10
Perspectives
Political analysis and commentary from Africa
image here
The
Struggle
Challenges
for equality
of Change
Sexual orientation,
gender identity and
human rights in Africa
Contents
Editorial 3
O
n October 04 2010, a pink closet set up The Heinrich Böll Foundation has aimed to
on the University of Cape Town (UCT) empower LGBTI organisations to participate in
campus as part of the ‘Pink Week’ public life and express the concerns of LGBTI
awareness campaign was torched after people in the region for many years. It is hoped that
being on display for just a few hours. The closet this issue of Perspectives will help LGBTI activism
was intended to highlight prejudice against lesbian, in its struggle towards changing Africa into a
gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) continent where LGBTI people enjoy the full range
people and encourage discourse on issues affecting of human rights.
the LGBTI community. Its malicious destruction What is clear from the articles gathered here is
spotlighted this prejudice and stood as a strong that despite the myriad of challenges and hostile
example of the pervasiveness of homophobic environment there is an ongoing engagement and
attitudes across the social spectrum of South growing movement towards equality for LGBTI
African society. While the continuous violence people throughout the continent. So while there may
against black lesbians certainly is the most brutal be a long journey ahead, we remain optimistic.
manifestation of hate crimes against LGBTI people,
the notion that they are confined to the streets of Dr Antonie Katharina Nord
townships is simply not true. Regional Director
The incident also serves as a reminder that
despite having successfully fought for one of the Jochen Luckscheiter
most advanced gay-right laws in the world the Programme Manager
struggle for equality of LGBTI people in South Africa
is, like in the rest of the African continent and
indeed the world, an ongoing one.
Homosexuality is outlawed in 38 African
countries. In some countries offenders can be
punished with death and in many more with
harsh jail sentences. Recent developments have
attracted international attention and once more
underlined the precarious human rights situation
of LGBTI people on the continent. In Uganda, an
Anti-Homosexuality Bill was tabled in parliament,
proposing to broaden the criminalisation of
homosexuality and to introduce the death penalty
under certain circumstances, including for people
who have previous convictions of the “offence of
homosexuality” or have same sex relations while
being HIV-positive. In Malawi, a gay couple was
sentenced to 14 years hard labour and only freed
after international condemnation.
Fuelled by homophobic utterances of political and
religious leaders, opposition to homosexuality is often
embedded in tradition, religion and culture. Ignoring
factual history, non-normative sexual orientations and
gender identities are dismissed on the basis that they
are Western imports and “un-African”.
followed this up with another resolution in June Key challenges for a nascent movement
2010. The first resolution expressed concern
17
The idea that the violations that are faced by LGBTI
about acts of violence and related human rights people essentially constitute a human rights issue is
violations committed against individuals because of nothing new19. The pervasive arguments include the
their sexual orientation and gender identity, among charge that the movement has not had enough time
other things. This resolution was passed despite to develop its language and strategies that will work
the fact that some of the member states continue on the continent. While there is merit in borrowing
to still criminalise same sex intimacy. The second the human rights strategies that have worked in
resolution asked member states to consider ways to other parts of the world, there is a need to look at
combat discrimination against persons because of the factors that may serve to limit the effectiveness
their sexual orientation and gender identity. of those strategies.
M
alawi is “a God-fearing nation”, intoned African backwardness. One can see the latter in
Malawian Member of Parliament, exasperated, condescending or out-of-context
Edwin Banda, as that parliament voted generalisations about Africans and so-called African
to amend the constitution to prohibit sexuality that periodically appear in Western media.
same-sex marriage (August 2009 - homosexual
acts, or “unnatural offences” were already illegal).
In expressing this view, Banda joined a chorus of In the context of the long
prominent Christian leaders across the continent
history of racism in Christian
who have harshly condemned homosexuality
and who steadfastly reject entreaties to respect practice in Africa, any debate
sexual orientation either as a human right, or as that appears to polarise
a God-given attribute. Since the mid-1990s this
largely along racial lines has
has included politicians like Robert Mugabe of
Zimbabwe (Catholic) and Yoweri Museveni of
a disproportionate power to
Uganda (Born Again). African theologians have also distract attention from the big
taken a lead role in what is effectively a schism of debates.
