Monopole Antenna Project

2007
MONOPOLEANTENNA Page[2]

MonopoleAntenna
Analysis,DesignandSimulationusingComputer

Supervisor:
Dr.OmerAlSaraereh

Students:
AbdulKaremA.AlSbeeh
AimanS.Resiq
AhmadH.Zaid
IbrahimM.Hruob
MohammedHisham
IsmailAbdelRazzaq
YazeedSulaiman
JaafarH.AbuRaad
DepartmentofElectricalandComputerEngineering
HashemiteUniversity
2007
HashemiteUniversity|DepartmentofElectricalandComputerEngineering
Introduction
ChapterI

OverviewaboutmonopoleAntenna
Nowdays,wirelesscommunicationsystemsarebecomingincreasinglypopular.However,thetechnologiesforwireless
communicationstillneedtobeimprovedfurthertosatisfythehigherresolutionanddataraterequirements.Inthe
communicationsystemthemorethingsislooktoisthecoastandlowpowerdeviceanditisthemonopolewhich
previousthingisusedandstillbeimproveforthecommunicationsystem.

Monopoleisatypeoftheradioantennaformedbyreplacingonehalfofadipoleantennawithagroundplaneat
rightanglestotheremaininghalf.Ifthegroundplaneislargeenough,themonopolebehavesexactlylikeadipole,
asifitsreflectioninthegroundplaneformedthemissinghalfofthedipole.

This study is restricted to a monopole geometry consisting of a vertical cylindrical element at the center of a
perfectly conducting, infinitely thin, circular ground plane in free space. This geometry is of interest because its
radiation pattern is uniform in the azimuth direction and because its electrical characteristics are primarily a
function of only three parameters, namely, the element length, the element radius, and the groundplane radius,
when each is normalized to the excitation wavelength. Therefore, this geometry is conducive to analysis,
experimentalverification,andstandardization.

A typical feed for the monopole antenna is a
coaxial line with its inner conductor connected
through a hole in the ground plane to the
vertical monopole element and its outer
conductor connected by means of a flange to
the ground plane. Typically, the inner
conductor’sdiameterisequaltothemonopole
element’s diameter and the outer conductor’s
diameter is equal to the ground plane hole
diameter.Unlessstatedotherwise,suchafeed
will be assumed in this study. The ratio of the
coaxial line’s outertoinner conductor
diameters affects the antenna’s input
impedance,butonlysignificantlyforarelatively
thickmonopoleelementonaverysmallground
plane.

For the idealized case of a ground plane of Fig.1:MonopoleAntenna
infinite extent and infinite conductivity, the monopole antenna may be modeled by the method of images as a
dipolewithonehalftheinputimpedanceand

double the peak directivity of the dipole. The infinite ground plane prevents monopole radiation into the
hemisphere below the ground plane, but allows a radiation pattern identical to that of the dipole in the upper

hemisphere.However,foramonopoleelementmountedonagroundplaneoffiniteextent,theouteredgeofthe
ground plane diffracts incident radiation in all directions, and consequently modifies the currents on the ground
planeandtheverticalelementfromthoseofaninfinitegroundplane.Attheouteredgeofthegroundplane,the
currentsonitstopandbottomfacesareequalinmagnitudebutoppositeindirectionbecausethenetcurrentmust
bezeroattheedge.Outeredgediffractionbecomesincreasinglysignificantwithdecreasingsizeofthegroundplane
becauseoftheincreasingmagnitudeofthecurrentsonthegroundplanefacesattheouteredge.Edgediffraction
canaltertheinputimpedancebymorethan3dBanddirectivityintheplaneofthegroundplanebymorethan6dB
fromthevaluesforagroundplaneofinfiniteextent.

Theoreticalmodelsexistforpredictingtheeffectsofdiffractionbytheouteredgeofthegroundplane.Theexisting
models may be classified into two categories, distinguished by whether the current distribution on the monopole
elementisinitiallyknownorunknown.

When the monopole element is very thin and not too long, its
current distribution is approximately sinusoidal and independent
of the radius of the ground plane. Consequently, the element’s
current distribution can be initially specified and wended only
determine the ground plane’s current distribution. For this
category of monopoles, the theoretical models reported in the
literature essentially consist of Bardeen’s integral equation
method for a groundplane radius that is small compared to a
wavelength[1],Richmond’s method of moments(ground plane
only)foragroundplaneradiusthatisnottoolargecomparedtoa
wavelength [2], Leitner and Spence’s method of oblate spherical
wavefunctionsforagroundplaneradiusthatiscomparabletoa
wave length [3–5], Tang’s scalar theory of diffraction and the
geometric theory of diffraction (GTD) for a groundplane radius
that is large compared to a wavelength, and Storer’s variation
methodforagroundplaneradiusthatisverylargecomparedtoa
wavelength[3].

