PRELIMINARY CHAPTER

Resort is made to secret inquiry to discover the culprit and "Criminal due process requires that the accused must be proceeded
INTRODUCTION violence and torture were often employed to extract a against under the orderly processes of law. In all criminal cases, the judge
should follow the step-by-step procedure required by the rules.
confession.
CRIMINAL PROCEDURE The reason for this is to assure that the State makes no mistake in taking
The Judge was not limited to the evidence brought before the life or liberty except that of the guilty."
Criminal Procedure is the method prescribed by law for the him but could proceed with his own inquiry which was not
apprehension and prosecution of persons accused of any criminal confrontative. CRIMINAL JURISDICTION OF COURTS
offense, and for their punishment, in case of conviction.
2. Accusatorial. — The accusation is exercised by every "CRIMINAL JURISDICTION"
Criminal procedure is concerned with the procedural steps citizen or by a member of the group to which the injured
through which a criminal case passes, commencing with the party belongs. is the authority to hear and try a particular offense and impose
initial investigation of a crime and concluding with the the punishment for it.
unconditional release of the offender. As the action is a combat between the parties, the supposed The general rule is that the jurisdiction of a court is determined
offender has the right to be confronted by his accuser. by:
It is a generic term used to describe the network of laws and
rules which govern the procedural administration of criminal The battle in the form of a public trial is judged by a (1) the geographical limits of the territory over which it
justice, e.g., laws and court rules (e.g.. Rules of Criminal magistrate who renders the verdict. presides, and
Procedure) governing arrest, search and seizure, bail, etc.
3. The Mixed System. — This is a combination of the (2) the actions (civil and criminal), it is empowered to hear
SOURCES OF CRIMINAL PROCEDURE inquisitorial and the accusatorial systems. and decide.
ELEMENTS OF JURISDICTION IN CRIMINAL CASES
1. The Spanish Law of Criminal Procedure. Thus, the examination of defendants and other persons
2. General Orders No. 58, dated April 23, 1900. before the filing of the complaint or information may be The elements of jurisdiction of a trial court over the subject
3. Amendatory Acts passed by the Philippine Commission. inquisitorial. matter in a criminal case are:
4. The various quasi acts, the Philippine Bill of 1902, the Jones This is particularly true in the Preliminary examination, for
Law of 1916, the Tydings-McDuffie Law and the Constitution the purpose of issuing a warrant of arrest. a. The nature of the offense and/or penalty attached thereto;
of the Philippines. and
5. The Rules of Court of 1940 and the 1964, 1985 and 1988 Under the 1985 Rules on Criminal Procedure, a criminal
Rules on Criminal Procedure. action may be instituted by complaint of the offended party b. The fact that the offense has been committed within the
6. Various Republic Acts, e.g., R.A. No. 240; New Rule 127, or by information filed by the Fiscal and once the criminal territorial jurisdiction of the court.
providing for attachment; R.A. No. 296, Judiciary Act of action is filed in court, the accused has the right to confront
1948 denning criminal jurisdiction, and B.P. Big. 129 as and cross-examine his accuser. The non-concurrence of either of these two elements may be
amended by R.A. No. 7691; R.A. No. 8249, Creating the challenged by an accused at any stage of the proceedings in the
Sandiganbayan; R.A. No. 8349, The Speedy Trial Act of It has, however, been held that: court below or on appeal.
1998.
7. Presidential Decrees, e.g., P.D. No. 911; R.A. No. 732, regu- "As a general rule, a court proceeding in our judicial set-up is Failing in one of them, a judgment of conviction is null and void.
lating the authority of Prosecuting Fiscals to Conduct accusatorial or adversary and not inquisitorial in nature. It contem-
plates two contending parties before the court which hears them
Preliminary Investigation. REQUISITES FOR VALID EXERCISE OF CRIMINAL
impartially and renders judgment only after trial."4
8. Constitution — Rights of an Accused under Article III. JURISDICTION
9. The Civil Code. (Arts. 32, 33 and 34)
IMPORTANCE OF DUE PROCESS IN CRIMINAL CASES
10. Judicial decisions applying or interpreting our laws which Three important requisites must be present before a court can
form part of our legal system. validly exercise its power to hear and try a case:
"All trial courts, the Sandiganbayan included, are reminded that
11. R.A. No. 8493, The Speedy Trial Act of 1998.
they should take all the necessary measures guaranteeing
12. Circulars. a. It must have jurisdiction over the subject matter;
procedural due process from the inception of custodial
13. The Revised Rules on Criminal Procedure. b. It must have jurisdiction over the territory where the
investigation up to rendition of judgment.
offense was committed;
THREE SYSTEMS OF CRIMINAL PROCEDURE c. It must have jurisdiction over the person of the accused.
They are not to turn a blind eye to procedural irregularities
which transpired before the criminal case reached the court.
1. Inquisitorial. — The detection and prosecution of offenders JURISDICTION OVER THE SUBJECT MATTER is the power to
are not left to the initiative of private parties but to the hear and determine cases of the general class to which the
The validity and sufficiency of the information are important."
officials and agents of the law.
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proceedings in question belong.8
JURISDICTION IS CONFERRED BY LAW
The Philippine Courts have no common law jurisdiction or power,
but only those expressly conferred by the Constitution and
statutes and those necessarily implied to make the express
powers effective.
STATUTE IN FORCE AT COMMENCEMENT OF ACTIONS
DETERMINES JURISDICTION
Jurisdiction over the subject matter is determined by the statute
in force at the time of the commencement of the action and not
at the time of its commission even if the penalty that may be
imposed at the time of its commission is less and does not fall
under the court's jurisdiction.
Jurisdiction is conferred only by the Constitution or by-law.
It cannot be fixed by the will of the parties nor can it be acquired
or diminished by any act of the parties.
In determining whether a case lies within or outside the
jurisdiction of a court, reference to the applicable statute on the
matter is indispensable.
It is a settled rule that jurisdiction of a court is determined by
the statute in force at the time of commencement of action.
The principle, however, is different, where jurisdiction is
dependent on the nature of the position of the accused at the
time of the commission of the offense.
In Subido v. Sandiganbayan, jurisdiction was determined by the position
of the accused at the time of the commission of the offense.
The crime of arbitrary detention was allegedly committed on June 25,
1992 when accused was a Commissioner of the BID. R.A. No. 7975 took
effect on May 6,1995 vesting the Sandiganbayan with exclusive
jurisdiction for crimes committed by public officers corresponding to Grade
27.
The information was filed on 28 July 1995 when accused was already a
private citizen. He claimed that under the law at the time of the
commencement of the action, the Sandiganbayan has no jurisdiction over
him for the offense charged.
HELD: Republic Act No. 7975 (amended by R.A. No. 8249) as regards the
Sandiganbayan's jurisdiction, mode of appeal and other proce- dural
matters, was held as a procedural law and may validly be given
retroactive effect, there being no impairment of contractual or vested
rights.
It was held that the Sandiganbayan has no jurisdiction over an anti-graft
case allegedly committed by public officers who at the time of the filing of
the information falls below Grade 27.
JURISDICTION DETERMINED BY ALLEGATIONS OF
COMPLAINT
The averments in the complaint or information characterizes the
crime to be prosecuted and the court before which it must be
tried.
In order to determine the jurisdiction of the court in criminal
cases, the complaint must be examined for the purpose of
ascertaining whether or not the facts set out therein and the
punishment provided for by law for such facts fall within the
jurisdiction of the court where the complaint is filed.
The jurisdiction of courts in criminal cases is determined by the
allegations of the complaint or information and not by the
findings the court may make after the trial.
PRINCIPLES OF JURISDICTION
a. The general rule is that the jurisdiction of a court is
determined by: (1) the geographical limits of the territory
over which it presides, and (2) the action (civil and criminal)
it is empowered to hear and decide.
b. As the question of jurisdiction is always of importance, if the
prosecution fails to prove that fact, the court may always
permit it to present additional evidence to show the fact that
the crime was committed within its jurisdiction.
c. The filing of a complaint or information in Court initiates a
criminal action.
The Court thereby acquires jurisdiction over the case, which
is the authority to hear and determine the case.
When after the filing of the complaint or information a
warrant for the arrest of the accused is issued by the trial
court and the accused either voluntarily submitted himself
to the Court or was duly arrested, the Court thereby
acquired jurisdiction over the person of the accused.
d. Lack of jurisdiction over the subject matter of an action is
fatal and an objection based upon this ground may be
interposed at any stage of the proceedings.
Jurisdiction is conferred only by the sovereign authority
which organizes the courts.
When jurisdiction over an offense has not been conferred by
law, the accused cannot confer it by express waiver or
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otherwise.
Jurisdiction over criminal cases cannot be conferred by
consent.
Even if a party fails to file a motion to quash, he may still
question the jurisdiction of the court later on.
Moreover, these objections may be raised or considered
motu proprio by the court at any stage of the proceedings or
on appeal.
e. If under the law the court has no jurisdiction over the
subject matter, it cannot take cognizance of the case,
notwithstanding the silence or acquiescence of the accused.
The exception is when there is estoppel by laches to bar
attacks on jurisdiction.
f. Estoppel by Laches to Question Jurisdiction in Criminal
Cases
Generally, the doctrine of estoppel does not apply as against
the people in criminal prosecutions.
The principle, however, earlier laid down in the case of
Tijam v. Sibonghanoy2'' which bars a party from attacking
the jurisdiction of the court by reason of estoppel by laches
have been extended to criminal cases.
See, however, Fuzume v. Court of'Appeals, holding that
accused or the court may motu proprio raise lack of
jurisdiction over the subject matter in a criminal case for the
first time on Appeal.
Immunity from suit is a jurisdictional question.
g. Principle that there is no estoppel against State
The settled rule is that the State is not estopped by the
mistakes of its officers and employees. Indeed, in Cruz, Jr.
v. Court of Appeals, the Court declared:
. . . Estoppel does not lie against the government because of the
supposedly mistaken acts or omissions of its agents.
As we declared in People v. Castaneda, "there is the long familiar
rule that erroneous application and enforcement of the law by public
officers do not block subsequent correct application of the statute
and that the government is never estopped by mistake or error on
the part of its agents."
The Court also held in Chua v. Court of Appeals:
. . . While ordinarily, certiorari is unavailing where the appeal period
has lapsed, there are exceptions. Among them are:
 (a) when public welfare and the advancement of public policy officers mentioned above, exclusive original jurisdiction thereof a criminal action is brought in the name of the City of Manila
dictates; shall be vested in the proper regional trial court, metropolitan instead of the united States.
(b) when the broader interest of justice so requires; trial court, municipal trial court, and municipal circuit trial court,
(c) when the writs issued are null and void; or
as the case may be, pursuant to their respective jurisdictions as The fact constitutes a mere defect or error curable at any
(d) when the questioned order amounts to an oppressive exercise
provided in Batas Pambansa Big. 129, as amended, was applied stage of the action, it does not deprive the court of the
of judicial authority... .
to the pending criminal case in the Sandiganbayan. power to pronounce a valid judgment and impose a valid
sentence, and it cannot be made the basis of a writ of
h. A conviction or acquittal before a court having no
The previous law vests jurisdiction in the RTC where none of the habeas corpus
jurisdiction is, like all proceedings in the case, absolutely
principal accused are occupying positions corresponding to
void, and is therefore no bar to subsequent indictment and
Salary Grade 27. e. The court having jurisdiction of the offense has also
trial in a court which has jurisdiction of the offense.
jurisdiction to determine the disposition of the instrument
ADHERENCE OF JURISDICTION
The term "principal" was deleted so that under the amendment, used in the commission of the crime.
if an accomplice belongs to Salary Grade 27, then jurisdiction is
Once jurisdiction is vested in the court, it is retained up to the
with the Sandiganbayan even if none of the principals belong to As an accessory penalty, the instrument used in the
end of the litigation.
a lower salary grade. The amendment was applied retroactively. commission of the offense shall be forfeited unless it
Ordinarily, jurisdiction once acquired is not affected by
belongs to a third person who is not liable for the offense
subsequent legislative enactment placing jurisdiction in another
JURISDICTION OVER OFFENSE which the instrument was used to commit.
tribunal.
a. In criminal cases, the court must examine the complaint for It is the duty of the court therefore to dispose of the same
It remains with the court until the case is finally terminated.
the purpose of ascertaining whether or not the facts set out upon the application of any person interested.
Thus, it has been held that the Sandiganbayan or the courts as
and the punishment provided by law for such act, fall within
the case may be, cannot be divested of jurisdiction over cases
the jurisdiction of the court. The person to whom the instrument belongs has a right to
filed before them by reason ofR.A. No. 7975.
take his proceeding to the court having jurisdiction of the
If the criminal act charged is punished by law with a penalty offense for the purpose of having his rights in the premises
They retain their jurisdiction until the end of the litigation.
which pertains to the jurisdiction of the court, it falls under determined.
the original jurisdiction thereof, although the penalty it may
EXCEPTION TO PRINCIPLE OF ADHERENCE
have to impose in accordance with the evidence is below f. Where a court is given jurisdiction over a specific class of
that which falls under its jurisdiction. crimes, that jurisdiction will continue whether that class be
Where, however, the subsequent statute expressly provides, or
enlarged or diminished or whether the penalty for a violation
is construed to the effect that it is applicable to operate as to
b. Where a complaint is presented in court charging the be increased or diminished.
actions pending before its enactment.
defendant with murder, at the close of the trial, the court
finds that the crime committed was assault and battery g. Where the military authorities had jurisdiction over the
Where a statute changing the jurisdiction of a court has no
only. person of a military officer at the time of the alleged
retroactive effect, it cannot be applied to a case that was
offenses, the jurisdiction having been vested, it is retained
pending prior to the enactment of the statute.
Justices of the peace have original jurisdiction over the up to the end of the proceedings.
offense of assault and battery, the complaint, however,
R.A. No. 7975 by virtue of Section 7 belongs to the exception
gave the Court of First Instance jurisdiction over the alleged Jurisdiction once acquired is not lost upon the instance of
rather than a rule.
crime. the parties but continues until the case is terminated.
The provision is transitory in nature and expresses the
It retains jurisdiction for the purpose of imposing the h. Subject matter of jurisdiction in criminal cases is determined
legislature's intention to apply its provisions on jurisdiction to
penalty provided for by law for the crime proved to have by the authority of the court to impose the penalty
criminal cases in which trial has not began in the
been committed. imposable under the applicable statute given the allegation
Sandiganbayan. To this extent R.A. No. 7975 is retroactive.
of a criminal information.
In another case, the court held that although the Sandiganbayan
c. Where the court has jurisdiction of the subject matter and
has jurisdiction at the time the charge was filed, it lost
the person of the accused, it is not necessary, in order to In People v. Purisima, the Court stressed that:
jurisdiction upon the enactment of R.A. No. 7975 because he
maintain that jurisdiction, to decide the case correctly.
falls below the rank of full colonel, and trial has not yet begun.
"x x x. In criminal prosecutions, it is settled that the jurisdiction of
The Court has jurisdiction to decide wrongly as well as the court is not determined by what may be meted out to the
In Lacson v. Executive Secretary, the amendment in R.A. No. offender after trial, or even by the result of the evidence that would
rightly.
8249 that in cases where none of the accused are occupying be presented at the trial, but by the extent of the penalty which the
positions corresponding to Salary Grade "27" or higher, as law imposes for the misdemeanor, crime or violation charged in the
d. It is not a jurisdictional defect and one which deprives the complaint.
prescribed in the said Republic Act No. 6758, or military and PNP
court of its authority to try, convict and pass sentence, that
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 If the facts recited in the complaint and the punishment provided for
by law are sufficient to show that the court in which the complaint is
presented has jurisdiction, that court must assume jurisdiction
The same rule was set forth and amplified in People v.
Buissan in the following terms:
xxx [i]n criminal prosecutions, jurisdiction of the court is not
determined by what may be meted out to the offender after trialor
even by the result of the evidence that would be presented during
the trial but by the extent of the penalty which the law imposes,
together with other legal obligations, on the basis of the facts as
recited in the complaint or information constitutive of the offense
charged, for once jurisdiction is acquired by the court in which the
information is filed, it is retained regardless of whether or not the
evidence proves a lesser offense than that charged in the
information.
Thus, it may be that after trial, a penalty lesser than the
maximum imposable under the statute is proper under the
specific facts and circumstances proven at the trial.
In such a case, that lesser penalty may be imposed by the
trial court (provided it has subject-matter jurisdiction under
the rule above referred to) even if the reduced penalty
otherwise falls within the exclusive jurisdiction of an inferior
court.
TERRITORIAL JURISDICTION
It is a fundamental rule that for jurisdiction to be acquired by
courts in criminal cases, the offense should have been
committed or any one of its essential ingredients took place
within the territorial jurisdiction of the court.
Territorial jurisdiction in criminal cases is the territory where the
court has jurisdiction to take cognizance or to try the offense
allegedly committed by the accused.
Thus, it cannot take jurisdiction over a person charged with an
offense allegedly committed outside of that limited territory.
Furthermore, the jurisdiction of a court over the criminal case is
determined by the allegations in the complaint or information.
And once it is so shown, the court may validly take cognizance of
the case.
However, if the evidence adduced during the trial show that the
offense was committed somewhere else, the court should
dismiss the action for want of jurisdiction.
In criminal proceedings, the rule is that one can not be held to
answer for any crime committed by him except in the jurisdiction
where it was committed.
Said rule is- based on the legal provision which prescribes the
essential requisites of a good complaint or information, one of
which is the allegation that the crime was committed within the
jurisdiction of the court where the complaint or information is
filed and that said court has authority to try it.
As was said in the case of United States v. Cunanan, the
jurisdiction of the Courts of First Instance of the Philippine
Islands, in criminal cases is limited to certain well-defined
territory, so that they can not take jurisdiction of persons
charged with an offense alleged to have been committed outside
of that limited territory.
Jurisdiction of the Courts in criminal cases rests upon a different
footing from that in civil cases.
In criminal cases, the people of the State is a party.
The interests of the public require that, to secure the best results
and effects in the punishment of crime, it is necessary to
prosecute and punish the criminal in the very place, as near as
may be, where he committed his crime.
As a result, it has been the uniform legislation, both in statutes
and in constitution, that the venue of a criminal action must be
laid in the place where the crime was committed.
While the laws here do not specifically and in terms require it, it
is the established custom and the uniform holding that criminal
prosecutions must be brought and conducted, except in cases
especially provided by law, in the province where the crime is
committed.
Judicial divisions or districts (now regions) are always fixed by
law so that any changes or alterations of the same can only be
effected by express legislation and not by mere inference or
deduction.
Proceedings in a criminal case before a judge acting without
jurisdiction are void, but this fact will not preclude the filing of a
new complaint upon the dismissal of the former proceeding.
WHEN PLACE OF CRIME NOT ALLEGED
Where the place of the commission of the offense was not
specifically charged, the place may be shown by the evidence.
Thus, the insufficiency of the complaint charging adultery
without stating the place where the acts of adultery were
committed, or that the accused knew the woman was married at
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the time of cohabitation, assigned as error as the conviction
thereon amounted to a conviction without informing the
defendants of the nature and character of the offense, and
besides equivalent to a conviction without due process of law.
No such question having been raised before final judgment in the
trial court, but every ingredient of the crime having been
established in the evidence, there was no error committed upon
which to base a reversal of conviction.
ACTION BY COURT WHERE IT HAS NO JURISDICTION
When the record discloses that the crime as alleged in the
complaint was not committed in the province wherein the trial
was had, and the accused was not arrested in that province and
defendant had not fled therefrom, the Court of First Instance of
that province has no jurisdiction to impose sentence.
In such cases, if the court has reasonable ground to believe that
the crime has been committed, the accused should be remanded
to the court of proper jurisdiction for trial.
It has been held that where the court has no jurisdiction at the
time of the filing of the complaint, instead of ordering the
transfer, the court should dismiss the case.
However, in Republic v. Asuncion, and Cunanan v. Arcco, the
Court sanctioned the transfer of the cases from the RTC for lack
of jurisdiction to the Sandiganbayan, while in Lacson v. The
Executive Secretary, the Court (en bane) ordered the transfer of
the cases from the Sandiganbayan for lack of jurisdiction to the
Regional Trial Court of Quezon City which has exclusive original
jurisdiction over said cases.
In Cuyco u. Sandiganbayan, the court ordered the
Sandiganbayan to dismiss the case for lack of jurisdiction, but
informed the Ombudsman that it may re-file the cases with the
court of proper jurisdiction, the RTC of Zamboanga City.
In his concurring opinion, Chief Justice Davide, Jr., asked to
REFER the case to the RTC instead of dismissing the cases.
It is believed that under its supervisory authority, the Supreme
Court and even the Court of Appeals may properly refer the case
to the court of proper jurisdiction.
Courts of the first and second level is without authority to order
the transfer.
If the said courts believe that it has no jurisdiction over the
subject matter, its jurisdiction is limited to simply dismissing the
case.
JURISDICTION OF MUNICIPAL TRIAL COURTS IN
CRIMINAL CASES
Republic Act No. 7691 which took effect on April 15, 1994
amended B.P. Big. 129, otherwise known as "The Judiciary
Reorganization Act of 1980" by Expanding the Jurisdiction of the
aforementioned courts as follows:
Exclusive Original Jurisdiction
xxx SEC. 2. Section 32 of the same law is hereby amended to
read as follows:
"SEC. 32. Jurisdiction of Metropolitan Trial Courts, Municipal Trial
Courts and Municipal Circuit Trial Courts in Criminal Cases. —
Except in cases falling within the exclusive original jurisdiction of the
Regional Trial Court and of the Sandiganbayan, the Metropolitan Trial
Courts, Municipal Trial Courts, and Municipal Circuit Trial Courts shall
exercise:
(1) Exclusive original jurisdiction over all violations of city or municipal
ordinances committed within their respective territorial jurisdiction; and
(2) Exclusive original jurisdiction over all offenses punishable with
imprisonment not exceeding six (6) years irrespective of the amount of
fine, and regardless of other imposable accessory or other penalties,
including the civil liability arising from such offenses or predicated
thereon, irrespective of kind, nature, value or amount thereof:
Provided, however. That in offenses involving damage to property through
criminal negligence, they shall have exclusive original jurisdiction
thereof."
Interpreting the foregoing law, the Supreme Court issued
Administrative Circular 09-94 as follows:
Subject: Guidelines in the implementation of Republic Act No. 7691,
Entitled "An Act Expanding the Jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Trial
Courts, Municipal Trial Courts and Municipal Circuit Trial Courts, Amending
For the Purpose Batas Pambansa Big. 129, otherwise known as the
Judiciary Reorganization Act of 1980."
For the guidance of the Bench and the Bar, the following
guidelines are to be followed in the implementation of Republic
Act No. 7691, entitled "An Act Expanding the Jurisdiction of the
Metropolitan Trial Courts, Municipal Trial Courts, and Municipal
Circuit Trial Courts, Amending for the Purpose Batas Pambansa
Big. 129, otherwise known as the 'Judiciary Reorganization Act of
1980'":
(3) The criminal jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Trial Courts,
Municipal Trial Courts, and Municipal Circuit Trial Courts
under Section 32(2) ofB.P. Big. 129, as amended by R.A.
No. 7691, has been increased to cover offenses punishable
with imprisonment not exceeding six (6) years irrespective
of the amount of the fine.
As a consequence, the Regional Trial Courts have no more
original jurisdiction over offenses committed by public
officers and employees in relation to their office, where the
offense is punishable by more than four (4) years and two
(2) months up to six (6) years.
(4) The provisions of Section 32(2) of B.P. Big. 129, as
amended by R.A. No. 7691, apply only to offenses
punishable by imprisonment or fine, or both, in which cases
the amount of the fine is disregarded in determining the
jurisdiction of the court.
However, in cases where the only penalty provided by law is
a fine, the amount thereof shall determine the jurisdiction of
the court in accordance with the original provisions of
Section 32(2) of B.P. Big. 129 which fixed the original
exclusive jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Trial Courts,
Municipal Trial Courts, and Municipal Circuit Trial Courts
over offenses punishable with a fine of not more than Four
thousand pesos.
If the amount of the fine exceeds Four thousand pesos, the
Regional Trial Courts shall have jurisdiction, including
offenses committed by public officers and employees in
relation to their office, where the amount of the fine does
not exceed Six thousand pesos.
However, this rule does not apply to offenses involving
damage to property through criminal negligence which are
under the exclusive original jurisdiction of the Metropolitan
Trial Courts, Municipal Trial Courts, and Municipal Circuit
Trial Courts, irrespective of the amount of the imposable
fine."
The opening Paragraph of Section 32 excepts cases falling
within the exclusive original jurisdiction of Regional Trial
Court and of the Sandiganbayan — from the expanded
jurisdiction of the aforementioned courts even if the offense
is punishable with imprisonment not exceeding six (6)
years.
In other words, where jurisdiction is determined by the
nature of the offense and not by the penalty, jurisdiction
should remain in the Regional Trial Court or the
Sandiganbayan.
For example:
1) Libel is punishable by prision corrreccional in its
minimum and maximum period or fine or bail. (Article
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354, R.P.C.) Article 360, however, of the same code as
amended, provides that the criminal and civil action for
damages in cases of written defamation shall be filed in
the Court of First Instance, etc."
2) Jurisdiction over Election Offenses
SEC. 268. Jurisdiction of courts. — The regional trial court shall have the
exclusive original jurisdiction to try and decide any criminal action or
proceedings for violation of this Code, except those relating to the offense
of failure to register or failure to vote which shall be under the jurisdiction
of the metropolitan or municipal trial courts.
From the decision of the courts, appeal will lie as in other criminal cases.
3) ARTICLE X — Jurisdiction Over Dangerous Drugs Cases
SEC. 39. Jurisdiction. — The Court of First Instance, Circuit Criminal
Court, and Juvenile and Domestic Relations Court shall have concurrent
original jurisdiction over all cases involving offenses punishable under this
Act:
Provided, That in cities or provinces where there are .Juvenile and
Domestic Relations Courts, the said courts shall take exclusive cognizance
of cases where the offenders are under sixteen years of age.
4) Cases which falls under the original and exclusive
jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan regardless of the
imposable penalty.
Thus, the aforementioned exception refers not only to
Section 20 ofB.P. Big. 129 providing for the jurisdiction of
Regional Trial Courts in criminal cases, but also to other
laws which specifically lodged in Regional Trial Courts'
exclusive jurisdiction over specific criminal cases, e.g.,
(a) Article 360 of the Revised Penal Code, as amended by
R.A. Nos. 1289 and 4363 on written defamation or libel;
(b) Decree on Intellectual Property (P.D. No. 49, as
amended), which vests upon Courts of First Instance
exclusive jurisdiction over the cases therein mentioned
regardless of the imposable penalty; and
(c) more appropriately, Section 39 of R.A. No. 6425, as
amended by P.D. No. 44, which vests on Courts of First
Instance, Circuit Criminal Courts, and the Juvenile and
Domestic Relations Courts concurrent exclusive original
jurisdiction over all cases involving violations of said
Act.
5) Cases which fall under the original and exclusive jurisdiction
of Family Courts under Republic Act No. 8369 known as the
Family Courts Act of 1997.
CIVIL LIABILITY IRRESPECTIVE OF KIND OR NATURE
Where the offense charged is within its exclusive competence by
reason of the penalty prescribed therefor, an inferior court shall
have jurisdiction to try and decide the case irrespective of the
kind and nature of the civil liability arising from the said offense.
The jurisdiction of the court is also determined by the amount of
the fine and imprisonment.
But an indemnification or a reparation or a restitution is merely
an incident of the crime.
The jurisdiction of the courts is not fixed by the incident but by
the nature of the crime itself.
Legally speaking, the nature of the crime is determined by the
punishment imposed.
Thus, it has been held that the jurisdiction of courts of justice of
the peace over crimes is determined exclusively by the amount
of the fine and imprisonment imposed by the law, that is by the
legal nature of the crime, and in no matter and to no extent
whatever by the civil incidents which accrue to the person
injured by the commission of said crime.
Thus, an inferior court has jurisdiction over a case of simple
seduction defined and penalized under Article 338 of the Revised
Penal Code, as amended, with arresto mayor, regardless of the
civil liability that may be imposed under Article 345 of the same
code. This supersedes U.S. v. Barredo.
Other Imposable Penalties — The additional penalty for
habitual delinquency is not considered in determining which
court shall have jurisdiction over a criminal case because such
delinquency is not a crime.
SPECIAL JURISDICTION IN CERTAIN CASES
In the absence of all the Regional Trial Judges in a province or
city, any Metropolitan Trial Judge, Municipal Trial Judge,
Municipal Circuit Trial Judge may hear and decide petitions for a
writ of habeas corpus or application for bail in criminal cases in
the province or city where the absent Regional Trial Judges sit.
CRIMINAL JURISDICTION OF REGIONAL TRIAL COURTS
Regional Trial Courts shall exercise exclusive original jurisdiction
in all criminal cases not within the exclusive jurisdiction of any
court, tribunal or body, except those now falling under the
exclusive and concurrent jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan
which shall hereafter be exclusively taken cognizance by the
latter.
JURISDICTION OVER COMPLEX CRIMES
Jurisdiction over the whole complex crime must logically be
lodged with the trial court having jurisdiction to impose the
maximum and most serious penalty imposable on an offense
forming part of the complex crime.
A complex crime must be prosecuted integrally, as it were, and
not split into its component offenses and the latter made the
subject of multiple informations possibly brought in different
courts.
ORIGINAL AND EXCLUSIVE JURISDICTION OF FAMILY
COURTS
Republic Act No. 8369 established Family Courts granting them
exclusive original jurisdiction over child and family cases
namely:
a. Criminal case where one or more of the accused is below eighteen
(18) years of age but not less than nine (9) years of age, or where one or
more of the victim is a minor at the time of the commission of the
offense;
Provided, That if the minor is found guilty, the court shall promulgate
sentence and ascertain any civil liability which the accused may have
incurred.
The sentence, however, shall be suspended without need of application
pursuant to Presidential Decree No. 603, otherwise known as the "Child
and Youth Welfare Code."
i. Cases against minors cognizable under the Dangerous Drugs Acts, as
amended;
j. Violations of Republic Act No. 7610, otherwise known as the "Special
Protection of Children Against Child Abuse, Exploitation and
Discrimination Act," as amended by Republic Act No. 7658; and
k) Cases of domestic violence against:
1) Women — which are acts of gender based violence that result,
or are likely to result in physical, sexual or psychological harm
or suffering to women; and other forms of physical abuses
battering or threats and coercion which violates a woman's
personhood, integrity and freedom of movement; and
2) Children — which include the commission of all forms of abuse,
neglect, cruelty, exploitation, violence, and discrimination and
all other conditions prejudicial to their development.
If an act constitutes a criminal offense, the accused or batterer shall
be subject to criminal proceedings and the corresponding penalties.
JURISDICTION OF THE SANDIGANBAYAN CHANGED BY
6
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 8249
The jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan under Presidential Decree
No. 1606, as amended by Executive Order No. 184, has been
changed by REPUBLIC ACT NO. 8249 — "AN ACT TO
STRENGTHEN THE FUNCTIONAL AND STRUCTURAL
ORGANIZATION OF THE SANDIGANBAYAN, AMENDING FOR
THAT PURPOSE PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 1606."
Jurisdiction. — The Sandiganbayan shall exercise exclusive
original jurisdiction in all cases involving:
"a. Violations of Republic Act No. 3019, as amended, otherwise
known as the Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act, Republic
Act No. 1379, and Chapter II, Section 2, Title VII, Book II of
the Revised Penal Code, where one or more of the accused
are officials occupying the following positions in the
government, whether in a permanent, acting or interim
capacity, at the time of the commission of the offense:
(I) Official of the executive branch occupying the positions
of regional director and higher, otherwise classified as
Grade '27' and higher, of the Compensation and
Position Classification Act of 1989 (Republic Act No.
6758), specifically including:
"(a) Provincial governors, vice-governors, members of
the sangguniang panlalawigan, and provincial
treasurers, assessors, engineers, and other
provincial department heads;
"(b) City mayors, vice-mayors, members of the
sangguniang panlungsod, city treasurers,
assessors, engineers, and other city department
heads;
"(c) Officials of the diplomatic service occupying the
position of consul and higher;
"(d) Philippine army and air force colonels, naval
captains, and all officers of higher rank;
"(e) Officers of the Philippine National Police while
occupying the position of provincial director and
those holding the rank of senior superintendent or
higher;
"(f) City and provincial prosecutors and their assistants,
and official and prosecutors in the Office of the
Ombudsman and special prosecutor; and
"(g) Presidents, directors or trustees, or managers of
 government-owned or -controlled corporations,
state universities or educational institutions or
foundations;
"(2) Members of Congress and officials thereof classified as
Grade '2' and up under the Compensation and Position
Classification Act of 1989;
"(3) Members of the judiciary without prejudice to the
provisions of the Constitution;
"(4) Chairmen and members of Constitutional Commissions,
without prejudice to the provisions of the Constitution;
and
"(5) All other national and local officials classified as Grade
'27' and higher under the Compensation and Position
Classification Act of 1989.
"b. Other offenses or felonies whether simple or complexed with
other crimes committed by the public officials and
employees mentioned in subsection (a) of this section in
relation to their office.
"c. Civil and criminal case filed pursuant to and in connection
with Executive Order Nos. 1, 2, 14 and 14-A, issued in
1986.
“In cases where none of the accused are occupying positions
corresponding to Salary Grade '27' or higher, as prescribed
in the said Republic Act No. 6758, or military and PNP
officers mentioned above, exclusive original jurisdiction
thereof shall be vested in the proper regional trial court,
metropolitan trial court, municipal trial court, and municipal
circuit trial court, as the case may be, pursuant to their
respective jurisdictions as provided in Batas Pambansa Big.
129, as amended.
"The Sandiganbayan shall exercise exclusive appellate
jurisdiction over final judgments, resolutions or orders of
regional trial courts whether in the exercise of their own
original jurisdiction or of their appellate jurisdiction as
herein provided.
"The Sandiganbayan shall have exclusive original jurisdiction
over petitions for the issuance of the writs of mandamus,
prohibition, certiorari, habeas corpus, injunctions, and other
ancillary writs and processes in aid of its appellate
jurisdiction and over petitions of similar nature, including
quo warranto, arising or that may arise in cases filed or
which be filed under Executive Order Nos. 1, 2, 14 and 14-
A, issued in 1986:
Provided, That the jurisdiction over these petitions shall not
be exclusive of the Supreme Court.
"In case private individuals are charged as co-principals,
accomplices or accessories with the public officers or
employees including those employed in government-owned
or -controlled corporations, they shall be tried jointly with
said public officers and employees in the proper courts
which shall exercise exclusive jurisdiction over them."
CONSEQUENCE OF AMENDMENTS
As a consequence of these amendments, the Sandiganbayan
partly lost its exclusive original jurisdiction in cases involving:
a. Violations of R.A. No. 3019;
b. R.A. No. 1379; and
c. Chapter II, Section 2, Title VII of the Revised Penal Code.
(Article 210, Direct Bribery; Article 211, Indirect Bribery;
andArticle 212, Corruption of Public Officials).
The Sandiganbayan retains jurisdiction only in cases where the
accused are those enumerated in subsection (a) Section 4 above
and, generally, national and local officials classified as Grade
"27" and higher under the Compensation and Position
Classification Act of 1989.
Moreover, its jurisdiction over other offenses or felonies
committed by public officials and employees in relation to their
office is no longer determined by the prescribed penalty, viz.,
that which is higher than prision correccional or imprisonment
for six years or a fine ofP6,000.00; it is enough that they are
committed by those public officials and employees enumerated
in subsection a, Section 4 above.
However, it retains its exclusive original jurisdiction over civil
and criminal cases filed pursuant to or in connection with E.O.
No. I.
JURISDICTION OF SANDIGANBAYAN OVER PUBLIC
OFFICERS
Prior to the amendment (R.A. No. 7975), jurisdiction of the
Sandiganbayan for felonies other than violation of R.A. No. 3019
as amended, otherwise known as the Anti-Graft and Corrupt
Practices Act, Republic Act No. 1379, and Chapter II, Section 2,
Title VII of the Revised Penal Code, embrace all other offenses
provided, the offense was committed in relation to public office
and the prescribed penalty is more than six years.
Under the present law, both the nature of the offense and the
positions occupied by the accused are the conditions sine qua
7
non before the Sandiganbayan can validly take cognizance of the
case.
DETERMINATION OF JURISDICTION
Republic Act No. 8249 collated the provisions on the exclusive
jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan.
Its original jurisdiction as a trial court was made to depend not
on the penalty imposed by the law on crimes and offenses within
its jurisdiction but on the rank and salary grade of the acused
government officials and employees.
To determine the jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan in cases
involving violations of Rep. Act No. 3019, the reckoning period is
the time of the commission if the offense.
Includes officials specifically mentioned even if below
Grade 27
The specific inclusion of the officials from (a) to (g) constitutes
an exception to the general qualification relating to officials of
the executive branch as "occupying the positions of regional
director and higher, otherwise classified as grade 27 and higher,
of the Compensation and Classification Act of 1989.
In other words, violation of Rep. Act No. 3019 committed by
officials specifically enumerated in (a) to (g) regardless of their
salary grade.
All other officials below grade 27 shall be under the jurisdiction
of the proper trial courts.
PURPOSES OF DETERMINING THE GOVERNMENT
OFFICIALS THAT FALL WITHIN THE ORIGINAL
JURISDICTION OF THE SANDIGANBAYAN IN CASES
INVOLVING VIOLATIONS OF REP. ACT NO. 3019 AND
CHAPTER II, SECTION 2, TITLE VII OF THE REVISED
PENAL CODE — BRIBERY (ART. 210), INDIRECT BRIBERY
(ART. 211) AND CORRUPTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS
(ART. 212)
Rep. Act No. 7975 has grouped them into five categories, to wit:
(1) Officials of the executive branch occupying the positions of
regional director and higher, otherwise classified as grade
27 and higher;
(2) Members of Congress and officials thereof classified as
Grade "27" and up under the Compensation and Position
Classification Act of 1989;
(3) Members of the judiciary without prejudice to the provisions
 of the Constitution;
(4) Chairmen and members of Constitutional Commissions,
without prejudice to the provisions of the Constitution; and
(5) All other national and local officials classified as Grade "27"
and higher under the Compensation and Position
Classification Act of 1989.
The Sandiganbayan has original jurisdiction over criminal cases
involving crimes and felonies under the first classification:
"a. Violations of Republic Act No. 3019, as amended, otherwise
known as the Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act, Republic
Act No. 1379, and Chapter II, Section 2, Title VII, Book II of
the Revised Penal Code, where one or more of the accused
are officials occupying the following positions in the
government, whether in a permanent, acting or interim
capacity, at the time of the commission of the offense.
The exclusive jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan over those
public officers holding positions classified as Grade 27 refers
to Violations ofR.A. No. 3019, Act No. 1379 and Chapter II,
Section 2, Title VII, Book II of the Revised Penal Code
referring to Malfeasance and Misfeasance in office
(1) Art. 204, knowingly rendering an unjust judgment;
(2) Art. 205, Judgment rendered thru negligence;
(3) Art. 206, Unjust Interlocutory Order;
(4) Art. 207, Malicious Delay in the administration of
justice;
(5) Art. 208, Prosecution of offenses; negligence and
tolerance;
(6) Art. 209, Betrayal of trust by an attorney or solicitor —
Revelation of secrets;
(7) Art. 210, Direct Bribery;
(8) Art. 211, Indirect Bribery;
(9) Art. 211-A, Qualified Bribery;
(10)Art. 212, Corruption of public officials.
which does not include the crime of Rebellion or coup d'etat.
With respect to other offenses or felonies whether simple or
complexed with other crimes committed by public officials
and employees mentioned in subsection (a) in relation to
their office.
In other words, the case would fall under the
Sandiganbayan if the crime is committed "in relation to
public office except the crimes of rebellion and coup d'etat.
Sandiganbayan has jurisdiction even if Co-Accused in
Malversation below Grade 27
Two of the felonies that belong to the first classification are
malversation defined and penalized by Article 217 of the Revised
Penal Code, and the illegal use of public funds or property
defined and penalized by Article 220 of the same Code.
The public office of the accused Municipal Mayor Virginio E.
Villamor is a constituent element of malversation and illegal use
of public funds or property.
Accused mayor's position is classified as SG 27. Since the
Amended Informations alleged that the petitioner conspired with
her co-accused, the municipal mayor, in committing the said
felonies, the fact that her position as municipal accountant is
classified as SG 24 and as such is not an accountable officer is of
no moment; the Sandiganbayan still has exclusive original
jurisdiction over the cases lodged against her.
It must be stressed that a public officer who is not in charge of
public funds or property by virtue of her official position, or even
a private individual, may be liable for malversation or illegal use
of public funds or property if such public officer or private
individual conspires with an accountable public officer to commit
malversation or illegal use of public funds or property.
The determinative fact is that the position of her co-accused, the
municipal mayor, is classified as SG 27, and under the last
paragraph of Section 2 of Rep. Act No. 7975, if the position of
one of the principal accused is classified as SG 27, the
Sandiganbayan has original and exclusive jurisdiction over the
offense.
WHEN IS AN OFFENSE DEEMED COMMITTED IN RELATION
TO PUBLIC OFFICE
The office must be a constituent element of the crime as defined
in the statute.
The test is whether the offense cannot exist without the office.
DETERMINATION OF WHEN CRIME IS IN RELATION TO
PUBLIC OFFICE
How to Determine whether information sufficiently
alleges that the crime was committed in relation to public
office
There are two ways of determining whether or not the infor-
mation charges that the offense was committed in relation to
public office.
The statement that the "committed in relation to public office" is
8
not sufficient.
a. Where the public office of the accused is by statute a
constituent element of the crime charged, there is no need
for the Prosecutor to state in the Information specific factual
allegations of the intimacy between the office and the crime
charged, or that the accused committed the crime in the
performance of his duties.
Thus, the public office of the accused Municipal Mayor
Virginio E. Villamor is a constituent element of malversation
and illegal use of public funds or property.
b. When specific factual allegations of crime committed in
relation to public office required
These are offenses or felonies which are intimately
connected with the public office and are perpetrated by the
public officer or employee while in the performance of his
official functions, through improper or irregular conduct.
Where the office is not a constituent element of the offense
charged there must be specific allegation of facts that it was
intimately related to the discharge of their official duties.
The Sandiganbayan likewise has original jurisdiction over
criminal cases involving crimes or felonies committed by the
public officers and employees enumerated in Section (a)(l) to (5)
under the second classification if the Information contains
specific factual allegations showing the intimate connection
between the offense charged and the public office of the
accused, and the discharge of his official duties or functions —
whether improper or irregular.
The requirement is not complied with if the Information merely
alleges that the accused committed the crime charged in relation
to his office because such allegation is merely a conclusion of
law.
In the absence of any allegation that the offense was committed
in relation to the office of the accused or was necessarily
connected with the discharge of their functions, the regional
court, not the Sandiganbayan, has jurisdiction to hear and
decide the case.
Thus, for jurisdiction over crimes committed by public officers in
relation to public office to fall within jurisdiction of the
Sandiganbayan — the intimate relation between the offense
charged and the discharge of official duties must be alleged in
the information.
There must be specific factual averments of this relation, except
when the office is a constituent element of the offense charged.

For instance, although public office is not an element of the
crime of murder in abstract, where the offense therein charged
in the information is intimately connected with the respective
offices of the accused and was perpetuated while they were in
the performance, though irregular or improper, of their officials
functions and had no personal motive to commit the crime and
would not have committed it had they not held their public office
and merely obeyed the instruc-don of their superior officer, the
offense may be said to have been committed in relation to their
office.
As explained by the Court —
"In People v. Montejo, where the amended information alleged —
Leroy S. Brown, City Mayor of Basilan City, as such, has organized groups
of police patrol and civilian commandos consisting of regular policemen
and x x x special policemen, appointed and provided by him with pistols
and high power guns and then established a camp x x x at Tipo-tipo which
is under his command x x x supervision and control where his co-
defendants were stationed, entertained criminal complaints and conducted
the corresponding investigations, as well as assumed the authority to
arrest and detain persons without due process of law and without bringing
them to the proper court, and that in line with this set-up established by
said Mayor of Basilan City as such, and acting upon his orders his co-
defendants arrested and maltreated Awalin Tebag who died in
consequence thereof.
The court held that the offense charged was committed in
relation to the office of the accused because it was perpetrated
while they were in the performance, though improper or
irregular of their official functions and would not have been
committed had they not held their office, besides, the accused
had no personal motive in committing the crime, thus, there was
an intimate connection between the offense and the office of the
accused.
In the afore-cited case of People v. Montejo, it is noteworthy
that the phrase committed in relation to public office does not
appear in the information, which only signifies that the said
phrase is not what determines the jurisdiction of the
Sandiganbayan.
What is controlling is the specific factual allegations in the
information that would indicate the close intimacy between the
discharge of the accused's official duties and the commission of
the offense charged, in order to qualify the crime as having been
committed in relation to public office.
Where however, from the allegations of the information, it does
not appear that the official positions of the accused were
connected with the offenses charged, it cannot be said that they
are charged of an offense committed in relation to their official
position.
The difference between Montilla and Montejo is that, whereas in
the former (Montilla), the murder was committed outside office
hours and for personal or political motives, the victim in the
latter case (Montejo) was killed while he was undergoing
custodial investigation in the police substation.
The crime in Montejo would not have been committed were it not
for the fact that the accused were actually discharging official
functions at the time.
Thus, the offense charged in Montejo was committed in relation
to the office of the accused because it was perpetrated while
they were in the performance, though improper or irregular of
their official functions and would not have been committed had
they not held their office; besides, the accused had no personal
motive in committing the crime; thus, there was an intimate
connection between the offense and the office of the accused.
Upon the otherhand, although the information alleged that the
principal accused committed the crime in relation to their public
office, but there is no specific allegation of facts that the
shooting of the victim by the said principal accused was
intimately related to the discharge of their official duties as
police officers, or does not indicate that the said accused
arrested and investigated the victim and then killed the latter
while in their custody, the offense charged in the subject
criminal cases is plain murder and therefore, within the exclusive
original jurisdiction of the Regional Trial Court, and not the
Sandiganbayan.
"Thus, the informations do not indicate that the accused arrested and
investigated the victims and then killed the latter in the course of the
investigation but merely allege that the accused, for the purpose of
extracting or extorting the sum of P353,000.00 abducted, kidnapped and
detained the two victims, and failing in their common purpose, they shot
and killed the said victims.
For the purpose of determining jurisdiction, it is these allegations that
shall control, and not the evidence presented by the prosecution at the
trial.
Consequently, for failure to show in the amended informations
that the charge of murder was intimately connected with the dis-
charge of official functions of the accused PNP officers, the
offense charged in the subject criminal cases is plain murder
and, therefore, within the exclusive original jurisdiction of the
Regional Trial Court, not the Sandiganbayan.
1. Falsification of an official document is not within the
jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan unless committed in
relation to the public office of the public officer.
9
Thus, in the case of Bartolome, there is no showing that the
alleged falsification was committed by the accused, if at all,
as a consequence of, and while they were discharging
official functions.
The information does not allege that there was an intimate
connection between the discharge of official duties and of
the offense.
The case did not come under the jurisdiction of the
Sandiganbayan.
For purposes, however, of acquisition of jurisdiction by the
Sandiganbayan, the requirement imposed by R.A. No. 8249
that the offense be "committed in relation" to the offender's
office is entirely distinct from the concept of taking
advantage of one's position as provided under Articles 171
and 172 of the Revised Penal Code.
2. The crime of rape with homicide is not an offense committed
in relation to the office of the petitioner.
In Montilla v. Hilario, this Court, described the "offense
committed in relation to the office" as follows:
"The taking of human life is either murder or homicide whether done
by a private citizen or public servant, and the penalty is the same
except when the perpetrator, being a public functionary, took
advantage of his office, as alleged in this case, in which event the
penalty is increased.
But the use or abuse of office does not adhere to the crime as an
element; and even as an aggravating circumstance, its materiality
arises, not from the allegations but on the proof; not from the fact
that the criminals are public officials but from the manner of the
cornmission of the crime.
There is no direct relation between the commission of the crime of
rape with homicide and the petitioner's office as municipal mayor
because public office is not an essential element of the crime
charged.
The offense can stand independently of the office.
Moreover, it is not even alleged in the information that the
commission of the crime charged was intimately connected with the
performance of the petitioner's official functions to make it fall under
the exception laid down in People v. Montejo."
3. Acts of Lasciviousness filed against an MTC Judge committed
against Court personnel whom he is authorized to
recommend appointment under Supreme Court circular —
and used his official position in committing the act
complained of, the crime was held as having been
committed in relation to his office.

While public office is not an element of the crime of
lasciviousness — he could not have committed the crime
charged were it not for the fact that as Presiding Judge of
the MTCC branch, he has authority to recommend her
appointment as bookbinder.
The crime committed as alleged in the amended information
are intimately connected with his office.
A mere allegation that the crime was committed in relation
to public office is not what determines the jurisdiction of the
Sandiganbayan.
What is controlling is the specific factual allegation in the
information that would indicate the close intimacy between
the discharge of the accuser's official duties and the
commission of the of the offense charged, in order to qualify
the crime as having been committed in relation to public
office.
4. Where the killing committed by a PNP officer was committed
while in the course of trying to restore local public order
which had been breached by a fistfight between the victim
and two other individuals, the killing was committed in
relation to the accused's public office.
5. Where the amended information contained allegations that
the accused, petitioner took advantage of his official
functions as municipal mayor ofMeycauayan, Bulacan when
he committed the crime of grave threats as defined in
Article 282 of the Revised Penal Code against complainant
Simeon G. Legaspi, a municipal councilor; and. The Office of
the Special Prosecutor charged petitioner with aiming a gun
at and threatening to kill Legaspi during a public hearing,
after the latter had rendered a privilege speech critical of
petitioner's administration.
Clearly, based on such allegations, the crime charged is
intimately connected with the discharge of petitioner's
official functions.
If he was not the mayor, he would not have been irritated or
angered by whatever private complainant might have said
during said privilege speech."
Thus, based on the allegations in the information, the
Sandiganbayan correctly assumed jurisdiction over the case.
6. The same principles were stressed in Soller v.
Sandiganbayan, where the Municipal Mayor and others were
charged in the Sandiganbayan with Obstruction of
Apprehension and Prosecution of Criminal Offenses as
denned and penalized under P.D. No. 1829 for tampering
with the autopsy and police reports to mislead the
investigation of the fatal shootout of the victim.
But aside from noting the absence of specific factual
allegations, that the offense was committed in relation to
public office, the court found that the preparation of police
and autopsy reports and the presentation and gathering of
evidence in the investigation of criminal cases are not
among the duties and functions and the broad responsibility
to maintain peace and order cannot be basis for construing
that that the criminal acts imputed to the mayor.
Of tampering and falsifying the autopsy reports, were
committed in relation to his office.
7. Where the Informations allege that petitioner, then a "public
officer," committed the crimes of murder and frustrated
murder "in relation to his office," i.e., as "Community
Environment and Natural Resources Officer" of the DENR.
It is apparent from this allegation that the offenses charged
are intimately connected with petitioner's office and were
perpetrated while he was in the performance of his official
functions.
In its Resolution dated August 25,1992, the Sandiganbayan
held that petitioner was "on duty up in order to prevent
incursions into the forest and wooded area," and that
petitioner, as a guard, was "precisely furnished with a
firearm in order to resist entry by force or intimidation."
Indeed, if petitioner was not on duty at the DENR checkpoint
on January 14, 1990, he would not have had the bloody
encounter with Mayor Cortez and his men.
Thus, based on the allegations in the Informations, the
Sandiganbayan correctly assumed jurisdiction over the
cases.
JURISDICTION NOT DETERMINED BY ALLEGATIONS
EXPLAINED
In Republic u. Asuncion, the Court stressed that the foregoing
requisites must be alleged in the information for the
Sandiganbayan to have jurisdiction.
It was, however, held in one case that under Section 4, P.D. No.
1606, when the penalty prescribed by law is higher than Prision
Correccional, the Sandiganbayan has jurisdiction, without stating
that the offense was committed in relation to the offender's
10
office.
This was a mistake that misled the prosecution in subsequent
cases.
Thus, in Republic v. Asuncion, the information did not disclose
that the offense of homicide charged against the accused who
was a member of the PNP was committed in relation to the office
of the accused, but the trial court, during the progress of the
trial dismissed the case without prejudice for refiling in the
Sandiganbayan.
The Supreme Court en bane speaking thru Justice Davide, Jr.,
surmised that the absence of an allegation that the crime was
committed "in relation to his office" was because of the
erroneous doctrine in Deloso u. Domingo which conveyed the
impression that this was not necessary.
Hence, the court a quo was directed to conduct a preliminary
hearing to determine whether the crime charged was committed
by the respondents in relation to his office.
If it be determined in the affirmative, then it shall order the
transfer of the case to the Sandiganbayan which shall forthwith
docket and proceed with the case as if the same were originally
filed with it.
Otherwise, the court a quo shall proceed with the case.
In Cunanan u. Arceo, the information for murder against a PNP
contained no averment that the offense charged was in relation
to his public office, hence, the court proceeded to trial and after
ooth parties have presented their evidence declared the case
submitted for decision.
The trial court applied Republic v. Asuncion, and conducted a
hearing solely to ascertain if accused had committed the offense
charged in relation to his office, and found that he did.
The trial court accordingly dismissed the case for lack of
jurisdiction for refiling with the Sandiganbayan pursuant to the
"Asuncion Ruling."
In a further order, the trial judge modified the dismissal by
ordering instead the transfer of the case to the Sandiganbayan.
The Supreme Court speaking thru the Third Division did not
consider the absence of an allegation in the information that the
offense was committed in relation to his office.
The Court stated:
It is firmly settled that jurisdiction over the offense charged is a matter
that is conferred by law. Whenever the above two (2) requisites are
present, jurisdiction over the offense is vested in the Sandiganbayan.
This is true even though the information originally Sled before the RTC did
not aver that the accused public officer public had committed the offense
charged in relation to his office.
In other words, the absence in the old information filed before the RTC af
an allegation that petitioner Cunanan has committed the offense in
relation to his office is immaterial insofar as determination of the locus of
jurisdiction is concerned.
Indeed, it may be recalled that bhe Asuncion ruling involved a situation
where the information similarly did not contain an averment that the
accused public officer had committed the offense charged while carrying
out his official duties.
It was precisely to address the situation that the Supreme Court in
Asuncion fashioned the rule directing the conduct of a preliminary ar
separate hearing by a trial court to determine the presence or absence of
that jurisdictional element.
The RTC's initial assumption of jurisdiction over the offense
charged in this case did not, therefore, prevent it from
subsequently declaring itself to be without jurisdiction, lack of
jurisdiction having become apparent from subsequent
proceedings in that case.
JURISDICTION MUST BE DETERMINED BY ALLEGATIONS
IN THE COMPLAINT
The foregoing pronouncements is not in accord with the well-
settled rule that jurisdiction is determined by the allegations of
the complaint and not by the finding of the court after trial.
The Asuncion case did not hold that the absence of an allegation
of the offense having been committed "in relation to his office"
as immaterial, but justified the absence thereof as having been
caused by the erroneous ruling in the case of Deloso v.
Domingo.
The court did not fashion the rule directing the conduct of a
preliminary or separate hearing to determine the absence or
presence of that jurisdictional element.
It did so only because of the peculiar circumstance that the
omission may have been due to inadvertence in view of the
misleading pronouncement in Deloso.
Asuncion has not, however, departed from the rule that
jurisdiction is to be determined by the allegations of the
complaint.
On the contrary, Asuncion stressed that the public officers or
employees committed the crime in relation to their office must,
however be alleged in the information for the Sandiganbayan to
have jurisdiction over a case under Section 4(a)(2).
This allegation is necessary because of the unbending rule that
jurisdiction is determined by the allegations of the information.
In the subsequent case of People v. Magallanes, where the
accused were charged with kidnapping for ransom with murder
wherein some of the accused were members of the PNP, the
information does not indicate that the accused arrested and
investigated the victims and then killed the latter in the course
of the investigation.
The informations merely alleged that the accused, for the
purpose of extracting and extorting money, abducted, kidnapped
and detained the two victims, and failing in their common
purpose, they shot and killed the said victims.
The Supreme Court thru the First Division speaking thru Justice
Davide, Jr., also the ponente in the Asuncion case stated: "For
the purpose of determining jurisdiction, it is these allegations
that shall control, and not the evidence presented by the
prosecution at the trial." (Italics Supplied)
The court held that the allegations of "taking advantage of his
position or their respective positions" incorporated in the
informations is not sufficient to bring the offenses within the
definition of "offenses commited in relation to public office."
In Montilla u. Hilario, such an allegation was merely considered
as an allegation of an aggravating circumstance and not as one
that qualifies the crime as having been committed in relation to
public office.
Also, in Bartolome u. People of the Philippines, despite the
allegations that the accused public official committed the crime
of falsification of official document by "taking advantage of their
official positions," the court held that the Sandiganbayan had no
jurisdiction over the case, because "the information (did) not
allege that there was an intimate connection between the
discharge of official duties and the commissison of the offense."
Accordingly, for lack of an allegation in the informations that the
offenses were committed in relation to the office of the accused.
PNP officer or were intimately connected with the discharge of
the functions of the accused, the subject cases come within the
jurisdiction of the Regional Trial Court and not of the
Sandiganbayan.
11
This was also the ruling in Lacson v. Executive Secretary.
It should, however, be noted that under Republic Act No. 7975,
jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan over other offenses or felonies
committed by public officials and employees in relation to their
office is no longer determined by the prescribed penalty.
It is enough that theyare committed by those public officials and
employees enumerated in subsection a, Section 4, R.A. No.
8249.
It is when the erring public official is not among the enumerated
functionaries, that jurisdiction by courts other than the
Sandiganbayan is to be determined by the penalty prescribed by
law.
EXCLUSIVE JURISDICTION OF SANDIGANBAYAN OVER
a. PCGG
Under Section 2 of Executive Order No. 14, the
Sandiganbayan has exclusive and original jurisdiction over
all cases regarding the "funds, moneys, assets and
properties illegally acquired by former President Ferdinand
E. Marcos x x x civil or criminal, including incidents arising
from such cases.
The decision of the Sandiganbayan is subject to review on
certiorari exclusively by the Supreme Court."
In the exercise of its functions, the PCGG is a co-equal body
with the Regional Trial Courts and co-equal bodies have no
power to control the other.
The Regional Trial Courts and the Court of Appeals have no
jurisdiction over the PCGG in the exercise of its powers
under the applicable Executive Orders and Section 26,
Article XVIII of the 1987 Constitution and, therefore, may
not interfere with and restrain or set aside the orders and
actions of the PCGG acting for and in behalf of said
Commission.
b. Exclusive Jurisdiction over Cases Filed by PCGG
The exclusive jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan over civil
and criminal cases filed by PCGG, as well as incidents arising
from, incidental or related to such cases is subject to review
on certiorari exclusively by the Supreme Court.
The fact of sequestration alone does not, however,
automatically oust the RTC of jurisdiction to decide upon the
question of ownership (of the subject gaming and office
equipment of the Philippine Casino Operators Corporation).
 The PCGG must be a party to the suit in order that the
Sandiganbayan's exclusive jurisdiction may be correctly
invoked.
But where the PCGG is not a party to the case, and the
complaint is solely between PAGCOR and PCOC, the RTC has
jurisdiction under Sec. 19 ofB.P. Big. 129 over PAGCOR's
action for recovery of personal property, even if said
property was under sequestration by the PCGG.
c. Sandiganbayan jurisdiction includes all incidents
from, incidental to or related to principal causes of
action
In subsequent cases jointly decided on August 10, 1988, the
Court pointed out that: "(the) exclusive jurisdiction
conferred on the Sandiganbayan would evidently extend not
only to the principal causes of action, i.e., the recovery of
alleged ill-gotten wealth, but also to 'all incidents arising
from, incidental to, or related to, such cases,' such as the
dispute over the sale of shares, the propriety of the issuance
of ancillary writs or provisional remedies relative thereto,
the sequestration thereof, which may not be made the
subject of separate actions or proceedings in another
forum."
Likewise, in the case of Republic v. Sandiganbayan, the
Court ruled that while the PCGG is ordinarily allowed a free
hand in the exercise of its administrative or executive
function, the Sandiganbayan is empowered to determine in
an appropriate case, if in the exercise of such functions, the
PCGG has gravely abused its discretion or has overstepped
the boundaries of the power conferred upon it by law.
The Court stated:
Any act or order transgressing the parameter of the objectives for
which the PCGG was created, if tainted with abuse of discretion, is
subject to a remedial action by the Sandiganbayan, the court vested
with exclusive and original jurisdiction over cases involving the PCGG
including cases filed by those who challenge PCGG's acts or orders
Settled is the rule that when a law confers jurisdiction upon a court,
it is deemed to have all the incidental powers necessary to render
the exercise of such jurisdiction effective
In PCGG v. Sandiganbayan, the Court stated that there is a
need to vigorously guard sequestered assets and preserve
them pending resolution of the sequestration case before
the Sandiganbayan, considering the paramount public policy
for the recovery of ill-gotten wealth.
The Court ruled that sequestered assets and corporations
are legally and technically in custodia legis, under the
administration of the PCGG. Executive Order No. 2
specifically prohibits the transfer, conveyance,
encumbrance, or otherwise depletion or concealment of
such assets and properties, under pain of penalties pre-
scribed by law.
Thus, an action which can result in the deterioration and
disappearance of the sequestered assets cannot be allowed,
unless there is a final adjudication and disposition of the
issue as to whether these assets are ill-gotten or not, since
it may result in damage or prejudice to the Republic of the
Philippines.
The Sandiganbayan has jurisdiction to annul a judgment of
partition by the RTC involving a sequestration related
property.
d. Jurisdiction Does Not Include Questions of Business
Judgment
The Court, however, ruled that Sandiganbayan is without
jurisdiction where the matter does not really seek to
question the propriety of the sequestration by the PCGG or
any matter incidental to or arising out of such sequestration
but deals mainly with what is a business judgment.
The Court pointed to Holiday Inn (Phils.), Inc. u.
Sandiganbayan, where the issue related to a management
agreement terminated by the Board of Directors of a
sequestered corporation, 2/3 of the members of such board
being composed by PCGG nominees.
The action for intervention was lodged with
Sandiganbayan in the main sequestration case.
The petitioners in that case averred that the Sandiganbayan
has jurisdiction over the action since the action to terminate
the management agreement bears the imprimatur of the
PCGG nominees sitting at the Board, making PCGG the real
party-in-interest.
The Resolution of the Sandiganbayan, which was upheld by
the Supreme Court, ruled on the contrary, thus:
This Court is of the view that its jurisdiction refers to acts of the
PCGG acting as such whether alone or with other persons, natural or
juridical, and not generally where PCGG representatives act as part
of another juridical person or entity.
12
A rule of thumb might be thus: if the PCGG can be properly
impleaded on a cause of action asserted before this Court as a
distinct entity, then this Court would generally exercise jurisdiction;
otherwise, it would not, because, then the 'PCGG character' of the
act or omission in question may, at best, be only incidental.
After all, the presence of PCGG representatives in sequestered
companies does not automatically tear down the corporate veil that
distinguishes the corporation from its officers, directors or
stockholders.
Corporate officers whether nominated by the PCGG or not act,
insofar as third parties are concerned, are (sic) corporate officers.
Contracts entered into by the San Miguel Corporation, for example,
in connection with its poultry operations and the cancellations
thereof, are not PCGG activities which would justify the invocation of
this Court's jurisdiction, even if the contract or suit were
unanimously approved by its board of directors where PCGG
representatives sit.
This Court added:
The subject matter of petitioner's proposed complaint-in-intervention
involves basically, an interpretation of contract, i.e., whether or not
the right of first refusal could and/or should have been observed.
The question of whether or not the sequestered property was
lawfully acquired by Roberto S. Benedicto has no bearing on the
legality of the termination of the management contract by NRHDC's
Board of Directors.
The two are independent and unrelated issues and resolution of
which may proceed independently of each other.
. . . (T)he Sandiganbayan correctly denied jurisdiction over the
proposed complaint-in-intervention.
The original and exclusive jurisdiction given to the Sandiganbayan
over PCGG cases pertains to (a) cases filed by the PCGG, pursuant to
the exercise of its power under Executive Order Nos. 1, 2 and 14, as
the amended by the Office of the President, and Article XVIII, Section 26
of the Constitution, i.e., where the principal cause of action is the
recovery of ill-gotten wealth, as well as all incidents arising from,
incidental to or related to such cases and (b) cases filed by those
who wish to question or challenge the commission's acts or orders in
such cases.
JURISDICTION OVER FORFEITURE CASES
After reviewing the legislative history of the Sandiganbayan and
the Office of the Ombudsman, the Court declared that —
"Under R.A. No. 8249, the Sandiganbayan is vested with exclusive original
jurisdiction in all cases involving violations of R.A. No. 3019, R.A. No.
1379, and Chapter II, Sec. 2, Title VII, Book II of the Revised Penal Code,
where one or more of the accused are officials occupying the following
positions whether in a permanent, acting or interim capacity, at the time
of the commission of the offense.
It is a civil procreedings in rem but criminal in nature
JURISDICTION OVER MONEY LAUNDERING CASES
The Anti money-laundering law provides for two kinds of cases
which are independent of each other.
The criminal action for anti-money — laundering offense (Sec. 4)
and the civil forfeiture proceedings (Sec. 12) which may be filed
separately and proceed independently of the criminal
prosecution.
a. The Criminal Action
Republic Act No. 9160 as amended (The Anti-Money
Laundering Act of 2001) defines
Money Laundering Offense. — Money laundering is a crime
whereby the proceeds of an unlawful activity are transacted,
thereby making them appear to have originated from
legitimate sources. It is committed by the following:
(a) Any person knowing that any monetary instrument or
property represents, involves, or relates to the proceeds
of any unlawful activity, transacts or attempts to
transact said monetary instrument or property.
(b) Any person knowing that any monetary instrument or
property involves the proceeds of any unlawful activity,
performs or fails to perform any act as a result of which
he facilitates the offense of money laundering referred
to in paragraph (a) above.
(c) Any person knowing that any monetary instrument or
property is required under this Act to be disclosed and
filed with the Anti-Money Laundering Council (AMLC),
fails to do so.
JURISDICTION OF MONEY LAUNDERING CASES
The regional trial courts shall have jurisdiction to try all cases on
money laundering.
Those committed by public officers and private persons who are
in conspiracy with such public officers shall be under the
jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan.
The foregoing section apparently refers to the criminal offense of
anti-money laundering as defined in Section 4 of the law.
b.
a. The Civil Forfeiture Proceedings
The law provided that in petitions for civil forfeiture the
Revised Rules of Court shall apply.
In consequence thereof, the Supreme Court issued the —
RULE OF PROCEDURE IN CASES OF CIVIL FORFEITURE,
ASSET PRESERVATION, AND FREEZING OF MONETARY
INSTRUMENT, PROPERTY, OR PROCEEDS REPRESENTING,
INVOLVING, OR RELATING TO AN UNLAWFUL ACTIVITY OR
MONEY LAUNDERING OFFENSE UNDER REPUBLIC ACT NO.
9160, AS AMENDED.
The Rule expressly provided that —
The Rule shall govern all proceedings for civil forfeiture,
asset preservation and freezing of monetary instrument,
property, or proceeds representing, involving, or relating to
an unlawful activity or a money laundering offense under
Republic Act No. 9160, as amended.
The Revised Rules of Court shall apply suppletorily when not
inconsistent with the provisions of this special Rule.
Title II of the Rule provided only for Civil Forfeiture in the
Regional Trial Court. Thus —
SEC. 2. Party to Institute Proceedings. — The Republic of the
Philippines, through the Anti-Money Laundering Council,
represented by the Office of the Solicitor General, may
institute actions for civil forfeiture and all other remedial
proceedings in favor of the State of any monetary
instrument, property, or proceeds representing, involving,
or relating to an unlawful activity or a money laundering
offense.
SEC. 3. Venue of Cases Cognizable by the Regional Trial
Court. — A petition for civil forfeiture shall be filed in any
regional trial court of the judicial region where the monetary
instrument, property, or proceeds representing, involving,
or relating to an unlawful activity or to a money laundering
offense are located;
provided, however, that where all or any portion of the
monetary instrument, property, or proceeds is located
outside the Philippines, the petition may be filed in the
regional trial court in Manila or of the judicial region where
any portion of the monetary instrument, property, or
proceeds is located, at the option of the petitioner.
The Rule Does Not Provide for Civil Forfeiture Before
the Sandiganbayan
13
The law created an Anti-Money Laundering Council (AMLC)
— tasked with implementing the law, was empowered x x x
(3) to institute civil forfeiture proceedings and all other
remedial proceedings through the Office of the Solicitor
General;
(4) to cause the filing of complaints with the Department of
Justice or the Ombudsman for the prosecution of money
laundering offenses;
(5) to initiate investigations of covered transactions, money
laundering activities and other violations of this Act.
CIVIL AND CRIMINAL FORFEITURE DISTINGUISHED
It is to be noted that under the Anti-Money Laundering Act, so
far as Civil Forfeiture is concerned it is the AMLC that is
authorized to institute civil forfeiture proceedings and all other
remedial proceedings through the Office of the Solicitor General
with the Regional Trial Court.
There is no similar authority to file such cases with the
Sandiganbayan.
It is only in criminal cases that the AMLC is authorized to cause
the filing of complaints with the Department of Justice or the
Ombudsman for the prosecution of money laundering offenses.
But unlike Civil Forfeiture under R.A. No. 1379 which specifically
authorized its filing by the Ombudsman or thru the Office of
Special Prosecutor in the Sandiganbayan.
No similar authority have been granted the Ombudsman with
respect to civil forfeiture under the Anti-money Laundering Law.
JURISDICTION OF SANDIGANBAYAN TO BE
DISTINGUISHED FROM JURISDICTION OF OMBUDSMAN
OVER PUBLIC OFFICERS
a. The Jurisdiction of the Ombudsman to investigate and
prosecute Public Officers for any illegal act or omission is not
exclusive but a shared concurrent authority in respect of the
offense charged.
b. The Ombudsman's primary power to investigate is
dependent on the cases cognizable by Sandiganbayan.
The Ombudsman's primary jurisdiction is dependent on the
cases cognizable by the former.
But the authority is concurrent with other similarly
 authorized agencies.
However, the Ombudsman may take over the investigation
of such case at any stage from any investigative agency of
the Government.
This is only directory.
SANDIGANBAYAN NOW WITH CERTIORARI
JURISDICTION
R.A. No. 7975 expressly conferred certiorari jurisdiction in the
Sandiganbayan, in aid of its appellate jurisdiction.
WHERE PUBLIC OFFICIAL CHARGED AS MERE
ACCOMPLICE OF PRIVATE INDIVIDUAL
Section 4 of Presidential Decree No. 1606, as amended by
Presidential Decree No. 1861, provides in part "that in case
private individuals are charged as co-principals, accomplices, or
accessories with the public officers or employees, including those
employed in government-owned or -controlled corporations, they
shall be tried jointly with said public officers and employees."
The rule that "accessory follows the principal" appears to
underlie the provision of Presidential Decree No. 1606, for when
private individuals are charged as co-principals, accomplices or
accessories with the public officers or employees, the implication
is that the latter was charged as principal.
Hence, if a public officer or employee is charged as a mere
accomplice or accessory with a private individual, as principal,
the corollary implication is that the former shall be tried jointly
with the latter in the ordinary courts.
The rationale is justified by the total absence of a provision in
Presidential Decree No. 1606 directing that all criminal cases
involving public officers and employees, without distinction, be
tried by the Sandiganbayan, even if the criminal involvement of
the public officer is minor or subordinate and inferior to that of
the private individuals charged as principals in the case.
The jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan is not meant to be so
broad and all-encompassing.
EXCLUSIVE JURISDICTION OF SANDIGANBAYAN OVER
PCGG
Under Section 2 of Executive Order No. 14, the Sandiganbayan
has exclusive and original jurisdiction over all cases regarding
the "funds, moneys, assets and properties illegally acquired by
former President Ferdinant E. Marcos x x x" civil or criminal,
including incidents arising from such cases.
The decision of the Sandiganbayan is subject to review on
certiorari exclusively by the Supreme Court.
In the exercise of its functions, the PCGG is a co-equal body with
the Regional Trial Courts and co-equal bodies have no power to
control the other.
The Regional Trial Courts and the Court of Appeals have no
jurisdiction over the PCGG in the exercise of its powers under
the applicable Executive Orders and Section 26, Article XVIII of
the 1987 Constitution and, therefore, may not interfere with and
restrain or set aside the orders and actions of the PCGG acting
for and in behalf of said Commission.
EXCLUSIVE JURISDICTION OVER CASES FILED BY PCGG
The exclusive jurisdiction of Sandiganbayan over civil and
criminal cases filed by PCGG, as well as incidents arising from,
incidental or related to such cases is subject to review on
certiorari exclusively by the Supreme Court.
JURISDICTION TO ANNUL JUDGMENTS
The Sandiganbayan has jurisdiction to annul judgments of the
Regional Trial Court in a sequestration related case, such as a
judgment of the Regional Trial Court for the enforcement of a
foreign judgment involving property that has been lawfully
sequestered.
JURISDICTION OVER MILITARY AND PNP
Republic Act No. 7055 — AN ACT STRENGTHENING CIVILIAN
SUPREMACY OVER THE MILITARY BY RETURNING TO THE CIVIL
COURTS THE JURISDICTION OVER CERTAIN OFFENSES
INVOLVING MEMBERS OF THE ARMED FORCES OF THE
PHILIPPINES, OTHER PERSONS SUBJECT TO MILITARY LAW,
AND THE MEMBERS OF THE PHILIPPINE NATIONAL POLICE,
REPEALING FOR THE PURPOSE CERTAIN PRESIDENTIAL
DECREES.
SECTION 1. Members of the Armed Forces of the Philippines and
other persons subject to military law, including members of the
Citizens Armed Forces Geographical Units, who commit crimes or
offenses penalized under the Revised Penal Code, other special
penal laws, or local government ordinance, regardless of
whether or not civilians are co-accused, victims, or offended
parties which may be natural or juridical persons, shall be tried
by the proper civil court, except when the offense, as
determined before arraignment by the civil court, is service-
connected, in which case the offense shall be tried by court-
martial:
14
Provided, That the President of the Philippines may, in the
interest of justice, order or direct at any time before arraignment
that any such crimes or offenses be tried by the proper civil
courts.
As used in this Section, service-connected crimes or offenses
shall be limited to those defined in Articles 54 to 70, Articles 72
to 92, and Articles 95 to 97 of Commonwealth Act No. 408, as
amended.
In imposing the penalty for such crimes or offenses, the court-
martial may take into consideration the penalty prescribed
therefor in the Revised Penal Code, other special penal laws, or
local government ordinances.
SEC. 2. Subject to the provisions of Section 1 hereof, all cases
filed or pending for filing with court-martial or other similar
bodies except those where the accused had already been
arraigned, shall, within thirty (30) days following the effectivity
of this Act, be transferred to the proper civil courts:
Provided, That the Chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines
shall, upon petition before commencement of trial and with the
written consent of the accused, order the transfer of such
expected case or cases to the proper civil courts for trial and
resolution.
SEC. 3. Presidential Decree Nos. 1822, 1822-A, 1850 and 1952,
and all acts general orders, executive orders, and other
presidential issuances, rules and regulations inconsistent with
this Act are hereby repealed or amended accordingly.
The law does not include violations of Republic Act 3019
otherwise known as the Anti-Graft Law even if service-
connected. Violation of this law falls under the jurisdiction of the
Sandiganbayan or the Regional Trial Court depending on the
nature of the position of the offender.
JURISDICTION OVER THE PNP BY REGULAR COURTS
SEC. 46. Jurisdiction in Criminal Cases. — Any provision of law
to the contrary notwithstanding, criminal cases involving PNP
members shall be within the exclusive jurisdiction of the regular
courts;
Provided, That the courts-martial appointed pursuant to
Presidential Decree No. 1850 shall continue to try PC-INP
members who have already been arraigned, to include
appropriate actions thereon by the reviewing authorities
pursuant to Commonwealth Act No. 408, otherwise known as the
Articles of War, as amended and Executive Order No. 178,
otherwise known as the Manual for Courts-Martial;

Provided, further, That criminal cases against PC-INP members
who may have not yet been arraigned upon the effectivity of this
Act shall be transferred to the proper city or provincial
prosecutor or municipal trial court judge.143
MEANING OF REGULAR COURTS
It has been held that the term regular courts in Section 46 of
R.A. No. 6975 means civil courts.
There could have been no other meaning intended since the
primary purpose of the law is to remove from courts martial the
jurisdiction over criminal cases involving members of the PNP
and to vest it in the courts within the judicial system, i.e., the
civil courts which as contradistinguished from courts martial, are
the regular courts.
Courts martial are not courts within the Philippine judicial
system; they pertain to the executive department of the
government and are simply instrumentalities of the executive
power.
Otherwise stated, courts martial are not regular courts.
The Sandiganbayan are regular courts within the law's
contemplation.
JURISDICTION OF MILITARY COURT
A military officer being dropped from the roll amounts to a
dishonorable discharge which does not terminate his amenability
for the trial in a court martial for the offense he had committed
while an officer of the military.
The fact that Colonel Abadilla was dropped from the rolls should
not lead to the conclusion that he is now beyond the jurisdiction
of the military authorities.
If such a conclusion were to prevail, his very own refusal to clear
his name and protect his honor before his superior officers in the
manner prescribed for and expected from a ranking military
officer would be his shield against prosecution.
His refusal to report for duty or to surrender when ordered
arrested, which led to his name being dropped from the roll of
regular officers of the military cannot thereby render him beyond
the jurisdiction of the military courts for offenses he committed
while still in the military service.
MILITARY COURTS HAVE NO JURISDICTION OVER
CIVILIANS
A military commission or tribunal cannot try and exercise
jurisdiction over civilians for offenses allegedly committed by
them as long as civil courts are open and functioning.
Any judgment rendered by such body relating to a civilian is null
and void for lack of jurisdiction.
The Supreme Court clarified in Tan u. Barrios that "Olaguer
should, in principle, be applied prospectively only to future cases
and cases still ongoing or not yet final when that decision was
promulgated.
Hence, there should be no retroactive nullification of final
judgments, whether of conviction or acquittal, rendered by
military courts against civilians before the promulgation of the
Olaguer decision.
Such final sentences should not be disturbed by the State."
The Supreme Court went on to state:
"Only in particular cases where the convicted person or the State shows
that there was a serious denial of the Constitutional rights of the accused,
should the nullity of the sentence be declared and retrial be ordered based
on the violation of the constitutional rights of the accused, and not on
Olaguer doctrine.
If a retrial is no longer possible, the accused should be released since the
judgment against him is null on account of the violation of his
constitutional rights and denial of due process."
JURISDICTION OVER THE PERSON WHEN ACQUIRED
Jurisdiction over the person of the accused is acquired upon his
arrest or upon his voluntary appearance.
RULE IN MILITARY PROCEEDINGS
The rule that jurisdiction over a person is acquired by his arrest
applies only to criminal proceedings instituted before the regular
courts.
It does not apply to proceedings under military law.
WAIVER
Any objection to the procedure leading to the arrest must be
opportunely raised before the accused enters his plea.
The accused is also barred from raising the question of
jurisdiction over his person if he enters his plea instead of
objecting to the irregularity of the issuance of the warrant of
arrest.
VOLUNTARY APPEARANCE
In a prosecution under Republic Act No. 3019, the Anti-Graft and
15
Corrupt Practices Act, the appearance of a counsel for an
accused who has not been arrested, in the pre-suspension
hearing required under said law, is a voluntary appearance.
The filing of a motion to dismiss presupposes that the accused is
within Philippine territory; otherwise, the "voluntary appearance"
is an exercise in futility.
Physical control is indispensable.
If the accused is outside of the Philippines, he cannot be said to
be under the physical control of the Court.
Voluntary appearance is accomplished by appearing for
arraignment.
Such jurisdiction once acquired is not lost upon the instance of
the parties, such as when the accused escapes from the custody
of the law, but continues until the case is terminated.
In such case, the Court may proceed with the trial in absentia of
the accused, provided that there has been an arraignment.
The cases holding that where the accused, after his arrest, filed
a petition for bail, it is too late for him to object thereafter to the
regularity of the issuance of the warrant of arrest are no longer
true.
Under Section 26, Rule 114 of the 2000 Rules on Criminal
Procedure:
SEC. 26. Bail not a bar to objections on illegal arrest, lack of or irregular
preliminary investigation. — An application for or admission to bail shall
not bar the accused from challenging the validity of his arrest or the
legality of the warrant issued thereof, or from assailing the regularity or
questioning the absence of a preliminary investigation of the charge
against him, provided that he raises them before entering his plea.
The court shall resolve the matter as early as practicable but not later
than the start of the trial of the case.
In applications for bail, however, the ACCUSED MUST BE IN
CUSTODY OF LAW to be entitled to bail.
If the accused is charged with a capital offense or an offense
punishable by reclusion perpetua or life imprisonment, the Judge
must have jurisdiction over the person of accused and over the
case.
The rationale behind the rule is that it discourages and prevents
resort to the former pernicious practice whereby the accused
could just send another in his stead to post his bail, without
recognizing the jurisdiction of the court by his personal
appearance therein and compliance with the requirements
therefor.
Thus, in Feliciano v. Pasicolan, where the petitioner who had
been charged with kidnapping with murder went into hiding
without surrendering himself, and shortly thereafter, filed a
motion asking the court to fix the amount of bail bond for his
release pending trial, the Supreme Court categorically
pronounced that said petitioner was not eligible for admission to
bail.
The person seeking his provisional release under the auspices of
bail need not even wait for a formal complaint or information to
be filed against him as it is available to "all persons" where the
offense is bailable.
This rule is, of course, subject to the condition or limitation that
the applicant is in the custody of the law.
The Court should not even allow a motion for bail to be set for
hearing unless it has acquired jurisdiction over the person of the
accused and the case by its filing in Court.
Custody How Acquired: The accused must be in custody of the
law, either:
a) By virtue of a warrant or warrantless arrest; or
b) When he voluntarily submitted himself to the jurisdiction of
the Court by surrendering to the proper authorities.
The mere filing of an application for bail is not sufficient.
This principle is, however, only for purposes of bail.
In other cases, the filing of motion or other papers invoking
affirmative relief is a submission to court's jurisdiction.
Hence, an application for admission to bail of a person against
whom a criminal action has been filed, but who is still at large is
premature.
As a matter of course, upon voluntary appearance of the
accused, the judge should require another motion for bail and
set the same for hearing, with the prosecution notified thereof.
Unless the accused is in the custody of the law, the court may
not even set his application for bail for hearing.
EXCEPTIONS WHEN MERE FILING OF MOTION SUFFICIENT
In Paderanga v. Court of Appeals (supra), the accused having
filed his motion for admission to bail before he was actually and
physically placed under arrest, as he was then confined at the
hospital, and his counsel manifested before the court at the
hearing of the motion that he was submitting custody of the
person of the accused to the local chapter president of the
Integrated Bar of the Philippines, and for purposes of said
hearing on his bail application, he be considered as being in the
custody of the law, the Supreme Court held that he may at that
point and in the factual ambiance thereof, be considered as
being constructively and legally under custody.
Thus, in the likewise peculiar circumstances which attended the
filing of his bail application with the trial court, for purposes of
the hearing thereof he should be deemed to have voluntarily
submitted his person to the custody of the law and necessarily,
to the jurisdiction of the trial court which thereafter granted bail
as prayed for.
In fact, an arrest is made either by an actual restraint of the
arrestee or merely by his submission to the custody of the
person making the arrest.
The latter mode may be exemplified by the so-called "house
arrest" or, in case of military offenders, by being "confined to
quarters" or restricted to the military camp area.
The accused who desires to question the jurisdiction of a court
over his person must appear in court only for the specific
purpose, and if he raises other questions, he waived the
objection to question the jurisdiction over her person.
Failure to quash the information on the ground that, by the
defective arrest, the court did not acquire jurisdiction over the
person of the accused is a waiver to question jurisdiction over
his person.
Under Section 20, Rule 14 of the 1997 Rules on Civil Procedure:
"The inclusion in a motion to dismiss of other grounds aside from
lack of jurisdiction over the person of the defendant shall not be
deemed a voluntary appearance."
There is, however, an exception to the rule that filing pleadings
seeking affirmative relief constitutes voluntary appearance, and
the consequent submission of one's person to the jurisdiction of
the court.
This is in the case of pleadings whose prayer is precisely for the
avoidance of the jurisdiction of the court, which only leads to a
special appearance.
These pleadings are:
(1) in civil cases, motions to dismiss on the ground of lack of
jurisdiction over the person of the defendant, whether or not
other grounds for dismissal are included;
(2) in criminal cases, motions to quash a complaint on the
ground of lack of jurisdiction over the person of the
accused; and
(3) motions to quash a warrant of arrest. The first two are
consequences of the fact that failure to file them would
constitute a waiver of the defense of lack of jurisdiction over
16
the person.
The third is a consequence of the fact that it is the very legality
of the court process forcing the submission of the person of the
accused that is the very issue in a motion to quash a warrant of
arrest.
To recapitulate what we have discussed so far, in criminal cases,
jurisdiction over the person of the accused is deemed waived by
the accused when he files any pleading seeking an affirmative
relief, except in cases when he invokes the special jurisdiction of
the court by impugning such jurisdiction over his person.
Therefore, in narrow cases involving special appearances, an
accused can invoke the processes of the court even though there
is neither jurisdiction over the person nor custody of the law.
However, if a person invoking the special jurisdiction of the court
applies for bail, he must first submit himself to the custody of
the law.
In cases not involving the so-called special appearance, the
general rule applies, i.e., the accused is deemed to have
submitted himself to the jurisdiction of the court upon seeking
affirmative relief
Notwithstanding this, there is no requirement for him to be in
the custody of the law.
JURISDICTION OVER THE PERSON OF THE ACCUSED BY
ARREST OR VOLUNTARY SURRENDER NOT CONDITION
FOR COURT TO GRANT AFFIRMATIVE RELIEF
Except in applications for bail, it is not necessary for the court to
first acquire jurisdiction over the person of the accused to
dismiss the case or grant other relief.
The outright dismissal of the case even aefore the court acquires
jurisdiction over the person of the accused s authorized under
Section 6(a), Rule 112 of the Revised Rules of criminal
Procedure and the Revised Rules on Summary Procedure.
In Allado v. Diokno, the case was dismissed on motion of the
iccused for lack of probable cause without the accused having
been arrested.
In Paul Roberts v. Court of Appeals, the Court was ordered to
hold the issuance of a warrant of arrest in abeyance pending
review by the Secretary of Justice.

