are suitable for vegetarian consumption.

One form of rennet is called 'vegetable' rennet which is derived from certain
strains of fungi and bacteria. Today, this type of rennet is very popular, reflecting
a move towards organic foods, and the manufacture of 'vegetarian cheese'.
Substantial amounts are now used at the farmhouse and creamery level. Recently,
due to world shortage of calf rennet, recombinant or genetically-engineered pure
chymosin derived from different microorganisms is available on the market, and
is currently used by many cheesemakers in different countries.

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 SALT AND OTHER ADDITIVES

The last ingredient of cheese is salt. It is used to create different types of cheese
including hard-pressed cheese, brine-salted cheese, soft cheese salting, and blue-
veined cheese salting. Salt ads flavor and acts as a natural preservative.

The following additives may also be added to the cheese milk:

 Calcium chloride is added to replace calcium redistributed during

pasteurization. It improves the coagulation properties of the milk. Milk
coagulation by rennet during cheese making requires an optimum
balance among ionic calcium and both soluble insoluble calcium
phosphate salts. Because calcium phosphates have reverse solubility with
respect to temperature, the heat treatment from pasteurization causes the
equilibrium to shift towards insoluble forms and depletes both soluble
calcium phosphates and ionic calcium. Near normal equilibrium is
restored during 24 - 48 hours of cold storage, but cheese makers can't
wait that long, so CaCl2 is added to restore ionic calcium and improve
rennetability. The calcium assists in coagulation and reduces the amount
of rennet required.
 Sodium or potassium nitrate is added to the milk to control the
undesirable effects of Clostridium tyrobutyricum in cheeses such as
Edam, Gouda, and Swiss.
 Because milk color varies from season to season, color may be added to
standardize the color of the cheese throughout the year. Annatto, Beta-
carotene, and paprika are used. The addition of hydrogen peroxide is
sometimes used as an alternative treatment for full pasteurization.
 Lipases, normally present in raw milk, are inactivated during
pasteurization. The addition of kid goat lipases is common to ensure
proper flavor development through fat hydrolysis.

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 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Figure 1. Cheese production.

There is no standard method of cheese making; limitless variations exist for all
stages of the process: milk treatment, curdling, addition of artificial ingredients
and salt for flavor, and aging. This variation in processing accounts for the wide
range of cheeses commercially available, differing in texture and flavor.

Although hundreds of specialized techniques lend different types of cheese their

distinct flavors and characteristics, three basic steps are common to all cheese
making. First, proteins in milk are transformed into solid lumps called curds.
Second, the curds are separated from the milky liquid, called whey, and shaped
or pressed into molds. Finally, the shaped curds are ripened using a variety of
different aging and curing techniques.

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 TREATMENT OF MILK

Like most dairy products, cheesemilk is often standardized before cheese making
to optimize the protein to fat ratio to make a good quality cheese with a high
yield. The milk may then be subjected to a sub-pasteurization treatment of 63-65°
C for 15 to 16 sec. This thermization treatment results in a reduction of high
initial bacteria counts before storage. It must be followed by proper
pasteurization. While high temperature – short time pasteurization (72° C for 16
sec) is often used, an alternative heat treatment of 60° C for 16 sec may also be
used. This less severe heat treatment is thought to result in a better final flavor
cheese by preserving some of the natural flora. If used, the cheese must be stored
for 60 days prior to sale, which is similar to the regulations for raw milk cheese.
Raw milk cheeses must be aged for at least 60 days to reduce the possibility of
exposure to disease causing microorganisms (pathogens) that may be present in
it. Milk is then cooled after pasteurization or heat treatment to 90°F (32°C) to
bring it to the temperature needed for the starter bacteria to grow. If raw milk is
used the milk must be heated to 90°F (32°C).

The acidification can be accomplished directly by the addition of an acid like

vinegar in a few cases (paneer, queso fresco), but usually starter bacteria are
employed instead. The basis of cheesemaking relies on the fermentation of
lactose by LAB. LAB produce lactic acid which lowers the pH and in turn assists
coagulation, promotes syneresis (extraction or expulsion of a liquid from a gel),
helps prevent spoilage and pathogenic bacteria from growing, contributes to
cheese texture, flavor and keeping quality. LAB also produce growth factors
which encourage the growth of non-starter organisms, and provides lipases and
proteases necessary for flavor development during curing.