Whenthemonopoleelementisrelativelythick,itscurrent
distributionisnolongersinusoidal,andthecurrentdistributionon
boththemonopoleelementandthegroundplaneconsequently
needtobedeterminedasafunctionofthegroundplaneradius. Fig.2:MonopoleBroadcasting
Forthiscategoryofmonopoles,thetheoreticalmodelsreportedin
the
literatureessentiallyconsistofRichmond’smethodofmomentsforgroundplaneradiusthatisnottoolarge
comparedtoawavelength[4]andAwadallaMaclean’smethodofmoments(monopoleelementonly)combined
withthegeometrictheoryofdiffractionforgroundplaneradiusthatislargeorcomparabletoawavelength[9,10].
ThieleandNewhousehavealsoreportedamodelthatcombinesthemethodofmomentswiththegeometrictheory
ofdiffraction,buttheircomputerprogramisunavailable

Applicationsofmonopoleantenna
Monopoleantennasarecommonlyemployedinairborneandgroundbasedcommunication
systems at a wide range of frequencies. The electrical properties of such antennas are
dependent upon the geometry of both the monopole element and the ground plane.
Typically, the monopole element may be electrically short (length is much less than a
quarterwavelength) or nearresonant (length approximately a quarterwavelength), and it
maybethin(lengthtoradiusratioismuchgreaterthan104)orrelativelythick(lengthto
radius ratio of 101 to 104). In addition, the groundplane dimensions may vary from a

fraction of a wavelength to many wavelengths. Therefore, it is desirable to know how the input impedance and
radiationpatternoftheantennachangeasthedimensionsofthemonopoleelementandthegroundplanevary.The
directivity on or near the radio horizon (the ground plane is assumed to be horizontal) is of particular interest
becausethemaximumoperationalrangeofacommunicationsystemoftendependsonthedirectivityontheradio
horizon.

Thebroadbandmonopoleantennaisverticallypolarized,hasalow
angleradiationpatternandisusedforshortrangecircuitsbyground
waveandmediumtolongrangecircuitsbyskywave.Theantennais
broadband,Omnidirectionalandconical.Thebroadbandfrequency
capability does not require tuning. The radiation pattern in the
azimuth plane is essentially unidirectional, while the elevation
patternvarieswithfrequency.Thesupportstructureisaguyedmast
supported on a base insulator. The radiator comprises a biconical
cageofwire.Monopoleantennasrequirearadialgroundscreenfor
specified performance. The ground screen consists of wire
conductorslaidoutradiallyfromthetowerbaseandterminatedat
theouterend.

ThemonopoleAntennaiscommonlyusedinradiobroadcasting,the
radio frequency power from the broadcasting transmitter is fed Fig.3:AzimuthallyPlan
across the base insulator between the tower and a ground system. The ground system normally comprises 120
buried copper or phosphor bronze radial wires at least onequarter wavelength long and a groundscreen in the
immediatevicinityofthetower.Allthegroundsystemcomponentsarebondedtogether,usuallybybrazingorusing
coinsilversoldertohelpreducecorrosion.Monopoleantennasthatuseguywiresforsupportarecalledmastsin
some countries. In the United States, the term “mast” is not generally used to relate to antennas, so both self
supportingandguyedradioantennasaresimplycalledmonopolesiftheystandalone.Ifusedinnumberstocontrol
thedirectionofradiofrequencypropagation,theyarecalleddirectionalantennaarrays.

Examplesofmonopoleantennasare:
1. Thewhipantenna.
2. Theradiomastwhenisolatedfromthegroundandbottomfed.