And in Lacson v. Executive Secretary, the Court ordered the case
transferred from the Sandiganbayan to the RTC which eventually
ordered the dismissal of the case for lack of probable cause.
It was held in People v. Chun, that where the accused believed
that the order of the holding that bail for the crime charged
against him is not a matter of right is null and void, he need not
wait to be arrested before filing the corresponding petition in an
appropriate proceeding assailing the order.
THE REVISED RULES OF CRIMINAL PROCEDURE
(A.M. No. 00-5-03-SC)
EFFECTIVE DECEMBER 1, 2000
RULE 110
PROSECUTION OF OFFENSES
SECTION 1.
Institution of Criminal Actions
There are three (3) amendments in this rule:
First: The removal of cases governed by the Rule on Sum-
mary Procedure in special cases from the manner of institution
of criminal actions above provided for.
The opening phrase in the former Rule — "For offenses not
subject to the rule on summary procedure in special cases" —
was deleted.
This phrase was ane of the basis of the ruling of the
Supreme Court in the case of Zaidivia v. Reye1 excluding
offenses subject to summary procedure from the general rule on
the interruption of the period of prescription.
Under the amendment, the institution of all criminal
actions shall be the same.
Second: Under the former rule, the commencement of
actions by filing the complaint with the appropriate officer for
preliminary investigation were limited to cases falling under the
jurisdiction of the Regional Trial Court.
This is no longer true.
Under Section 1 of Rule 112, except as provided in Section
7 of said rule, referring to lawful arrests without a warrant,
preliminary investigation is required for an offense punishable by
imprisonment of at least four (4) years, two (2) months and one
(1) day.
The reason why originally there was no preliminary
investigation in cases triable by justice of the peace or municipal
courts was because they involved only minor offenses or
misdemeanors.
The criminal cases then exclusively triable by municipal
courts were those where the penalty provided by law did not
exceed six months imprisonment and/or a P200.00 fine.
Subsequently, however, the offenses exclusively triable by
municipal courts were increased to those punishable with
imprisonment of not exceeding four years and two months
and/or a fine ofP4.000.00 and were further increased to those
punishable with imprisonment not exceeding six (6) years
irrespective of the amount of the fine.
Clearly, therefore, these offenses were not minor or
misdemeanors and yet no preliminary investigation
required.
Since, the type of offenses that requires preliminary investigation have
been expanded by amendment to Section 1, Rule 112 to offenses
punishable by imprisonment of at least four (4) years, two (2) months
and one (1) day, Section 1 required such cases to first be filed for
17
preliminary investigation.
Section 1 has accordingly been amended by removing
therefrom the limitation to offenses commenced by complaint
before the appropriate officer for preliminary investigation only
to those offenses cognizable by the Regional Trial Court, but
included to a limited extent cases cognizable by the municipal
trial courts.
It should also be noted section 5, Rule II of Administrative
No. 8 of the Office of the Ombudsman provides that: "Cases
falling under the jurisdiction of the Office of the Ombudsman
which are cognizable by municipal trial courts, including those
subject to the Rule on Summary Procedure may only be filed in
court by Information approved by the Ombudsman, or the
proper Deputy Ombudsman in all other cases."
Third: Under the former rule, prescription is interrupted in
all cases upon the institution of the criminal action.
The 1988 Amendments abandoned the ruling of the
Supreme Court in People u. Olarte and adopts the ruling in
Francisco u. Court of Appeals, to the effect that the filing of the
complaint with the fiscal's office also interrupts the period of
prescription of the offense charged.
This includes cases filed with the ombudsman for prelimi-
nary investigation.
The Rule does not apply to violations of municipal
ordinances and special laws.
was
In Zaidivia u. Reyes, the court held that the interruption of
the prescriptive period upon the institution of the complaint
under Section 1 of Rule 110, does not apply to cases for
violation of special acts and municipal ordinances.
 This is governed by Act No. 3326 and is interrupted only
by the institution of judicial proceedings for its investigation and
punishment.
The Court clarified in Reodica u. Court of Appeals, that
even if the case is governed by the Revised Rule on Summary
Procedure (which is not a violation of a municipal ordinance or
special law), such as reckless imprudence resulting in slight
physical injuries, prescription is interrupted with the filing of the
complaint in the Fiscal's office.
In view, however, of the ruling in Zaidivia v. Reyes, that
the rules cannot amend special laws, and under Act No. 3326,
the period of prescription for offenses punishable by special laws,
prescription shall only be interrupted upon the institution of
judicial proceedings for its investigation and punishment, the
rule has accordingly been amended to except therefrom offenses
punishable by special laws so far as prescription is concerned.
The main basis of the said ruling of the Supreme Court
was that under Act No. 3326 as amended, the prescriptive
period for violation of special laws and municipal ordinances was
interrupted only upon the filing of the complaint or information in
court.
This ruling was confirmed in the case of Reodica v. Court
ofAppeals11 as an exception to the general rule under Article 91
of the Revised Penal Code that the filing of the complaint,
whether for preliminary investigation or for action on the merits,
interrupts prescription.
Hence, the phrase "unless otherwise provided in special
laws" was inserted as an exception to the general rule that such
institution shall interrupt the period of prescription of the offense
charged.
Act No. 3326, as amended is entitled: "An Act To Establish
Periods of Prescription for Violations Penalized By Special Laws complainant of the complaint or the certificate or repudiation or
and Municipal Ordinances and to Provide When Prescription Shall of the certification to file action issued by the lupon or pangkat
Begin To Run." secretary:
It provides among others that "violations penalized by Provided, however, That such interruption shall not exceed
municipal ordinances shall prescribe after two months." sixty (60) days from the filing of the complaint with the punong
barangay
The exception therefore, includes violations of municipal
ordinances. And is interrupted even if the case filed is not within the
jurisdiction of the court.
A distinction is made between the "institution" and the
"commencement" of a criminal action. PRESCRIPTION INTERRUPTED EVEN IF COURT IS
WITHOUT JURISDICTION
For offenses which require a preliminary investigation, the Prescription is interrupted with the filing of the case even if
criminal action is instituted by filing the complaint with the the court is without jurisdiction.
appropriate officer for preliminary investigation.
The Court, citing Olarte and the subsequent cases of
Francisco v. Court of Appeals and People v. Cuaresma.
The appropriate officer may be the fiscal or the municipal
circuit trial court. Thus, even if preliminary investigation is not required, "the
prescriptive period for the quasi offenses was interrupted by the
The criminal action is commenced when the complaint or filing of complaint with the fiscal's office three days after the
information is filed in court. vehicular mishap and remained tolled pending the termination of
the case."
In offenses cognizable by inferior courts, the complaint or
information is filed directly with said courts, or the complaint is Exceptions: Unless otherwise provided by special laws (Act
filed with the fiscal. However, in Metro Manila and other 3326) includes violations of municipal ordinance) Prescription
chartered cities, the complaint may be filed only with the fiscal. Commences from commission or discovery until institution of
judicial proceedings.
It may, however also be noted that under the Katarungan
For Violation of Special Laws
Pambarangay Law while the dispute is under mediation
conciliation, or arbitration, the prescriptive periods for offenses
and cause of action under existing laws shall be interrupted upon It has been settled that Section 2 of Act No. 3326 governs
filing of the complaint with punong barangay. the computation of prescription of offenses defined and
penalized by special laws.
The prescriptive periods shall resume upon receipt by the
18
 Section 2 of Act No. 3326 was correctly applied by the national legal system and with internationally recognized human
anti-graft court in determining the reckoning period for SEC. 412. Conciliation. — rights.
prescription in a case involving the crime of violation of Republic
Act No. 3019, as amended.
(a) Pre-condition to filing of complaint in court. — No complaint, When disputes involve ICCs/Ps, customary laws and

petition, action, or proceeding involving any matter within practices shall be used to resolve the dispute.
Since the law alleged to have been violated, i.e., the authority of the lupon shall be filed or instituted directly
paragraphs (e) and (g) of Section 3, R.A. No. 3019, as amended, in court or any other government office for adjudication, The National Commission on ICCs/Ps NCIP through its
is a special law, the applicable rule in the computation of the unless there has been a confrontation between the parties regional offices shall have jurisdiction over all claims and
prescriptive period is Section 2 of Act No. 3326, as amended, before the Lupon chairman or the pangkat, and that no disputes involving ICCs/Ps, provided, however, that no such
which provides: conciliation or settlement has been reached as certified by dispute shall be brought to the NCIP unless the parties have
the Lupon secretary or pangkat secretary as attested to by exhausted all remedies provided under their customary laws to
Sec. 2. Prescription should begin to run from the day of the the Lupon chairman or pangkat chairman or unless the settle the dispute as certified to by the Council of Elders/Leaders
commission of the violation of the law, and if the same be not settlement has been repudiated by the parties thereto.
known at the time, from the discovery thereof and institution of who participated in the attempt at such settlement.
judicial proceedings for its investigation and punishment.
(b) Where parties may go directly to court. — The parties may Decisions of the NCIP shall be appealable to the Court of Appeals by way
of a petition for review.
The prescription shall be interrupted when the proceedings go directly to court in the following instances:
are instituted against the guilty person and shall begin to run
again if the proceedings are dismissed for reasons not SEC. 408. Subject Matter for Amicable Settlement;
(1) Where the accused is under detention;
constituting double jeopardy Exception Thereto. — The lupon of each barangay shall have the
(2) Where a person has otherwise been deprived of authority to bring together the parties actually residing in the
personal liberty calling for habeas corpus proceedings; same city or municipality for amicable settlement of all disputes
This simply means that if the commission of the crime is except:
(3) Where actions are coupled with provisional remedies
known, the prescriptive period shall commence to run on the day
such as preliminary injunction, attachment, delivery of
it was committed.
personal property, and support pendente life; and (a) Where one party is the government or any subdivision or
instrumentality thereof;
(4) Where the action, may otherwise, be barred by the
The Civil Law rules on prescription is applicable to criminal statute of limitations.
(b) Where one party is a public officer or employee, and the
Condition Precedent to Filing of Case dispute relates to the performance of his official functions;
(c) Conciliation among members of indigenous cultural

The Local Government Code of 1991 which took effect on
January 1, 1992, expressly repealed Presidential Decree No.
1508, otherwise known as the Katarungang Pambarangay Law.
communities. — The customs and traditions of indigenous
cultural communities shall be applied in settling disputes (c) Offenses punishable by imprisonment exceeding one (1)
between members of the cultural communities. year or a fine exceeding Five thousand pesos (P5,000.00);

In lieu thereof, Chapter 7, Title I, Book III provides for the
Katarungang Pambarangay.
Pertinent provisions of the law are as follows:
However, under Republic Act No. 837, the ICCs/Ps shall
have the right to use their own commonly accepted justice
systems, conflict resolution institutions, peace building processes
or mechanisms and other customary laws and practices within
their respective communities and as may be compatible with the
19
(d) Offenses where there is no private offended party;
(e) Where the dispute involves real properties located in
different cities or municipalities unless the parties thereto
agree to submit their differences to amicable settlement by
 an appropriate lupon; execution of the law violated. complaint or information, or both of which are filed in court.

(f) Disputes involving parties who actually reside in barangays The provincial fiscal is not among the three. If a complaint is filed directly in court, the same must
of different cities or municipalities, except where such
barangay units adjoin each other and the parties thereto be filed by the offended party and in case of an information,
agree to submit their differences to amicable settlement by the same may be filed by the fiscal. However, a "complaint"
The information filed by him which instituted the
an appropriate lupon;and filed with the fiscal prior to judicial action may be filed by
proceeding cannot be considered as a complaint.
any person.
(g) Such other classes of disputes which the President may
determine in the interest of justice or upon the 1) Meaning of the term "offended party." — The person
e. Private persons may denounce a violation of banking laws.
recommendation of the Secretary of Justice. actually injured and whose feeling is offended.

2)
The court in which non-criminal cases not falling within the
authority of the lupon under this Code are filed may, at any time
before trial, motu proprio refer the case to the lupon concerned
for amicable settlement.
SEC. 2.
The Complaint or Information
Criminal actions must be commenced in the name of the
People of the Philippines. — But the defect is merely of form and
curable at any stage of the trial.
A widow, however, maybe considered an A complaint with the fiscal prior to a judicial action
offended party within the meaning of the applicable may be filed by any person.
rules of court entitled to file a complaint for the murder
of her husband.2
f. A criminal action cannot be instituted against a juridical
Justice Davide, Jr., citing Section 12, Rule 110 refers to an person.
"offended party" in the commission of a crime, public or
private, as the party to whom the offender is civilly liable in
light of Article 100 of the Revised Penal Code that "every
person criminally liable is also civilly liable. g. To subscribe and swear to criminal complaint is not
ministerial.
Invariably then, the private individual to whom the
offender is civilly liable is the offended party. But the absence of an oath does not invalidate the
complaint.
In bigamy both the first and second spouses may be the
offended parties depending on the circumstances Unless the complaint charged is a private offense.

3) The right to commence criminal prosecution is confined h. The right to file complaint is personal and abated upon
SEC. 3. to representatives of the government and persons death.
injured; otherwise, it shall be dismissed.
Complaint Defined
MAY INJUNCTION ISSUE TO RESTRAIN CRIMINAL
d. But One who is not the offended party file a complaint for PROSECUTION
Who May File Complaint
preliminary investigation.

a. The offended party. The general rule is that criminal prosecution may not be
Unless the offense subject of the complaint is one that restrained or stayed by injunction, preliminary or final.
cannot be prosecuted de oficio, any competent person may
b. Any peace officer.
file a complaint for preliminary investigation.
Public interest requires that criminal acts be immediately
investigated and prosecuted for the protection of society.
c. Other public officer charged with the enforcement or
As a general rule, a criminal action is commenced by a
20
 There are, however, exceptions, among which are:

a. To afford adequate protection to the constitutional rights of

the accused;

b. When necessary for the orderly administration of justice or

to avoid oppression or multiplicity of actions;

c. When there is a prejudicial question;

d. When the acts of the officer are without or in excess of

authority;

e. Where the prosecution is under an invalid law, ordinance or

regulation;

f. When double jeopardy is clearly apparent;

g. Where the court has no jurisdiction over the offense;

h. Where it is a case of persecution rather than prosecution;

i. Where the charges are manifestly false and motivated by

the lust for vengeance;

j. When there is clearly no prima facie case against the

accused and a motion to quash on that ground has been
denied; and

k. Preliminary injunction has been issued by the Supreme

Court to prevent the threatened unlawful arrest of
petitioners.

21

SEC. 4.
Information defined
Distinguish Information from Complaint
As distinguished from information, a complaint is:
a. Executed by a private party, etc.;
b. Supported by oath of the complainant; and
c. Need not necessarily be filed with the court.
An information not properly signed cannot be cured by
silence, acquiescence or even by express consent.
It must be filed with the court, otherwise it is not an
information.
SEC. 5.
Who must prosecute criminal actions
Under the 1985 amendments, the following sentences were added to the
first paragraph of Sec. 4 of the old Rule 110, to wit:
"However, in the Municipal Court or Municipal Trial Courts when
there is no fiscal available, the offended party, any peace officer
or public officer charged with the enforcement of the law violated
may prosecute the case.
This authority ceases upon actual intervention of the fiscal or upon
elevation of the case to the Regional Trial Court. This is based on the
Resolution of the Supreme Court in People v. Beriales."
In the third paragraph of Section 4 of the old Rule 110, the
fol-owing was added:
"In case the offended party dies or becomes incapacitated before The amendment inadvertently failed to reproduce the statement
she could file the complaint and has no known parents, grandparents or that:
guardian, the State shall initiate the criminal action in her behalf. This is
based on the doctrine of parens patriae."
However, in Municipal Trial Courts or Municipal Circuit Trial Courts
when the prosecutor assigned thereto or to the case is not available, the
Rape is now a crime against person and consequently can offended party, any peace officer, or public officer charged with the
enforcement of the law violated may prosecute the case.
be prosecuted even without a complaint filed by the offended
party.
This authority shall cease upon actual intervention of the
prosecutor or upon elevation of the case to the Regional Trial Court.
[A.M. No. 02-2-07-SC. April 10, 2002]
This does not, however, mean that the persons mentioned therein
RE: PROPOSED AMENDMENTS TO SECTION 5, RULE 110 OF may no longer prosecute the case under the conditions mentioned in the
THE REVISED RULES OF CRIMINAL PROCEDURE
old rule.
Acting on the Memorandum dated 2 February 2002 of Court The amendment was merely intended to regulate the appearance
administrator Presbitero J. Velasco, Jr. submitting for this Court's of the private prosecutor and stress the direction and control of the public
consideration and approval the proposed amendment to Sec. 5, Rule L10 prosecutor in the prosecution of criminal cases.
of the Revised Rules of Criminal Procedure, the Court Resolved to
APPROVE the amendment to Sec. 5, Rule 110 so as to read as follows:
EFFECT OF LACK OF INTERVENTION BY FISCAL IN TRIAL
OF A CRIMINAL CASE
"Section 5. Who must prosecute criminal actions. — All criminal
actions either commenced by complaint or by information shall be
Before the 1985 amendment, the Supreme Court, in
prosecuted under the direction and control of a public prosecutor.
Garcia v. Domingo, citing Cariaga v. Justo, held that the absence
of the Assistant Fiscal is not a jurisdictional defect but the court
In case of heavy work schedule of the public prosecutor or in the
should have cited the public prosecutor to intervene.
event of lack of public prosecutors, the private prosecutor may be
authorized in writing by the Chief of the Prosecution Office or the Regional
State Prosecutor to prosecute the case subject to the approval of the
The rule was modified in People v. Beriales where it was
court.
held that although the Fiscal turns over the active conduct of the
trial to the private prosecutor, he should be present during the
Once so authorized to prosecute the criminal action, the private proceedings —
prosecutor shall continue to prosecute the case up to the end of the trial
even in the absence of a public prosecutor, unless the authority is revoked
or otherwise withdrawn. Thus, in the case of People v. Munar, the Court upheld the
right of the private prosecutor therein to conduct the
This amendment to Rule 110 shall take effect on the first day of examination of the witnesses because the government
May 2002 following its publication in two newspapers of general prosecutors were present at the hearing; hence, the prosecution
circulation on or before 30 April, 2002. of the case remained under their supervision and control.
22
 In the present case, although the private prosecutor had
previously been authorized by the special counsel Rosario R.
Polines to present the evidence for the prosecution,
nevertheless, in view of the absence of the City Fiscal at the
hearing on December 13, 1974, it cannot be said that the
prosecution of the case was under the control of the City Fiscal.
It follows that the evidence presented by the private
prosecutor at said hearing could not be considered as evidence
for the plaintiff, the People of the Philippines.
There was, therefore, no evidence at all to speak of which
could have been the basis of the decision of the trial court.
Moreover, as aptly observed by the Solicitor General, "to
permit such prosecution of a criminal case by the private
prosecutor with the fiscal in absentia can set an obnoxious
precedent that can be taken advantage of by some indolent
members of the prosecuting arm of the government as well as
those who are oblivious of their bounden duty to see to it not
only that the guilty should be convicted, but that the innocent
should be acquitted — a duty that can only be effectively and
sincerely performed if they actively participated in the conduct of
the case, especially in the examination of the witnesses and the
presentation of documentary evidence for both parties.
The decision appealed from was set aside and the case
remanded to the trial court for another arraignment and trial.
The same principle was not, however, observed in People
v. Malinao, where the Supreme Court did not consider the
absence of the fiscal prejudicial to the accused "for only Dr.
Nicanor L. Tansingco was presented to testify on his autopsy
report on the deceased Manang.
Since no objection was interposed by appellant's counsel,
either to Dr. Tansingco's competency or his post mortem
findings, the doctor's testimony was dispensed with.
The defense likewise waived the fiscal's presence on that
date."
In Bravo v. Court of Appeals — The proceedings was held
to be valid even without the physical presence of Fiscal as
distinguished from Beriales case, where no Fiscal appeared to
prosecute.
Here, the Fiscal appeared but left the prosecution to the
private prosecutor under his supervision and control.
The Court noted in a subsequent case that the public
prosecutor may turn over the actual prosecution of the criminal
case, in the exercise of his discretion, but he may, at any time,
take over the actual conduct of the trial.
However, it is necessary that the public prosecutor be
present at the trial until the final termination of the case;
otherwise, if he is absent, it cannot be gainsaid that the trial is
under his supervision and control.
The absence, however, of a prosecutor cannot be raised by
an accused to invalidate the testimony of a state witness if he
cannot prove personal prejudice.
Necessity of Service to Government Counsel
Failure to serve pleadings and orders upon government
counsel renders the court orders issued uponsuch petitions or
motions of an accused as void.
Notice, however, given to the fiscal is notice to the private
prosecutor.
23
The authority, however, of the provincial prosecutor to
appeal for the People of the Philippines is confined only to the
proceedings before the trial court.
In appeals before the Court of Appeals or to the Supreme
Court either by petition for review or certiorari, the Solicitor
General is the sole representative of the People.
Service thru the Provincial Prosecutor is inefficacious and
shall be sufficient ground for dismissal on the petition as
provided in section 3, Rule 46.
Fiscal's Discretion in Prosecution
Prior to the filing of a case in court:
a. A prosecuting attorney cannot be compelled to file a par-
ticular criminal information.
b. The Court cannot interfere with the Fiscal's discretion and
control of criminal prosecution.
c. The Court cannot compel the fiscal to prosecute or file
information within a certain period of time.
It is the rule that a fiscal by the nature of his office is
under no compulsion to file a particular criminal information
where he is not convinced that he has evidence to support the
allegations thereof.
Although this power and prerogative of the Fiscal to
determine whether or not the evidence at hand is sufficient to
form a reasonable belief that a person committed an offense, is
not absolute and subject to judicial review, it would be
embarrassing for the prosecuting attorney to be compelled to
prosecute a case when he is in no position to do so, because in
his opinion, he does not have the necessary evidence to secure a
conviction, or he is not convinced of the merits of the case.
The better procedure would be to appeal the Fiscal's
decision to the Ministry of Justice and/or ask for a special
prosecutor.
The failure of the Fiscal to include the other public officials
who appear to be responsible for the offense charged as co-
accused in the information does not vitiate the validity of the
information since the matter of prosecuting witnesses for the
People is a prerogative of bhe prosecuting fiscal.
The manner by which the prosecution of a case is handled
is within the sound discretion of the prosecutor and the non-
inclusion if other guilty persons is irrelevant to the case against
the accused.
The prosecutor cannot be compelled to include in the
information, a person against whom he believes no sufficient
evidence of guilt exists.
While the prosecuting officer is required by law to charge
all those who, in his opinion, appear to be guilty, he nevertheless
cannot be compelled to include in the information a person
against whom he believes no sufficient evidence of guilt exists.
The appreciation of the evidence involves the use of
discretion on the part of the prosecutor.
The decision of the prosecutor may be reversed or
modified by the Secretary of Justice or in special cases by the
President of the Philippines.
But even the Supreme Court cannot order the prosecution
of a person against whom the prosecutor does not find sufficient
evidence to support at least aprima facie case.
The courts try and/or convict the accused but as a rule
have no part in the initial decision to prosecute him.
The possible exception is where there is an unmistakable
showing of a grave abuse of discretion that will justify judicial
intrusion into the precincts of the executive.
But in such a case, the proper remedy to call for such
exception is a petition for mandamus, not certiorari
prohibition.
Moreover, before resorting to this relief, the party seeking
the inclusion of another person as a co-accused in the same case
must first avail itself of other adequate remedies such as the
filing of a motion for such inclusion.
A case dismissed before arraignment maybe refiled.
FULL CONTROL BY THE COURT ONCE INFORMATION FILED
IN COURT
However, in cases where the information had already been
filed in court, the latter acquires jurisdiction over them.
Otherwise stated, the jurisdiction of the court become
vested upon the filing of the information and, once acquired, its
jurisdiction continues until the termination of the case.
Where the information had already been filed in court, it
should therefore dispose of them, one way or the other,
resolving all motions brought before it including motions to
dismiss, filed by the Fiscal, or deciding the cases on the merit.
24
The prosecuting fiscal has no more control over said cases,
the same having been transferred to the court.
The situation is akin to the pronouncement made in
Lansang u. Garcia, that whenever a formal complaint is
presented in court against an individual, the court steps in and
takes control thereof until the same is finally disposed of.
However, the matter of instituting an information should
be distinguished from a motion by the fiscal for the dismissal of
a case already filed in court.
or
The judge may properly deny the motion where, judging
from the record of the preliminary investigation, there appears
to be sufficient evidence to sustain the prosecution.
This is, as it should be, because the case is already in
court and, therefore, within its discretion and control.
In the landmark case ofCrespo u. Mogul, the Supreme
Court, sifter a review of past precedents held:
"The rule therefore in this jurisdiction is that once a complaint or
information is filed in Court, any disposition of the case as its
dismissal or the conviction or acquittal of the accused rests in
the sound discretion of the Court.
Although the fiscal retains the direction and control of the
prosecution of criminal cases even while the case is already in Court, he
cannot impose his opinion on the trial court.
The Court is the best and sole judge on what to do with the case
before it.
The determination of the case is within its exclusive jurisdiction and
competence.
 A motion to dismiss the case filed by the Fiscal should be
addressed to the Court who has the option to grant or deny the same.
It does not matter if this is done before or after the arraignment of
the accused or that the motion was filed after a reinvestigation or upon
instructions of the Secretary of Justice who reviewed the records of the
investigation.
Thus, it is now settled that once a complaint or information is filed
in court any disposition of the case as to its dismissal or the conviction or
the acquittal of the accused rests in the sound discretion of the court.
A motion to dismiss the case filed by the fiscal should be addressed
to the court, who has the option to grant or deny the same.
It does not matter if this is done before or after the arraignment of
the accused or that the motion was filed after a reinvestigation or upon
instruction of the Secretary of Justice who reviewed the records of the
investigation."
THE PRINCIPLE WAS FURTHER STRESSED IN
DIMATULAC V. VILLON
In this case, the accused were charged with murder before
the Municipal Court which found a probable cause for murder
and issued warrants for the arrest of the accused without bond,
after which the records were forwarded to the Provincial Fiscal.
Without the accused having been arrested, the Fiscal
conducted a reinvestigation and received the evidence of the
accused, found the case to be homicide.
The offended party appealed to the Secretary of Justice.
In the meantime, despite the appeal, the prosecutor filed
the information for homicide, and despite the objections of the
offended party on the ground that they have appealed the
resolution of the Fiscal to the Secretary of Justice, on the ground
that the crime committed was murder, the RTC refused to defer
the arraignment, and allowed the accused to post bail in the sum
of P20,000 each.
The accused were arraigned and entered a plea of not
guilty.
The Secretary of Justice found the case to be murder, but
withdrew its recommendation to amend the information to
murder upon learning the accused have already been arraigned.
The Court found the Fiscal and Judges concerned to have
gravely abused their discretion in not deferring the arraignment
pending disposition of the appeal to the Secretary of Justice.
The Court should have suspended the arraignment of this
information for homicide and await resolution on the petition for
review to DOJ on the ground that the crime is for murder.
Otherwise, the arraignment may be set aside, and
information amended if DOJ finds that the proper information
should be murder.
MOTION FOR REINVESTIGATION TO BE ADDRESSED TO
COURT
In Velasquez v. Tuquero, it was held that a motion for
reinvestigation should, after the court had acquired jurisdiction
over the case, be addressed to the trial judge and to him alone.
Neither the Secretary of Justice, the State Prosecutor, nor
the fiscal may interfere with the judge's disposition of the case,
much less impose upon the court their opinion regarding the
guilt or innocence of the accused, for the Court is the sole judge
of that.
25
Thus, should the fiscal find it proper to conduct a
reinvestigation of the case, the permission of the court must be
secured.
After such reinvestigation, the finding and
recommendations of the fiscal should be submitted to the court
for appropriate action.
The Supreme Court clarified that while the fiscal has the
quasi-judicial discretion to determine whether or not a criminal
case should be filed in court, once the case had already been
brought to the Court whatever disposition the fiscal may feel
should be proper in the case thereafter should be addressed for
the consideration of the court.
The only qualification is that the action of the court must
not impair the substantial rights of the accused or the right of
the people to due process.
The Court has the final say on any subsequent disposition
or action, since the case is brought before it which will not be
disturbed by the appellate court unless it is shown that the trial
court acted without jurisdiction or in excess of its jurisdiction or
otherwise committed a grave abuse of discretion amounting to
such lack or excess of jurisdiction.
COMPLAINT CANNOT BE WITHDRAWN BY FISCAL
WITHOUT COURT'S CONSENT
The complaint cannot be withdrawn by the Fiscal without
the court's consent.
The provincial fiscals are not clothed with power, without
the consent of the court, to dismiss or nolle prosequi criminal
actions actually instituted and pending further proceedings.

The power to dismiss is vested solely in the court, i.e., the
presiding judge.
See however, Galvez v. Court of Appeals, upholding the
right of the prosecution to withdraw the information for
homicide, the evident purpose was to refile a case of murder
against the same accused before arraignment even without
notice and hearing.
Fiscal Entitled to be Heard on Motion to Dismiss
However, while the trial court is the sole judge on whether
a criminal case should be dismissed (after the complaint or
information has been filed in court) still, any move on the part of
the complainant or offended party to dismiss the criminal case,
even if without objection of the accused should first be referred
to the prosecuting fiscal for his own view on the matter.
He is, after all, in control of the prosecution of the case
and he may have his own reasons why the case should not be
dismissed.
It is only after hearing the prosecuting fiscal's view that
the Court should exercise its exclusive authority to continue or
dismiss the case.
The Parameters of the Court's Control
The Supreme Court, clarified in Marcelo v. Court of
Appeals, that there is nothing in Crespo v. Mogul, which bars the
DOJ from taking cognizance of an appeal, by way of petition for
review, by an accused in a criminal case from an unfavorable
ruling of the investigating prosecutor.
It merely advised the DOJ to, "as far as practicable, refrain
from entertaining a petition for review or appeal from the action
of the fiscal, when the complaint or information has already been
filed in court."
Moreover, where the DOJ had already given due course to
the petitioner's petition for review, it was premature for
respondent judge to deny the motions to suspend proceedings
and to defer arraignment on the ground that "since the case is
already pending for trial, to follow whatever opinion the
Secretary of Justice may have on the matter would undermine
the independence and integrity of this court.
Thus, where the judge granted the motion
reinvestigation and directed the Office of the Provincial
Prosecutor to conduct the reinvestigation, the former was
deemed to have deferred to the authority of the prosecution arm
of the Government to consider the so-called new relevant and
material evidence and determine whether the information it had
filed should stand.
Having done so, it behooved the judge to wait for a final
resolution of the incident.
VALID BASIS OF JUDGE'S FINAL ACTION WHERE FISCAL
STANDS ON INFORMATION
The findings and conclusion of the Provincial Prosecutor,
being the final disposition on the reinvestigation, should be the
sole and only valid basis of the judge's final action (not that of
the Assistant Provincial Prosecutor).
Where the Provincial Prosecutor to which the judge had
deferred the matter for reinvestigation, had finally resolved to
stand on the information and to present evidence to prove the
guilt of the accused for the crime charged, the judge did not
have the option to dismiss the case on the basis of the
disapproved resolution of the Assistant Provincial Prosecutor.
26
The only option of the judge was to proceed with the
arraignment of the accused and, thereafter, conduct a pre-trial
and trial on the merits, should he enter a plea of not guilty.
It does not, however, necessarily follow that the court
should merely adopt the recommendation of the Prosecutor.
In Montesa, the stand of the prosecution is to maintain the
information, in which case there is nothing more for the court to
do but to proceed with the case.
for The situation is different if the motion of the fiscal is for
the dismissal or withdrawal of the information.
ULTIMATE TEST OF TRIAL COURT'S INDEPENDENCE IS
WHERE FISCAL FILES A MOTION TO DISMISS
The Supreme Court stressed that the real and ultimate test
of the independence and integrity of the trial court is not the
filing of the motions to suspend proceedings and defer
arraignment at that stage of the proceedings but the filing of a
motion to dismiss or to withdraw the information on the basis of
a resolution of the petition for review reversing the Joint
Resolution of the investigating prosecutor.
Before that time, the pronouncement in Crespo u. Mogul,
that "once a complaint or information is filed in Court, any
disposition of the case as its dismissal or the conviction of the
accused or acquittal of the accused rests in the sound discretion
of the court," did not yet become relevant or applicable.
However, once a motion to dismiss or withdraw the
information is filed, the trial judge may grant or deny it, not out
of subservience to the Secretary of Justice, but in faithful
exercise of judicial prerogative.
The trial judge must himself be convinced that there was
indeed no sufficient evidence against the accused, and this con-
clusion can be arrived at only after an assessment of the therefore, in criminal prosecution is not that it shall win a case, I. Control by Prosecution
evidence in the possession of the prosecution. but that justice shall be done.

1. What case to file;

What is imperatively required is the trial judge's own As such, he is in a peculiar and very definite sense, the 2. Whom to prosecute;
assessment of such evidence, it not being sufficient for the valid servant of the law, the two-fold aim of which is that guilt shall
3. Manner of prosecution; and
and proper exercise of judicial discretion merely to accept or not escape or innocence suffers.
4. Right of Prosecution to Withdraw information
reject the prosecution's word for its supposed insufficiency or to
simply rely on Crespo v. Mogul. before arraignment even without notice and
Accordingly, if the fiscal is not at all convinced that a prima hearing. There must be leave of court after prior
facie case exists, he simply cannot move for the dismissal of the notice and hearing.
In the absence of a finding of grave abuse of discretion, case and, when denied, refuse to prosecute the same.
the court's bare denial of a motion to withdraw information
pursuant tc the Secretary's resolution is void. II. Control by Court Once Case is Filed
He is obliged by law to proceed and prosecute the criminal
action.
FISCAL MAY BE COMPELLED TO PROSECUTE CASES ALREADY 1. Suspension of Arraignment;
FILED
2. Reinvestigation;
He cannot impose his opinion on the trial court.
Notwithstanding his personal convictions or opinions, the 3. Prosecution by Fiscal;
fiscal must proceed with his duty of presenting evidence to the
4. Dismissal; and
court to enable the court to arrive at its own independent At least what he can do is to continue appearing for the
prosecution and then turn over the presentation of evidence to 5. Downgrading offense or dropping of accused even
judgment as to the culpability of the accused.
before plea.
another fiscal or a private prosecutor subject to his direction and
control.
The fiscal should not shirk from his responsibility much
III. Limitations on Control by Court
less leave the prosecution of the case at the hands of a private Where there is no other prosecutor available, he should
prosecutor. proceed to discharge his duty and present the evidence to the
best of his ability and let the court decide the merits of the case 1. Prosecution entitled to notice of hearing;

At all times, the criminal action shall be prosecuted under on the basis of the evidence adduced by both parties.

his direction and control. 2. Court must await result of petition for review;
The supervision and control of the prosecutor extends to
Otherwise, the entire proceedings will be null and void.
the civil liability instituted with the criminal action if it was not
3. Prosecution's stand to maintain prosecution should
filed separately, reserved or there is no private prosecutor who
be respected by court;
In the trial of criminal cases, it is the duty of the public intervened.
prosecutor to appear for the government "since an offense is an
outrage to the sovereignty of the State." 4. Ultimate test of court's independence is where
DEVELOPMENTS FROM CRESPO TO DIMATULAC:
fiscal files motion to dismiss or to withdraw
This is so because "the prosecuting officer is the information;
representative not of an ordinary party to a controversy but of a a. Distinction between control of prosecution and control of
sovereignty where the obligation to govern impartially is as court
5. Court has authority to review (power of Judicial
compelling as its obligation to govern at all; and whose interest,

27
 Review) 8353, the Anti-Rape Law of 1997 which took effect on October of, and in spite of the complainant, his death notwithstanding.
22, 1997, reclassifying rape as a crime against person and is
now a "public crime." Purpose of Rule
Secretary's recommendation and reject it if
there is grave abuse of discretion.
The complaint required (in Article 344 of the Revised Penal
Concept of Private Crimes
Code) was not enacted for the specific purpose of benefitting the
*See, however, Sec. ll(c), Rule 116,
accused, but is a condition precedent to the exercise by the
Suspension of arraignment does not exceed sixty The term "private crimes" in reference to felonies which proper authorities of the power to prosecute the guilty parties.
(60) days. cannot be prosecuted except upon complaint filed by the
aggrieved party, is misleading.
Such condition has been imposed out of consideration for
The Resolution of the Secretary of Justice
the offended women and her family who might prefer to suffer
may be appealed to the Office of the President in Far from what it implies, it is not only the aggrieved party the outrage in silence rather than go through with the scandal of
offenses punishable by death or reclusion who is offended in such crimes but also the State. a public trial.
perpetua.

Every violation of penal laws results in the disturbance of Thus, while the complaint filed by a mental retardate may
6. To reject or grant motion to dismiss court must public order and safety which the State is committed to uphold have been technically defective in the sense that complainant
make own independent assessment of evidence. and protect. was incompetent, this defect has been cured when complainant's
brother Pernando Alcala took the witness stand for the
7. Judgment is void if there is no independent If the law imposes the condition that private crimes like prosecution.
assessment and finding of grave abuse of adultery shall not be prosecuted except upon complaint filed by
discretion. the offended party, it is, "out of consideration for the aggrieved The brother's testimony shows that consent and
party who might prefer to suffer the outrage in silence rather willingness of the family of the complainant, who can not give
CRIMES PROSECUTED UPON COMPLAINT OF OFFENDED than go through the scandal of a public trial." her consent obviously, to have the private offense committed
PARTY
against the latter publicly tried.
Once a complaint is filed, the will of the offended party is
The rule on crimes that must be prosecuted upon
ascertained and the action proceeds just as in any other crime. Substantially, this is what is required by the rules.
complaint filed by the offended party may be classified into three
categories:
This is shown by the fact that after filing a complaint, any Evidently, by undergoing trial, the family of complainant
pardon given by the complainant to the offender would be chose to denounce the injustice committed against the latter in
a. In crimes of adultery and concubinage;
unavailing. public and thus agreed to bear the personal effects of said
b. In offenses of seduction, abduction, or acts of lascivious-
exposure.
ness;
It is true, the institution of the action in so-called private
c. Criminal actions for defamation which consist in the
crimes is at the option of the aggrieved party. Undoubtedly, therefore, the trial court had jurisdiction to
imputation of an offense mentioned above.
try the case.
But it is equally true that once the choice is made
Rape was excluded as a private crime in view of R.A. No.
manifest, the law will be applied in full force beyond the control
28
 Compliance with Rule Is Jurisdictional
While the complaint required in said Art. 344 is merely a
condition precedent to the exercise by the proper authorities of
the power to prosecute the guilty parties, and such condition has
been imposed out of consideration for the offended woman and
her family who might prefer to suffer the outrage in silence
rather than go through with the scandal of a public trial.
Compliance with Rule 110, Section 5, is Jurisdictional and
not merely a formal requirement.
Under Article 344 of the Revised Penal Code, the crime of
adultery, as well as four other crimes against chastity, cannot be
prosecuted except upon a sworn written complaint filed by the
offended spouse.
It has since long been established, with unwavering
consistency, that compliance with this rule is a Jurisdictional, and
not merely a formal requirement.
While in point of strict law, the jurisdiction of the court
over the offense is vested in it by the Judiciary Law, the
requirement for a sworn written complaint is just
Jurisdictional a mandate since it is that complaint which starts
the prosecutory proceeding and without which the Court cannot
exercise its jurisdiction to try the case.
MEANING OF TERM "JURISDICTIONAL"
It was explained in People v. Tanada (supra), that this
provision does not determine, however, the jurisdiction of our
courts over the offenses therein enumerated.
It could not affect said jurisdiction, because the same is
governed by the Judiciary Act of 1948, not by the Revised Penal
Code, which deals primarily with the definition of crimes and the
factors pertinent to the punishment of the culprit.
When it is said that the requirement in Article 344 that
there should be a complaint of the offended party or his relative
is Jurisdictional, what is meant is that it is the complaint that
starts the prosecutory proceeding.
It is not the complaint which confers jurisdiction in the
court to try the case.
The Court's jurisdiction is vested in it by the Judiciary Law.
IN PROSECUTIONS FOR ADULTERY AND CONCUBINAGE,
THE PERSON WHO CAN LEGALLY FILE THE COMPLAINT
SHOULD BE THE OFFENDED SPOUSE, AND NOBODY ELSE
Unlike the offenses of seduction, abduction, rape and acts
of lasciviousness, no provision is made for the prosecution of the
crimes of adultery and concubinage by the parents,
grandparents or guardian of the offended party.
The so-called exclusive and successive rule in
prosecution of the first four offenses above mentioned do not
as
apply to adultery and concubinage.
It is significant that while the State, as parens patriae, was
added and vested by the 1985 Rules on Criminal Procedure with
the power to initiate the criminal action for a deceased or
incapacitated victim in the aforesaid offenses of seduction,
abduction, [rape] and acts of lasciviousness, in default of her
parents, grandparents or guardian, such amendment did not
include the crimes of adultery and concubinage.
In other words, only the offended spouse, and no other, is
authorized by law to initiate the action therefor.
OFFENDED PARTY IN ADULTERY MUST HAVE THE STATUS,
29
CAPACITY AND LEGAL REPRESENTATION AT THE TIME OF
FILING OF ACTION FOR ADULTERY
Where the complainant had already been divorced, he can
no longer file the complaint. Said the Supreme Court:
Corollary to such exclusive grant of power to the offended
spouse to institute the action, it necessarily follows that such
initiator must have the status, capacity or legal representation to
do so at the time of the filing of the criminal action.
This is a familiar and express rule in civil actions; in fact, lack of
legal capacity to sue, as a ground for a motion to dismiss in civil cases, is
determined as of the filing of the complaint or petition.
The absence of an equivalent explicit rule in the prosecution of
criminal cases does not mean that the same requirement and rationale
would not apply.
Understandably, it may not have been found necessary since
criminal actions are generally and fundamentally commenced by the
State, through the People of the Philippines, the offended party, being
merely the complaining witness therein.
the
However, in the so-called "private crimes," or those which cannot
be prosecuted de oficio, and the present prosecution for adultery is of
such genre, the offended spouse assumes a more predominant role since
the right to commence the action, or to refrain therefrom, is a matter
exclusively within his power and option.
In these cases, therefore, it is indispensable that the status and
capacity of the complainant to commence the action be definitely es-
tablished and, as already demonstrated, such status or capacity must
indubitably exist at the time he initiates the action.
It would be absurd if his capacity to bring the action would be
determined by his status before or subsequent to the commencement
thereof, where such capacity or status existed prior to but ceased before,
or was acquired subsequent to but did not exist at the time of, the
institution of the case. We would thereby have the anomalous spectacle of
a party bringing suit at the very time when he is without the legal
capacity to do
Exclusive Right of Offended Party When of Age
If the offended party is of age, the right to file the
complaint is exclusive and successive. — None of these persons
has authority to proceed if there is any other person previously
mentioned therein with legal capacity to appear and institute an
action.
Where, however, the victim who was also of age is
incapacitated by reason of insanity or physical incapacity, the
complaint filed by the father is valid.
OVERRIDING CONSIDERATION IN DETERMINATION OF
COMPLIANCE WITH RULE
The overriding consideration in determining the issue of
whether or not the condition prescribed in Article 344 of the
Revised Penal Code has been complied with is the interest of the
aggrieved party to seek judicial redress for the affront
committed.
DEATH OF COMPLAINANT DURING PENDENCY OF CASE
DOES NOT EXTINGUISH CRIMINAL LIABILITY
The death of the complainant during the pendency of the
case is not a ground for extinguishment of criminal liability
whether total or partial.
DEATH OF COMPLAINANT BEFORE FILING OF CASE IN
COURT
The fact that before a criminal information for adultery
could be filed, the offended party who had already filed a sworn
complaint with the fiscal died, is not sufficient justification for
dismissal of the information, the desire of the offended party to
bring his wife and the alleged paramour to justice being too writing in the form of searching questions and answers. On the
evident. basis of that examination, a warrant of arrest was issued.
In his appeal, Bulaong contends through his counsel de officio that
FILING OF VERIFIED STATEMENT BEFORE COURT
the lower court did not acquire jurisdiction over the case because the
SUFFICIENT
information filed by the city fiscal is fatally defective for not containing the
verification required in Form 24 of the Appendix to the Rules of Court.
In a case where the Fiscal filed an Information charging
the accused with 'telling some people in the neighborhood that
The contention has no merit.
said Fausta Bravo (a married woman) was a paramour of one
Sangalang, a man not her husband,' and Fausta Bravo did not
The forms prescribed in the Rules of Court "serve as mere
subscribe to the complaint, the Supreme Court held that the trial
illustrations."
court had no jurisdiction over the case.
Jurisdiction over the crime charged in this case is conferred by law,
It ruled that since the accused imputed to Fausta Bravo not by the complaint or information which is merely the means by which
the commission of adultery, a crime which cannot be prosecuted jurisdiction is invoked or which gives the court the occasion for exercising
de officio, the Information filed by the Fiscal cannot confer its jurisdiction.
jurisdiction upon the court of origin.
INITIATION OF COMPLAINT IN FISCAL'S OFFICE IS
SUFFICIENT COMPLIANCE
It must be noted, however, that this error could be
corrected without sustaining the motion to quash and dismissing
A "Salaysay" or sworn statement of the offended party,
the case. Pursuant to Section 1 of paragraph (a) of P.D. No. 77,
which prompted the Fiscal to con-duct a preliminary
under which the Assistant City Fiscal conducted the preliminary
investigation and then to file an information in court, is not the
investigation, the statement of the complainant was sworn to
complaint contemplated/required by Article 344 of the Revised
before the aforesaid Investigating Fiscal. Assuming that the
Penal Code.
recitals in said sworn statement contain all those required of a
complaint under the rules, a copy of said verified statement of
the complainant under the rules should be filed with respondent The Rule was modified in Valdepenas u. People, which held
court in order to comply with the requirements of Article 360 of that the complaint filed by the offended woman and her mother
the Revised Penal Code; otherwise, the respondent Fiscal should before the Justice of the Peace Court and forwarded to the CFI of
file with said court, a verified complaint of the offended party. Cagayan, in which the corresponding information for forcible
abduction with rape was filed and was considered as sufficient
compliance with the law.
COMPLAINT FILED BY OFFENDED PARTY IN INFERIOR
COURT SUFFICIENT; OFFENDED PARTY NEED NOT
SUBSCRIBE INFORMATION
It is not necessary for the complainant to sign and verify
In this case, the complaint for abduction with rape 'against the information filed by the Fiscal.
Bulaong was filed in the city court by the offended girl and her
father. That complaint was sworn to before the city judge. It was
The complaint adopted by the Fiscal and attached to and
the basis of the preliminary examination. The judge examined
the witnesses under oath. The examination was reduced to made part of the corresponding information filed after investi-
30
gation is sufficient.
In People v. Sunpongco, the failure of the prosecution to
formally offer in evidence the sworn complaint of the offended
party or the failure to adhere to the rules is not fatal and does
not oust the court of its jurisdiction to hear and decide the case.
If the complaint is forwarded to the Court as part of the
record of the preliminary investigation of the case, the court can
take judicial notice of the same without the necessity of its
formal introduction as evidence of the prosecution.
Seduction, Abduction, Act of Lasciviousness
The right is exclusively and successively reposed in the
offended party, her parents or guardian in the order in which
they are named.
This is out of consideration for the aggrieved party who
might prefer to suffer the outrage in silence rather than go
through the scandal of a public trial.
NO NEED TO FILE INFORMATION; FILING OF COMPLAINT
IS SUFFICIENT
In a case involving crimes against chastity, the prosecution
may be conducted by the fiscal on the basis of the complaint
filed in the inferior court. There is no need to file an information.
Hence, the other contention of the accused that the
information should have been signed by the offended girl is
wrong.
Article 344 of the Revised Penal Code, reproduced in
Section 4, Rule 110 of the Rules of Court, does not require that
the offended girl in a crime against chastity should sign the
information filed by the fiscal.
Since the filing of a complaint for any of the offenses
enumerated in Article 344 of the Revised Penal Code, by the
person or persons mentioned therein is jurisdictional, the filing
thereof is sufficient to initiate a valid prosecution, and no
information need be Sled any longer by the Fiscal.
EFFECT OF VARIANCE BETWEEN COMPLAINT AND
INFORMATION AND THE EVIDENCE
A distinction should be made where there is a variance in
the allegations in the complaint of the manner the crime was
committed and the allegations in the information; and a variance
between the allegations in the information and the evidence
adduced by the prosecution.
a. Where the complaint filed was for forcible abduction, while
the information filed by the Fiscal was for rape inasmuch as
the crime if rape is different from the crime of forcible
abduction alleged in the complaint, said complaint could not
serve as a basis for the court to acquire jurisdiction over the
crime actually committed.
b. Where, however, the complaint was for rape, a change in
the manner of committing the crime of rape from that as
alleged in the complaint does not divest the court of its
jurisdiction.
The power of jurisdiction of the court is not over the
crime of rape when committed on a minor and demented
girl, but over rape, irrespective of the manner in which the
same may have been committed.
The court, therefore, erred in holding that it had no
jurisdiction to try the crime charged in the information
simply because it charges the accused with having
committed the crime on a demented girl, instead of through
the use offeree and intimidation.
31
The right and power of the court to try the accused for
the crime of rape attaches upon the filing of the complaint,
and a change in the allegations thereof as the manner of
committing the crime should not operate to divest the court
of the jurisdiction it has already acquired.
The right or power to try the case should be
distinguished from the right of the accused to demand an
acquittal unless it is shown that he has committed the
offense charged in the information even if he be found guilty
of another offense; in the latter case, however, even if the
court has no right to find the accused guilty because the
crime alleged is different from that proved, it cannot be
stated that the court has no jurisdiction over the case.
c. Where the complaint signed by the complainant charged the
accused with abduction with rape detailed in her sworn
statement which form part of the records of the preliminary
investigation, even if the body of the complaint does not
specify the elements of forcible abduction, if the information
sufficiently charged the complex crime forcible abduction
with rape, the court validly acquired jurisdiction.
d. Where the information, however, charged the accused of
rape by force and intimidation, he cannot be convicted of
rape on the ground that the victim was raped while she was
unconscious or otherwise deprived of reason as it would
violate his right to be informed of the nature and cause of
the accusation against him, except when there is a failure to
object thereto during the trial in which case the accused
may be convicted of the rape proved even if committed in a
manner different from that alleged in the information.
Other Cases
a. The father has no preferential right over the mother to file
the complaint.
b. A complaint must be filed by the legal guardian. An oath
that he is the guardian was held as sufficient.
c. Where the complaint is for attempted rape, the city court
has jurisdiction to try the case for acts of lasciviousness, the
crime allegedly committed as per inquest fiscal's findings,
though the complainant did not sign a complaint for acts of
lasciviousness, attempted rape includes acts of
lasciviousness.
While the Fiscal should have prepared another
complaint for acts of lasciviousness, this is not jurisdictional
— the complaint started the criminal action because a
private crime can not be prosecuted de officio.
d. Where the accused is charged with rape committed thru
force and intimidation, he cannot be convicted of rape
committed under paragraph 2 of Article 335 when the
woman is deprived of reason or is otherwise unconscious.
e. In robbery with rape or rape with homicide, the complaint of
offended party is not essential.
Defamation
A published letter stating that a woman employee had
"illicit relationship with another who is the former's paramour"
imputes adulterous relationship between the two.
A prosecution for libel based thereon cannot be made
without the sworn complaint of the offended party.
Since the accused imputed the commission of adultery, a
crime which cannot be prosecuted de officio, the Information
filed by the Fiscal cannot confer jurisdiction upon the Court of
origin.
The death of offended party in a criminal case for libel or
The error may, however, be corrected without sustaining defamation does not extinguish criminal liability of accused.
the motion to quash and dismiss the case.
Where the statement of the complaint was sworn to before SEC. 6.
the investigating fiscal; and the recitals in the sworn statement Sufficiency of complaint or information
contain all those required of a complaint under the rules, a copy
of the verified statement of the offended party may be filed in
Time of the offense under the former rule was changed to
court
DATE of the offense.
Thus, where the information was based on the criminal
All Elements of Crime Must be Alleged
complaint filed with the fiscal's office which conducted the
corresponding preliminary investigation and the records
It is fundamental that every element of which the offense
conformably with the procedure then in force was transmitted to
is composed must be alleged in the complaint or information.
the trial court, such circumstance does not deprive the court of
its jurisdiction.
What facts and circumstances are necessary to be stated
must be determined by reference to the definitions and the
Imputing prostitution, does not indicate an adulterous act
essentials of the specific crimes.
and can be prosecuted de officio.
Where, however, in addition to allegedly calling the
The main purpose of requiring the various elements of a
complainant a whore, the private respondent is also charged in
crime to be set out in an information is to enable the accused to
one information with having described the former as a
suitably prepare his defense. He is presumed to have no
"paramour of my husband," this is a clear imputation of adultery.
independent knowledge of the facts that constitute the ofiense.
A paramour is "one who loves or is loved illicitly." Matter of Evidence; Need Not be Averred
One taking the place without legal rights of a husband or However, it is often difficult to say what is a matter of
wife. evidence, as distinguished from facts necessary to be stated in
order to render the information sufficiently certain to identify the
offense.
A mistress, also called a lover, accordingly, that imputation
is covered by Rule 110.
As a general rule, matters of evidence, as distinguished
from facts essential to the description of the offense, need not
DEATH OF OFFENDED PARTY IN CASES OF LIBEL OR
DEFAMATION be averred.
32
 For instance, it is not necessary to show on the face of an
information for forgery in what manner a person is to be
defrauded, as that is a matter of evidence at the trial.
Reasonable Certainty is Sufficient
Moreover, reasonable certainty in the statement of the
crime suffices.
All that is required is that the charge be set forth with such
particularity as will reasonably indicate the exact offense which
the accused is alleged to have committed and will enable him
intelligently to prepare his defense, and if found guilty to plead
her conviction, in a subsequent prosecution for the same
offense.
Effects of Fatally Defective Information
Conviction or acquittal under a fatally defective information
for want of certain essential allegation is not necessarily void
when no objection appears to have been raised at the trial and
the fatal defect could have been supplied by competent proof.
It was, however, held in Ilo, et al. v. Court of Appeals, that
a substantial defect in the information cannot be cured by
evidence, for that would jeopardize their right to be informed of,
the true nature of the offense they are charged.
The Supreme Court applied the case of People u. Austria,
holding that an information which does not charge an offense at
all cannot be validated by the presentation of evidence. Said the
Supreme Court: "(t)he petitioner contends that under the
allegation in the information that the accused without authority
of law, did then and there willfully, unlawfully and feloniously
have in his possession and under his custody and control the
firearms and ammunitions enumerated therein," the prosecution
may prove that the accused carried the firearms and
ammunitions outside of his residence. The contention is without
merit.
As the court had stated in People v. Austria, the
presentation of evidence "cannot have the effect of validating a
void information, or proving an offense which does not legally
exist.
The information was not merely defective but it does not
charge any offense at all.
Technically speaking, that information does not exist in
contemplation of law."
In an information for rape (committed before R.A. No.
7659) without alleging the age or complainant, the accused was
convicted of statutory rape there being no objection to evidence
or minority.
The information was not void but merely defective which is
curable by evidence admitted without objection.
The Substantial Compliance Rule
It has been held that a complaint is under the Rules one of
the two charging instruments for the offense of which the
accused was tried and convicted here.
While the criminal action was instituted by the complaint of
the offended party, the information signed only by the fiscal
ushered in the formal trial process.
But both are accusations in writing against the accused
and serve the purpose of enabling him to take the necessary
legal steps for his defense.
33
What is important is that the information states that the
accused is being charged of an offense under R.A. No. 7610
based on the complaint of the offended party, to which the
accused had adequately responded.
Under these conditions, the accused was fully apprised of
the accusation against him.
The purpose and objective of the constitutional mandate
are discharged and satisfied.
The accused may not be said to be taken by surprise by
the failure of the information to state the age of the offended
party, when he had received the initiatory complaint where he
was told how old the offended party was.
Thus, even if the information did not allege that the victim
was a mental retardate which is an essential element of the
crime of statutory rape, or the element of force and intimidation
or the age of the complainant or the information merely states
that petitioner was being charged for the crime of "violation of
R.A. No. 7610" without citing the specific sections alleged to
have been violated the Court treated the informations as merely
defective and that the deficiency was cured either because the
complaint supplied the omission or by the failure of the accused
to assail the insufficiency of the allegations in the Information
and by competent evidence presented during trial, and the
accused cannot successfully invoke the defense that his right to
be informed is violated.
The Court did not consider the omissions sufficient to
invalidate the information, holding that the character of the
crime is not determined by the caption or preamble of the
information nor from the specification of the provision of law
alleged to have been violated, as they may be conclusions of
law, but by the recital of the ultimate facts and circumstances in
the complaint or information.
The sufficiency of an information is not negated by an
incomplete or defective designation of the crime in the caption or
other parts of the information but by the narration of facts and
circumstances which adequately depicts a crime and sufficiently
apprise the accused of the nature and cause of.the accusation
against him.
The information may not refer to specific section/s of R.A.
No. 7610 alleged to have been violated by the petitioner, but it
is all to evident that the body of the information contains an
averment of the'acts alleged to have been performed by
petitioner which unmistakably refers to acts punishable under
Section 5 of R.A. No. 7610.
As to which section of R.A. No. 7610 is being violated by
petitioner is inconsequential.
What is determinative of the offense is the recital of the
ultimate facts and circumstances in the complaint or information.
Sufficiency of Allegations of Conspiracy
In our jurisdiction, * * * conspiracy can be alleged in the
Information as a mode of committing a crime or it may be
alleged as constitutive of the crime itself.
When conspiracy is alleged as a crime in itself, the
sufficiency of the allegations in the Information charging the
offense is governed by Section 6, Rule 110 of the Revised Rules
of Criminal Procedure.
Following the stream of our own jurisprudence, it is
enough to allege conspiracy as a mode in the commission of the
crime in either of the following manner:
(1) by the use of the word "conspire" or its
derivatives or synonyms, such as confederate, connive,
collude, etc. or
(2) by allegations of basic facts constituting the
conspiracy in a manner that a person of common
understanding would know what is intended, and with such
precision as would enable the accused to competently enter
a plea to a subsequent indictment based on the same facts
When Charged as a Mode of Committing the Crime
The requirements of the sufficiency of the information are
different when conspiracy is not charged as a crime in itself but
only as a mode of committing the crime as in the case of Plunder
consisting of several predicate crimes.
There is less necessity of reciting its particularities in the
information because conspiracy is not the gravamen of the
offense charged.
The conspiracy is significant only because it changes the
criminal liability of all the accused in the conpsiracy and make
them responsible as co-principals regardless of the degree of
their participation in the crime.
The liability of the conspirators is collective and each
participant will be equally responsible for the acts of the others.
The information must state that the accused have
confederated to commit the crime or that there has been a
community of design, a unity of purpose or an agreement to
commit the felony among the accused.
Such an allegation, in the absence of the usual usage of
the words "conspired" or the phrase "acting in conspiracy," must
34
aptly appear in the information in the form of definitive acts
constituting conspiracy.
In fine, the agreement to commit the crime, the unity of
purpose or the community of design among the accused must be
conveyed such as either by the use of the term "conspire" or its
derivatives and synonyms or by allegations of basic facts
constituting the conspiracy.
Conspiracy must be alleged, not just inferred, in the
information on which basis an accused can aptly enter his plea, a
matter that is not to be confused with or likened to the adequacy
of evidence that may be required to prove it.
In establishing conspiracy when properly alleged, the
evidence to support it need not necessarily be shown by direct
proof but may be inferred from shown acts and conduct of the
accused.
An allegation of conspiracy, or one that would impute
criminal liability to an accused for the act of another or others, is
indispensable in order to hold such person, regardless of the
nature and extent of his own participation, equally guilty with
the other or others in the commission of the crime.
Where conspiracy exists and can rightly be appreciated,
the individual acts done to perpetrate the felony becomes of
secondary importance, the act of one being imputable to all the
others.
Verily, an accused must know from the information
whether he faces a criminal responsibility not only for his acts
but also for the acts of his co-accused as well.
In the absence of conspiracy, so averred and proved an
accused can only be made liable for the acts committed by him
alone and this criminal responsibility is individual and not
collective

35
 WHEN CONSPIRACY CHARGED AS A CRIME
When conspiracy is charged as a crime, the act of
conspiring and all the elements of said crime must be set forth in
the complaint or information.
For example, the crime of "conspiracy to commit treason"
is committed when, in time of war, two or more persons come to
an agreement to levy war against the Government or to adhere
to the enemies and to give them aid or comfort, and decide to
commit it.
In embodying the essential elements of the crime charged,
the information must set forth the facts and circumstances that
have a bearing on the culpability and liability of the accused so
that the accused can properly prepare for and undertake his
defense.
One such fact or circumstance in a complaint against two
or more accused persons is that of conspiracy.
Quite unlike the omission of an ordinary recital of fact
which, if not excepted from or objected to during trial, may be
corrected or supplied by competent proof
Need to Designate Statute Violated
a. It is a constitutional right of any person who stands charged
in a criminal prosecution to be informed of the nature and
cause of the accusation against him.
Pursuant to the above, Section 6, Rule 110 of the
Rules of Court, expressly requires that for a complaint or
information to be sufficient, it must, inter alia, state the
designation of the offense by the statute, and the acts or
omissions complained of as constituting the offense.
This is essential to avoid surprise on the accused and
to afford him the opportunity to prepare his defense
accordingly.
To comply with these fundamental requirements of
the Constitution and the Rules on Criminal Procedure, it is
imperative for the specific statute violated to be designated
or mentioned in the charge.
b. The failure, however, to designate the offense by statute or
to mention the specific provision penalizing the act or an
erroneous speficication of the law violated does not vitiate
the information if the facts alleged clearly recites the facts
constituting the crime charged.
c. The title of information or designation of offense is not
controlling.
It is the actual facts recited in the information that
determines the nature of the crime.
The real nature of offense is to be determined not by
its designation or title given by the Fiscal but the facts
alleged in the body of the Information.
d. It is the province of the Court alone to say what the crime is
or what it is named.
Even the justice of the peace, during the preliminary
investigation of a case, is without authority to determine the
character of the crime committed. His declaration upon the
point is merely an opinion which in no wise binds the trial
court.
e. Allegations prevail over designation of the offense in the
36
information for conviction of accused who may therefore be
convicted of a crime more serious than that named in the
title or preliminary part if such crime is covered by the facts
alleged in the body of the information and its commission is
established by the evidence.
SEC. 7.
Name of the accused
The word "discovered" under the former rule was changed
to "ascertained."
Error in the name or identity should be raised on
arraignment.
Purpose of Rule
To enable the court to acquire jurisdiction over his person
and to inform him of the facts.
Where the accused has been sued as John Doe in an
information filed in due form, and after due investigation by the
Fiscal, his identity became known, his true name may be
inserted without further need of preliminary investigation where
one had already been properly conducted pursuant to the
charter of Quezon City and the nature of the crime is not
changed.
Verbal motion to correct spelling is sufficient.
Where the accused Roberto Cultura was indicted in the
information as "Jose" Cultura (his father's name), but it was
clearly proven that he was part of the group that killed the
victim and did not raise the question of his identity at the
arraignment and acquiesced to be tried under that name, he is
deemed to have waived to raise the question of his identity for
the first time on appeal.
SEC. 8.
Designation of the offense
SEC. 9.
Cause of the accusation
Amendment
The former rule did not require qualifying and aggravating
circumstances to be alleged in the complaint or information.
According to jurisprudence, aggravating circumstances
proven by the evidence, although not alleged in the information,
may be taken into account as such aggravating circumstances.
Qualifying circumstances not alleged but proven are
considered as aggravating.
This is no longer true.
HISTORY OF AMENDMENT.
Allegations to Warrant Death Penalty
Pursuant to Section 11 of the amendatory statute (The
Death Penalty Law), the death penalty may be imposed in rape
cases under the last paragraph of Article 335 of the Revised
Penal Code, when the rape is committed with any of the
following attendant circumstances:
R.A. No. 7659 (Death Penalty Law) Relationships which
a. When the victim is under eighteen (18) years of age and the includes step-daughter and minority in incestuous rape are in
offender is a parent, ascendant, step-parent, guardian, the nature of qualifying circumstances, must be specifically
relative by consanguinity or affinity within the third civil
degree, or the common-law spouse of the parent of the alleged and proved to warrant imposition of death penalty.
victim.
Omission cannot be cured by evidence.
b. When the victim is under the custody of the police or mili-
tary authorities. Hence, penalty should only be reclusion perpetual
c. When the rape is committed in full view of the husband, The twin circumstances of minority and relationship under
parent, any of the children or other relatives within the third Article 335 of the Revised Penal Code, as amended by R.A. No.
degree of consangguinity. 7659, are in the nature of qualifying circumstances because they
alter the nature of the crime of rape and increase the penalty.
d. When the victim is a religious or a child below seven (7)
years old. As special qualifying circumstances they must be
specifically pleaded or alleged with certainty in the information;
otherwise, the death penalty cannot be imposed.
e. When the offender knows that he is afflicted with Acquired
Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) disease.
The allegation that Irma is Nelson's niece is not specific
enough to satisfy the special qualifying circumstance of
f. When committed by any member of the Armed Forces of
relationship.
the Philippines or the Philippine National Police or any law
enforcement agency.
If the offender is merely a relation — not a parent,
ascendant, stepparent, guardian, or common law spouse of the
g. When by reason on the occasion of the rape, the victim has
mother of the victim — the specific relationship must be alleged
suffered permanent physical mutilation.
in the information, i.e., that he is "a relative by consanguinity or
affinity [as the case may be] within the third civil degree."
The concurrence of the minority of the victim and her
relationship of the offender is a special qualifying circumstance
The informations in these cases merely allege that Irma is
which should both be alleged and proved with certainty in order
the "niece" of Nelson.
to warrant the imposition of the death penalty.
She could be a niece beyond the third civil degree either of
In these eight (8) cases, complainant never said she was
consanguinity or affinity.
below 18 years of age when she was allegedly raped by her
father on any of the dates stated in the complaint.
Hence, the informations are fatally defective in this
respect.
37

In People u. Nunez, the Court stressed: Strict application of the
rule requiring the allegation of the qualifying circumstances mentioned in
Section 11 of R.A. No. 7659 was further enunciated in People v. Dimapilis.
While the Information there alleged that the victim was the stepdaughter
of the accused, it was not accepted as a proper allegation of the qualifying
circumstance that the accused was the "common law spouse of the parent
of the victim" and the death penalty imposed by the trial court was once
again reduced to reclusion perpetua.
Taking into account the growing number of cases where qualified
rape under Section 11 of R.A. No. 7659, although proven during trial,
could still not be properly penalized because of defects in the Information,
We urge the prosecuting fiscals who are charged with the
responsibility of preparing Informations to state with particularity the
attendant circumstances provided for under Section 11 of R.A. No. 7659.
More specifically, in qualified rape, both the fact of minority of the
victim and the actual relationship between the parties, as worded in R.A.
No. 7659, must be alleged in the Information.
Otherwise, We shall continue to fail both the law and the victims
whom the law have sought to protect.
Hence, the formulation of the foregoing rules that mandate not
only the qualifying but also the aggravating circumstances to be specified
in the information
The Rule now requires aggravating circumstances must not only be
proven but it must also be alleged, otherwise, it should not be considered.
Retroactive Application of Rule
The rule being remedial and favorable to the accused may
be applied retroactively to pending cases.
Purpose of Rule
The factor that characterizes the charge is the actual
recital of facts.
The real nature of the criminal charge is determined not
from the caption or preamble of the information nor from the
specification of the provision of law alleged to have been violated
they being conclusions of law but by the actual recital of facts in
the complaint or information.
The purpose of the rule is to fully apprise the accused of
the true charge against him.
The rule broadens the concept and scope of the right of
the accused to be informed of the nature and cause of the
accusation against him.
The life and liberty of the accused should not be left to the
ability or inability of his counsel to promptly object against the
admissibility of what the law or rule requires to be specifically
alleged.
This was explained in U.S. v. Karelsen:
"The object of this written accusations was,
First: To furnish the accused with such a description of the charge
against him as will enable him to make his defense; and
Second, to avail himself of his conviction or acquittal for protection
against a further prosecution for the same cause, and
Third to inform the court of the facts alleged so that it may decide
whether they are sufficient in law to support a conviction if one should be
had in order that this requirement may be satisfied, facts must be stated,
not conclusions of law.
38
Every crime is made up of certain acts and intent these must be set
forth in the complaint with reasonable particularity of time, place, names
(plaintiff and defendant) and circumstances.
In short, the complaint must contain a specific allegation of
every fact and circumstance necessary to constitute the crime
charged."
It is essential therefore, that the accused be informed of
the facts that are imputed to them as "as he is presumed to
have no independent knowledge of the facts that constitute the
offense."
It imperative that the Information filed with the trial court
be complete — to the end that the accused may suitably prepare
his defense.
Corollary to this, an indictment must fully state the
elements of the specific offense alleged to have been committed
as it is the recital of the essentials of a crime which delineates
the nature and cause of accusation against the accused.
The Court in People u. Mendez, cited the 1935 case of
People v. Oso, that the allegation of the complaint that the
accused had carnal intercourse with the offended woman
"against her will" or "without her consent" is insufficient to
warrant a conviction for rape, although the evidence proves the
commission of the crime and reiterated the importance of duly
informing the accused of the accusation against him as a
constitutional right that cannot be taken lightly, more so, if the
penalty to be imposed is grave, such as the forfeiture of his life.
The essence of the constitutional right of the accused to be
informed of the nature and cause of the accusation against him
is that "every element of the offense must be alleged in the
complaint or information" so as to "enable the accused to
suitably prepare his defense. He is presumed to have no
independent knowledge of the facts that constitute the offense."

In setting out the elements of a crime in the information or
complaint, the pertinent provisions of the Rules on Criminal
Procedure, specifically, Section 9 of Rule 110, provides the
following guideline the cited provision is one of the many
provisions in the Rules of Court that serves to implement the
constitutional right of the accused to be informed of the charges
against him.
Relevant to this case is the phrase "a person of common
understanding," which has its origin in this jurisdiction in the
phrase "a person of ordinary intelligence.""
The test is whether the crime is described in intelligible
terms with such particularity as to apprise the accused, with
reasonable certainty, of the offense charged.
The raison d'etre of the rule is to enable the accused to
suitably prepare his defense.
Without allegation of relationship in cases of statutory
rape, proof alone of relationship unless specifically alleged in the
information would not warrant imposition of the death penalty.
Under existing jurisprudence, in the absence of proof of
aggravating circumstance, the penalty should be reclusion
perpetua and not death.
Where there are two indivisible penalties if there is no
aggravating circumstance the lesser penalty should be imposed.
The court may appreciate as an aggravating circumstance
the victim's minority, which was pleaded in the informations and
proved by her birth certificate.
In those cases, when either one of the twin special
qualifying circumstances of relationship and minority is omitted
or lacking, that which is pleaded in the information and proved
by the evidence, like the complainant's minority, may be
considered as an aggravating.
Exact Relationship to be Alleged
For rape to be qualified as heinous, warranting the
imposition of the death penalty, the circumstances of the
minority of the victim and her relationship with the offender
must be both alleged in the information for rape.
Although a husband is subject to punishment by death in
case he commits rape against his wife's daughter, where the
information alleged the accused, who is the stepfather of
complainant, succeeded in having carnal knowledge of the latter
who was then below eighteen years of age, but the evidence
shows that the accused is not the complainant's stepfather
because he and complainant's mother were not really married
but only lived in common-law relationship or where the charge is
that the victim is the daughter of the accused when the evidence
shows that she is a mere stepdaughter or whether the
relationship is by affinity or consanguinity in the third degree the
death penalty cannot be imposed because the relationship
alleged in the information is different from that actually proven
Where the informations alleged:
"[A]nd taking advantage of his superior strength over the person of
his own daughter who is only thirteen years old.. ."
“[T]aking advantage of his superior strength over the person of his
thirteen (13) year old (sic) daughter. . ."
the Court spared the life of the accused, despite the mention of the
age of the victim and the word "daughter" in said informations, on the
ground that the quoted informations failed to duly allege the special
qualifying circumstances of the victim's minority and the relationship
39
between the victim and the accused because as phrased, they unduly lay
stress on the generic aggravating circumstance of "taking advantage of
superior strength."
The Court further explained that:
"Be it in terms of syntax or composition, the wording of the
informations is unable to sufficiently notify the accused, a person of
common understanding or ordinary intelligence, of the gravity or nature of
the crime he had been charged with, especially considering that the
generic aggravating circumstance of taking advantage of superior strength
is not even an element of the attendant circumstances treated under
number 1 of the last paragraph of Article 335.
The afore-quoted clauses in the informations can thus not be read
nor understood as constituting a specific allegation of the special
circumstances of relationship of father and daughter and that the
daughter was less than 18 years of age at the time the crime of rape was
committed."
Specific Allegation of Relationship and Minority
Even if the information alleged that the victim is the
natural daughter of the accused, where there is a difference in
their surname, the mere testimony of the victim that the
accused is his father is not sufficient to establish the qualifying
circumstance of relationship, even if such relationship was not
denied by the accused.
Granting that the relationship within the third civil degree
either of consanguinity or affinity was duly proved during the
trial, still such proof cannot be appreciated to justify the
imposition of the death penalty because he would thereby be
denied of his constitutional and statutory right to be informed of
the nature and cause of the accusation against him.
Accused cannot be charged with committing the crime of
rape in its simple form and then be tried and convicted of rape in
its qualified form.

