MWOC
LABORATORY MANUAL
PREPARED BY
DEEPTHI.K.V.B.L
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR-DEPT. OF ECE
PART-A
3. Attenuation Measurement.
5. VSWR Measurement.
Date:
Pre-Lab:
Objective:
Equipment required:
OSCILLO-
SCOPE
VSWR
METER
Theory:
MATCHED
Klystron power supply:
TERMINATION
The Klystron power supply is used to operate the reflex Klystron tubes of S to X band
frequency range. The Klystron power supply has built in modulation facilities of Amplitude and
Frequency modulation. The Klystron power supply provides all the D.C voltages required for the
operation of reflex Klystron tube such as beam, heater and reflector voltages.
Reflex Klystron:
If a fraction of the output power is fed back to the input cavity and if the loop gain has a
magnitude of unity with a phase shift of multiple of 2, the Klystron will oscillate. The Reflex Klystron
is a single-cavity Klystron. It is a low-power generator of 10 to 500mW output at a frequency range
of 1 to 25 GHz. The efficiency is about 20-30%. This type of Klystron is widely used in the laboratory
for microwave measurements and in microwave receivers as local oscillator in commercial, military
and air borne Doppler radars.
The Reflex Klystron makes the use of velocity modulation to transform a continuous electron
beam in to microwave power. Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated & passed through
the positive resonator towards negative reflector, which retards and finally reflects the electrons and
the electrons turn back through the resonator. Suppose an RF-field exists between the resonators,
the electrons traveling forward will be accelerated or retarded, as the voltage at the resonator
changes in amplitude. The accelerated electrons leave the resonator at an increased velocity and the
retarded electrons leave at the reduced velocity. The electrons leaving the resonator will need
different time to return, due to change in velocities. As a result, returning electrons group together
in bunches, as the electron bunches pass through resonator, they interact with voltage at resonator
grids. If the bunches pass the grid at such a time that the electrons are slowed down by the voltage
then energy will be delivered to the resonator, and Klystron will oscillate.
Electronic tuning refers to change in repeller voltage causing a change in output frequency.
However, the power output also changes. A measure of electronic tuning is given by “Electronic
Tuning Sensitivity (ETS)”.
Procedure:
CALCULATIONS:
TABLE:
Mode F1 F2 V1 V2
Amplitude ETS=(f2-f1)/(v2-v1)
Mode
1
Mode
2
Mode
3
Where f1, f2 being half power frequencies in GHz, and V 1 and V2 are corresponding repeller
voltages for a particular mode.
INFERENCE:
CRITICISM:
WORK SPACE
Date:
Pre-Lab:
Equipment required:
1. Gunn Power supply
2. Gunn oscillator
3. Pin diode Modulator
4. Isolator
5. Frequency Meter
6. Variable Attenuator
7. Detector mount
8. Wave guide stand
9. VSWR meter
10. Oscilloscope
11. BNC cables.
Experimental Microwave bench set-up:
OSCILLO-
SCOPE
Fig.2.1. set up for the study of V-I characteristics of Gunn oscillator.
Fig.2.2 Setup for the study of output power and frequency versus bias voltage.
VSWR
METER
Theory:
MATCHED
The Gunn oscillator is based on negative differential conductivity effect in bulk
TERMINATION
semiconductors. Gunn Diode has two conduction bands separated by an energy gap (greater than
thermal agitation energies). When an electron is moved to the satellite energy band, it will have
negative differential mobility. This produces the negative resistance required for the oscillations.
In a Gunn Oscillator, the Gunn diode is placed in a resonant cavity. In this case the
oscillation frequency is determined by the cavity dimension than by diode itself.
A pin modulator is used in this experiment. A square wave modulating signal is applied
through the modulator on to the microwave carrier signal.
The V-I Characteristics of the Gunn diode is obtained to identify the best operating
conditions for maximum power output at the desired operating frequency.
Procedure: MATCHED
To study the V-I characteristics of Gunn Diode
TERMINATION
CALCULATIONS:
TABLE: 1
Expected Graph:
0
Threshold Voltage
Vth V
INFERENCE:
CRITICISM:
1. Compare and contrast Gunn diode oscillator with a Reflex Klystron oscillator.
2. Define Gunn Effect.
3. Mention the materials which can exhibit Gunn Effect.
4. List the necessary and sufficient conditions that the above materials have to satisfy
in order that Gunn Effect is observed in these materials.