Monopoleantenna
ChapterII

ElectricandMagneticfieldinnearandfarfiledregions
2.1.1BOUNDARYCONDITIONS
Thecurrentamplitudes,I(z)andI(r),onthemonopoleelementandgroundplane,respectively,aregenerally
complexandinitiallyunknownquantities.Considernowthecasewherethecurrentdistributiononthemonopole
elementisassumedtobesinusoidal.
………………………………………………………………..(Eq.1)
………………………………………………………………..(Eq.2)

Althoughasinusoidaldistributionofcurrentisnotpossible,evenforaninfinitelythinantenna,ismostlikelyafair
approximationtothecurrentifthemonopoleelementissufficientlythinelectricallyandnottoolong[13].Fora
centerfeddipoleofradiusbandtotallength2,Elliot[5]givesexampleswherethecurrentdistributionis
approximatelysinusoidalandofapproximatelyconstantargumentfor
Elliotdemonstratesthatthecurrentdistributionisno
longersinusoidalnearthecenterofthedipole,noris(argz)approximatelyconstant.Balanis[6]shows
ThecurrentdistributionisnotsinusoidalnearthecenteroftheDipole.
Thecurrentdistributionisneithersinusoidal,norofconstantphase,andthatthedeviationsfromEq.(1)and(2)
increasewithincreaseinvaluesofh/andb/.Onthebasisoftheaboveresults,itappearsthatEq.(1)and(2)are
approximatelyvalidfortheconditions:
………………………………………………………………..(Eq.3)
InadditiontotheconstraintonI(z)givenbyEq.(1),assumethatthereturncurrentIr(z)ontheoutsideofthe
coaxialline’souterconductorisgivenby:
………………………………………………………………..(Eq.4)

TheconstraintofEq.(4)correspondstotheidealizedconditionthattheferritetoroidshavea1/ecurrent
attenuationdistanceh1,givenby:
Thecurrentconstraintsonthemonopoleantennaaregivenby:

Whereisthecurrentonthebottomofthegroundplaneataradiusequaltothatoftheouterconductor
………………………………………………………………..(Eq.5)

ForthecurrentconstraintsofaboveequationsthetotalmagneticandelectricfieldintensitiesH(total),E(total)atan
arbitraryfieldpointP(X,Y,Z)externaltotheelementexcitationsourcepointsaresimplythevectorsumofthefields
resultingfromtheelementcurrentandthecurrentinducedonthegroundplanebythefieldsincidentbythe
element.
………………………………………………………………..(Eq.6)
Where:
2.1.2CONCEPTOFAGROUNDPLANEOFZEROEXTENT

Consideramonopoleantennaexcitedbyacoaxiallinewithanouterconductorofradiusb1thatisterminatedby
freespace,ratherthanbyagroundplane.Thegroundplaneforsuchanantennaisdenotedasbeingofzeroextent.

Thecoaxiallineexcitationmaybereplacedbyanequivalentmagneticcurrent(frill)Msittingontopofathick
groundplaneofradiusP=b1.Forsufficientlylossyferritetoroidsalongtheoutsideofthecoaxialline,thecurrenton
theexteriorofthecoaxialline’souterconductormaybeneglected.Themagneticfrillmayberemovedfromthe
circuitwithoutappreciablyaffectingtheresultsbecausekb1<<1fortheassumedsinusoidalcurrentdistributionon
themonopoleelement.Finally,thegroundplaneofradiusb1mayberemovedfromthecircuitwithoutappreciably
affectingtheresultsbecauseafinitecurrentonanelectricallysmallconductordoesnotradiateanappreciable
amountofpowercomparedwiththatradiatedbyamonopoleelementoflengthhqb1:Thecircuitidealizationofa
monopoleantennawithagroundplaneofzeroextentisthereforeanelectricallythinmonopoleelementwithno
groundplane.

Thenearfields,farfields,andinputimpedanceofanelectricallythinmonopoleelementarederivedand
summarizedinthelatersection.TheinputimpedanceisderivedbywayoftheinducedEMFmethod.

2.1.3NEARFIELDS
Consideramonopoleelementoflengthhwithasinusoidalcurrent
distribution

Onthesurfaceoftheelement(Fig.2.3)foranelectricallythin
elementwithaknowncurrentdistribution,thefieldsatarbitrary
pointsP(X,Y,Z)externaltotheelementmaybedeterminedalmost
exactlybyapproximatingthesourcepointstolieontheelementaxis
thatisforthecurrentwaveform,themagneticvectorpotentialAis
givenby:

Fig.4:MonodpoleAntennafarandnearfiledregion

ExactclosedformexpressionsofA,H,E,andradiationresistancewerefirstobtainedforaninfinitelythinelement
byBrillouin[7]andaresummarizedbyStratton[8].Themagneticandelectricfieldsaregivenby


2.1.4FARFIELDS
ConsiderafieldpointPatasufficientlylargeradialdistancer,whichsatisfiesboththefarradiationzoneand
Fraunhoferdiffractionconditionsgivenby:

Forthefarradiationzoneconditions,and

FortheFraunhoferdiffractionconditionfortheseconditions,wewrite


Reducetothefarfieldsgivenby:

TheradiationresistanceR,referredtothebasecurrent,isgivenforaninfinitelythinelementby:
Theresultgivenforthedefiniteintegralofinsection3isreadilyobtainedby
Lettingt=Cosandnotingthat

Thenumericdirectivityd()isgivenby
For electrically short monopole elements and for
Directivityandinputimpedance
At a far-field observation point the numeric directivity of the antenna is defined as the ratio of its
radiated power density to its radiated power density averaged over all directions. The radiated power density
averaged over all directions is equivalent to the power density radiated by a hypothetical “isotropic” (ideal) antenna.
Accordingly, the directivity expressed in spherical coordinates with the origin at the antenna, is given by:
Table1:Spherical,Cylindrical,andOblateSpheroidalCoordinates
Coordinates Sphericalr(R,,) Cylindrical(p,Z,) OblateSpheroidal(,,)
Radius R P=rSin()
Elevation Z=rCos()
Azimuth

ThetotaltimeaveragedradiatedpowerPtotaloftheantennaisgivenby

TheantennaradiationresistanceRrad,referredtothecomplexamplitudeI(Z=0)oftheantennabasecurrent,is
definedby:

Aftersubstitutingequationsabove:
WhereRohmicistheohmiclossresistanceoftheantennaforfiniteconductivityofeitherthemonopoleelementor
thegroundplaneHere,Rohmic=0becausethemonopoleelementandgroundplaneareassumedtobeofinfinite
conductivity.Accordingly,

AntennaGain
Itisofinteresttodeterminetheantennagain(includingmismatchloss)ontheradiohorizonasafunctionof
Groundplaneradiusforthesametuningwordsthatareselectedwhenthe
monopoleelementismountedonthereferencegroundplane.Theantennagain,G(/2)(decibelsrelativeto
isotropic(dBi)),ontheradiohorizonisgivenby

Theradiationefficiency,,isgivenby


Although the mismatch gain M is determined by specifying the voltage reflection coefficient r, it may also be
determined by specifying the equivalent voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) that would be measured along a
transmission line between the source generator and the impedancematching network. The VSWR, r, and M are
relatedby:

Theanalyticalmodeldoesnotinclude theeffectofanyimpedancepadthat mightbeplacedbetweenthesource
generatorandtheimpedancematchingnetwork.Atwoportimpedancepadbetweenthesourcegeneratorandthe
impedancematchingnetworkdoesnotimprovethemismatchgainoftheantennabutdoeshelpprotectthesource
generatorfrombeingdamagedbythereflectedpowerfromtheantenna.Theimpedancepadreducestheamount
of power reflected back to the source generator but also reduces the antenna gain by an amount equal to the
insertionlossL(dB)ofthepad(forapadwhoseinputandoutputimpedancesareequaltothesourceimpedance
whentheoppositeportisterminatedinthesourceimpedance).Forexample,apadof3dBinsertionlosswillensure
aVSWR<3:1betweenthegeneratorandthepadforanyloadimpedanceattheoutputofthepad.However,the
antennagainwillbereducedby3dBsincethevoltagereflectioncoefficientoftheinputtotheimpedancematching
networkwillbeunchangedbythepresenceofthepadandthepowerdeliveredtotheantennawillbereducedby3
dB.Forthisreason,impedancepadsaregenerallynotusedinhighpowertransmittingantennas.

TMn0SphericalWaveModes
ThesolutionofthevectorHelmholtzequationinsphericalcoordinates,subjecttotheconstraintsofvertical
polarization,outwardtravelingwaves,andanOmnidirectionalpatternintheazimuthallydirection,isasetof
orthogonalTMn0sphericalwavemodes.Theresultingfieldsevaluatedataradiusr=roaregiven

TheradialwaveimpedanceZn0(P)ofthePoyntingvectorintheoutwardradialdirectionforeachmodeisdefinedas

ThePoyntingvectorisnotsufficienttocharacterizethemodeQn0becauseitsimaginarypartisproportionaltothe
difference(ratherthanthesum)ofelectricandmagneticstoredenergies.Theradialwaveimpedanceandallits
derivativeswithrespecttofrequencyaresufficientbutnotconvenienttocharacterizeQn0oftheTMn0mode.