Exact Age of Victim must be Alleged
The allegation in the information that complainant is the
"minor daughter" of accused-appellant is insufficient.
As held in People v. Puertollano, the information must
state the exact age of the victim at the time of the commission
of the crime.
To warrant the imposition of the death penalty, the
qualifying circumstance of the rape victim being below seven
years of age should be aptly alleged in the information.
Otherwise, the death penalty imposed by the trial court
should be reduced to reclusion perpetua as provided for in the
second paragraph of Art. 335 of the Revised Penal Code, as
amended.
COMPARE:
It has, however, been held that where the information
state that the offense was committed with the aggravating
circumstances of insult or in disregard of the respect due the
offended party on account of the fact the accused is the father of
the complainant, properly plead the special circumstance of
relationship of father and daughter that would enable a "person
of sufficient understanding" to know what offense is intended to
be charged.
The accused could not have been misled by the wording of
the informations.
A person of ordinary intelligence could not plead with logic
that he had no notice that he is being charged with the repeated
rape of his fifteen-year-old daughter.
Rule on Exemplary Damages
In line with the ruling in People v. Catubig, the qualifying
circumstances of minority and relationship, though not specified
in the complaint, can serve as basis for awarding exemplary
damages.
Although the rape was committed in 1997, before the
Revised Rules on Criminal Procedure took effect, the court held
that the retroactive application of the rules does not absolve
accused from civil liability
Thus, the use of deadly weapon is a qualifying
circumstance or when the crime is committed by two or more
persons, the penalty is reclusion perpetua to death if the
commission of the crime was attended by an aggravating
circumstance.
The use of a deadly weapon was considered as qualifying
and not aggravating for purposes of imposing the death penalty
which was, however, considered as aggravating to award
exemplary damages.
In People v. Caniezo the circumstance of deadly weapon
was not alleged but proven and was considered as generic
aggravating — but did not make any difference in the imposition
of the penalty since under Article 63 where the penalty involved
are two indivisible penalties of reclusion perpetua and there are
no qualifying circumstances, the single indivisible penalty of
reclusion perpetua shall be imposed regardless of
aggravating circumstance.
Exemplary damages was, however, awarded.
Thus an aggravating circumstance, whether ordinary or
qualifying, should entitle the offended party to an award of
40
exemplary damages within the context of Article 2230 of the
New Civil Code, even if the information or criminal complaint has
not alleged said circumstances as required by the rule.
In People v. Cachopero, the award of exemplary damages
was deleted since the aggravating circumstances to justify the
ward were not alleged and proved.
THE MODIFYING CIRCUMSTANCES MUST BE ALLEGED NOT
ONLY IN PREAMBLE BUT IN ACCUSATORY PORTION
The fact of filiation and minority must be alleged in the
accusatory portion of the information.
The real nature of the criminal charge is determined not
from the caption or the preamble of the information, nor from
the specification of the provision of law alleged to have been
violated x x x, but from the actual recital of the facts as alleged
in the body of the information."
Where relationship is not stated in the "cause of the
accusation," or in the narration of the act or omission
constituting the offense, but only in the preamble or opening
statement of the complaint and the complaint upon which the
appellant was arraigned does not state in the accusatory portion
the specifications of the acts constitutive of the offense, that he
is charged as the father of the victim.
Such omission is prejudicial to the right of the accused to
be informed of the nature of the accusations against him.
the
PLEA OF GUILTY TO ALLEGATIONS IN BODY OF
INFORMATION
Thus, the plea of guilty is not on the offense alleged in the
preamble but for the crime alleged in the accusatory portion of
the information.
 The fact that accused-appellant has not denied the
Thus accused did not, in fact, plead guilty to a capital The failure to allege the fact of filiation and minority in the allegation in the complaints that Mylene was below 18 years of

offense designated in the preamble but only to that part of the information for rape is fatal and consequently bars conviction of age when any of the crimes was committed cannot make up for
complaint that charges only simple rape under Art. 335, for its qualified form which is punishable with death. the failure of the prosecution to discharge its burden.

which the penalty is only reclusion perpetua, and not for rape
under R.A. No. 7659, qualified by the circumstance that the Because of its failure to discharge this burden and the
Any circumstance that would qualify or aggravate the
offender is the father of the victim who is a minor, for which the corresponding failure of the trial court to make a categorical
crime charged must be specified in the information.
penalty is death. finding as to the minority of the victim, the qualifying
circumstance of minority and relationship cannot be appreciated
Following the established rule that a penal statute, in these cases.
He cannot therefore properly invoke Sec. 3, Rule 116,
whether substantive or procedural, shall be given a retroactive
which requires reception of evidence on a plea to a capital
effect if favorable to the accused, aggravating circumstances not
offense. It is different with regard to the relationship of the of-
alleged cannot be appreciated.
fended party and accused-appellant, because the latter admitted
APPLICATION TO ALL CRIMES NOT INVOLVING that complainant is his daughter.
IMPOSITION OF DEATH PENALTY Thus, where the aggravating circumstance of dwelling and
abuse of confidence or obvious ungratefulnnes, nocturnity or
nighttime or treachery or abuse of superior strength not alleged Perforce, the death penalty imposed by the trial court in
Before the amendment the retroactive effect of non-
in the information cannot be appreciated. each of the eight (8) cases should be reduced to reclusion
allegation of aggravating circumstance even if proved is
perpetua as provided in the second paragraph of Art. 335 of the
inapplicable for the crime of robbery, the same not involving the
Revised Penal Code, as amended.
imposition of the death penalty. Although the information does not specifically allege
treachery as a qualifying circumstance in the commission of the
crime, the allegation in the information that the victim was four There must not only be proof of minority but also of the
For said crime, what remains applicable is the old rule that
years old at the time of the killing is sufficient compliance with relationship between the accused and the victim.
generic aggravating circumstances if duly proven in the course of
the trial could be taken into account by the trial court in section 6, Rule 110 of the Revised Rules of Criminal Procedure,

determining the proper imposable penalty, even if
circumstances is not alleged in the information.
The court clarified that with the amendment, the principle
is now applicable in all criminal cases, not only in cases where
the aggravating circumstances would increase the penalty to
death.
The court, therefore gave fair warning to prosecutors that
henceforth, they must prepare well-crafted informations that
allege the circumstances qualifying and aggravating the crimes
charged, otherwise the same will not be considered by the court
in determining the proper penalty.
such as amended. Killing a child by an adult constitutes treachery
even if the mode of attack by the assailant is not proved by the
prosecution because a child of tender years could not be
expected to put up a defense and hence at the mercy of his or
her assailant.
THE JUDGMENT MUST MAKE AN EXPRESS FINDING OF THE
QUALIFYING CIRCUMSTANCES
The decision of the trial court must contain an express and
categorical finding that the complainant was below 18 years old
when the crime of rape was committed to justify the imposition
of the death penalty.
41
MODIFYING CIRCUMSTANCES NEED NOT ALLEGE WITH
SPECIFICITY WHETHER IT IS QUALIFYING OR
AGGRAVATING
It was earlier held that where the information, did not
allege with specificity as qualifying the killing to murder (it
merely alleged "with intent to kill, treachery and evident
premeditation) although established by the evidence, under the
present Revised Rules of Criminal Procedure, treachery has to be
considered a generic aggravating circumstance only.
This was reiterated in an en bane decision of the Court in
People v. Manlansing, holding that where none of aggravating
circumstances were alleged in the informations with specificity as
a qualifying circumstance elevating the killing to murder,
ascused should only be convicted of homicide. evidence to support it need not necessarily be shown by direct
The words "aggravating/qualifying," "qualifying," "qualified proof but may be inferred from shown acts and conduct of the

by," "aggravating," or "aggravated by" need not be expressly accused.

This is no longer true.
stated as long as the particular attendant circumstances are
specified in the Information." Following the stream of our own jurisprudence, it is
In a per curiam Resolution, the Court in People v. Aquino
enough to allege conspiracy as a mode in the commission of the
declared:
The ruling was reiterated in People v. Paulina and People crime in either of the following manner:
v. Garin holding that the appellant may no longer rely on the
3

“We therefore reiterate that Sections 8 and 9 of Rule 110 merely

rulings Alba and Manalansing because of the ruling in People v. (1) by the use of the word "conspire" or its
require that the Information allege, specify or enumerate the attendant derivatives or synonyms, such as confederate, connive,
Aquino and People v. Paulino.
circumstances mentioned in the law to qualify the offense. collude, etc. or

WHEN DEFECT IN INFORMATION CURED: THE (2) by allegations of basic facts constituting the
These circumstances need not be preceded by the words
SUBSTANTIAL COMPLIANCE RULE conspiracy in a manner that a person of common
'aggravating/qualifying,' 'qualifying,' or 'qualified by' to be considered as
understanding would know what is intended, and with such
qualifying circumstances.
precision as would enable the accused to competently enter
The information must state that the accused have confed- a plea to a subsequent indictment based on the same facts.
erated to commit the crime or that there has been a community
It is sufficient that these circumstances be specified in the
Information to apprise the accused of the charges against him to enable of design, a unity of purpose or an agreement to commit the
In the absence of conspiracy, so averred and proved an
him to prepare fully for his defense, thus precluding surprises during the felony among the accused.
accused can only be made liable for the acts committed by him
trial.
alone and this criminal responsibility is individual and not
Such an allegation, in the absence of the usual usage of collective.
When the prosecution specifically alleges in the Information the
the words "conspired" or "confederated" or the phrase "acting in
circumstances mentioned in the law as qualifying the crime, and succeeds
conspiracy," must aptly appear in the information in the form of Conspiracy Charged as a Crime
in proving them beyond reasonable doubt, the Court is constrained to
impose the higher penalty mandated by law.
definitive acts constituting conspiracy.

Thus, when conspiracy is charged as a crime, the act of

This includes the death penalty in proper cases." In fine, the agreement to commit the crime, the unity of conspiring and all the elements of said crime must be set forth in
purpose or the community of design among the accused must be the complaint or information.
conveyed such as either by the use of the term "conspire" or its
Unfortunately, this is one of those cases.
derivatives and synonyms or by allegations of basic facts
For example, the crime of "conspiracy to commit treason"
constituting the conspiracy.
is committed when, in time of war, two or more persons come to
The allegation of the twin circumstances of minority and
an agreement to levy war against the Government or to adhere
relationship in the Information, which were proven beyond
Conspiracy must be alleged, not just inferred, in the to the enemies and to give them aid or comfort, and decide to
reasonable doubt during the trial, compels the Court to impose
information on which basis an accused can aptly enter his plea, a commit it. * * *
the death penalty.
matter that is not to be confused with or likened to the adequacy
of evidence that may be required to prove it. CONSPIRACY CHARGED AS MODE OF COMMITTING A
To guide the bench and the bar, this Resolution clarifies CRIME
and resolves the issue of how to allege or specify qualifying or
In establishing conspiracy when properly alleged, the
aggravating circumstances in the Information.
The requirements of the sufficiency of the information are
42
different when conspiracy is not charged as a crime in itself but
only as the mode of committing the crime as in the case of
Plunder consisting of several crimes.
There is less necessity of reciting its particularities in the
information because conspiracy is not the gravamen of the
offense charged.
The conspiracy is significant only because it changes the
criminal liability of all the accused in the conspiracy and make
them responsible as co-principals regardless of the degree of
their participation in the crime.
The liability of the conspirators is collective and each
participant will be equally responsible for the acts of the others.
a. Need to Designate Statute Violated.
It is a constitutional right of any person who stands
charged in a criminal prosecution to be informed of the
nature and cause of the accusation against him.
Pursuant to the above, Section 6, Rule 110 of the
Rules of Court, expressly requires that for a complaint or
information to be sufficient, it must, inter alia, state the
designation of the offense by the statute, and the acts or
omissions complained of as constituting the offense.
This is essential to avoid surprise on the accused and
to afford him the opportunity to prepare his defense
accordingly.
To comply with these fundamental requirements of
the Constitution and the Rules on Criminal Procedure, it is
imperative for the specific statute violated to be designated
or mentioned in the charge. CRIME
The foregoing doctrines refer to the special qualifying
b. The failure, however, to designate the offense by statute or
to mention the specific provision penalizing the act or an circumstances that are required to be specifically alleged in the
erroneous specification of the law violated does not vitiate information.
the information if the facts alleged clearly recites the facts
constituting the crime charged. It would seem to be different when there is a mere
variance in the mode of the commission of the crime.
c. The title of information or designation of offense is not
controlling. A. Real Nature of Crime Determined by Facts Alleged in
Complaint or Information and Not by Title
It is the actual facts recited in the information that de- a. What controls is not the designation of the offense
termines the nature of the crime. but its description, and in the case of attending
circumstances, not their denomination but their
The real nature of offense is to be determined not by function.
its designation or title given by the Fiscal but the facts
alleged in the body of the Information. If the killing was committed with the attendance of any
of the circumstances mentioned in Article 248 of the
Revised Penal Code, then the offense committed is
d. It is the province of the Court alone to say what the crime is
murder although they are mistakenly called
or what it is named.
aggravating in the information.
Even the justice of the peace, during the preliminary
They are qualifying circumstances nonetheless.
investigation of a case, is without authority to determine the
character of the crime committed.
b. Thus, where the information characterized the killing as
having been committed by taking advantage of superior
His declaration upon the point is merely an opinion
strength, a circumstance which qualifies a killing to
which in no wise binds the trial court.
murder, the information sufficiently charged the
commission of murder.
e. Allegations prevail over designation of the offense in the
information for conviction of accused who may therefore be
c. In a prosecution for robbery with rape, the fact that the
convicted of a crime more serious than that named in the
information did not mention Art. 335 of the Revised
title or preliminary part if such crime is covered by the facts
Penal Code but Arts. 293 and 294 of that Code will not
alleged in the body of the information and its commission is
prevent conviction of an accused under Art. 335.
established by the evidence.
The constitutional right of the accused to be informed of
EFFECTS OF VARIANCE IN MODE OF COMMISSION OF
43
the nature of the accusation against him is not violated
thereby.
As former Chief Justice Moran pointed out: "If the
above requirement is not complied with and no name
has been given to the offense alleged to have been
committed, the defect is merely of form which does not
prejudice the substantial rights of the defendant.
This is especially so where the facts pleaded are clearly
constitutive of a specific offense.
c.
In such cases, the real nature of the crime charged is
determined not by the title of the complaint, nor by the
specification of the provision of the law alleged to have
been violated, but by the facts recited in the complaint
or information.
5.
This is so because from a legal point of view, and in a
very real sense, it is of no concern to the accused what
is the technical name of the crime of which he stands
charged.
It in no way aids him in his defense on the merits.
The real question is not that he did commit a crime
given in the law some technical and specific name, but
did he perform the acts alleged in the body of the
information in the manner therein set forth.
If he did, it is of no consequence to him, either as a
matter of procedure or of substantive right, how the
law denominates the crime which those acts
constitute."
This principle was reiterated in People v. Torres,
wherein the Court again held that it is not the technical B. Essential Elements Inferred from Allegation in Information
name given by the Fiscal appearing in the title of the
Information that determines the character of the crime
While the general rule is that an inference in the
but the facts alleged in the body of the information,
complaint and conclusions such as "Grave abuse of
where the accused charged with violation of General
confidence" are not allowed the following terms were
Order No. 6 for carrying with him an unlicensed firearm
interpreted by the Supreme Court is follows:
punishable with life imprisonment was held guilty under
the Revised Administrative Code punishable by
imprisonment of one to five years. "Having committed the offense criminally and feloniously, and
with intent to kill" sufficiently avers discernment on the part of the
accused who was a minor.
Although the information charged the petitioner with
estafa, the crime committed was theft.
"Willfully, unlawfully" covers "knowingly" in illegal fishing.
It is settled that what controls is not the designation of
Willful damage to property includes reckless imprudence.
the offense but the description thereof as alleged in the
information
"Deceit and promise of marriage was treated as mere
surplusage in qualified seduction case."
B.P. Big. 22 cannot be deemed necessarily included in
the crime of estafa under RPC, Article 315, 2(d). "Intent to gain" is presumed to be alleged in an information
where it is alleged that there was unlawful taking and appropriation
by the offender.
The offense of fraud denned under the Revised Penal
Code is malum in se, whereas B.P. Big. 22, also known
as Bouncing Checks Law, is a special law which C. Limitation on Rule that an Accused may be Convicted of a
punishes the issuance of bouncing checks, a malum Crime which is More Serious than that Named in the Title so
prohibitum. Long as the Facts Alleged the More Serious Offense
(a) An accused could not be convicted under one act when
Fraud or estafa under the Revised Penal Code is a
he is charged with a violation of another if the change
distinct offense from the violation of the Bouncing from one statute to the other involves:
Checks Law.
1) a change of the theory of the trial;
They are different offenses, having different elements. 2) requires of the defendant a different defense; or
3) surprises the accused in anyway.
Where appellant is accused of violating a particular
provision of the Revised Penal Code on estafa, she may
(b) Illegal construction — Where the information for illegal
not be convicted for violation of B.P. Big. 22 without
construction does not specifically describe and locate
trenching on fundamental fairness.
44
 the building alleged to have been illegally constructed,
it is fatally defective because it is impossible on its face
to identify the house allegedly constructed without the
necessary building permit.
It can be quashed.
In several cases, the accused whose guilt beyond
reasonable doubt, although affirmed by the Supreme Court,
escaped lethal injection because of the failure of the
prosecution to specifically allege the qualifying circumstance
of relationship or age in heinous crimes.
The Supreme Court therefore urged the prosecuting
fiscals to state with particularity the fact of minority and the
actual relationship between the parties as worded in R.A.
No. 7659.
It must be spelled out in more concrete terms.
This is what the amendment seeks to accomplish.
The amendment did not, however, limit the require-
ment to qualifying circumstances but also included
aggravating circumstances.
Where there is no aggravating circumstance, the
penalty is reclusion perpetual
The requirement would also prevent a repetition of the
errors by the prosecutors in Republic v. Asuncion, Arceo v.
Cunanan, People u. Magallanes and Lacson u. Executive
Secretary, where the prosecution failed to specify the
qualifying facts that the crimes were committed in relation
to their public office.
The general rule is that an accused cannot be of force or intimidation.
convicted of a different mode of the commission of the
offense charged in the information.
Appellant was charged with rape committed by means
offeree or intimidation.
Where the law distinguishes between two cases of
violation of its provision, an information for violation thereof
Otherwise put, his offense fell under Article 266-A(1)
must specify under which of the two cases, the defendant
of the Revised Penal Code.
stands accused of.
Where the accused is charged with rape committed But in convicting him of rape committed while his
thru force and intimidation, he can not be convicted of rape victim was supposedly unconscious, the trial court applied
committed under paragraph 2 of Article 335 when the Article 266-A(l)(b) of said Code.
woman is deprived of reason or otherwise unconscious,
except when there is no objection.
The element of unconsciousness on the victim's part
was not alleged much less specified in the information.
It was held that an accused cannot be convicted of
rape of a mental retardate if this is not alleged in the
It cannot be made the basis of conviction, without
information.
violating appellant's right to due process, in particular to be
informed of the nature of the accusation against him.
It was likewise held that the accused cannot be
convicted under paragraph 2 or 3 of Article 335 of the
However, in People u. Atienza, involving the rape of a
Revised Penal Code, because none of the modes of
13-year old minor charged with rape committed in 1996 by
committing rape specified therein were alleged in the
force and intimidation there was no objection to evidence of
Information.
subnormal mental incapacity (that is, her mental capacity
was equivalent to an 8 year-old).
To convict him under either of these statutory
provisions is to deprive him of the constitutional right to be
The court held that the absence of an allegation in the
informed of the accusation against him.
information of this mode of committing the crime of rape
was deemed waived by the absence of an objection and the
Thus in convicting appellant, the trial court relied upon presentation of evidence to the contrary.
a finding that complainant was unconscious when the
appellant had carnal knowledge other.
The Court cited People u. Abiera, holding that the
accused charged with rape through one mode of
This contradicts the allegation in the information. commission may still be convicted of the crime if the
evidence shows another mode of commission, provided that
Appellant was charged with rape committed by means the accused did not object to such evidence.
45

Failure to object to evidence of the mode
commission of crime different from that alleged in the
information is considered a waiver:
a. There is waiver and conviction allowed based on
evidence even if not alleged in the information, citing
separate opinion of then now C.J. Davide in People v.
Moreno, on waiver of constitutional right to be informed
of nature and cause of accusation.
In this case, the accusatory portion failed to specifically
allege that the rape was committed through force or
intimidation, the prosecution was able to establish by
evidence without any objection that the accused-
appellant that tended to prove that he committed the
rape by force and intimidation.
b. Similarly, in People v. Orbita, the Information against
accused-appellant alleged that he had carnal knowledge
of the victim by means offeree, violence
intimidation, against the latter's will and consent.
It did not allege her mental state.
During the trial, however, the prosecution proved that
the victim is a mental retardate and the accused-
appellant was convicted under paragraph 2 of Article
335 of the Revised Penal Code.
Although initially deficient, the criminal complaint was
deemed corrected when the prosecution introduced
evidence of the complainant's mental condition and the
defense did not object, thereby waiving the procedural
defect.
Accordingly, appellant can be convicted of the crime
of charged through either the second or third circumstance of
committing such crime.
OBSERVATIONS: LIMITATION ON WAIVER
The information in the foregoing cases charges an offense
but allowed waiver because of a variance between the allegation
and proof in the mode of commission of the offense without any
objection.
Where the information charges no offense at all or would
result in convicting the accused for a more serious offense than
the offense charged waiver for failure to object should not be
allowed.
The court itself stated that the rules on the validity or
invalidity of a waiver are not something we have crafted
overnight to suit the instant case.
and They have been extant since time that is now immaterial
to recall.
In civil cases, we overturn decisions because the waiver of
certain rights was not done in accordance with the requisites.
Hence, in Intestate Estate of the Late Vito Borromeo v.
Borromeo, this Court set aside the waiver of hereditary rights
because it was not clearly and convincingly shown that the heir
had the intention to waive his right or advantage voluntarily.
In criminal cases where life, liberty and property are all at
stake, obviously, the rule on waiver cannot be any less.
In this light, we are at a loss why counsel de oficio for
46
accused-appellant did not touch upon this point when something
more valuable than any property that a person could ever inherit
in his lifetime is in danger of being taken away eternally.
It is elementary that the existence of waiver must be
positively demonstrated since a waiver by implication cannot be
presumed.
The standard of waiver requires that it "not only must be
voluntary, but must be knowing, intelligent, and done with
sufficient awareness of the relevant circumstances and likely
consequences."
There must thus be persuasive evidence of an actual
intention to relinquish the right.
Mere silence of the holder of the right should not be easily
construed as surrender thereof; the courts must indulge every
reasonable presumption against the existence and validity of
such waiver.
Necessarily, where there is a reservation as to the nature
of any manifestation or proposed action affecting the right of the
accused to be heard before he is condemned, certainly, the
doubt must be resolved in his favor to be allowed to proffer
evidence in his behalf.
Our criminal rules of procedure strictly provide the step-
by-step formula to be followed by courts in cases punishable by
death.
The reason for this is to ensure that the constitutional
presumption of innocence in favor of the accused is preserved
and the State makes no mistake in taking life and liberty except
that of the guilty.
 Hence, any deviation from the regular course of trial
should always take into consideration that such a different or
extraordinary approach has been undertaken voluntarily and
intelligently.
For otherwise, as in the instant case, denial of due process
can be successfully invoked since no valid waived or rights has
been made.
The Court noted with deep regret the failure of the trial
court to inquire from accused-appellant himself whether he
wanted to present evidence; or submit his memorandum
elucidating on the contradictions and insufficiency
prosecution evidence, if any; or in default thereof, file a
demurrer to evidence with prior leave of court, if he so believes
that the prosecution evidence is so weak that it need not even
be rebutted.
The inquiry is simply part and parcel of the determination
of the validity of the waiver, i.e., "not only must be voluntary,
but must be knowing, intelligent, and done with sufficient
awareness of the relevant circumstances and
consequences." which ought to have been done by the trial court
not only because this was supposed to be an uncomplicated and
routine task on its part, but more importantly since accused-
appellant himself did not personally, on a person-to-person
basis, manifest to the trial court the waiver of his own right.
As things stand, both this Court and the trial court being
asked hook, line and sinker to take the word of counsel de oficio
whose own concern in that particular phase of the proceedings a
quo may have been compromised by pressures of his other
commitments.
For all we know, the statutory counsel of the indigent
accused at that time of the trial, although not evident in the
other aspects of his representation, only wanted to get rid of
dreary work rather than protect the rights of his client. information which charges the accused of raping his six
year-old daughter or committing acts of lasciviousness on
her, or of committing sexual abuse against her 11-year old
Of course, it may be stretching the argument too much to
daughter.
ascribe fatal incompetence upon herein accused's counsel for
this solitary instance of faux pas.
Waiver is not allowed where the information charges
no offense.
But, for sure, we must inquire if the waiver was validly
done.
An indictment must fully state the elements of the
specific offense alleged to have been committed.
In People v. Donato," the Court expounded on what rights
and privileges may be waived, viz.:
For an accused cannot be convicted of an offense,
of the
"Although the general rule is that any right or privilege conferred even if duly proven, unless it is alleged or necessarily
by statute or guaranteed by constitution may be waived, a included in the complaint or information
waiver in derogation of a statutory right is not favored, and a
waiver will be inoperative and void if it infringes on the rights of
others, or would be against public policy or morals and the public b. Waiver is not allowed where the qualifying circumstance is
interest may be waived.
different from the qualifying circumstance alleged in the
information.
"While it has been stated generally that all personal rights
conferred by statute and guaranteed by constitution may be waived, it
has also been said that constitutional provisions intended to protect Where the accused alleged to be the father of the
property may be waived, and even some of the constitutional rights
likely victim who is under 18 years of age is charged with rape
created to secure personal liberty are subjects of waiver."
under paragraph 2 of Article 266-A punishable by reclusion
temporal he cannot be convicted of rape under paragraph 1
While it is established that rights may be waived, Article 6 of Article 266-A punishable by death, even if this was duly
of bhe Civil Code explicitly provides that such waiver is subject established.
to the condition that it is not contrary to law, public order, public
policy, morals, or good customs, or prejudicial to a third person
c. Waiver is not allowed where it would result in a more
with a right recognized by law.
serious penalty.
Thus, in the following cases, waiver was not allowed as it
Under sections 8 and 9, Rule 110 failure to allege
would violate the constitutional right of the accused to be
aggravating or qualifying circumstances, even if proved
informed of the nature and cause of the accusation against him,
without objection cannot be availed of to qualify or
and, consequently, a denial of due process.
aggravate the offense charged.
a. An accused cannot be convicted of rape or acts of
The court ruled that the relationship and minority of
lasciviousness or of violation ofR.A. No. 7610 under an
47
 the victim are special qualifying circumstances which cannot
be considered unless specifically alleged in the information.
The right to be arraigned cannot be waived. — There can
be no trial in absentia without arraignment — which must be in
the presence of the accused.
Variance, however, on date of commission of rape is
irrelevant.
Habitual delinquency
A mere statement of habitual delinquency is a conclusion
of law and a plea of guilty to such an information does not make
the accused a habitual delinquent.
The information should specify the dates:
(1) of the commission of previous crimes;
(2) of the last conviction or release; and
(3) of the other previous conviction or release of the
accused.
ABSENCE OF ALLEGATION OF RECIDIVISM AND HABITUAL
DELINQUENCY
In the Absence of allegations in Information of Recidivism
and Habitual Delinquency — the evidence was properly objected
to as inadmissible.
Similarly, the qualifying circumstance of treachery must be
specifically pleaded or alleged with sufficient clarity as to be
readily understood and not merely deduced.
Negative and Excepting Allegations
When an exception or negative allegation is not an
ingredient of the offense and is a matter of defense it need not
be alleged.
An exception in a penal statute by which certain particulars
are withdrawn from or excepted out of its enacting clause,
defining a crime concerning a class or species, need not be
denied in an information charging a violation of said statute.
And where a denial is unnecessarily alleged in the
information, it need not be proved by the prosecution, for it is
not an essential element of the violation charged, but a matter
of defense which must be proved by the accused if he relies
upon it.
For instance, the Opium Law provides that "save upon the
prescription of a duly licensed and practicing physician,
veterinarian, or dentist, no person shall inhale, snuff, chew,
swallow, inject, or otherwise take or use any such drug in his
body or permit the same to be used upon him by another."
In an information charging a violation of this statute, it is
not necessary to allege that the person charged is not under the
exception contained in the statute, i.e., that he did not use the
prohibited drug upon the prescription of a physician, veterinarian
or dentist, nor is it necessary to prove such allegation if made
unnecessarily, because said exception is a matter of defense
which the accused must prove.
To determine whether the exception is or is not a matter of
defense, the following test has been approved: If the language
of the law defining the otfense is so entirely separable from the
exception that the ingredients constituting the offense may be
accurately and clearly defined without any reference to said
exception, the pleader may then safely omit such reference, as
the exception is a matter of defense which must be shown by
the accused.
If, however, the exception is so incorporated with the
48
language defining the offense that the ingredients of the offense
cannot be accurately and clearly described if the exception is
omitted, the indictment founded upon the statute must allege
enough to show that the accused is not within the exception.
And, when the evident intent and purpose of the statute is
to prohibit and penalize generally an act as, for instance, the
smoking of opium, and the statute desires to withdraw from its
operation a limited class of persons, one charged with its
violation is bound to show that he falls within the exception,
whether the excepting proviso is found in the enacting clause or
in a separate provision of the statute.
A negative allegation of recruiting without a license, forms
an essential element of the crime charged. Hence, it was
incumbent upon the prosecution to satisfactorily establish the
date when the complainant was recruited.
(1) "Without necessary license" is an ingredient of violation of
Circular No. 60 of the Central Bank prohibiting the import
and export of Philippine coins and notes.
(2) Want of Certificate to practice medicine is an essential
element of the crime of illegal practice of medicine.
(3) In illegal possession of firearm, the information must allege
that accused has no license to possess firearm.
Where the law distinguishes between two cases of violation of its
provision, an information for violation thereof must specify under which of
the two cases the defendants stands accused of.
An accused charged with murder by means of stabbing
cannot be convicted of homicide thru drowning, otherwise, his
constitutional right to be informed of the nature and cause of the
accusation against him would be violated, so also a person may
not be convicted of qualified seduction where the information
charges him with rape by means offeree, violence and
intimidation.
Inference in complaint and conclusions are not allowed.
"Grave abuse of confidence" is a conclusion of law.
Robbery with Homicide
Failure to state in the information that the killing of the
victim was committed "by reason of or on occasion of the
robbery," does not bar conviction of accused of the special
complex crime of robbery with homicide.
SEC. 10.
Place of commission of the offense
Purpose of Rule: TO SHOW TERRITORIAL JURISDICTION.
Crimes Where Place is Essential
a. Violation of domicile;
b. Penalty on keeper, watchman and visitor of an opium den;
c. Trespass to dwelling;
d. Violation of election law, e.g., 30 meter-radius carrying of
deadly weapon prohibited.
A general allegation in the complaint that the felony was
committed within the jurisdiction of the court is sufficient.
The remedy is a motion for Bill of Particulars under Rule
116, Sec. 6.
Venue of Criminal Action for Written Defamation
Venue in criminal cases is an essential element of within the period of the statute of limitation and before the
jurisdiction. commencement of the action.
To determine venue in libel cases, the complaint or Where the complaint for rape charges accused with having
information should contain allegations as to whether, at the time committed the crime "on or about the month of June 1978" and
the offense was committed, the offended party was a public the affidavit shows that it was committed for "sometime prior to
officer or a private individual and where he was actually residing said period and subsequent thereto," attaching thereto the
at the time. affidavit of the complainant that she was abused before the start
of classes in June 1978 which may thus be considered as part of
the complaint, the discrepancies between the accusation and the
Whenever possible, the place where the written
complaint as to the time of occurrence of the carnal copulations
defamation was printed and first published should likewise be
in rape do not affect the essential rights of the accused, where
alleged.
the acts occurred within the period of time alleged in both
writings, and the difference noted in other respects was of a
That allegation would be a sine qua non if the formal, rather than a substantial, character.
circumstances as to where the libel was printed and first
published is used as the basis of the venue of the action.
"About" is a very comprehensive term which when used
with regards to time, may cover a considerable extent thereof.
SEC. 11. BUT in U.S. v. Smith — it was held that the proof need not
Date of Commission of the Offense correspond to the allegation, unless the time and place is
material and of the essence of the offense as a necessary
ingredient in its description.
"Time" of the commission of the offense was changed to
"DATE."
The evidence is admissible and sufficient if it shows:
Crimes Where Time is Essential
(1) that the crime was committed at any time within the
period of limitation and
a. Infanticide;'
b. Violation of Sunday Statutes (Election Law); and
(2) before or after the time stated in the complaint or
c. Abortion. indictment and before the action is commenced.
The complaint must allege a specific time and place when Thus, an information charging the commission of the crime
and where the offense was committed, but when the time so of robbery in December 1902, was filed in March 19, 1903.
alleged is not of the essence of the offense, it need not be
proved as alleged, and the complaint will be sufficient if the
It was held that the complaint was sufficient to sustain a
evidence shows that the offense was committed at anytime
conviction even if the proof showed that it was committed in
49
January 1903.
It was, however held, in U.S. v. Dickao, that an allegation
from October 1910 to August 1912 is defective:
“To allege in an information that the accused committed rape on a
certain girl between October 1910, and August 1912, is too indefinite to
give the accused an opportunity to prepare his defense, and that
indefiniteness is not cured by setting out the date when a child was born
as a result of such crime.
An information for bigamy must state the time and place
of the second wedding.
Variance, however, on date of commission of rape is
irrelevant.
Time is irrelevant in rape" and violations of the Dangerous
Drugs Law cases.
SEC. 12.
Name of the Offended Party
Name of Offended Party
The rules on criminal procedure require the complaint or
information to state the name and surname of the person
against whom or against whose property the offense was
committed or any appellation or nickname by which such person
has been or is known and if there is no better way of identifying
him, he must be described under a fictitious name.
In crimes against property, the object taken or destroyed
should be particularly described to properly identify the crime (if
the name of the offended party is unknown).
In case of offenses against property, the designation of the
name of the offended party is not absolutely indispensable for as
long as the criminal act charged in the complaint or information
can be properly identified.
NAME OF OFFENDED PARTY IN OFFENSES AGAINST PROP-
ERTY
In Sayson v. People (supra), the petitioner vigorously
maintains that he cannot be justifiably convicted under the
information charging him of attempting to defraud Ernesto
Rufino, Sr. and/or Bank of America because the totality of the
evidence presented by the prosecution shows very clearly that
the accused allegedly attempted to defraud Mover Films, Inc., a
corporate entity entirely separate and distinct from Ernesto
Rufino, Sr.
He firmly asserts that his conviction was in gross violation
of his right to be informed of the nature and cause of the
accusation against him.
Petitioner's claim is unavailing.
The rule in this jurisdiction is that "variance between the
allegations of the information and the evidence offered by the
prosecution in support thereof does not of itself entitle the
accused to an acquittal."
The rules on criminal procedure require the complaint or
information to state the name and surname of the person
against whom or against whose property the offense was
committed or any appellation or nickname by which such person
has been or is known and if there is no better way of identifying
him, he must be described under a fictitious name.
In case of offenses against property, the designation of the
50
name of the offended party is not absolutely indispensable for as
long as the criminal act charged in the complaint or information
can be properly identified.
In U.S. v. Kepner, the Court laid down the rule that when
an offense shall have been described in the complaint with
sufficient certainty as to identify the act, an erroneous allegation
as to the person injured shall be deemed immaterial as the same
is a mere formal defect which did not tend to prejudice any
substantial right of the defendant.
Accordingly, in the aforementioned case, which had a
factual backdrop similar to the instant case, where the defendant
was charged with estafa for the misappropriation of the proceeds
of a warrant which he had cashed without authority, the
erroneous allegation in the complaint to the effect that the
unlawful act was to the prejudice of the owner of the cheque,
when in reality the bank which cashed it was the one which
suffered a loss, was held to be immaterial on the ground that the
subject matter of the estafa, the warrant, was described in the
complaint with such particularity as to properly identify the
particular offense charged.
In the instant suit for estafa which is a crime against
property under the Revised Penal Code, since the check, which
was the subject matter of the offense, was described with such
particularity as to properly identify the offense charged, it
becomes immaterial, for purposes of conviction of the accused,
that it was established during the trial that the offended party
was actually Mever Films, Inc., and not Ernesto Rufino, Sr. nor
Bank of America as alleged in the information.
Other Cases
a. Even if the names of offended parties are not alleged, if the
offense belongs to the class of harmful ones (illegal practice
of medicine), the victims of petitioner should be considered
 as offended parties.
b. An erroneous allegation as to the person injured is of form
which did not tend to prejudice any substantial right of the
accused on the merits.
c. The name of the offended party is, however, material in
slander.
The act of insulting X is distinct from a similar act of
insult against Y, even if the insult is preferred by the same
person, in the same language, and at about the same time.
d. In robbery, ownership is not necessary.
e. The damage inflicted in estafa need not fall on the same
person against whom deceit was directed.
f. In robbery with violence against or intimidation of person,
the allegation of the owner's name in the information is
essential.
g. The omission of value in theft cases is not fatal.
h. People v. Avellana, an information for murder is not
defective where another's name not the victim's name is
placed in the information. It is merely clerical.
SEC. 13.
Duplicity of the offense
Purpose of Rule
The information is defective when it charges two or more
offenses.
The rule enjoining the charging of two or more offenses in
an information has for its aim to give the defendant the
necessary knowledge of the charge to enable him to prove his
defense.
The State should not heap upon the defendant two or
more charges which might confuse him in his defense.
Effects of Duplicity of Offenses Charged
Where the accused is charged in one information with
more than one offense and makes no objection to
information on the ground that it charges more than one
offense, the prosecution may properly submit evidence as to the
commission of each and all offenses charged and the court may
properly enter judgment for each and every offense proved and
impose the proper penalties for each offense.
A motion to quash that more than one offense charged
should therefore be filed, otherwise it is deemed waived and the
accused may be convicted for as many offenses charged and
proved.
Under Section 3, Rule 117, the accused may move to
quash the complaint or information on the ground that more
than one offense is charged except in those cases in which
existing laws prescribe a single punishment for various offenses.
Upon the other hand, when two or more offenses are
charged in a single complaint or information, and the accused
fails to object to it before trial, the court may convict the
accused of as many offenses as are charged and proved, and
impose on him the penalty for each and every one of them
51
setting out separately the findings of fact and law in each case.
CASES WHERE INFORMATION CHARGES MORE THAN ONE
OFFENSE
An information is defective for duplicity where the accused
is charged in one complaint for assaulting three (3) persons by
different acts while they were asleep, an information which
charges two violations of the Revised Penal Code contained in
two separate provisions is duplicituous.
An information for malversation of public funds through
falsification of public documents and loss and destruction of
public documents for purposes of concealing a crime was held as
defective.
the So is an information which charges estafa and falsification
to conceal the defraudation.
a. Inclusion of Different Acts of Offenses to Complete
Narration of Facts
Where the different acts or specifications charging the
accused with having committed the offenses charged
therein were included in the information merely to describe
and to narrate the different and specific acts, the sum total
of which constitutes a crime, the validity of the information
cannot be assailed on the ground that it charges more than
one offense, because those different acts or offenses may
serve merely as a basis for the prosecution of one single
crime."
In the case of U.S. v. Cernias, it was held that while it
is true that each of those acts charged against the
conspirators was itself a crime, the prosecutor in setting
them out in the information did no more than to furnish the
defendants with a bill of particulars of the facts which it
intended to prove at the trial, not only as a basis upon
 which to found an inference of guilt of the crime of
conspiracy but also as evidence of the extremely dangerous
and wicked nature of that conspiracy.
The charge is not defective for duplicity when one
single crime is set forth in the different modes prescribed by
law for its commission, or the felony is set forth under
different counts specifying the way of its perpetuation, or
the acts resulted from a single criminal impulse.
Neither is there duplicity when the other offense
described is but an ingredient or an essential element of the
real offense charged nor when several acts are related in
describing the offense.
b. Single Offense Committed by Different Means
It is "a well-settled rule in considering indictments
that where an offense may be committed in any of several
different modes, and the offense, in any particular instance,
is alleged to have been committed in two or more modes
specified, it is sufficient to prove that it be such as to
constitute the substantive offense," and the defendants,
may, therefore, be convicted if any one of the substantive
charges into which the complaint may be separated has
been made out.
It is not objectionable, when a single offense may be
committed by the use of different means to charge in the
alternative, the various means by which the crime may have
been committed.
Thus, the defendant was accused of the violation of
the Medical Law.
The information charged both illegal practice of
medicine and illegally advertising oneself as a doctor.
Held: That the information was not bad for duplicity
inasmuch as the acts charged were merely different means
of committing the same offense, notwithstanding the fact
that they are prohibited by separate sections of the statute.
c. Single act that Violates Different Statutes
A single act or incident might offend against two or
more entirely distinct and unrelated provisions of law thus
justifying the prosecution of the accused for more than one
offense.
The only limit to this rule is the Constitutional
prohibition that no person shall be twice put in jeopardy of
punishment for "the same offense." two (or more) offenses
arising from the same act are not "the same."
The Rules prohibit the filing of such Information to
avoid con fusing the accused in preparing his defense.
Here, however, the prosecution charged each
petitioner with four offenses, with each Information
charging only one offense.
d. Falsification
The defendant, a municipal treasurer, received from
different persons for personal cedulas more than the
amount allowed by law falsified the records of his office so
that they showed the receipt of the lawful amount only, and
in his monthly statements to the provincial treasurer made
similar false statements.
52
Held: That a complaint alleging these facts did not
charge more than one offense.
e. Treason
A person accused of an offense is not charged by the
number of counts or paragraphs, but by the specific criminal
acts regardless of their number contained in one paragraph
or in one count. —
A person accused of an offense is not considered as
having been charged by the number of counts or
paragraphs into which the acts charged may have been
grouped in the information, but by the specific criminal acts
charged, even if two or more of them are contained in one
paragraph or in one count.
While it is convenient that each count or paragraph
should contain only one offense or one specific act of trea-
son for the sake of clearness, this does not justify the
inference or claim that all of the acts charged under one
count or paragraph should be considered as only one act of
offense, and proof of all the acts included therein is
necessary to prove the charge.
f. Effect of Failure of the Prosecution to Prove All Acts
Charged Where Each Act Constitutes Treason by Itself
If a person is being charged with four specific acts
under one count, and each constitutes a complete act of
treason by itself independently of the others, the failure of
the prosecution to prove all does not entitle the accused to
be acquitted of the whole count or of all the charges
contained therein when any one or more of the acts are
proved.
 proved beyond reasonable doubt.
g. Robbery in Band a. The single larceny rule —
There is, however, complex crime of murder with
frustrated murder where a single shot hit both victims.
An information which charges the commission of 1) Theft of 13 cows;
2) theft of six roosters;
"robbery in a band or brigandage" and alleges facts showing 3) illegal charging of fees by lawyer from revenue victims;
j. Violation of Child Abuse Law
the commission of an act of robbery by a band of robbers, 4) Illegal approval of the application for the legalization of
simply sets out the same fact in different aspects and is not stay of 32 aliens, constitutes only one crime
bad for duplicity. Each incident of sexual intercourse and lascivious acts
b. The concept was not applied —
with a child under the circumstances mentioned in Republic
Act No. 7610 is a separate and distinct offense.
h. The Anti-Graft Law 1) In Estafa committed on different occasions.

2) In Malversation and falsification on different ocassions

THE PRINCIPLE OF DELITO CONTINUADO
Section 3(e) of the Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices 3) The 75 estafa cases was committed by conversion by
Act does not suffer from the constitutional defect of agent of collection from different customers on different
vagueness by the use of the phrases "manifest partiality," Justice Quiason explains the Principle of Delito Continuado dates.
"evident bad faith" and "gross inexcusable negligence." (continuing crimes) in Santiago v. Garchitorena.
4) Robbery and fencing are two separate crimes. Prin-
ciple of Delito Continuado is not applicable.
In this case, 32 Amended Informations for violation of the
They merely describe the different modes by which Anti-Graft Law alleged that the offenses were committed on the 5) In a Single Information for murder for shooting three
the offense penalized in Section 3(e) of the statute may be same period of time, i.e., on or about October 17, 1988 favoring persons — where evidence did not show that a single
committed, and the use of all these phrases in the same 32 aliens. shot had slain three different persons, the appellant
information does not mean that the indictment charges was properly held liable for three separate murders and
three distinct offenses. sentenced to three separate penalties ofreclusion
The several acts were considered by the court as
perpetrua.
constituting only one crime.
i. Murder with Double Less Serious Physical Injuries 6) In People v. Ducay — several victims dying from
separate shots constitute separate offenses and if there
For delito continuado to exist, there should be a plurality of is no objection for duplicity, the accused should be
Where in describing the offense of murder with double acts performed during a period of time, unity of penal provision convicted of all offenses charged in one information.
less serious physical injuries, the information states that violated, and unity of criminal intent or purpose, which means
appellant "feloniously attack, assault and shoot for several that two or more violations of the same penal provisions are
times the victims," it in effect charged accused with several It is not the act of pressing the trigger like a Thompson
united in one and the same intent or resolution leading to the
distinct and separate crimes, as it is the allegations or submachine gun that determines the number of felonies
perpetration of the same criminal purpose or aim.
actual recitals in the information rather than the technical committed, but the number of bullets which actually produced
description of the crime that controls. them.
In appearance, a delito continuado consists of several
crimes but in reality there is only one crime in the mind of the The firing of several bullets by the accused although
The defective information not having been timely perpetrator. resulting from one continuous burst of gunfire, constitutes
objected to, however, said defect of duplicity of charges several acts. Each person fell by different shots, is a victim of a
cannot be heard belatedly on appeal and accused may be separate crime of murder.
Examples of Delito Continuado.
convicted of as many offenses as are charged therein and
53

Exceptions to Rule on Duplicity
The rule on duplicity of offenses does not apply where the
law prescribes a single penalty for various offenses such as a
complex crime under Article 48 of the Revised Penal Code or
special complex crime such as Robbery with Homicide or with
Rape or Rape with Homicide, or Rebellion complexed with
murder, robbery and kidnapping.
Rule on Complex Crimes
The precise language of the statute used in alleging the
commission of the crime is not necessary as long as in charging
the commission of a complex offense like that of Robbery with
Homicide, the information alleges each element of
component offenses with the same precision that would be
necessary if they were made the subject of a separate
prosecution.
Thus, although the phrase by reason or on occasion of the
robbery as provided for by the Revised Penal Code, was not
literally used in the recital of facts alleging the commission of the
two crimes of robbery with homicide, the information as filed
sufficiently and distinctly alleges the commission of the two
crimes of robbery and homicide and adequately informs the
accused of the crime charged.
Under Article 48 of the Revised Penal Code, when a single
act constitutes two or more grave or less grave felonies, or when
an offense is a necessary means for committing the other, the
penalty for the most serious crime shall be imposed, the same to
be applied in its maximum period.
The throwing of a hand grenade at the President with the
intention of killing him resulting in the death and injuries of
several persons constitutes the complex crime of murder with
attempted murder.
For a criminal complaint or information to charge the
commission of a complex crime, the allegations contained
therein do not necessarily have to charge a complex crime as
denned by law.
It is sufficient that the information contains allegations
which state that one offense was a necessary means to commit
the other.
The information in question in the present case contains
allegations properly charging the commission of the complex
crime of incriminatory machinations through unlawful arrest, and
the court a quo committed error when it ordered its dismissal.
the
Where, however component offenses are not alleged in the
information as required by Sections 8 and 9 of Rule 110 they
cannot give rise to a special complex crime, consistent with the
right of the accused to be informed of the nature and cause of
the accusation against them.
A complex crime is committed when two persons are killed
as a result of the same murderous act of the accused.
When each one of the two deceased was killed by different
and separate sets of shots, fired respectively, through two
independent sets of acts of the accused, each one aimed
exclusively at a victim, for each victim killed, there is a separate
and independent crime of murder.
WHEN ONE OFFENSE IS NECESSARY MEANS FOR COMMIT-
TING THE OTHER
a. Falsification of cedulas to commit malversation.
b. Estafa thru falsification.
54
When two or more acts combined in the commission of one
crime, the complaint is not necessarily defective because it
contains a description of two acts.
If the acts are so disconnected as to constitute separate
and distinct offenses or crimes, then of course, it would not be
error to charge each of said acts in different complaints but
where the acts are so related as to constitute in fact but one
offense, then a complaint will not be defective if the crime is
described by relating two acts in the description of one offense.
To be a complex crime, the offense must be a necessary
means for committing the other, but if one offense is to conceal
the other, the accused may be convicted for both offenses as in
case of arson to conceal homicide or falsification to conceal
malversation.
OTHER CASES:
1) Killing of four victims on the same occasion of the robbery is
robbery with quadruple homicide — only one crime.
2) Robbery with homicide and rape only one crime.
Accused who abducted the victim and had sexual
intercourse with her for several days is not guilty of
separate offense but the continuing offense of abduction
with rape.
No Duplicity in Rape With Homicide
There is no duplicity in an information for rape with
homicide.
Where seven persons committed rape with homicide in
conspiracy with each other, every one of the seven accused may
separately be charged for rape with homicide.
There is no duplicity in a charge of estafa committed by
the accused for misappropriation of the purchase price of several
lots owned by the Hometrust Corporation which were
fraudulently received by the accused against seven lot buyers on
the pretext that she was authorized to do so and which she
misapplied to her personal use instead of remitting the money to
the owner corporation, and seven other separate informations of
estafa committed against the seven lot buyers.
The crime of estafa committed against the corporation and
those committed against the lot buyers are definitely separate
felonies.
They were dictated by different criminal intents, committed
under different modes of commission provided by the law on
estafa, perpetrated by different acts, consummated on different
occasions, and caused injury to different parties.
a. The Principle of Absorption
b.
1) Drugs Cases
In People v. Salamat, the illegal possession of 137 cans
of opium and sale of 37 cans of opium was held as two
isolated acts and not one, each of which is punishable
in themselves.
Only in the event where all the amount of the opium
possessed and seized be in its totality the same as that
which was possessed with the sole purpose of being
delivered as the matter or subject of a sale previously
c.
agreed upon, could it be said that the possession of the
opium was a necessary means to effect the delivery by
reason of the sale, and that the sale agreed upon was
the sole reason for the possession of the opium seized.
2) When Possession of Drugs Absorbed in Sale
In People v. Lacerna, possession of marijuana was held
as absorbed in the sale thereof, except where the seller
is further apprehended in possession of another
quantity of the prohibited drugs not covered by or
included in the sale and which are probably intended
for some future dealings or use by the seller.
Where aside from selling one block of marijuana to
the arresting officers, accused-appellants were also caught
in possession of another 12.04 kilograms of marijuana in
twelve individually wrapped blocks, hidden in a bag under a
table in their house.
Their possession thereof gives rise to a disputable
presumption under Section 3(j), Rule 131 of the Rules of
Court, that they were the owners of the same.
Forcible Abduction Absorbed in Rape
Where complainant was forcibly taken away for the
purpose of sexually assaulting her, then the rape so
committed may absorb the forcible abduction.
The trial court, thus, correctly held that the rape
charged and proved in Criminal Case No. 44263 already
absorbed the forcible abduction with rape complained of in
Criminal Case No. 44264.
Absorption does not include special laws
55
On petitioners' claim that the charge for violation of
Article 365 of the RPC "absorbs" the charges for violation
ofP.D. No. 1067, P.D. No. 984, and R.A. No. 7942, suffice it
to say that a mala in se felony (such as Reckless
Imprudence Resulting in Damage to Property) cannot
absorb mala prohibita crimes (such as those violating P.D.
No. 1067, P.D. No. 984, and R.A. No. 7942).
What makes the former a felony is criminal intent
(dolo) or negligence (culpa); what makes the latter crimes
are the special laws enacting them.
REBELLION CANNOT BE COMPLEXED WITH ANY OTHER
OFFENSE COMMITTED IN THE COURSE THEREOF
The celebrated case of Enrile v. Salazar, reiterated the
Hernandez Rule, which ruled out the complexing of rebellion
witl-any other offense committed in its course under either of
the clauses of Article 48 of the Revised Penal Code either as a
means necessary to its commission or as an unintended effect of
an activity that constitutes rebellion.
The rule was reiterated in Enrile u. Amin, where the
Supreme Court ruled that the crime of Harboring or Concealing a
Criminal was absorbed by the crime of rebellion for which
Senator Enrile had already been charged and can not therefore
be made the subject of a separate criminal action.
The Supreme Court went on to explain:
"The crime of rebellion consists of many acts.
It is described as a vast movement of men and a complex net of
intrigues and plots.
Jurisprudence tells us that acts committed in furtherance of the
rebellion though crimes in themselves are deemed absorbed in the one
single crime of rebellion.
 In this case, the act of harboring or concealing Col. Honasan is
clearly a mere component or ingredient of rebellion or an act done in
furtherance of the rebellion.
It cannot therefore be made the basis of a separate charge. The
case of People v. Prieto is instructive."
hence, prosecution under one law will not bar a prosecution
under the other.
The Court held that: "This argument is specious in
rebellion cases."
Petitioner's alleged act of harboring or concealing which
was based on his act of conspiring with Honasan was committed
in connection with or in furtherance of rebellion and must now be
deemed as absorbed by, merged in, and identified with the crime
of rebellion punished in Articles 134 and 135 of the RPC.

In the nature of things, the giving of aid and comfort can
only be accomplished by some kind of action.
Its very nature partakes of a deed or physical activity as
opposed to a mental operation.
This deed or physical activity may be, and often is, in itself
a criminal offense under another penal statute or provision.
Even so, when the deed is charged as an element of
treason it becomes identified with the latter crime and can not
be the subject of a separate punishment, or used in combination
with treason to increase the penalty is Article 48 of the Revised
Penal Code provides.
Just as one can lot be punished for possessing opium drug,
in a prosecution for smoking the identical drug, and a robber
cannot be held guilty of coercion or trespass to a dwelling in a
prosecution for robbery, because 3ossession of opium and force
and trespass are inherent in smoking and in
respectively, so may not a defendant be made liable for murder
as a separate crime or in conjunction with another offense
where, as in this case, it is averred as a constitutive ingredient
of reason.
THE PRINCIPLE OF ABSORPTION IN REBELLION APPLIES
TO SPECIAL LAWS
The prosecution tries to distinguish by contending that
harboring or concealing a fugitive is punishable under a special
law while the rebellion case is based on the Revised Penal Code;
In the light of the Hernandez doctrine, the prosecution's
theory must fail.
The rationale remains the same.
All crimes, whether punishable under a special law or
general law, which are mere components or ingredients, or
committed in furtherance thereof, become absorbed in the crime
of rebellion and can not be isolated and charged as separate
crimes in themselves.
This does not detract, however, from the rule that the
ingredients of a crime form part and parcel thereof, and hence,
are absorbed by the same and cannot be punished either
separately therefrom or by the application of Article 48 of the
Revised Penal Code.
The Hernandez and other related cases mention common
crimes as absorbed in the crime of rebellion.
robbery
These common crimes refer to all acts of violence such as
murder, arson, robbery, kidnapping, etc., as provided in the
Revised Penal Code.
The attendant circumstances in the instant case, however,
constrain us to rule that the theory of absorption in rebellion
cases must not confine itself to common crimes but also to
offenses under special laws which are perpetrated in furtherance
of the political offense.
56
Thus, national, as well as international laws and
jurisprudence overwhelmingly favor the proposition that
common crimes, perpetrated in furtherance of a political offense,
are divested of their character as "common" offenses, and
assume the political complexion of the main crime of which they
are mere ingredients and consequently, cannot be punished
separately from the principal offense, or complexed with the
same, to justify the imposition of a graver penalty.
EFFECT OF FAILURE TO OBJECT TO INDEPENDENT
PROSECUTION FOR ILLEGAL POSSESSION
In People v. Elias Rodriguez, the accused, after having
pleaded guilty and convicted of the crime of rebellion, faced an
independent prosecution for illegal possession of firearm.
The Court ruled:
"An examination of the record, however, discloses that the crime
with which the accused is charged in the present case which is
that of illegal possession of firearm and ammunition is already
absorbed as a necessary element or ingredient in the crime of
rebellion with which the same accused is charged with other
persons in a separate case and wherein he pleaded guilty and
was convicted
Conceding the absence of a complex crime of rebellion
with murders, etc., still, by his plea of guilty, the accused-
appellant has admitted all the overt acts described in the
information; and that if any of such acts constituted an
independent crime within the jurisdiction of the lower court, then
the averment in the information that it was perpetrated in
furtherance of the rebellion, being a mere conclusion, cannot be
a bar to appellant's conviction and punishment for said offense,
he having failed, at the arraignment, to object to the information
on the ground of multiplicity of crimes charged."
Enrile Doctrine Not Applicable in Subversion
In People v. Asuncion, it was held that the crime of illegal
possession of firearms under P.D. No. 1806 is not absorbed in
the charge of subversion under R.A. No. 1700.
Political Motive Must Be Shown
In People u. Louedioro, the court held that divested of its
common complexion, any ordinary act, however, grave, assumes
a different color by being absorbed in the crime of rebellion,
which carries a lighter penalty than the crime of murder.
In deciding if the crime committed is rebellion, not murder,
it becomes imperative for our courts to ascertain whether or not
the act was done in furtherance of a political end.
The political motive of the act should be conclusively
demonstrated.
In such cases, the burden of demonstrating political motive
falls on the defense, motive being a state of mind which the
accused, better than any individual knows.
It is not enough that overt acts of rebellion are duly
proven.
Both purpose and overt acts are essential components of
the crime. With either of these elements wanting, the crime of
rebellion legally does not exist.
In fact, even in cases where the act complained of were
committed simultaneously with or in the course of the rebellion,
if the killing, robbing, etc., were accomplished for private
purposes or profit, without any political motivation, it has been
held that the crime would be separately punishable as a common
crime and would not be absorbed by the crime of rebellion.
ILLEGAL POSSESSION OF FIREARM AND UNLAWFUL
KILLING WITH THE USE THEREOF
An accused may, moreover, be charged with as many
crimes as defined in our laws even if these arose from one
incident.
Thus, where a single act is directed against one person but
said act constitutes a violation of two or more entirely distinct
and separate provisions of the Revised Penal Code or by a
specified law as the RPC, the prosecution of one is not a bar to
the other, but such crimes should be alleged in separate
information.
There is no complex crime of illegal possession of Firearm
used in Homicide but they may be filed separately (qualified
illegal possession of firearm is only one offense).
People v. Deunida, reiterated the same principles, but
pointed out that the use of unlicensed firearm must be alleged,
otherwise, the crime is only murder.
Abandonment of Doctrine
In case homicide or murder is committed with the use of
unlicensed firearm, such use of unlicensed firearm shall be
merely considered as aggravating.
57
R.A. No. 8294 amended P.D. No. 1866 abandoned
previous rulings that qualified use of firearms and murder are
separate offenses.
Under the present rule, the unauthorized use of licensed or
unlicensed firearm is simply an aggravating circumstance in the
commission of homicide or murder and no longer a separate
offense, effectively modifying People v. Quijada, and its progeny.
Thus, it has been held that the principle of absorption does
not apply to illegal possession of firearms in connection with the
crime of subversion but simply describes the mode or manner by
which the violation of Section 1 of P.D. No. 1866 was committed
so as to qualify to the penalty of death.
The charge should therefore be amended to simple illegal
possession of firearm, and was accordingly deemed amended by
the Supreme Court.
It should, however, be noted that under existing laws
(R.A. No. 8294) if homicide or murder is committed with the use
of an unlicensed firearm, such use of unlicensed firearm shall be
considered merely as an aggravating circumstance and cannot
be the subject of a separate prosecution.
THE PRESENT LAW ON ILLEGAL POSSESSION OF
FIREARMS
Where murder or homicide results from the use of an
unlicensed firearm, the crime is no longer qualified illegal
possession, but murder or homicide, as the case may be.
In such a case, the use of the unlicensed firearm is not
considered as a separate crime but shall be appreciated as a
mere aggravating circumstance.
 In view of the amendments introduced by Republic Act No.
8294 to Presidential Decree No. 1866, separate prosecutions for
homicide and illegal possession are no longer in order.
Instead, illegal possession of firearms is merely to be
taken as an aggravating circumstance in the homicide case.
The crime of illegal possession of firearm, in its simple
form, is committed only where the unlicensed firearm is not used
to commit any of the crimes of murder, homicide, rebellion,
insurrection, sedition or attempted coup d'etat.
Otherwise, the use of unlicensed firearm would be treated
either:
1) as essential ingredient in the crimes of rebellion,
insurrection, sedition or attempted coup d'etat; or
2) as an aggravating circumstance in murder or homicide.
Neither can accused-appellant be charged with simple
illegal possession.
The same may only done where no other crime is com-
mitted.
An accused cannot be convicted of homicide or murder
with "the use of the unlicensed firearm as aggravating,"
inasmuch as said felonies are not charged in the information but
merely mentioned as the result of the use of the unlicensed
firearm.
Accused-appellant was not arraigned for homicide or
murder.
Hence, he cannot be convicted of any of these crimes
without violating his right to be informed of the nature and cause
of the accusation against him, not to mention his right to due
process.
Following the doctrine enunciated in People v. Molina and
People v. Lazaro, among others, the possession of firearms
against accused-appellant merely as an aggravating
circumstance.
As the law stands today, there can be no longer be a
separate conviction of the crime of illegal possession of firearms
under P.D. No. 1866 in view of the amendments introduced by
Republic Act No. 8294.
Instead, illegal possession of firearms is simply taken as
an aggravating circumstance in murder or homicide pursuant to
Section 1 of R.A. No. 8294.
THE LAW HAS A RETROACTIVE EFFECT ONLY IF IT IS
FAVORABLE TO THE ACCUSED
R.A. No. 8294 is given retroactive effect in the sense that
the use of unlicensed firearm in the commission of a crime is
considered merely as an aggravating circumstance and not as a
separate crime.
It is only when the new law will be advantageous to the
accused that the Law may be given retroactive effect, such as
when it will spare him from a separate conviction for the crime of
illegal possession of firearm.
Thus, where at the time accused was charged in two
separate informations, one with robbery with homicide with the
use of an unlicensed firearm punishable with reclusion perpetua
to death and another for the use of an unlicensed firearm
punishable by death, the existing law allows the filing of the
58
separate informations, under existing law, the provisions
considering the use of an unlicensed firearm in the commission
of the crime as aggravating cannot be given a retroactive effect,
lest it would acquire the character of an ex post facto law.
Should the Court appreciate the use of an unlicensed fire-
arm, the higher penalty of death shall be imposed.
Hence, the penalty should be reclusion perpetua.
On the separate charge of illegal possession of firearm,
this is not allowed under the new law.
Since this is favorable to the accused, it shall be given
retroactive effect.
Thus, while it is true that under R.A. No. 8294, the use of
an unlicensed firearm aggravates the crimes of homicide or
murder, the provisions of the said law cannot apply to the case
at bar because the crime was committed prior to the effectivity
of the said law on July 6, 1997.
The provisions of R.A. No. 8294 may be applied retro-
actively so as to prevent conviction of the separate crime of
illegal possession of firearm because this accrues to the benefit
of the appellant.
It cannot, however, be applied retroactively to aggravate
the crime of homicide or murder.
Illegal Possession As Separate offense
It does not, however, mean that there can no longer be
any prosecution for the crime of illegal possession of firearm.
 In general, all pending cases involving illegal possession of
firearm should continue to be prosecuted and tried if no other
crimes expressly indicated in Republic Act No. 8294 are involved
(murder or homicide under Section 1 and rebellion, insurrection,
sedition or attempted coup d' etat under Section 3.
Thus, where the other offense charged in a Criminal Case
for violation of COMELEC Resolution No. 3045 — is not one of
those enumerated under R.A. No. 8294, the respondent judge
was correct in not quashing the information in the Criminal Case.
It was however, made clear in the en bane decision in
Agote u. Lorenzo, that there can be no separate conviction for
illegal possession of firearm where another crime was commited
at the same time for instance, violation of the COMELEC
resolution on gun ban even if the firearm was not being actually
used or discharged, holding that there can be no separate
offense of illegal possession of firearms and ammunition if there
is another crime committed such as illegal possession of
dangerous drugs.
Reckless Imprudence Cases
Where both damage to property with less serious physical
injuries were caused by one single act of defendant, the
information cannot be split into two — one for physical injuries
and another for damage to property.
If there is damage to property only, the amount fixed
therein should be imposed but if there are also physical injuries,
there should be an additional penalty for the latter.
The information cannot be split into two; one for physical
injuries and another for the damage to property, for both the
injuries and the damages committed were caused by one single
act of physical injuries and damage to property.
crimes and prosecution.
The rule was clarified in People u. Cano:
It was, however, held in Lontok, Jr. v. Gorgonio, that if
"From the viewpoint of trial practices and justice, it is, to say the one offense is light, there is no complex crime. Separate
least, doubtful whether the prosecution should split the action informations must be filed.
against the defendant, by filing against him several informations,
namely, one for damage to property and serious and less serious
Example:
physical injuries, thru reckless negligence, before the Court of
First Instance, and another for slight physical injuries thru
reckless negligence before the justice of the peace or municipal Damage to property in sum of P780.00 and Slight Physical
court. One thing is, however, certain. Injuries thru Reckless Imprudence cannot be made in a single
information — if slight physical injuries prescribes, it must be
dismissed.
Such splitting of the action would work unnecessary inconvenience
to the administration of justice in general and to the accused in particular,
for it would require the presentation of substantially the same evidence Without mentioning Lontok, Jr. v. Gorgonio, the Supreme
before two different courts, the municipal court and the Court of First Court in Buerano v. Court ofAppeals, reiterated the rule in
Instance.
People v. Buan
Worse, still, in the event of conviction in the municipal court and
Reiteration of Lontok v. Gorgonio:
appeal to the Court of First Instance, said evidence would still have to be
introduced once more in the latter court."
The Court in Reodica v. Court ofAppeals,97 held that reckless
imprudence resulting in slight physical injuries and damage to property is
As stated in People v. Buan:
not a complex crime and cannot be the subject of a single information,
they are separate offenses subject to distinct penalties, reiterating the
Reason and precedent both coincide in that once convicted or ruling in Lontok u. Gorgonio.
acquitted of a specific act of reckless imprudence, the accused
may not be prosecuted again for that same act.
The two offenses cannot be complexed because each
For the essence of quasi-offense of criminal negligence is the offenses is not a grave or less grave felony.
execution of an imprudent or negligent act that, if intentionally done,
would be punishable as a felony.
The two offenses may, however, be consolidated since
under the expanded jurisdiction of the municipal trial courts
The law penalizes thus the negligent or careless act, not the result
damage to property thru reckless imprudence now falls under its
thereof.
jurisdiction.
The gravity of the consequence is only taken into account to
SEC. 14.
determine the penalty, it does not qualify the substance of the offense.
Amendment or Substitution
And, as the careless act is single, whether the injurious result
should affect one person or several persons, the offense (criminal AMENDMENT EXPLAINED: WHEN LEAVE OF COURT BEFORE
negligence) remains one and the same, and can not be split into different PLEA REQUIRED
59

Under the former rule, amendment whether as to form or
substance is a matter of right before plea.
The rule was, however, amended by requiring "any
amendment before plea, which downgrades the nature of the
offense charged in or excludes any accused from the complaint
or information, can be made only upon motion by the
prosecutor, with notice to the offended party and with leave of
court."
The court shall state its reasons in resolving the motion
and copies of its order shall be furnished all parties, especially
the offended party.
The amendment is designed to remove the absolute
control of the prosecution of a criminal action after the filing of
information even before a plea is entered which seems to be the
case as provided for in the first sentence of the first paragraph
that the complaint or information may be amended, in substance
or form, without leave of court, at any time before the accused
pleads; however, under the amended rule, any amendment
before plea, which lessens the gravity of the offense charged
and/or excludes any of the accused from the complaint or
information, must be filed with leave of court and the parties,
especially the private complainant shall be duly furnished copies
of the order resolving the motion therefor and explaining the
reasons for such disposition.
This is in accord with the ruling in Crespo v. Mogul, It is
intended to prevent the prosecution from abusing the process of
amendment before plea by dropping any of the accused from the
information or reducing the offense charged whether the accused
had been arraigned or not and whether it was due to a
reinvestigation of the fiscal or a review by the Secretary of
Justice, similar to what happened in the case of Dimatulac u.
Vilon.
Once the case had already been brought to Court whatever
disposition the fiscal may feel should be proper in the case
thereafter should be addressed for the consideration of the
Court.
The only qualification is that the action of the Court must
not impair the substantial rights of the accused, or the right of
the people to due process of law.
Thus, the complaint cannot be withdrawn by the Fiscal
without the court's consent.
The provincial fiscals are not clothed with power, without
the consent of the court, to dismiss or nolle prosequi criminal
actions actually instituted and pending further proceedings.
The power to dismiss is vested solely in the court, i.e., the
presiding judge.
The Supreme Court stressed, however, that the real and
ultimate test of the independence and integrity of the trial court
is not the filing of the motions to suspend proceedings and defer
arraignment at that stage of the proceedings but the filing of a
motion to dismiss or to withdraw the information on the basis of
a resolution of the petition for review reversing the Joint
Resolution of the investigating prosecutor.
Before that time, the pronouncement in Crespo v. Mogul
that "once a complaint or information is filed in Court any
disposition of the case as its dismissal or the conviction of the
accused or acquittal of the accused rests in the sound discretion
of the court, did not yet become relevant or applicable."
Court Must Make Independent Assessment
60
However, once a motion to dismiss or withdraw the
information is filed the trial judge may grant or deny it, not out
of subservience to the Secretary of Justice, but in faithful
exercise of judicial prerogative.
The trial judge must himself be convinced that there was
indeed no sufficient evidence against the accused, and this con-
clusion can be arrived at only after an assessment of the
evidence in the possession of the prosecution.
What is imperatively required is the trial judge's own
assessment of such evidence, it not being sufficient for the valid
and proper exercise of judicial discretion merely to accept or
reject the prosecution's word for its supposed insufficiency or to
simply rely on Crespo u. Mogul.
FINDING OF GRAVE ABUSE OF DISCRETION AND NOTICE
TO PARTIES
In the absence of a finding of grave abuse of discretion,
the court's denial of a motion to withdraw information pursuant
to the Secretary's resolution is void.
For this reason the amendment requires parties, especially
the private complainant to be duly furnished copies of the order
resolving the motion therefor and explaining the reasons for
such disposition.
The amendment under the second par may only be made
especially with notice to the offended party.
What may be Amended
Only a valid information may be amended.
An information filed before the effectivity of the law
punishing the offense may not be amended after the law had
come into effect.
 Time to Amend
Amendment of an information may be made at any time
before the accused enters a plea to the charge."
The prosecution is free to amend the information without
leave of court before arraignment.
Provided, the amendment does not downgrade the nature
of the offense charged or excludes any accused from the
complaint or information.
TEST AS WHEN RIGHTS OF ACCUSED PREJUDICED BY
AMENDMENT
The test as to when the rights of an accused are
prejudiced by the amendment of a complaint or information is,
when a defense under the complaint or information as it
originally stood, would no longer be available after
amendment is made, and when any evidence the accused might
have, would no longer be available after the amendment is
made, and when any evidence the accused might have would be
inapplicable to the complaint or information as amended.
On the other hand, an amendment which merely states
with additional precision something which is already contained in
the original information, and which therefore, adds nothing
essential for conviction for the crime charged is an amendment
as to form that can be made at any time.
An amendment which neither adversely affects
substantial right of the accused, e.g., does not deprive him of his
right to invoke prescription nor affects and/or alters the nature
of the offense originally charged nor involves a change in the
basic theory of the prosecution so as to require the accused to
undergo any material change or modification in his defense is an
amendment as to a matter of form.
The amendment in a libel case which merely specifies the The phrase "on or about" employed in the information
specific address in Makati where the libelous articles were first does not require the prosecution to "prove any precise date
printed and published is merely formal. which is not so remote as to surprise and prejudice the
defendant.
Change of Dates of Commission of Crime
In case of surprise, the Court may allow an amendment of
Thus, the change in the date of the commission of the the information as to time and an adjournment to the accused, if
crime of Grave Coercion from June 24, 1981 to August 28, 1981 necessary to meet the amendment."
is more formal than substantial and would not prejudice the
rights of the accused, as the said proposed amendment would
In the case of People u. Riuera, the amendment of the
not alter the nature of the offense of grave coercion.
information as to the date of the commission of the offense from
March 2, 1964 to March 2, 1965 which was due to a clerical error
The difference in dates is only about two months and five in the last digit of the year, the difference of one year or twelve
days, which disparity is amply comprehended within the months was merely a matter of form and does not prejudice the
allegation of "on or about." rights of the accused, reiterating the ruling in the case of U.S. v.
Ramos, where the Fiscal was permitted to amend the date of the
commission of the offense from June 16, 1910 to June 1911.
Nor will the amendment or correction cause any surprise
the on the accused, who has been furnished the affidavits of the
prosecution witnesses, all of which uniformly state that the date Rule Not Applicable Where Disparity is Great
of the commission was August 28, 1981.
The petitioner's argument that the time or date of the
commission of the offense is not a material ingredient of the
The amendment of the complaint for rape changing the
crime of qualified theft cannot be given much weight in this case
date of commission of the crime alleged in the original
because the disparity of time between the years 1964 and 1969
information from February 13, 1976 to February 5, 1976 as
is so great as to defy approximation in the commission of one
testified to by the complainant, a difference of only eight (8)
and the same offense.
days was only a matter of form and did not prejudice the rights
of the appellant.
While it has been held that except when time is a material
ingredient of an offense, the precise time of commission need
Under Section 10 of Rule 110 of the Rules of Court "it is
not be stated in the information, this court stated that this does
the not necessary to state in the complaint or information the
not mean that the prosecution officer may be careless about
precise time at which the offense was committed except when
fixing the date of the alleged crime, or that he may omit the
time is a material ingredient of the offense, but the act may be
date altogether or that he may make the allegation so indefinite
alleged to have been committed at any time as near to the
as to amount to the same thing.
actual date at which the date of the offense was committed as
the information or complaint will permit."
61
 The prosecution is given the chance to allege an
approximation of time of the commission of the offense and the
precise date need not be stated but it does not mean that it can
prove any date remote or far removed from the given
approximate date so as to surprise and prejudice the accused.
In Arevalo u. Nepomuceno, the amendment which was
allowed was the allegation in the information that B carried the
revolver and C, the knife, instead ofC carrying the revolver and
B, the knife.
In People v. Joseph Casey, the amendment after
arraignment was to include one of the accused Ricardo Felix alias
"Carding Tuwad" who was then armed with a firearm.
The Supreme Court, after stating the test as to whether a
defendant is prejudiced by the amendment, stated that: "A look
into our jurisprudence on the matter shows that an amendment
to an information introduced after the accused has pleaded not
guilty thereto, which does not expose the accused to a charge
which could call for a higher penalty, does not affect the essence
of the offense or cause surprise or deprive the accused of an
opportunity to meet the new averment had each been held to be
one of form and not of substance not prejudicial to the accused
and, therefore, not prohibited by Section 13, Rule 110 of the
Revised Rules of Court.
In U.S. v. dela Cruz, the amendment in the information for
brigandage sought to be made was to eliminate the words "led
by one Silverio" and to substitute the words "under the
command of Luciano San Miguel" after the prosecution rested
but before the presentation of the evidence of the defense.
The Supreme Court allowed the said amendment holding
that it did not prejudice in any sense the right of the accused as
"it did not affect the essence of the crime charge, but merely an
accidental detail of the same" and it did not deprive the accused
of an opportunity to produce evidence for their defense if they jurisdiction of the court. All other matters are merely of form.
had desired, in relation to said amendment "Consequently, the
accused is not thereby denied any opportunity to present Habitual Delinquency
evidence in his defense."
Additional allegations of habitual delinquency and
The foregoing cases should, however, be distinguished recidivism is not a substantial amendment.
from the case of People u. Opemia, where the difference in dates
was from 1947 to 1952.
They do not have the effect of charging another offense
different or distinct from the charge of qualified theft contained
The difference in date could not be attributed to a clerical in the information.
error because the difference is not only in the year but also in
the month and the last two digits of the year, and the difference
Neither do they tend to correct any defect in the
"is so great as to defy approximation in the commission of one
jurisdiction of the trial court over the subject-matter of the case.
and the same offense."
The said new allegations relate only to the range of the
Discharge to be State witness under Witness Protection
Rule penalty that the court might impose in the event of conviction.
The foregoing rule applies in withdrawing or discharging to They do not alter the prosecution's theory of the case nor
be a state witness before plea some accused under the witness possibly prejudice the form of defense the accused has or will
protection rule without the need of proving the requirement for assume
the discharge of a state witness despite a pending motion for
their discharge under Section 17, Rule 119 unless they are
Additional Allegations of Conspiracy
retained in the information in which case section 17, Rule 119 is
the applicable rule.
In Regala v. CFI, the defendant was charged with murder.
After the plea, the fiscal presented an amended
information wherein two other persons were included as co-
accused.
PROHIBITED AMENDMENTS; WHAT ARE SUBSTANTIAL
There was the further allegation that the accused and his
AMENDMENTS
co-defendants had conspired and confederated together and
mutually aided one another to commit the offense charged.
Amendments that are prohibited after the accused has
pleaded are amendments in substance. And the substantial
matters in the complaint or information is the recital of facts The admission of the amendment was upheld by the
constituting the offense charged and determinative of the Supreme Court holding that the amendment is a mere matter of
62
form.
After a reinvestigation, the prosecution moved to amend

In People v. Zulueta, an information for Malversation of the information with the inclusion of two other accused alleging
public property was amended with the additional assertion that conspiracy.

in permitting the misappropriation, the accused acted in

conspiracy with Commissioner Llanes who was subsequently The Supreme Court, citing Regala, held that the
booked for malversation of the identical property also in the amendments would not prejudice the accused whose
same court. participation as principal in the crimes charged did not change.

The Supreme Court held that there was a substantial In People v. Montenegro, the accused was charged with
amendment. robbery before the CFI of Quezon City and entered a plea of not
guilty.

Surely, the preparations have to be radically modified to

meet the new situation. Before the trial could proceed, the fiscal sought to amend
the complaint:
For undoubtedly, the allegation of conspiracy enables the
prosecution to attribute and ascribe to the accused all the acts, 1) from robbery to robbery in an uninhabited place;
knowledge, admissions and even omissions of his co-conspirator 2) alleging conspiracy among all accused; and
3) deleting all items, articles and jewelries alleged to have
Angel Llanes in furtherance of the controversy. been stolen in the original information substituting them
with a different set of items.

The amendment thereby widens the battlefront to allow

the use by the prosecution of newly discovered weapons, to the The Supreme Court citing and quoting People v. Zulueta

evident discomfiture of the opposite camp.
The Supreme Court distinguished the case from Regala by
explaining that the amendment therein did not modify the basic
theory of the prosecution that the accused had killed the
deceased by a voluntary act and deed.
(supra), held that the allegation of conspiracy among all the
private respondents-accused which was not previously included
in the original information is a substantial amendment saddling
the respondents with the need of a new defense in order to meet
a different situation in the trial court.

Here there is an innovation, or the introduction of another

alternative imputation, which, to make matters worse, is
inconsistent with the original allegations.

In People v. Court of Appeals, the accused Sixto Ruiz who

was charged with murder entered a plea of not guilty.