Industrially, the lactic acid level in the milk is increased by adding a starter
culture of Streptococci, Lactococci, or Lactobacilli to the milk and fermenting at
32ºC for 10 to 75 minutes. Swiss starter cultures also include Propionibacter
shermani, which produces carbon dioxide gas bubbles during aging, giving Swiss
cheese its holes. In addition to biologically converting the lactose present in the
milk to lactic acid, these strains of microorganisms also greatly affect the
eventual flavor of the final product. Thus, the selection of a suitable strain, the
amount of starter culture, and the length of pre-ripening, is of the utmost
importance in creating the subtle differences in the final color and aroma that
distinguishes an expensive cheese from a cheap one. The starter cultures and any
non-starter adjunct bacteria are added to the milk and held at 90°F (32°C) for 30
minutes to ripen. The ripening step allows the bacteria to grow and begin
fermentation, which lowers the pH and develops the flavor of the cheese.

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 After inoculation with the starter culture, the milk is held for 45 to 60 min at 25
to 30° C to ensure the bacteria are active, growing and have developed acidity.
This stage is called ripening the milk and is done prior to renneting.

Homogenization is not usually done for most cheesemilk. It disrupts the fat
globules and increases the fat surface area where casein particles adsorb. This
results in a soft, weak curd at renneting and increased hydrolytic rancidity.

COAGULATION

Coagulation is essentially the formation of a gel by destabilizing the casein

micelles, causing them to aggregate and form a network which partially
immobilizes the water and traps the fat globules in the newly formed matrix.

Curds are formed when an enzyme called rennin is stirred into milk. Rennin
encourages casein, one of the proteins in milk, to solidify and clump together, or
coagulate. Rennet contains the enzyme chymosin which converts k-casein to
para-kappa-caseinate (the main component of cheese curd) and
glycomacropeptide, which is lost in the cheese whey. Rennin or chymosin is
found in rennet, and it aids coagulation only if the milk is slightly acidic, as it is
when it becomes sour. Rather than waiting for milk to sour, cheesemakers speed
up the process by warming the milk and adding specialized bacteria that convert
the sugars found in milk to lactic acid, creating the acidic environment necessary
for casein coagulation. As the casein clumps together, it traps fat globules and
some of the milky liquid inside the clumps, forming moist, nutritious curds.

CURDLING

A required step in cheesemaking is separating the milk into solid curds (the thick
precipitate) and liquid whey (the thin watery residue). At this point, the cheese
has set into a very moist gel. When the curds have reached the desired moisture
and acidity, they are separated from the whey. The whey may be removed from
the top or drained by gravity. The curd-whey mixture may also be placed in
moulds for draining.

Some soft cheeses are now essentially complete: they are drained, salted, and
packaged. For most of the rest, the curd is cut into small cubes. This allows water
to drain from the individual pieces of curd as well as it shortens the distance and
increases the available area for whey to be released. The curd pieces immediately
begin to shrink and expel the greenish liquid called whey. This syneresis process
is further driven by a cooking stage. The increase in temperature causes the
protein matrix to shrink due to increased hydrophobic interactions, and also
increases the rate of fermentation of lactose to lactic acid. The increased acidity

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 also contributes to shrinkage of the curd particles. The final moisture content is
dependant on the time and temperature of the cook stage. This is important to
monitor carefully because the final moisture content of the curd determines the
residual amount of fermentable lactose and thus the final pH of the cheese after
curing.

Some hard cheeses are then heated to temperatures in the range of 35–55 °C (95–
131 °F). This forces more whey from the cut curd. It also changes the taste of the
finished cheese, affecting both the bacterial culture and the milk chemistry.
Cheeses that are heated to the higher temperatures are usually made with
thermophilic starter bacteria which survive this step—either lactobacilli or
streptococci.

FLAVOR ADDITION

After the curd is separated from the whey, salt, seasoning, and other curing and
flavoring ingredients are added. Flavor addition aids in curing the cheese. The
curd is wrapped in cheese cloth and pressed for 12 to 18 hours to remove the
additional whey soaked in the curd. The curd hardens and forms a cheese block
in the shape of the press as the whey is squeezed out. Finally, the cheese block is
dried for 6 hours.