Fig.5:Radiatingregions.

DesignandSimulationanMonopoleantenna
“UsingCST2006Bsoftware” Chapter
III

MonopoleAntennaConfigurations:
4.1TypeOne:
x SoledMonopolewithfeedingfromorigin.
Fig.6MonopoleAntennasoled
Fig.7MonopoleAntennaFeeding
Fig.8PortSignal

Fig.9EnergySignal

Fig.10PowerFlow

Fig.11FarfiledRegionradiation

Fig.12FarfiledRegionradiationof

Fig.13FarfiledRegionradiationofaxialRatio

4.2TypeTwo:
x SoledMonopolewithfeedingfromoriginbutwithYaxisOrientation.

Fig.14MonopoleAntennawithcenterFeeding
Fig.15centerFeeding

Fig.16PortSignal

Fig.17EnergySignal


Fig.18PowerFlow

Fig.19Farfieldregionradiation

Fig.20Farfieldregionradiationof

4.3Typethree:
x CylindricalMonopolewithfeedingfromorigin.

Fig.21CylindricalMonopoleAntenna

Fig.22MonopoleAntennaFeeding

Fig.23PortSignal

Fig.24EnergySignal

Fig.25PowerFlow

Fig.26Farfieldregionradiation

Fig.27Farfieldregionradiationof


Conclusions
Chapter
IV
Doubleparameterandsingleparametertuningofanelectricallyshortmonopoleantennaareinvestigatedaboveto
determine the range of groundplane radii for which the same tuning words can be utilized in maintaining a
specifiedantennagainoverthe30–150MHzfrequencyband.

Indoubleparametertuning,the tuningwordsarechosenbyvaryingtwoinductancesoftheimpedancematching
network to provide a perfect impedance match at each frequency of interest when the antenna is mounted on a
reference ground plane of 4 ft in radius. In singleparameter tuning, the tuning words are chosen by varying one
inductancetoprovideaperfectimpedancematchat30MHzandzeroinputreactanceatotherfrequencieswhen
theantennaismountedonagroundplaneof4ftinradius.

Edge diffraction by the circular ground plane significantly alters the antenna input impedance so that it is not
possible to utilize the same tuning words to provide a good impedance match for groundplane radii appreciably
different from the radius of the reference ground plane and, in the case of singleparameter tuning, even for the
referencegroundplane.

Themaximumantennagainonthehorizonasafunctionofgroundplaneradiusisgenerallygreaterwithdouble
parametertuningthanwithsingleparametertuning.Therangeofgroundplaneradiiforwhichthegainiswithin3
dBofthemaximumgain,however,isgenerallynotsignificantlyincreasedwithdoubleparametertuning.
Themaximumantennagainonthehorizonasafunctionofgroundplaneradiusgenerallydecreaseswithincreasing
ohmicresistanceRohmicoftheantennacircuit,whereastherangeofgroundplaneradiiforwhichthegainiswithin3
dBofthemaximumgaingenerallyincreaseswithincreasingvaluesofRohmic.

Theantennagainonthehorizonasafunctionofgroundplaneradiusisamaximumat30MHzforanygivenground
plane except the reference ground plane. For example, the antenna gain is 40–100 dB less at 30 MHz than at
150MHzforgroundplaneradiimuchlessorgreaterthantheradiusofthereferencegroundplane.Obviously,such
largemismatchlossesarenotolerable,eitherforatransmittingantennaorforareceivingsystemwhoseexternal
noisefactoriscomparabletoorlessthanthemismatchloss.
At3MHztheantennagainonthehorizonasafunctionofgroundplaneradiusisamaximumforgroundplaneradii
approximatelyequaltotheradiusofthereferencegroundplanewithgainsof2,6,and12dBiforRohmic=0,1.7,
and7.8V,respectively.At30MHz,therangeofgroundplaneradiia,forwhichthehorizongainiswithin3dBofthe
maximumhorizongain,isftforRohmic¼0,1.7,and7.8V,respectively.
Itisconcludedthatitmaynotbepossibletousethesametuningwordsforallgroundplanesofinterestwithouta
substantiallossinantennagainbecauseofmismatchlossatsomefrequencies,particularlyatthelowerendofthe
band.
Therefore,itmaybenecessarytohavedifferenttuningwordsfordifferentgroundplanes.
Differenttuningwordsfordifferentgroundplanesmaybeimplementedbyutilizingmorethanoneantenna
configurationorbysensinginrealtimetheimpedancemismatchandthenmodifyingthetuningwordatagiven
frequencytominimizetheimpedancemismatch.