5. What do you mean by R-W-H Theory?
6. List the important parameters for GaAs material.
7. List the modes of operation of Gunn Diode
8. Do you prefer Gunn oscillator or IMPATT oscillator? Justify your answer by proper
reasoning.
9. Mention few applications of Gunn diode.
10. Expand LSA.
WORK SPACE
Pre-Lab:
1) Study the description of microwave bench.
2) Learn the difference between attenuation and insertion loss .
Objective:
To Study various Attenuator values like 3dB, 6dB, 9dB etc..,.
Equipment required:
Microwave source, Isolator, Frequency meter, Variable attenuator, Detector
mount, test attenuators, Cooling Fan, BNC-BNC Cable and Accessories
Theory:
The Attenuator is a two port bi- directional device, which attenuates some power when
inserted into the Transmission line.
Where P1 is the Power detected by the load without the attenuator in the line and P2 is the Power
detected by the load with the attenuator.
The Attenuators consist of a resistive vane inside the waveguide to absorb microwave power
according to its position with respect to side wall of the waveguide. As Electric field maximum at
centre in TE10 mode, the attenuation will be maximum if the vane is placed at corner of waveguide.
Moving from center towards the side wall attenuation decreases. In the fixed attenuator the vane
position is fixed where as in variable attenuator, its position can be changed with the help of
micrometer of by other methods.
Procedure:
DETECTOR CRO
PROBE
Fig. 3.1. Microwave Test bench setup for the measurement of attenuation.
P-P amplitude
TABLE:
1 3dB
2 6dB
3 9dB
4 10dB
INFERENCE:
Criticism:
1) What is VSWR?
2) What is Reflection coefficient
3) Differentiate between attenuation and Insertion loss.
4) Which is the dominant mode in rectangular waveguide ?
5) Which is the dominant mode in circular waveguide?
6) The attenuation is a function of frequency, generally
becoming -------with increasing in frequency.
7) 100 Watts
10 dB
Power o/p= _____
8) X- Band means ____ GHz to ____ GHz.
9) 50 W
3 dB Amplifier
Attenuator power Gain= 2
Power o/p
WORK SPACE
Pre-Lab:
1. Study the description of microwave bench.
2. Learn the operation of directional coupler.
3. Know the definition of Insertion loss, Coupling factor and directivity.
Objective:
To study the function of directional coupler by measuring the following parameters.
1. Insertion loss.
2. Coupling factor
3. Directivity.
Equipment required:
1. Microwave source
2. Isolator
3. Frequency meter
4. Variable attenuator
5. Detector mount
6. matched termination
7. MHD coupler
8. Cooling Fan
Theory:
A directional coupler is a four port device with which it is possible to measure the
incident and reflected waves separately. It consists of two transmission lines, the main arm and
auxiliary arm, electromagnetically coupled to each other as shown in fig. the power entering in the
main arm gets divided between port 2 and port 4 and almost no power comes out in port 3, power
entering at port 2 is divided between port 1 and port 3 and no power comes at port 4. Port 3 is
already terminated by default
Directional Coupler:
Terminated in
matched load
PORT 4
PORT 3
AUXILLARY ARM
MAIN ARM
PORT 1 PORT 2
Fig. 4.1 Multi port directional coupler
P-P amplitude
T
DETECTOR CRO
PROBE
Matched
Matched termination
termination
PORT 3 PORT4
4
DIRECTIONAL
MICROWAVE ISOLATOR FREQUENCY VARIABLE COUPLER
SOURCE METER ATTENUATOR
PORT 2
PORT 1
111
Fig.4.3 Setup for measurement of insertion loss of given directional coupler
DETECTOR CRO
PROBE
PORT 3 PORT 4
MICROWAVE ISOLATOR FREQUENCY VARIABLE DIRECTIONAL
SOURCE METER ATTENUATOR COUPLER
PORT 1 PORT 2
DETECTOR CRO
PROBE
Matched termination
Fig.4.4 Setup for measurement of coupling factor for the given directional coupler
PORT 3 PORT 4
PORT 2 PORT 1
Matched
Department of ECE MWOC Lab Manual
Fig. 4.5 Setup for measurement of directivity for the given directional coupler.