Salt has roles in cheese besides adding a salty flavor. It preserves cheese from
spoiling, draws moisture from the curd, and firms the cheese’s texture in an
interaction with its proteins. Some cheeses are salted from the outside with dry
salt or brine washes. Most cheeses have the salt mixed directly into the curds.

These techniques may influence a cheese's texture and flavor. Some examples:

 Stretching: (Mozzarella, Provolone) The curd is stretched and kneaded in

hot water, developing a stringy, fibrous body.
 Cheddaring: (Cheddar, other English cheeses) The cut curd is repeatedly
piled up, pushing more moisture away. The curd is also mixed (or milled)
for a long time, taking the sharp edges off the cut curd pieces and
influencing the final product's texture.
 Washing: (Edam, Gouda, Colby) The curd is washed in warm water,
lowering its acidity and making for a milder-tasting cheese.

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 COMPRESSION OF CURD

Compressing the curd shapes the cheese and eliminates more whey. Most
cheeses achieve their final shape when the curds are pressed into a mold or form.
The harder the cheese, the more pressure is applied. The pressure drives out
moisture—the molds are designed to allow water to escape—and unifies the
curds into a single solid body. Curds of nearly all cheeses are salted by stirring
the salt directly into the curds or by rubbing salt or a saltwater solution, called
brine, onto the curd surface. Salt pulls moisture from the cheese, but more
importantly, it acts as a preservative and slows down the final step of cheese
making—the ripening.

AGING

During the ripening process, microbes such as bacteria slowly change the
composition of the curds, creating cheeses with distinct flavors, textures, and
aromas. The kinds of microbes used, the temperature and humidity conditions of
the ripening environment, and the duration of the ripening process, all contribute
to the final characteristics of the cheese.

Some cheeses have additional bacteria or molds intentionally introduced before

or during aging. In traditional cheesemaking, these microbes might be already
present in the aging room; they are simply allowed to settle and grow on the
stored cheeses. More often today, prepared cultures are used, giving more
consistent results and putting fewer constraints on the environment where the
cheese ages.

In some cheeses, the bacteria added to create the acidic environment necessary
for curd formation continue to ripen the cheese as well. In Swiss cheese, for
example, these bacteria produce gas bubbles during ripening, creating its
characteristic holes, or eyes. In other cases, microbes are added to the shaped
curd. For example, a blue-green mold called Penicillium roqueforti is used to
ripen cheeses such as Roquefort and Gorgonzola. This special mold creates
bluish-green veins in the cheese and a characteristic sharp flavor and creamy
texture. Other cheeses, such as Brie and Camembert, are ripened by bacteria
rubbed on the outer surface of the cheese. The bacteria slowly work their way
into the interior of the cheese, creating a soft, pungent interior and leaving a
powdery, edible white rind on the outside.

Ripening usually takes place in carefully controlled environments. Conditions are

often designed to mimic the natural environments of the ripening microbes. The
moisture-laden air prevents the cheese from drying out as it ripens. Temperatures
are kept cool, not only to encourage the activity of the ripening bacteria but to

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 inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria that could spoil the cheese. The amount of
time that cheeses are allowed to ripen, or age, also contributes to their final
character. Generally, longer curing or aging process gives more pronounced
flavor, color, and texture of the finished product.

FINISHED CHEESE

A newborn cheese is usually salty yet bland in flavor and, for harder varieties,
rubbery in texture. These qualities are sometimes enjoyed—cheese curds are
eaten on their own—but normally cheeses are left to rest under controlled
conditions. This aging period lasts from a few days to several years. As a cheese
ages, microbes and enzymes transform texture and intensify flavor. This
transformation is largely a result of the breakdown of casein proteins and milk fat
into a complex mix of amino acids, amines, and fatty acids.

Although a higher temperature promotes faster curing, there is also a higher

chance of spoilage due to undesirable microbial activities at elevated
temperatures. Prior to aging, the cheese block is usually wrapped tightly to
exclude air and microbial contaminants from entering and spoiling the cheese.
One way to accomplish this is to dip the cheese block in a pot of melted wax.
During the aging process, many complicated microbial and chemical actions
continue to take place in the cheese block. Thousands of techniques exist to
develop various distinctive flavors. These reactions are not well characterized;
thus, cheese making is still an art rather than a science. Depending on the
technique employed, this final aging process takes anywhere from 2 weeks to 6
months.

Cheese maybe cut and packaged into blocks or it may be waxed.

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