the worldwide Anglican community. The breakaway
“Primates Council” created following the Global
Anglican Futures conference in Jerusalem (July Of course, homophobia is not unique to Africa,
2009) is headed by Nigeria’s Archbishop Peter nor to Christians. It is also true that Africa, and by
Akinola. No less than seven of its eight councillors extension the world as a whole, faces imminent
hail from Africa. Not to be outdone, Roman Catholic and more obvious problems of climate change, civil
leaders like Archbishop Zacchaeus Okoth of wars, economic malaise and so forth. Scapegoating
Kisumu (Kenya) have chimed in with the view that and fear-mongering against a relatively small and
homosexuality is against “both African culture and largely invisible sexual minority may seem like
biblical teaching”. small political potatoes when set beside these
The schism in the Anglican community, other issues. So why is there such a fuss about
together with inflammatory homophobic rhetoric, homosexuality, and why such a seeming common
Marc Epprecht are deeply upsetting to African sexual and human front across so wide and complex a region as Africa?
Marc is a Professor in rights organisations, to a vocal minority of liberal These are important questions, not least of all
the Department of Global African theologians, and to their allies and donors because the anti-homosexual rhetoric has been
Development Studies
in the West who support a tolerant, charitable, and/ heating up lately and in many cases is backed
(DEVS) at Queen’s
University, Canada. He or science-based approach to the issue. Not only by the repressive power of the state. In part this
has published extensively is there the direct danger of provoking violence is because new sexual rights associations are
on the history of gender
and fuelling existing discrimination against sexual springing up across the continent and vocally
and sexuality in Africa.
He recently received the minorities (with all the negative sexual health challenging the status quo, sometimes in alliance
Desmond Tutu Award for implications that that carries), there is also the with “uppity” feminist and HIV/AIDS service
“Outstanding Contributions
dismaying potential that hyperbolic and illogical associations. There is a high potential for violent
to the Study of Sexuality
in Africa ” from the claims, plus “witticisms” about “Adam and Eve backlash, vigilantism, and extortion.
International Resource not Adam and Steve” from some Christian leaders, Additionally, in the context of the long history of
Network-Africa.
could reinforce stereotypes in the West about racism in Christian practice in Africa, any debate
human rights for sexual in Africa obscures the fact that there is a liberal
and humanist voice in Africa that opposes
minorities also requires discrimination against homosexuals. Leaders
sensitivity to a broad range from the anti-apartheid struggle have led the way
of complicating factors. That in this struggle as well, including Desmond Tutu
and Njongonkulu Ndungane (Anglican) and Allan
includes awareness of the
Boesak (Reformed Church). But lower-ranking
history of Western imperialism individual ministers elsewhere on the continent
and neo-colonialism in Africa. have also called for respect for homosexuals’ rights
and dignity, including Reverend John Makokha of
the Riruta United Methodist Church (Kenya). Gay-
This context of economic and perceived moral friendly churches are springing up in unexpected
decline has created a crisis for the mainstream places, notably Other Sheep Kenya and the
churches in Africa. Breakaway independent House of Rainbow in Nigeria, the latter claiming a
churches (Zionist or Ethiopian with eclectic mixes congregation of thousands.
of ancestral and witchcraft beliefs) have long been In short, the split between “African
a worry for the mainstream Christian faiths. Now, homophobes” and “Western liberals” is not as
however, there is a profusion of competition both neat as it sometimes appears. The debate within
from breakaways and from dynamic (and often Africa is lively and, in my view, quietly producing
well-funded) alternatives such as Wahhabist Islam results that belie the homophobic bluster. Six
and Pentecostalism. Pentecostalism is growing (predominantly Christian) African countries
especially rapidly in Africa today in part because recently voted to support the United Nations
it promises healing and financial benefit to its General Assembly resolution calling for an end to
sometimes-desperate adherents. discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.
The mainstream churches cannot directly match Meanwhile, rigorous research on same-sex
those promises, or the imagery that appeals to sexualities is in fact taking place even in countries
pre-Christian beliefs in ancestors and sorcery. But like Nigeria and Malawi where the political discourse
they can defend their turf by branding themselves seems to be adamantly opposed.
in populist terms. The turn to ever-more strident Such research is essential for challenging
professions of heterosexual purity is one aspect of the homophobic bluster. But future success in
this, which can also be seen in tensions between promoting human rights for sexual minorities also
mainstream and fundamentalist expressions of Islam. requires sensitivity to a broad range of complicating
Finally, mainstream church elites are often factors. That includes awareness of the history of
closely linked to political elites in African countries. Western imperialism and neo-colonialism in Africa.
