keputusan
Terdapat dua faktor yang akan mempengaruhi pergerakan motor lingkaran terbuka ini
iaitu setelah otak menghantar maklumat kepada tangan untuk digerakkan, anda akan
dapat bergerak dengan tepat. Faktor yang kedua ialah objek tersebut mestilah
diletakkan pada kedudukan yang sam a iaitu tidak diubah kedudukannya. Oleh itu, satu
ciri sistem kawalan lingkaran terbuka ialah ia akan efektif selagi persekitaran sekeliling
pelakuan tidak berubah.
Sebagai contoh sistem lingkaran terbuka, bayangkan mata anda sedang tertutup,
mampukah anda untuk melakukan sebarang pekerjaan ataupun pergerakan. Tetapi
melalui arahan yang betul dan tepat, objek ataupun benda yang ingin dicari mungkin
akan dapat walaupun dalam keadaan.
Input
Pengenalpastian
ransangan
Pemprograman respon
Program motor
Saraf tunjang
Otot
Output
Rajah : Sistem kawalan litar terbuka untuk prestasi motor. Eksekutif menunjukkan
peringkat pemprosesan maklumat untuk menentukan tindakan, Efektor melakukan
tindakan yang dipilih.
Di dalam buku Educational Psychology for Effective Teaching , Henson dan Eller
(1999), beliau menerangkan perbezaan individu merujuk kepada ciri-ciri atau sifat-sifat
manusia. Perbezaan ini boleh berubah jika seseorang itu mengubah dirinya untuk
memajukan diri atau meningkatkan prestasi.
Menurut Papalia (2001),secara fizikalnya manusia berbeza dari segi jantina, ketinggian,
berat, dan bentuk tubuh badan. Selain itu, manusia juga mempunyai perbezaan dari
aspek-aspek lain seperti kesihatan dan jumlah atau tenaga dan ciri-ciri personaliti serta
reaksi emosi mereka.
Dalam diri setiap individu, terdapat perbezaan dengan individu lain dan perbezaan ini
dipengaruhi oleh banyak factor. Faktor-faktor ini mempengaruhi dan memberi kesan
terhadap peningkatan prestasi atau kualiti prestasi motor dalam diri setiap individu.
Perbezaan dalam setiap individu berkait rapat dengan dua perkara penting iaitu bakat
semulajadi atau kebolehan sedia ada individu itu sendiri dan juga mengagak atau
menjangka masa depan seseorang individu itu. Setiap individu mempunyai bakat
semulajadi berbeza. Individu itu juga boleh berbeza antara individu lain dengan
jangkaan yang mungkin akan mengubah prestasi masa depan mereka Jangkaan ini
adalah bergantung kepada anggaran kebolehan setiap individu yang berbeza.
PRAKTIS
Praktis boleh didefinisikan sebagai aktiviti yang dilakukan dengan kadar ulangan
yang tinggi. Dengan praktis pembelajaran kemahiran motor akan berlaku.
Apabila praktis dilakukan, kemahiran motor pelaku akan meningkat ke tahap
yang lebih baik.Tanpa praktis pembelajaran kemahiran motor tidak akan berlaku.
Usaha merancang praktis bagi pembelajaran kemahiran motor perlu melibatkan
aspek-aspek berikut :
I. Jenis praktis
II. Kaedah praktis
III. Taburan praktis
Kaedah praktis
Secara umum, kaedah praktis yang diaplikasi adalah dari aspek fizikal dan
mental. Praktis fizikal merupakan kaedah praktis yang lazim dijalankan dalam
sesi-sesi pembelajaran motor. Melalui praktis secara fizikal, pelajar perlu
melaksanakan program praktis yang telah dirancang atau
dijadualkan.Kemahiaran atau perlakuan yang dihasilkan semasa praktis dapat
dilihat dan diperbaiki. Praktis fizikal adalah kaedah praktis yang utama dalam
sesuatu sesi pembelajaran kemahiran motor. Pelaku dapat mengesan
kelemahan semasa praktis dan memperbaiki kelemahan mereka. Praktis mental
pula merupakan praktis pelengkap kepada kaedah praktis fizikal. Praktis mental
tidak melibatkan perlakuan fizikal. Perlakuan-perlakuan fizikal yang hendak
dilakukan direalisasikan dalam bentuk bayangan atau imageri.
Taburan praktis
Motor skills, however, are not inherent; they are developed, founded on a base of motor
patterns, which are in turn founded on movement skills found in new-borns (Drowatzky,
1981). Movement skills are evolved by the learning process into these motor patterns,
which are typified by their variability and applicability to many different situations
(Drowatzky, 1981). To develop a motor skill, the individual starts with a motor pattern
and specialises it, such as using writing ability to develop a signature (Drowatzky,
1981). Motor skills are used to perform precise movements that are limited in variability
and applicability (Drowatzky, 1981).