Thelattermethodispreferable,becauseitwould
1. Eliminatethedifficultlogisticsproblemofhavingtofieldseveralantennaconfigurationsfordifferentground
planes.

2. Solvetheproblemoftuninginstabilitiesarisingfromenvironmentalchangesinhumidityandtemperaturein
additiontothatofgroundplanesize.

3. Improvetheantennaradiationefficiency,sinceitwouldnotbenecessarytoloadtheantennacircuitwith
antennalossinordertoprovidetuningstability.

Analternativetotheimplementationofdifferenttuningwordsfordifferentplatformsmightbetoutilizeadifferent
antennaelement,suchasadipole,whoseinputimpedancemightnotbeassensitivetogroundplanesizeasthatof
amonopole.However,evenifsuchanelementwouldprovetohavebettertuningstabilitywithvaryingground
planesizeandtohavethedesiredgainpatterncharacteristics,itisnotclearhowsuchanalternativewouldsolvethe
problemoftuninginstabilitiesarisingfromchangesinhumidityandtemperaturewithouthavingtoloadtheantenna
circuitwithantennalossinordertoprovidetuningstability.

Consequently,implementationofdifferenttuningwords,bysensinginrealtime,theimpedancemismatchandthen
modifyingthetuningwordatagivenfrequencytominimizetheimpedancemismatch,isapreferabledesign
objective.

SuchanobjectivehasbeenrealizedatHFfrequenciesandforaradiofrequency
(RF)powerlevelof400Wwithsensingandtuningtimesofapproximately
20msecand1sec,respectively,byacircuitcomprisingadirectionalcoupler,digitalprocessor,and
electromechanicalswitches.Thesubstitutionofptype/intrinsictype/ntype(PIN)diodeswitchesforthe
electromechanicalswitchesmightprovetobeafeasibletechniqueforachievingsuchanobjectivewithatuning
timeoflessthan1msec,providedthattheintermodulationproductsgeneratedbytheuseofsuchswitchesarenot
excessivefortheintendedapplication.

ElectronicallytunablehelicalelementsutilizingPINdiodeswitcheshavebeensuccessfullydesignedandtestedinan
openloopmodewithanRFpowerlevelof10WatVHFfrequenciesand400WatHFfrequencies.
ClosedloopoperationiscompatiblewiththefasttuningcapabilityofPINdiodeswitchesbutitsrealizationhasnot
yetbeenreportedintheopenliterature.

Wecanseefromdesignanmonopoleantennainchapter3thatmonopoleantennamadefromcylindricalmaterials
thatproduceradiationPatternmorebetterthaninmonopoleAntennamadefromsoledmaterials.Seethefigures
References
ChapterV

Books:

1. JHRichmond.MonopoleAntennaonCircularDisk.TechnicalReport7116391.ElectroScience
Laboratory,July1979.SeealsoIEEETransAntennasPropagationAP32(12):12821287,1984.
2. ALeitner,RDSpence.Theoblatespheroidalwavefunctions.FranklinInstJ249(4):299–321,1950.
3. JEStorer.Theimpedanceofanantennaoveralargecircularscreen.JApplPhys22(Aug):1058–
1066,1951.SeealsoTechicalReportNo119,CruftLaboratory,HarvardUniversity,Nov1950.
4. KHAwadalla,TSMMaclean.Monopoleantennaatthecenterofacirculargroundplane:Input
impedanceandradiationpattern.IEEETransAntennasPropagationAP27(2):151–153,1979.
5. RSElliot.AntennaTheoryandDesign.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1981,pp290–291.
6. CABalanis.AntennaTheory:AnalysisandDesign.NewYork:HarperandRow,1982,p315.
7. LBrillouin.Originofradiationresistance.Radioelectricite3:147–152,1922.
8. JAStratton.ElectromagneticTheory.NewYork:McGrawHill,1941,pp454–457.
9. PrintedcirculardiscmonopoleantennaforultrawidebandapplicationsJ.Liang,C.C.Chiau,X.Chen
andC.G.Parini.

WordWideWeb(WWW):

1. http://www.antennex.com/preview/monopole.htm
2. http://antennasystems.com/saber/monopoles/monopoles.html
3. http://www.mwjournal.com/Journal/article.asp?HH_ID=AR_689
4. http://www.antenna.be/vm.htm
5. Wikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia.com

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