Criteria of Good Research

Author(s): James Harold Fox

Source: The Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 39, No. 6, What Research Says about Teaching and Learning
(Mar., 1958), pp. 284-286
Published by: Phi Delta Kappa International
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20342074
Accessed: 27/10/2010 05:54

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless
you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you
may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.

Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=pdki.

Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed
page of such transmission.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Phi Delta Kappa International is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Phi
Delta Kappan.

http://www.jstor.org
 284PHI DELTA KAPPAN March, 1958
there are four that are usually listed as essential 5. Interest in professional cooperation.
to successful teaching: 6. Interest in professional growth.
1. Good cultural background. One can see from the foregoing enumerations
are
2. Substantial knowledge of the subject taught, that many things expected of teachers. From
or of some area of the point of view of refining statements like the
specialization.
3. Substantial knowledge of human develop above, many observations might be made. Three
ment and learning. such observations are offered here:
4. Substantial knowledge of professional prac 1. There are many ways of describing teachers.
tices and techniques. In general, systems for characterizing teachers
Among the generalized skills the following have been highly individualistic, everyone having
are
emphasized: his own view on the subject. There needs to be
frequently
1. Skill in the use of language, spoken and
more group work and consensus in the area.
written. 2. The characterizations are so
frequently long
2. Skill in human relationships. that one gets lost in detail; or so short that one
3. Skill in research and educational problem gets lost in over-generalization. The lists should
solving. be of such a character that they can be readily
4. Effective work habits. kept in mind from day to day by any teacher
Among the interests and attitudes frequently
as she teaches.
are the 3. Terms must be defined. While dictionary
emphasized following:
1. Interest in pupil. definitions are are not
helpful, they ordinarily
2. Interest in a subject or area of specialization. adequate for the technical demands of this field.
3. Interest in teaching. All important terms will need to be defined oper
4. Interest in the school and the community. ationally.

Criteria of Good Research

By JAMES HAROLD FOX

RESEARCH is one of the means by which observation supported by the logic of mathe
we seek to discover the truth. It is based matics.

upon the tacit assumption that" the world is Many of the natural phenomena that we would
a cosmos whose have causes and are like to study do not yield readily, however, to any
happenings
controlled by forces and relationships that can combination of the three known research methods.
be expressed as laws and principles. Discovery For some aspects of the truth there are no earthly
of these controls of nature provides us with a authorities, only inadequate kinds of mathematical
no known means of controlled observa
hunting license to search for ways of controlling logic, and
our environment. tion. True, the extension and refinement of re
the research methods available search methods are steadily enlarging the scope
Unfortunately,
to us are far from perfect. Mankind, in the slow of research. However, the closer we come to dis
evolution toward civilization, has to date found covery of a part of the truth, the greater the scope
three basic to the discovery of of the unknown seems to become.
only approaches
truth?authority, logic, and controlled observa Because of these limitations, research rarely
tion. Until about 300 years ago, efforts to dis reveals to us the whole truth about anything. Dis
cover the truth largely depended upon recourse to covery of what seems to be the truth concerning
authority and logic. Since that time researchers the nature of some part of the process of learning
have placed increasing emphasis upon controlled often turns out later to be only a crude approxi
mation of the truth. Discovery of a new teaching
MR. fox (Beta Gamma 62) is dean of the School seems at first to have universal
technique that
of Education, The George Washington University.
usually turns out later to have only
Since 1946 he has taught
a
graduate
course in edu application
cational research methods and He is a
restricted use. It seems wiser, therefore, to view
procedures.
member of the Phi Delta Kappa Research Commis research findings as a means of approximating
sion which planned this issue of the Kappan. the truth instead of revealing the ultimate truth.
March, 1958 CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH 285
How closely the results of a particular There are very few perfect research designs.
piece
of research approximate the truth depends upon Some of the imperfections may have little effect
its quality. Since research efforts vary widely in upon the validity and reliability of the data;
quality, the question of how much confidence others may invalidate them entirely. A competent
can be placed justifiably in the findings of a par researcher should be sensitive to the effects of
ticular research is one of considerable importance. and his in analyzing
imperfect design experience
The main purpose of this article is to suggest a the data should give him a basis for estimating
few common-sense criteria that may assist prac their influence.
tical schoolmen to distinguish between research
that merits a good deal of confidence and research
5. Analysis of the data should be sufficiently
adequate to reveal its significance; and the meth
whose findings should only be accepted with
ods of analysis used should be appropriate.
reservations.
The extent to which this criterion is met is
1. The purpose of the research, or the problem a
good measure of the competence of
frequently
involved, should be clearly defined and sharply the researcher. Twenty years of experience in
delineated in terms as unambiguous as possible. the research of students leads the
guiding graduate
The statement of the research problem should writer to conclude that adequate analysis of the
include analysis into its simplest elements, its data is the most difficult phase of research for
scope and limitations, and precise specifications the novice.
of the meanings of all words significant to the re The validity and reliability of data should be
search. Failure of the researcher to do this ade checked carefully. The data should be classified
raise doubts in the minds in ways that assist the researcher to reach perti
quately may legitimate
of readers as to whether the researcher has suf nent conclusions. When statistical methods are
ficient understanding of the problem to make a used, the of error should be estimated
probability
sound attack upon it. and the criteria of statistical significance applied.
2. The research procedures used should be 6. Conclusions should be confined to those
described in sufficient detail to permit another re justified by the data of the research and limited
searcher to repeat the research. to those for which the data provides an adequate

