Zeroth law of
thermodynamics
i
|
ï |hermometers can be calibrated by
placing them in thermal contact with
an environment that remains at
constant temperature
Environment could be mixture of ice and
water in thermal equilibrium
Also commonly used is water and steam
in thermal equilibrium
ï |emperature of an ice-
ice-water mixture
is defined as 0º C
|his is the @ of water
ï |emperature of a water-
water-steam
mixture is defined as 100º C
|his is the
of water
ï istance between these points is
divided into 100 segments
£
ï ºhen the pressure of a gas goes to
zero, its temperature is ±273.15º C
ï |his temperature is called ÷
ï |his is the zero point of the Kelvin
scale
±273.15º C = 0 K
ï |o convert: |C = |K ± 273.15
£
|
ï =ome
representative
Kelvin
temperatures
ï Note, this scale is
logarithmic
ï Absolute zero has
never been
reached
6
ï Most common scale used in the U=
ï |emperature of the freezing point is
32º
ï |emperature of the boiling point is
212º
ï 180 divisions between the points
|
TC Ô TK è
TF Ô TC è
TF Ô TC
|
ï |he thermal expansion of an object is a
consequence of the change in the average
separation between its constituent atoms
or molecules
ï At ordinary temperatures, molecules
vibrate with a small amplitude
ï As temperature increases, the amplitude
increases
|his causes the overall object as a whole to
expand
ï 6or small changes in temperature
° °u
ï |he coefficient of linear expansion, , depends
on the material
ï =imilar in two dimensions (area expansion)
u è
ï « and in three dimensions (volume expansion)
Ô u Ô Ô
!"
#$!%
&
!
|
1. |hermostats
Use a ÷
|wo metals expand differently
2. Pyrex Glass
|hermal stresses are smaller than for ordinary glass
3. =ea levels
ºarming the oceans will increase the volume of the oceans
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ï Charles¶ Law
At a constant pressure,
pressure, the
temperature is directly proportional
to the volume
ï Gay--Lussac¶s Law
Gay
At a constant volume,
volume, the pressure
is directly proportional to the
temperature
i"
Ô à
è
i
ï In a monatomic gas, the KE is the only
type of energy the molecules can have
Ô à
è
ï U is the ÷
of the gas
ï In a polyatomic gas, additional
possibilities for contributions to the
internal energy are rotational and
vibrational energy in the molecules
M
ï Expressed as the
÷
÷ ÷ (rms)
speed
| |
Ô Ô
M
Units
=I Joule/kg °C (J/kg °C)
°| CG= Calorie/g °C (cal/g °C )
%
ï Q = m c Ʃ|
Ʃ| is always the final temperature
minus the initial temperature
ºhen the temperature increases,
increases, Ʃ|
and ƩQ are considered to be positive
and energy flows into the system
ºhen the temperature decreases,
decreases, Ʃ|
and ƩQ are considered to be negative
and energy flows out of the system
&%"
'(
°
Î mc l T
= ±
kg ± J ±
kg l R
l
Rèè
Joules
Al =900 J/kg°C
Q=?
!
)
ï ºater has a high
specific heat
compared to land
ï On a hot day, the
air above the land
warms faster
ï |he warmer air
flows upward and
cooler air moves
toward the beach
cSi Ô J kg lC
! cH èO Ô X J kg lC
l
ºhat happens at night?
1. same
2. opposite
3. nothing
4. none of the above
6 cmetal Ô è
¦
J kg l ö
= =?
*
ï |he slab allows
energy to transfer
from the region of
higher temperature
to the region of
lower temperature
ï
Ô Ô
ï A is the cross-
cross-sectional area
ï L = Ʃx is the thickness of the slab or
the length of a rod
ï P is in ºatts when Q is in Joules and t
is in seconds
ï k is the ÷
of the
material
Good conductors have high k values and
good insulators have low k values
i
ï =ubstances are rated by their ´ ÷
R=L/k
ï More multiple layers, the total R value is
the sum of the R values of each layer
ï ºind increases the energy loss by
conduction in a home
*$
ï Energy transferred by the movement of a
substance
ºhen the movement results from differences
in density, it is called ÷ ÷
ºhen the movement is forced by a fan or a
pump, it is called @
ï Air directly above the
flame is warmed and
expands
ï |he density of the air
decreases, and it rises
ï |he mass of air warms
the hand as it moves
by
ï Applications:
Radiators
Cooling automobile
engines
$-
ï Radiation does not require physical
contact
ï All objects radiate energy continuously in
the form of electromagnetic waves due to
thermal vibrations of the molecules
ï Rate of radiation is given by = @÷ ÷
-
A
ë=)
%%
è
±
Po er Ô A | X ï |X
&
è
'&
=) *
6
±
Po er Ô A K X ï ' K X
( =? ±
Ô
¦ ï ± ± ± ' ¦
è
KX
Ô ' ¦ J s ö
i! -
ï An ÷
÷ is defined as an object
that absorbs all of the energy incident on
it
e = 1
ï |his type of object is called a
÷
An ideal absorber is also an ideal radiator of
energy
ï An ÷
@
absorbs none of the
energy incident on it
e = 0
!
-
ï Clothing
Olack fabric acts as a good absorber
ºhite fabric is a better reflector
ï |hermography
|he amount of energy radiated by an object
can be measured with a thermograph
ï Oody temperature
Radiation thermometer measures the intensity
of the infrared radiation from the eardrum
- |
ï ewar flask/thermos bottle
ï esigned to minimize
energy transfer to
surroundings
ï =pace between walls is
evacuated to minimize
conduction and convection
ï =ilvered surface minimizes
radiation
ï Neck size is reduced
ï Greenhouse example
Visible light is absorbed and re
re--emitted
as infrared radiation
Convection currents are inhibited by the
glass
ï Earth¶s atmosphere is also a good
transmitter of visible light and a
good absorber of infrared radiation