63
AMENDMENTS AFTER PLEA CHANGING THE NATURE OF Addition of Intent to Gain Amendment to Conform to Evidence Allowed
OFFENSE CHARGE IS PROHIBITED

Where intent to gain could already be inferred from the Amendments to conform to the evidence to be presented
The Supreme Court held that the proposed amendments in allegations of the information, an amendment which merely during the trial is permissible.
the amended information are clearly substantial and have the states with additional precision something which is already
effect of changing the crime charged from "Robbery" punishable contained in the complaint for robbery, and which therefore adds MISTAKES TO CONFORM TO EVIDENCE
under Article 209 to "Robbery in an Uninhabited Place" nothing essential to the conviction for the crime charged is a
punishable under Article 302 of the Revised Penal Code, thereby formal amendment and can be made at any time. AMENDMENT BY SUBSTITUTION
exposing the private-respondent accused to a higher penalty as
computed to the penalty imposable for the offense charged in If it appears at any time before judgment that a mistake
AMENDMENT TO ALLEGE OFFENSE COMMITTED IN RELA-
the original information to which the accused had already TION TO OFFICE has been made in charging the proper offense, the court shall
entered a plea of "not guilty" during their arraignment. dismiss the original complaint or information upon the filing of a

It has been held that after the case of homicide committed new one charging the proper offense in accordance with Rule

Moreover, the change in the items, articles and jewelries by a PNP officer was transferred by the RTC to the 119, Section 11, provided, the accused would not be placed

allegedly stolen into entirely different articles from those Sandiganbayan after trial, on the ground that the offense was thereby in double jeopardy.

originally complained of affects the essence of the imputed committed in relation to the public office of the accused and,
crime, and would deprive the accused of the opportunity to meet therefore, falls under the jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan, an Section 11 of Rule 119 provides that when it becomes
all the allegations in the amended information, in the preparation amendment to allege that the offense of homicide committed by manifest at any time before judgment that a mistake has been
of their defenses to the charge filed against them. a member of the PNP was committed "in relation to his office" made in charging the proper offense, and the accused cannot be
may be made at any time before arraignment before the convicted of the offense charge, or of any other offense
Sandiganbayan, and indeed by leave of court at any time before necessarily included therein, the accused shall not be
It will be observed that private respondents were accused
judgment is rendered by the Sandiganbayan, considering that discharged, if there appears to be good cause to detain him.
as accessories after the fact of the minor who had already been
such an amendment would not affect the juridical nature of the
convicted of robbery of the items listed in the original
offense charged (i.e., murder), the qualifying circumstance
information. In such case, the court shall commit the accused to answer
alleged in the information, or the defenses that accused may
for the proper offense and dismiss the original case upon the
assert before the Sandiganbayan.
To charge them now as accessories after the fact for a filing of the proper offense.

crime different from that committed by the principal, would be

In other words, the amendment may be made before the
manifestly incongruous as to be allowed by the court. The rule, therefore, does not apply where the accused may
Sandiganbayan without surprising the accused or prejudicing his
be convicted of any other offense necessarily included in the
substantive rights.
An amendment deleting the word "orally" from a charge of offense charged.

grave threats to conform to the evidence is merely a formal NO NEED OF ARRAIGNMENT WHERE AMENDMENT MERELY
amendment since it did not affect the nature of the crime as FORMAL Where the original complaint for rape charged her father
originally charged. with the crime of rape allegedly committed on or about the 13th
Where the amendment was not substantial, no second plea day of February but during the trial, the complaining witness

The particular manner in which the threat made is not a is necessary. testified that she was raped by her father on February 5 of the

qualifying ingredient of the offense. same year, there was no need for the court to dismiss the
original complaint and direct the fiscal to file the proper

64
complaint. also be made even if it may result in altering the nature of the
charge so long as it can be done without prejudice to the rights Be that as it -may, it is quite plausible under Section 14 of
of the accused. Rule 110 that, instead of an amendment, an information for
The trial judge could have simply granted the motion for
leave to amend the complaint. homicide may also be dismissed before the accused pleads, to

1) Amendment and Substitution Distinguished
2) Scope of Rule
The above section contains two parts: One authorizes the
amendment of an information or complaint (involving the same
offense or an offense which necessarily includes or is necessarily
included in the first information) in substance or form, without
leave of court, at any time before the defendant pleads, and
thereafter, only as to matters of form.
The other provides that, if it appears at any time before
judgment that a mistake has been made in charging the proper
offense, the court may dismiss the original complaint or
information and order the filing of a new one charging the proper
offense (substitution), provided the defendant would not be
placed in double jeopardy.
Explaining Section 14 of Rule 110, the Supreme Court
stressed:
"The first paragraph provides the rule for amendment of the
information or complaint, while the second paragraph refers to
the substitution of the information or complaint.
Hence, in the case of Dimalibot v. Salcedo, the accused
therein were originally charged with homicide and were released
on bail. However, the then provincial fiscal, after a review of the
affidavits of the witnesses for the prosecution, discovered that
the killing complained of was perpetrated with the qualifying
circumstances of treachery, taking advantage of superior
strength, and employing means to weaken the defense of the
victim.
Consequently, an amended information for murder was
filed against the accused who were ordered re-arrested without
the amount of bail being fixed, the new charge being a capital
offense.
The Court ruled therein that the amendment was proper,
pursuant to Section 13, Rule 106 of the 1940 Rules of Court
(now Section 14, Rule 110 of the 1985 Rules on Criminal
Procedure), thus:
"Here, these rules properly apply, since it is undisputed that the
herein accused were not yet arraigned before the competent
court when the complaint for homicide was amended so as to
charge the crime of murder.
Upon the authority of said rules, the amendment could therefore be
made even as to substance in order that the proper charge may be made.
give way to the filing of a new information for murder.
In Galvez v. Court of Appeals — the Supreme Court thru
Justice Regalado extensively discussed amendments by
substitution of a defective information by the correct one.
That is from the filing of the information up to and before
trial, while amendments during trial and be fore judgment is
governed by Section 11, Rule 119 when a mistake has been
made in charging the proper offense.
Perusal of the 1985 Rules on Criminal Procedure will show
that there are only two provisions concerning the dismissal of an
information other than on motion of the accused, namely,
Section 14 of Rule 110 and Section 11 of Rule 119.
But then, it may be contended that these rules speak of a
dismissal by the court when there is a mistake in charging the
proper offense, but make no mention of a dismissal made upon
application of the prosecution. That is not necessarily so.
(a) Rule 119; Section 11, Court Initiates Substitution
Rule 119 is the rule specifically governing the trial

Under the second paragraph, the court can order the filing of
another information to charge the proper offense, provided, the accused
would not be placed thereby in double jeopardy and that could only be
true if the ofifense proved does not necessarily include or is not
necessarily included in the offense charged in the original information."
The claim that such amendment can only refer to matters of
specification affecting the elements constituting the crime is not correct,
for there is nothing in the rule to show that the nature of the amendment
should only be limited to matters of specification.
stage where evidence is necessarily being presented, hence,
the trial court is now in a better position to conclude that
manifestly the accused cannot be convicted of the offense
charged or of one that it necessarily includes.

It would primarily be the function of the court to motu

The change may also be made even if it may result in altering the
It has been the rule that under the first paragraph of proprio order the dismissal of the case and direct the filing
nature of the charge so long as it can be done without prejudice to the
Section 14, Rule 110, the amendment of the information may of the appropriate information.
rights of the defendant."
65

We do not discount the possibility of either the
prosecution or the defense initiating such dismissal and
substitution at that stage, although, from a realistic point of
view, that would be a rare situation.
This provision, therefore, is more directly and
principally directed to the trial court to invest it with the
requisite authority to direct by itself the dismissal and
refiling of the informations therein contemplated.
(b) Rule 110, Section 14, Prosecutor Initiates Substitution
Rule 110, on the other hand, provides the procedural
governance for the prosecution of offenses. Section 14
thereof, provides in its second (now third) paragraph the
procedure and requisites for the substitution of a defective
information by the correct one.
Although, just like Section 11 of Rule 119, the
permissible stage for effecting that substitution is "at any
time before judgment," unlike the latter situation it is
sufficient that "it appears x x x that a mistake has been
made in charging the proper offense, x x x."
The situation under said Section 14 contemplates a
longer time span, inclusive of the period from the filing of
the information up to and before trial.
Since no evidence has been presented at that stage,
the error would appear or be discoverable from a review of
the records of the preliminary investigation.
Of course, that fact may be perceived by the trial
judge himself but, again, realistically it will be the prosecu-
tor who can initially determine the same.
That is why such error need not be manifest or
evident, nor is it required that such nuances as offenses
includible in the offense charged be taken into account.
It necessarily follows, therefore, that the prosecutor
can and should institute remedial measures for the dismissal
of the original information and the refiling of the correct
one, otherwise he would be recreant to his duties.
In the subsequent case ofTeehankee, Jr. v. Madayag,
et al., however, Section 14 of Rule 110 was clarified to
mean as follows:
"It may accordingly be posited that both amendment
and substitution of the information may be made before or
after the defendant pleads, but they differ in the following
respects:
a. Amendment may involve either formal or substantial
changes, while substitution necessarily involves a
substantial change from the original charge;
b. Amendment before plea has been entered can be
effected without leave of court, but substitution of
information must be with leave of court as the original
information has to be dismissed;
c. Where the amendment is only as to form, there is no
need for another preliminary investigation and the
retaking of the plea of the accused; in substitution of
information, another preliminary investigation is
entailed and the accused has to plead anew to the new
information; and
amended in 1985 as follows: "The court shall dismiss the original
complaint or information upon the filing of a new one charging
d. An amended information refers to the same offense
the proper offense in accordance with Rule 110, Sec. 11."
charged in the original information or to an offense
66
which necessarily includes or is necessarily included in
the original charge, hence, substantial amendments to
the information after the plea has been taken cannot be
made over the objection of the accused, for if the
original information would be withdrawn, the accused
could invoke double jeopardy.
On the other hand, substitution requires or presupposes
that the new information involves a different offense
which does not include or is not necessarily included in
the original charge, hence, the accused cannot claim
double jeopardy.
In determining, therefore, whether there should be an
amendment under the first paragraph of Section 14, Rule
110, or a substitution of information under the second
paragraph thereof, the rule is that where the second
information involves the same offense, or an offense which
necessarily includes or is necessarily included in the first
information, an amendment of the information is sufficient;
otherwise, where the new information charges an offense
which is distinct and different from that initially charged, a
substitution is in order."
The foregoing pronouncements may be deemed to
have been accordingly modified by the amendment to
Section 14 in the sense that even before plea, the
prosecution may not amend the information to, downgrade
the offense charged or drop any of the accused from the
information without leave of court.
Dismissal Only After New One is Filed
The second paragraph of Sec. 13 of the old Rule 110 was

Both rules were clarified so that the dismissal of the
original complaint or information would be done only after a new
one has been filed.
There is no double jeopardy if there is no identity of
offenses.
If there is identity of offense, then the accused should be
convicted of the offense charged necessarily included in the
offense proven or of the offense proven necessarily included in
the offense charged.
SUBSTITUTION APPLIES ONLY WHERE NO JUDGMENT
RENDERED
The amendment or the filing of a new case where there
had been a mistake in charging the proper offense after the
dismissal of an existing one, spoken of and therein provided for
apply, only to an original case where no judgment has as yet
been rendered.
Much less does the said section apply to an appealed case.
Subject to Rule on Double Jeopardy
The reason is obvious and that is because the right to
amend or to file a new complaint or information charging the
proper offense after the dismissal of the original complaint or
information is subject to the rule on double jeopardy.
Where the original charge was that of less serious physical
injuries, for which the accused was convicted, the prosecution
cannot on appeal withdraw the case of physical injuries and file a
case of direct assault.
Whether the new charge for direct assault with less serious substitution of the original one may be allowed:
physical injuries is by way of amendment or through a new
information is, immaterial since in both instances accused's
(a) that no judgment has as yet been rendered;
former conviction would be a bar to a subsequent prosecution for
(b) the accused cannot be convicted of the offense charged or
the second offense.
of any other offense necessarily included therein; and
(c) the accused would not be placed in double jeopardy.
This was the dictum laid down in the case of People v.
Bonotan, and which doctrine was reiterated in the case of Tacas
v. Cariaso. Thus: Thus, an amendment of the information to change the
crime charged from Homicide to the more serious offense of
murder after the accused had pleaded not guilty, not allowed.
"The charge of direct assault upon a person in authority with
physical injuries contained in the fiscal's information is not included in the
charge contained in the complaint of the chief of police, which is merely To dismiss the homicide charged and file another charge
that of less serious physical injuries unqualified by any allegation that
for murder will place the accused in double jeopardy.
those injuries were inflicted upon the offended municipal councilor,
admittedly a person in authority, while he was in the performance of his
official duties or on the occasion thereof, a qualification essential to the To amend the information so as to change the crime
offense charged in the information.
charged from homicide to the more serious offense of murder
after the petitioner had pleaded not guilty to the former is
The converse is no less obvious, that is, the charge of direct assault indubitably proscribed by the first paragraph of the above-
upon a person in authority with physical injuries as set out in the informa-
quoted provision.
tion necessarily included the offense of less serious physical injuries
charged in the complaint, especially because in both the information and
the complaint, the physical injuries inflicted are alleged to have required For certainly, a change from homicide to murder is not a
medical assistance of a period of 14 days and incapacitated the offended matter of form; it is one of substance with very serious
party from labor for the same period of time.
consequence.
As proof that the offense charged in the information includes the
offense charged in the complaint, conviction of the defendants of this But can the amendment be justified under the second
latter offense may, without question, be had under the information if the paragraph?
other ingredients of the crime charged in said information are not proved.
The answer is, No.
Hence, the defense of double jeopardy was well taken. The order of
dismissal was thus affirmed precisely on the very same constitutional
ground relied upon in this petition." For the provision speaks not of amendment but of
dismissal of the information.
Limitation to Rule on Substitution
In other words, the provision contemplates the filing of a
There are thus limitations before a new information in substituted not an amended information.
67

But, it may be asked, can not the information for homicide
against the petitioner be dismissed since no judgment has yet
been rendered and another information for murder be filed?
The answer, again, is No.
For the petitioner having pleaded not guilty to homicide, to
dismiss the charge against him so as to file another charge for
murder will place him thereby in double jeopardy.
The principle does not apply where the information for
homicide alleges "using superior strength" in which case, an
amendment to murder even if the prosecution have already
presented two witnesses maybe allowed as this is a mere formal
amendment.
The body of the information already charges the crime of
murder.
NO DOUBLE JEOPARDY WHERE WITHDRAWAL MADE
BEFORE ARRAIGNMENT
In Galvez v. Court of Appeals (supra), the propriety of the
withdrawal of the original information for homicide before
arraignment, was upheld there having been no grave abuse of
discretion in granting the motion and, more importantly, in
consideration of the fact that the motion to withdraw was filed
and granted before petitioners were arraigned, hence, before
they were placed in jeopardy.
Thus, even if a substitution was made at such stage,
petitioners cannot validly claim double jeopardy, which is
precisely the evil sought to be prevented under the rule on
substitution, for the simple reason that no first jeopardy had as
yet attached.
c. In People u. Jaralba — The Amendment consists of
Consequently, although the offenses charged under the description of wound from lacerated to stab wound to
three new informations necessarily include those charged under conform to the evidence. There was no change of offense
the original informations, the substitution of informations was charged. No need to rearraign.
not a fatal error.
d. An Amendment to allege that co-accused who were minors
A contrary ruling, would sacrifice substantial justice for acted with discernment is one of form as far as principal
formal nuances on the altar of procedural technicalities. accused is concerned.
Furthermore, petitioners' right to speedy trial was never e. In People v. Padica, amendment as to correct name is
violated since the new informations were filed immediately after merely a matter of form. Issue as to identity must be raised
the motion to withdraw the original information was granted. during arraignment in a demurrer on the ground of lack of
jurisdiction over his person, otherwise there is estoppel or
waiver.
Duty of Judge to Render Decision
Where a physical injury case has been filed before a
Municipal Judge, but, after trial, he is of the opinion that a
SEC. 15.
frustrated murder was committed, he should decide the case on Place Where Action is to be Instituted. —
the merits and not order the filing of an information in the CFI.
Improper Venue
It is the duty of the judge to render the decision as the
evidence warrant under the information as filed for serious In criminal proceedings, improper venue is lack of
physical injuries, and not dismiss the case on his idea or belief jurisdiction.
that there was evidence of intent to kill the intended victim.
Venue in criminal cases is an essential element of
jurisdiction.
Such order is void for having been issued with grave abuse
of discretion amounting to excess of jurisdiction. Unlike in a civil case where venue may be waived, this
could not be done in a criminal case because it is an element of
jurisdiction.
a. In Teehankee v. Madayag — An amendment from frustrated
murder to consummated murder due to supervening event
of death is merely formal. In criminal proceedings, the rule is that one can not be
held to answer for any crime committed by him except in the
jurisdiction where it was committed.
b. The difference in serial numbers of firearms in case of illegal
possession is fatal.
Said rule is based on the legal provision which prescribes
the essential requisites of a good complaint or information, one
68
of which is the allegation that the crime was committed within
the jurisdiction of the court where the complaint or information
is filed and that said court has authority to try it.
As was said in the case of United States v. Cunanan, the
jurisdiction of the Courts of First Instance of the Philippine
Islands, in criminal cases is limited to certain well-defined
territory, so that they can not take jurisdiction of persons
charged with an offense alleged to have been committed outside
of that limited territory.
Judges of the court of the Court of First Instance of a
district court must exercise their jurisdiction within the territorial
limits of their provinces and no further.
Jurisdiction or venue is determined by the allegations in
the information which are controlling.
When Place of Crime Not Alleged
Where the place of the commission of the offense was not
specifically charged, the place may be shown by the evidence.
Thus, the insufficiency of the complaint charging adultery
without stating the place where the acts of adultery were
committed, or that the accused knew the woman was married at
the time of cohabitation, assigned as error as the conviction
thereon amounted to a conviction without informing the
defendants of the nature and character of the offense, and
besides equivalent to a conviction without due process of law.
No such question having been raised before final judgment
in the trial court, but every ingredient of the crime having been
established in the evidence, there was no error committed upon
which to base a reversal of conviction.
When the record discloses that the crime as alleged in the
complaint was not committed in the province wherein the trial
was had, and the accused was not arrested in that province and
defendant had not fled therefrom, the Court of First Instance of
that province has no jurisdiction to impose sentence.
In such cases, if the court has reasonable ground to
believe that the crime has been committed, the accused should
be remanded to the court of proper jurisdiction for trial
Purpose of Rule
A criminal case should be instituted and tried in the
municipality or province where the offense was committed or
any of its essential ingredients took place.
This is a fundamental principle, the purpose being not to
compel the defendant to move to, and appear in a different court
from that of the province where the crime was committed, as it
would cause him great inconvenience in looking for his witnesses
and other evidence in another place."
Power to Change Venue
Where the convenience of the accused is opposed by that
of the prosecution, it is but logical that the court should have the
power to decide where the balance of convenience
inconvenience lies, and to determine the most suitable place of
the trial according to the exigencies of truth and impartial
justice.
Under the 1987 Constitution, the Supreme Court may
order a change of venue or place or trial to avoid a miscarriage
of justice.
"A petition for change of venue of the preliminary
investigation should however, be addressed to the Secretary of
Justice who has control and supervision over the conduct of a
69
preliminary investigation which is a function of the Executive
Department and not the Judiciary."
PLACES WHERE ACTION MAY BE INSTITUTED GENERAL
RULE
a. In all criminal prosecutions the action shall be instituted and
tried in the Court of the Municipality or territory wherein the
crime was committed or where any one of the essential
ingredient of the offense took place.
Thus, subject to existing laws, the commission of an
offense is, triable only in the courts of the place where the
offense was allegedly committed.
If all the acts material and essential to the crime and
requisite of its consummation occurred in one municipality
or province, the court of that municipality or province has
sole jurisdiction to try the case.
b. In offenses committed on a railroad train, in an aircraft, or
in any other public or private vehicle while in the course of
its trip in the court of any municipality or territory where
such train, aircraft or other vehicle passed during such trip,
including the place of departure and arrival.
or Where defendant was charged with attacking a postal
clerk in a moving train within the limits of Manila, it was
claimed that the Court of First Instance of Manila was
without jurisdiction, but as defendant offered no proof
against such jurisdiction, the lower court was justified in
taking jurisdiction.
c. Where the crime for violation of P.D. No. 532 known as the
Anti-Piracy and Anti-Highway Robbery Law of 1974 was
committed aboard a jeepney, the criminal action may be
instituted and tried in the court of any municipality or
territory where the vehicle passed during the trip including
 the place of departure and arrival.
d. In offenses committed on board a vessel in the course of its
voyage — in the proper court of the first port of entry or of
any municipality or territory through which the vessel
passed during such voyage subject to the generally
accepted principles of the international law.
Where the crime was actually committed is immaterial
where the crime was committed while the vessel is in
transit.
"In transit" simply means "on the way or passage"
while passing from me place to another in the course of
transportation.
In a prosecution under Act No. 55, regulating the
transportation of animals on vessels, as amended by Act
No. 275, the information need not allege that the court was
sitting at a port where the animals were disembarked.
The act of carrying away the thing stolen is not an
indispensable requisite of theft.
g. Where the offense charged was fully committed in the City
of Manila where the automobile was allegedly stolen from its
parking place in Port Area the fact that said automobile was
later found in Rizal City is not an essential ingredient of the
crime but a mere circumstance which could add nothing to
the nature of the offense or to its consummation.
Hence, this circumstance cannot be made
determinative of the jurisdiction of the trial court over the
criminal action.
It was, however, held in a case that where the
asportations of cigarettes commenced when they were
taken out of dark Airbase and continued when the goods
pushed through Valenzuela, Bulacan until they were seized
in Quezon City, the Courts in any of these places had
jurisdiction over the offense.
In transitory or continuing offenses, some acts material
and essential to the crime occur in one province and some in
another, in which case, the rule is settled that the court of either
province where any of the essential ingredients of the crime took
place has jurisdiction to try the case.
Offenses are continuing or transitory upon the theory that
there is a new commission, continuance or repetition of the
offense wherever the defendant maybe found.
Such offenses may be tried by the Court of any jurisdiction
in which the defendant may be found.
In such a case, the complaint should alleged that the
offense was committed within the jurisdiction of the court and
not at the place where it was originally committed.
The theory is that a person may be indicted in any
jurisdiction where the offense was in part committed, it being
understood that the first court taking cognizance of the case
excludes the others.

Transitory and Continuing Offenses

e. The place where the action is to be instituted is subject to In this jurisdiction, where the strict common law rules
existing laws "such as offenses which fall under the touching the finding of indictments have no controlling influence,
If all the acts material to the crime and requisite of the
exclusive jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan which may be offenses committed partly in one province and partly in another,
consumption thereof occurred in one municipality or territory,
instituted and tried only in the Sandiganbayan which is that is to say, where some acts material and essential to the
the court therein has the sole jurisdiction to try the case.
located at Quezon City. crime and requisite to its consummation occur in one province
and some in another, are triable in either province, and the
There are certain crimes in which some acts material and appropriate courts in each province have concurrent jurisdiction
f. In the earlier case of People v. Mercado, involving theft of
essential to the crimes and requisite to their consummation of such offenses, distinguished, as to estafa, accounts collected
large catties, it was held that where the accused stole the
occur in one municipality or territory and some in another, in in one place and to be paid over to principal in Manila; estafa
carabaos in Gapan, Nueva Ecija, and took them to
which event, the court of either has jurisdiction to try the cases, committed by insurance agent, premiums collected in Iloilo but
Pampanga, where he was found, the crime is triable only in
it being understood that the court taking cognizance of the case payable in Manila; estafa committed aboard a ship in Philippine
Nueva Ecija and not in Pampanga.
excludes the other. Waters.

The unlawful taking of a movable thing consummates

These are the so-called transitory or continuing crimes. The theory upon which a person accused of a transitory or
in the crime of theft.
continuing offense may be tried in any jurisdiction within which

70
he is found is based upon the ground that there is a new
commission of the same offense in the jurisdiction where he is
found.
In such a case, the complaint should allege that the
offense was committed within the jurisdiction of the court and
not at the place where it was originally committed.
(Defendant, as an enlisted seaman in the Bureau of
Navigation, accused of desertion in violation of Sec. 9 of Act No.
1980.)
TRANSITORY AND CONTINUING OFFENSES
DISTINGUISHED
A transitory offense is one where any of the essential
ingredients took place, such as estafa, malversation and
abduction, while a continuing offense is one which
consummated in one place, yet by reason of the nature of the
offense, the violation of the law is deemed continuing.
Example of this, are where the deprivation of liberty is
persistent and continuing from one place to another or libel
where the libelous matter is published or circulated from one
place to another.
The term "continuing" must, however, be understood in
the sense similar to that of "transitory" and is only intended as a
factor in determining the proper venue or jurisdiction for that
matter of the criminal action pursuant to Section 15, Rule 110.
This is so because persons charged with a transitory
offense may be tried in any jurisdiction where the offense was in
part committed to the exclusion of the other.
In other words, a person charged with a transitory crime
may be validly tried in any municipality or province where the
offense was in part committed.
In transitory or continuing offenses in which some acts
material and essential to the crime and requisite to its
consummation occur in one province and some in another, the
Court of either province has jurisdiction to try the case, it being
understood that the first court taking cognizance of the case will
exclude the others.
However, if all the acts material and essential to the crime
and requisite of its consummation occurred in one municipality
or territory, the court of that municipality or territory has the
sole jurisdiction to try the case.
ESSENTIAL REQUISITES OF CONTINUOUS CRIME;
ADULTERY
is The rule is that crimes "committed partly in one province
and partly in another, that is to say, where some acts material
and essential to the crime, and requisites to its consummation,
occur in one province and some in another, are triable in either
province.
This means that to make the offense triable in more than
one province, the acts perpetrated in any one of them must be
impelled by the same criminal purpose or aim.
In People v. Zapata and Bondoc, it was held that adultery
is not a continuing offense.
"The notion or concept of a continuous crime has its origin
in the juridical fiction favorable to the law transgressors and in
many a case, against the interest of society."
For it to exist, there should be plurality of acts performed
separately during a period of time; unity of penal provision
infringed upon or violation; and unity of criminal intent or
71
purpose, which means that two or more violations of the same
penal provision are united in one and the same intent leading to
the perpetration of the same criminal purpose or aim.
In adultery, the last unity does not exist because the
culprits perpetrate the crime in every sexual intercourse and
they need not do another or other adulterous act to consummate
it.
IN BIGAMY, PLACE WHERE FIRST MARRIAGE WAS
CELEBRATED IS IMMATERIAL
Bigamy being defined by Article 349 as the contracting "of
a second or subsequent marriage before the former marriage
has been legally dissolved, or before the absent spouse has been
declared presumptively dead by means of a judgment rendered
in the proper proceeding," it is self-evident that the place where
the first marriage was celebrated is immaterial to the criminal
act, intent and responsibility of the accused.
What is essential is that the first marriage be not legally
terminated, actually or by legal presumption, when the
subsequent wedlock takes place; and it is upon the celebration
of that subsequent marriage that bigamy is committed, not
before.
The continued existence of the first marriage is without
definite locus.
To hold with the trial court that the celebration of the first
marriage was an essential ingredient of the bigamy is to assume
that when the petitioner married his first wife, he did so with
intent already to marry his second consort; and there is nothing
on record to warrant such assumption.
Since the second marriage of the accused occurred in
Davao outside the territorial jurisdiction of the respondent court,
and in all criminal prosecutions, the actions must be instituted
and tried in the municipality or province where the offense or
any of its essential ingredients was committed, the Court of First
Instance for the province of Iloilo is devoid of jurisdiction to take
cognizance of the crime charged.
Venue in Estafa
a. A bicycle was purchased by the owner of a tobacco factory
in the municipality ofObando, in the province ofBulacan, to
be used by defendant, an employee, on condition that it was
to be returned to the owner of the factory at the termination
of his employment, in the municipality of Malabon, province
of Rizal.
Defendant sold the bicycle to a third person who lived
in the municipality of Obando.
Defendant having failed to comply with his obligation
to the owner of the bicycle in Malabon, the crime charged
against him was committed in that municipality, and the
justice of the peace in Malabon had jurisdiction to hear and
determine the case.
b. Estafa is a continuing or transitory offense which may be
prosecuted at the place where any of the essential elements
of the crime took place.
One of the essential elements of estafa is damage or
prejudice to the offended party.
Where the respondent has its principal place of
business and office in Manila, the failure of petitioner
(accused) to remit the insurance premiums she collected
caused damage and prejudice to private respondent in
Manila, the Regional Trial Court of Manila has jurisdiction.
c. C, entered into a contract at Manila, by virtue of which he
was obligated to render accounts to his principal in Manila.
Under said contract, C collected certain moneys for his
principal in Cebu and failed to account for same to his
principal in Manila.
HELD: The court of Manila had jurisdiction over the
offense of estafa committed, as the contract of employment
was made in Manila.
d. An agent who is entrusted with collecting payments on
policies for an insurance company and who collects such a
payment in Iloilo and appropriates the same to his own use
there though by his contract, the premium collected were
payable at the office of the company in Manila, may be tried
for estafa in the Court of First Instance of Iloilo or of Manila.
Estafa by Issuing a Bouncing Check
The general principles governing jurisdiction in cases of
estafa punishable under Article 315, paragraph 2(d) of the
Revised Penal Code have been defined in People v. Yabut, to wit:
"Estafa by postdating or issuing a bad check under Art. 315, par.
2(d) of the Revised Penal Code may be a transitory or continuing
offense.
Its basic elements of deceit and damage, may independently arise
in separate places.
In the event of such occurrence, the institution of the criminal
action in either place is legally allowed. Section 14(a), Rule 110 of the
Revised Rules of Court provides: 'In all criminal prosecutions, the action
shall be instituted and tried in the court of the municipality or province
wherein the offense was committed or any one of the essential ingredients
thereof took place.
72
The theory is that a person indicted with a transitory offense may
be validly tried in any jurisdiction where the offense was in part com-
mitted.
However, if all the acts material and essential to the crime and
requisite of its consummation occurred in one municipality or province,
such has the sole jurisdiction to try the case."
The Place of Delivery of Check
The place where the bills were written, signed, or dated
does not necessarily fix or determine the place where they were
executed.
What is of decisive importance is the delivery thereof the
consummation as an obligation.
An undelivered bill or note is inoperative.
Until delivery, the contract is revocable. And the issuance
as well as the delivery of the check must be to a person who
takes it as a holder, which means "(t)he payee or indorsee of a
bill or note, who is in possession of it, or the bearer thereof."
Delivery of the check signifies transfer of possession,
whether actual or constructive from one person to another with
intent to transfer title thereto.
The venue of the offense lies at the place where the check
was executed and delivered to the payee.
Where it was in Malolos, Bulacan where the checks were
uttered and delivered to complainant at which place, her
business and residence were also located, the criminal pros-
ecution of estafa may be lodged therein.
 The giving of the checks by the two private respondents in
Caloocan City to a messenger and part time employee cannot be
treated as valid delivery of the checks, because a mere
"messenger" or "part-time employee" is not an agent of
complainant.
The Place Where Obligation Was Constituted
The place where the obligation was constituted is also a
valid basis for criminal jurisdiction to attach in a prosecution for
estafa.
Where, the place of business of the offended party, is in
Malolos, Bulacan, from where the tire and gas purchases were
made by the two private respondents, payment thereof should
be considered effected in Malolos, Bulacan."
(I)f the undertaking is to deliver a determinate thing, the
payment shall be made wherever the thing might be at the
moment the obligation was constituted.
The receipt by the two private respondents at Caloocan
City of the tires and gas supplies from Malolos, Bulacan, signifies
but the consummation of the contract between the parties.
It was the result of an obligation previously contracted at
Malolos, Bulacan.
Since the instant case, it was in Malolos, Bulacan, where
the checks were uttered and delivered to complainant at which
place, her business and residence were also located, the criminal
prosecution of estafa may be lodged therein.
In a case, two checks were issued and signed by the
accused in connection with the beer purchases made by him on
various occasion at Guiguinto, Bulacan and which checks he
handed and delivered to the sales supervisor of SMC, Mr. Ruben As Regards the Bouncing Check
Cornelio, who holds office in that municipality.
The offense also appears to be continuing.
The two checks were deposited by SMC at the BPI, San
Fernando, Pampanga, where it maintained its accounts after True, the offense is committed by the very fact of its
receiving these checks from its Guiguinto Sales Office which performance and the Bouncing Checks Law penalizes not only
bank later on made the corresponding deductions from the the fact of dishonor of a check but also the act of making or
account of SMC in the amounts covered by the dishonored drawing and issuance of a bouncing check.
checks upon receiving information that the checks so issued by
the accused had been dishonored by the drawee bank at Santa
The case, therefore, could have been filed also in Bulacan.
Maria, Bulacan.
The determinative factor (in determining venue) is the
A case of estafa and violation of B.P. Big. 22 was filed
place of the issuance of the check.
against the accused in Pampanga, the accused contested the
jurisdiction of the court.
But it is also true that knowledge on the part of the maker
or drawer of the check of the insufficiency of his funds which is
The Supreme Court held:
an essential ingredient of the offense is by itself a continuing
eventuality, whether the accused be within one territory or
"As regards the Estafa case: While the subject check was issued in
another.
Guiguinto, Bulacan, it was not completely drawn thereat, but in San
Fernando, Pampanga, where it was uttered and delivered.
Hence, jurisdiction to take cognizance of the offense also
Although the check was received by the SMC Supervisor at lies in the ETC of Pampanga.
Guiguinto, Bulacan, that was not the delivery in contemplation of law to
the payee, SMC.
KNOWLEDGE BY DRAWER OF INSUFFICIENCY AND
DISHONOR AS ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS FOR VIOLATION OF
B.P. BIG. 22
Said supervisor was not the person who could take the check as a
holder, that is, as a payee or indorsee thereof, with the intent to transfer
title thereto. The gravamen of the offense is knowingly issuing a
worthless check.
The issuance as well as the delivery of the check must be to a
person who takes it as a holder, which means the payee or indorsee of
Thus, a fundamental element is knowledge on the part of
the bill or note, who is in possession of it, or the bearer thereof.
the drawer of the insufficiency of funds or credit with the drawee
bank for the payment of such check in full upon presentment.
The element of deceit, therefore, took place in San Fernando,
Pampanga, where the check was legally issued and delivered so that
jurisdiction could properly be laid upon the court in that locality." Another essential element is subsequent dishonor of the
check by the drawee bank for insufficiency of funds or credit or
73
would have been dishonored for the same reason had not the
drawer, without any valid reason, ordered the bank to stop
payment.
Violation of B.P. Big. 22 is a transitory offense. Knowledge
on the part of the maker or drawer of the check of the
insufficiency of his funds is by itself a continuing eventuality,
whether the accused be within one territory or another.
Consequently, venue or jurisdiction lies either in Malabon
where the checks were delivered or in Kalookan where they were
dishonored.
The court, however, clarified that knowledge by the maker
or drawer of the fact that he has no sufficient funds to cover the
check or of having sufficient funds is simultaneous to the
issuance of the instrument.
Where there is no evidence to show that at the time of
issue, accused was in Manila, there would be no basis in
upholding jurisdiction of the Manila Trial Court over the offense
for violation of B.P. Big. 22.
THE CRIME OF ESTAFA AND VIOLATION OF B.P. BIG. 22
HAVE TO BE TREATED AS SEPARATE OFFENSES HAVING
DIFFERENT ELEMENTS
The mere fact that the court has jurisdiction over an estafa
case does not necessarily mean it has jurisdiction over the
bouncing checks case or violation of B.P. Big. 22 involving the
same check.
The crime of estafa and violation of B.P. Big. 22 have to be
treated as separate offenses having different elements and,
necessarily for a court to acquire jurisdiction each of the
essential ingredients of each crime has to be satisfied.
In the crime of estafa, deceit and damage are essential
elements of the offense and have to be established with
satisfactory proof to warrant conviction.
For violation of the Bouncing Checks Law, on the other
hand, the elements of deceit and damage are neither essential
nor required.
Rather, the elements ofB.P. Big. 22 are:
(a) the making, drawing and issuance of any check to apply
to account or for value;
(b) the maker, drawer or issuer knows at the time of
issuance that he does not have sufficient funds in or
credit with the drawee bank for the payment of such
check in full upon its presentment; and
(c) the check is subsequently dishonored by the drawee
bank for insufficiency of funds or credit or would have
been dishonored for the same reason had not the
drawer, without valid reason, ordered the bank to stop
payment.
Hence, it is incorrect for respondent People to conclude
that inasmuch as the Regional Trial Court of Manila acquired
jurisdiction over the estafa case then it also acquired jurisdiction
over the violations ofB.P. Big. 22.
The crime of estafa and the violation of B.P. Big. 22 have
to be treated as separate offenses and therefore the essential
ingredients of each offense have to be established.
Thus, where the records clearly indicate that business
dealings were conducted in a restaurant in Manila where sums of
money were given to petitioner, the lower court acquired
jurisdiction over the estafa case.
The various charges for violation of B.P. Big. 22, however,
74
are on a different plain.
There is no scintilla of evidence to show that jurisdiction
over the violation ofB.P. Big. 22 had been acquired.
On the contrary, all that the evidence shows is that
complainant is a resident of Makati; that petitioner is a resident
of Caloocan City; that the principal place of business of the
alleged partnership is located in Malabon; that the drawee bank
is likewise located in Malabon and that all the subject checks
were deposited for collection in Makati.
Verily, no proof has been offered that the checks were
issued, delivered, dishonored or knowledge of insufficiency of
funds occurred in Manila, which are esssential elements
necessary for the Manila Court to acquire jurisdiction over the
offense for violation of B.P. Big. 22.
Abduction
Abduction is a persistent and continuing offense.
Hence, it may be tried in the court of municipality or
province wherein the offense was committed or anywhere one of
the essential ingredients thereof took place.
The girl being taken with her consent from Manila to Pasig,
Rizal Province, both the judges of the Court of First Instance of
Manila and of Rizal have jurisdiction and are competent to take
cognizance of the crime of abduction.
It is true that the abduction was commenced in Manila, but
it may well be said that it was consummated in Pasig.
 Kidnapping
Where an information charges the offense of kidnapping
for ransom with murder, the victim was kidnapped within Lucena
City and at that very moment, the intention becomes evident
that the accused wanted to detain him for ransom, the Court
thereat has jurisdiction to try the case of murder filed against
the accused, although the killing was committed outside the city
limits.
Where persons are kidnapped and detained in Bulacan,
then taken to Nueva Ecija, defendants may be tried and
punished in Bulacan, where the crime was commenced and
consummated, though continued elsewhere.
Kidnapping with serious illegal detention is a continuing
crime where the deprivation of liberty is persistent
continuing from one place to another.
Estafa by Railroad Conductor
Where a railroad conductor collects one peso and twenty-
two centavos from a passenger and issues a false ticket for a
shorter journey for which the charge is eighteen centavos, the
estafa is committed where his account was rendered and the
stub of the false ticket was turned in.
Under Article 29 of the General Compilation of Laws upon
Criminal Procedure, jurisdiction is vested in the court, where
accused made use of the document (stub of the ticket) alleged
to be false.
The fact that the Court of First Instance of Manila took
jurisdiction of the estafa because the place of its commission
was not clearly shown, is not an obstacle to the court declaring
itself without jurisdiction as soon as the lack of jurisdiction
appeared.
Jurisdiction over criminal cases cannot be conferred by
consent.
Falsification of Private Document
The crime of falsification of a private document is
consummated at the time and place where the document is
falsified, whether the document is or is not thereafter put to the
improper or illegal use for which it was intended.
Crime Within City Limits
In a case, defendant was fould guilty of homicide. Counsel for
defense contended that the Court of First Instance of Manila, in which the
case was heard, had no jurisdiction as the offense was committed outside
the city limits.
and
Held: As the crime was committed within two and a half miles of
the city limits, the court had the necessary jurisdiction.
The Court of First Instance of Manila has jurisdiction over a
crime of robbery committed upon a steamboat in the Bay of
Manila at a point two and a half miles beyond the city limits.
Perjury
The lower court oflloilo found that the crime charged
(perjury) in the information was completed in Manila, inasmuch
as the affidavit upon which the charge of perjury rested was
subscribed and sworn to before a notary in the city, and
sustained a demurrer, dismissing the case on ground of lack of
jurisdiction.
It is immaterial where the affidavit was subscribed and
sworn, so long as it appears from the information that
defendant, by means of such affidavit, swore to and knowingly
submitted false evidence, material to a point at issue in a judicial
75
proceeding pending in the Court of First Instance of Iloilo
province.
The gist of the offense charged is not the making of the
affidavit in Manila, but the intention to give false evidence in
Iloilo, by means of such affidavit.
Libel
The rules on venue on libel in Article 360 of the Revised
Penal Code as amended by R.A. No. 1289 and RJL No. 4363 may
be stated thus:
a. Whether the offended party is a public official or a private
person, the criminal action may be filed in the Regional Trial
Court of the province or city where the libelous article is
printed and first published.
b. If the offended party is a private individual, the criminal
action may also be filed in the Regional Trial Court of the
province where he actually resided at the time of the
commission of the offense.
c. If the offended party is a public officer whose office is in
Manila at the time of the commission of the offense, the
action may be filed in the Regional Trial Court of Manila.
d. If the offended party is a public officer holding office outside
of Manila, the action may be filed in the Court of First
Instance of the province or city where he held office at the
time of the commission of the offense.
For the guidance, of both the bench and the bar, the Court
finds it appropriate to reiterate its earlier pronouncement in the
case of Agbayani, to wit:
In order to obviate controversies as to the venue of the criminal
action for written defamation, the complaint or information
should contain allegations as to whether, at the time the offense
was committed, the offended party was a public officer or a
private individual and where he was actually residing at that
time.
Whenever possible, the place where the written defamation was
printed and first published should likewise be alleged.
That allegation would be a sine qua non if the circumstance as to
where the libel was printed and first published is used as the basis of the
venue of the action.
CRIMES ON BOARD FOREIGN MERCHANT SHIPS WITHIN
TERRITORIAL LIMITS
There are two fundamental rules in International Law
regarding jurisdiction to punish crimes committed abroad foreign
merchant vessels:
The French rule, according to which such crimes should not
be prosecuted in the court of the country within which they are
committed, unless their commission affects the peace and
security of the territory; and
The English rule, based on the territorial principle, followed
by the United States, according to which such crimes are in
general triable in the courts of the country within whose territory
they are committed.
Of these two rules, the last one obtains in this jurisdiction,
as the Philippines was then a territory of the United States.
In certain cases, the comity of nations is observed.
Whether the courts of the Philippines have jurisdiction over
a crime (such as smoking of opium within our territorial limits)
committed aboard foreign merchant vessels anchored
jurisdictional waters the court stated in certain cases, the comity
of nations is observed, as in Mali u. Keeper of the Common Jail,
wherein it was said that disorders which disturb only the peace
of the ship or those on board are to be dealt with exclusively by
the sovereignty of the home of the ship, but those which disturb
the public may be suppressed and the offenders punished by
proper authorities of the local jurisdiction.
It may not be easy at all times to discover to which of the
two jurisdictions a particular act of disorder belongs.
Much will depend upon the attending circumstances of the
particular case, but all must concede that a felonious homicide is
a subject for local jurisdiction; and if the authorities are
proceeding with the case in the regular way the consul has no
right to interfere with it.
The offense of failing to provide suitable means for
securing animals while transporting them on a ship from a
foreign port to a port in the Philippine Islands, is within the
jurisdiction of the courts of the Philippines when the forbidden
conditions existed during the time the ship was within territorial
waters, regardless of the fact that the same conditions existed
when the ship sailed from the foreign port and while it was on
the high seas.
Although the mere possession of a thing of prohibited use
in these islands, aboard a foreign vessel in transit, in any of their
ports, does not, as a general rule, constitute, a crime triable by
the courts of this country, on account of such vessel being
considered as an extension of its own nationality, the same rule
does not apply when the article, the use of which is prohibited
within the Philippine Islands, is landed from the vessel upon
Philippine soil.
in In the present case, a can of opium was landed, thus
constituting an open violation of the laws of the land, with
76
respect to which, as it is a violation of the penal law in force at
the place of the commission of the crime, only the court
established in the said place itself has competent jurisdiction, in
the absence of an agreement under an international treaty.
When the exact place where the crime was committed is
unknown and the strong presumption arises at the trial that it
was committed on board a ship navigating within the waters
included in the territory of this Archipelago, the court competent
to try such a crime is that of the district and province at one of
whose ports the ship or vessel arrives.
CRIMES COMMITTED OUTSIDE OF THE PHILIPPINES
PUNISHABLE UNDER ARTICLE 2 OF THE REVISED PENAL
CODE
ART. 2. Application of its provisions. — Except as provided in the
treaties and laws of preferential application, the provisions of this Code
shall be enforced not only within the Philippine Archipelago, including its
atmosphere, its interior waters and maritime zone, but also outside of its
jurisdiction, against those who:
a. Should commit an offense while on a Philippine ship or airship;
b. Should forge or counterfeit any coin or currency note of the
Philippine Islands or obligations and securities issued by the Government
of the Philippine Islands;
c. Should be liable for acts connected with the introduction into
these islands of the obligations and securities mentioned in the preceding
number;
d. While being public officers or employees, should commit an
offense in the exercise of their functions; or
e. Should commit any of the crimes against national security and
the law of nations, defined in Title One of Book Two of this Code.
While under Sec. 15(d) "other crimes committed outside of
the Philippines but punishable therein under article 2 of the
Revised Penal Code shall be cognizable by the proper court in
which the charge is first filed."
Where the crime is committed by a public officer in relation
to his office and is classified as Grade 27 and higher, jurisdiction
is with the Sandiganbayan.
WHEN PROCEEDINGS ARE CONDUCTED WITHIN THE
PREMISES OF THE PENAL INSTITUTION
A sister of detention prisoner Mario, accused in a criminal
case for robbery with homicide requested the transfer of the
case from the Regional Trial Court at Calamba, Laguna to the
original court, the Regional Trial Court of Quezon City. Mario is a
life termer and had been ordered committed to the National
Bureau of Prisons in Muntinlupa.
Pursuant to Administrative Circular No. 2, dated December
2, 1976, and Administrative Circular No. 6, dated December 5,
1977, he cannot be brought out of the penitentiary for
appearance or attendance in other criminal cases in any court
without authority from the Supreme Court.
Said circulars also provide that judges in Metro Manila who
shall require the appearance or attendance of such prisoners as
witness or as accused before their respective courts shall
conduct such proceedings within the premises of the penal
institution.
The Court resolved to grant Ms. Llanto's request but the
trial of the case shall be conducted within the premises of the
National Penitentiary.
SEC. 16.
Intervention of the Offended Party in Criminal Action
Intervention of Offended Party
Explaining the scope of the Rule and the meaning of
offended party, the Court stated that under Section 5, Rule 110
of the Rules, all criminal actions covered by a complaint or
information shall be prosecuted under the direct supervision and
control of the public prosecutor.
Thus, even if the felonies or delictual acts of the accused
result in damage or injury to another, the civil action for the
recovery of civil liability based on the said criminal acts is
impliedly instituted and the offended party has not waived the
civil action, reserved the right to institute it separately or
instituted the civil action prior to the criminal action, the
prosecution of the action inclusive of the civil action remains
under the control and supervision of the public prosecutor.
The prosecution of offenses is a public function.
Under Section 16, Rule 110 of the Rules of Criminal
Procedure, the offended party may intervene in the criminal
action personally or by counsel, who will act as private
prosecutor for the protection of his interests and in the interest
of the speedy and inexpensive administration of justice.
A separate action for the purpose would only prove to be
costly, burdensome and time-consuming for both parties and
further delay the final disposition of the case.
The multiplicity of suits must be avoided.
With the implied institution of the civil action in the crimi-
nal action, the two actions are merged into one composite
proceeding, with the criminal action predominating the civil.
77
The prime purpose of the criminal action is to punish the
offender in order to deter him and others from committing the
same or similar offense, to isolate him from society, reform and
rehabilitate him or, in general, to maintain social order.
On the other hand, the sole purpose of the civil action is
for the resolution, reparation or indemnification of the private
offended party ror the damage or injury he sustained by reason
of the delictual or felonious act of the accused.
Under Article 104 of the Revised Penal Code, the following
are the civil liabilities of the accused:
ART. 104. What is included in civil liability. — The civil liability
established in Articles 100, 101, 102 and 103 of this Code includes:
1. Restitution;
2. Reparation of the damage caused;
3. Indemnification for consequential damages.
When the offended party, through counsel, has asserted
his right to intervene in the proceedings, it is error to consider
his appearance merely as a matter of tolerance.
From Sections 5 and 16 of Rule 110, it can clearly be
inferred that while criminal actions as a rule are prosecuted
under the direction and control of the fiscal, however, an
offended party may intervene in the proceeding, personally or by
attorney, especially in cases of offenses which cannot be
prosecuted except at the instance of the offended party.
The only exception to this rule is when the offended party
waives his right to civil action or expressly reserves his right to
institute it, in which case, he loses his right to intervene upon
the theory that he is deemed to have lost his interest in its
prosecution.
 And, in any event, whenever an offended party intervenes
in the prosecution of a criminal action, his intervention must
always be subject to the direction and control of the prosecuting
official.
Even in cases which do not involve any civil liability, an
offended party may appear not only as a matter of tolerance on
the part of the court.
In this respect, the law makes no distinction between
cases that are public in nature and those that can only be
prosecuted at the instance of the offended party.
The Right to Notice of Offended Party
In either case, the law gives the offended party the right to
intervene, personally or by counsel, and he is deprived of such
right only when he waives the civil action or reserves his right to
institute one.
Where the private prosecution has asserted its right to
intervene in the proceedings, it is error to consider the
appearance of counsel merely as a matter of tolerance.
The offended party is entitled to be notified and heard on
motions filed in the criminal proceedings especially when there is
a conflict in the positions between the public prosecutor and of
the offended party.
Offended Parties in Illegal Practice of Medicine
In an information for illegal practice of medicine a private
prosecutor was allowed to intervene.
All the witnesses who testified before the fiscal are
offended parties it appearing that the offense alleged in the
information belongs to the class of harmful ones.
If there are offended parties, petitioner's contention that
no damages are to be recovered in the criminal action must be
untenable.
The public function of prosecuting offenses can
performed not exclusively by fiscals or other public officers, but
by private attorneys in cases where they are allowed to
intervene as private prosecutors.
After all, in the performance of their professional duties,
lawyers are officers of the court and assume public and official
responsibilities.
OFFENDED PARTIES FOR VIOLATION OF ANTI-GRAFT LAW
AND FALSIFICATION OF PUBLIC DOCUMENTS
The offended party may be the State or any of its
instrumentalities, including local governments or government-
owned or controlled corporations which, under substantive laws,
are entitled to restitution of their properties or funds, reparation,
or indemnification.
For instance, in malversation of public funds or property
under Article 217 of the Revised Penal Code, frauds under Article
213 of the Revised Penal Code, and violations of the Forestry
Code of the Philippines, P.D. No. 705, as amended, to mention a
few, the government is the offended party entitled to the civil
liabilities of the accused.
For violations of Section 3(e) of Rep. Act No. 3019, any
party, including the government, may be the offended party if
such party sustains undue injury caused by the delictual acts of
the accused.
In such cases, the government is to be represented by the
78
public prosecutor for the recovery of the civil liability of the
accused.
Under Section 16, Rule 110 of the Revised Rules of
Criminal Procedure, the offended party may also be a private
be individual whose person, right, house, liberty or property was
actually or directly injured by the same punishable act or
omission of the accused, or that corporate entity which is
damaged or injured by the delictual acts complained of.
Such party must be one who has a legal right; a sub-
stantial interest in the subject matter of the action as will entitle
him to recourse under the substantive law, to recourse if the evi-
dence is sufficient or that he has the legal right to the demand
and the accused will be protected by the satisfaction of his civil
liabilities.
Such interest must not be a mere expectancy, subordinate
or inconsequential.
The interest of the party must be personal; and not one
based on a desire to vindicate the constitutional right of some
third and unrelated party.
In the felony of falsification of public document, the
existence of any prejudice caused to third person or the intent to
cause damage, at the very least, becomes immaterial.
The controlling consideration is the public character of a
document and the violation of the public faith and the
destruction of truth therein solemnly proclaimed.
The offender does not, in any way, have civil liability to a
third person.
WHEN MAY THE OFFENDED PARTY LOSE HIS RIGHT TO
INTERVENE IN THE PROSECUTION OF THE CASE
An offended party loses right to intervene in the
prosecution of a criminal case, when he has waived the civil
action or expressly reserved his right to institute the civil action
arising from the offense.
The reason of the law in not permitting the offended party
to intervene in the prosecution of the offense if he has waived or
reserved his right to institute the civil action is that by such
action his interest in the criminal case has disappeared.
Its prosecution becomes the sole function of the public
prosecutor.
Reservation of right of civil damages; offended party
losses right to intervene. — Where the offended party in a crimi-
nal case has expressly reserved his right to present an
independent civil action for damages arising from the offense
charged, he loses his right to intervene in the prosecution of the
criminal case.
Filing of Separate Civil Action
Undoubtedly, an offended party loses his right to intervene
in the prosecution of a criminal case, not only when he has
waived his right to institute, but also when he has actually
instituted the civil action arising from the offense.
For by either of such actions his interest in the criminal
case has disappeared.
The Right to File Motion for Revival
It was earlier held in a case for illegal possession of
firearms and violation of the Dangerous Drugs Law that: "It is
axiomatic that the prosecution of a criminal case is the
responsibility of the government prosecutor and must always be
under his control.
This is true even if a private prosecutor is allowed to assist
him and actually handles the examination of the witnesses and
the introduction of other evidence.
The witnesses, even if they are the complaining witnesses,
cannot act for the prosecutor in the handling of the case.
Although they may ask for the filing of the case, they have
no personality to move for its dismissal or revival as they are not
even parties thereto nor do they represent the parties to the
action.
Their only function is to testify.
In a criminal prosecution, the plaintiff is represented by
the government prosecutor, or one acting under his authority,
and by no one else."
It follows that a motion for revival of the cases filed by
prosecution witnesses (who never even testified) should have
been summarily dismissed by the trial judge.
The mere fact that the government prosecutor was
furnished a copy of the motion and he did not interpose any
objection was not enough to justify the action of these wit-
nesses.
The prosecutor should have initiated the motion himself if
he thought it proper.
79
The presumption that he approved of the motion is not
enough, especially since we are dealing here with the liberty of a
person who had a right at least to be notified of the move to
prosecute him again.
The fact that he was not so informed made the irregularity
even more serious."
It was, however, held that the offended party has the right
to file a motion for reconsideration of the order considering the
information against petitioner as withdrawn even without the
conformity of the public prosecutor or to file motion for
reconsideration of a decision of the Supreme Court enjoining a
criminal prosecution.
Legal Personality of Offended Party
While it is the SolGen that may bring or defend actions on
behalf of the Republic of the Philippines or represent the people
or the state in criminal proceedings pending before the Supreme
Court or Court of Appeals, the private offended party retains the
right to bring a special civil action for certiorari in his own name
in criminal proceedings before the court of law.
It follows that the offended party has legal personality to
file a motion for reconsideration of an order of dismissal.
The case was distinguished from Caes v. Intermediate
Appellate Court, which is a violation of the dangerous drugs law
where there is no immediate and direct offended party.
Moreover, if the court, independently of the appeal of the
accused, has jurisdiction, within fifteen days from the date of the
judgment, to allow the appeal of the offended party, it also has
jurisdiction to pass upon the motion for reconsideration filed by
the private prosecution in connection with the civil liability of the
accused.
RULE 111
PROSECUTION OF CIVIL ACTION
SECTION 1.
Institution of criminal and civil actions
Changes in the Rule at a Glance
c.
a. The rule changes the 1985 rule as amended in 1988.
Under the 1985 Rule, the action for recovery of civil
liability arising from crime including the civil liability under
Articles 32, 33, 34 and 2176 of the Civil Code of the
Philippines arising from the same act or omission are
deemed impliedly instituted with the criminal action unless
the offended party waives the civil action, reserves his right
to institute it separately, or institutes the civil action prior to
the criminal action.
Under the present rule, only the civil liability arising
from the offense charged is deemed instituted with the
criminal unless the offended party waives the civil action
reserves his right to institute it separately, or institutes the
civil action prior to the criminal action.
b. Under the former rule a waiver of any of three civil actions
extinguishes the others.
The institution of, or the reservation of the right to
file, any of said civil actions separately waives the others.
This is no longer provided for.
The reservation and waiver referred to refers only to
the civil action for the recovery of civil liability arising from
the offense charged.
This does not include recovery of civil liability under
Articles 32, 33, 34 and 2176 of the Civil Code of the
Philippines arising from the same act or omission which may
be prosecuted separately even without a reservation.
The rulings in Shafer v. Judge, RTC of Olongapo City,
allowing a third-party complaint, and the ruling in Javier v.
Intermediate Appellate Court, as well as Cabaero v. Cantos
allowing a counterclaim are no longer in force.
Under the Revised Rules on Criminal Procedure, these
pleadings are no longer allowed.
Any claim which could have been the subject thereof
may be litigated in a separate civil action.
Thus, a court trying a criminal case cannot award
damages in favor of the accused.
The task of the trial court is limited to determining the
guilt of the accused and if proper, to determine his civil
liability.
A criminal case is not the proper proceedings to
determine the private complainant's civil liability.
80
d. The rule also incorporated Circular 57-97 on the filing of
actions for violation of Batas Pambansa Big. 22 mandating
the inclusion of the corresponding civil action for which the
filing fee shall be paid based on the amount of the check
involved.
In other cases, no filing fees shall be required for
actual damages.
History of Amendment
No other rule in criminal procedure have been as hotly
debated upon as the rule on prosecutions of civil actions. The
rule have been amended four times.
a. Juridical Basis of the Principle of Implied Institution of the
Civil Action with the Criminal Action
Dual Concept of Civil Liability
Under Article 1157 of the Civil Code of the Philippines,
obligations may arise, inter alia, from acts or omissions
punished by law (ex-delicto) and from quasi-delict.
Civil obligations arising from the criminal offenses
shall be governed by the penal laws, subject to the
provisions of Article 2177, and of the pertinent provisions of
Chapter 2, Preliminary Title, on Human Relations, and of
Title XVIII on Human Relations, regulating damages.4
Article 100 of the Revised Penal Code provides that
every person criminally liable shall also be civilly liable (ex-
delicto) while Article 2176 of the Civil Code provides that
"whoever by act or omission causes damage to another,
there being fault or negligence, is obliged to pay for the
damage done.

Such fault or negligence, if there is no pre-existing
contractual relation between the parties, is called a quasi-
delict and is governed by the provisions of this Chapter."
The Code expressly provides that responsibility for the
fault or negligence for quasi-delict is entirely separate and
distinct from the civil liability arising from negligence under
the Penal Code, subject only to the limitation that the
plaintiff cannot recover damages twice for the same act or
omission of the defendant.
Briefly stated, the negligent act causing damages may
produce two kinds of civil liability on the part of the
offender, that is, civil liability arising from the crime under
Article 100 of the Revised Penal Code, or create an action
for quasi-delict or culpa extra-contractual under Articles
1902-1910 of the Civil Code.
The distinct nature of the dual concept of the civil
liability was stressed in Diana v. Batangas Transportation
Co., citing the earlier case of Barredo v. Garcia, in the
following words:
"These two cases involve two different remedies.
As the Court aptly said: A quasi-delict or culpa aquiliana is a
separate legal institution under the Civil Code, with a substantivity
all its own, and individuality that is entirely apart and independent
from a delict or crime.
A distinction exists between the civil liability arising from a
crime and the responsibility for quasi-delict or culpa
contractual.
The same negligent act causing damages may produce civil
liability arising from a crime under Article 100 of the Revised Penal
Code, or create an action for quasi-delict or culpa-contractual under The same act or omission which gives rise to two
Articles 1902-1910 of the Civil Code." separate and distinct sources of civil liability may be
prosecuted separately and independently of each other,
The other differences pointed out between crimes and subject only to the limitation that the satisfaction of either
culpa aquiliana are: bars recovery of the other, on the principle that plaintiff
cannot recover twice for the same act or omission.
1) That crimes affect public interest, while quasi-delicts
are only of private concern; Otherwise stated, civil liability, although arising from
the same act or omission, may not only be prosecuted
either in a criminal or civil action, but in a criminal and civil
2) That consequently, the Penal Code punishes or corrects
action.
the criminal act, while the Civil Code by means of
indemnification merely repairs the damage;
The procedural enforcement of these distinct civil
liabilities, albeit based on the same act or omission, are
3) That delicts are not as broad as quasi-delicts, because
likewise separate and distinct, subject only to the caveat
the former are punished only if there is a penal law
under Article 2177 of the Civil Code that the offended party
clearly covering them, while the latter, quasi-delicts,
cannot recover damages under both types of civil liabilities.
include all acts in which any kind of fault or negligence
intervenes.
c. Civil Liability Based on Crime
The plain inference is that the civil liability based on
The civil liability based on a crime, unless reserved, is
delict springs out of and is dependent upon facts which, if
generally enforced in the criminal action, and was governed
true, would constitute a crime.
by the Rules on Criminal Procedure, more particularly Rule
111 on the prosecution of civil actions, which provides that
Such civil liability is a necessary consequence of
when a criminal action is instituted the civil action for
criminal responsibility, and is to be declared and enforced in
recovery of civil liability arising from the offense charged is
the criminal proceeding except where the injured party
impliedly instituted with the criminal action, unless the
reserves his right to avail himself of it in a distinct civil
offended party expressly waives the civil action or reserves
action.
his right to institute it separately.
b. Modes of Enforcement
Civil liability under Article 2176 was then enforced
separately by means of a civil action and is governed by the
extra-
The dual concept of civil liability, ex-delicto and quasi- Rules on civil actions.
delicto, has thus brought about a dual mode of
enforcement.
Consequently, when a criminal action is filed, what
was deemed impliedly instituted thereunder was only the
81
 civil liability arising from or based on the crime.
Thus, the accused may be held civilly liable in the
criminal action, if he is found to be criminally liable.
If the accused is acquitted, he cannot be held civilly
liable in the criminal action.
The obvious reason, as stated in People u. Amistad is
that the civil liability recoverable in the criminal action is
one solely dependent upon conviction, because said liability
arises from the offense, since what was deemed impliedly
instituted, unless reserved, was the civil action for recovery
of civil liability arising from the offense charged, and no
other.
This is also the civil liability that is
extinguished with the extinction of the penal even with a
pronouncement that the fact from which the civil action
might proceed does not exist."
d. Early Rulings
In the early stages of criminal procedure, the policy
was to strictly adhere to the distinct and discrete nature of
the criminal from purely civil actions, and the civil liability
that is sought to be enforced thereunder.
What is deemed impliedly instituted and governed by
the rules on criminal procedure, unless reserved, was only
the civil liability arising from the crime, while civil liability
based on other sources of obligation such as quasi-delict
may be enforced only in a purely civil action.
While the criminal action may have a dual purpose,
namely, the punishment of the offender and indemnity to f. The Independent Civil Actions
the offended party, its dominant and primordial objective is
the punishment of the offender.
In 1949, the (new) Civil Code of the Philippines
introduced the so-called independent civil actions.
The civil action is merely incident and consequent to
the conviction of the accused, which may even be waived or
These are Articles 32, 33, and 34.
the prosecution thereof reserved in a separate civil action.
These articles allow the injured party to file a civil
This is because criminal actions are primarily intended
action for damages in the cases mentioned therein which
to vindicate an outrage against the sovereignty of the State,
may also constitute criminal offenses entirely separate and
and to impose the corresponding penalty for the vindication
distinct from the criminal action.
of the disturbance to the social order caused by the
offender; the action between the private person and the
accused is intended solely to indemnify the former. Such civil action may proceed independently of the
criminal action and shall require only a preponderance of
evidence.
Thus, where the accused is acquitted in the criminal
case, the interest of the State ends, and no civil liability
deemed
arising from the crime charged could be imposed upon him. This has raised the question of whether or not a
reservation to file a separate civil action for the cases
mentioned therein is necessary for the exercise of such
What the private offended party should do is to file a
right.
separate civil action.
The Supreme Court flip-flopped from one extreme to
the other.
One school of thought is of the considered view that
e. Original Rule, The 1940 Rules of Court the provisions of the Civil Code are substantive in nature
which may be exercised by the injured party even without
The Rule was originally governed by Rule 107 of the any reservation.
1940 Rules of Court which then provided that:
A contrary rule is unconstitutional.
"When a criminal action is instituted the civil action for recovery of
civil liability arising from the offense charged is impliedly instituted
with the criminal action, unless the offended party expressly waives Thus, the criminal action as well as the civil action for
the civil action or reserves his right to institute it separately. Thus,
what was deemed impliedly instituted unless there is a waiver or the recovery of the civil liability arising from a crime may
reservation is the civil liability arising from the crime." proceed simultaneously and independently of the other,
without any reservation subject only to the limitation that,
82
the injured party cannot recover twice for the same act or
omission as provided for in Article 2177 of the Civil Code. g. The Amendments
The other school of thought is of the view that the 1)
provisions of the new Civil Code or the exercise of the right
granted under the Civil Code is merely procedural which
may be regulated under the Rule-making power of the
Supreme Court.
To simplify the proceedings and avoid conflicting
decisions, all civil actions for the recovery of damages
arising from the same act or omission should only be
litigated in one proceeding.
The injured party must have to elect whether he
chooses to prosecute his claim in the criminal action or in a
First Amendment
In view of the provisions of the new Civil Code on the
so-called independent civil actions, the rule
amended in 1964 by adding a new section, viz.
The reservation requirement for Other Civil Actions:
SEC. 2. Independent civil action. — In the cases provided for in
Articles 31, 32, 33, 34 and 2177 of the Civil Code of the
Philippines, an independent civil action entirely separate and
distinct from the criminal action, may be brought by the injured
party during the pendency of the criminal case, provided the
extinction of the civil, unless the extinction
proceeds from a declaration in a final judgment
that the fact from which the civil might arise did
not exist.
In other cases, the person entitled to the
civil action may institute it in the jurisdiction and in
was the manner provided by law against the person
who may be liable for restitution of the thing and
reparation or indemnity for the damage suffered.
The Supreme Court, however, declared Section 2 as
inoperative. Thus, in Mendoza v. Arrieta, quoting from
Garcia v. Florida, that:
"* * * the same negligent act causing damages may produce a

separate civil action either by a timely reservation or the
filing of the civil action prior to the institution of the criminal
action.
The gravity and complexity of the question is best
exemplified by the four amendments of the Rule.
right is reserved as required in the preceding section. Such civil
action shall proceed independently of the criminal prosecution,
and shall require only a preponderance of evidence.
SEC. 3. Other civil actions arising from offenses. — In all cases
not included in the preceding section the following rules shall
be observed,
civil liability arising from crime or create an action for quasi-
delict or culpa extra-contractual.
The former is a violation of the criminal law, while the latter is a
distinct and independent negligence, having always had its own
foundation and individuality.
Some legal writers are of the view that in accordance with

The minutes of the proceedings from the Fernan to
a.
the Davide, Jr., committee disclose the heat of the debate
and the numerous sessions not only of the Committee but
also by the Court en bane.
By no means can it be said that the issue had been
finally laid to rest.
If the Revised Rule on Criminal Procedure have been
delayed, it is because of Rule 111. It took the court several
sessions before the present rule was reluctantly adopted,
which ended with a rule similar to the 1940 Rules of Court,
prior to the four amendments.
Article 31, the civil action based upon quasi-delict may proceed
Criminal and civil actions arising from the same offense
may be instituted separately, but after the criminal ac- independently of the criminal proceeding for criminal negligence
tion has been commenced the civil action can not be and regardless of the result of the latter.
instituted until final judgment has been rendered in the
criminal action;
Hence; the proviso in Section 2 of Rule 111 with reference to x
x x Articles 32, 33 and 34 of the Civil Code is contrary to the
b. After a criminal action has been commenced, no letter and spirit of the said articles, for these articles were
civil action arising from the same offense can be drafted x x a and are intended to constitute as exceptions to
prosecuted, and the same shall be suspended, in the general rule stated in what is now Section 1 of Rule 111.
whatever stage it may be found, until final
judgment in the criminal proceeding has been ren- The prouiso, which is procedural, may also be regarded as an
dered; unauthorized amendment of substantive law, Articles 32,33 and
34 of the Civil Code, which do not provide for the reservation
required in the proviso. x x x"
c. Extinction of the penal action does not carry with it

83

In his concurring opinion in the above case, Mr. Justice
Antonio Barredo further observed that inasmuch as
Articles 2176 and 2177 of the Civil Code create a civil
liability distinct and different from the civil action
arising from the offense of negligence under the
Revised Penal Code, no reservation, therefore, need be
made in the criminal case; that Section 2 of Rule 111 is
inoperative, "it being substantive in character and is
not within the power of the Supreme Court
promulgate; and even if it were not substantive but
adjective, it cannot stand because of its inconsistency
with Article 2177, an enactment of the legislature
superseding the Rules of 1940."
2. Second Amendment
Accordingly, the 1985 Rules on Criminal Procedure did
away with the need for RESERVATION in cases provided
for in Articles 32, 33 and 34 of the Civil Code of the
Philippines and instead recognized that "an independent
civil action entirely separate and distinct from the
criminal action, may be brought by the injured party
during the pendency of the criminal case.
Such civil action shall proceed independently of the
criminal prosecution and shall require only
preponderance of evidence."
Under the 1985 amendment, what is deemed impliedly
instituted with the criminal action unless there is a
reservation or a prior civil action filed is the civil action
for the recovery of the civil liability arising from the
offense charged.
This is the civil action that may be reserved in the
criminal action. The 1985 amendment did not live very
long.
3. Third Amendment
In 1988, Rule 111 was amended for the third time.
It actually restored the 1964 amendment.
to
The rule further clarified the civil actions that are
deemed impliedly instituted is not confined to civil
actions arising from a crime but also the civil actions to
recover civil liability under Articles 32, 33, 34 and 2176
of the Civil Code arising from the same act or omission
of the accused unless the offended party waives the
civil action, reserves his right to institute it separately,
or institutes the civil action prior to the criminal action.
Explaining the amendment, Justice Jose Y. Feria, then a
member and later chairman of the Revision of Rules of
Court Committee elucidated:
"The 1988 amendment expands the scope of the civil action
which is deemed impliedly instituted with the criminal action
unless waived, reserved or previously instituted x x x.
a
Such a civil action includes not only recovery of
indemnity under the Revised Penal Code and damages
under Articles 32, 33, 34 of the Civil Code of the
Philippines, but also damages under Article 2176 of the
said code. x x x"
Objections were raised to the inclusions in this Rule of
quasi-delicts under Article 2176 of the Civil Code of the
Philippines.
84
However, in view of Article 2177 of the said code which
provides that the offended party may not recover twice
for the same act or omission of the accused, and in line
with the policy of avoiding multiplicity of suits, these
objections were overruled.
In any event, the offended party was not precluded
from filing a civil action to recover damages arising
from quasi-delict before the institution of the criminal
action, or from reserving his right to file such a
separate civil action, just as he is not precluded from
filing a civil action for damages under Articles 32, 33
and 34 before the institution of the criminal action, or
from reserving his right to file such a separate civil
action.
It is only in those cases where the offended party has
not previously filed a civil action or has not reserved his
right to file a separate civil action that his action is
deemed impliedly instituted with the criminal action.
While it was ruled in Abella u. Marave,u that a
reservation of the right to file an independent civil
action is not necessary, such a reservation is necessary
under the 1988 amendment.
Without such reservation, the civil action is deemed
impliediv instituted with the criminal action, unless
previously waived or instituted.
Such civil actions are not limited to those which arise
"from the offense charged."
In other words, the right of the injured party to sue
separately for the recovery of the civil liability whether
 arising from crimes (ex delicto or from quasi delict Rule 107 contemplates a case where the offended party
under Art. 2176 of the Civil Code must be reserved The court, however, went further by limiting the civil desires to press his right to demand indemnity from the
otherwise they will be deemed instituted with the liability that is deemed instituted with the criminal only accused in the criminal case which he may assert either
criminal action). to the civil liability arising from the offense charged. in the same criminal case or in a separate action.