For the latter, denouncing homosexuals is an Western liberals who are oblivious to that history are
easy gambit to strengthen their anti-imperialist not necessarily very credible to Africans.
Endnotes
1 A version of this article was published in German in “welt-
sichten” No. 10/2009 (www.welt-sichten.org).
L
esbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) Each time I hear any of these claims I recall a conversation
people in Nigeria like in many other African countries face between two Nigerian young women who met at a conference
legal challenges on grounds of their sexual orientation and in the United States:
gender identity. Both male and female same-sex sexual activity
is illegal in Nigeria. In the 12 states of the Muslim North of the Chi: I travelled home with my partner. It was difficult. We could
country that have adopted Sharia law; same-sex sexual activity not hold hands in public. Funny, it was right there but they
is punishable by death or by up to 14 years imprisonment could not figure it out. Or do you think they were pretending?
throughout the country. Kike: Possibly, but maybe not. Friendship between girls is often
The lack of tolerance is also evident in the statements of political without extra meaning back home.
and religious leaders that denounce the rights of LGBTI people. Chi: Funny. My parents know but they have chosen to look the
In February 2009, the then foreign minister, Ojo Maduekwe has other way. They remind me to get a man when I am through
gone even so far to claim that LGBTI people do not exist in the with my studies and settle down.
country. At the Universal Periodic Review of Nigeria, a process Kike: Silence
which involves a review of the human rights records of all 192 UN Chi: Many times people do not even know my partner is female,
Member States once every four years, the minister stated: she looks so dyke! That may have fooled them in the village.
Hey, come to think of it, are there butch women in Nigeria?
“Mr. President, […] the United Kingdom wanted to know the Kike: And what have you been taking me for?
position of Nigerian Government on lesbian, gay, bisexual and Chi: (laughing out loud) Interesting. Is this what dykes look like
transgender rights. As we have indicated in our National Report, in Nigeria?
we have no record of any group of Nigerians, who have come Kike: Hey, stop teasing, am I not dyke enough?
together under the umbrella of “Lesbian, Gay and Transgender” Chi: (still laughing) I can’t wait to get home. I’m going to tell Pete
group, let alone to start talking of their rights. Of course, as that I met a Nigerian dyke. The way they carry on, you’d think
citizens, all Nigerians have their fundamental rights guaranteed no gays exist in Nigeria much less dykes.
by the Constitution. During our National Consultative Forum, we
went out of our way to look for the Gay, Lesbian and Transgender There have also been several attempts by political and
group, but we could not come across Nigerians with such religious leaders to deny the “Africanness” of homosexuality.
sexuality. If they are an amorphous group, then the question In defence of the introduction of the Same Sex Marriage
of violence against them does not arise, let alone negotiating (Prohibition) Act 2006, President Obasanjo stated on national
special rights for them. With regard to same-sex marriage, this news that “homosexuality is unnatural, ungodly, and un-African”.
is illegal in Nigeria, and until the law is changed, it remains so. The bill was sponsored by the presidency to “check excesses
The British in their wisdom bestowed the law against same-sex of a group of young people whose behaviour has become
marriage to us, for which we are grateful.” increasingly embarrassing.” Similarly the former Anglican
Primate of the Church of Nigeria, Peter Akinola has argued in
This is despite the fact that more than ten non-governmental a position paper submitted by the church to parliament that:
organisations (NGOs) have openly declared the protection “Same sex marriage, apart from being ungodly, is unscriptural,
of LGBTI rights as one of their focus areas of work. These unnatural, unprofitable, unhealthy, un-cultural, un-African and
include Alliance Rights Nigeria, the International Centre for un-Nigerian. It is a perversion, a deviation and an aberration
Reproductive Health and Sexual Rights (INCRESE), the Centre that is capable of engendering moral and social holocaust in this
for Youth Policy Research and Advocacy (CYPRAD) and the country. […] Outlawing it is to ensure the continued existence
Support Project in Nigeria (SPIN), The Initiative for Equal Rights of this nation. The need for doing this is urgent, compelling, and
(TIER), Queer Alliance and Global Rights Nigeria. imperative.”