Fitts (1964: cited in Drowatzky, 1981) states there are three stages to the in the process
of learning a skill. The first is a cognitive stage where the individual forms an
understanding of what is required. From this understanding the individual develops a
motor program, which is a "mental map" of what the sequence of actions should be like
(Blumenthal, 1976: cited in Coon, 1992). The second stage involves feedback, which is
the processing of responses from the body, senses, and the outside world (Coon,
1992). Feedback can consist of test results, a videotape, an opponent's moves;
anything that can provide information about how successful the individual's performance
has been. This information is taken into account by the individual and used to improve
the performance of the next attempt (Drowatzky, 1981). In the case of learning to skate,
a simple example of feedback is whether the student falls over, or not. Staying vertical
indicates to the student that their learning is, so far at least, successful. The third stage
is termed by Fitts (1964: cited in Drowatzky, 1981) as autonomous; in this stage, the
individual has mastered the basics of the skill and is working on finesse. The student
skater can now confidently circle the rink and is attempting to make the circuits graceful;
the driver of a car can afford to notice the scenery. Performance continues to improve,
but at a lesser rate, and by the third stage the acquisition of the skill is close to
completion (Drowatzky, 1981). Often this stage is defined by the student relegating
some parts of the performance to lower cognitive processes, where there is less
interference and distraction, and the student can then use the higher processes for
adding new tasks or improvements to the skill they have acquired (Drowatzky, 1981).
It would be a mistake, however, to look for the three distinct phases when observing the
progress of a student. The learning process is continuous, and there is no specific point
where stage two becomes stage three. The thread that links both, and is responsible for
progression from one to another, is practise; with practise the motor program is
developed into a skill; it is with practise that learning is achieved (Drowatzky, 1981).
There are two methods of practise, massed practise and spaced, or distributed, practise
(Coon, 1992). The essential difference between the two is intensity; massed practise
occurs in a single lengthy session whilst spaced practise places rest periods in between
sessions (Coon, 1992). There are many ways to intersperse work and rest periods, but
Jones & Ellis (1962: cited in Drowatzky, 1981) have shown that subjects in a distributed
practise environment show increasingly superior performance over those in a massed
practise environment. It is thought that this is due to inhibitory factors such as fatigue,
boredom, and decreased motivation, or a combination of these (Drowatzky, 1981).
One further aspect of motor skills is the aspect of transfer. This term is used to denote a
subject's "bleeding" of skills acquired in one task into another, that is, when two tasks
share common skills, and the subject uses, or attempts to use, skills already learned in
one task when attempting another (Coon, 1992). There are three types of transfer; a
positive transfer, where the transferred skills aid the subject in learning the new task; a
negative transfer, where the transferred skills hinder the subject in learning the new
task; and a neutral transfer, where transferred skills neither aid nor hinder the subject in
learning the new task (Coon, 1992). Transfer can also be classed as proactive and
retroactive, describing an transfer from an initial task to a new task, and a transfer from
an newly acquired task back to an older task, respectively (Drowatzky, 1981).
Transfer is affected by the subjects' prior experience, in that while general experience
may be a little helpful, some specific experience with the task at hand or similar tasks is
required before transfer occurs (Nissen, Chow and Semmes (1951); Hebb (1937);
Towne (1954); Harlow (1949): cited in Drowatzky, 1981). Additionally, the degree of
transfer is dependent on the degree of similarity between the stimulus and response of
each task. Morgan & King (1966, p.130: cited in Drowatzky, 1981) summarise it thus:
Other factors can also affect transfer; the amount of learning done on the initial task
(Reid, 1953: cited in Drowatzky, 1981) and the emotional state of the subjects (Denny
and Reisman (1956): cited in Drowatzky, 1981).
Psychological factors such as expectancies, ideals and motives are also subject to
transfer, in fact, anything that has ever been learned is subject to transfer (Drowatzky,
1981).
Bilateral transfer is concerned with learning skills for one side of the body and then
using those skills on the other side; such transfers are useful in physical training and in
rehabilitation (Drowatzky, 1981). Practise limited to one muscle group improves the
performance of muscle groups on the opposite side of the body (Hellebrandt and
Waterland (1962): cited in Drowatzky, 1981), however, Walker, DeSoto and Shelly
(1959: cited in Drowatzky, 1981) showed that short warm-up periods with the right hand
did not serve as warm-up periods for the left hand. Walter (1959: cited in Drowatzky,
1981) concluded that bilateral transfer was maximised through practise with overload.
References