Excepting when secrecy is imposed in the na basis.

tional interest, research should reveal Researchers are often to broaden the
reports tempted
with candor the sources of data and the means bases of inductions ex
by including personal
were obtained. Omission not subject to the controls under which
by which they of sig periences
nificant procedural details makes it difficult or the research data were gathered. This tends to de
crease the
impossible
to estimate the
validity and reliability objectivity of the research and weaken
of the data and justifiably weakens the confidence confidence in the findings.
of the reader in the research. Equally undesirable is the all-too-frequent prac
tice of drawing conclusions from study of a
3. The procedural design of the research should limited population and applying them universally.
be carefully planned to yield results that are as Good researchers the conditions under
specify
objective as possible. which their conclusions seem to be valid. Failure
When a a
sampling of population is involved, to do so justifiably weakens confidence in the
the report should include evidence research.
concerning
the degree of representativeness of the sample. A
7. Greater confidence in the research is war
questionnaire ought not to be used when more
reliable evidence is available from documentary ranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
sources or reputation in research, and is a person of integrity.
by direct observation. Bibliographic
searches should be as thorough and complete as Were it possible for the reader of a research

possible. Experiments should have satisfactory report to obtain sufficient information about the
controls. Direct observations should be recorded researcher, this criterion would be one of
perhaps
in writing as soon as after the event. the best bases for judging the degree of confidence
possible
a warrants. For this reason, the
Efforts should be made to minimize the influence piece of research
of personal bias in selecting and recording data. research report should be accompanied by more
information about the qualifications of the re
4. The researcher should report, with complete searcher than is the usual practice.
frankness, flaws in the procedural design and es Some evidence pertinent to estimates of the
timate their effect upon the findings. competence and of the researcher may
integrity
 286PHI DELTA KAPP AN March, 1958
be found in the report itself. Language that is re confidence. A relatively list would be
complete
strained, clear, and precise; assertions that are much more extensive. However, it is hoped that
carefully drawn and hedged with appropriate the brief list will be of some assistance in helping
reservations; and an apparent effort to achieve readers of research reports to assess their worth.
maximum objectivity tends to leave a favorable Obviously, such assessments must be
largely
impression of the researcher. On the other hand, subjective, since the criteria are couched in rela
generalizations that outrun the evidence upon tive terms. The writer is unaware of any present
which they are based, exaggerations, and unneces means of
categorically the worth of re
classifying
sary verbiage tend to leave an unfavorable im search objectively. If, however, the criteria help
pression. to make readers more constructively critical of
Of course, the seven criteria listed above are
reported findings of research, they will have served
not the only earmarks of research worthy of their purpose.

New Horizons in Educational Research

By DAVID V. TIEDEMAN and
MORRIS COGAN

horizons" or should Some Weaknesses of Research

??T^TEW implies, imply,
\y? that education stands at a point of
In attempting to appraise the conditions and
change in direction. Up to the present, the results of contemporary research in educa
the energies of educators have largely been
tion, two soft spots are immediately apparent. The
turned, by the necessities of a young nation, to
first is that, although a very
One essential of is morale large number of
pioneering. pioneering variables have been utilized, the potential inter
and enthusiasm. This is to say that teachers have
actions of these variables have been
been using their energies to establish the major ignored or
only superficially considered. For example, in in
framework of American education; and research
vestigating the effect of the teacher or the effect
ers, equally pioneers, have been establishing the
of various instrumentalities upon the accomplish
framework of research and theory.
ments of the research has produced state
But the evidence is beginning to be clear that pupils,
ments such as: "Teachers who are X
American education must divert a substantial por accomplish
Y" (a learning outcome); "Procedure A ac
tion of its energies from pioneering and expansion
complishes Y"; and "Pupils who are S learn Y."
to criticism, refinement, and precision. This ap
We do not have statements of the kind: "Teachers
plies equally to teaching, administration, and re
who are X accomplish Y through
search. procedure A
with pupils S." That is, researchers have made
one era may be to an end
Although coming certain with
and another beginning, it is important, for the simplifying assumptions regard to
the variables of the teaching-learning process, and
sake of the growth of both the science and the
consequently have too often failed to
art of education, that the contributions investigate
already the interactions of the variables in this process.
at hand should not be disregarded in turning to
When this failing is combined with the failure to
ward new directions. The most economical, in
recognize that a teacher's behavior may be
deed perhaps the inevitable, way to look at our
changed through experience or the
at this turn-point is to look at them as supervision,
processes result has been that we have tended to think
the integration of old and new ideas.
that certain fixed qualities of the teacher are nec
essary conditions for the attainment of learning
MR. TIEDEMAN (lota 699) is an associate and have failed to differentiate our results accord
professor
in the Graduate School of Education, Harvard Uni
and a member the Phi Delta Re ing to the kind of teaching assignment the teacher
versity, of Kappa
has, and according to differences in the teacher's
search Commission which planned this issue of the
use of instrumentalities, and according to the
Kappan. mr. COGAN (Iota 800) is a lecturer in edu
cation at Harvard and director changes in the teacher arising from
of secondary school experience
in the Graduate School of Edu and supervision. Thus we have not constructed an
apprentice teaching
cation.
integrated science of teacher classification, cur