This includes the right to recover damages against the All decisions to the contrary are no longer controlling. Under this rule, a waiver from failure to reserve does
employer pursuant to Article 2180 in relation to Article The independent civil actions under Articles 32, 33, 34 not include a cause of action not arising from civil
2176 of the Civil Code. and 2176 are no longer deemed or impliedly instituted liability involved in the criminal case but from culpa

with the criminal action or considered as waived even if contractual, such as a civil case is based on alleged
Elsewise stated, prior reservation is a condition sine culpa contractual incurred by the Philippine Air Lines,
there is no reservation.
qua non before any of these independent civil actions Inc. because of its failure to carry safely the deceased
including the action for quasi-delict against the passenger to his place of destination.
employer can be instituted and thereafter have a The reservation applies only to the civil liability arising
continuous determination apart from or simultaneous from the offense charged.
with the criminal action. The criminal case involves the civil liability of the
accused, who bear no relation whatsoever with said
The employer may no longer be held civilly liable for entity and are complete strangers to it.
4. Fourth Amendment quasi delict in the criminal action as ruled in Maniago
(supra) and San Ildefonso lines (supra) and the pro hac
vice decision in Rafael Reyes Trucking Corporation The accused are complete strangers to the respondent
The Revised Rules on Criminal Procedure is a virtual company.
(supra), and all other similar cases, since quasi-delict is
return to the 1940 Rules of Court (and the 1985
not deemed instituted with the criminal.
amendment) which deemed as instituted with the
criminal action only the civil liability arising from the The latter is not in any way involved therein. Plaintiff is

offense charged. If at all, the only civil liability of the employer in the concerned with the civil liability of the latter, regardless

criminal action would be his subsidiary liability under of the civil liability of the accused in the criminal case.
the Revised Penal Code.
The civil liability is deemed instituted — not merely
"impliedly" instituted with the institution of the criminal The failure, therefore, on the part of the plaintiff to

action. The rule has also done away with third party complaints reserve her right to institute the civil action in the

and counterclaims in criminal actions. criminal case cannot in any way be deemed as a waiver
on her part of the right to institute a separate civil
The amendment modified the recommendation of the action against the respondent company based on its
Committee on the Revision of the Rules of Court to These claims must have to be ventilated in a separate contractual liability, or on culpa aquiliana under Articles
deem as impliedly instituted only the civil liability of the civil action. 1902 to 1910 to of the Civil Code.
accused from all sources of obligation arising from the
same act or omission.
The fourth amendment is similar to the original rule in The two actions are separate and distinct and should
Rule 107 of the Rules of Court and the 1985 not be confused one with the other.
The purpose of the Committee was to limit the civil amendment.
liability to be instituted with the criminal action to that
of the accused and not the employer. Under Article 31 of the Civil Code: "When the civil

85
 action is based on an obligation not arising from the act
or omission complained of as a felony, such civil action
may proceed independently of the criminal proceedings
and regardless of the result of the latter."
It may further be noted that Article 31 is not among the
civil actions that are deemed impliedly instituted with
the filing of the criminal.
It may likewise be noted that in Corpus v. Page, the
court ruled that Article 33 did not contemplate reckless
imprudence or criminal legligence cases.
However in Maceda v. Caro, the court observed ;hat
Corpus v. Page is not controlling and held that Article
33 also covers crimes committed thru criminal
negligence.
And, in Eicano v. Hill, the court ruled that the concept
of quasi-delict includes intentional acts, i.e., acts or
omissions punishable by law.
The foregoing concepts would allow more than one civil
action to recover civil liability arising from the same act
or ommission.
The only limitation is against double recovery.
This is in effect the present rule.
The Principle of Simultaneous Civil Actions
Thus, civil liability arising from crime and civil liability
arising from Articles 32, 33, 34 and 2176 quasi-delict or contract
are entirely separate and distinct from the criminal action that
may be brought by the injured party and may proceed
simultaneously;
The civil liability is not extinguished where acquittal is
based on reasonable doubt.
Two Separate Civil Liabilities from Same Act or Omission
An act or omission causing damage to another may give
rise to two separate liabilities on the part of the offender, i.e.,
1) civil liability ex delito, under Article 100 of the
Revised Penal Code, and
2) independent civil liabilities, such as those
(a) not arising from an act or emission complained of as a
felony, e.g., culpa contractual or obligations arising
from law under Article 32, of the Civil Code, intentional
torts under Articles 32 and 34, and culpa aquiliana
under Article 2176 of the Civil Code; or
(b) where the injured party is granted a right to file an
independent and distinct criminal action.
Either of these two possible liabilities may be enforced
against the offender (separately and simultaneously)
subject, however, to the caveat under Article 2177 of the
Civil Code that the attended party cannot recover damages
twice for the same act or emission or under both causes.
However, a separate civil action based on subsidiary
liability cannot be instituted during the pendency of the
criminal case.
Civil Actions in Cases of Negligence
86
In cases of negligence, the offended party has the choice
between an action to enforce civil liability arising from crime
under the Revised Penal Code and an action for quasi-delict
under the Civil Code.
The Principle Allowing Separate Civil Actions noT Allowed for Violations of
BP Big. 22
The principle does not apply to violations of B.P. Big. 22
which provides that "The criminal action for violation of Batas
Pambanss Big. 22 shall be deemed to include the corresponding
civil action.
No reservation to file such civil action separately shall be
allowed."
The Court explained that this rule was enacted to help
declog court dockets which are filled with B.P. Big. 22 cases as
creditors actually use the courts as collectors.
Because ordinarily no filing fee is charged in criminal cases
for actual damages, the payee uses the intimidating effect of a
criminal charge to collect his credit gratis and some times, upon
being paid, the trial court is not even informed thereof
The inclusion of the civil action in the criminal case is
expected to significantly lower the number of cases filed before
the courts for collection based on dishonored checks.
It is also expected to expedite the disposition of these
cases.
Instead of instituting two separate cases, one for criminal
and another for civil, only a single suit shall be filed and tried.
It should be stressed that the policy laid down by the Rules
is to discourage the separate filing of the civil action.
The Rules even prohibit the reservation of a separate civil
action, which means that one can no longer file a separate civil
case after the criminal complaint is filed in court.
The only instance when separate proceedings are allowed
is when the civil action is filed ahead of the criminal case.
Even then, the Rules encourage the consolidation o the
civil and criminal cases.
We have previously observed that a separate civil action
for the purpose of recovering the amount of the dishonored
checks would only prove to be costly, burdensome and time-
consuming for both parties and would further delay the final
disposition of the case.
This multiplicity of suits must be avoided.
Where petitioners' rights may be fully adjudicated in the
proceedings before the trial court, resort to a separate action to
recover civil liability is clearly unwarranted.
In view of this special rule governing actions for violation
ofB.P. Big. 22, Article 31 of the Civil Code cited by the trial court
will not apply to the case at bar.
The pendency of the civil action before the court trying the
criminal case bars the filing of another civil action in another
court on the ground of litis pendentia.
Thus, the complaint for recovery of sum of money based
on a contractual debt filed in the Regional Trial Court was
dismissed because of the pendency of a criminal case for
violation of B.P. Big. 22 filed by the for the issuance of bouncing
checks in payment of the same obligation which deemed as
included the civil action recovery of the sum of money sought to
be recovered in the civil action.
Action Based on Compromise Agreement held as Different from Violation
of B.P. Big. 22
An action, however for collection based on violation of a
Memorandum Agreement entered into where parties also agreed
to dismiss the criminal proceedings for violation of B.P. Big. 22
was held as not violative of the rule against forum shopping
because, there is no identity of parties, rights or causes of
action, sand relief sought. The Court stated:
HERE, THE TWO CASES INVOLVED ARE THE INSTANT
CIVIL CASE FOR COLLECTION OF SUM OF MONEY WHERE
PETITIONER IS THE DEFENDANT, AND THE B.P. BIG. 22
CASES WHERE PETITIONER IS THE ACCUSED.
Clearly, there is no identity of parties for in the criminal case, the
plaintiff is the State with Ligon only as a complaining witness. In the case
at bar, Ligon himself is the plaintiff.
There is also a difference in the causes of action.
In the instant case, the cause of action is petitioner's breach of
contract as embodied in the Memorandum of Agreement, while in the
criminal case, it is the violation of B.P. Big. 22.
There is also a difference in reliefs sought because in the civil case,
what is sought is the enforcement of the terms in their Memorandum of
Agreement, while in the criminal case, it is the punishment of the offense
committed against a public law.
As we explained in Go v. Dimagiba, civil liability differs from
criminal liability.
What is punished in the latter is not the failure to pay an obligation
but the issuance of checks that subsequently bounced or were dishonored
87
for insufficiency or lack of funds.
The issuance of worthless checks is prohibited because of its
deleterious effects on public interest and its effects transcend the private
interest of the parties directly involved in the transaction and touches the
interest of the community at large.
In the present civil case, no such transcendental public interest
exists.
Right to Intervene in Estafa Cases
The fact, however, that the Rules do not allow the
reservation of civil actions in B.P. Big. 22 cases canot deprive
private complainant of the right to protect her interests in the
criminal action for estafa.
Nothing in the current or rules on B.P. Big. 22 vests the
jurisdiction of the corresponding civil case exclusively in the
Court trying the B.P. Big. cases.
In promulgating the Rules, the Court did not intend to
leave the offended parties without any remedy to protect their
interests in estafa cases.
Private complainant's intervention in the prosecution of the
estafa and B.P. Big. 22 is justified not only for the prosecution
other interests, but also for the speedy and inexpensive
administration of justice as mandated by the Constitution despite
the necessary inclusion of the corresponding civil; action in the
proceedings for violation of BP 22 pending before the MTC.
The only limitation is that a recovery in one bars the other.
On the other hand a separate civil action for failure to
comply with the obligations under the Trust Receipts was
allowed although the a criminal case for violation of the Trust
receipts law had already been filed.
According to the Court:
THE RIGHT TO FILE A SEPARATE COMPLAINT FOR A SUM
OF MONEY IS GOVERNED BY THE PROVISIONS OF
ARTICLE 31 OF THE CIVIL CODE, TO WIT:
"Article 31. When the civil action is based on an obligation not
arising from the act or omission complained of as a felony, such civil
action may proceed independently of the criminal proceedings and
regardless of the result of the latter."
Where the complaint against petitioners was based on the
failure of the latter to comply with their obligation as spelled out
in the Trust Receipt executed by them.
This breach of obligation is separate and distinct from any
criminal liability for "misuse and/or misappropriation of goods or
proceeds realized from the sale of goods, documents or
instruments released under trust receipts", punishable under
Section 13 of the Trust Receipts Law (P.D. No. 115) in relation to
Article 315(1), (b) of the Revised Penal Code.
Being based on an obligation ex contractu and not ex
delicto, the civil action may proceed independently of the
criminal proceedings instituted against petitioners regardless of
the result of the latter.
The Sandiganbayan Rule: Prohibition against Separate Civil Action
Petitioner DPWH the offended party in a criminal case for
estafa thru falsification of public documents and for violation of
Section 3(e) and (g) of R.A. No. 3019 pending in the
Sandiganbayan lodged its own counterclaim to the collection
case filed with the Malabon Trial Court, praying for the return of
its payment made to the Navotas Industrial Corporation (NIC)
arising from the dredging contracts subject of the criminal
action.
However, the Court held that petitioner's counterclaim is
deemed abandoned by virtue of Section 4 of P.D. No. 1606, as
amended.
The last paragraph of Section 4 of P.D. No. 1606, as
amended, provides that:
Any provision of law or Rules of Court to the contrary not-
withstanding, the criminal action and the corresponding civil action for the
recovery of civil liability shall at all times be simultaneously instituted
with, and jointly determined in, the same proceeding by the
Sandiganbayan or the appropriate courts, the filing of the criminal action
being deemed to necessarily carry with it the filing of the civil action, and
no right to reserve the filing of such civil action separately from the crimi-
nal action shall be recognized:
Provided, however. That where the civil action had heretofore been
filed separately but judgment therein has not yet been rendered, and the
criminal case is hereafter filed with the Sandiganbayan or the appropriate
court, said civil action shall be transferred to the Sandiganbayan or the
appropriate court, as the case may be, for consolidation and joint
determination with the criminal action, otherwise the separate civil action
shall be deemed abandoned.
The Court held that Petitioner's counterclaim in the civil
case pending with the Malabon trial court for the return of the
amount DPWH paid NIC is an action to recover civil liability ex
delicto.
However, this action to recover civil liability ex delicto is by
operation of law included in the criminal cases filed with the
Sandiganbayan.
By mandate of R.A. No. 8249, the counterclaim filed earlier
in the separate civil action with the Malabon trial court "shall be
88
deemed abandoned."
Extent of Damages Awarded in Civil Liability Arising from Crimes
Civil liability arising from crime includes, moral damages,
exemplary damages and loss of earning capacity.
Attorney's fees may be awarded but only when a separate
civil action to recover civil liability has been filed or when
exemplary damages are awarded.
Life expectancy is included in award of damages.
The only civil liability that may thus be imposed in a
criminal action is that arising from and consequent to the
criminal liability oi the accused on the principle that every person
criminally liable is also civilly liable.
This includes restitution, reparation of damages caused
and indemnification of consequential damages.
Complementary thereto, are the subsidiary civil liability of
innkeepers, tavern keepers and proprietor of establishments,
employers, teachers, persons and corporations engaged in any
kind of industry, for felonies committed by their servants, pupils,
workmen, apprentices, employees in the discharge of their
duties.
Broader Concept of Civil Liability
In Banal v. Tadeo, Jr., a case of violation of B.P. Big. 22,
(A law making the issuance of a bouncing check criminal) the
lower court rejected the appearance of a private prosecutor on
the ground that B.P. Big. 22 does not provide for any civil
liability or indemnity and, hence it is not a crime against
property but public order.
The Supreme Court, in setting aside the order, gave a
broader concept of the civil liability that may be recovered in a
criminal action. The Supreme Court said:
"GENERALLY, THE BASIS OF CIVIL LIABILITY ARISING
FROM CRIME IS THE FUNDAMENTAL POSTULATE OF OUR
LAW THAT EVERY MAN CRIMINALLY LIABLE IS ALSO
CIVILLY LIABLE."
Underlying this legal principle is the traditional theory that when a
person commits a crime, he offends two entities, namely:
(1) the society in which he lives in or the political entity called the
State whose law he had violated; and
(2) the individual member of that society whose person, right,
honor, chastity or property was actually or directly injured or
damaged by the same punishable act or omission, x x x."
Viewing things pragmatically, we can readily see that what
gives rise to the civil liability is really the obligation and the
moral duty of everyone to repair or make whole the damage
caused to another by reason of his own act or omission, done
intentionally or negligently, whether or not the same be
punishable by law.
In other words, criminal liability will give rise to civil
liability only if the same felonious act or omission results in
damage or injury to another and is the direct and proximate
cause thereof.
Damage or injury to another is evidently the foundation of
the civil action.
Such is not the case in criminal actions for, to be criminally
liable, it is enough that the act or omission complained of is
punishable, regardless of whether or not it also causes material
damage to another.
Article 20 of the New Civil Code provides:
"EVERY PERSON WHO, CONTRARY TO LAW, WILFULLY OR
NEGLIGENTLY CAUSES DAMAGE TO ANOTHER, SHALL
INDEMNIFY THE LATTER FOR THE SAME.
Regardless, therefore, of whether or not a special law so
provides, indemnification of the offended party may be had on
account of the damage, loss or injury directly suffered as a
consequence of the wrongful act of another.
The indemnity which a person is sentenced to pay forms
an integral part of the penalty imposed by law for the
commission of a crime.
Every crime gives rise to a penal or criminal action for the
punishment of the guilty party; and also to civil action for the
restitution of the thing, repair of the damage and indemnification
for the losses.
Civil liability is however, improper in illegal possession of
firearms qualified by murder.
The civil liability arising from the death may be claimed
either in a separate action or impliedly instituted with the
criminal action for murder or homicide."
Effect of Failure to Allege Damages in Complaint or Information
The fact that there is, no claim or allegation of damages in
the complaint of information is of no legal consequence.
Every person criminally liable for a felony is also civilly
liable.
It has, therefore, been held that even if the complaint or
information is silent as to the damages or the intention to prove
and claim them, the offender is still liable for them, and the
offended has the right to prove and claim for them in the
89
criminal case, unless a waiver or the reservation of the civil
action is made.
When Reservation May Be Made
The reservation of the right to institute the separate civil
action arising from the offenses charged shall be made before
the prosecution starts to present its evidence and under
circumstances affording the offended party a reasonable
opportunity to make such reservation.
The purpose of the rule requiring reservation is to prevent
the offended party from recovering damages twice for the same
act or omission.
The proviso requiring that the reservation may be made
before the prosecution starts to present evidence was brought
about by the cases of Tactaquin v. Palileo, Manio v. Gaddi, where
despite the appearance of a private prosecutor, the offended
party was not able to present evidence on the damages because
of the plea of guilty of the accused who was accordingly
sentenced.
The Supreme Court in ,he case of Reyes v. Diy, stressed
the need to give the offended party in opportunity to make a
reservation, and held that the mere appearance of a private
prosecutor in the criminal case against the private respondents
did not necessarily constitute such intervention on the part of
the aggrieved party as could only import an intention on her part
to press her claim for damages in said criminal case and waiver
of her right to file a separate civil action for damages because
the accused had pleaded guilty upon arraignment and was
immediately sentenced, there was no chance for the aggrieved
party to present evidence in support of her claim for damages
and to enter i reservation in the record to file a separate civil
action
Reservation Need not be Express but May Be Implied
While a reading of the afore-quoted provisions shows that
the offended party is required to make a reservation of his right
to institute a separate civil action, jurisprudence instructs that
such reservation may not necessarily be express but may be
implied which may be inferred not only from the acts of the
offended party but also from acts other than those of the latter.
In the Vintola case, the fact that plaintiff actively
intervening in the prosecution of the criminal case through a
private prosecutor, is of no moment.
In ruling that the Estafa case is not a bar to the institution
of a civil action for collection, this Court held that:
"[I]T IS INACCURATE FOR THE VINTOLAS TO CLAIM THAT
THE JUDGMENT IN THE ESTAFA CASE HAD DECLARED
THAT THE FACTS FROM WHICH THE CIVIL ACTION MIGHT
ARISE, DID NOT EXIST, FOR IT WILL BE RECALLED THAT
THE DECISION OF ACQUITTAL EXPRESSLY DECLARED
THAT 'THE REMEDY OF THE BANK IS CIVIL AND NOT
CRIMINAL IN NATURE.'
This amounts to a reservation of the civil action in IBAA's favor for
the Court would not have dwelt on a civil liability that it had intended to
extinguish by the same decision."
In the Bernaldes case, plaintiffs spouses Nicasio Bernaldes,
Sr. and Perpetua Besas together with their minor son, Jovito,
filed a complaint for damages against defendant Bohol Land
Transportation Co. for the death of Jovito's brother Nicasio, Jr.
and for serious physical injuries obtained by Jovito when the bus
in which they were riding, fell off a deep precipice.
Defendant bus company moved to dismiss the complaint
on the ground that in the criminal case earlier filed against its
bus driver, plaintiffs intervened through their counsel but did not
reserve therein their right to file a separate action for damages.
The Court held that the dismissal was improper and ruled thus: informed thereof, then the actual filing of the civil action is even
far better than a compliance with the requirement of an express
"TRUE, APPELLANTS, THROUGH PRIVATE PROSECUTORS, reservation that should be made by the offended party before
WERE ALLOWED TO INTERVENE — WHETHER PROPERLY the prosecution presented its evidence.
OR IMPROPERLY WE DO NOT DECIDE HERE — IN THE
CRIMINAL ACTION AGAINST APPELLEE'S DRIVER, BUT IF
THAT AMOUNTED INFERENTIALLY TO SUBMITTING IN Where a separate civil action to recover the civil liability of
SAID CASE THEIR CLAIM FOR CIVIL INDEMNITY, THE
CLAIM COULD HAVE BEEN ONLY AGAINST THE DRIVER the accused arising from the crime charged has been reserved,
BUT NOT AGAINST APPELLEE WHO WAS NOT A PARTY the heirs of the deceased are precluded from recovering
THEREIN. damages in the criminal case against the accused, for they are
not entitled to recover damages twice for the same criminal act
As a matter of fact, however, inspite of appellee's statements to of the accused.
the contrary in its brief, there is no showing in the record before Us that
appellants made of record their claim for damages against the driver or
his employer; much less does it appear that they had attempted to prove The trial court erred in awarding to the heirs of the
such damages. deceased P30,000.00 as civil indemnity for his death despite
their reservation.
The failure of the court to make any pronouncement in its decision
concerning the civil liability of the driver and I or of his employer must
therefore be due to the fact that the criminal action did not involve at all
any claim for civil indemnity."
Effect of Reservation
Later, in Jarantilla, the Court ruled that the failure of the
trial court to make any pronouncement, favorable or It has been held that the prescription of action does not
unfavorable, as to the civil liability of the accused amounts to a prescribe for the civil action that have been reserved in the
reservation of the right to have the civil liability litigated and criminal action.
determined in a separate action, for nowhere in the Rules of
Court is it provided that if the court fails to determine the civil
Note: Under Section 2, Rule 111 during the pendency of
liability, it becomes no longer enforceable.
the criminal action, the running of the period of prescription of
the civil action which cannot be instituted separately or whose
Nothing in the records at hand shows that private proceeding shall be tolled.
respondent ever attempted to enforce its right to recover civil
liability during the prosecution of the criminal action against Waiver of Civil Liability Arising from Crime
petitioners.
The civil liability arising from a crime may be waived.
Thus, even if there was no reservation in the criminal case
and that the civil action was not filed before the filing of the
No counterclaim, cross-claim or third-party complaint may
criminal action but before the prosecution presented evidence in
be filed by the accused in the criminal case, but any cause of
the criminal action, and the judge handling the criminal case was
action which could have been the subject thereof may be
90
litigated in a separate civil action.
A court trying a criminal case cannot award damages in
favor of the accused.
The task of the trial court is limited to determining the
guilt of the accused and if proper, to determine his civil liability.
A criminal case is not the proper proceedings to determine
the private complainant's civil liability, if any.
The Court ruled in Cabaero v. Hon. Cantos, that a court
trying a criminal case should limit itself to the criminal and civil
liability of the accused, thus:
[THUS,] THE TRIAL COURT SHOULD CONFINE ITSELF TO
THE CRIMINAL ASPECT AND THE POSSIBLE CIVIL
LIABILITY OF THE ACCUSED ARISING OUT OF THE CRIME.
The counterclaim (and cross-claim or third-party complaint, if any)
should be set aside or refused cognizance without prejudice to their filing
in separate proceedings at the proper time.
This paragraph addresses the lacuna mentioned
Cabaero on the "absence of clear-cut rules governing the
prosecution ofimpliedly instituted civil action and the necessary
consequences and implications thereof."
The civil liability of petitioners for swindling respondent spouses
and for maliciously filing a baseless suit must be litigated in a
separate proceeding.
Separate Civil Action By the Accused
Thus, the accused may file a separate civil action based on
quasi-delict arising from the same incident and may proceed
simultaneously and independently of the criminal case against
him as provided under section 1(6) which allows "the accused in
the criminal case, to file any cause of action which could have
been the subject thereof in a separate civil action, since the
accused is prohibited from setting up any counterclaim in the
civil aspect that is deemed instituted in the criminal case.
The accused is therefore forced to litigate separately his
counterclaim against the offended party.
If the accused does not file a separate civil action for
quasi-delict, the prescriptive period may set in since the period
continues to run until the civil action for quasi-delict is filed.
Moreover, the accused, who is presumed innocent, has a
right to invoke Article 2177 of the Civil Code, in the same way
that the offended party can avail of this remedy which is
independent of the criminal action.
To disallow the accused from filing a separate civil action
for quasi-delict, while refusing to recognize his counterclaim in
the criminal case, is to deny him due process of law, access to
the courts, and equal protection of the law.
Notably, the Court did not order the consolidation but
in
allowed the civil action to proceed separately, otherwise, it would
defeat the prohibition against a counterclaim.
Limitation on Separate Civil Action by an Accused in the Sandiganbayan
A separate civil action for collection of sum of money filed
by the accused against the offended party while the criminal
case in the Sandiganbayan is pending cannot be consolidated
with the criminal case, for the Sandiganbayan has no jurisdiction
over collection cases, nor can it proceed independently of the
criminal cases filed with the Sandiganbayan.
The accused's collection case for unpaid services from its
91
dredging contracts with the offended party obviously does not
fall under Articles 32, 33 or 34 (on Human Relations) of the Civil
Code. Neither does it fall under Article 2176 (on auasi-delict) of
the Civil Code.
Under Section 3 of Rule 111, civil actions falling under
Articles 32, 33, 34 or 2176 may proceed independently and
separately from the criminal case.
The only other possibility is for the accused's civil action to
fall under Article 31 of the Civil Code which provides:
ART. 31. WHEN THE CIVIL ACTION IS BASED ON AN
OBLIGATION NOT ARISING FROM THE ACT OR OMISSION
COMPLAINED OF AS A FELONY, SUCH CIVIL ACTION MAY
PROCEED INDEPENDENTLY OF THE CRIMINAL PRO-
CEEDINGS AND REGARDLESS OF THE RESULT OF THE
LATTER.
An example of a case falling under Article 31 is a civil
action to recover the proceeds of sale of goods covered by a
trust receipt.
Such civil action can proceed independently of the criminal
action for violation of the trust receipt law.
In such a case, the validity of the contract, on which the
civil action is based, is not at issue.
What is at issue is the violation of an obligation arising
from a valid contract -- the trust receipt.
However, when the civil action is based on a purported
contract that is assailed as illegal per se, as when the execution
of the contract is alleged to violate the Anti-Graft and Corrupt
Practices Act, Article 31 does not apply.
 In such a situation, the contract if proven illegal cannot
create any valid obligation that can be the basis of a cause of
action in a civil case.
Under Article 1409 of the Civil Code, a contract "whose
cause, object or purpose is contrary to law," or a contract that is
"expressly prohibited or declared void by law," is void from the
very beginning.
No party to such void contract can claim any right under
such contract or enforce any of its provisions.
Under Section 3(g) of the Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices
Act, entering into a contract that is manifestly and grossly
disadvantageous to the government is "declared to be unlawful."
If the act of entering into the contract is assailed as a
crime in itself, then the issue of whether the contract is illegal
must first be resolved before any civil action based on the
contract can proceed.
Only the Sandiganbayan has the jurisdiction to decide
whether the act of entering into such contract is a crime, where
the salary grade of one of the accused is Grade 27 or higher, as
in Criminal Cases Nos. 16889-16900 filed with the
Sandiganbayan.
Article 31 speaks of a civil action "based on an obligation
not arising from the act x x x complained of as a felony."
This clearly means that the obligation must arise from an
act not constituting a crime.
Where, the act purporting to create the obligation is
assailed as a crime in itself, no civil action based on such con-
tracts can proceed independently of the criminal action.
This calls then for the application of the second paragraph
of Section 2 of Rule 111 which states that "if the criminal action
is filed after the said civil action has already been instituted, the
latter shall be suspended in whatever stage it may be found
before judgment on the merits."
Consequently, the civil case for collection pending in the
Malabon Trial Court must be suspended until after
termination of the criminal cases filed with the Sandiganbayan.
In contrast, where the civil action is based on a contract
that can remain valid even if its violation may constitute a crime,
the civil action can proceed independently.
Thus, in estafa thru violation of the trust receipt law, the
violation of the trust receipt constitutes a crime.
However, the trust receipt itself remains valid, allowing a
civil action based on the trust receipt to proceed independently
of the criminal case.
Retroactive Application of Amendment
It has been held although the incident and the actions
arising therefrom were instituted before the promulgation of the
1985 Rules on Criminal Procedure, its provisions which are
procedural may apply retrospectively.
Subsidiary Liability
To be treated differently is the subsidiary liability of the
employer.
92
Commencing with Pajarito v. Seneris68 followed by Ozoa v.
Vda. de Madula69 and Catacutan v. Heirs of Kadusale,70 it is now
settled that the subsidiary liability of the employer, including the
amounts thereof, may be determined in the same criminal
proceed ings and is reviewable either by writ of error or through
a petitior for review on certiorari on pure questions of law.
The appeal shall be governed by appeals in criminal cases,
since this is but a continuation of the civil proceedings, the
period to be counted not from the promulgation of judgment but
the
from the notice of the order.
The principle was stressed in Yusay v. Adil,71 a case of less
serious physical injuries and damage to property thru reckless
imprudence, with the Supreme Court's statement that: "The
employer is in substance and effect, a party to the criminal case
against his employee, considering the subsidiary liability imposed
upon him by law.'
Basis of Employer's Subsidiary Liability
It bears emphasis, however, that before the employer's
subsidiary liability may be proceeded against, it is imperative
that then should be a criminal action whereby the employee's
criminal negligence or delict and corresponding liability therefor
are proved.
If no criminal action was instituted, the employer's liability
would not be predicated under Article 103 of the Revised Penal
Code.
The judgment in the criminal action announcing the
employee to be civilly liable is conclusive on the employer not
only as to the actuality of the liability but also as to its amount,
from which no appeal by the employer lies from the judgment of
conviction.
 The employer must be afforded due process, by holding a
hearing to determine his liability on the basis of the conditions
required by law, namely:

(a) the existence of an employer-employee relation ship;

(b) that the employer is engaged in some kind of agency
(c) that the employee is adjudged guilty of the wrongful act
and found to have committed the offense in the
discharge of his duties (not necessarily any offense he
may commit); and
(d) that said employee is insolvent.

Obligations arising from crimes are governed by Article

1161 of the Civil Code, which provides that said obligations are
governed by penal laws, subject to the provision ofArticle 2177
and the pertinent provisions of Chapter 2, Preliminary Title, on
Human Relations, and of Title XVIII of Book IV of the Civil Code.

Article 100 of the Revised Penal Code provides that every

person criminally liable for a felony is also civilly liable.

In default of the persons criminally liable, employers

engaged in any kind of industry shall be civilly liable for felonies
committed by their employees in the discharge of their duties.

Article 33 of the Civil Code provides specifically that in

cases of defamation, a civil action for damages, entirely separate
and distinct from the criminal action, may be brought by the
injured party.

93
 Such civil action proceeds independently of the criminal
prosecution and requires only a preponderance of evidence.
In Joaquin v. Aniceto, the Court held that Article 33
contemplates an action against the employee in his primary civil
liability.
It does not apply to an action against the employer to enforce its
subsidiary civil liability, because such liability arises only after
conviction of the employee in the criminal case or when the
employee is adjudged guilty of the wrongful act in a criminal
action and found to have committed the offense in the discharge
of his duties.
Any action brought against the employer based on its
subsidiary liability before the conviction of its employee is
premature.
Filing Fees in Estafa cases
Section 20 of Rule 141 Approved on September 14, 1999
provides that filing fees in estafa cases are also required where
the offended party fails to manifest within fifteen days following
the filing of the information that the civil liability arising from the
crime has been or would be separately prosecuted.
Filing Fee as a Lien
When the offended party seeks to enforce civil liability
against the accused by way of moral, nominal, temperate or
exemplary damages, the filing fees for such civil action as
provided in these Rules shall constitute a first lien on the
judgment except in an award for actual damages.
In cases wherein the amount of damages, other than
actual, is alleged in the complaint or information, the
corresponding filing fees shall be paid by the offended party
upon the filing thereof in court for trial
Explaining how the foregoing amendment came about,
Justice Narvasa (later Chief Justice) in General v. Claravall,
stated:
"THE LAST TWO (2) PARAGRAPHS PRESCRIBE A RULE
DIFFERENT FROM THAT IN MANCHESTER, AND IN THE
1985 RULES ON CRIMINAL PROCEDURE.
Under the 1985 Rules, the filing fees for the civil action impliedly
instituted with the criminal action had to be paid first to the Clerk of the
Court where the criminal action was commenced, without regard to
whether the claim for such damages was set out in the information or not.
Under the 1988 Rules, however, it is only when 'the amount of
damages, other than actual, is alleged in the complaint or information
that the corresponding filing fees shall be paid by the offended party upon
the filing thereof in court for trial.
In any other case — i.e., when the amount of damages other than
the civil action "to enforce civil liability against the accused by way of
moral, nominal, temperate or exemplary damages shall (merely)
constitute a first lien on the judgment except in an award for actual dam-
ages."
The Court's plain intent — to make the Manchester
doctrine, requiring payment of filing fees at the time of the
commencement of an action applicable to impliedly instituted
civil actions under Section 1, Rule 111 only when "the amount of
damages, other than actual, is alleged in the complaint or
information has thus been made manifest by the language of the
amendatory provisions."
For the guidance of all concerned when a civil action is
deemed instituted with the criminal action in accordance with
Section 1, Rule 111 of the Rules of Court — because the
offended party has NOT waived the civil action, or reserved the
right to institute it separately, or instituted the civil action prior
to the criminal action — the rule is as follows:
94
a) when "the amount of damages, other than actual, is alleged
in the complaint or information" filed in court, then "the
corresponding filing fees shall be paid by the offended party
upon the filing thereof in court for trial";
b) in any other case, however — i.e., when the amount of
damages is not so alleged in the complaint or information
filed in court, the corresponding filing fees need not be paid
and shall simply "constitute a first lien on the judgment,
except in an award for actual damages."
The ruling in General v. Claravall, especially the last
subparagraph above-quoted, was actually intended to apply to a
situation wherein either: (1) the judgment awards a claim not
specified in the pleading, or (2) the complainant expressly claims
moral, exemplary, temperate and/or nominal damages but has
not specified ANY amount at all, leaving the quantification
thereof entirely to the trial court's discretion and NOT to a
situation where the litigant specifies some amounts or
parameters for the awards being sought, even though the
different types of damages sought be not separately or
individually quantified.
To hold otherwise, would be to permit litigants to continue
availing of one more loophole in the rule on payment of filing
fees, and would not serve to attain the purpose of the revised
Sec. 1 of Rule 111, which is "to discourage the gimmick of libel
complainants of using the fiscal's office to include in the criminal
information their claim for astronomical damages in multiple
millions of pesos without paying any filing fees."
SEC. 2.
When Separate Civil Action is Suspended
 Suspension of Civil Action Arising from Crimes
Except for civil actions provided for in Articles 32, 33, 34
and 2176 of the Civil Code, the civil action which has been
reserved cannot be instituted until final judgment has been
rendered in the criminal action.
The action contemplated herein is a civil action arising
from a crime.
If reserved or filed separately and a criminal case is filed,
it has to be suspended to await final judgment in the criminal
action.
It may, however, be consolidated upon application with the
court trying the criminal action.
Article 31 speaks of a civil action "based on an obligation
not arising from the act x x x complained of as a felony."
This clearly means that the obligation must arise from an
act not constituting a crime.
Where, the act purporting to create the obligation is
assailed as a crime in itself no civil action based on such
contracts can proceed independently of the criminal action.
This calls then for the application of the second paragraph
of Section 2 of Rule 111 which states that "if the criminal action
is filed after the said civil action has already been instituted, the
latter shall be suspended in whatever stage it may be found
before judgment on the merits."
Consequently, the civil case for collection pending in the
Malabon Trial Court must be suspended until after
termination of the criminal cases filed with the Sandiganbayan.
The suspension of the civil case for collection of sum of
money (based on an obligation arising from contracts alleged to
be a crime pending before the Sandiganbayan) will avoid the
possibility of conflicting decisions between the Sandiganbayan
and the Malabon trial court on the validity of NIC's dredging
contracts.
If the Sandiganbayan declares the dredging contracts
illegal and void ab initio, and such declaration becomes final,
then NIC's civil case for collection of sum of money will have no
legal leg to stand on.
However, if the Sandiganbayan finds the dredging
contracts valid, then NIC's collection case before the Malabon
trial court can then proceed to trial.
No suspension if civil action does not arise from Crime
In Gandiongco u. Penaranda, the Supreme Court affirmed
Judge Penaranda's refusal to suspend the civil case for legal
separation and support with damages based on concubinage
despite the filing of a concubinage case with the municipal court.
His reason is that Section 2 of Rule 111 of the 1985 Rules
on Criminal Procedure refers to civil actions to enforce the civil
liability arising from the offense charged.
An action for legal separation is not to recover civil liability
in the main, but is aimed at the conjugal rights of the spouses
and their relations to each other within the contemplation of
Articles 97 to 108 of the Civil Code.
the
The principle applies even with the 1988 Amendments
95
where the Civil action does not also fall under Articles 32, 33, 34
and 2176 of the Civil Code.
In fine, a civil action may not be suspended under Rule
111 where the action is not to enforce civil liability from the
crime charged.
Consolidation of Civil with Criminal Action Even if not Arising from Crime
May consolidation of civil actions with the criminal action
be allowed where the civil action is not to enforce civil liability
arising from a crime?
In Naguiat v. Intermediate Appellate Court, the petitioner
filed a complaint for specific performance with damages to
compel the respondent to deliver to him certificates of title
covering their lots which he had already paid for under a
contract to sell.
A criminal action was likewise filed against the respondent
for violation of P.D. No. 957 regulating the sale of subdivision,
etc., and providing penalties therefor.
Petitioner moved to consolidate the two (2) cases on the
basis of Rule 111, Section 3(a).
The trial court granted consolidation but the Court of
Appeals reversed the order.
The Supreme Court held that the civil actions that may be
consolidated under Section 3(a), Rule 111 is one for civil liability
arising from the criminal offense or of ex-delicto of which the
civil action in this case is not one, but which is based on the
contract to sell or a civil action arising ex-contracto, hence, Rule
111 is not applicable.
 The Supreme Court, however, justified the consolidation of
the action for specific performance with the criminal action for
violation of P.D. No. 957 under Section 1, Rule 31 of the Rules of
Court as interpreted in Canos v. Peralta,* where the Court
sustained the order of a trial court to consolidate a civil action
(an action for the recovery of wage differential, overtime and
termination pay, plus damages) with a criminal action (for
violation of the Minimum Wage Law), it was held that:
"A COURT MAY ORDER SEVERAL ACTIONS PENDING
BEFORE IT TO BE TRIED TOGETHER WHERE THEY ARISE
FROM THE SAME ACT, EVENT OR TRANSACTION, INVOLVE
THE SAME OR LIKE ISSUES, AND DEPEND LARGELY OR
SUBSTANTIALLY ON THE SAME EVIDENCE, PROVIDED,
THAT THE COURT HAS JURISDICTION OVER THE CASES TO
BE CONSOLIDATED AND THAT A JOINT TRIAL WILL NOT
GIVE ONE PARTY AN UNDUE ADVANTAGE OR PREJUDICE
THE SUBSTANTIAL RIGHTS OF ANY OF THE PARTIES, X X
X"
The obvious purpose of the above rule is to avoid
multiplicity of suits, to guard against oppression and abuse, to
prevent delays, to clear congested dockets, to simplify the work
of the trial court; in short, the attainment of justice with the
least expense and vexation to the parties litigants. * * *
The consolidation of two (2) cases where petitioner's
counsel may act as counsel for the plaintiff in the civil case and
private prosecutor in the criminal case, will be conducive to the
early termination of the two (2) cases, and will redound to the
benefit and convenience of the parties; as well as to the speedy
administration of justice.
Under this principle, civil actions under Articles 32, 33, 34
and 2176 may be consolidated with the criminal action subject to
jurisdictional constraints.
The rule on jurisdiction in criminal cases which
determinable by the prescribed penalty regardless of other
imposable accessory or other penalties, included in the civil The Court allowed the indemnity in the foregoing case
liability arising from such offenses or predicated therein despite the erroneous procedure of petitioner in seeking a
irrespective of kind, nature, value or amount thereof, no longer remedy in filing a petition for certiorari instead of an appeal from
applies since the civil the erroneous order of the trial court dismissing the action on
action to be consolidated does not arise from the criminal the ground prescription since it is an action for quasi-delict.
offense charged.
The Court stressed that it is "loathe to deprive petitioners
The period of prescription of the civil action which cannot of the indemnity to which they are entitled by law and a final
be instituted separately or whose proceeding has been judgment of conviction based solely on technicality."
suspended shall not run, refer to the civil action arising from a
crime that has not been reserved or when it is filed ahead of the Effects of Judgment of Acquittal
criminal action.
Extinction of the penal action does not carry with it
extinction of the civil.
The civil action that may be reserved is the civil arising
from the crime.
However, the civil action based on delict may be extin-
The civil arising from a quasi-delict is not suspended but guished if there is a finding in a final judgment that the act or
omission from which the civil liability may arise did not exist.
may proceed simultaneously.
The subsidiary liability may only be enforced after the final Even if there is a finding in a final judgment that the act or
judgment of conviction. omission from which the civil might arise did not exist, this
would only refer to the civil liability arising from the offense
since this is the only civil liability that is deemed instituted with
However, prescription of the cause of action quasi-delicto the criminal action.
does not operate as a bar to in action to enforce the civil liability
arising from the crime especially where the latter action had
been expressly reserved. It is a fundamental postulate of our law that "every person
criminally liable for a felony is also civilly liable."
The dismissal of the action based on culpa aquiliana is not
a bar to the enforcement of the subsidiary liability of the And even if an accused is acquitted of the crime charged,
employer. such will not necessarily extinguish the civil liability, unless the
court declares in a final judgment that the fact from which the
civil might arise did not exist.
Once there is a conviction for a felony, final in character,
the employer becomes subsidiarily liable if the commission of the
crime was in the discharge of the duties of the employer. In the landmark case of Padilla v. Court of Appeals, the
is
Supreme Court en bane, thru Justice Hugo Gutierrez emphasized
that the court may award civil liability in the same proceedings
96
ever if the accused is acquitted.
This was to be followed in People v Jalandoni, Maxima v.
Geroch, Vizconde u. IAC, People v. Ligon, and other cases, until
the doctrine found its way in the third paragraph of Section 2,
Rule 120 of the 1985 Rules on Criminal Procedure, which
provided that "in case of acquittal, unless there is a clear
showing that the act from which the civil liability might arise did
not exist, the judgment shall make a finding on the civil liability
of the accused in favor of the offended party."
Under The Revised Rules on Criminal Procedure: "In case
the judgment is of acquittal, it shall state whether the evidence
of the prosecution absolutely failed to prove the guilt of the
accused or merely failed to prove his guilt beyond reasonable
doubt.
In either case, the judgment shall determine if the act or
omission from which the civil liability might arise did not exist."
There has been a change in the language of the rule.
Whereas the 1985 rule was more categorical in requiring
that "the judgment shall make a finding on the civil liability of
the accused in favor of the offended party," the present rule
simply states that "the judgment shall determine if the act or
omission from which the civil liability might arise did not exist."
It seems fairly obvious, however, that despite the acquittal
of the accused, if the act or omission from which the civil liability
might arise do exist, when the acquittal is merely because of
failure to prove the guilt of the accused beyond reasonable doubt
then the court should award the civil liability in favor of the
offended party in the same criminal action.
Duty of Court to Award Civil Liability
Even before the 1985 amendments, the settled
jurisprudence is that it is the duty of the trial judge to award civil
liability in favor of the offended party despite the acquittal of the
accused unless the fact from which the civil might arise does not
exist.
In a case, the trial judge in not having included civil
liability in the decision, stated that it cannot exercise discretion
alone in determining the liability upon the mere allegations, the
same being evidentiary.
Considering, however, the fact that the trial court's atten-
tion was drawn to the existence of a lapsus in the decision, in
the motion for reconsideration filed by the complainant, within
the reglementary period, and taking into account the petition to
supply what had been omitted, the trial judge could have set the
motion for reconsideration for hearing, in order to receive
evidence, as to the value of the properties admittedly stolen by
the accused, or to the return of the goods, if it was still feasible.
In an identical case, where the lower court had failed to provide
for the corresponding civil liability, the Supreme Court ordered
the said case remanded to the court of origin, for the purpose of
determining the civil liability of the accused.
The principle applies even in cases of acquittal, unless
there is a clear showing that the act from which the civil liability
might arise did not exist.
The duty of the court to a award, civil liability inspite of
acquittal is compellable by mandamus.
In Lontoc and Jarantilla, the court held that under the
present jurisprudential matters, where the trial court acquits the
accused on reasonable doubt, it could very well make a
97
pronouncement on the civil liability of the accused and the com-
plainant could file a petition for mandamus to compel the trial
court to include such civil liability in the judgment of acquittal.
Acquittal in a criminal case does not bar continuation of
the civil case connected therewith where:
1) the acquittal is based on reasonable doubt;
2) the decision contains a declaration that the liability of
the accused is not criminal but only civil; or
3) the civil liability is not derived from or based on the
criminal act of which the accused is acquitted.
Thus, the acquittal of the accused from the criminal charge
will not necessarily extinguish the civil liability unless the Court
declares in the judgment that the fact from which the civil
liability might arise did not exist.
Similarly, "extinction of the penal action does not carry
with it the extinction of civil liability unless the extinction
proceeds from a declaration in a final judgment that the fact
from which the civil liability might arise did not exists."
In Caina v. People, however, the extinction of the liability
civil was inferred from a finding that there is no negligence even
if the acquittal is based on failure to prove guilt beyond
reasonable doubt.
Similarly, Sanchez v. Far East Bank and Trust Company,
held that recourse to appeal the civil aspect from a judgment of
acquittal may only be resorted if the nature of he court's
judgment fall under any of the three categories stated above, as
reiterated in Salazar v. People (supra) otherwise, the extinction
of the penal extinguish the civil.
The civil is deemed instituted with the criminal here the
presence of any instances precluding the automatic institution of
the civil action together with the criminal complaint.
Thus, a separate civil action may no longer be prosecuted.
Principles Allowing- Separate Civil Action Despite Acquittal Even Without
Reservation
CIVIL ACTIONS BASED ON CRIME
In Calalang v. Intermediate Appellate Court, where a civil
action for damages based on the crime of murder was held as
not extinguished by the dismissal of the criminal case by the
Fiscal for failure of the complaint to establish a prima facie case,
the Supreme Court reiterated the case of People u. Velez, that
the dismissal of the information or the criminal action (upon
motion of the fiscal) does not affect the right of the offended
party to institute or continue the civil action already instituted
arising from the offense, because such dismissal or extinction of
the penal action does not carry with it the extinction of the civil
action.
The reason most often given for this holding is that the
two proceedings are not between the same parties.
Different rules as to the competency of witnesses and
weight of evidence necessary to the findings in the two
proceedings also exist.
In a criminal action, the State must prove its case by
evidence which shows the guilt of the defendant beyond
reasonable doubt, while in a civil action it is sufficient for the
plaintiff to sustain his cause by preponderance of evidence only.
Therefore, the insufficiency of evidence to support a
murder charge does not imply that there is no sufficient evidence
to support the civil case based on the same alleged act.
Under the Civil Code, when a person, claiming to be
injured by a criminal offense, charges another with the same, for
which no independent civil action is granted in this Code or any
special law, but the justice of the peace finds no reasonable
grounds to believe that a crime has been committed, or the
prosecuting attorney refuses or fails to institute
proceedings, the complainant may bring a civil action for
damages against the alleged offender.
Such civil action may be supported by a preponderance of
evidence.
Upon the defendant's motion, the court may require the
plaintiff to file a bond to indemnify the defendant in case the
complaint should be found to be malicious.
If during the pendency of the civil action, an information
should be presented by the prosecuting attorney, the civil action
shall be suspended until the termination of the criminal
proceedings.
Kinds of Acquittal
In a criminal action, our law recognizes two kinds of
acquittal, with different effects on the civil liability of the
accused.
First is an acquittal on the ground that the accused is not
the author of the act or omission complained of.
This instance closes the door to civil liability, for a person
who has been found to be not the perpetrator of any act or
omission cannot and can never be held liable for such act or
omission.
98
There being no delict, civil liability ex delicto is out of the
question, and the civil action, if any, which may be instituted
must be based on grounds other than the delict complained of.
This is the situation contemplated in Rule 111 of the Rules
of Court.
criminal
The second instance is an acquittal based on reasonable
doubi on the guilt of the accused.
In this case, even if the guilt of the accused has not been
satisfactorily established, he is not exempt from civil liability
which may be proved by preponderance of evidence only
This is the situation contemplated in Article 29 of the Civil
Code where the civil action for damages is "for the same act or
omission.
Although the two actions have different purposes, the
matters discussed in the civil case are similar to those discussed
in the criminal case.
However, the judgment in the criminal proceeding cannot
be read in evidence in the civil action to establish any fact there
determined, even though both actions involve the same act or
omission.
The reason for this rule is that the parties are not the
same and secondarily, different rules of evidence are applicable.
Hence, notwithstanding herein petitioner's acquittal, the
Court of Appeals in determining whether Article 29 applied, was
not precluded from looking into the question of petitioner's
negligence or reckless imprudence.
 Illustrative Case:
IN A PROSECUTION FOR ESTAFA OR SWINDLING
THROUGH FALSIFICATION OF A COMMERCIAL DOCUMENT,
THE CIVIL IS DEEMED INSTITUTED WITH THE CRIMINAL
IN THE ABSENCE OF ANY INSTANCES PRECLUDING THE
AUTOMATIC INSTITUTION OF THE CIVIL ACTION
TOGETHER WITH THE CRIMINAL COMPLAINT (THE
OFFENDED PARTY WAIVES THE CIVIL ACTION, RESERVES
THE RIGHT TO INSTITUTE IT SEPARATELY OR INSTITUTES
THE CIVIL ACTION PRIOR TO THE CRIMINAL ACTION).
Respondent's right to damages was deemed prosecuted in the
criminal proceeding.
Thus, a separate civil action may no longer be prosecuted where
the accused was acquitted on the ground that the accused has not
committed the crime Imputed to her.
This refers to the Civil liability arising from the crime that was
deemed instituted with the criminal.
COMPARE —
Where petitioner sought to enforce respondent's obligation to make
good the value of the checks in exchange for the cash he delivered to
respondent such civil action may proceed independently of the criminal
proceedings and regardless of the result of the other (under Article 31)
and its filing after the dismissal of the criminal case for estafa and maybe
prosecuted without violating the rule against forum shopping, since they
are based on different causes of action, expressly allowed by law.
The dismissal of the criminal case is not res judicata even if the
civil is alleged to arise from delict, since the nature of the cause of action
is determined by the facts alleged in the complaint as constituting a cause
of action.
What Civil Action Is Extinguished
The rule of extinction was limited to civil actions based on
culpa criminal and does not include culpa aquiliana or quasi-
delict.
In a prosecution for estafa or swindling through
This was the teaching ofElcano v. Hill, where it was falsification of a commercial document, the civil is deemed
instituted with the criminal where the in the absence of any
expressly held that the extinction of the civil liability referred to
in par. (c), Sec. 2 of Rule 111 refers exclusively to civil liability instances precluding the automatic institution of the civil action
arising from crime; whereas, the civil liability for the same act together with the criminal complaint (the offended party waives
the civil action, reserves the right to institute it separately or
considered as a quasi-delict only and not as a crime is not
extinguished even by a declaration in the criminal case that the institutes the civil action prior to the criminal action).
criminal act charged has not happened or has not been
committed by the accused. In other words, an acquittal based on Respondent's right to damages was deemed prosecuted in
the finding that the facts upon which civil liability did not exist, the criminal proceeding.
bars the filing of an independent civil action if it is based on the
crime.
Thus, a separate civil action may no longer be prosecuted
where the accused was acquitted on the ground that the accused
Application of the rule was illustrated by Justice Relova in has not committed the crime imputed to her.
Marcia v. Court of Appeals, as follows: "Otherwise stated, unless the
act from which the civil liability arises is declared to be non-existent in the
Civil Actions Not Based on Crime Not Extinguished
final judgment, the extinction of the criminal liability will not carry with it
the extinction of the civil liability.
Acquittal in a criminal action bars the civil arising
therefrom where the judgment of acquittal holds that the
Thus, if a person is charged with homicide and successfully pleaded
self-defense, his acquittal by reason thereof will extinguish his civil accused did not commit the criminal acts imputed to him.
liability. He has not incurred any criminal liability.
As earlier ruled by the Supreme Court, the civil liability
On the other hand, if his acquittal is, for instance, due to the fact that is deemed extinguished is the civil liability based on crime.
that he was not sufficiently identified to be the assailant, a civil action for
damages may be maintained. His acquittal is not due to non-existence of
the crime from which civil liability might arise, but because he was not, in But not the civil liability based on sources of obligation
the eyes of the court, sufficiently identified as the perpetrator. other than the criminal offense although arising from the same
act or omission.
Where the court states that the evidence throws no light on the
cause of fire and that it was an unfortunate accident for which the
accused cannot be held responsible, this declaration fits well into the The second sentence of Section 3(b) before under the
exception of the rule which exempts the accused from civil liability. 1985 Rules provides that in other cases, the person entitled to
the action may institute it in the jurisdiction and in the manner
provided by law against the person who may be liable for
Likewise, in Albornoz v. Albornoz, 33
it was the ruling that "where
the judgment in a criminal action contains an express declaration that the restitution of the thing and reparation or indemnity for the
basis of claimant's action did not exist, the latter's action for civil liability damage suffered.
is barred under Section l(d), Rule 107 of the Rules of Court."
99
 The rule clearly contemplates the filing of a separate civil
action. Article 29 of the Civil Code expressly provides that when
the accused in a criminal prosecution is acquitted on the ground
that his guilt has not been proved beyond reasonable doubt, a
civil action for damages for the same act or omission may be
instituted.
Such action requires only a preponderance of evidence.
The civil liability therefor under Articles 32,33, 34 and
2176 or those where the source of civil obligation is not based on
the criminal offense is not affected by the result of the criminal
action.
In other words, the extinction of the civil liability referred
to in par. (e) of Section 3, Rule 111 (1964 Rules), refers
exclusively to civil liability founded on Article 100 of the Revised
Penal Code, whereas the civil liability for the same act
considered as a quasi-delict only and not as a crime is not
extinguished even by a declaration in the criminal case that the
criminal act charged has not happened or has not been
committed by the accused.
Briefly stated, culpa aquiliana includes voluntary and
negligent acts which may be punishable by law.
It results, therefore, that the acquittal of Reginal Hill in the
criminal case has not extinguished his liability for quasi-delict,
hence that acquittal is not a bar to the instant action against
him.
Criminal Actions To Recover Civil Liability Arising From Delict and Civil
Actions Based on Quasi-Delict may Proceed Simultaneously
Thus, a civil action arising from the crime charged and a
civil action with the civil code provisions as the source of
obligation may proceed simultaneously and independently of
each other, and a favorable and unfavorable judgment in either
case cannot be considered as a bar to the other.
A private prosecutor may intervene in the criminal action
without waiving the right to file a separate civil action under
Articles 32, 33, 34 and 2176 regardless of the result of the
criminal action.
On the issue of whether or not an action for damages
arising from a vehicular accident may plaintiff recover damages
against the employer of the accused driver both in the criminal
case (delict) and the civil case for damages based on quasi-
delict, but not recover twice for the same act, the court wrote:
"Consequently, a separate civil action for damages lies against the
offender in a criminal act, whether or not he is criminally prosecuted and
found guilty or acquitted, provided that the offended party is not allowed,
if he is actually charged also criminally, to recover damages on both sides,
and would be entitled in such eventuality only to the bigger award of the
two, assuming the awards made in the two cases vary."
Extinction of Penal Does not Extinguish Civil Liability
In Mendoza v. Arrieta, it was held that where the acquittal
was not based upon reasonable doubt, a civil action for damages
can no longer be instituted.
It was clarified in Gula v. Dianila, that Mendoza v. Arrieta
was based on culpa criminal for which reason "we held the suit
for damages barred."
Since the cause of action of plaintiff-appellant is based on
culpa aquiliana and not culpa criminal thus precluding the
application of the exception in Sec. 3(c) of Rule 111 and the fact
that it can be inferred from the criminal case that accused was
acquitted on reasonable doubt because of dearth of evidence and
lack of veracity of the two principal witnesses, the doctrine in
100
Mendoza v. Arrieta, will not find application.
This provision clearly provides for a separate civil action
for restitution, reparation and indemnity for the damages
suffered by the offended party without reference to the source of
the obligation but was held to refer to Article 29 of the Civil Code
which provides that when the accused in a criminal prosecution
is acquitted on the ground that his guilt has not been proved
beyond reasonable doubt, a civil action for damages for the
same act or omission may be instituted.
A quasi-delict or culpa aquiliana is a separate legal
institution under the Civil Code, with a substantivity all its own,
and individuality that is entirely apart and independent from a
delict or crime.
A distinction exists between the civil liability arising from a
crime and the responsibility for quasi-delict or culpa contractual.
The same negligence causing damages may produce civil
liability arising from a crime under the Penal Code, or create an
action for quasi-delicto or culpa extra-contractual under the Civil
Code.
Therefore, the acquittal or conviction in the criminal case
is entirely irrelevant in the civil case.
Effect of 1988 Amendment and The Revised Rules on Criminal Procedure
Given the 1988 amendments, where the accused is
acquitted on the ground that his guilt has not been established
beyond reasonable doubt or that the obligation is purely civil
without the court making a finding on the civil liability of the
accused in favor of the offended party, what would be the effect
of such judgment on the civil aspect of the case. Will the
foregoing rulings permitting the prosecution of a separate civil
action still apply? SEC. 3. prevent delays, clear congested dockets to simplify the work of
When Civil Action may Proceed Independently the trial court, or in short, attain justice with the least expense
to the parties litigant, would have easily sustained a
In Heirs of the Late Teodoro Guaring v. Court of Appeals,
consolidation, thereby preventing the unseeming, if not
the court wrote that Sec. 2(b), Rule 111 of the Rules of Criminal The civil action which should be suspended after the ludicrous, spectacle of two (2) judges appreciating, according to
Procedure which provides that extinction of the penal action does institution of the criminal action is that arising from delict and their respective orientation, perception and perhaps even
not carry with it extinction of the civil, unless the extinction not the civil action based on quasi-delict or culpa aquiliana. prejudice, the same facts differently, and thereafter rendering
proceeds from a declaration in a final judgment that the fact
conflicting decisions.
from which the civil might arise did not exist" and that this rule
Parenthetically, "physical injuries" under Article 33 is used
contemplates a civil action arising from a crime and not a civil
action arising from a quasi delict. in a generic sense. A civil case for replevin may proceed independently of the
criminal cases for falsification and grave coercion.

The court underscored the statement in Tayag v. It includes consummated, frustrated and attempted
homicide and death arising from delict which includes reckless
Alcantara, that the civil liability for the same act considered as a While both cases are based on the same facts, the
quasi delict only and not as a crime is not extinguished even by imprudence or quasi-delict. quantum of proof required for holding the parties liable therein
a declaration in the criminal case that the criminal act charged differ.
has not happened or has not been committed. Consolidation of Criminal and Civil Cases

Libel — A criminal case for libel and a separate and

Further cited by the court to the same effect is Gula u.
Dianala.
In Bunag v. Court of Appeals, a separate action for
Damages based on forcible abduction with rape was allowed
despite prior dismissal of case by the Fiscal at the preliminary
investigation stage.
Jurisdiction of Court to Pass upon Motion for Reconsid-
eration of Offended Party in Connection with Civil Liability
Despite Appeal by Accused
If the court, independently of the appeal of the accused,
has jurisdiction, within fifteen days from the date of the
judgment, to allow the appeal of the offended party, it also has
jurisdiction to pass upon the motion for reconsideration filed by
the private prosecution in connection with the civil liability of the
accused.
independent civil action to enforce the civil liability arising from
the libel may be consolidated for joint trial, where the two (2)
cases involve common or identical questions of fact and law, and
would even have the same witnesses; and thus avoid multiplicity
of suits, prevent delay, clear congested dockets, and save
unnecessary costs and expenses, and simplify the work of the
trial court.
In fact Mckee v. IAC — stressed the need for consolidation
of criminal and civil actions to prevent conflicting decisions.
The final decision of guilt in criminal action is not relevant
to civil action based on quasi-delict.
There is no legal impediment against such consolidation.
Section 1, Rule 31 of the Rules of Court which seeks to
avoid multiplicity of suits, guard against oppression and abuse,
101
SEC. 4.
Effect of Death on Civil Actions
Death of Accused on Appeal
The death of the accused after arraignment and during the
pendency of the criminal action shall extinguish the civil liability
arising from the delict.
In Torrijos v. Court of Appeals,' a case of estafa, where
despite the death of the accused during the pendency of his
appeal, which thereby extinguished his criminal liability, the
appeal was allowed to proceed with respect to the issue of civil
liability of the accused (arising from a contract of purchase and
sale).
(The rule was not observed in People v. Satorre, where the
case for Murder was dismissed in view of the death of the
appellant.) extinguished by his death, but the civil liability remains.
"1. Death of the accused pending appeal of his conviction

However, in People u. Salcedo, where the accused in a The claim of the government for the civil liability survives extinguishes his criminal liability as well as the civil liability
murder case died during appeal, the case was dropped with but only if the offense can be proved. based thereon.

respect to his criminal liability only.

The Supreme Court continues to exercise appellate As opined by Justice Regalado, in this regard, the

This was followed by People v. Sendaydiego a case of jurisdiction over the petitioner's possible civil liability for the death of the accused prior to final judgment terminates his
malversation thru falsification, where it was held that despite the money claims of the government arising from the alleged criminal liability and only the civil liability directly arising

death of the accused, the Supreme Court can continue to criminal acts complained of, in much the same way as when no from and based solely on the offense committed, i.e., civil
exercise appellate jurisdiction over an accused's possible civil criminal action had been filed. No separate civil action need be liability ex in senso strictiore.

liability for the money claims of the claimants arising from instituted.
criminal acts complained of, as if no criminal case has been 2. Corollarily, the claim for civil liability survives
instituted against him, thus making applicable, in determining notwithstanding the death of accused, if the same may also
Thus, as every crime gives rise to a penal or criminal
his civil liability, Article 30 of the Civil Code. be predicated on a source of obligation other than delict.
action for the punishment of the guilty party, and also to a civil
action for the restitution of the thing, repair of the damage and
When a separate civil action is brought to demand civil indemnification for the losses whether the particular act or Article 1157 of the Civil Code enumerates these other
liability arising from a criminal offense, and no criminal pro- omission is done intentionally or negligently or whether or not sources of obligation from which the civil liability may arise
ceedings are instituted during the pendency of the civil case, punishable by law, subsequent decisions of the Supreme Court as a result of the same act or omission:
preponderance of evidence shall likewise be sufficient to prove held that while the criminal liability of an appellant is
the act complained of.) extinguished by his death, his civil liability subsists.
a. Law
b. Contracts;
c. Quasi-contracts; xx x; and
The Supreme Court further stated that Sendaydiego's In such case, the heirs of the deceased appellant are d. Quasi-delicts.
appeal will be resolved only for the purpose of showing his substituted as parties in the criminal case and his estate shall
criminal liability which is the basis of the civil liability for which answer for his civil liability.
3. Where the civil liability survives, as explained in Number 2
his estate would be liable.
above, an action for recovery therefor may be pursued but
ABANDOMENT OF SENDAYDIEGO; DEATH OF only by filing a separate civil action and subject to Section
Though the death of an accused-appellant during the ACCUSED PENDING APPEAL EXTINGUISH CIVIL LIABILITY 1, Rule 111 of the 1985 Rules on Criminal Procedure as
pendency of an appeal extinguished his criminal liability, his civil BASED ON CRIME amended.
liability survives.

People v. Bayotas, overruled People v. Sendaydiego, where This separate civil action may be enforced either
Extinction of criminal liability does not necessarily mean it was held that despite the death of the accused during the against the executor/administrator or the estate of the
that the civil liability is also extinguished. pendency of the appeal, the proceedings shall continue for the accused depending on the source of obligation upon which
purpose of determining his civil liability arising from the crime. the same is based as explained above.

In People v. Navoa, and in People v. Sendaydiego, the

Supreme Court ruled that only the criminal liability (including the The Supreme Court en bane held in Bayotas (which is a 4. Finally, the private party need not fear a forfeiture of his
fine, which is pecuniary, but not civil) of the accused is case of rape) that: right to file this separate civil action by prescription, in

102
 cases where during the prosecution of the criminal action
and prior to its extinction, the private offended party
instituted together with the civil action.
proposal was for the Court to continue in the same proceedings vith the
other civil actions that were deemed impliedly instituted vith the criminal,
Section 7 limits a prejudicial question to a "previously
despite the death of the accused. Since, however, he Revised Rules on
instituted civil action" in order to minimize possible abuses by
Criminal Procedure limited the civil liability leemed instituted with the
criminal action to the civil liability aris-ng from the offense, there is no the subsequent filing of a civil action as an afterthought for the

In such case, the statute of limitations on the civil
liability is deemed interrupted during the pendency of the
criminal case, conformably with the provisions of Article
1155 of the Civil Code, that should thereby avoid any
apprehension on a possible deprivation of right
prescription.
Thus the Supreme Court applying this set of rules to the
case at bench held that the death of the appellant extinguished
his criminal liability and the civil liability based solely on the act
complained of, i.e., rape. Consequently, the appeal
dismissed."
Bayotas was reiterated in People v. Rosalijos,ll where
during the pendency of the appeal convicting the accused of
murder, the latter died, the court ordered the dismissal of the
criminal liability of accused and ordered the substitution of his
heirs as to the civil liability.
However, in light of Bayotas, the appeal was dismissed
both as to the criminal and civil aspects thereof.
The ruling in Bayotas and its progeny which require the fil-
ing of a separate civil action arising from the same act or
omission where the accused dies during the pendency of the
action was criticized since these civil actions are deemed
impliedly instituted with the criminal action unless reserved
waived or a separate civil action was filed.
COMMENT ON THE NEW RULE
The original proposal of the Committee was to modify Bayotas. The
more need for the proposal since with the death to the accused, the civil
liability arising from the offense is also extinguished. The rule was,
however, retained by the Court to apply to the separate civil actions under
Section 3 of the same Rule. This would, however, only apply if these
actions are consolidated with the criminal. Otherwise, since these are
by purely civil actions, the effects of death should be governed by the Rules
on Civil procedure.16
SEC. 5.
Judgment in Civil Action not a Bar
was
COMMENT:
WHILE EVERY PERSON CRIMINALLY LIABLE IS ALSO
CIVILLY LIABLE, THE CONVERSE IS NOT TRUE.
EXTINCTION OF THE PENAL DOES NOT CARRY WITH IT
EXTINCTION OF THE CIVIL UNLESS THE EXTINCTION
PROCEEDS FROM A DECLARATION IN A FINAL JUDGMENT
THAT THE FACT FROM WHICH THE CIVIL MIGHT ARISE
DID NOT EXIST.
Similarly, a final judgment rendered in a civil action absolving the
defendant from the civil liability is no bar to a criminal action unless the
civil is a prejudicial question which involves an issue similar or intimately
related to the issue raised in the criminal, the resolution of which
determines whether or not the criminal action may proceed.
SEC. 6.
Suspension by Reason of Prejudicial Question
SEC. 7.
Elements of Prejudicial Question
purpose of suspending the criminal action.
a. The rule on precedence of the criminal action does not apply
when the civil action is a prejudicial question.1
b. Prejudicial question is an exception to precedence of
criminal case.
Prejudicial Question, Defined: Elements of a Prejudicial Question
According to jurisprudence, a prejudicial question involves
a similar issue in a civil action which was pending when the
criminal action was instituted or before the amendment, in a civil
action filed after the institution of the criminal action.
It is one based on a fact distinct and separate from the
crime but so intimately connected with it that it determines the
guilt or innocence of the accused, and for it to suspend the
criminal action, it must appear not only that said case involves
facts intimately related to those upon which the criminal
prosecution would be based but also that in the resolution of the
issue or issues raised in the civil case, the guilt or innocence of
the accused would necessarily be determined.
The doctrine of prejudicial question comes into play
generally in a situation where civil and criminal actions are
pending and the issues involved in both cases are similar or so
closely-related that an issue must be pre-emptively resolved in
the civil case before the criminal action can proceed.
Thus, the existence of a prejudicial question in a civil case
is alleged in the criminal case to cause the suspension of the
latter pending final determination of the former.

103

Where the civil case is not based on a fact distinct and
separate from the estafa, as both actions arose from the same
fact or transaction, the former does not constitute ,a prejudicial
question, for the determination of the criminal action.
CASES
a. An Action for Nullity of a Deed of Sale Based on the Ground
that It is a Forgery and is Spurious is Prejudicial to a
Criminal Action for Estafa based on the Execution of said
Sale
For a civil case to be considered prejudicial to a
criminal action as to cause the suspension of the criminal
action pending the determination of the civil, it must appear
not only that the civil case involves the same facts upon
which the criminal prosecution is based, but also that the
resolution of the issue raised in said civil action would be
necessarily determinative of the guilt or innocence of the
accused.
Where the defense (as defendant) in the civil case of
the nullity and forgery of the alleged prior deed of sale in
favor of plaintiff in the civil case and complaining witness in
the criminal case is based on the very same facts which
would be necessarily determinative of the guilt or innocence
as accused in the criminal case, the civil case constitutes a
prejudicial question.
If the first alleged sale is void or fictitious, then there
would be no double sale and petitioner would be innocent of
the offense charged.
A conviction in the criminal case (if it were allowed to
proceed ahead) would be a gross injustice and would have
to be set aside if it were finally decided in the civil action
that indeed the alleged prior deed of sale was a forgery and
spurious.
b. The pendency of an intestate proceeding will not constitute
a prejudicial action in a criminal case for Theft of standing
crops filed by a person claiming to have a valid contract of
lease on the property from its legal owner against a person
claiming co-ownership of the land leased whose claim is
pending in an intestate proceeding."
Even if the Intestate Court should annul the project of
partition and uphold private respondent's ownership of the
lots herein, that would not be determinative of the criminal
responsibility of private respondents for theft of
standing sugar crop, which petitioner claims he has planted
in good faith by virtue of a valid contract of lease with the
mortgagee.
c. Ejectment: Pendency of an ejectment case does not
constitute a prejudicial question to the charge of the theft
filed by alleged lessee against a person claiming co-owner-
ship rights with the lessor, for illegal harvest of sugarcane
on land leased.
Pendency of action for damages based on illegal
possession of property not a prejudicial question to the
charge of theft filed by the alleged lessee against the
plaintiff in the damage suit.
As the two cases are based on the same facts, and the
entitlement to damages being predicated on the unlawful
taking treated of in the Criminal Action, no necessity arises
for that civil case to be determined ahead of the Criminal
Action.
Stated differently, the issues raised in the civil cases
104
do not involve the pivotal question of who planted the
sugarcane and, therefore, are not determinative juris et de
jure of guilt or innocence in the Criminal Action.
If as the Guanteros contend, they were the ones who
did the planting, that is a matter of defense that may be
interposed by them in the Criminal Action.
It is not an issue that must be preemptively resolved
in the civil case before proceedings in the Criminal Action
may be undertaken.
d. A civil action for accounting and recovery of sum of money
the
are not determinative of the innocence or guilt of petitioner
in the prosecution for seventy-five (75) counts of estafa
The issues in the civil case for accounting and
recovery of sums of money are not determinative of the
innocence or guilt of the petitioner in the prosecution of the
seventy-five (75) counts of estafa.
* * * the only question to be resolved in the criminal cases for estafa
is whether or not the petitioner's acts of receiving and collecting
monies from the customers in payment for goods purchased, and
failing to immediately account for and deliver the said collections
having deposited them in his own personal bank accounts constitute
estafa under Article 315(l-b) of the Revised Penal Code.
* * * a finding in the civil case for accounting and recovery of
a sum of money is not juris et de jure determinative of the
innocence of the petitioner in the subsequent seventy-five (75)
criminal cases of estafa filed against him.
e. A civil case for Annulment of Deed of Sale not prejudicial to
Criminal Case for Estafa Arising from Issuance of Rubber
Check."
At the time the acts complained of in CR No. 1423-1
were committed, the deed of sale sought to be later
annulled in CV No. 8769 was binding upon the parties
thereto, including the petitioners.
The two (2) essential elements for a prejudicial
question to exist are:
A Civil Case for the Collection of a Sum of Money Allegedly Embezzled is
not a Prejudicial Question to the Criminal Action arising from the same
Acts of Embezzlement
Thus, as teller authorized to receive payments of electric bills from
the electric cooperative's customers, Godofreda allegedly embezzled to
her own use money collected from different consumers.
c. Article 33 manifests that as between the civil and criminal
cases arising from the same fraudulent act, the doctrine of the prejudicial
question cannot be invoked as both cases may proceed independently of
each other, i.e., in the same way that the civil suit can be tried, so must
the criminal prosecution run its course.
When Action for Annulment of Marriage Prejudicial to Bigamy Case

(a) the civil action involves an issue similar or intimately

related to the issue raised in the criminal action; and
(b) the resolution of such issue in the civil action
determines whether or not the criminal action may
proceed.
As correctly observed by the appellate court, the issue
in CR No. 1423-1 is whether or not the petitioners could be
found guilty under Batas Pambansa Big. 22 or under Article
315, No. 2(d) of the Revised Penal Code.
More specifically, what private respondents
complained of in CR No. 1423-1 is that the Checks issued by
petitioners in their favor were dishonored for lack of funds
When she refused to pay the amount defrauded, the cooperative
a.
sued her for damages. Later, at the instance of the cooperative, several
informations for estafa were filed against her before the municipal court.
After pleading not guilty to the estafa charges, Godofreda moved to
suspend the proceedings in the criminal case on the ground that the
collection suit is a prejudicial question.
HELD:
a. No prejudicial question exists.
The issue in the civil action is the cooperative's right to recover
from Godofreda the amount allegedly embezzled by the latter.
A civil action involving the nullity of a second marriage is of
prejudicial character and should be resolved before the
criminal case for bigamy.
Likewise, a civil action involving title to property
should first be decided before a criminal action for damages
to said property.
The reason is that in said cases the procedure in a
civil proceeding and not of the criminal case is more fitted to
decide, as for example, the issue of validity or nullity of the
marriage.

upon due presentment to the drawee bank.

Undeniably, at the time of said dishonor, petitioners'
obligation to pay private respondents pursuant to the deed
of sale, continued to subsist.
And because petitioners' checks were dishonored for
lack of funds, petitioners are answerable under the law for
the consequences of their said acts.
And even if CV No. 8769 were to be finally adjudged
to the effect that the said deed of sale should be annulled,
such declaration would be of no material importance in the
determination of the guilt or innocence of petitioners-
accused in CR No. 1423-1.
But in all such cases the prejudicial civil question
The issue in the criminal case is whether her failure to account for
refers to a dispute of purely civil character but connected in
her collections as a teller constitutes estafa under Article 315 of the
such manner to the crime on which the criminal case is
Revised Penal Code.
based and is determinative of the guilt or innocence of the
accused.
A finding in the civil case for or against Godofreda is not juris et
dejure determinative of her innocence or guilt in the estafa cases.
A civil action filed by the husband involving the nullity
B. MOREOVER ARTICLE 33 OF THE CIVIL CODE of a second marriage is of prejudicial character and should
EXPLICITLY STATES THAT IN CASE OF DEFAMATION, be resolved before the criminal case for bigamy.
FRAUD AND PHYSICAL INJURIES A CIVIL ACTION FOR
DAMAGES, ENTIRELY SEPARATE AND DISTINCT FROM THE
CRIMINAL ACTION, MAY BE BROUGHT BY THE INJURED In such a case, the prejudicial civil question refers to a
PARTY.
dispute of purely civil character but connected in such
manner to the crime on which the criminal case is based
Such civil action shall proceed independently of the criminal
and is determinative of the guilt or innocence of the
prosecution and shall require only a preponderance of evidence.
accused.

105
 The rule does not, however, apply where the bigamy case pending decision on the validity of the two Domestic Relations Court a civil action for declaration of
complaint for annulment was filed by the wife. Thus: marriages. nullity of her marriage with Leonilo, contracted in 1978.

"a) The filing, while the bigamy case is pending, of a civil
action by the woman in the second marriage for its
annulment by reason offeree and intimidation upon her
by the man, is not a bar or defense to the criminal
action.
The civil action does not decide that he entered the
marriage against his will and consent, because the
complaint therein does not allege that he was the
victim of force and intimidation in the second marriage.
It was he who used the force or intimidation and he
may not use his own malfeasance to defeat the action
based on his criminal act."
b. So also is an annulment of marriage filed by the first
wife not prejudicial to bigamy.
c. In Landicho v. Hon. Reloua, the first wife charged the
accused with Bigamy for contracting a second marriage
without first dissolving their marriage.
The second wife, likewise, filed an annulment of her
marriage with the accused on the ground offeree,
threats, and intimidation allegedly employed
accused and because of its allegedly bigamous
character.
The Court held that the mere fact that there are actions
to annul the marriage entered into by the accused in a She alleged that she consented to entering into the
bigamy case does not mean that "prejudicial questions" marriage, since she had no previous knowledge that
are automatically raised in civil actions to warrant the
suspension of the criminal case. Leonilo was already married to Rosalinda.
In order that the case of annulment of marriage be
considered a prejudicial question to the bigamy case Donato interposed the defense that his second marriage
against the accused, it must be shown that the was void since it was solemnized without a marriage
accused's consent to such marriage must be the one
license and that force was employed by Paz to get
that was obtained by means of duress, force and
intimidation to show that his act in the second marriage Leonilo's consent to the marriage.
must be involuntary and cannot be the basis for his
conviction for the crime of bigamy.
Before the second marriage was solemnized, Leonilo
The situation in the second case is markedly different.
and Paz had lived together as husband and wife,
At the time petitioner was indicted for bigamy, the fact without the benefit of wedlock for at least five years,
that two marriage ceremonies have been contracted for which reason, the requisite marriage license was
appeared to be indisputable.
dispensed with pursuant to Article 76 of the New Civil
And it was the second spouse, not the accused who Code.
filed the action for nullity on the ground of force,
threats and intimidation, x x x
Before the criminal case could be tried, Leonilo moved
Assuming that the first marriage was null and void on to suspend the proceedings on the ground that the
the ground alleged by the accused, that fact would not
be material to the outcome of the criminal case. annulment case raises a prejudicial question, which
must be determined before the criminal case can
Parties to the marriage should not be permitted to proceed.
judge for themselves its nullity, for the same must be
submitted to the judgment of the competent courts and
only when the nullity the marriage is so declared can be
held as void, and so long as there is no such The trial court denied the motion to suspend the
declaration the presumption is that the marriage exists. proceedings, citing Landicho v. Relova.
by Therefore, he who contracts a second marriage before
the judicial declaration of nullity of the first marriage The Supreme Court sustained the trial judge.
assumes the risk of being prosecuted for bigamy.

The issue before the Domestic Relations Court touching

d) Donato v. Luna — Leonilo was charged with bigamy in
Accused filed a third party complaint against the first upon the nullity of the second marriage is not
the Court of First Instance.
wife praying that his first marriage be declared null and determinative of Leonilo's guilt or innocence in the
void on the ground that his consent to the first crime of bigamy.
marriage was obtained by means of threats, force, and The information was based on the complaint of Paz.
intimidation, and moved for the suspension of the Before Leonilo could be arraigned, Paz filed with the

106
 Furthermore, it was Paz, Leonilo's second wife, who
filed the complaint for annulment of the Second
marriage on the ground that her consent was obtained
through deceit.
Leonilo cannot apply the rule on prejudicial question
since a case for annulment of marriage can be
considered a prejudicial question to the bigamy case
against the accused only if it is proved that Leonilo's
consent to such marriage was obtained by means of
duress in order to establish that his act in the
subsequent marriage was an involuntary one and as
such, the same cannot be the basis for conviction.
Obviously, Leonilo merely raised the issue of prejudicial
question to evade the prosecution of the criminal case.
Prior to Leonilo's second marriage, he had been living
with Paz as husband and wife for more than five years
without the benefit of marriage.
Thus, Leonilo's averments that his consent
obtained by Paz through force and undue influence in
entering a subsequent marriage is belied by the fact
that both he and Paz executed an affidavit which stated
that they had lived together as husband and wife
without benefit of marriage for five years, one month
and one day until their marital union was formally
ratified by the second marriage and that it was Paz who
eventually filed the civil action for nullity.
An Action for declaration of nullity of marriage on ground
of psychological incapacity is not a prejudicial question
1) to criminal prosecution for concubinage
Under Article 40 of the Family Code: "The absolute
nullity of a previous marriage maybe invoked for purposes
of remarriage on the basis solely of a final judgment
declaring such marriage void.
So that in a case for concubinage, the accused need
not present a final judgment declaring his marriage void for
he can adduce evidence in the criminal case of the nullity of
his marriage other than proof of a final judgment declaring
his marriage void.
The Court, however, hastened to add that even if his
marriage is void from the beginning the subsequent
pronouncement that his marriage is void from the beginning
is not a defense, citing Landicho u. Relova, cited in Donate
v. Luna," holding that "so long as there is no such
declaration (of nullity) the presumption is that the marriage
exists.
Therefore, he who contracts a second marriage before
the judicial declaration of nullity of the first marriage
was assumes the risk of being prosecuted for bigamy.
2) to criminal prosecution for bigamy
A declaration of the nullity of the second marriage on
the ground of psychological incapacity is of absolutely no
moment insofar as the State's penal laws are concerned.
As a second or subsequent marriage contracted during
the subsistence of petitioner's valid marriage to Villareyes,
petitioner's second marriage to Ancajas would be null and
void ab initio completely regardless of petitioner's
psychological capacity or incapacity.
Since a marriage contracted during the subsistence of
a valid marriage is automatically void, the nullity of this
107
second marriage is not per se an argument for the
avoidance of criminal liability for bigamy.
Pertinently, Article 349 of the Revised Penal Code
criminalizes "any person who shall contract a second or
subsequent marriage before the former marriage has been
legally dissolved, or before the absent spouse has been
declared presumptively dead by means of a judgment
rendered in the proper proceedings."
A plain reading of the law, therefore, would indicate
that the provision penalizes the mere act of contracting a
second or a subsequent marriage during the subsistence of
a valid marriage.
Thus, as soon as the second marriage was celebrated
during the subsistence of the valid first marriage, the crime
of bigamy had already been consummated.
There is no cogent reason for distinguishing between a
subsequent marriage that is null and void purely because it
is a second or subsequent marriage, and a subsequent
marriage that is null and void on the ground of
psychological incapacity, at least insofar as criminal liability
for bigamy is concerned.
The State's penal laws protecting the institution of
marriage are in recognition of the sacrosanct character of
this special contract between spouses, and punish an
individual's deliberate disregard of the permanent character
of the special bond between spouses, which petitioner has
undoubtedly done.
Although the judicial declaration of the nullity of a
marriage on the ground of psychological incapacity retroacts
to the date of the celebration of the marriage insofar as the
 vinculum between the spouses is concerned, it is significant complaint. If at all, it should be the latter that should be suspended.
to note that said marriage is not without legal effects.

Among these effects is that children conceived or born
before the judgment of absolute nullity of the marriage shall
be considered legitimate.
There is therefore a recognition written into the law
itself that such a marriage, although void ab initio, may still
produce legal consequences.
A pending civil case may, however, be considered to be in
the nature of a prejudicial question to an administrative case.
In proper cases, a pending administrative case may also
be considered in the nature of a prejudicial question to a civil
case.
Thus, an administrative case between parties involving a
parcel of land subject matter of an ejectment case is a
A civil action instituted to resolve whether the designations
of certain persons as sectoral representatives were in accordance
with law constitutes a prejudicial question vis-a-vis a criminal
case for violation of the anti-graft law premised on the accused's
partiality and evident bad faith in not paying the former's
salaries and per diem as sectoral representatives.
There is no prejudicial question where the outcome of the

prejudicial question which would operate as a bar to said civil case is not in any way determinative of the guilt or
ejectment case. innocence of the respondent in the criminal cases.
Among these legal consequences is incurring criminal
RULE 112
liability for bigamy. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION
Thus, it has been held that the question of ownership
SECTION 1.
To hold otherwise would render the State's penal laws which is pending in a civil case a prejudicial question justifying
Preliminary Investigation Defined; When Required
on bigamy completely nugatory, and allow individuals to suspension of proceedings in the criminal case for violation of
the Anti-Squatting Law. Formerly, the right to a preliminary investigation refers only to offenses
deliberately ensure that each marital contract be flawed in cognizable by the Regional Trial Court.
some manner, and to thus escape the consequences of
In view, however, of the expanded jurisdiction of the Municipal Trial Court
contracting multiple marriages, while beguiling throngs of OTHER CASES under R.A. No. 7691, jurisdiction over certain offenses which before falls
hapless women with the promise of futurity and under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Regional Trial Court were vested in
the Municipal Trial Court and accordingly, under the former rule were no
commitment. An action to cancel copyright is not prejudicial to criminal longer entitled to preliminary investigation.
prosecution for infringement of copyright. The present rule includes among offenses entitled to preliminary
There is no prejudicial question where one case is administrative and the investigation those punishable by at least four (4) years, two (2) months
other is civil and one (1) day, even if the same is cognizable by the Municipal Trial
A civil action of replevin is not prejudicial to theft. Court.