Dorothy Aken’Ova
Dorothy is a feminist and sexual rights activist. She founded and is presently the director of the International Centre for Reproductive
Health and Sexual Rights (INCRESE), an NGO located in Minna, Nigeria. She manages community programmes that initiate dialogue on
issues of sexuality that are considered taboo.
TABLE 1
DATE CASE JUDGEMENT
Deputy Judge President Flemming rejects custody to a
March 10, 1993 Van Rooyen v Van Rooyen divorced wife in a heterosexual marriage who was involved in
a lesbian relationship
Capt. Langemaat v Department of
The High Court rules that medical aid regulations that do not
February 4, 1998 Correctional Services, Safety and
recognise same-sex relationships are unconstitutional
Security
National Coalition for Gay and
October 9, 1998 Lesbian Equality and another v The Constitutional Court (CC) abolishes the crime of sodomy
Minister of Justice and others
The Constitutional Court rules that the long-term same-sex
National Coalition for Gay and
partners of South African citizens or permanent residents
December 2, 1999 Lesbian Equality and others v
should be treated as spouses when it comes to immigration
Minister of Home Affairs and others
regulations
The Pensions Fund Adjudicator awards full pension benefits
Muir v Mutual and Federal Pension
May 13, 2002 to the surviving same sex partner of a deceased Mutual and
Fund
Federal employee
The Constitutional Court ruled that the long-term same-sex
Satchwell v President of Republic of
July 25, 2002 partner of a judge should be entitled to the same pension
Republic of South Africa and another
payout as a judge’s spouse
Du Toit and another v the Minister of
The Constitutional Court ruled that same-sex couples should
September 10, 2002 Welfare and Population Development
be allowed to adopt children
and others
The Constitutional Court rules that same-sex couples should
October 2002 J and B v Home Affairs be allowed to be registered as the parents of children born to
one of them
The Supreme Court of Appeal determines that the heir in
September 19, 2003 Du Plessis v Road Accident Fund a same-sex life relationship has a right to recover funeral
expenses expended by him
The Supreme Court of Appeal declared the common-law
November 30, 2004 Fourie v Minister of Home Affairs definition of marriage unconstitutional, following an appeal by
Marie Fourie and her partner, Cecelia Bonthuys
Endnotes
1 See for example: Mkhize, Nonhlanhla; Bennett, Jane; London: Routledge; Fuss, Diana (ed) (1991). Inside/out:
Reddy, Vasu; Moletsane, R. (2010). The Country We Want Lesbian Theories, Gay Theories. New York and London:
to Live in: Hate Crimes and homophobia in the lives of black Routledge; Wilson, Angelia R. (ed) (1995). A Simple Matter
lesbian South Africans. Cape Town: HSRC Press. of Justice? Theorising Gay and Lesbian Politics. London:
2 Roberts, Ben & Reddy, Vasu (2008). Pride and Prejudice: Cassell. Fuss (1991) focuses to a limited extent on the law.
Public attitudes toward homosexuality. HSRC Review, 6(4): These studies have as a common purpose the interrogation
9-11. of sexuality, queer politics and citizenship, some which
3 According to Section 9, Act 108 of the Constitution of the directly address the law. Discussion of citizenship is not a
Republic of South Africa, no one may: unfairly discriminate new phenomenon in relation to the law and, in particular,
directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds, sexuality. Although my argument does not prioritise earlier
including race, gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic work on citizenship, subsequent analyses have drawn
or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, age, disability, extensively from a model based on Marshall primarily in
religion, conscience, belief, culture, language and birth. relation to three sets of rights informing citizenship: civil or
4 Signed by President Nelson Mandela into law at Sharpeville legal rights, political rights and social rights. The question
(the scene of a bloody massacre by the apartheid state against of gender and sexuality has been, for the most part, been
protestors in 1960) on December 10th, 1996. absent from much scholarship on citizenship until the early
5 See: Reddy, Vasu (2009). Queer Marriage: Sexualising nineties. See: Marshall, T.H. (1977). Class, Citizenship and
Citizenship and the development of freedoms in South Social Development. Chicago and London: University of
Africa. In: Steyn, Melissa & Van Zyl, Mikki (eds) The Prize Chicago Press; Marshall, T.H. (1950). Citizenship and Social
and the Price: Shaping Sexualities in South Africa. Cape Class. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Town: HSRC Press; Reddy, Vasu (2006). Decriminalisation 12 Weeks, Jeffrey (1995). Invented Moralities: Sexual Values in
of homosexuality in post-apartheid South Africa: A brief legal an Age of Uncertainty. Oxford: Polity Press, p.117.
case history review from sodomy to marriage. Agenda, 67: 13 Richardson (2000). Rethinking Sexuality. London, Thousand
146 – 157. Oaks and New Delhi: Sage Publications.