It has been held that one thing is administrative. Purpose of Preliminary Investigation
Where the issue before the Court of Appeals is the authen-
As provided for in the foregoing section, the preliminary
ticity of a motion to withdraw which at the same time is the investigation should determine whether there is a sufficient
Quite another is the criminal liability.
object of a falsification charged pending in CFI, there is a ground to engender a well-grounded belief that a crime has been
committed and that the respondent is probably guilty thereof,
prejudicial question involved in the civil case which justifies the
and should be held for trial.
The determination of the administrative liability for suspension of the criminal case. And if the evidence so warrants, the investigating prosecutor is
falsification of public documents is in no way conclusive of his duty bound to file the corresponding information.
lack of criminal liability.
Pisalban u. Tesoro, a criminal case for falsification of an The Purposes of a Preliminary Investigation or a previous Inquiry of Some
Kind are —
affidavit presented in a cadastral case should not be suspended
The dismissal of the administrative case does not to await termination of civil case. a. for the investigating prosecutor to determine if a crime has
necessarily bar the filing of a criminal prosecution for the same been committed.
or similar acts which were the subject of the administrative

108
b. to protect the accused from the inconvenience, expense and
burden of defending himself in a formal trial unless the
reasonable probability of his guilt shall have been first
ascertained in a fairly summary proceeding by a competent
officer.
c. to secure the innocent against hasty, malicious and oppres-
sive prosecution, and to protect him from an open and
public accusation of a crime, from the trouble, expenses and
anxiety of a public trial; and
d. to protect the state from having to conduct useless and
expensive trials.
Scope of Preliminary Investigation
Preliminary investigation is merely inquisitorial, and it is often
the only means of discovering the persons who may be
reasonably charged with a crime, to enable the fiscal to prepare
his complaint or information.
It is not a trial of the case on the merits and has no purpose
except that of determining whether a crime has been committed
and whether there is probable cause to believe that the accused
is guilty thereof, and it does not place the person against whom
it is taken in jeopardy.
Nature of Right to Preliminary Investigation
Neither the 1935 nor the 1973 (or 1987) Constitution requires
the holding of a preliminary investigation.
It is a settled doctrine that the right thereto is of statutory
character and may be invoked only when specifically created by
statute.
It is not a fundamental right and is not among the rights
guaranteed to him in the Bill of Rights.
It may be waived expressly or by silence.
As stated in Marcos u. Cruz, "the preliminary investigation in
criminal cases is not a creation of the Constitution; its origin is
statutory and it exists and the right thereto can be invoked when
so established and granted by law.
It is so specifically granted by procedural law.
If not waived the absence thereof may amount to a denial of due
process.
Thus, the right of accused (to a preliminary investigation when
granted) is a "substantial one."
Its denial over his opposition is a "prejudicial error in that it
subjects the accused to the loss of life, liberty or property
without due process of law."
While that right is statutory rather than constitutional in its
fundament, since it has in fact established by statute, it is a
component part of due process in criminal justice.
The right to have a preliminary investigation conducted before
being bound over to trial for a criminal offense and, hence
formally at risk of incarceration or some other penalty, is not a
mere formal or technical right; it is a substantive right.
The accused in a criminal trial is inevitably exposed to prolonged
anxiety, aggravation, humiliation, not to speak of expense; the
right to an opportunity to avoid a process painful to any one
save, perhaps, to hardened criminals, is a valuable right.
To deny petitioner's claim to a preliminary investigation would be
to deprive him of the full measure of his right to due process.
While a preliminary investigation is not an occasion for a full and
exhaustive display of the parties evidence, being merely an
inquiry to determine whether or not there is sufficient ground to
engender a founded belief that a crime has been committed and
that the respondent is probably guilty thereof, the right to such
preliminary investigation is still an indispensable element of our
criminal justice system that may not be treated lightly, let alone
ignored.
The right of the accused not to be brought to trial except when
remanded therefor as a result of a preliminary examination
before a committing magistrate, has been held as a substantial
one.
Its denial over the objections of the accused is prejudicial error
in that it subjects the accused to the loss of life, liberty or
property without due process of law.
If it is not waived may amount to a denial of due process.
As stated in a case, the Solicitor General's argument that the
right to a preliminary investigation may be waived and was in
fact waived by the petitioner, impliedly admits that the right
exists.
Since the right belongs to the accused, he alone may waive its
denial.
If he demands it, the State may not withhold it.
The purpose is, however, satisfied if the accused is given all the
109
opportunity to submit countervailing evidence.
Probable cause merely implies probability of guilt and should be
determined in a summary manner.
Preliminary investigation is not a part of trial and it is only in a
trial where an accused can demand the full exercise of his rights,
such as the right to confront and cross-examine his accusers to
establish his innocence.
Thus, the lack of authentication of the document presented
during the preliminary investigation does not impair the validity
of the investigation.
The only purpose of a preliminary investigation is "to determine
whether a crime has been committed and whether there is
probable cause to believe that the accused is guilty thereof."
The Court have maintained a consistent policy of non-
interference in the determination by the Ombudsman of the
existence of probable cause, provided there is no grave abuse in
the exercise of its discretion.
While it may be true that the documents were unauthenticated,
this is a matter of defense best passed upon after a full-blown
trial.
As ruled in Webb v. De Lean, "the validity and the merits of a
party's defense or accusation as well as the admissibility of
testimonies and evidences are better ventilated during the trial
stage than in the preliminary investigation level."
Effect of Absence of Preliminary Investigation
As the absence of a preliminary investigation is not a ground to
quash the complaint or information, the proceedings upon such
information in the Sandiganbayan should be held in abeyance
and the case should be remanded to the office of the
Ombudsman for him or the Special Prosecutor to conduct a
preliminary investigation.
Thus, the absence of preliminary investigation does not affect
the court's jurisdiction over the case, but merely to the
regularity of the proceedings.
Nor do they impair the validity of the information or otherwise
render it defective; but, if there were no preliminary
investigation and the defendants, before entering their plea,
invite the attention of the court to their absence, the court,
instead of dismissing the information, should conduct such
investigation, or order the fiscal to conduct it.
Moreover, the absence of a preliminary investigation will not
justify petitioner's release because such defect did not nullify the
information and the warrant of arrest against him.
COMPARE:
In Rolito Go v. Court of Appeals, despite the fact that trial on the
merits had began and the prosecution had already presented
four witnesses, the trial was ordered suspended and the accused
allowed to be released on bail pending the preliminary
investigation.
The right to bail was emphasized in Tolentino v. Camano, Jr.
Right May be Waived
The right to a preliminary investigation may be waived by failure
to invoke the right prior to or at least at the time of their plea.
The rule was restated in People v. Monteverde, where the
Supreme Court stated:
"A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION IS MANDATORY AND A
CERTIFICATION THAT SUCH INVESTIGATION WAS HELD
IS REQUIRED, STILL THIS RULE DOES NOT APPLY IF THE
ISSUE IS RAISED ONLY AFTER CONVICTION.
After a plea of not guilty to the information, an accused is deemed to have
foregone the right of preliminary investigation and to have abandoned the
right to question any irregularity that surrounds it."
In People v. Lambino, Lambino, before commencement of trial,
demanded his right to preliminary investigation. His motion for
preliminary investigation was denied by the trial court which, in
due course of time, convicted Lambino.
On appeal, the Supreme Couri held that the trial court did not
err in denying Lambino's motion for preliminary investigation
because said motion was filed after he had entered a plea of not
guilty and because he took no steps to bring the matter to a
higher court to stop the trial of the case.
The right to a preliminary investigation shall be deemed waived
for failure to invoke it during arraignment in People u. Valencia
People v. Hubilo, People v. De Asis, or by failing to go to
Appellate Court on certiorari to question denial.
The right to a preliminary investigation may not be raised for the
first time on appeal.
Consenting to be arraigned and entering a plea of not guilty
without invoking the right to preliminary investigation is a
waiver.
It should be invoked prior to or at least, at the time of the plea.
It is also deemed waived by going to trial without previously
claiming that they did not have the benefit of preliminary
investigation.
It may be waived expressly or by silence.
Republic Act No. 5180, approved September 8, 1967, as invoked by them
No Waiver When Properly Invoked anew from respondent court, viz., the submittal of the testimonies in
affidavit form of the complainant and his witnesses duly sworn to before
the investigating fiscal, and the right of accused, through counsel, to
A waiver, whether express or implied, must be made in clear and cross-examine them and to adduce evidence in their defense.
unequivocal manner.
In line with the settled doctrine as restated in People v. Abejuela,
Mere failure of petitioner and his counsel to appear before the respondent court shall hold in abeyance all proceedings in the case before
City Prosecutor cannot be construed as a waiver of his right to it until after the outcome of such new preliminary investigation.
preliminary investigation, where petitioner has been vigorously
invoking his right to a regular preliminary investigation since the
start of the proceedings before the City Prosecutor.
The right is not waived even if the accused had filed an
application for bail and arraigned over his objections and trial on
the merits already began with four witnesses having testified
where accused had from the beginning demanded that a
preliminary investigation be conducted and forthwith brought the
case on certiorari to the Supreme Court.
Presumption of Regularity
The accused who alleges lack of preliminary investigation must
prove such allegation convincingly.
When it does not appear from the record that a preliminary
investigation was not granted, it must be presumed that the
proceedings in the trial court were in accordance with law.
In the absence of evidence to the contrary, the Court will
presume that the fiscal or officer who conducted the requisite
investigation did so in accordance with law.
Effect of Lack of Certification
Lack of certification by the fiscal that a preliminary investigation
had been conducted does not vitiate the information, as a
preliminary investigation is not an essential part of the
information.
The absence of a certification is waived by the failure to allege it
before the plea.
Cases on Right to a New Preliminary Investigation Where Allegation on
Complaint Is Amended
The need to conduct a new preliminary investigation when the
defendant demands it and the allegations of the complaint have
been amended, has been more than once affirmed by the
Supreme Court:
"(a) xxx, the Court finds that since the information for alleged violation of
the Anti-Graft Law was filed without any previous notice to petitioners and
due preliminary investigation thereof, and despite the dismissal of the
original charge for falsification as being without any factual or legal basis,'
petitioners are entitled to a new preliminary investigation for the graft
charge, with all the rights to which they are entitled under section 1 of
110
OTHER CASES ON WHETHER OR NOT ANOTHER
PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION IS NEEDED
a. If after preliminary investigation, a case is filed in the Court
of First Instance which was dismissed, the Fiscal cannot file
another information charging a different offense based on
the same preliminary investigation.
He must conduct another preliminary investigation.
The principle does not apply where the original information
was not dismissed.
b. In Bandiala u. Court of First Instance of Misamis Occidental,
where the preliminary investigation was for robbery in band
(with one of the two accused waiving the second stage), the
Court held that the provincial fiscal could not file against the
accused an information for the graver crime of robbery with
kidnapping, without giving the accused "ample opportunity
at full-blown preliminary investigation to demonstrate that
what the fiscal regards as 'kidnapping* in the legal sense
was merely an incident of, and is therefore absorbed in the
crime of robbery."
The Court noted once again that "(A) preliminary
investigation, it must be borne in mind, is a practical device
created by statute and by mandate of our Rules of Court,
principally for the purpose of preventing hasty, malicious
and ill-advised prosecution," and pointedly emphasized that
"(T)he Rules of Court on the matter of preliminary
investigation, construed in their intregrated entirety, direct
that, in the circumstances here obtaining, the Fiscal, if he
believes that he should raise the category of the offense,
must conduct a preliminary investigation anew as to the
entire charge.
Fundamental principles of fair play dictate this course of
action.
The Fiscal is not allowed by the Rules of Court to wait in
ambush; the role of a Fiscal is not mainly to prosecute, but
essentially to do justice to every man and to assist the
courts in dispensing that justice."
A new preliminary investigation is not, however, necessary
after the amendment of the information, where there has
been no change in the nature of the crime charged which is
rebellion, and moreover, petitioner, who was already in
custody when the amended information was filed, should
have asked, but did not, for a re-investigation of said case
within the period of five days from the time he learned of
the amended information.
c. Where the amendment to an information is not substantial,
there is no need of another preliminary investigation.
In Almeda v. Villaluz, the amendment as to habitual
delinquency was not considered substantial.
d. A new preliminary investigation is not called for where the
court orders the filing of correct information involving a
cognate offense, such as unfair competition to infringement
of trademarks."
e. Where only a formal amendment was involved — such as
frustrated murder to consummated murder where death of
the victim supervened a preliminary investigation is
unnecessary and cannot be demanded by the accused.
f. If the crime originally charged is related to the amended
charge such that an inquiry into one would elicit
substantially the same facts that an inquiry into the other
would reveal, a new preliminary investigation is
unnecessary.
g. In Gaspar v. Sandiganbayan, the Supreme Court pointed
out that there is no rule or law requiring the Tanodbayan to
conduct another preliminary investigation of a case under
review by it.
h. It is a fundamental principle that when on its face the
information is null and void for lack of authority to file the
same, it cannot be cured nor resurrected by an amendment.
Another preliminary investigation must be undertaken and
thereafter, based on the evidence adduced, a new
information should be filed.
Exception to Right of Preliminary Investigation
Exception — There is no right of preliminary investigation under
Section 7, Rule 112 when a person is lawfully arrested unless
there is waiver of the provisions of Article 125 of the Revised
Penal Code.
There is no waiver of the right to a preliminary investigation
despite trial and presentation of four (4) witnesses over the
objection of the accused.
There is a right to preliminary investigation where warrantless
arrest is not lawful.
Motion for Reinvestigation Addressed to Trial Judge
111
A motion for reinvestigation should, after the court had acquired
jurisdiction over the case, be addressed to the trial judge and to
him alone. Neither the Secretary of Justice, the State Prosecutor,
nor the Fiscal may interfere with the Judge's disposition of the
case, much less impose upon the court their opinion regarding
the guilt or innocence of the accused, for the court is the sole
judge of that.
The private complainant cannot move for reinvestigation.
But he can appeal to the DOJ or the Ombudsman as the case
maybe.
Caution by Court in Granting Reinvestigation
Courts are, however, called upon to exercise great restraint in
granting any reinvestigation with the consequent delay involved,
since the weighing and evaluation of such evidence in defense of
the accused against the State's evidence is best left to its
judgment and its verdict rather than to that of the prosecution.
To ferret out the truth, trial is to be preferred to a
reinvestigation.
It cannot be denied that in the search for truth, a trial has
distinct merits over a reinvestigation.
A preliminary investigation or reinvestigation, unlike a trial, is
summary in nature.
The direct examination of witnesses is substituted by the
complainant's sworn statement and that of his witnesses, and by
the counter-affidavit of the respondent and his witnesses.
While the respondent may be present at the investigation, he
has no right to cross-examine the witnesses against him.
To ferret out the truth, therefore, a trial is to be preferred to a
reinvestigation.
Rather than delay the trial of private respondents waiting for the
conduct and outcome of a reinvestigation, it is best that
respondent Judge set the case for immediate trial
As a general rule, the practice of holding in abeyance a criminal
case already filed for reinvestigation of a case filed by the fiscal
upon the accused's motion to present evidence or newly
discovered evidence should be discouraged because it generates
the impression that the accused would be able to fix his case or
that it would be easier for him to manipulate and maneuver its
dismissal in the fiscal's office.
 SEC. 2.
Officers Authorized to Conduct Preliminary Investigations
Under the B.P. Big. 129 —
SEC. 37. Preliminary Investigation. — Judges of Metropolitan Trial Courts,
except those in the National Capital Region, of Municipal Trial Courts, and
Municipal Circuit Trial Courts shall have authority to conduct preliminary
investigation of crimes alleged to have been committed within their
respective territorial jurisdictions which are cognizable by the Regional
Trial Courts.
The preliminary investigation shall be conducted in accordance
with the procedure prescribed in Section 1, paragraphs (a), (b),
(c), and (d) of Presidential Decree No. 911;
Provided, however. That he shall forward the records of the case
if after the preliminary investigation the Judge finds a prima
facie he shall forward the records of the case to the
Provincial/City Fiscal for the filing of the corresponding
information with the proper court.
No warrant of arrest shall be issued by the Judge in connection
with any criminal complaint filed with him for preliminary
investigation, unless after an examination in writing and under
oath or affirmation of the complaint and his witnesses, he finds
that a probable cause exists.
Any warrant of arrest issued in accordance herewith may be
served anywhere in the Philippines.
The Supreme Court has expanded the offenses offense where
the penalty prescribed by law is at least four (4) years, two (2)
months and one (1) day without regard to the fine even if it is
cognizable by municipal trial courts.
The provisions ofP.D. No. 911 had been incorporated in Section
3.
A.M. No. 05-8-26-SC (Effective October 3, 2005) removed the
authority of first level judges to conduct preliminary
investigations.
Upon effectivity of the amendments, first level courts shall no
longer accept new cases for preliminary investigation, which fall
under the exclusive jurisdiction of other levels.
Other Persons Authorized to Conduct Preliminary Investigation
a. The COMELEC is vested with power and authority to conduct
preliminary investigations of all election offenses punishable
under the Omnibus Election Code and to prosecute offenses
in court.
The COMELEC may, however, deputize other prosecuting
arms of government to conduct the investigation and
prosecute the offense in Court
b. The 1987 Constitution mandates the COMELEC not only to
investigate but also to prosecute cases of violation of
election laws
This means that the COMELEC is empowered to conduct
preliminary investigation in cases involving, election
offenses for the purpose of helping the Judge determine
probable cause and for filing an information in court. This
power is exclusive with COMELEC, whether it involves a
private individual or public officer or employee, and in the
later instance, irrespective of whether the offense is
committed in relation to his official duties or not.
In other words, it is the offender that matters.
As long as the offense is an election offense, jurisdiction
over the same rests exclusively with the COMELEC in view of
its all-embracing power over the conduct of elections.
Hence, the Provincial Prosecutor, as such assumes no role ii
the prosecution of election offenses.
If the Fiscal or Prosecutor file; an information charging an
election offense or prosecutes a violation of election law, it
is because he has been deputized by the COMELEC.
He does not do so under the sole authority of his office.
Preliminary Investigation of Sandiganbayan Case! a. Office of the
Ombudsman
The Ombudsman is clothed with authority to conduct preliminary
investigation and to prosecute all criminal cases involving public
officers and employees, not only those within the jurisdiction of
the Sandiganbayan, but those within the jurisdiction of the
regular court as well.
The authority of the Ombudsman to investigate and prosecute
offenses committed by public officers and employees is founded
in Section 15 and Section 11 of R.A. No. 6770.
Section 15 vests the Ombudsman with the power to investigate
and prosecute any act or omission of any public officer or
employee, office or agency, when sue act or omission appears to
be illegal, unjust, improper or inefficient
The power to investigate and to prosecute granted by law to the
112
Ombudsman is plenary and unqualified.
It pertains to any act or omission of any public officer or
employee when such act or omission appears to be illegal,
unjust, improper or inefficient.
The law does not make a distinction between cases cognizable
by the Sandiganbayan and those cognizable by regular courts.
It has been held that the clause "any illegal act or omission of
any public official" is broad enough to embrace any crime
committed by a public officer or employee.
The reference made by R.A. No. 6770 to cases cognizable by the
Sandiganbayan, particularly in Section 15(1) giving the
Ombudsman primary jurisdiction over cases cognizable by the
Sandiganbayan, and Section 11(4) granting the Special
Prosecutor the power to conduct preliminary investigation and
prosecute criminal cases within the jurisdiction of the
Sandiganbayan, should not be construed as confining the scope
of the investigatory and prosecutory power of the Ombudsman
to such cases.
Section 15 of R.A. No. 6770 gives the Ombudsman primary
jurisdiction over cases cognizable by the Sandiganbayan.
The law defines such primary jurisdiction as authorizing the
Ombudsman "to take over, at any stage, from any investigatory
agency of the government, the investigation of such cases."
The grant of this authority does not necessarily imply the
exclusion from its jurisdiction of cases involving public officers
and employees cognizable by other courts.
The exercise by the Ombudsman of his primary jurisdiction over
cases cognizable by the Sandiganbayan is not incompatible with
the discharge of his duty to investigate and prosecute other
offenses committed by public officers and employees.
Indeed, it must be stressed that the powers granted by the
legislature to the Ombudsman are very broad and encompass all
kinds of malfeasance, misfeasance and non-feasance committed
by public officers and employees during their tenure of office.
Power to Investigate, to file and to prosecute, distinguished
A distinction should be made between the power to investigate,
to file and to prosecute ombudsman cases.
A prosecutor has a shared authority to investigate and prosecute
ombudsman cases not cognizable by the Sandiganbayan.
With respect to cases cognizable by the Sandiganbayan, the
ombudsman has primary authority to investigate and exclusive
authority to file and prosecute Sandiganbayan cases
Section 5, Rule II of Administrative No. 8 of the Office of the
Ombudsman provides that: "Cases falling under the jurisdiction
of the Office of the Ombudsman which are. cognizable by
municipal trial courts, including those subject to the Rule on
Summary Procedure may only be filed in court by Information
approved by the Ombudsman, or the proper Deputy
Ombudsman in all other cases."
Under Republic Act No. 6770, the power to investigate and
prosecute cases which are cognizable by the Sandiganbayan is
now lodged with the Ombudsman.
This includes Ombudsman cases which are cognizable by regular
courts.
The Office of the Special Prosecutor (The Tanodbayan)
As a new Office of the Ombudsman was established, the then
existing Tanodbayan became the Office of the Special Prosecutor
which continued to function and exercise its powers provided by
law, except those conferred on the Office of the Ombudsman
created under the 1987 Constitution.
Distinction between Office of the Ombudsman and Office of the Special
Prosecutor
a. The jurisdiction of the office of the Ombudsman should not
be equated with the limited authority of the Special
prosecutor under Section 11 of R.A. No. 6770 which was
established after the creation of the Office of the Special
Prosecutor.
The office of the special prosecutor is merely a component
of the Office of the Ombudsman and may only act under the
supervision and control and upon authority of the
Ombudsman.
Its power to conduct preliminary investigation and to
prosecute is limited to criminal cases within the jurisdiction
of the Sandiganbayan.
b. The Office of the Special Prosecutor (the Tanod Bayan), was
made an organic component of the Office of the
Ombudsman, who under the supervision and control and
upon authority of the Ombudsman may conduct preliminary
investigation and prosecute criminal cases within the
jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan.
Or to prosecute cases outside the Sandi-ganbayan's
jurisdiction in accordance with section ll(4c) of R.A. No.
6770, viz., "to perform such other duties assigned to it by
the Ombudsman."
c. While the Ombudsman's investigatory and prose-cutory
power is plenary and unqualified, the authority of the
Special Prosecutor is limited. While the Ombudsdman may
delegate his investigatory function, including the power to
conduct administrative investigation, to the Special
Prosecutor, the latter has no power to preventively suspend
which is only granted to the Ombudsman and the Deputy
Ombudsman.
If the Ombudsman delegates his authority to conduct
administrative investigation to the Special Prosecutor and
the latter finds that preventive suspension is warranted, the
Special Prosecutor may recommend to the ombudsman to
place the said public officer or employee under preventive
suspension."
c-1 Moreover, unless authorizing by the Ombudsman the special
prosecutor is not authorized to file an information.
All that was delegated to the special prosecutor by Office
Order No. 40-05 was the discretional authority to review
and modify the deputy ombudsman-authorized information,
but even this is subject to the condition that such
modification must be "without departing from, or varying in
any way, the contents of the basic resolution, order or
decision."
The doctrine was made operative to cases filed upon the
finality of the decision.
d. Deloso v. Domingo — upheld the primary and concurrent
jurisdiction of Ombudsman to investigate cases cognizable
by the Sandiganbayan under section 15(i) of R.A. No. 6770
to all kinds of malfeasance by any officer or employee
during his tenure of office.
Preliminary Investigation By Ombudsman
Section 18 of R.A. No. 6770 allows the Office of the Ombudsman
to promulgate its rules of procedure for the effective exercise or
performance of its powers, functions, and duties.
The rules of procedure shall include a provision whereby the
Rules of Court are made suppletory.
Accordingly, the Office of the Ombudsman promulgated
Administrative Order No. 07 known as the RULES OF
PROCEDURE OF THE OFFICE OF THE OMBUDSMAN (Appendix K)
113
and Administrative Order No. 08 CLARIFYING AND MODIFYING
CERTAIN RULES OF PROCEDURE OF THE OMBUDSMAN
The order clarified that: "The preliminary investigation of an
Ombudsman case does not have to be conducted strictly in
accordance with Section 3, Rule 112 of the Rules of Court.
Said rule shall be applied as modified by Rule II of
Administrative Order No. 07 of the Office of the Ombudsman.
Particular attention is directed to the provisions thereof of which
are not exactly in conformity with Section 3, Rule 112 of the
Rules of Court, such as, those on the:
(1) issuance of an order in lieu of subpoena for the filing of
counter-affidavits;
(2) prohibition against a motion to dismiss, motion for a bill
of particulars, and second motion for reconsideration or
reinvestigation;
(3) manner of conducting clarificatory questioning; and the
(4) form of affidavits and counter-affidavits.
It is to be understood, however, that the preliminary
investigation Ombudsman case in accordance with Rule 112 of
the Rules of Court is perfectly valid.
The changes in such procedure effected by Administrative Order
No. 07 are designed merely to expedite the process of
preliminary investigation and to conform with the provisions of
Republic Act No. 6770.
The officer who review a case on appeal should not be the same
person whose decision is under review.
Primary Jurisdiction Refers To Cases in Relation To Public Office of
Accused
The primary jurisdiction, refers to cases in relation to public
office of accused [and punishable for more than six years or a
fine of P6,000.00.]
The Ombudsman's primary power to investigate is dependent on
the cases cognizable by the Sandiganbayan.
Thus, the public prosecutor may conduct preliminary
investigation of Mayor's criminal acts not in relation to his public
office.
For Ombudsman's authority to overrule investigatory prosecutor,
see Cruz v. People, and Sec. 4, Rule 112.
Any officer authorized to conduct a preliminary investigation who
is investigating an offense or felony committed by public officer
must determine if the crime was committed by the respondent in
relation to his office.
If it was, the investigating officer shall forthwith inform the office
of the Ombudsman who may either:
(a) take over the investigation of the case pursuant to
Section 15(1) of R.A. No. 6770 or
(b) deputize a prosecutor to act as special investigator or
prosecutor to assist in the investigation and prosecution
of the case pursuant to section 31 thereof.
In light of the broad powers conferred by law on the
Ombudsman and the Special Prosecutor, it is completely
inconsequential that the complaint by which a criminal case was
instituted charging a crime cognizable by the Sandiganbayan —
might have been originally filed with the Iloilo Prosecution Office,
or the preliminary investigation therein conducted.
Power Includes all Criminal Cases Involving Public Officers and Employees
In its Resolution On March 20, 2001 The Court in George Uy v
Sandiganbayan, which was reiterated in Office of the
Ombudsman v. Breua, categorically stated that: "the
Ombudsman is clothed with authority to conduct preliminary
investigation and to prosecute all criminal cases involving public
officers and employees, not only those within the jurisdiction of
the Sandiganbayan, but those within the jurisdiction of the
regular courts as well."
Elaborating on its n ruling nullifying its earlier decision, writes:
THE AUTHORITY OF THE OMBUDSMAN TO INVESTIGATE
AND PROSECUTE OFFENSES COMMITTED BY PUBLIC
OFFICERS AND EMPLOYEES IS FOUNDED IN SECTION 15
AND SECTION 11 OF R.A. NO. 6770. SECTION 15 VESTS
THE OMBUDSMAN WITH THE POWER TO INVESTIGATE
AND PROSECUTE ANY ACT OR OMISSION OF ANY PUBLIC
OFFICER OR EMPLOYEE, OFFICE OR AGENCY, WHEN SUCH
ACT OR OMISSION APPEARS TO BE ILLEGAL, UNJUST,
IMPROPER OR INEFFICIENT, THUS:
"Sec. 15. Powers, Functions and Duties. — The Office of the Ombudsman
shall have the following powers, functions and duties:
(1) Investigate and prosecute on its own or on complaint by any person,
any act or omission of any public officer or employee, office or agency,
when such act or omission appears to be illegal, unjust, improper or
inefficient.
It has primary jurisdiction over cases cognizable by the Sandiganbayan
and, in the exercise of this primary jurisdiction, it may take over, at any
stage, from any investigatory agency of Government, the investigation of
such cases
Section 11 grants the Office of the Special Prosecutor, an organic
component of the Office of the Ombudsman... the power to conduct
preliminary investigation and prosecute criminal cases within the
jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan. It states:
"Sec. 11. Structural Organization. — xxx xxx xxx xxx
(4) The Office of the Special Prosecutor shall, under the supervision and
control and upon authority of the Ombudsman, have the following
powers:
(a) To conduct preliminary investigation and prosecute criminal cases
within the jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan;
The power to investigate and to prosecute granted by law to the
Ombudsman is plenary and unqualified.
It pertains to any act or omission of any public officer or
employee when such act or omission appears to be illegal,
unjust, improper or inefficient.
The law does not make a distinction between cases cognizable
by the Sandiganbayan and those cognizable by regular courts.
It has been held that the clause "any illegal act or omission of
any public official" is broad enough to embrace any crime
committed by a public officer or employee.
The reference made by R.A. No. 6770 to cases cognizable by the
Sandiganbayan, particularly in Section 15(1) giving the
Ombudsman primary jurisdiction over cases cognizable by the
Sandiganbayan, and Section 11(4) granting the Special
Prosecutor the power to conduct preliminary investigation and
prosecute criminal cases within the jurisdiction of the
Sandiganbayan, should not be construed as confining the scope
of the investigatory and prosecutory power of the Ombudsman
to such cases.
Section 15 of R.A. No. 6770 gives the Ombudsman primary
jurisdiction over cases cognizable by the Sandiganbayan.
The law defines such primary jurisdiction as authorizing the
Ombudsman "to take over, at any stage, from any investigatory
agency of the government, the investigation of such cases."
The grant of this authority does not necessarily imply the
exclusion from its jurisdiction of cases involving public officers
and employees cognizable by other courts.
114
Moreover, the jurisdiction of the Office of the Ombudsman
should not be equated with the limited authority of the Special
Prosecutor under Section 11 of R.A. No. 6770 [whose] power to
conduct preliminary investigation and to prosecute is limited to
criminal cases within the jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan.
Certainly, the lawmakers did not intend to confine the
investigatory and prosecutory power of the Ombudsman to these
types of cases.
The Ombudsman is mandated by law to act on all complaints
against officers and employees of the government....
The Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG)
Prosecution for Violations of RA. No. 3019 (Anti-Graft Law) and
RA. No. 1379 (Unexplained Wealth)
Under Executive Order No. 14, signed by President Aquino on
May 7,1986.
The Presidential Commission on Good Government with the
assistance of the Office of the Solicitor General and other
government agencies, were empowered to file and prosecute all
cases investigated by it under Executive Order No. 1, dated
February 28, 1986 and Executive Order No. 2, dated March 12,
1986, as may be warranted by its findings.
The Presidential Commission on Good Government shall file all
such cases, whether civil or criminal, with the Sandiganbayan,
which shall have exclusive and original jurisdiction thereof.
Upon the other hand, civil suits for restitution, reparation of
damages, or indemnification for consequential damages,
forfeiture proceedings provided for under Republic Act No. 1379,
or any other civil actions under the Civil Code or other existing
laws, in connection with Executive Order No. 2, dated March 12,
1986, may be filed separately from and proceed independently
of any criminal proceedings and may be proved by
preponderance of evidence.
From the foregoing provisions of law, particularly Sections 2(b)
and 3(a) of Executive Order No. 1 and Sections 1 and 2 of
Executive Order No. 14, the PCGG has the power to investigate
and prosecute such ill-gotten wealth cases of the former
President, his relatives and associates, and graft and corrupt
practices cases that may be assigned by the President to the
PCGG to be filed with the Sandiganbayan.
The authority to investigate extended to the PCGG includes the
authority to conduct a preliminary investigation.
The ruling was further clarified in Cruz, Jr. v. Sandiganbayan:

THE COURT THEN HELD THAT SECTIONS 2(A) AND 3, OF
EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 1, IN RELATION WITH SECTIONS
1, 2 AND 3 OF EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 14, SHOWS THAT
WHAT THE AUTHORITY OF THE RESPONDENT PCGG TO
INVESTIGATE AND PROSECUTE COVERS ARE:
a. The investigation and prosecution of the civil action for the
recovery of ill-gotten wealth under Republic Act No. 1379, accu-
mulated by former President Marcos, his immediate family, relatives,
subordinates and close associates, whether located in the Philippines
or abroad, including the takeover or sequestration of all business
enterprises and entities owned or controlled by them, during his
administration, directly or through his nominees, by taking undue
advantage of their public office and/or using their powers, authority
and influence, connections or relationship; and
b. The investigation and prosecution of such offenses committed in the
acquisition of said ill-gotten wealth as contemplated under Section
2(a) of Executive Order No. 1.
However, other violations of the Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act
not otherwise falling under the foregoing categories, require a
previous authority of the President for the PCGG to investigate and
prosecute the same in accordance with Section 2(b) of Executive
Order No. 1.
Otherwise, jurisdiction over such cases is vested in the Ombudsman
and other duly authorized investigating agencies as the provincial
and city prosecutors, their assistants, the Chief State Prosecutor and
his assistants, and the state prosecutors.
c. The PCGG would not have jurisdiction over an ordinary case falling
under Rep. Act Nos. 3019 and 1379.
The PCGG may, however, investigate and cause the prosecution of
active and retired members of the AFP for violations ofR.A. Nos.
3019 and 1379 only in relation to E.O. Nos. 1, 2, 14, and 14-a, i.e.,
insofar as they involve the recovery of ill-gotten wealth of former
President Marcos and his family and his cronies.
d. The appropriate prosecutory agencies that may investigate and file
the petition under R.A. No. 1379 and file the petition for forfeiture of
unexplained wealth against a private citizen are the provincial
prosecutor and the Solicitor General
e. For violation of R.A. No. 3019 and 1379 of those who are still in
office the agency granted the power to investigate and prosecute
them is the office of the Ombudsman.
Under Presidential Decree No 1606, as amended and Batas
Pambansa Big. 195, violation of Rep. Act Nos. 3019 and 1379 shall
be tried by the Sandiganbayan.
It is a civil procreedings in rem but criminal in nature
The law underwent several changes. Under R.A. No. 6770 the
Ombudsman was granted the authority to investigate and initiate
the proper action for the recovery of ill-gotten and/or
unexplained wealth amassed after 25 February 1986 and the
prosecution of the parties involved.
After reviewing the legislative history of the Sandiganbayan and
the Office of the Ombudsman, the Court declared that
"UNDER R.A. NO. 8249, THE SANDIGANBAYAN IS VESTED
WITH EXCLUSIVE ORIGINAL JURISDICTION IN ALL CASES
INVOLVING VIOLATIONS OF R.A. NO. 3019, R.A. NO.
1379, AND CHAPTER II, SEC. 2, TITLE VII, BOOK II OF
THE REVISED PENAL CODE, WHERE ONE OR MORE OF THE
ACCUSED ARE OFFICIALS OCCUPYING THE FOLLOWING
POSITIONS WHETHER IN A PERMANENT, ACTING OR
INTERIM CAPACITY, AT THE TIME OF THE COMMISSION
OF THE OFFENSE:
(1) Officials of the executive branch occupying the positions of regional
director and higher, otherwise classified as Grade '27' and higher, of the
Compensation and Position Classification Act of 989 (R.A. No. 6758), spe-
cifically including:
(a) Provincial governors, vice-governors, members of the
sangguniang panlalawigan, and provincial treasurers, assessors,
engineers, and other city department heads;
(b) City mayor, vice-mayors, members of the sangguniang panlungsod,
city treasurers, assessors, engineers, and other city department
heads;
(c) Officials of the diplomatic service occupying the position of consul
and higher;
(d) Philippine army and air force colonels, naval captains, and all officers
of higher rank;
(e) Officers of the Philippine National Police while occupying the position
of provincial director and those holding the rank of senior
superintendent or higher;
(f) City and provincial prosecutors and their assistants, and officials and
prosecutors in the Office of the Ombudsman and special prosecutor;
(g) Presidents, directors or trustees, or managers of government-owned
or controlled corporations, state universities or educational
institutions
The PCGG may, however, also investigate and prosecute graft
and corrupt practices cases that may be assigned by the
President to the PCGG to be filed with the Sandiganbayan.
Non-interference with Ombudsman
The Court recognizing the investigatory and prosecutory powers
granted by the Constitution to the office of the Ombudsman and
for reasons of practicality, declared in an en bane resolution
dated August 30, 1993, issued in Ocampo u. Ombudsman, that
115
the Court will not interfere nor pass upon the findings of the
Ombudsman to avoid its being hampered by innumerable
petitions assailing the dismissal of investigatory proceedings
conducted by the Office of the Ombudsman with regard to
complaints filed before it, and that it will not review the exercise
of discretion on the part of the fiscals or prosecuting attorneys
each time they decide to file an information in court or dismiss a
complaint by a private complainant.
The court, however, stressed that while it is the Ombudsman
who has full discretion to determine whether or not a criminal
case should be filed in the Sandiganbayan, once the case has
been filed with said court, it is the Sandiganbayan, and no longer
the Ombudsman, which has full control of the case so much so
that the informations may not be dismissed without the approval
of said court.
No Injunction Against Ombudsman to Delay Investigation
Under Section 14 of Republic Act No. 6770: No writ of injunction
shall be issued by any court to delay an investigation being
conducted by the Ombudsman under this act, unless there is a
prima facie evidence that the subject matter of the investigation
is outside the jurisdiction of the office of the Ombudsman.
Moreover, no court shall hear any appeal or application for
remedy against the decision or findings of the Ombudsman
except the Supreme Court, on pure question of law.
Remedy
The remedy of aggrieved parties from resolutions of the office of
the Ombudsman finding probable cause in criminal cases or non-
administrative cases, when tainted with grave abuse of
discretion, is to file an original action for certiorari with the
Supreme Court and not with the Court of Appeals.
Jurisdiction over money-laundering cases
The Anti money-laundering law provides for two kinds of cases
which are independent of each other.
The criminal action for anti-money-laundering offense and the
civil forfeiture proceedings which may be filed separately and
proceed independently of the criminal prosecution.
a. The Criminal Action
Republic Act No. 9160 as amended (The Anti-Money
Laundering Act of 2001)
Defines —

Money Laundering Offense. — Money laundering is a crime
whereby the proceeds of an unlawful activity are transacted,
thereby making them appear to have originated from
legitimate sources.
It is committed by the following:
1) Any person knowing that any monetary instrument or
property represents, involves, or relates to the proceeds
of any unlawful activity, transacts or attempts to
transact said monetary instrument or property.
2) Any person knowing that any monetary instrument or
property involves the proceeds of any unlawful activity,
performs or fails to perform any act as a result of which
he facilitates the offense of money laundering referred
to in paragraph (a) above.
3) Any person knowing that any monetary instrument or
property is required under this Act to be disclosed and
filed with the Anti-Money Laundering Council (AMLC),
fails to do so.
b. Jurisdiction of Money Laundering Cases
The regional trial courts shall have jurisdiction to try all
cases on money laundering.
Those committed by public officers and private persons who
are in conspiracy with such public officers shall be under the
jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan.
The foregoing section apparently refers to the criminal
offense of anti-money laundering as defined in section 4 of
the law.
c. The Civil Forfeiture Proceedings
The law provided that in petitions for civil forfeiture the
Revised Rules of Court shall apply.
In consequence thereof, the Supreme Court issued the RULE
OF PROCEDURE IN CASES OF CIVIL FORFEITURE, ASSET
PRESERVATION, AND FREEZING OF MONETARY
INSTRUMENT, PROPERTY, OR PROCEEDS REPRESENTING,
INVOLVING, OR RELATING TO AN UNLAWFUL ACTIVITY OR
d.
MONEY LAUNDERING OFFENSE UNDER REPUBLIC ACT NO.
9160, AS AMENDED
The Rule expressly provided that —
The Rule shall govern all proceedings for civil forfeiture,
asset preservation and freezing of monetary instrument,
property, or proceeds representing, involving, or relating to
an unlawful activity or a money laundering offense under
Republic Act No. 9160, as amended.
The Revised Rules of Court shall apply suppletorily when not
inconsistent with the provisions of this special Rule.
II of the Rule provided only for Civil Forfeiture in the
TITLE
Regional Trial Court. Thus —
SEC. 2. Party to institute proceedings. — The Republic of the
Philippines, through the Anti-Money Laundering Council, represented
by the Office of the Solicitor General, may institute actions for civil
forfeiture and all other remedial proceedings in favor of the State of
any monetary instrument, property, or proceeds representing,
involving, or relating to an unlawful activity or a money laundering
offense.
SEC. 3. Venue of cases cognizable by the regional trial court. — A
petition for civil forfeiture shall be filed in any regional trial court of
the judicial region where the monetary instrument, property, or
proceeds representing, involving, or relating to an unlawful activity
or to a money laundering offense are located;
Provided, however. That where all or any portion of the monetary
instrument, property, or proceeds is located outside the Philippines,
the petition may be filed in the regional trial court in Manila or of the
judicial region where any portion of the monetary instrument,
property, or proceeds is located, at the option of the petitioner.
The Rule does not provide for civil forfeiture before the
Sandiganbayan.
The law created an Anti-Money Laundering Council (AMLC).
— tasked with implementing the law, was empowered:
(3) to institute civil forfeiture proceedings and all other
remedial proceedings through the Office of the Solicitor
General;
(4) to cause the filing of complaints with the Department of
Justice or the Ombudsman for the prosecution of money
laundering offenses;
(5) to initiate investigations of covered transactions, money
laundering activities and other violations of this Act.
Civil and Criminal Forfeiture Distinguished
It is to be noted that under the Anti-Money Laundering Act,
so far as Civil Forfeiture is concerned it is the AMLC that is
authorized to institute civil forfeiture proceedings and all
116
other remedial proceedings through the Office of the
Solicitor General with the Regional Trial Court.
There is no similar authority to file such cases with the
Sandiganbayan.
It is only in criminal cases that the AMLC is authorized to
cause the filing of complaints with the Department of Justice
or the Ombudsman for the prosecution of money laundering
offenses.
But unlike Civil Forfeiture under R.A. No. 1379 which
specifically authorized its filing by the Ombudsman or thru
the Office of Special Prosecutor in the Sandiganbayan.
No similar authority have been granted the Ombudsman
with respect to civil forfeiture under the Anti-money
Laundering Law.
SEC. 3.
Procedure
COMMENT:
1. Amendment in paragraph (a) requires that the complaint should
be accompanied by affidavits of the complainant and his witnesses as
well as other supporting papers relied upon by him (the complainant)
to establish probable cause.
A significant amendment is the 2nd paragraph of par. (b) regarding
respondent's right to examine all other evidence submitted by the
complainant of which he may not have been furnished and to obtain
copies thereof at his expense.
If such records are voluminous the complainant may be required to
specify and identify those which he intends to present against the
respondent to support the charge against the latter and these shall
be made available for examination, copying or photographing by
respondent at his expense.
The amendment was brought about because of the case of
Commissioner of Internal Revenue v. Court ofAppeals, where among
the issues raised is the failure of the complainant to produce the
documents in support of the complaint.
For obvious reasons, objects as evidence need not be furnished
either party but shall be made accessible for examination, copying or
photocopying by the complainant or respondent at the expense of
the requesting party.
2. The amendment in paragraph (c) prohibits the filing of a motion to
dismiss. This is a significant amendment.
It abrogates the ruling in Commissioner of Internal Revenue v. Court
of Appeals, where the court castigated the investigator for
proceeding without first acting on respondents' motion to dismiss.
 Since a motion to dismiss is now a prohibited pleading, the
investigator may properly ignore such a motion.
The amendments require the respondent to submit counter-affidavits
and other supporting documents relied upon by him for his defense.
3. The amendment in sub-par, (d) requires the prosecutor to resolve
the complaint based on the evidence presented by the complainant if
the respondent cannot be subpoenaed or, if subpoenaed, does not
submit counter-affidavit[s] within the ten (10-day period.
4. In sub-par, (e), the clarificatory hearing shall only be limited to facts
and issues which the investigating officer believes need to be
clarified.
The clarificatory hearing shall be held within ten (10) days from
submission of the counter-affidavit and other documents, or from
expiration of the period for their submission. It shall be terminated
within five (5) days.
5. The investigation shall then be deemed concluded and the
investigating officer shall, within ten (10) days, determine whether
or not there is sufficient ground to hold the respondent for trial upon
the evidence adduced.
Preliminary Investigation — Concept
a. A preliminary investigation is merely inquisitorial, but it is
considered as a judicial proceeding wherein the prosecutor
or investigating officer, by the nature of his functions acts as
a quasi-judicial officer.
The conduct of a preliminary investigation is the initial step
towards the criminal prosecution of a person.
After such preliminary investigation, if the investigating
officer finds that there is sufficient ground to engender a
well-founded belief that a crime has been committed and
that the respondent is probably guilty thereof and should be
held for trial, then the corresponding complaint or
information shall be filed in the competent court.
It is the filing of said complaint or information that initiates
the criminal prosecution of the accused when he is brought
to court for trial.
b. Importance of Preliminary Investigation
c.
The Supreme Court stressed the importance of a preliminary
investigation or how the same should be conducted in order
for it to conform with the essential requisites of due process
and reiterated its ruling in the cases of Salonga v. Pano, et
al., and Geronimo v. Ramos, that:
"The purpose of a preliminary investigation is to secure the
innocent against hasty, malicious and oppressive
prosecution, and to protect him from an open and public
accusation of crime, from the trouble, expense and anxiety
of a public trial, and to protect the state from useless and
expensive trials.
The right to a preliminary investigation is a statutory grant,
and to withhold it would be to transgress constitutional due
process."
However, in order to satisfy the due process clause, it is not
enough that the preliminary investigation is conducted in
the sense of making sure that a transgressor shall not
escape with impunity.
A preliminary investigation serves not only the purposes of
the State.
More important, it is a part of the guarantee of freedom and
fair play which are birthrights of all who live in our country.
It is, therefore, imperative upon the fiscal or the judge as
the case may be, to relieve the accused from the pain of
going through a trial once it is ascertained that the evidence
is insufficient to sustain a prima facie case or that no
probable cause exists to form a sufficient belief as to the
guilt of the accused.
Although there is no general formula or fixed rule for the
determination of probable cause since the same must be
decided in the light of the conditions obtaining in given
situations and its existence depends to a large degree upon
the finding or opinion of the prosecutor (judge) conducting
the examination, such a finding should not disregard the
facts before the prosecutor (judge) nor run counter to the
clear dictates of reasons.
Such a preliminary investigation must be undertaken in
accordance with the procedure provided in Section 3, Rule
112 of The Revised Rules on Criminal Procedure.
This procedure is to be observed in order to assure that a
person undergoing such preliminary investigation will be
afforded due process.
The Proceedings are Considered as Judicial in Nature
Thus, the conduct of a preliminary investigation, which is
defined as "an inquiry or proceeding for the purpose of
determining whether there is sufficient ground to engender
a well-founded belief that a crime has been committed and
that the respondent is probably guilty thereof, and should
be held for trial," is, like court proceedings, subject to the
117
requirements of both substantive and procedural due
process.
This is because a preliminary investigation is considered a
judicial proceeding wherein the prosecutor or investigating
officer, by the nature of his functions, acts as a quasi-
judicial officer, but only to the extent that, like quasi-judicial
bodies, the prosecutor is an officer of the executive
department exercising powers akin to those of a court.
d. DOJ is not a quasi-judicial agency; Preliminary Investigation
is not a quasi-judicial proceeding reviewable under Rule 43
The Court, however, clarified that: A preliminary
investigation is not a quasi-judicial proceeding, and the DOJ
is not a quasi-judicial agency exercising a quasi-judicial
function when it reviews the findings of a public prosecutor
regarding the presence of probable cause.
The Court pointedto its ruling in Bautista u. Court of
Appeals, holding that a preliminary investigation is not a
quasi-judicial proceeding, thus:
[t]he prosecutor in a preliminary investigation does not determine
the guilt or innocence of the accused. He does not exercise
adjudication nor rule-making functions.
Preliminary investigation is merely inquisitorial, and is often the only
means of discovering the persons who may be reasonably charged
with a crime and to enable the fiscal to prepare his complaint or
information.
It is not a trial of the case on the merits and has no purpose except
that of determining whether a crime has been committed and
whether there is probable cause to believe that the accused is guilty
thereof.
While the fiscal makes that determination, he cannot be said to be
acting as a quasi-court, for it is the courts, ultimately, that pass
judgment on the accused, not the fiscal.
Though some cases describe the public prosecutor's power
to conduct a preliminary investigation as quasi-judicial in
nature, this is true only to the extent that, like quasi-judicial
bodies, the prosecutor is an officer of the executive
department exercising powers akin to those of a court, and
the similarity ends at this point.
A quasi-judicial body is as an organ of government other
than a court and other than a legislature which affects the
rights of private parties through either adjudication or rule-
making.
A quasi-judicial agency performs adjudicatory functions such
 that its awards, determine the rights of parties, and their
decisions have the same effect as judgments of a court.
Such is not the case when a public prosecutor conducts a
preliminary investigation to determine probable cause to file
an information against a person charged with a criminal
offense, or when the Secretary of Justice is reviewing the
former's order or resolutions.
Since the DOJ is not a quasi-judicial body and it is not one
of those agencies whose decisions, orders or resolutions are
appealable to the Court of Appeals under Rule 43, the
resolution of the Secretary of Justice finding probable cause
to indict petitioners for estafa is, not appealable to the Court
of Appeals via a petition for review under Rule 43.
However, the Resolution of the DOJ Secretary is appelable
administratively to the Office of the President where the
offense charged is punishable by Reclusion perpetua."
The availability of the remedy of a petition for review under
Rule 43 of the Rules of Court to appeal the Decision and
Resolution of the Office of the President effectively foreclose
the right to resort to a special civil action for certiorari.
RESPONDENT CANNOT BE COMPELLED TO SUBMIT COUNTER-AFFIDAVIT
BEFORE COMPLAINANT HAS SUBMITTED ITS AFFIDAVITS; CRIMINAL
INVESTIGATION AND PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION DISTINGUISHED
The respondent undergoing a preliminary investigation may not
be compelled to submit a counter-affidavit before the submission
of complainant's affidavit.
The general power of investigation of the PCGG as consisting of
two stages; the first stage, called the criminal investigation, is a
fact-finding inquiry conducted by law enforcement agents,
whereby they gather evidence and interview witnesses and
afterwards assess the evidence so that, if they find sufficient
basis, they can file a complaint for the purpose of preliminary
investigation.
The second stage, called the preliminary investigation stage, is
conducted for the purpose of ascertaining if there is sufficient
evidence to bring a person to trial.
Having found petitioner prima facie guilty of violation of Rep. Act
No. 3019 for which reason it issued a freeze order against him
and filed a civil complaint for recovery of alleged ill-gotten
wealth, the PCGG could not thereafter act as an impartial judge
in conducting a preliminary investigation of criminal complaints
based on the same facts found by it to constitute prima facie
evidence against petitioner.
In our criminal justice system, the law enforcer who conducted
the criminal investigation, gathered the evidence and thereafter
filed the complaint for the purpose of preliminary investigation
cannot be allowed to conduct the preliminary investigation of his
own complaint. It is to say the least arbitrary and unjust.
One cannot be a prosecutor and judge at the same time.
Having gathered the evidence and filed the complaint as a law
enforcer, he cannot be expected to handle with impartiality the
preliminary investigation of his own complaint, this time as a
public prosecutor.
Since a preliminary investigation is designed to screen cases for
trial, only evidence may be considered.
While reports and even raw information may justify the initiation
of an investigation, the stage of preliminary investigation can be
held only after sufficient evidence has been gathered and
evaluated warranting the eventual prosecution of the case in
court.
Meaning of Probable Cause for Purpose of Filing Information
Probable cause is a reasonable ground of presumption that a
matter is, or may be, well founded does not mean actual and
positive cause nor does it import actual certainty.
It is merely based on opinion and reasonable belief.
Thus, a finding of probable cause does not require an inquiry
into whether there is sufficient evidence to procure a conviction.
It is enough that it is believed that the act or omission
complained of constitutes an offense charged.
Precisely, there is a trial for the reception of evidence of the
prosecution in support of the charge.
Probable cause is the existence of such facts and circumstances
as would excite the belief in a reasonable mind, acting on the
facts within the knowledge of the prosecutor, that the person
charged was guilty of the crime for which he was prosecuted.
As a protection against false prosecution and arrest, the
knowledge of facts, actual or apparent must, however, be strong
enough to justify a reasonable man in the belief that he has
lawful grounds for arresting the accused
It is such a state of facts in the mind of the prosecutor as would
lead a person of ordinary caution and prudence to believe an
honest or strong suspicion that a thing is so.
118
The term does not mean "actual or positive cause"; nor does it
import absolute certainty.
It is merely based on opinion and reasonable belief.
Determination of Probable Cause
As summed up in Webb u. de Leon, a finding of probable cause
needs only to rest on evidence showing that more likely than not
a crime has been committed and was committed by the
suspects.
Probable cause need not be based on clear and convincing
evidence of guilt, neither on evidence establishing guilt beyond
reasonable doubt and definitely, not on evidence establishing
absolute certainty of guilt.
As well put in Brinegar v. United States, while probable cause
demands more than "bare suspicion," it requires "less than
evidence which would justify x x x a conviction."
A finding of probable cause merely binds over the suspect to
stand trial.
It is not a pronouncement of guilt.
Thus, probable cause should be determined in a summary but
scrupulous manner to prevent material damage to a potential
accused's constitutional right to liberty and the guarantees of
freedom and fair play.
The preliminary investigation is not the occasion for the full and
exhaustive display of the parties evidence.
It is for the presentation of such evidence as may engender a
well grounded belief that an offense has been committed and
that the accused is probably guilty thereof.
It is a means of discovering the persons who may be reasonably
charged with a crime.
The validity and merits of a party's defense or accusation, as
well as admissibility of the testimonies and evidence, are better
ventilated during trial proper than at the preliminary
investigation level.
No Need to Set Investigation for Clarificatory Questioning
Considering the low quantum and quality of evidence needed to
support a finding of probable cause, the court held that the DOJ
Panel did not gravely abuse its discretion in refusing to call the
NBI witnesses for clarificatory questions.

The decision to call witnesses for clarificatory questions is
addressed to the sound discretion of the investigator and the
investigator alone.
If the evidence on hand already yields a probable cause, the
investigator need not hold a clarificatory hearing.
Probable cause merely implies probability of guilt and should be
determined in a summary manner.
Preliminary investigation is not a part of trial and it is only in a
trial where an accused can demand the full exercise of his rights,
such as the right to confront and cross-examine his accusers to
establish his innocence.
It is not the proper forum for an exhaustive production of
evidence.
Stages of Preliminary Investigation: Former and Present Rule
The Court, pointed out in Sangguniang Bayan ofBatac v. Judge
Efren Albano, that the two stages under the old rule, namely:
(1) the preliminary examination stage, during which the
investigating judge determines whether there is reasonable
ground to believe that an offense has been committed, and
the accused is guilty thereof, so that a warrant of arrest
may be issued and the accused hold for trial; and
(2) the preliminary investigation proper, where the complaint or
information is read to the accused after his arrest and he is
informed of the substance of the evidence adduced against
him, after he is allowed to present his evidence in his favor
if he so desires, was changed by Presidential Decree No.
911, upon which the present rule is based which removed
the preliminary examination stage and integrated it into the
preliminary investigation proper.
Now, the proceedings consist only of one stage.
JUDGES OF REGIONAL TRIAL COURTS (FORMERLY COURTS OF FIRST
INSTANCE) NO LONGER HAVE AUTHORITY TO CONDUCT PRELIMINARY
INVESTIGATIONS
That authority, at one time, reposed in them under Sections 13,
14 and 16, Rule 112 of the Rules of Court of 1964 was removed
from them by the 1985 Rules on Criminal Procedure, effective on
January 1, 1985, which deleted all provisions granting that
power to said judges.
The Supreme Court had occasion to point this out in Salta v.
Court of Appeals, and to stress as well certain other basic
propositions, namely:
(1) that the conduct of a preliminary investigation is "not a
judicial function x x x (but) part of the prosecution's
job, a function of the executive,"
(2) that wherever "there are enough fiscals or prosecutors
to conduct preliminary investigations, courts are
counseled to leave this job which is essentially
executive to them," and the fact "that a certain power is
granted does not necessarily mean that it should be
indiscriminately exercised."
The 1988 Amendments to the 1985 Rules on Criminal Procedure,
declared effective on October 1, 1988, did not restore that
authority to Judges of Regional Trial Courts; said amendments
did not in fact deal at all with the officers or courts having
authority to conduct preliminary investigations.
Judges' Power (Duty) to Conduct Preliminary Examination
This is not to say, however, that somewhere along the line, RTC
Judges also lost the power to make a preliminary examination
for the purpose of determining whether probable cause exists to
justify the issuance of a warrant of arrest (or search warrant).
Such a power — indeed, it is as much a duty as it is a power —
has been and remains vested in every judge by the provision in
the Bill of Rights in the 1935, the 1973 and the present 1987
Constitutions securing the people against unreasonable searches
and seizures, thereby placing it beyond the competence of mere
Court rule or statute to revoke.
The distinction must, therefore, be made clear.
While an RTC Judge may no longer conduct preliminary
investigations to ascertain whether there is sufficient ground for
the filing of a criminal complaint or information, he retains the
authority when such a pleading is filed with his Court, to
determine whether there is probable cause justifying the
issuance of a warrant of arrest.
It might be added that this distinction accords, rather than
conflicts, with the rationale of Salta because both law and rule,
in restricting to judges the authority to order arrest, recognize
that function to be judicial in nature.
No Right of Cross-Examination
It is a fundamental principle that the accused in a preliminary
investigation has no right to cross-examine the witnesses which
the complainant may present.
119
Section 3, Rule 112 of the Rules of Court expressly provides that
the respondent shall only have the right to submit a counter-
affidavit, to examine all other evidence submitted by the
complainant and, where the fiscal sets a hearing to propound
clarificatory questions to the parties or their witnesses, to be
afforded an opportunity to be present but without the right to
examine or cross-examine.
The parties may propound questions thru the investigating
officer.
Absence of Counsel
Where the accused is not represented by a counsel during the
preliminary investigation, such irregularity which amounts to an
absence of preliminary investigation should be raised before the
trial court.
When so raised, the trial court is called upon not to dismiss the
information but hold the case in abeyance and conduct its own
investigation or require the fiscal to hold a reinvestigation.
This is the proper procedure since the absence of such
investigation did not impair the validity of the information or
otherwise render it defective.
Much less did it affect the jurisdiction of the trial court.
The right to a preliminary investigation, being waivable does not
argue against the validity of the proceedings.
The most that should be done is to remand the case in order
that such investigation could be conducted.
No Right to Counsel During Preliminary Investigation
It has been held that there is nothing in the rules which renders
a preliminary investigation invalid because defendant was
without counsel.
See, however, People v. Abano, where the confession obtained
during preliminary investigation without the assistance of
counsel was held as inadmissible.
The Right of Accused to Discovery Procedures
In Webb u. de Leon, the court held that an accused is entitled
during preliminary investigation to discovery procedure.
While recognizing the absence of any provision in the Rules on
Criminal Procedure for discovery proceedings during preliminary
investigation, the Court held that such failure does not, however,
negate its use by a person under investigation when
indispensable to protect his constitutional right to life, liberty and
property.
Preliminary investigation is not too early a stage to guard
against significant erosion of the constitutional right to due
process of a potential accused; x x x and upheld the legal basis
of the right of petitioners to demand from their prosecutor, the
NBI, the original copy of the sworn statement and the FBI report
considering their exculpatory character, and hence,
unquestionable materiality to the issue of their probable guilt.
Under the present rule, the respondent shall have the right to
examine the evidence submitted by the complainant which he
may not have been furnished and to copy them at his expense.
If the evidence is voluminous, the complainant may be required
to specify those which he intends to present against the
respondent, and these shall be made available for examination
or copying by the respondent at his expense.
Preliminary Designation of Offense Not Conclusive
The preliminary designation of the offense in a directive to file
counter affidavits is not conclusive as to the true nature of the
offense charged.
The Right to be Present Not Absolute
The New Rules on Criminal Procedure does not require as a
condition sine qua non to the validity of the proceedings in the
preliminary investigation; the presence of the accused for as
long as efforts to reach him were made, and an opportunity to
controvert the evidence of the complainant is accorded him.
The obvious purpose of the rule is to block attempts of
unscrupulous respondents to thwart the prosecution of offenses
by hiding themselves or by employing dilatory tactics.
Thus, preliminary investigation can be conducted ex-parte if the
respondent cannot be subpoenaed or does not appear after due
notice.
The fiscal need not call the witnesses for clarificatory questioning
if the evidence on hand already yields probable cause.
The Right to Notice
The, respondent is, however, entitled to be notified of the
proceedings and to be present thereat.
The fact that he was not so notified is a denial of fundamental
fairness which taints the preliminary investigation.
In a petition for forfeiture under R.A. No. 1379 respondent must
be furnished a copy of the resolution directing the filing of a
petition for forfeiture and to file a motion for reconsideration.
The notice must be sent at the right address.
Preliminary Investigation Must Be Completed
Where the rules of the Ombudsman (R.A. No. 6770, Sec. 7, Rule
II, Administrative Order No. 7), allows a party to file a motion
for reconsideration, but the respondents were not furnished a
copy of the resolution and an opportunity to file a motion for
reconsideration before the filing of the information against them
in court, the Supreme Court held that, they were deprived of
their right to a full preliminary investigation preparatory to the
filing of the information against them, which warranted the
remand of the case to the Office of the Ombudsman to complete
the preliminary investigation.
The failure, however, to furnish the respondent with a copy of an
adverse resolution pursuant to Section 6, Rule II of the Rules of
Procedure of the Office of the Ombudsman, does not affect the
validity of information thereafter filed.
Under Section 7(b) of the same Rule no motion from
reconsideration or reinvestigation shall be entertained after the
information shall have been filed in court, except upon order of
the court wherein the case was filed.
Thus, when required by law the right to a preliminary
investigation is a substantial right and its denial amounts to a
denial of due process.
Its absence, however, is not a ground for a motion to quash.
General Court Martial
Under Military law, the conduct of investigations is primarily
governed by Articles 71 of the Articles of War, which provides:
Charges and specifications must be signed by a person subject
to military law, and under oath either that he has personal
knowledge of, or has investigated the matters set forth therein
and that the same are true in tact, to the best of his knowledge
and belief.
No charge will be referred to a general court martial for trial until
after a thorough and impartial investigation thereof shall have
been made.
This investigation will include inquiries as to the truth of the
matter set forth in said charges, form of charges, and what
disposition of the case should be made in the interest of justice
and discipline.
120
At such investigation, full opportunity shall be given to the
accused to cross-examine witnesses against him if they are
available and to present anything he may desire in his own
behalf, either in defense or mitigation, and the investigating
officer shall examine available witnesses requested by the
accused.
If the charges are forwarded after such investigation, they shall
be accompanied by a statement of the substance of the
testimony taken on both sides.
Before directing the trial of any charge by general court-martial
the appointing authority will refer it to his staff judge advocate
for consideration and advise.
SEC. 4.
Resolution of Investigating Prosecutor and its Review
COMMENTS:
1. Under the amendment, whether the recommendation of the
investigating officer is to file or dismiss the case, he shall, within five
(5) days from his resolution, forward the records of the case to the
provincial or city prosecutor or chief state prosecutor or, for offenses
cognizable by the sandiganbayan in the exercise of its original
jurisdiction, to the ombudsman or his deputy the latter shall take
appropriate action thereon within ten (10) days from receipt and
shall immediately inform the parties of said action.
2. For offenses cognizable by the Sandiganbayan in the exercise of its
original jurisdiction, the records should be remanded to the
Ombudsman, since it is the latter that has primary jurisdiction to
investigate, file and prosecute said cases.'
3. The rule recognize the right of a party to appeal to the Secretary of
Justice and requires that the parties be notified of the
recommendation of the action to be taken thereon.
Under Sec. 11 of Rule 116, among the grounds for suspension of the
arraignment is when:
"(c) A petition for review of the prosecutor's resolution is pending at
either the department of justice or the office of the president:
Provided, That the period of suspension shall not exceed sixty
(60) days counted from the filing of the petition with the
reviewing office."
Role of the Prosecutor
Prosecutors should not allow, and should avoid giving the
impression that their noble office is being used or prostituted,
wittingly or unwittingly, for the political ends or other purposes
alien to, or subversive of, the basic and fundamental objective of
serving the interest of justice even-handedly, without fear or
favor to any and all litigants alike, whether rich or poor, weak or
strong, powerless or mighty.

Only by strict adherence to the established procedure may the

public's perception of the impartiality of the prosecutor be
enhanced.

121
Officer Conducting Preliminary Investigation Must be Impartial
An indispensable requisite of due process is that the person who
presides and decides over a proceeding, including a preliminary
investigation, must possess the cold neutrality of an impartial
judge.
Although such a preliminary investigation is not a trial and is not
intended to usurp the function of the trial court, it is not a casual
affair.
The officer conducting the same investigates or inquires into the
facts concerning the commission of the crime with the end in
view of determining whether or not an information may be
prepared against the accused.
Indeed, a preliminary investigation is in effect a realistic judicial
appraisal of the merits of the case. Sufficient proof of the guilt of
the accused must be adduced so that when the case is tried, the
trial court may not be bound as a matter of law to order an
acquittal.
A preliminary investigation has then been called a judicial
inquiry.
It is a judicial proceeding.
An act becomes judicial when there is opportunity to be heard
and for the production and weighing of evidence, and a decision
is rendered thereon.
The authority of a prosecutor or investigating officer duly
empowered to preside or conduct a preliminary investigation is
no less than that of a municipal judge or even a regional trial
court judge.
While the investigating officer, strictly speaking, is not a "judge,"
by the nature of his functions, he is and must be considered to
be a quasi-judicial officer.
It should be realized that when a man is hailed to court on a
criminal charge, it brings in its wake problems not only for the
accused but for his family as well.
Therefore, it behooves a prosecutor to weigh the evidence
carefully and to deliberate thereon to determine the existence of
prima facie case before filing the information in Court.
Anything less would be a dereliction of duty.
The officer who review a case on appeal should not be the same
person whose decision is under review.
Discretion of Prosecutor
The investigating fiscal has discretion to determine the specificity
and adequacy of averments of the offense charged.
He may dismiss the complaint forthwith if he finds it to be
insufficient in form or substance or if he otherwise finds no
ground to continue with the inquiry, or proceed with the
investigation if the complaint is, in his new, in due and proper
form.
It is not his duty to require a more particular statement of the
allegations of the complaint merely upon the respondents'
motion and specially where, after an analysis of the complaint
and its supporting statements, he finds it sufficiently definite to
apprise the respondents of the offenses with which they are
charged.
The institution of a criminal action depends upon the sound
discretion of the fiscal. He has the quasi-judicial discretion to
determine whether or not a criminal case should be filed in
court.
Indeed, under Section 4, Rule 112 of the 2000 Rules of Criminal
Procedure, the Information shall be prepared by the
Investigating Prosecutor against the respondent only if he or she
finds probable cause to hold such respondent for trial.
The Investigating Prosecutor acts without or in excess of his
authority under the Rule if the Information is filed against the
respondent despite absence of evidence showing probable cause
therefor.
Duty of Investigation Fiscal; Effect of Absence of Certification
If a preliminary investigation was actually conducted, the
absence of certification by the investigating fiscal that it was
conducted is not fatal.
Absence of certification as to holding of Preliminary Investigation
does not affect validity of information.
The certification "that a preliminary investigation has been
conducted in this case; that there is a reasonable ground to
engender a well-founded belief that a crime has been committed
and that the accused are probably guilty thereof is sufficient.
The failure to state therein that the accused was informed of the
complaint and was given an opportunity to submit controverting
evidence is fatal and untenable.
Designation of Offense by Fiscal Not Binding Upon Court
122
The designation of the offense by the Fiscal is not binding upon
the Court.
Remedies if There is No Preliminary Investigation
Absence of preliminary investigation does not impair the validity
of information.
It is not a ground for a motion to quash.
Absence of Preliminary Investigation is not a ground for motion
to quash.
Dismissal for lack of Preliminary Investigation is not allowed,
The remedy is to hold in abeyance proceedings and order the
Fiscal to hold preliminary Investigation
The same principles were stressed in Torralba v. Sandiganbayan.
Proper Forum to Raise Absence of Preliminary Investigation
The proper forum before which absence of preliminary
investigation should be ventilated is the Regional Trial Court and
not the Supreme Court. Absence of a preliminary investigation
does not go to the jurisdiction of the court but merely to the
regularity of the proceedings that could be waived.
Habeas Corpus Not a Remedy
If there was no preliminary investigation, the remedy is not a
petition for habeas corpus but a motion before the trial court to
quash the warrant of arrest, and/or the Information on grounds
provided by the Rules, or to ask for an
investigation/reinvestigation of the case.
Habeas corpus would not lie after the Warrant of Commitment
was issued by the Court on the basis of the Information filed
against the accused. So it is explicitly provided for by Section 14,
Rule 102 of the Rules of Court x x x.
Ilagan was a reiteration of the Supreme Court's ruling in People
v. Casiano.
The same rule was reiterated in Doromal v. Sandigabayan.
If there was no preliminary investigation, the accused must —
(a) refuse to enter a plea upon arraignment and object to
further proceedings upon such ground;
(b) insist on preliminary investigation;
(c) file certiorari if refused;
(d) raise lack of preliminary investigation as error on appeal;
(e) file prohibition.
When Habeas Corpus allowed
Habeas Corpus was allowed as a remedy for irregular preliminary
investigation conducted by a municipal judge in a murder case,
who without legal authority for being disqualified as a relative
within the 3rd degree and without proper preliminary
examination ordered the issuance of a warrant of arrest as a
consequence of which accused was illegally detained.
The judge then remanded the case to the provincial prosecutor
who was then held as without authority to lift the warrant of
arrest.
The judge was considered, as in construe five custody of the
accused, by virtue of an illegal warrant of arrest.
Appeals to the Secretary of Justice
The power of supervision and control by the Minister of Justice
over the fiscals cannot be denied.
As stated in Noblejas v. Sales, "Section 79 of the Revised
Administrative Code defines the extent o a department
secretary's power.
The power of control therein contemplated means (the power of
the department head) to alter, modify or nullify or set aside
what a subordinate officer had done in the performance of his
duties and to substitute the judgment of the former for that of
the latter.
The power of control implies the right of the President (and,
naturally, of his alter ego) to interfere in the exercise of such
discretion as may be vested by law in the officers of the national
government, as well as to act in lieu of such officers."
For, while it is the duty of the fiscal to prosecute persons who,
according to evidence received from the complainant, are shown
to be guilty of a crime, the Minister of Justice is likewise bound
by his oath of office to protect innocent persons from
groundless, false or serious prosecution.
He would be committing a serious dereliction of duty if he orders
or sanctions the filing of an information based upon a complaint
where he is not convinced that the evidence would warrant the
filing of the action in court.
As he has the power of supervision and control over prosecuting
officers, the Minister of Justice has the ultimate power to decide
which as between conflicting theories of the complainant and the
respondents should be believed.
Thus, the DOJ Order allows the filing of an Information in court
after the consummation of the preliminary investigation even if
the accused can still exercise the right to seek review of the
prosecutor's recommendation with the Secretary of Justice.
Power of Secretary to Review
The power of the Secretary of Justice to review resolutions of his
subordinates even after the information has already been filed in
court is well settled.
In Marcelo v. Court of Appeals, reiterated in Roberts v. Court of
Appeals, the Court clarified that nothing in Crespo v. Mogul,
forecloses the power or authority of the Secretary of Justice to
review resolutions of his subordinates in criminal cases despite
an information already having been filed in court.
Nature of Justice Secretary's Power of Control over prosecutors
The nature of the Justice Secretary's power of control over
prosecutors was explained in Ledesma u. Court of Appeals, in
this wise:
"DECISIONS OR RESOLUTIONS OF PROSECUTORS ARE
SUBJECT TC APPEAL TO THE SECRETARY OF JUSTICE
WHO, UNDER THE REVISED ADMINISTRATIVE CODE
EXERCISES THE POWER OF DIRECT CONTROL AND
SUPERVISION OVER SAID PROSECUTORS; AND WHO MAY
THUS AFFIRM; NULLIFY, REVERSE OR MODIFY THEIR
RULINGS.
SECTION 39, CHAPTER 8, BOOK IV IN RELATION TO
SECTION[S] 5; 8, AND 9, CHAPTER 2, TITLE III OF THE
CODE GIVES THE SECRETARY OF JUSTICE SUPERVISION
AND CONTROL OVER THE OFFICE OF THE CHIEF PROS-
ECUTOR AND THE PROVINCIAL AND CITY PROSECUTION
OFFICES.
The scope of his power of supervision and control is delineated in Section
38, paragraph 1, Chapter 7, Book IV of the Code:
'(1) Supervision and Control. — Supervision and control shall include
authority to act directly whenever s specific function is entrusted by law or
regulation to a subordinate; direct the performance of duty; restrain the
123
commission of acts; review, approve, reverse or modify acts and decisions
of subordinate officials or units; x x x.'
Supplementing the aforequoted provisions are Section £ ofR.A.
No. 3783 and Section 37 of Act 4007, which read:
'Section 3. x x x
The Chief State Prosecutor, the Assistant Chief Stat( Prosecutors, the
Senior State Prosecutors, and the Statt Prosecutors shall x x x perform
such other duties as may be assigned to them by the Secretary of Justice
in the in terest of public service.'
SECTION 37. THE PROVISIONS OF THE EXISTING LAW TO
TH( CONTRARY NOTWITHSTANDING, WHENEVER A
SPECIFIC POWER AUTHORITY, DUTY, FUNCTION, OR
ACTIVITY IS ENTRUSTED TO A CHIEF OF BUREAU, OFFICE,
DIVISION OR SERVICE, THE SAME SHALL
B( UNDERSTOOD AS ALSO CONFERRED UPON THE PROPER
DEPARTMENT HEAD WHO SHALL HAVE AUTHORITY TO
ACT DIRECTLY IN PURSUANCE THEREOF, OR TO REVIEW,
MODIFY, OR REVOKE ANY DECISION OR ACTION OF SAID
CHIEF OF BUREAU, OFFICE, DIVISION OR SERVICE."
'SUPERVISION' AND 'CONTROL' OF A DEPARTMENT HEAD
OVER HIS SUBORDINATES HAVE BEEN DENNED IN
ADMINISTRATIVE LAW AS FOLLOWS:
'IN ADMINISTRATIVE LAW, SUPERVISION MEANS
OVERSEEING OR THE POWER OR AUTHORITY OF AN
OFFICER TO SEE THAT SUBORDINATE OFFICERS PERFORM
THEIR DUTIES.
If the latter fail or neglect to fulfill them, the former may take such action
or step as prescribed by law to make them perform such duties.
Control, on the other hand, means the power of an officer to alter or
modify or nullify or set aside what a subordinate officer had done in the
performance of his duties and to substitute the judgment of the former for
that of the latter.'
Review as an act of supervision and control by the justice
secretary over the fiscals and prosecutors finds basis in the
doctrine of exhaustion of administrative remedies which holds
that mistakes, abuses or negligence committed in the initial
steps of an administrative activity or by an administrative
agency should be corrected by higher administrative authorities,
and not directly by courts.
As a rule, only after administrative remedies are exhausted may
judicial recourse be allowed."
Hence, after the Resolution of the provincial fiscal have already
been affirmed the resolution of the Prosecutor which in effect is
a finding of the Secretary of Justice himself as to the existence
of probable cause to hold the accused for trial, the Fiscal should
not conduct another reinvestigation and the court should not
entertain the same.
The Secretary of Justice who has the power of supervision and
control over prosecuting officers, is the ultimate authority who
decides which of the conflicting theories of the complainants and
the respondents should be believed.
The provincial or city prosecutor has neither the personality nor
the legal authority to review or overrule the decision of the
Secretary.
A motion for reinviestigation on the ground of newly discovered
evidence must be filed before the Secretary of Justice rules on
an appeal from a resolution in a preliminary investigation.
The Court still reiterated in the 2005 case of Serag, the 1994
case of Marcelo for the Court to suspend the proceedings until
after the Secretary of Justice had resolved the motion with
finality and cited Section 7 of DOJ Circular No. 70 which
provides:
SECTION 7. Action on the petition. — The Secretary of Justice may
dismiss the petition outright if he finds the same to be patently without
merit or manifestly intended for delay, or when the issues raised therein
are too unsubstantial to require consideration.
If an information has been filed in court pursuant to the appealed
resolution, the petition shall not be given due course if the accused had
already been arraigned. Any arraignment made after the filing of the
petition shall not bar the Secretary of Justice from exercising his power of
review.
More importantly, the ruling in Solar Entertainment, Inc. v. Haw,
that the thirty-day period to suspend the arraignment (as
provided for in Section 2 of Circular No. 38-98) is not absolute
was reiterated in the 2006 case of Lumanlaw v. Peralta, Jr.
Secretary of Justice to Refrain Only as Far as Practicable from Review of
Cases Already Filed in Court
In Dee v. Court of Appeals, the Supreme Court reiterated its
pronouncement in Crespo v. Mogul, that the Secretary of Justice
as far as practicable, should refrain from entertaining a petition
for review of appeal from the action of the fiscal, when the
complaint or information has already been filed in court.
The matter should be left entirely for the determination of the
Court.
The Court, however, clarified en bane in Roberts v. Court of
Appeals, that there is nothing in Crespo v. Mogul which bars the
DOJ from taking cognizance of an appeal, by way of a petition
for review, by an accused in a criminal case from an unfavorable
ruling of the investigating prosecutor.
It merely advised the DOJ to, "as far as practicable, refrain from
entertaining a petition for review or appeal from the action of the
fiscal, when the complaint or information has already been filed
in Court."
The Secretary of Justice is only enjoined to refrain, as far as
practicable, from entertaining a petition for review or appeal
from the action of the prosecutor once a complaint or
information is filed in court.
In any case, the grant of a motion to dismiss, which the
prosecution may file after the Secretary of Justice reverses an
appealed resolution, is subject to the discretion of the court.
In Roberts, the Court went further by saying that Crespo could
not have foreclosed said power or authority of the Secretary of
Justice "without doing violence to, or repealing, the last
paragraph of Section 4, Rule 112 of the Rules of Court."
While the section speaks of resolutions dismissing a criminal
complaint, petitioners were not barred from appealing from the
resolution holding that only homicide was committed,
considering that their complaint was for murder.
By holding that only homicide was committed, the Provincial
Prosecutor's Office ofPampanga effectively "dismissed" the
complaint for murder. Accordingly, petitioners could file an
appeal under said Section 1.
To rule otherwise would be to forever bar redress of a valid
grievance, especially where the investigating prosecutor,
demonstrated what unquestionably appeared to be unmitigated
bias in favor of the accused.
Section 1 is not to be literally applied in the sense that appeals
by the offended parties are allowed only in case of dismissal of
the complaint, otherwise the last paragraph of Section 4, Rule
112, Rules of Court would be meaningless.
Need to Defer Arraignment if DOJ had Already Given Due Course to
Appeal
Where the DOJ had already given due course to the petitioner's
petition for review, it was premature for respondent judge to
deny the motions to suspend proceedings and to defer
arraignment on the ground that "since the case is already
pending for trial, to follow whatever opinion the Secretary of
124
Justice may have on the matter would undermine the
independence and integrity of this court."
Thus the complainant cannot be stripped of the Secretary's
authority to act on and resolve the motion of the private
complainant on the Prosecutor's insistence that the accused be
arraigned on June 6, 2002.
Indeed, under Section 7 of DOJ Circular No. 70, the Secretary of
Justice may resolve the said motion despite the arraignment of
the petitioners.
Once a petition for review is filed with the DOJ it behooved the
RTC to suspend the proceedings until after the Secretary of
Justice had resolved the motion with finality, including the
consideration of the motion of the Provincial Fiscal for the
admission of the Second Amended Information for homicide, the
dismissal of Criminal Case No. 926 and the arraignment of the
Petitioner for homicide. The court reiterated its earlier ruling in
Marcelo v. Court of Appeals (supra).
COMPARE
Under Section ll(c) of Rule 116 the period of suspension shall not exceed
sixty (60) days counted from the filing of the petition with the reviewing
office. (This is a new Rule under the 2000 Rules on the Revised Rules of
Criminal Procedure.)
The period of suspension shall not exceed sixty (60) days counted from
the filing of the petition with the reviewing office after the expiration of
said period, the trial court is bound to arraign the accused or to deny the
motion to defer arraignment.
Despite the foregoing provision and ruling, the Court in the 2005 case
ofSerag (supra) reiterated the 1994 ruling in the case ofMarcelo (supra)
for the Court to suspend the proceedings until after the Secretary of
Justice had resolved the motion with finality and cited Section 7 ofDOJ
Circular No. 70 which provides:
SECTION 7. Action on the petition. — The Secretary of Justice may dismiss the petition
outright if he finds the same to be patently without merit or manifestly intended for
delay, or when the issues raised therein are too unsubstantial to require consideration.
If an information has been filed in court pursuant to the appealed
resolution, the petition shall not be given due course if the accused had
already been arraigned.
Any arraignment made after the filing of the petition shall not bar the
Secretary of Justice from exercising his power of review.
This may be interpreted to mean that while the Court may not suspend
the arraignment beyond the 60 day limitation, it may still suspend the
trial pending final resolution by the DOJ.
Under the Speedy Trial Rule any period of delay resulting from other
proceedings concerning the accused including but not limited to those
enumerated in Section 3 of Rule 119 in computing the time within which
trial must commence shall be excluded —
f) Any period of delay resulting from a continuance granted by any court motu
proprio, or on motion of either the accused or his counsel, or the prosecution, if the
court granted the continuance on the basis of his findings set forth in the order that
the ends of justice served by taking such action outweigh the best interest of the
public and the accused in a speedy trial.*9
The Supreme Court stressed that the real and ultimate test of the
independence and integrity of the court is not the filing of the motion to
suspend at that stage of the proceedings but the filing of a motion to
dismiss or to withdraw the information on the basis of a resolution of the
petition for review reversing the Joint Resolution of the investigating
prosecutor.
Before that time, the pronouncement in Crespo v. Mogul, that "once a
complaint or information is filed in court any disposition of the case as its
dismissal or the conviction of accused or acquittal of the accused rests in
the sound discretion of the court," did not yet become relevant or
applicable.
However, once a motion to dismiss or withdraw the information is filed the
trial judge may grant or deny it, not out of subservience to the Secretary
of Justice, but in faithful excercise of judicial nrerogative on the duty of
the trial judge to make an independent assessment and finding of the
evidence, it not being sufficient for the valid and proper excercise of
judicial discretion merely to accept the prosecution's word for its supposed
insufficiency.
In the absence of such a finding, the order of the court denying or
granting the motion is void.
The procedure of appeals to the Secretary of Justice were consolidated
and modified by Department of Justice Circular No. 70 dated July 3, 2000
entitled 2000 NFS RULE ON APPEAL (Appendix F) and Department Circular
No. 70-A dated July 10, 2000 DELEGATION OF AUTHORITY TO REGIONAL
STATE PROSECUTORS TO RESOLVE APPEALS IN CERTAIN CASES.
Determination of Probable Cause, Either Executive or Judicial Prerogative
In criminal prosecutions, the determination of probable cause
may either be an executive or judicial prerogative. In People v.
Inting, the Court aptly stated:
"JUDGES AND PROSECUTORS ALIKE SHOULD
DISTINGUISH THE PRELIMINARY INQUIRY WHICH
DETERMINES PROBABLE CAUSE FOR THE ISSUANCE OF A
WARRANT OF ARREST FROM A PRELIMINARY
INVESTIGATION PROPER WHICH ASCERTAINS WHETHER
THE OFFENDER SHOULD BE HELD FOR TRIAL OR
RELEASED.
Even if the two inquiries are conducted in the course of one and the same
proceeding, there should be no confusion about the objectives.
The determination of probable cause for the warrant of arrest is made by
the Judge.
The preliminary investigation proper — whether or not there is reasonable h. Where it is a case of persecution rather than prosecution;
ground to believe that the accused is guilty of the offense charged and,
therefore, whether or not he should be subjected to the expense, rigors
and embarrassment of trial — is the function of the Prosecutor.
i. Where the charges are manifestly false and motivated by
the lust for vengeance;
Preliminary investigation should be distinguished as to whether it is an
investigation for the determination of a sufficient ground for the filing of j. When there is clearly no prima facie case against the
the information or it is an investigation for the determination of a accused and a motion to quash on that ground has been
probable cause for the issuance of a warrant of arrest. denied; and
The first kind of preliminary investigation is executive in nature.
k. Preliminary injunction has been issued by the Supreme
It is part of the prosecution's job. Court to prevent the threatened unlawful arrest of
petitioners.
The second kind of preliminary investigation which is more properly called
preliminary examination is judicial in nature and is lodged with the judge." In these exceptional cases, the Court may ultimately resolve the
existence or non-existence of probable cause by examining the
Determination of Probable Cause Not a Supreme Court Function: records of the preliminary investigation, and may also restrain a
Exceptions
preliminary investigation.
The Court thus pointed out that ordinarily, the determination of
The Court in the "349" Pepsi-Cola cases recognized the several
probable cause is not lodged with this Court.
thousands of complainants in Criminal Case No. Q-93-43198 (in
which the order of arrest was appealed to the DOJ), and several
Its duty in an appropriate case is confined to the issue of
thousands more in different parts of the country who are
whether the executive or judicial determination, as the case may
similarly situated as the former for being holders of "349" Pepsi
be, of probable cause was done without or in excess of
crowns, any affirmative holding of probable cause in the said
jurisdiction with grave abuse of discretion amounting to want of
case nay cause or provoke, the filing of several thousand cases
jurisdiction.
in various courts throughout the country.
This is consistent with the general rule that criminal prosecutions
Inevitably, the petitioners would be exposed to the harassments
may not be restrained or stayed by injunction, preliminary or
of warrants of arrest issued by such courts and to huge
final.
expenditures for premium on the bail bonds and for travels from
one court to another throughout the length and breath of the
There are, however, exceptions to the rule, among which were
archipelago for their arraignments and trials in such cases.
enumerated in Brocka v. Enrile, as follows:
Worse, the filing of these staggering number of cases would
a. To afford adequate protection to the constitutional rights of
necessarily affect the trial calendar of our overburdened judges
the accused;
and take much of their attention, time and energy, which they
could devote to other equally, if not more, important cases.
b. When necessary for the orderly administration of justice or
to avoid oppression or multiplicity or actions;
Such a frightful scenario would seriously affect the orderly
administration of justice, or cause oppression or multiplicity of
c. When there is a prejudicial question;
actions — a situation already long conceded to be an exception
to the general rule that criminal prosecutions may not be
d. When the acts of the officer are without or in excess of
restrained or stayed by injunction.
authority;
The Court, however, refused to reevaluate the evidence to
e. Where the prosecution is under an invalid law, ordinance or
determine if indeed there is probable cause for the issuance of
regulation;
warrants of arrest in Criminal Case No. 93-43298, as it did, in
Allado and Webb for, as reasoned out by the Court, the
f. When double jeopardy is clearly apparent;
respondent Judge did not, in fact, find that probable cause
exists, and if he did he did not hrve the basis therefor as
g. Where the court has no jurisdiction over the offense;
mandated by Soliven, Inting, Lim, Allado, and even Webb.
125
Moreover, the records of the preliminary investigation are not
with the court but with the DOJ.
The Supreme Court held that the trial court and the DOJ must be
required to perform their duty.
The Court, therefore directed the DOJ to resolve on the merits,
petitioner's petition for review of the Joint Resolution of the
Investigating prosecutors and thereafter file the appropriate
motion or pleading before respondent Judge which he shall then
resolve in the light of Crespo v. Mogul.
In the meantime, respondent Judge was directed to cease and
desist from further proceeding with the criminal case and to
defer the issuance of warrants of arrest against the petitioners.
Under section ll(c), Rule 116, Upon motion of the proper party,
the arraignment shall be suspended when a petition for review of
the resolution of the prosecutor is pending at either the
Department of Justice or the office of the President;
Provided, That the period of suspension shall not exceed sixty
(60) days counted from the filing of the petition with the
reviewing office.
Determination of Probable Cause in Preliminary Investigation Exclusively
Pertains to Prosecutor
In a separate opinion. Chief Justice Narvasa expressed
concurrence with the disposition of the case, that the
determination of whether or not probable cause exists to warrant
the prosecution in court of the petitioners should be consigned
and entrusted to the Department of Justice as reviewer of the
findings of the public prosecutor. Further elucidating on his
reasons, the Chief Justice stated:
"IN THIS SPECIAL CIVIL ACTION, THIS COURT IS BEING
ASKED TO ASSUME THE FUNCTION OF A PUBLIC
PROSECUTOR.
IT IS BEING ASKED TO DETERMINE WHETHER PROBABLE
CAUSE EXISTS AS REGARDS PETITIONERS.
More concretely, the Court is being asked to examine and assess such
evidence as has thus far been submitted by the" parties and, on the basis
thereof, make a conclusion as to whether or not it suffices 'to engender a
well founded belief that a crime has been committed and that the
respondent is probably guilty thereof and should be held for trial.'"
It is a function that this Court should not be called upon to
perform.
It is a function that properly pertains to the public prosecutor,
one that, as far as crimes cognizable by a Regional Trial Court
are concerned, and notwithstanding that it involves an
adjudicative process of a sort exclusively pertains, by law, to
said executive officer, the public prosecutor.
It is moreover a function that in the established scheme of
things, is supposed to be performed at the very genesis of
indeed, prefatorily to, the formal commencement of a criminal
action.
The proceedings before a public prosecutor, it may well be
stressed, are essentially preliminary, prefatory, and cannot lead
to a final, definite and authoritative adjudgment of the guilt or
innocence of the persons charged with a felony or crime.
Whether or not that function has been correctly discharged by
the public prosecutor — i.e., whether or not he has made a
correct ascertainment of the existence of probable cause in a
case — is a matter that the trial court itself does not and may
not be compelled to pass upon.
There is no provision of law authorizing an aggrieved party to
petition for such a determination.
It is not for instance permitted for an accused, upon the filing of
an information against him by the public prosecutor, to pre-empt
trial by filing a motion with the Trial Court praying for the
quashal or dismissal of the indictment on the ground that the
evidence upon which the same is based is inadequate.
Nor is it permitted, on the antipodal theory that the evidence is
in truth adequate, for the complaining party to present a petition
before the Court praying that the public prosecutor be compelled
to file the corresponding information against the accused.
(N.B.: Where, however, the public prosecutor finds that probable
cause exists as regards several suspects but unaccountably files
the information only against some, but not all of them,
mandamus will lie to compel him to include in the indictment
those he has excluded.)
Besides, the function that this Court is asked to perform is that
of a trier of facts which it does not generally do, and if at all,
only exceptionally, as in an appeal in a criminal action where the
penalty of life imprisonment, reclusion perpetua, or death has
been imposed by a lower court (after due trial, of course), or
upon a convincing showing of palpable error as regards a
particular factual conclusion in the judgment of such lower court.
What, in sum, is being attempted in this Court is to reverse the
established and permanent order of things — for the Court to act
before trial and judgment by a lower tribunal; to require it to
perform the role of trier of facts — which, to repeat, it does not
generally do, the issues properly cognizable by it being normally
limited exclusively to questions of law to make it do something
that even the trial court may not do at this stage of the
126
proceedings — itself to determine the existence of probable
cause; to usurp a duty that exclusively pertains to an exclusive
official (supra, at note 3) to conduct a preliminary investigation
or review the findings and conclusions of the public prosecutor
who conducted one.
The matter is not within the review jurisdiction of the Court as
this is clearly specified in the Constitution, a jurisdiction which
even the Congress may not increase "without * * * (the Court's)
advice and concurrence."
From the pragmatic aspect, it is also an undesirable thing, for
the result could well increase the already considerable work load
of the Court.
Furthermore, any judgment of this Court in this action would be
inconclusive, as above intimated. It would not necessarily end
the case.
It would not, for instance, prevent the complaining witnesses
from presenting additional evidence in an effort to have the
information ultimately filed in the proper court against the
accused, or the respondents from asking for a reinvestigation
and presenting additional or other evidence warranting the
dropping of the case.
The Court would thus have wielded judicial power without a
definite settlement of rights and liabilities.
There are set rules, and procedural mechanisms in place for the
determination of probable cause at the level of the public
prosecutor, the Department of Justice and, to a certain extent,
the Regional Trial Court.
No recourse to this Court should normally be allowed to
challenge their determinations and dispositions.
I therefore vote to refer to the Department of Justice for
resolution, the petition for the review of the Joint Resolution
issued by Investigating Prosecutor Ramon Gerona.
Finding of Probable Cause by Prosecutor To hold Accused For Trial
Distinguished From Finding of Probable Cause of Judge To Issue Warrant
The foregoing disquisition of the Chief Justice should, however,
be taken in the light of the distinction of whether the preliminary
investigation is an investigation for the determination of a
sufficient ground for the filing of the information or it is an
investigation for the determination of a probable cause for the
issuance of a warrant of arrest.
The first kind of preliminary investigation is executive in nature.

It is part of the prosecution's job.
The second kind of preliminary investigation which is more
properly called preliminary examination is judicial in nature and
is lodged with the judge, but it is only after the first kind have
been exhausted, that the second kind comes in and the Crespo
rule applies.
Before that time, the pronouncement in Crespo that "any
disposition of the case as its dismissal or the conviction or
acquittal of the accused rests in the discretion of the court "is
not yet relevant and applicable.
When the second kind comes in, the court must, then exercise
independent judgment, personally evaluate the documents and
evidence adduced before the Fiscal, and determine for itself the
existence of probable cause for the issuance of warrants of
arrest.
If there is a motion to dismiss or withdraw the information, the
court must exercise its judicial prerogative, make an
independent assessment of the evidence and make its own
findings it not being sufficient for the valid and proper exercise
of judicial discretion merely to accept the prosecution's word for
its supposed insufficiency.
Finding by Judge of Probable Cause Not Subject to Judicial Review
Moreover, a finding probable cause by the judge for purposes of
issuing a warrant of arrest after an evaluation of the documents
and other supporting evidence, should no longer, in the
meantime, be subject to judicial review, except in the regular
course of appeal, for to paraphrase the Chief Justice in his
separate opinion, that would be asking the court to examine and
assess such evidence as has thus far been submitted by the
parties, before the trial, and, on the basis thereof make a
conclusion as whether or not, it suffices to establish the guilt of
the accused.
There are set of rules, and procedural mechanisms in place for
the determination of probable cause at the level of the public
prosecutor, the Department of Justice and, to a certain extent,
the Regional Trial Court. No recourse to the higher court should
normally be allowed to challenge their determinations and
dispositions.
Findings of Probable Cause as Prosecutors Entitled to Highest Respect
The prosecutor's finding of probable cause is entitled to highest
respect.
This is a function that the court should not be called upon the
perform.
As a general rule, if the information is valid on its face and there
is no showing of manifest error, grave abuse of discretion or
prejudice on the part of public prosecutor courts should not
dismiss it for want of evidence.
Remedy Where Minister of Justice Refuses Filing of Case
The remedy of complainant in a case where the Minister of
Justice would not allow the filing of a criminal complaint against
an accused because it is his opinion that the evidence is not
sufficient to sustain an information for the complaint with which
the respondents are charged of, is to file a civil action as
indicated in Article 35 of the Civil Code, which provides:
"ART. 35. WHEN A PERSON, CLAIMING TO BE INJURED BY
A CRIMINAL OFFENSE, CHARGES ANOTHER WITH THE
SAME, FOR WHICH NO INDEPENDENT CIVIL ACTION IS
GRANTED IN THIS CODE OR ANY SPECIAL LAW, BUT THE
JUSTICE OF THE PEACE FINDS NO REASONABLE GROUNDS
TO BELIEVE THAT A CRIME HAS BEEN COMMITTED, OR
THE PROSECUTING ATTORNEY REFUSES OR FAILS TO
INSTITUTE CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS, THE COMPLAINANT
MAY BRING A CIVIL ACTION FOR DAMAGES AGAINST THE
ALLEGED OFFENDER.
SUCH CIVIL ACTION MAY BE SUPPORTED BY A
PREPONDERANCE OF EVIDENCE. UPON THE DEFENDANT'S
MOTION, THE COURT MAY REQUIRE THE PLAINTIFF TO
FILE A BOND TO INDEMNIFY THE DEFENDANT IN CASE
THE COMPLAINT SHOULD BE FOUND TO BE MALICIOUS."
If during the pendency of the civil action, an information should
be presented by the prosecuting attorney, the civil action shall
be suspended until the termination of the criminal proceedings.
Availability of Appeal From DOJ
The Resolution of the DOJ Secretary is appealable administra-
tively to the Office of the President where the offense charged is
punishable by Reclusion perpetua.
(From the Office of the President — the aggrieved party may file
an appeal with the Court of Appeals pursuant to Rule 43
[Supra])
Unavailability of Mandamus or Certiorari To Compel Filing of Cases
In Lim u. Court of Appeals, the Court reiterated the rule of long
standing that the matter of deciding who to prosecute is a
prerogative of the prosecuting fiscal as a quasi-judicial officer,
who assumes full discretion and control of the case and this
127
faculty may not be interfered with, for a prosecution may not be
compelled by mandamus to file a criminal information where he
is convinced that he does not have the necessary evidence
against an individual, x x x."
While the prosecuting officer is required by law to charge all
bhose who, in his opinion, appear to be guilty, he nevertheless
cannot be compelled to include in the information a person
against whom he believes no sufficient evidence of guilt exists.
The appreciation of the evidence involves the use of discretion
on the part of the arosecutor.
The decision of the prosecutor may be reversed or modified by
the Secretary of Justice or in special cases by the President of
the Philippines.
But even the Supreme Court cannot order the prosecution of a
person against whom the prosecutor does not find sufficient
evidence to support at least a prima facie case.
The courts try and absolve or convict the accused but as a rule
have no part in the initial decision to prosecute him.
The possible exception is where there is an unmistakable
showing of a grave abuse of discretion that will justify judicial
intrusion into the precincts of the executive.
But in such a case, the proper remedy to call for such exception
is a petition for mandamus, not certiorari or prohibition.
Moreover, before resorting to this relief, the party seeking the
inclusion of another person as a co-accused in the same case
must first avail itself of other adequate remedies such as the
filing of a motion for such reconsideration of decision.
The rule is thus settled that the court's duty in an appropriate
case is confined to determining whether the executive or judicial
determination, as the case may be, of probable cause was done
without or in excess of jurisdiction or with grave abuse of
discretion.
Thus, although it is entirely possible that the investigating fiscal
may erroneously exercise the discretion lodged in him by law,
this does not render his act amenable to correction and
annulment by the extraordinary remedy of correction and
annulment by the extraordinary remedy of certiorari, absent any
showing of grave abuse of discretion amounting to excess of
jurisdiction.
The remedy of mandamus does not lie to compel public
respondents to file an Information against private respondents.
There being no showing of grave abuse of discretion on the part
of public respondents which would warrant the overturning of
their decision to dismiss the complaint against the private
respondents, corollarily, there is also no ground to issue a writ
of mandamusl
Where the preliminary investigation falls under the first kind, the
decision whether or not to dismiss the complaint against private
respondents is necessarily dependent on the sound discretion of
the prosecuting fiscal, and ultimately that of the Secretary or
Undersecretary (acting for the Secretary) of Justice (which
ordinarily is not compellable by mandamus.
Exception When Mandamus Available
However, if government prosecutors make arbitrary choices of
those they would prosecute under a particular law, excluding
from the indictment certain individuals against whom there is the
same evidence as those impleaded, the fault is not in the law but
in the prosecutors themselves whose duty it is to file the
corresponding information or complaint against all persons who
appear to be liable for the offense involved, a duty that should
be performed responsibly, without discrimination, arbitrariness
or oppression.
If that duty is not performed evenhandedly, the persons
aggrieved are not without remedy.
They may avail of the remedy of mandamus to compel
compliance with that duty by the prosecutors concerned.
NOTE: It was held in Yap u. IAC, that certiorari does not lie to
annul the Municipal judge's order finding probable cause that the
accused committed the crime charged and consequently ordering
their arrest.
Remedies are:
(1) posting bail;
(2) ask provincial fiscal for reinvestigation;
(3) petition for review;
(4) motion to quash information;
(5) if denied appeal, the judgment after trial.104
Exception When Certiorari as a Remedy Allowed
However, certiorari was allowed as a remedy to annul dismissal
of the petition for review by the Secretary of Justice for lack of
jurisdiction since the dispute involves an intra-corporate one
which (then) falls under the jurisdiction of the Securities and
Exchange Commission.
Certiorari was allowed also to annul the Order of the ETC Judge
for the issuance of warrant of arrest on the ground that there
was no probable cause.
Summing up, the Court in Ching v. The Secretary of Justice
held:
In Mendoza-Arce v. Office of the Ombudsman (Visayas), this Court held
that the acts of a quasi-judicial officer may be assailed by the aggrieved
party via a petition for certiorari and enjoined:
(a) when necessary to afford adequate protection to the
constitutional rights of the accused;
(b) when necessary for the orderly administration of
justice;
(c) when the acts of the officer are without or in excess
of authority;
(d) where the charges are manifestly false and motivated
by the lust for vengeance; and
(e) when there is clearly no prima facie case against the
accused.
The Court also declared that, if the officer conducting a preliminary
investigation (in that case, the Office of the Ombudsman) acts without or
in excess of his authority and resolves to file an Information despite the
absence of probable cause, such act may be nullified by a writ of
certiorari.
If the Secretary of Justice reverses the Resolution of the Investigating
Prosecutor who found no probable cause to hold the respondent for trial,
and orders such prosecutor to file the Information despite the absence of
probable cause, the Secretary of Justice acts contrary to law, without
authority and/or in excess of authority.
Such resolution may likewise be nullified in a petition for certiorari under
Rule 65 of the Revised Rules of Civil Procedure.
In the same manner, just as the Court may resolve to overrule the finding
of probable cause as in Allado v. Diokno, the Court may also overrule the
decision of the judge reversing a finding of probable cause, also on the
ground of grave abuse of discretion.
However, while probable cause should be determined in a
summary manner, there is a need to examine the evidence with
care to prevent material damage to a potential accused's
constitutional right to liberty and the guarantees of freedom and
fair play and to protect the State from the burden of
unnecessary expenses in prosecuting alleged offenses and
holding trials arising from false, fraudulent or groundless
charges.
Effect of Delay in Conducting Preliminary Investigation
The long delay in the termination of preliminary investigation by
the Tanodbayan is violative of the constitutional right of the
accused to due process.
Substantial adherence to the requirements of the law governing
the conduct of preliminary investigation, including substantial
128
compliance with the time limitation prescribed by the law for the
resolution of the case by the prosecutor, is part of the procedural
due process constitutionally guaranteed by the fundamental law.
Not only under the broad umbrella of the due process clause, but
under the constitutional guarantee of "speedy disposition" of
cases as embodied in Section 16 of the Bill of Rights (both in the
1973 and the 1987 Constitution), the inordinate delay is violative
of the accused's constitutional rights.
A delay of close to three (3) years cannot be deemed reasonable
or justifiable in the light of the circumstances obtaining in the
case.
The suggestion that the long delay in terminating the preliminary
investigation should not be deemed fatal, for even the complete
absence of a preliminary investigation does not warrant
dismissal of the information, is without merit.
The absence of a preliminary investigation can only be corrected
by giving the accused such investigation.
But an undue delay in the conduct of preliminary investigation
cannot be corrected, for until now, man has not yet invented a
device for setting back the time.
The principle is not, however, applicable where the delay in the
termination of the preliminary investigation cannot be imputed
solely to the prosecution but because of incidents which are
attributable to the accused and his counsel.
SEC. 5.
When Warrant of Arrest may Issue
COMMENT:
a. The provisions of the former Section 5 relating to the preliminary
investigation by a judge were deleted. Section 6 was modified (bb)
by deleting reference to preliminary investigation by the MTC are
changing the same to prosecutor accordingly transposed to Section
5.
b. The first paragraph on the issuance of warrant of arrest by the
Regional Trial Court is in conformity with the rulings of the Supreme
Court.
The former Rule simply provides that a warrant of arrest may be
issued by the Regional Trial Court upon the filing of the information.
This was because before the 1987 constitution, a warrant of arrest
may be issued by the Regional Trial Court on the basis merely of the
certification of the investigating fiscal that there is probable cause.
Under the 1973 not only the Judge but also by any responsible
 officer, which includes a fiscal, may determine Constitution probable
cause.
This is no longer true. Under the 1987 Constitution it is only the
judge who is authorized to determine personally the existence of
probable cause.
Hence, jurisprudence evolved, that for purposes of determining
probable cause for the issuance of a warrant of arrest, the judge
must personally evaluate the prosecutor's report, the evidence
adduced during the preliminary investigation.
These jurisprudence are now capsulized in the present rule.
Under this rule, the judge must determine the existence of probable
cause within ten (10) days from the filing of the information.
This is intended to prevent prolonged detention of a person who is
arrested without a warrant, only to turn out that the arrest was not
lawful.
If the accused had already been arrested, the judge must within the
same period often (10) days determine the existence of probable
cause and issue an order of commitment.
The judge may, on the other hand, disregard the prosecutor's report
and require the submission of additional evidence to determine the
existence of probable cause. If the judge still finds no probable
cause, he shall dismiss the case.
c. In cases falling under the original jurisdiction of the municipal trial
court, which require a preliminary investigation, the preliminary
investigation shall be conducted by the prosecutor
1) If such preliminary investigation is conducted by a prosecutor,
the procedure in the preceding section (5a) on the issuance of a
warrant arrest shall be applied upon the filing ol the
information.
Under this situation, probable cause may be determined by the
Judge on the basis of the evidence adduced before the
prosecutor, which conducted the preliminary investigation.
2) Subsection (c) is new provision. When warrant of arrest not
necessary. —A warrant of arrest shall not issue if the accused is
already under detention pursuant to a warrant issued by the
municipal trial court in accordance with paragraph (b) of this
section, or if the complaint or information was filed pursuant to
section 6 of this Rule or is for an offense penalized by fine only.
The court shall then proceed in the exercise of its original
jurisdiction.
Under this subsection, a warrant of arrest need not be issued if
the accused is already under detention pursuant to a warrant
issued by the Municipal Trial Court in accordance with section
(5b) of this rule or if the complaint or information was filed
pursuant to section 6 hereof, the court shall then proceed in the
exercise of its original jurisdiction.
Warrant of Arrest, Defined
A warrant of arrest is a legal process issued by competent
authority, directing the arrest of a person or persons upon
grounds stated therein.
It is usually directed to regular officers of the law, but
occasionally, it is issued to a private person named in it.
John Doe Warrants
Warrant of arrests issued against "John Doe" whom the
witnesses to the complaint could not identify are in the nature of
a general warrant, one of a class of writs long proscribed as
unconstitutional and once anathematized as "totally subversive
of the liberty of the subject."
Such warrants are void because they violate the constitutional
injunction that warrants of arrest should particularly describe the
person or persons to be seized.
Judge May No Longer Rely on FiscaLs Certification
The earlier rulings of the Supreme Court which allows the Judge
in the exercise of its discretion, whether or not to determine the
existence of probable cause and issue a warrant of arrest on the
basis of the Fiscal's Certification which were capsulized in
Circular No. 12, dated November 30, 1987 have in effect been
abandoned by the Supreme Court in the light of the 1987
Constitution which provides that no search warrant or warrant of
arrest shall issue except upon probable cause to be determined
personally by the judge after examination under oath or
affirmation of the complainant and the witnesses he may
produce, and particularly describing the place to be searched
and the persons or things to be seized.
a. The withdrawal started with the case of Soliven v. Makasiar6
decided after the effectivity of the 1987 Constitution where
the Supreme Court then held that the addition of the word
"personally" after the word "determined" underscores the
exclusive and personal responsibility of the issuing judge to
satisfy himself of the existence of probable cause.
In satisfying himself of the existence of probable cause for
the issuance of a warrant of arrest, the judge is not required
to personally examine the complainant and his witnesses.
Following established doctrine and procedure, he shall:
(1) personally evaluate the report and the supporting
documents submitted by the fiscal regarding the
existence of probable cause and, in the basis
129
thereof, issue a warrant of arrest; or
(2) if on the basis thereof he finds no probable cause, he
may disregard the fiscal's report and require the
submission of supporting affidavits of witnesses ;o aid
him in arriving at a conclusion as to the existence of
probable cause.
Sound policy dictates this procedure, otherwise judges
would he unduly laden with the preliminary examination and
investigation of criminal complaints instead of concentrating
on hearing and deciding cases filed before their courts.
b. The doctrine was reiterated in Enrile v. Salazar, holding that
it is not the unavoidable duty of the judge to make a
personal examination, it being sufficient that he follows
established procedure by personally evaluating the report
and the supporting documents submitted by the prosecutor.
* * * the Judge does not have to personally examine the
complainant and his witnesses.
The Prosecutor can perform the same functions as a
commissioner for the taking of the evidence.
However, there should be a report and necessary
documents supporting the Fiscal's bare certification.
All of these should be before the Judge.
The extent of the Judge's personal examination of the report
and its annexes depends on the circumstances of each case.
We cannot determine beforehand how cursory or exhaustive
the Judge's examination should be.
The Judge has to exercise sound discretion for, after all, the
personal determination is vested in the Judge by the
Constitution.
It can be as briefer as detailed as the circumstances of each
case require.
To be sure, the Judge must go beyond the Prosecutor's
certification and investigation report whenever necessary.
He should call for the complainant and witnesses themselves
to answer the court's probing questions when the
circumstances of the case so require.
It is the exclusive and personal responsibility of the issuing
judge to satisfy himself of the existence of probable cause
for the issuance of a warrant of arrest, the judge is not
required to personally examine the complainant and his
witnesses.
Following established doctrine and procedure, he shall:
(1) personally evaluate the report and the supporting
documents submitted by the fiscal regarding the
existence of probable cause and, on the basis thereof,
issue a warrant of arrest; or
(2) if on the basis thereof he finds no probable cause, he
may disregard the fiscal's report and require the
submission of supporting affidavits of witnesses to aid
him in arriving at a conclusion as to the existence of
probable cause.
In Cruz v. People (supra), petitioner would have respondent
court order the production of the records of the preliminary
investigation in its determination of the existence of
probable cause for the issuance of the warrant of arrest.
The Supreme Court held: "First and foremost, as
hereinabove stated, in a preliminary examination for the
issuance of a warrant of arrest, the court is not tasked to
review in detail the evidence submitted during the
preliminary investigation.
It is sufficient that the judge personally evaluates the report
and supporting documents submitted by the prosecution in
determining probable cause."
In Webb u. De Leon, the Supreme Court again reiterated the
doctrine in the seminal case of Soliven v. Makasiar (supra),
in the issuance of warrants of arrest by the RTC. Petitioners
in the Webb case challenged the validity of the warrants of
arrest issued in said case on the following grounds:
(1) the issuance of the warrants of arrest was made in a
matter of few hours;
(2) the failure of the judge to issue orders of arrest;
(3) the records submitted to the trial court were incomplete
and insufficient from which to base a finding of probable
cause; xxx. — petitioners postulate that it was
impossible to conduct a searching examination of
witnesses and evaluation of the documents on the part
of the judge.
After pointing out the differences in the issuance of a search
warrant and a warrant of arrest and its ruling in Soliven v.
Makasiar (supra), the Supreme Court stressed that before
issuing warrants of arrest, judges merely determine
personally the probability, and not the certainty of guilt of
an accused.
In doing so, judges do not conduct a de novo hearing to
determine the existence of probable cause.
They just personally review the initial determination of the
prosecutor finding a probable cause to see if it is supported
by substantial evidence.
The sufficiency of the review process cannot be measured
by merely counting minutes and hours.
The fact that it took the judges a few hours to review and
affirm the probable cause determination of the DOJ panel
does not mean they made no personal evaluation of the
evidence attached to the records of the case.
Explaining its ruling in Allado u. Diokno, which reversed the
trial court's finding of probable cause and ordered the
outright dismissal of the case, the Court stated that the
Allado ruling is predicated on the utter failure of the
evidence to show the existence of probable cause.
Not even the corpus delicti of the crime was established by
the evidence of the prosecution in that case.
Given the clear insufficiency of the evidence on record, the
court there stressed the necessity for the trial judge to
make a further personal examination of the complainant and
his witnesses to reach a correct assessment of the existence
or non existence of probable cause before issuing warrants
of arrest against the accused.
The case at bar rests on a different factual setting.
The various types of evidence extant in the records of the
case provide substantial basis for a finding of probable
cause against the petitioners.
The Court concluded:
"Clearly then, the Constitution, the Rules of Court, and our case law
repudiate the submission of petitioners that respondent judges
should have conducted searching examination of witnesses before
issuing warrants of arrest against them.
They also reject petitioners contention that a judge must first issue
an order of arrest before issuing a warrant of arrest.
There is no law or rule requiring the issuance of an Order of Arrest
prior to a warrant of arrest."
130
Outright Dismissal
The absence of probable cause for the immediate issuance of a
warrant of arrest is not a ground for the quashal of the
information but is a ground for the dismissal of the case under
Section 5[6], Rule 112 which is without prejudice.
The trial court is mandated to immediately dismiss the case upon
finding that no probable cause exists to issue a warrant of arrest
and after having evaluated the resolution of the fiscal and
supporting information.
The Need for Personal Evaluation of Documents Not Merely Resolution
The absence or presence of probable cause is to be determined
from the material avernments of the information the appendages
thereof as enumerated in Rule 112, Section 8 of the Rules.
The Courts attention was again focused on the issuance of
warrants of arrest in the en bane decision in Roberts u. Court of
Appeals, where the court emphasized the need for the court prior
to the issuance of the warrant of arrest to evaluate "the
affidavits, the transcript of stenographic notes (if any), and all
other supporting documents behind the Prosecutor's certification
which are material in assisting the Judge to make his
determination of probable cause."
The teachings then of Soliven, Inting, Lim, Allado, and Webb,
reject the proposition that the investigating prosecutor's
certification in an information or his resolution which is made the
basis for the filing of the information, or both, would suffice in
the judicial determination of probable cause in the judicial
determination of probable cause for the issuance of a warrant of
arrest.
The court went on to explain that in Webb, this Court assumed
that since the respondent Judges had before them not only the
26 page resolution of the investigating panel, but also the
affidavits of the prosecution witnesses and even the counter-
affidavits of the respondents, they (judges) made a personal
evaluation of the evidence attached to the records of the case.
On the Need to Make Separate Finding of Probable
It was held that where, the information was not accompanied by
any document, and there is nothing in the records or evidence
supporting the prosecutor's finding of probable cause except the
Joint Resolution as bases thereof and does not have the records
or evidence supporting the prosecutor's finding of probable
cause, the Court declared the Order for the issuance of the
warrant of arrest as invalid.
The court found it strange that there is no specific finding of
probable cause but a mere directive to issue the warrants of
arrest.
The Court rejected the argument that the directive presupposes
a finding of probable cause.
"Compliance with a constitutional requirement for the protection
of individual liberty cannot be left to presupposition, conjecture
or even convincing logic."
The Court in Roberts rejected the court of appeals' finding that
the Joint Resolution is sufficient in itself to have been relied upon
by the respondent judge in convincing himself that probable
cause indeed exists for the purpose of issuing the corresponding
warrants of arrest.
Thus: "To bolster its finding, the Court of Appeals held that the
mere silence of the records or the absence of any express
declaration in the questioned order of May 17, 1993 as to where
the respondent Judge based his finding of probable cause does
not give rise to any adverse inference on his part.
The fact remains that the Joint Resolution was at respondent
Judge's disposal at the time he issued the Order for the issuance
of the warrants of arrest.
After all, respondent Judge enjoys in his favor the presumption
of regularity in the performance of his official duties.
And this presumption prevails until it is overcomed by clear and
convincing evidence to the contrary.
Every reasonable intendment will be made in support of the
presumption, and in case of doubt as to an officer's act being
lawful or unlawful, it should be construed to be lawful."
The Court expressed its inability to agree with this disquisition,
for it merely assumes at least two things: (1) that respondent
Judge Asuncion had read and relied on the Joint Resolution; and
(2) he was convinced that probable cause exists for the issuance
of warrants of arrest against the petitioners.
Nothing in the records provides reasonable basis for these
assumptions.
In his assailed order, the respondent Judge made no mention of
the Joint Resolution, which was attached to the records of
Criminal Case No. Q-93-43198 on 22 April 1993. Neither did he
state, he found probable cause for the issuance of warrants of
arrest.
And, for an undivinable reason, he directed the issuance of
warrants of arrest only after June 21, 1993. If he did read the
Joint Resolution and, in so reading, found probable cause, there
was absolutely no reason at all to delay for more than one
month the issuance of warrants of arrest.
The most probable explanation for such delay could be that the
respondent Judge had actually wanted to wait for a little while
for the DOJ to resolve the petition for review.
All told, it would seem from the foregoing discourse of the court
that there is need to issue an order finding probable cause prior
to the issuance of a warrant of arrest.
Dissent on Need to Issue Separate Order
The foregoing statements would appear to negate the
pronouncement in Webb that there is no need for the court to
first issue an order of arrest before issuing a warrant of arrest,
and the presumption of regularity resorted to in justifying the
issuance of a warrant of arrest from the mere availability of the
records before the court in Enrile v. Salazar (supra), even in the
absence of a separate finding of probable cause.
In his dissent with the concurrence of Justice Mendoza, Justice
Reynato Puno found as sufficent basis to justify a finding of
probable cause the 17-page Joint Resolution of the Investigating
Prosecutor, and pointed out that Soliven and other related cases
did not establish the absolute rule that unless a judge has the
complete records of the preliminary investigation before him, he
cannot lawfully determine probable cause and issue a warrant of
arrest.
Soliven only held that it is the personal responsibility of the
judge to determine probable cause on the basis of the report and
supporting documents submitted by the fiscal; that he must
independently evaluate the report and supporting documents if
he finds no probable cause on the basis thereof, he can require
submission of additional supporting affidavits of witnesses.
There is nothing in Soliven that requires prosecutors to
physically submit to the judge the complete records of the
preliminary investigation especially if they are voluminous.
Nor is there anything in Soliven that holds the omission to
physically submit the complete records of the case would
constitutionally infirm a finding of probable cause by a judge
even if it was made on the basis of an exhaustive prosecutor's
report or resolution.
Indeed, in Webb v. de Leon, we sustained the finding of probable
cause made by the trial judge even if the complete records of
131
the preliminary investigation were not elevated to the said
judge.
Justice Puno further maintains that there was no need for
respondent Judge to make a finding of probable cause.
"When Judge Asuncion issued the warrants of arrest against
petitioners, I assume as did the respondent Court of Appeals,
that he had studied the Information and 17-page Resolution of
the prosecutors and that he agreed with the prosecutor's
findings of probable cause.
It is unnecesary for him to issue an Order just to reiterate the
findings of the prosecutors, xxx'
Apparently to reconcile these conflicting views, the Court en
bane in Ho v. People, laid down the following principles:
SUMMARY OF PRINCIPLES
The court en banc summed up the following principles:
First, The determination of probable cause by the prosecutor is for a
purpose different from that which is to be made by the judge, Whether
there is reasonable ground to believe that the accused is guilty of the
offense charged and should be held for trial is what the prosecutor passes
upon.
The judge, on the other hand, determines whether a warrant of arrest
should be issued against the accused, i.e., whether there is a necessity for
placing him under immediate custody in order not to frustrate the ends of
justice.
Thus, even il both should base their findings on one and the same
proceeding 01 evidence, there should be no confusion as to their distinct
objectives,
Second, since their objectives are different, the judge cannot rely solely
on the report of the prosecutor in finding probable cause to justify the
issuance of a warrant of arrest.
Obviously and understandably, the contents of the prosecutor's report will
support his own conclusion that there is reason to charge the accused of
an offense and hold him for trial.
However, the judge must decide independently.
Hence, he must have supporting evidence, other than the prosecutor's
bare report, upon which to legally sustain his own findings on the
existence (or nonexistence) of probable cause to issue an arrest order.
This responsibility of determining personally and independently the
existence of nonexistence of probable cause is lodges in him by no less
than the most basic law of the land. Parenthetically, the prosecutor could
ease the burden of the judge and speed up the litigation process by
forwarding to the latter not only the information and his bare resolution
finding probable cause, but also sc much of the records and the evidence
on hand as to enable His honoi to make his personal and separate judicial
finding on whether tc issue a warrant of arrest.
Lastly, it is not required that the complete or entire records oi the case
during the preliminary investigation be submitted to and examined by the
judge.
We do not intend to unduly burden trial courts by obliging them to
examine the complete records of every case all the time simply for the
purpose of ordering the arrest of an accused.
What is required, rather that the judge must have sufficient supporting
documents (such as the complaint, affidavits, counter-affidavits, sworn
statements of witnesses or transcripts of stenographic notes, if any) upon
which to make his independent judgment or, at the very least, upon which
to verify the findings of the prosecutor as to the existence of probable
cause.
The point is: he cannot rely solely and entirely on the prosecutor's
recommendation.
Although the prosecutor enjoys the legal presumption of regularity in the
performance of his official duties and functions, which in turn gives his
report the presumption of accuracy, the Constitution, we repeat,
commands the judge to personally determine probable cause in the
issuance of warrants of arrest.
This Court has consistently held that a judge fails in his bounden duty if
he relies merely on the certification or the report of the investigating
officer.
Thus, a warrant of arrest is void where the court did not personally
determine the existence of probable cause but based the same merely on:
(1) the resolution of the Panel of Investigators of the Ombudsman
recommending the filing of the information, and (2) memorandum of the
office of the Special Prosecutor denying the existence of a prejudicial
question.
The court, however clarified that: "It is not required that the issuing judge
categorically state in his resolution that he personally determined the
existence of probable cause.
It is enough that it may easily be gleaned from the resolution directing
the issuance of the warrant that he performed his duty in accordance with
the constitutional mandate on the matter.
Findings of Probable Cause as Prosecutors Entitled to Highest Respect
The prosecutor's finding of probable cause is entitled to highest
respect.
This is a function that the court should not be called upon to
perform.
As a general rule, if the information is valid on its face and there
is no showing of manifest error, grave abuse of discretion or
prejudice on the part of public prosecutor, courts should not
dismiss it for want of evidence.
While recognizing that the determination by the Prosecutor of
probable cause to hold the accused for trial is an executive
function as distinguished from the determination by the judge in
the issuance of a warrant of arrest is a judicial function, which
must be determined separately, the Court, nonetheless ruled
that the findings of the prosecutor is entitled to the highest
respect.
Thus, "Verily, a judge cannot be compelled to issue a warrant of
arrest if he or she deems that there is no probable cause for
doing so.
Corollary to this principle, the judge should not override the
public prosecutor's determination of probable cause to hold an
accused for trial, on the ground that the evidence presented to
substantiate the issuance of an arrest warrant was insufficient,
as in the present case.
Indeed, it would be unfair to expect, the prosecution to present
all the evidence needed to secure the conviction of the accused
upon the filing of the information against the latter.
The reason is found in the nature and the objective of a
preliminary investigation.
Here, the public prosecutors do not decide whether there is
evidence beyond reasonable doubt of the guilt of the person
charged; they merely determine "whether there is sufficient
ground to engender a well-founded belief that a crime x x x has
been committed and that the respondent is probably guilty
thereof, and should be held for trial."
Evidentiary matters must be presented and heard during the
trial.
Therefore, if the information is valid on its face, and there is no
showing of manifest error, grave abuse of discretion and
prejudice on the part of the public prosecutor, the trial court
should respect such determination.
The court stressed that its rulings in Allado v. Diokno and
Salonga v. Pano, which set aside the trial court's finding's on the
existence of probable cause, are exceptions to the general rule
and may be invoked only if similar circumstances are clearly
shown to exist.
Ruling Does Not Deviate from Need of Personal Evaluation
The foregoing principles refer to the findings of the prosecutor
for the purpose of filing the case in court which should be
distinguished from the determination by the judge of probable
cause foi the issuance of a warrant of arrest.
132
Thus, although the prosecutor enjoys the legal presumption of
regularity in the performance of his official duties, which in turn
gives his report the presumption of accuracy, nothing less than
the fundamental law of the land commands the judge to
personally determine probable cause in the issuance of warrants
of arrest.
A judge fails in this constitutionally mandated duty if he relies
merely on the certification or report of the investigating officer.
In merely stating that he had no reason to doubt the validity of
the certification made by the investigating prosecutor, the judge
has abdicated his duty under the constitution to determine on
his own the issue of probable cause before issuing a warrant of
arrest.
Consequently, the warrant of arrest should be declared null and
void.
In Cojuangco v. Sandiganbayan, the court declared the warrant
of arrest issued in said case void because the respondent court
did not personally determine the existence of probable cause but
based the same merely on:
(1) the resolution of the Panel of Investigators of the
Ombudsman recommending the filing of the informa-
tion and
(2) memorandum of the Office of the Special Prosecutor
denying the existence of a prejudicial questions.
The Judge may order the production of the records and
determine on the basis thereof the existence of probable cause
or return the record and direct the Fiscal to conduct further
investigation.
Effect of Refusal by Prosecution to Adduce Additional Evidence
The Court held that the trial court may disregard the Fiscal's
report and require submission of supporting affidavits of
witnesses.
The failure or refusal of the petitioner to present further
evidence, although a good ground for the respondent Judge not
to issue a warrant of arrest, is not a legal cause for dismissal.
The judge was directed to proceed with the case, it being
understood that, if within ten (10) days after notice by the
judge, the petitioner fails or refuses to present other evidence,
the dismissal will stand for lack of prosecution.
However, va.Alla.do v. Diokno, it was held that the Judge may
dismiss the case outright for lack of probable cause.
Determination of Probable Cause for Issuance of Warrant of Arrest
No Need of Conducting Hearing For Judicial determination of
Probabe Cause to Issue Warrant
Under the present rule the Rule does not require case to be set
for hearing to determine probable cause for the issuance of a
warrant for the arrest of the accused.
If the judge finds probable cause on the basis thereof, he shall
issue a warrant of arrest or, if the accused has already been
arrested, a commitment order otherwise.
He may either dismiss the case outright or to aid him in
determining the existence of probable cause; require additional
evidence within then (10) days from notice should the Judge still
find no probable cause, he shall dismiss the case.
The Court in Government of the United States of America v.
Hon. Guillermo G. Purganan, held that:
To determine probable cause for the issuance of arrest warrants,
the Constitution itself requires only the examination — under
oath or affirmation — of complainants and the witnesses they
may produce.
There is no requirement to notify and hear the accused before
the issuance of warrants of arrest.
In Ho v. People and in all the cases cited therein, never was a
judge required to go to the extent of conducting a hearing just
for the purpose of personally determining probable cause for the
issuance of a warrant of arrest.
All we required was that the "judge must have sufficient
supporting documents upon which to make his independent
judgment, or at the very least, upon which to verify the findings
of the prosecutor as to the existence of probable cause."
In Webb v. De Leon, the Court categorically stated that a judge
was not supposed to conduct a hearing before issuing a warrant
of arrest:
"Again, we stress that before issuing warrants of arrest, judges
merely determine personally the probability, not the certainty of
guilt of an accused.
In doing so, judges do not conduct a de novo hearing to
determine the existence of probable cause.
They just personally review the initial determination of the pros-
ecutor finding a probable cause to see if it is supported by sub-
stantial evidence."
At most, in cases of clear insufficiency of evidence on record,
judges merely further examine complainants and their
witnesses.
Validating the act of respondent judge and instituting the
practice of hearing the accused and his witnesses at this early
stage would be discordant with the rationale for the entire
system.
If the accused were allowed to be heard and necessarily to
present evidence during the prima facie determination for the
issuance of a warrant of arrest, what would stop him from
presenting his entire plethora of defenses at this stage — if he so
desires — in his effort to negate a prima facie finding?
Such a procedure could convert the determination of a prima
facie case into a full-blown trial of the entire proceedings and
possibly make trial of the main case superfluous.
This scenario is also anathema to the summary nature of
extraditions.
The Accused is not, however, Prohibited from Filing a Motion to Dismiss on
the Ground of Lack of Probable Cause
It has been held that the absence of probable cause for the
immediate issuance of a warrant of arrest is not a ground for the
quashal of the information but is a ground for the dismissal of
the case under Section 6 (now Sec. 5), Rule 112 which is
without prejudice.
The trial court is mandated to immediately dismiss the case upon
finding that no probable cause exists to issue a warrant of arrest
and after having evaluated the resolution of the fiscal and
supporting information.
If the Court may motu propio dismiss the case for lack of
probable cause then it could do so when a motion to dismiss on
such ground is filed as was done va.Allado u. Diokno.
In cases governed by the Rule on Summary Procedure, the court
may likewise dismiss the case outright, for patently being
without basis or merit and order the release of the accused if in
custody.
SEC. 6.
When accused lawfully arrested without warrant
COMMENT:
133
THE FORMER RULE EMBRACED ONLY LAWFUL ARRESTS
FOR CRIMES COGNIZABLE BY THE REGIONAL TRIAL
COURT.
In view, however, of the expanded cases, which require preliminary
investigation even of cases that are not cognizable by the Regional Trial
Court as now defined in section 1 hereof, the present section was
accordingly amended.
Under the amendment, a complaint or information may only be filed after
an inquest conducted in accordance with existing rules;
Provided, however, That in the absence or unavailability of an inquest
prosecutor, the complaint may be filed by the offended party or a peace
officer directly with the proper court on the basis of the affidavit of the
offended party or arresting officer or person.
The former rule allows a direct filing in court in cases of lawful arrest
without a warrant except in Metropolitan Manila and chartered cities,
without an inquest.
However, before the filing of such complaint or information, the person
arrested may ask for a preliminary investigation by a proper officer in
accordance with this Rule, but he must sign a waiver of the provisions of
Article 125 of the Revised Penal Code, as amended.
Under the former rule, the waiver may be made with the assistance of a
lawyer and in case of non-availability of a lawyer, a responsible person of
his choice.
Under the amended rule, the waiver may be made only IN THE PRESENCE
OF HIS COUNSEL pursuant to Section 2 ofRA. No. 7438.2
The former rule provides that if a lawyer is unavailable, a responsible
person of his own choice would be sufficient.
This was, however deleted in view of the provisions of section 2 of R.A.
No. 7438 limiting the assistance to that of a lawyer, which in this case
appears to be restrictive.
If the case has been filed in court without a preliminary investigation the
accused may, within five (5) days from the time he learns of its filing, ask
for a preliminary investigation with the same right to adduce evidence in
his DEFENSE AS provided in this Rule.
The request for preliminary investigation should be made before plea,
otherwise the right to ask for a preliminary investigation shall be deemed
waived.
NOTES
The rule was originally taken from section 15 of Rule 112,
"where the accused is detained without a warrant for his arrest"
which in turn was taken from Republic Act No. 409, as amended
by Republic Act No. 1201, which reads:
"In all cases brought to the Office of the City Fiscal involving crimes
cognizable by the Court of First Instance, where the accused is not
already in the legal custody of the police, no complaint or information
shall be filed without first giving the accused a chance to be heard in a
preliminary investigation, where such accused can be subpoenaed and
appears before the investigating fiscal, with the right to cross-examine the
complainant and his witnesses: Provided, That when the accused is
detained, he may ask for a preliminary investigation, but he must sign a
waiver of the provisions of Article One Hundred Twenty-five of the Revised
Penal Code, as amended: And provided, further, That if the case has
already been filed in court, he may ask for a reinvestigation thereof later
on with the same right to cross-examine the witnesses against him:
Provided, finally, That notwithstanding such waiver, the said investigation
must be terminated within seven days from its inception."
The rule as now modified refers to all persons lawfully arrested
without a warrant for an offense which requires a preliminary
investigation.
There are two (2) situations contemplated under this rule:
First, is when the person is lawfully arrested without a warrant
for an offense which requires a preliminary investigation, and no
complaint or information has yet been filed, in which case, he
may ask for a preliminary investigation by signing a waiver of
the provisions of Article 125 of the Revised Penal Code. To
prevent pro longed detention pending preliminary investigation,
the accused may apply for bail even if no information have been
filed.
In any event the preliminary investigation must be terminated
within fifteen (15) days from its inception.
Second, when a person is lawfully arrested without a warrant
for an offense which requires a preliminary investigation and the
complaint or information was filed by the offended party, peace
officer or fiscal without a preliminary investigation in which case
the accused may within five (5) days from the time he learns of
the filing of the information, ask for a preliminary investigation
with the same right to adduce evidence in his favor in the
manner prescribed in the Rule.
The Inquest
Inquest is an informal and summary investigation conducted by
a public prosecutor in criminal case involving persons arrested
and detained without the benefit of a warrant of arrest issued by
the court for the purpose of determining whether or not said
persons should remain under custody and correspondingly be
charged in court.
To safeguard the rights of the accused who was arrested without
a warrant, Department Circular No. 61, dated September 21,
1993, requires the arresting officer to bring the arrestee before
the inquest fiscal who shall determine whether or not said
person should remain in custody and correspondingly be charged
in court or that he be released either for lack of evidence or
further investigation.
The custodial investigation report shall be reduced to writing by
the investigating officer, provided that before such report is
signed, or thumbmarked if the person arrested or detained does
not know how to read and write, it shall be read and adequately
explained to him by his counsel or by the assisting counsel
provided by the investigating officer in the language or dialect
known to such arrested or detained person, otherwise, such
investigation report shall be null and void and of no effect
whatsoever.
The rule is not applicable if the person is not lawfully arrested
without a warrant
It was thus held in Go v. Court of Appeals, Larranaga v. Court of
Appeals:
"WHEN THE POLICE FILED A COMPLAINT FOR
FRUSTRATED HOMICIDE WITH THE PROSECUTOR, THE
LATTER SHOULD HAVE IMMEDIATELY SCHEDULED A
PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION TO DETERMINE WHETHER
THERE WAS PROBABLE CAUSE FOR CHARGING
PETITIONER IN COURT FOR THE KILLING OFELDON
MAGUAN.
Instead, the Prosecutor proceeded under the erroneous supposition that
Section 7 of Rule 112 was applicable and required petitioner to waive the
provisions of Article 125 of the Revised Penal Code as a condition for
carrying out a preliminary investigation.
This was substantive error, for petitioner was entitled to a preliminary
investigation and that right should have been accorded him without any
conditions.
Moreover, since petitioner had not been arrested, with or without a
warrant, he was also entitled to be released forthwith subject only to his
appearing at the preliminary investigation."
However, since an information had already been filed and the
absence of a preliminary investigation does not impair the
validity of the information or affect the jurisdiction of the court,
the Supreme Court instead of ordering the dismissal of the case
directed the fiscal to conduct a preliminary investigation and
allowed the accused in the meantime to post bail."
Period to File Motion For Preliminary InvestigatioN
The period for filing a motion for preliminary investigation after
an information has been filed against an accused who was
arrested without a warrant has been characterized as mandatory
134
by the court.
In People v. Figueroa, the Supreme Court applied a substantially
similar rule held that as the accused in that case did no exercise
his right within the five-day period, his motion for reinvestigation
was denied.
The case should be distinguished from Rolito Go v. Court o,
Appeals (supra).
In said case, Go not only asked for preliminary investigation on
the very day the information was filed, but he is also clearly
entitled to a preliminary investigation.
Section 7, Rule 112 is clearly not applicable because Go was not
lawfully arrested, the right to demand preliminary investigation
was subject to the condition that he should claim it seasonably.
He did not do so.
Accordingly, he effectively waived his right to a preliminary
investigation
The Right To Bail Pending Preliminary Investigation
It may be noted that under Section 7 (now Sec. 6) of Rule 112, i
person lawfully arrested may post bail before the filing of the
information or even after its filing without waiving his right to
preliminary investigation, provided that he asks for a preliminary
investigation by the proper officer within the period fixed in the
said rule."
Waiver of Illegal Arrest
The accused may be estopped to question the illegality of the
arrest by entering a plea of not guilty without moving to quash
th information on such ground.
Thus, any irregularity attendant to an arrest was cured when
accused voluntarily submitted himself to the jurisdiction of the
Court by entering a plea of not guilty "and [by] participating in
the trial."
Where the Warrant of Arrest is void for want of probable cause,
the appropriate remedy is certiorari and prohibition with prayer
for the issuance of a TRO rather than actively participate in the
proceeding.
SEC. 7.
Records
SEC. 8.
Cases not requiring a preliminary investigation nor
 covered by the Rule on Summary Procedure
Warrant of Arrest in Cases which Do Not Require Preliminary Investigation
In cases which falls under the original jurisdiction of the
municipal trial court, which does not require a preliminary
investigation nor does it fall under the Rules on Summary
Procedure, the case may either be filed in court by a prosecutor
or directly filed in court by the offended party.
The amended rule in the issuance of warrants of arrest by the
Municipal Trial Courts for actions filed in the exercise of its
original Jurisdiction provides for two distinct situations.
The case may be filed directly in the municipal trial court or by
the prosecutor in Metro Manila or other chartered cities.
If the complaint is filed with the PROSECUTOR for offenses which
do not require a preliminary investigation the procedure outlined
in Section 3(a) of this Rule shall be observed.
Under Section 3(a), the complaint shall state the known address
of the respondent and be accompanied by affidavits of the
complainant and his witnesses as well as other supporting
documents RELIED UPON BY HIM TO ESTABLISH PROBABLE
CAUSE, in such manner of copies as there are respondent, plus
two (2) copies for the official file.
The said affidavits shall be sworn to before any PROSECUTOR,
state prosecutor or government official authorized to administer
oath, or, in their absence or unavailability, a notary public, who
must certify that he personally examined the affiants and that he
is satisfied that they voluntarily executed and understood their
affidavits.
The prosecutor shall take appropriate action based on the
affidavits and other supporting documents submitted by the
complainant WITHIN TEN (10) DAYS FROM ITS FILING.
In other words, he may either dismiss the case or file it in court
without any further investigation since this refers to cases that
are not entitled to preliminary investigation.
The Prosecutor has no authority to issue a warrant of arrest.
It is only the court that may do so.
A case cognizable by the Municipal Trial Court may, however, be
filed in court directly by the complainant or by the prosecutor,
without preliminary investigation.
Options of the Judge
The Judge has three (3) options in the issuance of a warrant of
arrest:
A. Where filed directly with the municipal trial court. — if the
complaint or information is filed directly with the municipal
trial court.
The procedure in section 3(a) of this rule shall be observed.
If the judge finds no sufficient ground to hold the
respondent for trial, he shall dismiss the complaint or
information.
Otherwise, he shall issue a warrant of arrest or a
commitment order if the accused had already been arrested,
after personally examining in writing and under oath the
complainant and his witnesses in the form of searching
questions and answers, or
B. He may personally evaluate the affidavits and supporting
evidence attached to the complaint or information if on the
basis thereof he finds no probable cause, he may require the
submission of additional evidence to aid him in determining
the existence of probable cause.
C. However, instead of issuing a warrant of arrest, the court
may issue summons if it is satisfied that there is no
necessity for placing the accused under immediate custody.
No warrant of arrest shall issue for offenses which fall under
the original jurisdiction of the court if such warrant had
already been issued during the preliminary investigation by
the same court pursuant to section 6(b) [now sec. 5] of this
rule the court shall instead proceed to hear the case in the
exercise of its original jurisdiction.
No warrant of arrest may be also be issued for cases
covered by the Revised Rule on Summary Procedure.
The No Necessity Rule
The "necessity" rule restores the 1985 amendment which was
deleted in 1988.
The statement that the judge determines whether there is need
for placing the accused under custody in order not to frustrate
the ends of justice only applies to warrants of arrest issued by
the Municipal Judge during a preliminary investigation.
135
Discretion to Dispense with Searching Questions
The foregoing provisions have provided an alternative mode of
determining probable cause in cases filed for trial by allowing the
municipal judge to personally evaluate the affidavits and
supporting evidence of the complainant or if on the basis thereof
he finds no probable cause he may require the submission of
additional evidence to aid him in arriving at a conclusion as to
the existence of probable cause.
This is in line with the pragmatic interpretation by the Supreme
Court that under the Constitution the judge does not have to
conduct a personal examination of the witnesses but that for
purposes of determining probable cause for the issuance of a
warrant of arrest, the Judge must personally evaluate the
prosecutor's report, the evidence adduced during the preliminary
investigation.
These jurisprudence are now capsulized in the present rule,
where the judge needs only to evaluate the report of the
Prosecutor and the supporting documents.
Sound policy dictates this procedure, otherwise judges would be
unduly laden with the preliminary examination and investigation
of criminal complaints instead of concentrating on hearing and
deciding cases filed before their courts.
Meaning of Personal Examination
Where the respondent judge personally examined the witnesses
for the prosecution adopting as his own personal examination
the questions asked by the investigating officer as appearing in
the written statements, which he read over again to the
witnesses together with the answers given therein, asking the
witnesses whether said answers were theirs, and whether the
same answers were true, to which the witnesses answered in the
affirmative, the court considered this as sufficient. Republic Act
No. 3838 does not prohibit the municipal judge from adopting
the questions asked by a previous investigator.
Meaning of Examination under Oath
The finding of the trial court that the complaint was "supported
by statements of the witnesses under oath" and the record also
shows the sworn statements of the witnesses to have been
subscribed and sworn to before respondent Judge, satisfies the
second requirement.
Meaning of Searching Questions and Answers
The term "searching questions and answers" means only, taking
into consideration the purpose of the preliminary examination
which is to determine "whether there is a reasonable ground to
believe that an offense has been committed and the accused is
probably guilty thereof so that a warrant of arrest may be issued
and the accused held for trial," such questions as have tendency
to show the commission of a crime and the perpetrator thereof.
What would be searching questions would depend on what is
sought to be inquired into, such as: the nature of the offense,
the date, time and place of its commission, the possible motives
for its commission; the subject, his age, education, status,
financial and social circumstances, his attitude toward the
investigation, social attitudes, opportunities to commit the
offense; the victim, his age, status, family responsibilities,
financial and social circumstances, characteristics, etc. the points
that are the subject of inquiry may differ from case to case.
The questions, therefore, must to a great degree depend upon
the judge making the investigation.
At any rate, the court a quo found that respondent Judge was
"satisfied that the questions and answers contained in the sworn
statements taken by T-Sgt. Patosa partake of the nature of his
searching questions and answers as required by law," so the
respondent Judge adopted them."
Preliminary Examination May be Ex-parte
Preliminary examination is not an essential part of due process
of law. Preliminary examination may be conducted by the
municipal judge, prior to the issuance of the warrant of arrest,
either in the presence, or in the absence, of the accused.
There is no need of warrant or bail in cases covered by the Rule
on Summary Procedure.
RULE 113
ARREST
SECTION 1.
Definition of arrest
SEC. 2.
Arrest; how made
What Constitutes Arrest
The act relied upon as constituting an arrest must have been
performed with the intent to effect an arrest and must have
been so understood by the party arrested.
Also, the person making the arrest must be acting under some
real or pretended legal authority for taking the person into
custody.
It is not necessary, however, that there be an application of
actual force, or manual touching of the body, or physical
restraint which may be visible to the eye, or a formal declaration
of arrest.
It is sufficient if the person arrested understands that he is in
the power of the one arresting and submits in consequence.
However, in all cases in which there is no manual touching or
seizure or any resistance, the intentions of the parties to the
transaction are very important; there must have been an intent
an the part of one of them to arrest the other, and an intent on
the part of the other to submit, under the belief and impression
that submission was necessary.
There can be no arrest when the person sought to be arrested is
not conscious of any restraint of his liberty.
But the mere submission of a person whether pretended or
actual, will not constitute an arrest, if he is not at the time
actually within the power of the officer.
If an officer having authority to make an arrest lays his hand
upon the person of the prisoner, however lightly, with the
intention of taking him into custody, there is an arrest, even
though he has not succeeded in stopping or holding him even for
an instant.
An arrest signifies restraint on person, depriving one of his own
will and liberty, binding him to become obedient to the will of the
law.
No Unnecessary or Unreasonable Force shall be Used in Making Arrest
Although an officer in making a lawful arrest is justified in using
such force as is reasonably necessary to secure and detain the
offender, overcome his resistance, prevent his escape, recapture
him if he escapes, and protect himself from bodily harm, yet he
is never justified in using unnecessary force or in treating him
with wanton violence, or in resorting to dangerous means when
the arrest could be effected otherwise.
The doctrine is restated in the Rules of Court thus: "No violence
or unnecessary or unreasonable force shall be used in making an
arrest, and the person arrested shall not be subject to any
greater restraint than is necessary for his detention."
And a peace officer cannot claim exemption from criminal
liability if he uses unnecessary force or violence in making an
arrest.
136
Arrest of Notorious Criminal
The court noted in one case: "It is suggested that a notorious
criminal 'must be taken by storm' without regard to his right to
life which he has by such notoriety already forfeited.
This Court may approve of this standard of official conduct where
the criminal offers resistance or does something which places his
captors in danger of imminent attack.
Otherwise, this court cannot see how, as in the present case, the
mere fact of notoriety can make the life of a criminal a mere
trifle in the hands of the officers of the law.
Notoriety rightly supplies a basis for redoubled official alertness
and vigilance; it never can justify precipitate action at the cost of
human life.
Where, as here, the precipitate action of the appellants has cost
an innocent life and there exist no circumstances whatsoever to
warrant action of such character in the mind of a reasonably
prudent man, condemnation — not condonation should be the
rule; otherwise, this Court would offer a premium to crime in the
shelter of official actuation.
Thus, it may be true that Anseimo Balagtas was a notorious
criminal, a life-termer, a fugitive from justice and a menace to
the peace of the community but these facts alone constitute no
justification for killing him when, in effecting his arrest, he offers
no resistance, or in fact no resistance can be offered, as when he
is asleep.
This, in effect, is the principle laid down, although upon different
facts."
Force Necessary to Overcome Actual Resistance to Arrest
In People v. Delima, a prisoner escaped from jail. He was found armed
with a pointed piece of bamboo in the shape of a lance. Accused
policeman asked him to surrender but prisoner answered with a stroke of
his lance. The policeman fired his revolver but did not hit the criminal who
ran away. He pursued, firing and killing the prisoner.
Held: The killing was done in the performance of a duty.
The deceased was under the obligation to surrender, and had no right,
after evading service of his sentence, to commit assault and disobedience
with a weapon in the hand, which compelled the policeman to resort to
extreme means, which, although it proved to be fatal, was justified by
circumstances.
In another case, the deceased was creating a disturbance when
the defendant, a policeman, attempted to arrest him and take
him to the presidensia.
The deceased resisted the arrest by striking the accused with a
calicut whereupon the latter shot him with his revolver causing
the former's death.
The Court held: "Although a police officer may employ force to
overcome active resistance to an arrest, it is not reasonably
necessary to kill his assailant" to repel an attack with a calicut,
and only an incomplete defense is made out.
A police officer is not justified in using unnecessary force in
effecting arrest or in treating with wanton violence the arrested
person or in resorting to dangerous means when the arrest could
be affected otherwise.
Police Officer Must Stand His Ground
In U.S. v. Mojica— One of the Constabulary soldiers, the deceased, was
placed under arrest. He resisted and finally succeeded in freeing himself.
He then struck a policeman with the fist, drew a mess kit knife and
brandishing it attacked the accused, another policeman. The accused
retreated a step or two, drew his revolver and fired killing the soldier.
Held: A police officer, in the performance of his duty, must stand his
ground and cannot, like a private individual, take refuge in flight, his duty
requires him to overcome his opponent. The force requires him to
overcome his opponent.
The force which he may exert therefore differ somewhat from that which
may ordinarily be offered in self-defense.
Bearing this in mind, we do not think that the appellant in using his
revolver against the deceased can be said to have employed unnecessary
force.
The deceased attacked him with a deadly weapon; he might perhaps,
have saved himself by running away, but this his duty forbade.
Was he to allow himself to be stabbed before using his arms?
It may, perhaps, be argued that the appellant might have used his club,
but a policeman's club is not a very effective weapon as against a drawn
knife and a police officer is not required to afford a person attacking him
the opportunity for a fair and equal struggle.
SEC. 3.
Duty of Arresting Officer
COMMENT:
As a matter of law, when a person indicted for an offense is
arrested, he is deemed placed under custody of the law.
He is placed in actual restraint to liberty in jail so that he may be
bound to answer for the commission of the offense.
He must be detained in jail during the pendency of the case
against him, unless he is authorized by the court to be released
on bail or on recognizance.
The prisoner whether under preventive detention or serving fail
sentence can not practice their profession nor engage in any
business or occupation or hold office, elective or appointee, while
in detention.
This is a necessary consequence of arrest and detention.
SEC. 4.
Execution of Warrant
The rule does not require a return of the warrant of arrest but
only a report to the judge who issued the warrant and, in case of
the officer's failure to execute the same, shall state the reasons
therefor.
A warrant of arrest does not become stale or functus oficio
unlike a search warrant which is valid only for ten days.
A warrant of arrest remains valid until arrest is effected or the
warrant lifted.
SEC. 5.
Arrest without warrant; when Lawful
Amendments to the Rule, Explained
a. Former Rule (1964)
Sec. 6, Rule 113
b. When an offense has in fact been committed, and he has
reasonable ground to believe that the person to be arrested
has committed it; and
1985 AMENDMENT
b) When an offense has in fact just been committed, and he
has personal knowledge of facts indicating that the person
to be arrested has committed it; and
137
Reason For 1985 Amendment
In 1985, the rule, which was transposed to section 5 of Rule
113, introduced a significant change.
Subsection (b) of section 5, Rule 113 inserted the word "just"
before been committed, and the phrase "he has reasonable
ground to believe" was changed to "he has personal knowledge
of facts" to minimize arrests based on mere suspicion or
hearsay.
Controversy arose in the interpretation of what are those fact
which must be within the personal knowledge of the person
effecting the arrest?
Otherwise stated, what are the facts indicating that the person
to be arrested has committed the crime.
The restrictive interpretation is that the facts constituting the
crime must be personally known by the person effecting the
arrest, hence, there are cases which excluded even an
eyewitness identification allegedly because of lack of personal
knowledge by the arresting officer.
The Revised Rules on Criminal Procedure
As revised, the present rule reads:
"(B) WHEN AN OFFENSE HAS JUST BEEN COMMITTED AND
HE HAS PROBABLE CAUSE TO BELIEVE BASED ON
PERSONAL KNOWLEDGE OF FACTS OR CIRCUMSTANCES
THAT THE PERSON TO BE ARRESTED HAS COMMITTED IT."
The present rule removed the requirement that an offense must
have in fact been committed and clarified that probable cause to
believe based on personal knowledge of facts refer to "facts and
circumstances" that the person to be arrested has committed it.
Such knowledge would be sufficient to justify a warrantless
arrest for an offense that has just been committed.
The amendment is in accord with Supreme Court decisions that
the indubitable existence of a crime is not necessary to justify a
warrantless arrest and that 'personal knowledge of facts,' in
arrests without warrant must be based upon probable cause,
which means an actual belief or reasonable grounds of suspicion.
The grounds of suspicion are reasonable when, in the absence of
actual belief of the arresting officers, the suspicion that the
person to be arrested is probably guilty of committing the
offense, is based on actual facts, i.e., supported by
circumstances sufficiently strong in themselves to create the
probable cause of guilt of the person to be arrested.