6 Reddy, Vasu; Sandfort, Theo & Rispel, Laetitia (eds) (2009). 14 See: Gouws, Amanda (ed) (2005). (Un)Thinking Citizenship:
From Social Silence to Social Science: Same-Sex Sexuality, Feminist Debates in Contemporary South Africa. Burlington,
HIV & AIDS and Gender in South Africa. Cape Town: HSRC VT: Ashgate Publishing & Lansdowne, CT: UCT Press;
Press. Millet, Kate (2000). Sexual Politics. Urbana and Chicago:
7 Reddy, Vasu (2001). Institutionalizing Sexuality: Theorising University of Illinois Press.
Queer in Post-Apartheid South Africa. In: Constantine- 15 Butler, Judith (1999). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the
Simms, Delroy (ed) The Greatest Taboo: Homosexuality in Subversion of Identity. New York and London: Routledge, p.
Black Communities. Los Angeles and New York: Alyson 134-135.
Press. 16 Moran, Leslie J. (1996). The Homosexual(ity) of Law. London
8 Rubin, Gayle (1984). Thinking Sex: notes for a radical and New York: Routledge, p. 9.
theory in the politics of sexuality. In: Vance, Carole S. (ed) 17 Butler (1999), p. 136.
Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality. New York: 18 In Butler’s view the act, or activity of gender is both intentional
Routledge and Kegan Paul, p. 267. and performative where the latter entails public, repetitive
9 See for example a detailed exposition of these issues in actions of movement, gesture, posture, dress, labour,
Mkhize, Bennett, Reddy & Moletsane (2010). production, interaction with objects, and the manipulation
10 The Law is an important consideration in this chapter as well. of space. The term ‘performative’ has less to do with
The primary empirical context refers to how the law frames a ‘performance’ than it has to do with “the effect of a regulatory
possible freedom for the queer subject in the post-apartheid regime of gender difference in which genders are divided and
project. Much has been written about the legal framing of the hierarchised”. See: Butler, Judith (1993). Critically queer. GLQ,
homosexual that this argument addresses in relation to the 1 (1): 17-32.
specific cases to be cited, and the meanings such cases elicit 19 For an expanded discussion of human rights from a variety
for understanding queer identities. Relevant critical studies in of disciplinary perspectives see: Savić, Obrad (ed) (1999).
the area of the law are: Moran (1996); Stychin (1995). The Politics of Human Rights. London and New York: Verso.
11 See: Bernstein, Mary & Reimann, Renate (2001). Queer 20 See: Dunton, Chris & Palmberg, Mai (1996). Human Rights
Families, Queer Politics: Challenging Culture and the State. and Homosexuality in Southern Africa. Uppsala: Nordiska
New York: Columbia University Press; Bell, Dianne and Afrikainstituet; Reddy, Vasu (2001). Homophobia, human
Binnie, Jon. (2000). The Sexual Citizen: Queer Politics rights and gay and lesbian equality in Africa. Agenda, 50:
and Beyond. Cambridge: Polity Press; Blasius, Mark (ed) 83-87.
(2001). Sexual Identities, Queer Politics. Princeton: Princeton 21 Stychin, Carl F. (1995). Law’s Desire: Sexuality and the Limits
University Press; Cooper, Davina (1994). Sexing the City: of Justice. London and New York: Routledge, p. 3.
Lesbian and Gay Politics Within the Activist State. London: 22 See: Gevisser, Mark & Cameron, Edwin (eds). 1994. Defiant
Rivers Oram Press; Currah, Paisley (1997). Politics, Desire: gay and lesbian lives in South Africa. Braamfontein:
Practices, Publics: Identity and Queer Rights. In: Phelan, Ravan Press.
Shane (ed) Playing With Fire: Queer Politics, Queer Theories. 23 Stychin (1995).
New York and London: Routledge; Evans, David (1993). 24 See: Reddy (2006).
Sexual Citizenship: The Material Construction of Sexualities.
A
belief among some is that the South African critique of the range of power relationships that
women’s movement is fragmented and exist in a particular society at a particular historical
weak.1 Gouws notes for instance that a moment. This should always include gender, race,
demobilised women’s movement cannot class, geographical location and sexual orientation,
hold the state to account, or enforce a feminist- and the intersections between them. As the social
centred discourse into state politics. This article,
2
and political landscape changes, so too should
while not focused on engaging the state, explores feminist principles allow for flexibility.
the dynamics of this ‘fragmented’ women’s Basic feminist principles of freedom, choice,
and the ultimate obliteration of patriarchy, are
critical tools in working towards the end of women’s
NGOs focused on the rights oppression; in abolishing damaging masculinist
ways of looking at, and controlling the world.
of women, and those NGOs
However, in multiple ways, and through various
focused on the protection guises, our ostensible democracy in South Africa
of sexual orientation work has seen a backlash of any feminist critique of
I
n Zimbabwe, a country whose president, Robert on charges of “possessing dangerous drugs and
Mugabe, is on record as calling homosexuals pornographic material”. The police went further
as “worse than dogs and pigs”, the issue of to search the house of Chesterfield Samba, the
homophobia is not a new phenomenon. Giving Director of GALZ on the morning of Wednesday 26
religious and traditional reasons, church leaders, May 2010.
politicians and ‘cultural magistrates’ have vilified On Thursday 27 May 2010, Ellen Chademana
homosexual orientation as “un-African” and “a and Ignatius Mhambi were released on bail until a
threat to nationhood”. All such demonisation has trail set for Thursday 10 June 2010 on allegations
driven lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and of possessing indecent material and displaying
intersex (LGBTI) communities underground for a placard seen as insulting to President Robert
fear of incarceration and arbitrary arrests. In this Mugabe.
interview, Admire Mare speaks to the Gays and Ignatius Mhambi was acquitted of charges of
Lesbians of Zimbabwe (GALZ) Programme Manager possession of pornographic material on Friday 23
for Gender, Fadzai Muparutsa. July 2010, while Ellen Chademana was remanded
out of custody pending further investigations by the
MARE: Have you had any problems as an association state.
working in Zimbabwe because of the whole stigma
that surrounds the issue of homosexuality? If there MARE: Political observers have argued that the
are problems, how have you managed to survive in crackdown on homosexuals especially from the
such a homophobic political climate? ruling Zanu PF leadership has to do with the
MUPARUTSA: Yes, GALZ has experienced stigma attempted citizen’s arrest2 on President Robert
and discrimination not only because of state- Mugabe in London by LGBTI activist Peter Tatchell.
sponsored homophobia, but because there is a What’s your opinion on this?
tendency to bring personal feelings into professional MUPARUTSA: GALZ has documented state-
spaces. sponsored homophobia from before the attempted
The political climate also has a negative impact citizen’s arrest on President Mugabe to date. There
on the working environment that GALZ operates have been various factors that have led to the
in. Some organisations distance themselves from increase in state-sponsored homophobia and the
GALZ out of fear of being labelled supporters of the harassment of LGBTI people in Zimbabwe.
Fadzai Muparutsa
homosexual cause. After the attempted citizen’s arrest in 1999, LGBTI
GALZ has been known to use the human rights members reported an increase in harassment at Fadzai is a human
rights activist and
framework effectively, making it easier to sustain the nightclubs by patrons who were accusing them of Programme Manager for
relationships that have been built over the years. working with Peter Tatchell. Gender with Gays and
It is important to underscore that cases of state- Lesbians of Zimbabwe
(GALZ). She has worked
MARE: Can you shed more light on the recent press sponsored homophobia from before the incident are with young feminists,
reports where two GALZ members of staff who were well documented in GALZ and the reasons vary with human and women’s
briefly arrested before being released? What were whatever situation is going on at the time. rights organisation to
influence policy making
the motivations around the arrests? And how far has State-sponsored homophobia often increases and implementation;
the trial proceeded? when political temperatures are high in the challenging attitudes,
MUPARUTSA: Ellen Chademana and Ignatius country. For example, during the Constitutional beliefs and values that are
homophobic.
Mhambi were arrested on Friday 21 May 2010 Reform process of 2000, GALZ members were