A reasonable suspicion therefore must be founded on probable
cause, coupled "with good faith on the part of the peace officers
making the arrest.
The only difference is that in flagrante arrests, under subpar.
(a), the facts constituting probable cause occur in the presence
of the arresting person, while in hot pursuit, knowledge of the
facts occurred after the commission of the crime.
Although probable cause eludes exact and concrete definition, it
generally signifies a reasonable ground of suspicion supported by
circumstances sufficiently strong in themselves to warrant a
cautious man to believe that the person is guilty of the offense
with which he is charged.
It, likewise, refers to the existence of such facts and
circumstances which could lead a reasonably discreet and
prudent man to believe that an offense has been committed and
that the item(s), article(s) or object(s) sought in connection with
said offense or subject to seizure and destruction by law is in the
place to be searched.
Personal Knowledge of Facts Constituting Probable Cause
In its resolution denying the Motion for Reconsideration in the
Umil v. Ramos cases, the majority opinion explained the
meaning of Personal Knowledge of Facts (under section 5[b]), as
follows:
"It has been ruled that 'personal knowledge of facts,' in arrests without
warrant must be based upon probable cause, which means an actual
belief or reasonable grounds of suspicion.
The grounds of suspicion are reasonable when, in the absence of
actual belief of the arresting officers, the suspicion that the
person to be arrested is probably guilty of committing the
offense, is based on actual facts, i.e., supported by
circumstances sufficiently strong in themselves to create the
probable cause of guilt of the person to be arrested.
A reasonable suspicion therefore must be founded on probable
cause, coupled "with good faith on the part of the peace officers
making the arrest."
The foregoing standards were again adopted in warrantless "hot
pursuit" arrest in the 1999 case of People v. Doria.
As observed by an eminent author there does not exist (and
never will exist) a "bright line" marking the exact boundaries of
probable cause, so that a warrant should be upheld when the
initial judgment of the magistrate could considerably have gone
either way.
General Principles; Warrantless Arrest Not Allowed
a. As a general rule, no peace officer or person has the power
or authority to arrest anyone without a warrant except in
those cases expressly authorized by law.
The law expressly allowing arrests without a warrant is
found in Section 5, Rule 113 of the Rules of Court.
A warrantless arrest under circumstances contemplated
under Sec. 5(a) has been denominated as one "in flagrante
delicto" while that under Section 5(b) has been described as
a "hot pursuit arrest."
b. A peace officer has no power or authority to arrest a person
without a warrant upon complaint of the offended party or
any other person, except in those cases expressly
authorized by law.
What he or the complainant may do in such case is to file a
complaint with the city fiscal in cities, or directly with the
justice of the peace courts (now municipal courts) in
municipalities and other political subdivisions.
If the city fiscal has no authority, and he has not, to order
the arrest of a person charged with having committed a
public offense even if he finds, after due investigation, that
there is a probability that a crime has been committed and
the accused is guilty thereof, a fortiori a police officer has no
authority to arrest and detain a person charged with an
offense upon complaint of the offended party or other
persons even though after investigation, he becomes
convinced that the accused is guilty of the offense charged.
c. Section 2463 of Revised Administrative Code recognized as
basis for warrantless arrest was repealed by R.A. No. 409
otherwise known as the Charter of Manila.
Exception
The rules recognize and allow arrests without warrant and a
search and seizure without warrant incident to a lawful arrest
whether the arrest is with or without a warrant.
As stated in People v. Kaqui Malasugui, the Constitutional
precepts do not prohibit arrests, searches and seizures without
judicial warrant, but only those that are unreasonable.
To hold that no criminal can in any case be arrested and
searched for the evidence and tokens of his crime without a
warrant, would be to leave society, to a large extent, at the
mercy of the shrewdest, the most expert, and the most
138
depraved of criminals, facilitating their escape in many
instances.
It is the duty of a policeman to arrest those who disturb an
assemblage by words and blows constituting a breach of the
peace and the defendant who requested the arrest and the
officer who made it did not incur criminal responsibility.
Municipal councilors and lieutenants or "barrios" are charged
with duty of maintaining order, and preserving and protecting
life and property in the "barrios" specially placed under their
direction in conformity with Sec. 37 of Act No. 82, and are
therefore clothed with authority to make arrests without
warrants, not inferior to those powers usually conferred upon
peace officers, more especially those of peace officers known as
"constables" in American and English law.
Thus, the Lieutenant of a "barrio" was held to be within lawful
performance of his duties when he attempted to arrest a person
caught in flagrante delicto conducting a clandestine cockpit.
Any officer charged with the preservation of the public peace
may arrest without a warrant any person who is committing, or
has committed, a breach of peace in his presence.
Source of Rule on Warrantless Arrest
a. A warrantless arrest in this jurisdiction as an exception to
the constitutional prohibition against unreasonable search
and seizure was originally governed by Rules 27, 28, 29 and
30 of the Provisional Law for the Application of the Penal
Code, which authorized among others the arrest of persons
when there is reasonable ground to believe him guilty of
some offense, provided:
First. That the authority or agent had reasonable cause to
believe that an unlawful act, amounting to crime had been
committed.
Second. That the authority or agent had sufficient reason to
believe that the person arrested participated in the
commission of such unlawful act or crime.
The Supreme Court in the 1909 case U.S. v. Fortaleza
(supra), likewise pointed to section 37 of Act No. 183
(Charter of Manila) which designated customs officials,
including police officers or peace officers who may pursue
and arrest without warrant, any person found in suspicious
places or under suspicious circumstances reasonably tending
to show that such person has committed, or is about to
commit any crime or breach of the peace; or may arrest, or
cause to be arrested without warrant, any offender, when
 the offense is committed in the presence of a peace officer
or within his view.
b. The extent of a peace officers' arrest powers in the
Philippines without warrant and the limitations therein was
upheld by the Supreme Court in the 1917 case of U.S. v.
Santos and as stated in the Legislature in the Charter of the
City of Manila and (2) the Administrative Code and (3) Sec.
2258, edition of 1917 which enjoins Municipal policemen to
"exercise vigilance in the prevention of public offenses.
The decision, likewise cited the common law rule on the
arrest of suspicious night walkers.
c. In the 1939 case of People v. Ancheta— the Supreme Court
pointed to section 848 of the Administrative Code and
Article 124 of the Revised Penal Code as allowing members
of the Constabulary or policemen to make arrests without
warrant, not only when a crime is being committed or is
about to be committed in their presence, but also when they
reasonably believe or have grounds to suspect that a crime
has been committed and that it has been committed
precisely by the person arrested.
d. Under Commonwealth Act No. 181 (Sec. 3), an arrest
without warrant may be made by agents of the Department
of Justice (i.e., the Chief of the Division of Investigation and
his subordinates) for a crime which has been committed in
their presence, or within their view, or in cases where the
person making the arrests has reasonable grounds to
strongly believe that the person so arrested is guilty of such
crime and where there is likelihood of the person escaping
before a legal warrant can be obtained for his arrest, but the
person arrested shall be immediately taken before the
competent Court of Justice.
Under this law members of the investigation staff of the
Bureau of Investigation shall be peace officers and as such
have the power to make arrests, searches and seizure in
accordance with existing laws and rules.
Earlier Rulings (Before 1940): Arrest Based on Suspicion, Were Held Valid
The bases of the rulings are Rules 27 and 28, Provisional Rules
for Application of Penal Code, Revised Administrative Code and
Section 37 Charter of Manila which allows warrantless arrest
based on reasonable ground of belief.
The following cases are illustrative:
a. U.S. u. Burgueta— warrantless arrest of accused while
quarreling in public with Municipal Councilor.
b. U.S. v. Fortaleza — upholding warrantless arrest of operator
by barrio lieutenant of a clandestine, cockpit operation.
c. U.S. u. Samonte - Meaning of committed in one's presence
— Seeing or Hearing at a Distance. An offense is committed
in the presence or within the view of an officer, within the
meaning of the rule authorizing an arrest without a warrant,
when the officer sees the offense, although at a distance, or
hears the disturbances created thereby and proceeds at
once to the scene thereof.
In this case, as the priest engaged in a quarrel was down
and was being maltreated, he shouted "police! police!" and
the police heard this and attempted to arrest appellant, he
resisted arrest and struck the police. Appellant was held
guilty of assault upon an agent of a person in authority.
d. U.S. u. Batallones — A peace officer can justify an arrest
without warrant if there is reasonable ground of suspicion
tending to show that a person committed or is about to
commit any crime 01 breach of the peace, and if he acts in
good faith. Under such conditions, even if the suspected
person is later found to be innocent, the peace officer is not
liable for coercion or arbitrary detention.
e. U.S. v. Sanchez — The legality of the detention does not
depend upon the fact of the crime, but upon the nature of
the deed, where such characterization may reasonably be
inferred by the officer or functionary to whom the law at
that moment leaves the decision for the urgent purpose of
suspending the liberty of the citizen.
One of the duties of the police is to arrest lawbreakers in
order to place them at the disposal of the judicial or
executive authorities upon whom devolves the duty to
investigate the act constituting the violation or to prosecute
and secure the punishment thereof.
One of the means conducing to these ends being the
identification of the person of the alleged criminal or
lawbreaker, the duty that directly devolves upon the police
to make the arrests or detentions for the purposes of such
investigation cannot be questioned, (supra)
Hearing the screeching of tires followed by a thud and
seeing the sideswiped victim is a crime committed in one's
presence to justify a warrantless arrest.
f. In a case of arbitrary detention, the Supreme Court held
that there is No need of fact of commission of offense to
justify the detention. — Probable cause for an arrest without
139
warrant is allowed where there is reasonable ground of
suspicion supported by circumstances sufficiently strong in
themselves as to warrant a reasonable man in believing the
accused to be guilty. No crime was committed here.
The persons merely entered an uninhabited camarin but
their arrest was justified to prevent the commission of a
crime.
Common Law rule applied. Justice Malcolm stated that:
"One should, however, not expect too much of an ordinary
policeman. He is not presumed to exercise the subtle reasoning of a
judicial officer.
Often he has no opportunity to make proper investigation but must
act in haste on his own belief to prevent the escape of the criminal.
To err is human. Even the most conscientious officer must at times
be misled.
If, therefore, under trying circumstances and in a zealous effort to
obey the orders of his superior officer and to enforce the law, a
peace officer makes a mere mistake in good faith, he should be
exculpated.
Otherwise, the courts will put a premium on crime and will terrorize
peace officers through a fear of themselves violating the law."
g. In People v. Kagui Malasugu — a warrantless arrest for a
crime committed not in arresting officer's presence but
made on the same day was justified.
h. In other words, such arrest or detention does not
necessarily presume that really a crime had been
committed.
It is sufficient that there was ample ground to believe
honestly and reasonably that the cause of the surrounding
phenomena at the time was a crime that has just been or
was about to be committed and that the person detained
was responsible for it.
People v. Ancheta, reiterated the ruling laid down in U.S. v.
Santosand adopted that of a decision of the Supreme Court
of Spain of November 5, 1892.
Indubitable Existence of Crime Not Required
Thus, under the pre-1940 rulings, a lawful warrantless arrest
does not require the indubitable existence of a crime.
It is sufficient if the officer effecting the arrest has reasonably
sufficient grounds to believe the existence of an act having the
characteristic of a crime and that the person sought to be
detained has participated therein, a warrantless arrest was made
on the basis of information given by one of the accused naming
his companions who, on the basis thereof, was arrested without
a warrant.
The arrest was considered as lawful.
Restrictions on Warrantless Arrest
In Sayo, et al. v. Chief of Police, the court, however, held that:
"THE LAW RESTRICTS THE CASES WHEN A PEACE OFFICER
MAY ARREST WITHOUT A WARRANT; THE SO-CALLED
COMMON LAW RULE RELATING TO OTHER CASES OF
ARREST WITHOUT WARRANT HAS NO APPLICATION IN
THIS JURISDICTION, AND EXCEPT AS AUTHORIZED BY
SUCH STATUTE, AN ARREST WITHOUT WARRANT IS
ILLEGAL.
STATUTORY CONSTRUCTIONS EXTENDING THE RIGHT TO
MAKE ARRESTS WITHOUT A WARRANT BEYOND THE
CASES PROVIDED BY LAW IS DEROGATORY OF THE RIGHT
OF THE PEOPLE'S LIBERTY"
Present Rule on Warrantless Arrest
The law expressly allowing arrests without a warrant is found in
Section 5, Rule 113 of the Rules of Court.
A warrantless arrest under circumstances contemplated under
Sec. 5(a) has been denominated as one "in flagrante delicto"
while that under Sec. 5(b) has been described as a "hot pursuit
arrest."
The foregoing rule specifies the instances when warrantless
arrests may be made by a peace officer or a private person.
The old Rule was modified as follows: (a) the phrase "about to
commit an offense" was changed to "is attempting to commit an
offense," because the old phraseology implied that no offense
had as yet been committed, (b) the word "just" was inserted
before "been committed," and the phrase "he has reasonable
ground to believe" was changed to "he has personal knowledge
of facts" to minimize arrests based on mere suspicion or
hearsay.44
The 1940 Rules of Court (effective July 1, 1940), provided for
warrantless arrest in section 6 of Rule 109 thereof. These were
taken from the Provisional Law for the application of the Penal
Code and sections 21 and 22 of the American Law Institute45
with one significant change. The warrantless arrest under
subsection (b) requires as a condition thereof that an "offense
has in fact" been committed.
In 1985 rule, which was transposed to section 5 of Rule 113,
introduced another significant change. Subsection (b) of section
5, Rule 113 inserted the word "just" before been committed, and
the phrase "he has reasonable ground to believe" was changed
to "he has personal knowledge of facts" to minimize arrests
based on mere suspicion or hearsay.46
Application of Present Rule
Despite the 1985 amendments on warrantless arrest, the court
appears to have returned to pre-amendment doctrines in the
application of the rule.
In Flagrante Arrests (For crimes committed in presence of arresting
person)
Sec. 5(a), Rule 113, Sec. 12, Rule 126 arrest for crimes In
Presence of arresting officer. — WHEN IN HIS PRESENCE, THE
PERSON TO BE ARRESTED HAS COMMITTED, IS ACTUALLY
COMMITTING, IS OR ATTEMPTING TO COMMIT A CRIME.
Essential Requisites
Reliable information alone, absent any overt act indicative of a
felonious enterprise in the presence of and within the view of the
arresting officers, are not sufficient to constitute probable cause
that would justify an in flagrante delicto arrest.
To constitute probable cause, two requisites must concur:
(a) the person to be arrested must execute an overt act
indicating that he has just committed, is actually
committing, or is attempting to commit a crime; and
(b) such overt act is done in the presence or within the
view of the arresting officer
There is an attempt when the offender commences the
commission of a felony directly by overt acts, and does not
perform all the acts of execution which should produce the
felony by reason of some cause or accident other than his own
spontaneous desistance.
Overt or external act has been defined as some physical activity
or deed, indicating the intention to commit a particular crime,
more than a mere planning or preparation, which if carried out
to its complete termination following its natural course, without
being frustrated by external obstacles nor by the voluntary
desistance of the perpetrator, will logically and necessarily ripen
into a concrete offense.
A warrantless arrest is not justified by the mere fact that a crime
140
is being committed in one's presence.
The arresting officer must have personal knowledge of such
commission.
The knowledge must precede the arrest.
The arrest cannot be justified by discovery thereafter that the
person was committing a crime.
Knowledge Must Be At Time of, Not After, Arrest
An offense is committed in the presence or within the view of an
officer, within the meaning of the rule authorizing an arrest
without a warrant, when the officer sees the offense, although at
a distance, or hears the disturbance caused thereby and
proceeds at once to the scene thereof, or the offense is
continuing; or has not been consummated at the time when the
arrest is made.
Knowledge of the commission of the crime in one's presence
must precede the arrest.
The law requires that there be first a lawful arrest before a
search can be made — the process cannot be reversed.
In other words, the acts must be known to the officer at the time
of their commission through his sensory perceptions.
Thus, there could have been no in flagrante delicto arrest
preceding the search, in light of the lack of an overt physical act
on the part of accused-appellant that he had committed a crime,
was committing a crime or was going to commit a crime.
As applied to in flagrante delicto arrests, it has been held that
"reliable information" alone, absent any overt act indicative of a
felonious enterprise in the presence and within the view of the
arresting officers, is not sufficient to constitute probable cause
that would justify an in flagrante delicto arrest.
Hence, in People u. Aminudin, we ruled that "the accused-
appellant was not, at the moment of his arrest, committing a
crime nor was it shown that he was about to do so or that he
had just done so.
What he was doing was descending the gangplank of the M/V
Wilcon 9 and there was no outward indication that called for his
arrest.
To all appearances, he was like any of the other passengers
innocently disembarking from the vessel.
It was only when the informer pointed to him as the carrier of
the marijuana that he suddenly became suspect and so subject
to apprehension."
The reliance of the prosecution in People v. Tangliben, to justify
the police's actions is misplaced.
In the said case, based on the information supplied by informers,
police officers conducted a surveillance at the Victory Liner
Terminal compound in San Fernando, Pampanga against persons
who may commit misdemeanors and also on those who may be
engaged in the traffic of dangerous drugs. At 9:30 in the
evening, the policemen noticed a person carrying a red travelling
bag who was acting suspiciously.
They confronted him and requested him to open his bag but he
refused. He acceded latel on when the policemen identified
themselves. Inside the bag were marijuana leaves wrapped in a
plastic wrapper. The police officers only knew of the activities of
Tangliben on the night ol his arrest.
In the instant case, the apprehending policemen already hac
prior knowledge from the very same informant of accused-
appellant's activities.
The police operatives cannot feign ignorance of the alleged ille
gal activities of accused-appellant. Considering that the identity
address and activities of the suspected culprit was already
ascertained two years previous to the actual arrest, there was
indeed no reason why the police officers could not have obtained
a judicial warrant before arresting accused-appellant and
searching his person Whatever information their civilian asset
relayed to them hours be fore accused-appellant's arrest was not
a product of an "on-the-spot tip which may excuse them from
obtaining a warrant of arrest
Accordingly, the arresting team's contention that their arrest of
accused-appellant was a product of an "on-the-spot" tip is
untenable
In Randolph David v. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, the Court
stressed:
The Constitution provides that "the right of the people to be secured in
their persons, houses, papers and effects against unreasonable search
and seizure of whatever nature and for any purpose shall be inviolable,
and no search warrant or warrant of arrest shall issue except upon
probable cause to be determined personally by the judge after
examination under oath or affirmation of the complainant and the
witnesses he may produce, and particularly describing the place to be
searched and the persons or things to be seized."
The plain import of the language of the Constitution is that searches,
seizures and arrests are normally unreasonable unless authorized by a
validly issued search warrant or warrant of arrest.
Thus, the fundamental protection given by this provision is that between
person and police must stand the protective authority of a magistrate
clothed with power to issue or refuse to issue search warrants or warrants
of arrest.
In the Brief Account submitted by petitioner David, certain facts
ire established: first, he was arrested without warrant; second,
the PNP operatives arrested him on the basis ofPP 1017; third,
he was brought at Camp Karingal, Quezon City where he was
fingerprinted, Dhotographed and booked like a criminal suspect;
fourth, he was created brusquely by policemen who "held his
head and tried to push him inside an unmarked car; fifth, he was
charged with Violation of Satas Pambansa Bilang Big. 880 and
Inciting to Sedition; sixth, he was detained for seven (7) hours;
and seventh, he was eventually released for insufficiency of
evidence.
Neither of the two (2) exceptions mentioned above justifies
petitioner David's warrantless arrest.
During the inquest for the charges of inciting to sedition and
violation of B.P. Big. 880, all that the arresting officers could
invoke was their observation that some rallyists were wearing t-
shirts with the invective "Oust Gloria Now" and their erroneous
assumption that petitioner David was the leader of the rally.
Consequently, the Inquest Prosecutor ordered his immediate
release on the ground of insufficiency of evidence.
He noted that petitioner David was not wearing the subject t-
shirt and even if he was wearing it, such fact is insufficient to
charge him with inciting to sedition.
Further, he also stated that there is insufficient evidence for the
charge of violation of B.P. Big. 880 as it was not even known
whether petitioner David was the leader of the rally.
ILLUSTRATIVE CASES:
Meaning of Personal Knowledge Based on Sensory Perceptions
People v. Claudio —
Pat. Obina a member of the NARCOTICS UNIT, was on board the Victory
Liner, seated on the second seat at the back. While he was thus seated,
suspect Anita Claudio boarded the same bus and took the seat in front of
him after putting a bag which she was carrying at the back of the seat of
Obina. The bag placed by suspect behind his seat was a woven buri bag
made of plastic containing her bag behind Pat. Obina's seat aroused his
suspicion and made him felt (sick) nervous. With the feeling that there
was something unusual, he had the urge to search the woven plastic bag.
But it was only at San Fernando, Pampanga when he was able to go to
the bag. He inserted one of his fingers in a plastic bag located at the
141
bottom of the woven bag and smelt marijuana. The plastic woven bag
appearing to contain camote tops on the top has a big bundle of plastic
marijuana at the bottom. He could recognize the smell of marijuana
because he was assigned at that time at the ANTI-NARCOTICS UNIT. He
did not, however, do anything after he discovered that there was
marijuana inside the plastic bag of the accused until they reached
Olongapo City and the accused alighted from the bus in front of the Caltex
Gasoline Station in Sta. Rita. Right after the accused alighted from the
bus, policeman Obina intercepted her and showed her his ID identifying
himself as a policeman and told her he will search her bag because of the
suspicion that she was carrying marijuana inside said bag. In reply,
accused told him, "Please go with me, let us settle this at home."
HELD: Appellant Claudio was caught transporting prohibited drugs. Pat.
Daniel Obina did not need a warrant to arrest Claudio as the latter was
caught inflagrante delicto. The warrantless search being an incident to a
lawful arrest is in itself lawful.
PEOPLE V. BURGOS
Strict Interpretation
Personal Knowledge Interpreted. The need to strictly adhere to the rule
was stressed by Justice Hugo Gutierrez, Jr., in no uncertain terms in
People v. Burgos — In this case Cesar Masamlok surrendered to the PC on
May 12, 1982 stating that, he was forcibly recruited by Ruben Burgos a
member of the NPA, threatening him with the use of firearm against his
life, if he refused.
A joint team of members of the PC-INP was dispatched the following day
to arrest Ruben Burgos and they were able to locate and arrest him while
he was plowing his field. Interrogation was made in the house of the
accused. He first denied possession of the firearm but later, upon further
questioning, the team with the wife of the accused, the latter pointed to a
place below their house where a gun was buried in the ground.
After the recovery of the firearm, the accused likewise pointed to the
subversive documents which the PC found kept in a stock pile ofcogon, at
a distance of three meters apart from his house.
Accused when confronted with the firearm readily admitted the same as
issued to him by the team leader of a sparrow unit. The lower court
justified the arrest, search and seizure without warrant under Section 6-A,
Rule 113 of the Rules of Court.
The Supreme Court held the arrest as unlawful.
“Under Section 6(a) of Rule 113, the officer arresting a person who has
just committed, is committing, or is about to commit an offense must
have personal knowledge of that fact.
The offense must also be committed in his presence or within his view."
There is no such personal knowledge in this case.
Whatever knowledge was possessed by the arresting officers, it came in
its entirety from the information furnished by Cesar Masamlok.
The location of the firearm was given by the appellant's wife.
At the time he was arrested, he was not committing a crime but was
plowing his field.
If an arrest without warrant is unlawful at the moment it is made,
generally, nothing that is discovered afterwards cannot make it lawful
ARREST UNLAWFUL WHERE WAS NO URGENCY AND THERE IS
OPPORTUNITY TO OBTAIN WARRANT
In People v. Aminnudin, the PC officers had earlier received a tip from one
of their informers that the accused was on board a vessel bound for Iloilo
City and was carrying marijuana. He was identified by name. Acting on
this tip, they waited for him in the evening of June 25, 1984, and
approached him as he descended from the gangplank after the informer
had pointed to him. They detained him and inspected the bag he was
carrying. It was found to contain three kilos of what were later analyzed
as marijuana leaves by an NBI forensic examiner, who testified that she
conducted microscopic, chemical and chromatographic tests on them. On
the basis of this finding, the corresponding charge was then filed against
Aminnudin.
HELD: Contrary to the averments of the government, the accused-
appellant was not caught in flagrante nor was a crime about to be
committed or had just been committed to justify the warrantless arrest
allowed under Rule 113 of the Rules of Court.
The present case presented no urgency. From the conflicting declarations
of the PC witnesses, it is clear that they had at least two days within
which they could have obtained a warrant to arrest and search Aminnudin
who was coming to Iloilo on the M/V Wilcon 9. His name was known.
The vehicle was identified. The date of its arrival was certain.
And from the information they had received, they could have persuaded a
judge that there was probable cause, indeed, to justify the issuance of a
warrant. Yet they did nothing.
No effort was made to comply with the law.
The Bill of Rights was ignored altogether because the PC Lieutenant who
was the head of the arresting team, had determined on his own authority
that a "search warrant was not necessary."
The accused-appellant was not, at the moment of his arrest, committing a
crime nor was it shown that he was about to do so or that he had just
done so.
What he was doing was descending the gangplank of the M/V Wilcon 9
and there was no outward indication that called for his arrest. To all
appearances, he was like any of the other passengers innocently
disembarking from the vessel.
It was only when the informer pointed to him as the carrier of the
marijuana that he suddenly became suspect and so subject to apprehen-
sion.
It was the furtive finger that triggered his arrest.
The identification by the informer was the probable cause as determined
by the officers (and not a judge) that authorized them to pounce upon apprehended the petitioner as he attempted to flee they did not know that
Aminnudin and immediately arrest him. Even expediency could not be he had committed, or was actually committing the offense of illegal
invoked to dispense with the obtention of the warrant. possession of firearms and ammunitions.
Hence, the warrantless search was also illegal and the evidence obtained They just suspected that he was hiding something in the buri bag.
thereby was inadmissible.
They did not know what its contents were. The said circumstances did not
Aminnudin was reiterated in People v. Encinada, under justify an arrest without a warrant.
substantially identical factual setting. To the trial court's
Thus, to justify the arrest without warrant, under Section 6 (a), it is not
justification that there was no time to obtain a search warrant enough that a crime is actually being committed in his presence.
because the information was received at 4:00 o'clock in the
afternoon, and that the ship was to dock at 7:00 a.m., the court The person or peace officer making the arrest must be personally aware
pointed to Administrative Order No. 12 which allows applications of the commission of such crime."
for search warrants even after office hours.
People v. Mengote
COMPARE: Where there was No Opportunity to Obtain Warrant
The police received a telephone call that there were three suspicious
looking persons at the corner of Juan Luna and North Bay Boulevard at
In People v. Saycon — A warrantless arrest, search and seizure based on
Tondo. The police responded and saw two men "looking from side to
information from a NARCOM agent that a suspected Shabu courier was
side," one of whom was holding his abdomen. The police approached
arriving at Dumaguete City on board a vessel and who was pointed to by
them and identified themselves as policemen whereupon the two tried to
another agent was justified although the suspect was not perceptively
ran away. The other lawmen surrounded them and searched them and
committing a crime but (like Aminnudin) merely alighted from the vessel.
one of them was found with an unlicensed firearm and live ammunition.
The search and seizure was justified under the principle justifying the
Was the search and seizure legal?
search of moving vehicles as there was no time to obtain a warrant.
Held: It is illegal. At the time of the arrest, the appellant was merely
The case was distinguished from Aminnudin where there was time to
looking from side to side and holding his abdomen. This is not a crime.
obtain a search warrant.
The police did not know then what offense if at all had been committed
The record shows that the NARCOM officers were uncertain as to the
and neither were they aware of the participation therein of the appellant,
precise date and time appellant would arrive from Manila; all they knew is
xxx
that he would be taking a boat from Manila to Dumaguete on the morning
of 8 July 1992.
As for the illegal possession of firearm, the police discovered this only
after he had been searched and investigated.
More specific details were received earlier in the morning that the
appellant would be arriving the same morning. Clearly, the agents had to
The Supreme Court cited the cases of Burgos, Alih Castro and Aminnudin
act quickly but there was not enough time to obtain a warrant of arrest or
holding that it would be a sad day, indeed, if any person could be
search warrant.
summarily arrested and searched just because he is holding his abdomen,
even if it be possibly because of a stomachache or if a peace officer could
Mere suspicion Insufficient clamp handcuffs on any person with a shifty look on suspicion that he
may have committed a criminal act or is actually committing or
WHERE THE ACCUSED CARRYING A BURI BAG WAS attempting to commit it.
ACTING SUSPICIOUSLY AND WAS FOUND IN POSSESSION
OF A FIREARM AND EXPLOSIVE, THE SOLICITOR GENERAL People v. Rodriguez
ARGUED THAT WHEN THE TWO POLICEMEN APPROACHED
The arrest, search and seizure was held illegal in view of the admission by
THE PETITIONER, HE WAS ACTUALLY COMMITTING OR
the police that he did not actually see the appellants transacting but only
HAD JUST, COMMITTED THE OFFENSE OF ILLEGAL saw them acting suspiciously. The court held that the cardinal rule is that
POSSESSION OF FIREARMS AND AMMUNITION IN THE no person may be subjected by the police to a search of his house, body
PRESENCE OF POLICE OFFICERS AND CONSEQUENTLY THE or personal belonging except by virtue of a search warrant or on the
SEARCH AND SEIZURE OF THE CONTRABAND WAS occasion of a lawful arrest.
INCIDENTAL TO THE LAWFUL ARREST IN ACCORDANCE
If a person is searched without a warrant, or under circumstances other
WITH SECTION 12, RULE 126 OF THE RULES ON CRIMINAL
than those justifying an arrest without warrant in accordance with law,
PROCEDURE.
merely on suspicion that he is engaged in some felonious enterprise, and
in order to discover if he has indeed committed a crime, it is not only the
The Supreme Court held:
arrest which is illegal but also, the search on the occasion thereof as being
the fruit of the poisonous tree.
"At the time the peace officers in this case identified themselves and
142

In that event, any evidence taken, even if confirmatory of the initial
suspicion, is inadmissible "for any purpose in any proceeding.
COMPARE:
Arrest Based on Suspicion; Where there is Urgency
Where around 9:30 in the evening the police on a surveillance mission
noticed a person carrying a red travelling bag who was acting suspiciously
and they confronted himand requested him to open the red travelling bag
but the person refused. Found inside the bag were marijuana leaves
wrapped in a plastic wrapper and weighing one kilo, more or less.
Accused was held to havev been caught in flagrante, since he was
carrying marijuana at the time of his arrest. This case therefore falls
squarely within the exception.
The warrantless search was incident to a lawful arrest and is consequently
valid.
In contrast, to the Aminnundin case, Tangliben presented urgency.
Although the trial court's decision did not mention it, the transcript of
stenographic notes reveals that there was an informer who pointed to the
accused-appellant as carrying marijuana.
Faced with such on-the-spot information, the police officers had to act
quickly.
There was not enough time to secure a search warrant. We cannot
therefore apply the ruling in Aminnudin to the case at bar.
To require search warrants during on-the-spot apprehensions of drug
pushers, illegal possessors of firearms, jueteng collectors, smugglers of
contraband goods, robbers, etc. would make it extremely difficult, if not
impossible to contain the crimes with which these persons are associated.
Upon being informed by their civilian informer that there would ie a
transaction involving the buying and selling of marijuana which would
take place on that same day, Patrolmen immediately proceeded to the
vicinity where the alleged transaction would take place.
While positioned at a street corner, they saw appellant and Warner
Marquez ay the side of the street about forty to fifty meters away from
them the police officers).
They saw Marquez giving something to appellant who, thereafter, handed
a wrapped object to Marquez who then inserted the object inside the front
of his pants infront of his abdomen while appellant, on his part, placed the
thing given to him inside his pocket.
The court a quo correctly ruled: The facts and circumstances attendant
precisely fall under Sec. 5(a), Rule 113 of the Rules on Criminal
Procedure.
The subsequent arrest of Marquez and accused were made under the
principle of hot pursuit.
The recovery of the marijuana from Marquez and the P190.00 from
accused by the said police officers were not violative of their constitutional
rights since Marquez and the accused voluntarily surrendered them to the
police officers.
But even for the sake of argument that the recovery of the marijuana and
peso bills were against the consent of Marquez and accused, still, the
search on their persons were incidental to their valid warrantless arrest."
Compare
b.
Mere time to obtain a warrant not sufficient to invalidate a
warrantless arrest. To be considered likewise is whether or not a
warrant may be issued under the circumstances.
In Lo Ho Wing (supra), it was firmly established from the factual findings
of the trial court that the authorities had reasonable ground to believe
that appellant would attempt to bring in contraband and transport it
within the country.
The belief was based on intelligence reports gathered from surveillance
activities on the suspected syndicate, of which appellant was touted to be
a member.
Aside from this, they were also certain as to the expected date and time
of arrival of the accused from China.
But such knowledge was clearly insufficient to enable them to fulfill the
requirements for the issuance of a search warrant.
Still and all, the important thing is that there was probable cause to
conduct the warrantless search, which must still be present in such a
case.
c.
In People v. Montilla, the opportunity to obtain a warrant was not
considered as sufficient to invalidate the legality of the warrantless arrest.
For, under the circumstances, the information relayed was too sketchy
and not detailed enough for the obtention of the corresponding arrest or
search warrant.
The informant did not know to whom the drugs would be delivered and at
which particular part of the barangay there could be such delivery or the
precise time of the suspect's arrival, or of his means of transportation, the
container or contrivance wherein the drugs were concealed and whether
the same were arriving with, or being brought by someone separately
from the courier.
The court ruled that in determining the opportunity for obtaining
warrants, not only the intervening time is controlling but all the coincident
and ambient circumstances should be considered especially in rural areas.
Shift In Jurisprudence: Warrantless Arrest Under Section 5(a) Based On
Reasonable Ground of Suspicion
a. Probable Cause Based on Surveillance; No Crime Committed
In Harvey v. CID Commissioner Santiago, the arrest of
d.
143
petitioners was based on probable cause determined after
close surveillance for three (3) months during which period
their activities were monitored.
The Supreme Court justified the arrest and the seizure of
the photo negatives, photographs and posters without
warrant due to the existence of probable cause.
Reasonable Ground to Believe Rule Applied
The Supreme Court explained that petitioners were not
caught in the act, does not make their arrest illegal.
Petitioners were found with young boys in their respective
rooms, the one with John Sherman being naked.
Under those circumstances, the CID agents had reasonable
grounds to believe that petitioners had committed
"pedophilia" defined as psycho-sexual perversion involving
children."
"Pedophilia for unusual sexual activity in which children are
the preferred sexual objects"
Solicitor General's Return of the Writ, on p. 101.
While not a crime under the Revised Penal Code, it is a
behavior offensive to public morals and violative of the
declared policy of the State to promote and protect the
physical, moral, spiritual, social well-being of our youth.
People v. Allan Rodriguez
Reasonable ground based on tip of informer — delivery of
suspicious stuff to tricycle driver justified warrantless arrest.
The police officers were tipped off by an informer about the
illegal trade of the accused.
The exact location where this trading in drugs was taking
place was given to them.
They witnessed the person hand deliver a suspicious stuff to
the tricycle driver who in turn gave something to the
person.
The suspicious stuff taken from the accused were confirmed
to be marijuana after tests were conducted on them.
The attending circumstances taking place before their eyes
led the police officers to reasonably conclude that an offense
was actually being committed.
Personal Knowledge Under Section 5(a) Was Not Likewise
 Strictly Observed in the Following Cases: 1)
In these cases, the fact that the search yielded possession
of illegal articles was included as a justification for a
warrantless
Arrest under Section 5(a) although the arresting officer at
the time of arrest has no personal knowledge of a crime
being committed in their presence as prescribed in U.S. v.
Samonte (supra); Sayo v. Chief of Police (supra); People v.
Burgos (supra); and People v. Posadas
Meaning of Personal Knowledge of Facts Constituting Probable Cause
Sufficient
In its resolution denying the Motion for Reconsideration in the
Umil v. Ramos cases, the majority opinion explained the
meaning of Personal Knowledge of Facts, as follows:
It has been ruled that 'Personal Knowledge of Facts,' in arrests
without warrant must be based upon probable cause, which
means an actual belief or reasonable grounds of suspicion.
The grounds of suspicion are reasonable when, in the absence of
actual belief of the arresting officers, the suspicion that the
person to be arrested is probably guilty of committing the
offense, is based on actual facts, i.e., supported by
circumstances sufficiently strong in themselves to create the
probable cause of guilt of the person to be arrested.
A reasonable suspicion therefore must be founded on probable
cause, "coupled with good faith on the part of the peace officers
making the arrest."
The Continuing Crime Principle to Justify Warrantless Arrest
The Umil u. Ramos, and seven other petitions for habeas corpus
were all based on the ground that the arrests of the petitioners
were made without warrant and that no preliminary investigation
2)
was first conducted so that the information filed against them
are void.
The Supreme Court in a per curiam decision, however, found
that the persons in whose behalf these petitions for habeas
corpus have been filed, were freshly committed and that the
accused were actually committing an offense, when
apprehended, so that their arrests without a warrant were
3)
clearly justified.
The court then proceeded to give a brief narration of the facts
and events surrounding each of the eight petitioners.
In Umil v. Ramos, one of the petitioners, Rolando Dural who was
then confined in the hospital for a gunshot wound was positively
identified as a member of the sparrow unit who went on top of the
hood of the CAPCOM Mobile patrol car.
The Supreme Court found that he was not arrested while in the act
of shooting the two soldiers. He was charged with the crime of
Double Murder with Assault upon Agents of Persons in Authority.
Nor was he arrested just after the commission of the offense for his
arrest came a day after the shooting incident. He was arrested in the
hospital. Seemingly, his arrest without warrant is unjustified.
The Court, however, justified the arrest of Rolando Dural for being a
member of the New People's Army (NPA) an outlawed subversive
organization.
"Subversion being a continuous offense, the arrest of Rolando Dural
without warrant is justified as it can be said that he was committing
an offense when arrested.
The crimes of rebellion, subversion, conspiracy or proposal to commit
such crimes, and crimes or offenses committed in furtherance
thereof or in connection therewith constitute direct assaults against
the State are in the nature of continuing crimes."
The Court then went on to quote Garcia-Padilla v. Enrile,91 where the
Supreme Court held:
"From the facts as above narrated, the claim of the petitioners that
they were initially arrested illegally is, therefore, without basis in law
and in fact.
The crimes of insurrection or rebellion, subversion, conspiracy or
proposal to commit such crimes, and other crimes and offenses
committed in the furtherance on the occasion thereof, or incident
thereto, or in connection therewith under Presidential Proclamation
No. 2045, are all in the nature of continuing offenses which set them
apart from the common offenses, aside from their essentially
involving a massive conspiracy of nationwide magnitude.
Clearly then, the arrest of the herein detainees was well within the
bounds of the law and existing jurisdiction in our jurisdiction."
In G.R. Nos. 84581-82, the arrest of Amelia Roque and Wilfredo
Buenaobra who admitted membership in the NPA and officers and/or
members of the NUFC-CPP were likewise justified for the same
reasons stated in UMIL.
The arrest without warrant of Roque was additionally justified as she
was, at the time of apprehension, in possession of ammunition
without license to possess.
In Anonuevo v. Ramos, the arrest of Domingo Anonuevo and Ramon
Casiple without a warrant was also found to be justified.
Both are admittedly members of the standing committee of the NUFC
and, when apprehended in the house of Renato Constantino, they
had a bag containing subversive materials, and both carried firearms
144
and ammunition for which they had no license to possess or carry.
The record of these two (2) cases shows that at about 7:30 o'clock in
the evening of August 13,1988, Domingo T. Anonuevo and Ramon
Casiple arrived at the house of Renato Constantino at Marikina
Heights, Marikina, which was still under surveillance by military
agents. The military agents noticed bulging objects on their waist-
lines.
When frisked, the agents found them to be loaded guns. Anonuevo
and Casiple were asked to show their permit or license to possess or
carry firearms and ammunition, but they could not produce any.
Hence, they were brought to PC Headquarters for investigation.
Found in their possession were the following articles:
(c) Voluminous subversive documents
(d) Firearms and ammunitions.
Anonuevo and Casiple claim that they were unlawfully arrested
because there was no previous warrant of arrest. The Supreme Court
held the claim as without merit.
"The record shows that Domingo Anonuevo and Ramon Casiple were
carrying unlicensed firearms and ammunition in their persons when
they were apprehended."
4) In Ocaya u. Aguirre, the arrest without warrant, of Vicky Ocaya was
justified under the Rules, since she had with her unlicensed
ammunition when she was arrested.
The record of this case shows that on 12 May 1988, agents of the PC
Intelligence and investigation of the Rizal PC-INP Command, armed
with a search warrant issued by Judge Eutropio Migrino of the
Regional Trial Court ofPasig, Metro Manila, conducted a search of a
house located at Block 19, Phase II, Marikina Green Heights,
Marikina, Metro Manila, believed to be occupied by Benito Tiamson,
head of the CPP-NPA.
In the course of the search, Vicky Ocaya arrived in a car driven by
Danny Rivera.
Subversive documents and several rounds of ammunition for a .45
cal. pistol were found in the car of Vicky Ocaya.
As a result, Vicky Ocaya and Danny Rivera were brought to the PC
Headquarters for investigation. When Vicky Ocaya could not produce
any permit or authorization to possess the ammunition, an
information charging her with violation of P.D. No. 1866 was filed
with the Regional Trial Court of Pasig, Metro Manila.
The case is docketed therein as Criminal Case No. 737. Danny
Rivera, on the other hand, was released from custody.
In answer to her claims that she'.,was illegally arrested, the
Supreme Court held that Vicky Ocaya was arrested in flagrante
delicto so that her arrest without a warrant is justified.
5) In Espiritu v. Lim, the respondents claim that the petitioner was
lawfully arrested without a judicial warrant of arrest (on November
 23) since petitioner when arrested had in fact just committed an
offense in the afternoon of 22 November 1988, during a press
conference of the National Press Club.
Deogracias Espiritu through tri-media was urging all drivers and
operators to go on nationwide strike on November 23, 1988, to force
the government to give in to their demands to lower the prices of
spare parts, commodities, water and the immediate release from
detention of the president of the PISTON (Pinagkaisahang Samahan
ng Tsuper at Operators Nationwide).
fulfillment thereof, the indubitable existence of a crime.
For the detention to be perfectly legal, it is sufficient that the person
in authority making the arrest has reasonably sufficient grounds to
believe the existence of an act having the characteristics of a crime
and that the same grounds exist to believe that the person sought to
be detained participated therein."

Further heard was Deogracias Espiritu taking the place of PISTON

president Medardo Roda and also announced the formation of the
Alliance Drivers Association to go on nationwide strike on November
23, 1988.

Policemen waited for petitioner outside the National Press Club in

order to investigate him, but he gave the lawmen the slip.

He was next seen at about 5:00 o'clock that afternoon at a gathering

of drivers and symphathizers at the corner of Magsaysay Blvd. and
Valencia Street, Sta. Mesa, Manila where he was heard to say:

"Bukas tuloy ang welga natin, sumagot no. ang Cebu at Bicol na
kasali sila, at hindi tayo titigil hanggang hindi binibigay ng gobyerno
ni Cory ang gusto noting pagbaba ng halaga ng spare parts, bilihin at
ang pagpapalaya sa ating pinuno na si Ka Roda hanggang sa
magkagulo na."

The police finally caught up with the petitioner on 23 November

1988. He was invited for questioning and brought to Police
headquarters after which an Information for violation of Art. 142 of
the Revised Penal Code was filed against him before the Regional
Trial Court of Manila.

The Supreme Court held that the arrest of petitioner without a

warrant is in accordance with the provisions of Rule 113, Sec. 5(b).

6) In Nazareno v. Station Commander, the record of this case shows

that at about 8:30 o'clock in the morning of 14 December 1988, one
Romulo Bunye II was killed by a group of men near the corner of T.
Molina and Mendiola Streets in Alabang, Muntinlupa, Metro Manila.
One of the suspects in the killing was Ramil Regala who was arrested
by the Police on 28 December 1988. Upon questioning, Regala
pointed to Narciso Nazareno as one of his companions in the killing
of the said Romulo Bunye II.

In view thereof, the police officers, without warrant, picked up

Narciso Nazareno and brought him to the police headquarters for
questioning. The Supreme Court held:

"Evidently, the arrest of Nazareno was effected by the police without

warrant pursuant to Sec. 5(b), Rule 113, Rules of Court after he was
positively implicated by his co-accused Ramil Regala in the killing of
Romulo Bunye II; and after investigation by the police authorities. As
held in People v. Ancheta:

"The obligation of an agent of authority to make an arrest by reason

of a crime, does not presuppose as a necessary requisite for the

145
THE PRINCIPLE OF KNOWLEDGE OF PROBABLE CAUSE TO
JUSTIFY WARRANTLESS ARREST
In People v. Malmstedt —
The receipt of information by NARCOM that a Caucasian coming from
Sagada had prohibited drugs in his possession, plus the suspicious failure
of the accused to produce his passport, taken together as a whole, led the
NARCOM officers to reasonably believe that the accused was trying to hide
something illegal from the authorities.
From these circumstances arose a probable cause which justified the
warrantless search that was made on the personal effects of the accused.
In other words, the acts of the NARCOM officers in requiring the accused
to open his pouch bag and in opening one of the wrapped objects found
inside said bag (which was discovered to contain hashish) as well as the
two (2) travelling bags containing two (2) teddy bears with hashish
stuffed inside them were prompted by accused's own attempt to hide his
identity by refusing to present his passport, and by the information
received by the NARCOM that a Caucasian coming from Sagada had
prohibited drugs in his possession.
To deprive the NARCOM agents of the ability and facility to act
accordingly, including to search even without warrant, in the light of such
circumstances, would be to sanction impotence and ineffectiveness in law
enforcement, to the detriment of society.
Accused was searched and arrested while transporting prohibited drugs
(hashish).
A crime was actually being committed by the accused and he was caught
in flagrante delicto.
Thus, the search made upon his personal effects falls squarely under
paragraph (1) of the foregoing provisions of law, which allow a
warrantless search incident to a lawful arrest."
the travelling bag and carton box which appellant was carrying
at the time.
The court held that the officers thus realized that he was their
man even if he was simply carrying a seemingly innocent pair of
luggage for personal effects.
The Court therein wrote: "the apprehending officer must have
been spurred by probable cause in effecting an arrest which
could be classified as one in cadence with the instances of
permissible arrests set out in Section 5(a)."
According to the court, the conventional view is that probable
cause, while a relative term the determination of which must be
resolved according to the facts of each case, is understood as
having reference to facts and circumstances which could lead a
reasonable, discreet, and prudent man to believe and conclude
as to the commission of an offense, and that the objects sought
in connection with the offense are in the place sought to be
searched.
The court pointed out that under Rule 112 of the Rules of Court,
the quantum of evidence in preliminary investigation is such evi-
dence as suffices to "engender a well founded belief as to the
fact of the commission of the crime and the respondent's
probable guilt thereof.
It has the same meaning as the related phraseology used in
other parts of the same Rule, that is, that the investigating fiscal
"finds cause to hold the respondent for trial," or where "a
probable cause exist."
It should, therefore, be in that sense, wherein the right to effect
a warrantless arrest should be considered as legally authorized.
packed inside a plastic bag.
In determining whether the warrantless search and seizure was
valid.
The Court noted that there was ample opportunity to obtain a
warrant of arrest. The identity of the accused was ascertained.
The accused was not acting suspiciously, and distinguished the
case:
a. from People v. Tangliben (supra), where policemen were
confronted with an on the spot tip. Moreover, the policemen
knew that the Victory Liner compound is being used by drug
traffickers as their business address.
More significantly, Tangliben was acting suspiciously.
His actuations and surrounding circumstances led the
policemen to reasonably suspect that Tangliben is
committing a crime.
In instant case, there is no single indication that Aruta was
acting suspiciously.
b. from People v. Malmstedt. In Malmstedt, where there was
no reasonable time for the police authorities to obtain a
search warrant, and his actuations also aroused suspicion of
the officers conducting the operation.
In Aruto, there was time to obtain a search warrant, her
identity was priorly ascertained, and she was not acting
suspiciously.

While it is true that the NARCOM officers were not armed with a search
warrant when the search was made over the personal effects of accused,
however, under the circumstances of the case, there was sufficient
probable cause for said officers to believe that accused was then and
there committing a crime.
Sufficiency of Knowledge of Probable Cause Reiterated En Bane
Probable cause as a ground to justify a warrantless arrest in
flagrante was reiterated in the en bane decision in People u.
Montilla.
In this case, an informer informed the police the day before that
a drug courier whom he could recognize would be arriving in
Cavite from Baguio City.
COMPARE:
WHEN WARRANTLESS ARREST BASED ON INFORMATION
INVALID
c.
In People v. Aruta, the police was tipped off by his informant
that a certain "Aling Rosa" will be arriving from Baguio City the
following day with a large volume of Marijuana.
The police proceeded to the place at 4:00 p.m. of the following
day and deployed themselves near the PNB. A Victory Liner Bus
arrived.
Malmstedt was searched abroad a moving vehicle, a legally
accepted exception to the warrant requirement, Aruta on
the other hand, was searched while she was about to cross
the street.
from People v. Bagista, where probable cause was drawn
from the fact that the accused fitted the description given by
the NARCOM informant and that it involves a search of a
moving vehicle plus the fact the police officers erected a
checkpoint in view of the confidential information from the
regular informant that a woman having the same
appearance as that of the accused would be bringing
marijuana from up to north.

As soon as the appellant had alighted from the passenger
jeepney the informer at once indicated to the officers that their
suspect was at hand pointing to him from the waiting shed, the
informer told them that the marijuana was likely hidden inside
Two females and a male got off, and the pointed to "Aling Rosa"
carrying a traveling bag. The police approached her and inquired
about the contents of the traveling bag which she handed to the
police, who, upon inspection found dried leaves of marijuana
146
d. from Manalili v. Court of Appeals, where the court held that
the policemen had sufficient reason to accost accused to
determine if he was actually "high" on drugs due to
suspicious actuations, he was observed to have reddish eyes
 and to be walking in swaying manner — he appeared to be
trying to avoid the policemen — coupled with the fact that
based on the information, this area was a haven for drug
addicts.
The Court noted that in all the above-cited cases, there was
information received which became the bases for conducting the
warrantless search.
Furthermore, additional factors and circumstances were present
which, when taken together with the information constituted
probable causes which justified the warrantless searches and
seizures in each case.
No reference was made to Montilla.
In applicable earlier decisions, the Supreme Court held that
there was probable cause in the following instances:
(a) where the distinctive odor of marijuana emanated from the
plastic bag carried by the accused;
(b) where an informer positively identified the accused who was
observed to have been acting suspiciously;
(c) where the accused fled when accosted by policemen;
(d) where the accused who were riding a jeepney were stopped
and searched by policeman who had earlier received
confidential reports that the said accused would transport a
large quantity of marijuana; and
(e) where the moving vehicle was stopped and searched on the
basis of intelligence information and clandestine reports by a
deep penetration agent or spy — one who participated in the
drug smuggling activities of the syndicate to which the
accused belonged — the said accused where bringing
prohibited drugs into the country
Other Cases where there was no Probable Cause
There is, no probable cause where the arresting team was only
armed with knowledge of the suspect's "attire" which the witness
could not even remember.
The team did not have a physical description of the suspect nor
his name.
They were not even given a specific place within which to target
their search of the suspect, only a vicinity of the Muslim Area in
Quiapo, near the Muslim Mosque.
Yet the arresting team directly zeroed in on the accused and his
companions who were only eating halo-halo at a small
restaurant, surely not a crime in itself.
While SP04 Clemente claims that accused had a "bulging
waistline," this alone, in the light of the availing circumstances,
is insufficient to constitute probable cause for the arrest of the
accused.
In another case, the police officers were informed that accused
were repacking drugs.
Accompanied by an informer, they peeped first through the
window before they saw the activities of the suspects inside the
room and entered the house and arrested the suspects.
The court held that the arrest, search and seizure were illegal.
They should have first conducted a surveillance considering that
the activities and identities of the suspects were already known
and if there was probable cause, they should have applied for a
search warrant.
The court reiterated the 7 situations of a warrantless search and
held that the arrest, search and seizure do not fall on any of
them.
In another case, the court noted that the ETC never took the
pains of pointing to such facts, (constituting probable cause) but
predicated mainly its decision on the finding that "accused was
caught red-handed carrying the bag-full of [s]habu when
apprehended."
In short, there is no probable cause.
At least in People v. Tangliben, the Court agreed with the lower
court's finding that compelling reasons (e.g., accused was acting
suspiciously, on the spot identification by an informant that
accused was transporting prohibitive drug, and the urgency of
the situation) constitute of probable cause impelled.
In another case, the Solicitor General proposes that the following
details are suggestive of probable cause — persistent reports of
rampant smuggling of firearm and other contraband articles,
CHUA's watercraft differing in appearance from the usual fishing
boats that commonly cruise over the Bacnotan seas, CHUA's
illegal entry into the Philippines (he lacked the necessary travel
documents or visa), CHUA's suspicious behavior, i.e., he
attempted to flee when he saw the police authorities, and the
apparent ease by which CHUA can return to and navigate his
speedboat with immediate dispatch towards the high seas,
beyond the reach of Philippine laws.
147
The Court, however, found that these do not constitute
"probable cause."
Tell-tale Clues of Probable Cause Reiterated
None of the telltale clues, e.g., bag or package emanating the
pungent odor of marijuana or other prohibited drugs confidential
report and/or positive identification by informers of courier(s) of
prohibited drug and/or the time and place where they will
transport/ deliver the same, suspicious demeanor or behavior
and suspicious bulge in the waist accepted by this Court as
sufficient to justify a warrantless arrest exists in this case.
There was no classified information that a foreigner would
disembark at Tammocalao beach bearing prohibited drug on the
date in question.
CHUA was not identified as a drug courier by a police informer or
agent.
The fact that the vessel that ferried him to shore bore no
resemblance to the fishing boats of the area did not
automatically mark him as in the process of perpetrating an
offense.
And despite claims by CID and BADUA that CHUA attempted to
flee, ALMOITE testified that the latter was merely walking and
oblivious to any attempt at conversation when the officers
approached him.
In People v. Luaa, a buy-bust operation was conducted against
the accused. After he had gone inside his house and returned
with the three tea bags of marijuana and received the marked
money, the designated poseur-buyer gave the signal to his
fellow police officers who closed in and arrested the accused.
In the course of the arrest, a police officer noticed something
bulging at accused's waistline, which turned out to be an
unlicensed .38 caliber "paltik" with two live bullets.
Accused was charged with illegal possession of firearm.
The search was held to be a valid incident of a lawful arrest.
BUY-BUST OPERATIONS CONSIDERED AS IN FLAGRANTE
ARRESTS
Buy-Bust Operations — Search and Seizure Pursuant to Buy-
Bust Operation
What is a buy-bust operation?

A buy-bust operation is far variant from an ordinary arrest; it is
a form of entrapment which has been repeatedly accepted to be
valid means of arresting violators of the Dangerous Drugs Law.
In a buy-bust operation, the violator is caught in flagrante
delicto and the police officers conducting the operation are not
only authorized but duty-bound to apprehend the violator and to
search him for anything that may have been part of or used in
the commission of the crime.
In flagrante arrests are usually made in drug cases during a buy-
bust operation.
A buy-bust operation is a form of entrapment employed by
peace officers to catch a malefactor in flagrante delicto.
It is the employment by peace officers to catch a malefactor in
flagrante delicto.
It is the employment of such ways and means for the purpose of
entrapping or capturing a lawbreaker.
The term, in connection with violation of the Dangerous Drugs
Act, is a form of entrapment employed by peace officers to trap
and catch malefactor in flagrante delicto.
But, while buy-bust operation is a recognized means of
entrapment for the apprehension of drug pusher, it does not
always commend itself as the most reliable way to go after
violators of the Dangerous Drugs Act as it is susceptible to
mistake as well as to harassment, extortion and abuse.
The Court therefore stressed that the "objective" test in buy-
bust operations demands that the details of the purported
transaction must be clearly and adequately shown.
This must start from the initial contact between the poseur-
buyer and the pusher, the offer to purchase, the promise or
payment of the consideration until the consummation of the sale
by the delivery of the illegal drug subject of the sale.
The manner by which the initial contact was made, whether or
not through an initial contact was made, whether or not through
an informant, the offer to purchase the drug, the payment of the
"buy-bust" money, and the delivery of the illegal drug, whether
to the informant alone or the police officer, must be the subject
of strict scrutiny by courts to insure that the law-abiding citizens
are not unlawfully induced to commit an offense.
Criminals must be caught but not at all cost.
At the same time, however, examining the conduct of the police Certainly, the arrest was not made in the course of a "hot pursuit" of
should not disable courts into ignoring the accused's Cruz, because he was not in Marikina during the "buy-bust" operation. In
such a case, the police should have first secured a warrant of arrest and a
predisposition to commit the crime.
search warrant before they arrested and bodily searched Cruz.
If there is overwhelming evidence of habitual delinquency,
This case should be distinguished from People u. Cuachan,
recidivism or plain criminal proclivity, then this must also be
involving a continuing buy bust operation where after the sale,
considered. Courts should look at all factors to determine the
the shabu was handed to a policeman a block away who after
predisposition of an accused to commit an offense in so far as
determining it was shabu which took only a few minutes
they are relevant to determine the validity of the defense of
immediately proceeded to the house of the appellant and
inducement.
arrested him.
Principle of Continuity-in Buy-Bust Operations
In the case, the police conducted a buy-bust operation.
The buy-bust operation and the search and seizure pursuant to
As planned, Pat. Uggadan and the informant proceeded to the
the buy-bust operation must be continuous:
residence of their quarry while Pfc. Reyes and the other
members of the team posted themselves in strategic places.
Buy-Bust Operation and Search Rejected for Not Being
Continuous.
After a few minutes, Pat. Uggadan together with the informant,
reported to Pfc. Reyes that he had succeeded in buying shabu
Thus, in People v. Enrile, an arrest based on information of a
from the appellant at the same time presenting the merchandise
person who was entrapped to selling marijuana that the source
to Pfc. Reyes.
of the Marijuana was Enrile and led the police to Enrile's house
and after calling for the latter pointed to him as the source of the
After determining it was shabu, Pfc. Reyes and his men
marijuana was held as invalid.
immediately proceeded to the residence of the appellant and
found in one of the rooms several men seated around a table,
In People v. Bautista, an arrest and search based on information
engaged in pot session and several paraphernalia.
of the poseur-buyer to the police who were outside the house
waiting that he was able to buy the shabu from the appellant
Pat. Uggadan pointed to the appellant to PFC Reyes as the
inside the house who immediately went inside and arrested the
person who earlier sold Shabu to him.
appellant was held as valid.
Thereupon, Pfc. Reyes frisked accused-appellant and found in his
In People v. Buenaventura, an arrest based on information of the
person the two 100.00 peso bills he gave to Pat. Uggadan as
seller after he was apprehended in a buy-bust operation that the
buy-bust money and a quantity of shabu contained in a plastic
source of the marijuana was the accused who was then arrested
bag.
in a follow-up operation was held as invalid citing the case of
People u. Enrile.
The court justified the warrantless arrest under Section 5, Rule
113 of the Rules of Court on warrantless arrest and the
In People v. Merabueno, the Supreme Court found:
obligation of the police to apprehend even without a warrant of
arrest. Pat. Uggadan witnessed the illegal act of selling shabu on
DURING THE INVESTIGATION OF BASILIO, THE POLICE
the occasion of the buy-bust operation in front of the room of
LEARNED THAT THE SUPPLIER OF THE MARIJUANA WAS
the accused.
CRUZ. A POLICE TEAM WAS DISPATCHED TO ANTIPOLO,
RIZAL, WHERE CRUZ LIVED. THE FIRST MISSION
He did not make the arrest right then and there because there
RETURNED WITHOUT FINDING CRUZ.
were only himself and the informant as against the different
The team returned to Antipolo at 7:00 P.M. of the same day. According to male and female voices he heard from both rooms of appellant's
the police, they met Cruz on their way to his house while Cruz claimed house.
that the police just barged into his house.
Considering that the operation took place inside the house of
But assuming that the version of the police is the correct one, there was appellant, understandably Pat. Uggadan and his informant had
no reasonable basis to place Cruz under arrest without a warrant and then to get out of the house and inform their backup that the sale had
search him, also without a warrant.
been consummated.
148

Furthermore, weighty consideration is the fact that, as
previously stated, Pat. Uggadan immediately gave the shabu to
Pfc. Reyes who was only a block away and after the latter had
determined that it was shabu, which only took a few minutes,
they all immediately proceeded to the house of appellant and
arrested him.
It was a continuing buy-bust operation which, as the phrase
connotes, commenced with buying shabu and culminated in his
arrest. Since his arrest was lawful, it follows that the incidental
search was also valid.
In another case, the arresting officers were informed by the
NARCOM Chief that a transaction had been agreed upon in Las
Pinas, Metro Manila for the delivery of Shabu to take place in
Room No. 77 of the Hyatt Terraces at Baguio City.
Undercover agents waited for the appellant inside the room, but
the latter did not show up in the afternoon, but the following
morning. Appellant with an undercover agent arrived at Room
No. 77.
The latter signaled that appellant had Shabu with him. While the
sale of the Shabu which was agreed upon with a Chinese
business man in Las Pinas, Metro Manila, did not take place in
the presence of the agents, the delivery or attempted delivery of
the subject matter took place in their presence.
The Court held the warrantless arrest of appellant inside Rooir
77 was merely the culmination of an entrapment operation and
that the taking of shabu from appellant was either done
immediately be fore, or was an incident to a lawful arrest.
The Hot Pursuit Arrest
Elements:
a. Offense have been committed;
b. Offense has just been committed;
c. Probable cause based on personal knowledge of facts or
circumstances that persons to be arrested committed it.
a. First Element: Meaning of Offense Committed
The present rule abandons the pronouncement in People v.
Burgos, that in arrests without a warrant under Section
6(b), it is not enough that there is reasonable ground to
believe that the person to be arrested has committed a
crime.
A crime must in fact or actually have been committed first.
The rule now is the indubitable existence of a crime is not
necessary to justify a warrantless arrest.
In People v. Ramos, an informant apprised the police of the
presence of a drug pusher at the corner of 3rd Street and
Rizal Avenue, Olongapo City.
Acting on such information and in their presence, their
superior, Captain Castillo, gave the informant marked
money to buy marijuana.
The informant, now turned poseur-buyer, returned with two
sticks of marijuana. Captain Castillo again gave said
informant marked money to purchase marijuana.
The informant poseur-buyer thereafter returned with
another two sticks of marijuana.
The police officers then proceeded to the corner of 3rd
Street and Rizal Avenue and effected the arrest of appellant.
The Supreme Court with Justice Gutierrez as ponente, held,
from the above facts, that it may be concluded that the
arresting police officers had personal knowledge of facts
implicating the appellant with the sale of marijuana to the
informant-poseur-buyer.
The arrest was held legal and the consequent search which
yielded 20 sticks of marijuana was lawful for being incident
to a valid arrest.
The fact that the prosecution failed to prove the sale of
marijuana beyond reasonable doubt does not undermine the
legality of the appellant's arrest.
It is not necessary that the crime should have been
established as a fact in order to regard the detention as
legal.
The legality of detention does not depend upon the actual
commission of the crime, but upon the nature of the deed
when such characterization may reasonably be inferred by
the officer or functionary to whom the law at the moment
leaves the decision for the urgent purpose of suspending the
liberty of the citizen.
People v. Euaristo, cited the doctrine in People v. Sucro
(supra), when crime is deemed committed in one's presence
— e.g., hears the disturbances created thereby and
proceeds at the scene thereof.
149
To justify a warrantless arrest not on Sec. 5(a) but Sec.
5(b), the Supreme Court held that the usual observation of
a bulge on the waist of Carillo, along with the earlier report
of gunfire, as well as the peace officer's professional
instincts, are more than sufficient to pass the tests of the
rules.
Consequently, under the facts, the firearms taken from
Carillo can be said to have been incidental to a lawful and
valid arrest under Sec. 5(b), Rule 113.
b. Second Element: Meaning of just been committed
"Just been committed" connotes immediacy in point of time,
per dissent of Justice Teehankee cited by C.J., Fernan in his
concurring dissenting in Umil v. Ramos. It means a very
short time ago.
The arrest must be made almost immediately as soon after
these acts, not at anytime after the suspicion of the
arresting officer begins, no matter how long ago the offense
was committed.
The time interval between the actual commission of the
crime and the arrival of the arresting officer must be brief
indeed.
The recency contemplated here, in relation to the making of
the warrantless arrest, is the time when the crime was in
fact committed, and not the time when the person making
the arrest learned or was informed of such commission.
1) Espiritu v. Lim — The arrest of the accused one day
after commission of the crime of Inciting to Sedition
was held to be valid.
2) People v. Nazareno — Arrest made 14 days after com-
mission of the crime is valid.
3) People v. Sucro
The fact that Macabante, when intercepted by the police,
was caught throwing the marijuana sticks and when
confronted, readily admitted that he bought the same
from the accused-appellant clearly indicates that
accused had just sold the marijuana sticks to
Macabante, and therefore, had just committed an illegal
act of which the police officers had personal knowledge,
being members of the team which monitored Sucre's
nefarious activity.
4) Rolito Go v. Court of Appeals — Arrest six days after
commission of the crime based on information from
 alleged eyewitness held unlawful.
A warrantless arrest three (3) days after commission of
the crime or 19 hours thereafter were held to be
unlawful.
c. Third Element: Personal Knowledge of Facts
Following are the doctrines under the 1985 Rule on the
meaning of Personal Knowledge of Facts Based on
Information Rejected
1) People v. Burgos, personal knowledge based on, in-
formation by suspect rejected.
2) Alih v. Castro, (Need for personal knowledge)
3) People v. Aminnudin — Warrantless arrest based on tip
of informer who pointed to the suspect was rejected.
4) People u. Sucro, citing People v. Bati — Police officers
have personal knowledge of the actual commission of
the crime when it had earlier conducted surveillance
activities of the accused.
5) In People u. Alvarez — Arrest based on surveillance by
informant who was once a policeman was held to be
valid.
6) People v. Briones — Warrantless arrest made by a
police officer based on disclosure by eyewitness who
disclosed the identity of the perpetrator was rejected.
7) People v. Cendana — Arrest based on information from
unknown sources given a day after the commission of
the crime was rejected.
8) People v. Tonog — Arrest based on knowledge of facts
gathered from investigation was held valid.
In this case there was an oral confession.
9) Nazareno v. Station Commander of Muntinlupa — Arrest
based on information of a suspect 14 days aftel
commission of crime held as valid. This is of doubtful
validity.
10) Rolito Go u. Court of Appeals (supra, February 1992)
Justice Feliciano as ponente — Arrest 6 days after
shooting based on information of alleged eyewitnesses
was held unlawful
Petitioner's arrest took place six (6) days after the
shooting of Maguan. The arresting officers obviously
were not present, within the meaning of Section 5(a),
at the time petitioner had allegedly who Maguan.
Neither could the arrest effected six (6) days after the
shooting be reasonably regarded as effected when [the
shooting had] ii fact just been committed within the
meaning of Section 5(b).
Moreover, none of the arresting officers had any
personal knowledge of facts indicating that petitioner
was the gunman who had shot Maguan
The information upon which the police acted had been
derived from statements made by alleged eyewitness to
the shooting — one stated that petitioner was the
gunman; another was able to take down the alleged
gunman's car plate number which turned out to be
registered in petitioner's wife name.
That information did not, however, constitute personal
knowledge.
Personal Knowledge of Facts Based on Information Allowed
1) In People v. Madriaga, personal knowledge based on
information of the co-accused pointing to accused as to
source of marijuana, was held as valid.
2) In People v. Gerente, the policemen arrested Gerente only
some three (3) hours after Gerente and his companions had
killed Blace.
They saw Blace dead in the hospital and when they
inspected the scene of the crime, they found the
instruments of death; a piece of wood and a concrete hollow
which the killers had used to bludgeon him to death.
The eyewitness, Edna Edwina Reyes, reported the
happening to the policemen and pinpointed her neighbor,
Gerente as one of the killers.
Under those circumstances, since the policemen had
personal knowledge of the violent death of Blace and of
facts indicating that Gerente and two others had killed him,
they could lawfully arrest Gerente without a warrant.
If they had postponed his arrest until they could obtain a
warrant, he would have fled the law as his two companions
did.
150
3) In People u. Bautista, held as valid an arrest made by the
station commander, who was outside the house, based on
information of the poseur-buyer after the purchase was
made. Said case cited in U.S. v. Santos, which justified a
warrantless arrest on reasonable ground of suspicion
supported by circumstances strong in themselves as to
warrant a reasonable man in believing the accused to be
guilty.
4) In People u. Saycon, warrantless arrest of debarking
passenger from vessel based on information was held valid.
COMPARE: People v. Enrile— Information by co-accused that
Enrile gave him the marijuana is invalid.
In People v. Encinada, the court held that: "Raw intelligence
information is not a sufficient ground for a warrantless
arrest."
However, in People v. Montilla (supra), the court observed
that "although information gathered and passed on by law
enforcers are vague and piece-meal, and not as neatly and
completely packaged as one would expect from a
professional spymaster, such tip-offs are sometimes
sucessful as it proved to be in the apprehension of
appellant."
5) In Sanchez v. Demetriou. The Warrantless arrest based on
the sworn statement of Centeno by an officer who had no
personal knowledge is unlawful but the defect was cured by
the filing of charges and issuance of warrant of arrest.
In People v. AcoZ, a group held up a passenger jeepney
Policemen immediately responded to the report of the crime.
One of the victims saw four persons walking towards Fort
Bonifacio, one of whom was wearing his jacket.
He pointed them to the policemen. When the group saw the
policemen coming, they ran in different directions.
Three were caught and arrested. Each was found in
possession of an unlicensed revolver and charged with
illegal possession of firearms.
The accused claimed that the warrantless seizure of firearms
was illegal. The Court rejected their plea and held that the
search was a valid incident of a lawful arrest.
The subsequent search of accused-appellant's person and
the seizure from him of the firearm was likewise lawful.
Personal Knowledge of Facts Based on Reasonable Grounds of Suspicion
Rule is now the Rule
In its resolution denying the Motion for Reconsideration in the
Umil v. Ramos cases, the majority opinion explained the
meaning of personal knowledge of facts, as follows:
"It has been ruled that 'personal knowledge of facts,' in arrests without
warrant must be based upon probable cause, which means an actual
belief or reasonable grounds of suspicion. (Subjective)
The grounds of suspicion are reasonable when, in the absence of actual
belief of the arresting officers, the suspicion that the person to be arrested
is probably guilty of committing the offense, is based on actual facts, i.e.,
supported by circumstances sufficiently strong in themselves to create the
probable cause of guilt of the person to be arrested. (Objective)
A reasonable suspicion therefore must be founded on probable cause,
coupled with good faith on the part of the peace officers making the
arrest."
In ascertaining whether the arrest without warrant is conducted
in accordance with the conditions set forth in section 5, Rule
113, this Court determines not whether the persons arrested are
indeed guilty of committing the crime for which they were
arrested but whether they are probably guilty thereof.
Not evidence of guilt but "probable cause" is the reason that can
validly compel the peace officers in the performance of their
duties and in the interest of public order, to conduct an arrest
without warrant.
The Courts should not expect of law-enforcers more than what
the law requires of them.
Under the conditions set forth in Section 5, Rule 113, particularly
paragraph (b) thereof, even if the arrested persons are later
found to be innocent and acquitted, the arresting officers are not
liable.
But if they do not strictly comply with the said conditions, the
arresting officers can be held liable for the crime of arbitrary
detention, for damages under Article 32 of the Civil Code and/or
for other administrative sanctions.
The same principle was stated in People u. Aruta.
Probable cause in these cases, must only be based on
reasonable ground of suspicion or belief that a crime has been
committed or is about to be committed.
The foregoing standards were also adopted in warrantless "hot
pursuit" arrest.
Thus, in the 1999 case of People u. Doria, the Court en bane
speaking thru Jusice Reynato Puno wrote, "Personal knowledge"
of facts arrests without warrant under Section 5(b) of Rule 113
must be based upon "probable cause" which means an "actual
belief or reasonable grounds of suspicion" and reiterated the rule
in Umil v. Ramos.
In this case, accused-appellant Gaddao was arrested solely on
the basis of the alleged identification made by her co-accused.
P03 Manlangit, however, declared in his direct examination that
appellant Doria named his co-accused in response to his (P03
Manlangit's) query as to where the marked money was,
Appellant Doria did not point to appellant Gaddao as his
associate in the drug business, but as the person with whom he
left the marked bills.
This identification does not necessarily lead to the conclusion
that appellant Gaddao conspired with her co-accused in pushing
drugs. Appellant Doria may have left the money in her house.
With or without her knowledge, with or without conspiracy.
Save for accused-appellant Doria's word, the Narcom agents had
no reasonable grounds to believe that she was engaged in drug
pushing.
If there is no showing that the person who effected the
warrantless arrest had, in his own right, knowledge of facts
implicating the person arrested to the perpetration of a criminal
offense, the arrest is legally objectionable.
Said the U.S. Supreme Court:
"THE ARREST MUST STAND UPON A FIRMER GROUND
THAN MERE SUSPICION THOUGH THE ARRESTING
OFFICER NEED NOT HAVE IN HAND EVIDENCE WHICH
WOULD SUFFICE TO CONVICT.
The quantum of information which constitutes probable cause or evidence
which would warrant a man of reasonable caution in the belief that a
felony has been committed must be measured by the facts of the
particular case.
A significantly lower quantum of proof is required to establish probable
cause than guilt."
Probable cause may, however, not be established simply by
showing that the officer who made the challenged arrest or
search subjectively believed that he had grounds for his action.
Good faith alone is not sufficient.
The probable cause test is an objective one.
The mere subjective conclusion of a police concerning the
existence of probable cause is not binding in the court which
151
must independently scrutinize the objective facts to determine
the existence of probable cause.
In doing so, however, the expertise of the officer are to be taken
into account.
This is as it should be for there would be little merit in securing
able trained men to guard the public peace if their actions were
to be measured by what might be probable cause to untrained
civilians.
In assessing the conduct of the police officer, it is imperative
that the facts be judged against an objective standard.
The test is:
Would the facts available to the officer at the moment of the
seizure or search warrant a man of reasonable caution in the
belief that the action taken was appreciated.
Personal Knowledge of the Death of Victim and Facts Indicating that
Accused Was the Assailant
In People v. Tonog, the police found the lifeless body of a person
with several stab wounds. An informer pointed to the accused as
the person who had killed the victim. That afternoon, police
officers arrested the accused. On their way to the police station,
a policeman noticed bloodstains on the accused's pants which,
when examined, was found to be the same blood type "0" found
on the fatal knife.
The Court upheld the warrantless arrest and ruled that the
blood-stained pants, having been seized as an incident of a law-
ful arrest, was admissible in evidence.
In People v. Gerente, the police arrested the accused three
hours after the victim had been killed. They went to the scene of
the crime where they found a piece of wood and a concrete
hollow block used by the killers in bludgeoning the victim to
death. A neighbor of the accused who witnessed the killing,
pointed to him as one of the assailants. The warrantless arrest
was held valid under Rule 113, Sec. 5(b).
In People v. Jay son, there was a shooting. The policemen sum-
moned to the scene of the crime and found the victim. Accused-
appellant was pointed to them as the assailant only moments
after the shooting. In fact accused-appellant had not gone very
far (only ten meters away from the "lhaw-Ihaw"), although he
was then fleeing. The arresting officers thus acted on the basis
of personal knowledge of the death of the victim and of facts
indicating that accused-appellant was the assailant. The court
upheld the warrantless arrests as valid.
In another case, the police officers were informed that accused
were repacking drugs. Accompanied by an informer. They
peeped first through the window before they saw the activities of
the suspects inside the room and entered the house and
arrested the suspects.
The court held that the arrest, search and seizure were illegal.
They should have first conducted a surveillance considering that
the activities and identities of the suspects were already known
and if there was probable cause, they should have applied for a
search warrant.
The court reiterated the seven (7) situations of a warrantless
search and held that the arrest, search and seizure do not fall on
any of them.
ONLY COURTS COULD DECIDE THE QUESTION OF
PROBABLE CAUSE SINCE THE STUDENTS WERE NOT
BEING ARRESTED IN FLA-GRANTE DELICTO
In Posadas v. The Hon. Ombudsman, the NBI agents tried to
effect an arrest four days after commission of the crime and had
no personal knowledge of any fact which might indicate that the
two students were probably guilty of the crime and what they
had were the supposed positive identification of two alleged
eyewitnesses, the court held this is insufficient to justify the
arrest without a warrant by the NBI.
The Court distinguished the case from that of People v. Tonog,
relied upon by the prosecution to justify the arrest.
In Tonog, the accused voluntarily went upon invitation of the
police officer who later noticed the presence of blood stains on
the pants of the accused.
Upon reaching the police station, the accused was asked to take
off his pants for examination at the crime laboratory.
The question in that case involved the admissibility of the maong
pants taken from the accused.
It is clear that Tonog does not apply to this case.
First, the accused in that case voluntarily went with the police
upon the latter's invitation.
Second, the arresting officer found blood stains an the pants of
the accused, on the basis of which he concluded that the
accused probably committed the crime for which reason the
latter was taken into custody.
Third, the arrest was made on the same day the crime was
committed.
In the words of Rule 113, Sec. 5(b), the crime had "just been
committed" and the arresting officer had "personal knowledge of
the facts indicating that the person to be arrested had
committed it."
The court reiterated the rule in People v. Doria (supra), that:
'"Personal knowledge' of facts in arrests without a warrant under Section
5(b) of Rule 113 must be based upon 'probable cause' which means an
actual belief or reasonable grounds of suspicion.
The grounds of suspension are reasonable when, the absence of actual
belief of the arresting officers, the suspicion that the person to be arrested
is probably guilty of committing the offense is based on actual facts, i.e.,
supported by circumstances sufficiently strong in themselves to create the
probable cause of guilt of the person to be arrested.
A reasonable suspicion therefore must be founded on probable cause,
coupled with good faith on the part of the peace officers making the
arrest."
To allow the arrest which the NBI intended to make without
warrant would in effect allow them to supplant the courts.
The determination of the existence of probable cause that the
persons to be arrested committed the crime was for the judge to
make.
The law authorities a police officer or even an ordinary citizen to
arrest criminal offenders only if the latter are committing or
have just committed a crime.
Otherwise, we cannot leave to the police officers the
determination of whom to apprehend if we are to protect our
civil liberties.
This is evident from a consideration of the requirements before a
judge can order the arrest of suspects. Art. Ill, Sec. 2 of the
Constitution.
Rule in Drug Cases
The Supreme Court in People v. Saycon pointed out that:
"It is important to note that unlike in the case of crimes like, e.g.,
homicide, murder, physical injuries, robbery or rape which by their nature
involve physical, optically perceptible, overt acts, the defense of
possessing or delivering or transporting some prohibited or regulated drug
is customarily carried out without any external signs or indication visible
to police officers and the rest of the outside world.
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Drug "pushers" or couriers do not customarily go about their enterprise or
trade with some external visible sign advertising the fact that they are
carrying or distributing or transporting prohibited drugs.
Thus, the application of the rules in Section 5(a) and (b), Rule 133 of the
Rules of Court needs to take that circumstances into account.
The Court has had to resolve the question of valid or invalid warrantless
arrest or warrantless search or seizure in such cases by determining the
presence or absence of a reasonable or probable cause, before that such a
felony (possessing or transporting or delivering prohibited drugs) was
then in progress.
In Barros, the Court listed the kinds of causes which have been
characterized as probable or reasonable cause supporting the legality and
validity of a warrantless search and a warrantless arrest in cases of this
type:
"THIS COURT HAS IN THE PAST FOUND PROBABLE CAUSE
TO CONDUCT WITHOUT A JUDICIAL WARRANT AN
EXTENSIVE SEARCH OF MOVING VEHICLES IN
SITUATIONS WHERE
(1) there had emanated from a package the distinctive smell of
marijuana;
(2) agents of the Narcotics Command ("Narcom") of the Philippine
National Police ("PNP") had received a confidential report from
informers that a sizeable volume of marijuana would be
transported along the route where the search was conducted;204
(3) Narcom agents were informed or "tipped off" by an undercover
"deep penetration" agent that prohibited drugs would be
brought into the country on a particular airline flight on a given
date;
(4) Narcom agents had received information that a Caucasian
coming from Sagada, Mountain Province, had in his possession
prohibited drugs and when the Narcom agents confronted the
accused Caucasian, because of a conspicuous bulge in his waist-
line, he failed to present his passport and other identification
papers when requested to do so; and
(5) Narcom agents had received confidential information that a
woman having the same physical appearance as that of the
accused would be transporting marijuana."
Caution:
The government's drive against illegal drugs needs the support
of every citizen.
But it should not undermine the fundamental rights of every
citizen as enshrined in the Constitution.
The constitutional guarantee against warrantless arrests and
unreasonable searches and seizures cannot be so carelessly
disregarded as overzealous police officers are sometimes wont to
do.

Fealty to the constitution and the rights it guarantees should be
paramount in their minds, otherwise their good intentions will
remain as such simply because they have blundered.
The criminal goes free, if he must, but it is the law that sets him
free.
Nothing can destroy a government more quickly than its failure
to observe its own laws, or worse, its disregard of the charter of
its own existence.
Rule on Escapees
When the person to be arrested is a prisoner who has escaped
from a penal establishment or place where he is serving final
judgment or temporarily confined while his case is pending, or
has escaped while being transferred from one confinement to
another.
An officer may arrest without a warrant, a prisoner who has
escaped from custody after trial and commitment, and it has
been held that even a private person may without a warrant,
arrest a convicted felon who has escaped and is at large.
An officer may arrest without a warrant, a prisoner who has
escaped from custody after trial and commitment.
Even a private person may, without a warrant, arrest a convicted
felon who has escaped and is at large, since he might also,
before conviction, have arrested the felon.
Evasion of service of sentence; Arrest, without a warrant,
principle applied. — Rule 113 of the Revised Rules of Court may
be invoked in support of this conclusion; for, under Section 6(c)
thereof one of the instances when a person may be validly
arrested without warrant is where he has escaped from
confinement.
Undoubtedly, this right of arrest without a warrant is founded on
the principle that at the time of the arrest, the escapee is in the
continuous act of committing a crime — evading the service of
his sentence.
SEC. 6.
Time of Making Arrest
SEC. 7.
Method of Arrest by Officer by Virtue of Warrant
SEC. 8.
Method of Arrest by Officer Without Warrant
Duty of Arresting Officer
At the time a person is arrested, it shall be the duty of the
arresting officer to inform him of the reason for the arrest and
he must be shown the warrant of arrest, if any.
He shall be informed of his constitutional rights to remain silent
and to counsel, and that any statement he might make could be
used against him.
The person arrested shall have the right to communicate with his
lawyer, a relative, or anyone he chooses by the most expedient
means — by telephone if possible — or by letter or messenger.
It shall be the responsibility of the arresting officer to see to it
that this is accomplished.
No custodial investigation shall be conducted unless it be in the
presence of counsel engaged by the person arrested, or by any
person on his behalf, or appointed by the court upon petition
either of the detainee himself or by anyone on his behalf.
The right to counsel may be waived but the waiver shall not be
valid unless made with the assistance of counsel.
Any statement obtained in violation of the procedure herein laid
down, whether exculpatory or inculpatory, in whole or in part,
shall be inadmissible in evidence.
Procedure, Guidelines and Duties of Arresting or Investigating Officer
Considering the heavy penalty of death and in order to ensure
that the evidence against an accused were obtained through
lawful means, the Court as guardian of the rights of the people,
and in the light of the new legal developments, laid down an
updated procedure, guidelines and duties which the arresting,
detaining, inviting or investigating officer or his companions
must do and observe at the time of making arrest and again at
and during the custodial interrogation in accordance with the
Constitution, jurisprudence and Republic Act No. 7438:
a. The person arrested, detained, invited or under
custodial investigation must be informed in a language
known to and understood by him of the reason for the arrest
and must be shown the warrant of arrest, if any.
Every other warnings, information or communication must
be in a language known to and understood by said person;
b. He must be warned that he has a right to remain silent and
153
that any statement he makes may be used as evidence
against him;
c. He must be informed that he has the right to be assisted at
all times and have the presence of an independent and
competent lawyer, preferably of his own choice;
d. He must be informed that if he has no lawyer or cannot
afford the services of a lawyer, one will be provided for him,
and that a lawyer may also be engaged by any person in his
behalf or may be appointed by the court upon petition of the
person arrested or one acting in his behalf;
e. That whether or not the person arrested has lawyer he must
be informed that no custodial investigation any form shall be
conducted except in the presence of his counsel or after a
valid waiver has been made;
f. The person arrested must be informed that at any time, he
has the right to communicate or confer by the most
expedient means — telephone, radio, letter or messenger —
with his lawyer (either retained or appointed), any member
of his immediate family, or any medical doctor, priest or
minister chosen by him or any one from his immediate
family or by counsel or be visited or by conferences with
duly accredited national or international non-governmental
organization. It shall be the responsibility of the officer to
ensure that this is accomplished;
g. He must be informed that he has the right to waive any of
said rights provided it is made voluntarily, knowingly and
intelligently and ensure that he understood the same;
h. In addition, if the person arrested waives his right to a
lawyer, he must be informed that it must be done in writing
AND in the presence of counsel, otherwise, he must be
warned that the waiver is void even if he insist on his waiver
and chooses to speak;
i. That the person must be informed that he may indicate in
any manner at any stage of the process that he does not
wish to be questioned with warning that once he makes
such indication, the police may not interrogate him if the
same had not yet commenced or the interrogation must
ceased (sic) if it has already begun;
j. The person arrested must be informed that his initial waiver
of his right to remain silent, the right to counsel or any of
his rights does not bar him from invoking it at any time
during the process regardless of whether he may have
answered some questions or volunteered some statement;
and

k. He must also be informed that any statement or evidence as
the case may be obtained in violation of any of the foregoing
whether inculpatory or exculpatory, in whole or in part shall
be inadmissible in evidence.
SEC. 9.
Method of Arrest by Private Person
SEC. 10.
Officer may Summon Assistance
SEC. 11.
Right of Officer to Break into Building or Enclosure
SEC. 12.
Right to Break Out from Building or Enclosure
SEC. 13.
Arrest After Escape or Rescue
SEC. 14.
Right of Attorney or Relative to Visit Person arrested
Under Republic Act No. 7438:
"SECTION 2(B) — ANY PUBLIC OFFICER OR EMPLOYEE, OR
ANYONE ACTING UNDER HIS ORDER OR IN HIS PLACE,
WHO ARRESTS, DETAINS OR INVESTIGATES ANY PERSON
FOR THE COMMISSION OF AN OFFENSE SHALL INFORM
THE LATTER, IN A LANGUAGE KNOWN TO AND
UNDERSTOOD BY HIM, OF HIS RIGHTS TO REMAIN SILENT
AND TO HAVE COMPETENT AND INDEPENDENT COUNSEL,
PREFERABLY OF HIS OWN CHOICE, WHO SHALL AT ALL
TIMES BE ALLOWED TO CONFER PRIVATELY WITH THE
PERSON ARRESTED, DETAINED OR UNDER CUSTODIAL
INVESTIGATION.
If such person cannot afford the services of his own counsel, he must be
provided with a competent and independent counsel by the investigating
officer.
(a) Any person arrested or detained or under custodial investigation shall
be allowed visits by or conferences with any member of his immediate
family, or any medical doctor or priest or religious minister chosen by him
or by any member of his immediate family or by his counsel, or by any
national non-governmental organization duly accredited by the
Commission on Human Rights or by any international non-governmental
organization duly accredited by the Office of the President.
The person's "immediate family" shall include his or her spouse, fiance or
fiancee, parent or child, brother or sister, grandparent or grandchild,
uncle or aunt, nephew or niece, and guardian or ward.
AS USED IN THIS ACT, "CUSTODIAL INVESTIGATION"
SHALL INCLUDE THE PRACTICE OF ISSUING AN
"INVITATION" TO A PERSON WHO IS INVESTIGATED IN
CONNECTION WITH AN OFFENSE HE IS SUSPECTED TO
HAVE COMMITTED, WITHOUT PREJUDICE TO THE
LIABILITY OF THE "INVITING" OFFICER FOR ANY
VIOLATION OF LAW.
SEC. 4 — A) ANY ARRESTING PUBLIC OFFICER OR
EMPLOYEE, OR ANY INVESTIGATING OFFICER, WHO FAILS
TO INFORM ANY PERSON ARRESTED, DETAINED OR
UNDER CUSTODIAL INVESTIGATION OF HIS RIGHT TO
REMAIN SILENT AND TO HAVE COMPETENT AND
INDEPENDENT COUNSEL PREFERABLY OF HIS OWN
CHOICE, SHALL SUFFER A FINE OF SIX THOUSAND PESOS
(P6,000.00) OR A PENALTY OF IMPRISONMENT OF NOT
LESS THAN EIGHT (8) YEARS BUT NOT MORE THAN TEN
(10) YEARS, OR BOTH.
The penalty of perpetual absolute disqualification shall also be imposed
upon the investigating officer who has been previously convicted of a
similar offense.
THE SAME PENALTIES SHALL BE IMPOSED UPON A PUBLIC
OFFICER OR EMPLOYEE, OR ANYONE ACTING UPON
ORDERS OF SUCH INVESTIGATING OFFICER OR IN HIS
PLACE, WHO FAILS TO PROVIDE A COMPETENT AND
INDEPENDENT COUNSEL TO A PERSON ARRESTED,
DETAINED OR UNDER CUSTODIAL INVESTIGATION FOR
THE COMMISSION OF AN OFFENSE IF THE LATTER
CANNOT AFFORD THE SERVICES OF HIS OWN COUNSEL.
B) ANY PERSON WHO OBSTRUCTS, PREVENTS OR
PROHIBITS ANY LAWYER, ANY MEMBER OF THE
IMMEDIATE FAMILY OF A PERSON ARRESTED, DETAINED
OR UNDER CUSTODIAL INVESTIGATION, OR ANY MEDICAL
DOCTOR OR PRIEST OR RELIGIOUS MINISTER CHOSEN BY
HIM OR BY ANY MEMBER OF HIS IMMEDIATE FAMILY OR
BY HIS COUNSEL, FROM VISITING AND CONFERRING
PRIVATELY WITH HIM, OR FROM EXAMINING AND
TREATING HIM, OR FROM MINISTERING TO HIS
SPIRITUAL NEEDS, AT ANY HOUR OF THE DAY OR, IN
URGENT CASES, OF THE NIGHT SHALL SUFFER THE
PENALTY OF IMPRISONMENT OF NOT LESS THAN FOUR
(4) YEARS NOR MORE THAN SIX (6) YEARS, AND A FINE
OF FOUR THOUSAND PESOS (P4,000.00).
UNDER SEC. 2(D), REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7348 ANY
EXTRAJUDICIAL CONFESION MADE BY A PERSON,
ARRESTED, DETAINED OR UNDER CUSTODIAL
INVESTIGATION" (WHICH SHALL INCLUDE AN
154
"INVITATION FOR INVESTIGATION" SHALL BE IN
WRITING AND SIGNED BY SUCH PERSON IN THE
PRESENCE OF HIS COUNSEL OR IN THE LATTER'S
ABSENCE, UPON A VALID WAIVER, AND IN THE PRESENCE
OF ANY OF THE PARENTS, ELDER BROTHERS AND
SISTERS, HIS SPOUSE, THE MUNICIPAL MAYOR, THE
MUNICIPAL JUDGE, DISTRICT SCHOOL SUPERVISOR, OR
PRIEST OR MINISTER OF THE GOSPEL AS CHOSEN BY
HIM; OTHERWISE, SUCH EXTRAJUDICIAL CONFESSION
SHALL BE INADMISSIBLE AS EVIDENCE IN ANY
PROCEEDING.
In other words, if there is a valid waiver, and the lawyer's pres-
ence is waived, the confession must still be signed in the
presence of any persons enumerated above.
1. Application of Actual Force, Manual Touching of the
Body, Physical Restraint or a Formal Declaration of
Arrest is Not Required
It is enough that there be an intent on the part of one of the
parties to arrest the other and intent on the part of the
other to submit, under the belief and impression that
submission is necessary.1
a. A letter-invitation is equivalent to arrest.
Where the invitation comes from a powerful group
composed predominantly of ranking military officers and
the designated interrogation site as a military camp,
this is obviously a command or an order of arrest.
b. Under R.A. No. 7438, the requisites of a custodial
interrogation are applicable even to a person not
formally arrested but merely invited for questioning,
2. Illegality of Arrest Does Not Render the Proceedings
Void where No timely Objection to the Irregularity is
Made
a. See also People v. Macam3 for waiver of illegality of
arrest.
A motion to quash should be filed.
The illegality of the arrest or the procedure in acquiring
jurisdiction of the person of an accused must be raised
before plea.
[I]t is too late for appellant to raise the question of his
arrest without a warrant.
When accused-appellant was arrested and a case was
 filed against him, he pleaded not guilty upon
arraignment, participated in the trial and presented his
evidence.

Appellant is thus estopped from questioning the legality

of his arrest.

It is well-settled that any objection involving a warrant

of arrest or procedure in the acquisition by the court of
jurisdiction over the person of an accused must be
made before he enters his plea, otherwise the objection
is deemed waived.

Besides, this issue is being raised for the first time by

appellant.

He did not move for the quashal of the information

before the trial court on this ground.

Consequently, any irregularity attendant to his arrest, if

any, was cured when he voluntarily submitted himself
to the jurisdiction of the trial court by entering a plea of
not guilty and by participating in the trial.

Moreover, the illegal arrest of an accused is not

sufficient cause for setting aside a valid judgment
rendered upon a sufficient complaint after the trial free
from error.

b. Thus, the unlawfulness of an arrest does not affect the

jurisdiction of the Court.

In other words, the illegal arrest of an accused is not

sufficient cause for setting aside a valid judgment
rendered upon a sufficient complaint after trial free
from error.

155