PROCEDURE:
Measurement of IL:( Refer Fig.4.3)
11. After the measurement of IL interchange matched termination and detector probe
between ports 2 & 4. Measure the detected output at port4.
12. Coupling in dB =20 log (V4/V1).
Measurement of Directivity: (Refer Fig. 4.5)
13. After the measurement of CF, reverse the direction of the given directional coupler.
Measure the detected output at port 4.
Directivity is calculated by using the formula:
Directivity in dB = 20log (V4/V1).
14. Connect matched termination to port 1 and detector probe to port 4 , observe V4.
15. Directivity in dB =20 log (V4/V2).
INFERENCE:
Criticism:
1. Mention two applications of a directional coupler.
2. An ideal direction coupler should have _____ directivity.
3. The input power is 1000W. The coupling factor is -30 dB hence the
coupled power is a ___ port device.
4. A directional coupler is a _____ port device.
5. 20 dB is equivalent to a power ratio of __: __.
WORK SPACE
Date:
Pre-Lab:
1. Study the description of Microwave bench.
2. Study the concepts of standing waves. And standing wave patterns for Open circuit, Short
circuit and Matched termination lines.
Objective:
1. To study the Standing wave pattern (voltage distribution) along a slotted line when it is
i) Open-circuited
ii) Short-circuited
iii) Terminated by Z0.
iV) Arbitrary load
2. To measure Low, Medium and High VSWR .
Equipment required:
TUNING INDICATING
DETECTOR METER
Fig.5.1 Set up for study of voltage standing wave patterns WITH
PROBE OPEN CIRCUIT
TERMINATION
Theory:
The combination of incident and reflected waves give rise to standing waves of current and
voltage with definite maxima and minima along the line. The ratio of the maximum and minimum
magnitudes of current (or) voltage on a line having standing waves is called the standing wave ratio
and is normally abbreviated as SWR and is generally denoted by letter ‘S’.
While dealing with ratio of voltage it is abbreviated as VSWR and for current ratio it is
abbreviated as CSWR.
V max
VSWR = V min
It is significant that VSWR is always greater than one, and when it is equal to one the line is
correctly terminated and there is no reflection.
E max
-----------
E min ----------
PROCEDURE:
(A) Standing wave patterns for: i) Open circuited ii) Short circuited
iii) Matched termination iv) Arbitrary load
2. Set the depth of S.S. Tuner slightly more for maximum VSWR.
3. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob and variable attenuator to obtain a reading of 3 dB in
the normal dB scale (0-10 dB) of VSWR meter.
4. Move the probe to the left on slotted line until full scale deflection is obtained on 0-10 dB scale.
Note and record the probe position on slotted line let it be d 1.
5. Repeat the step 3 and then move the probe right along the slotted line until full scale deflection is
obtained on 0-10 dB normal dB scale. Let it be d2.
7. Measure the distance between two successive minima positions of the probe. Twice this distance
is guide wave length g.
g
8. Compute SWR from the following equation SWR = .
(d1 d 2 )
CALCULATIONS:
TABLE: 1
o/p
d1 d2
INFERENCE:
The standing wave patterns for Open circuit Short-circuit and Matched load are plotted by using
S.S.Tuner Low, Medium and High VSWR are measured.
Criticism:
1. Define VSWR
2. What is the range of VSWR?
3. What is the value of VSWR for i) Open circuited ii) Short circuited iii) Matched
Transmission lines.
4. What is the relation between VSWR and Reflection co-efficient?
5. Define Standing waves
6. Define Node and Anti node with respect to Standing waves.
7. What is the range of reflection coefficient?
8. Write the relation between VSWR and reflection coefficient
9. Write the expression for the input impedance of a transmission line.
WORK SPACE
FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT
Date:
Pre-Lab:
1. Study the description of Microwave bench.
2. Study the concepts of wave propagation in Rectangular wave guides, dominant mode and cut
off wave length calculations.
Objective:
To determine the frequency and wave length in a rectangular wave guide working in TE 10 mode.
Equipment required:
TUNING INDICATING
DETECTOR METER
WITH
Experimental Microwave bench set-up: PROBE
MOVABLE
SHORT
Theory:
The mode for which cut off wave length is the greatest (or) cut off frequency is the lowest is
termed as dominant mode. In case of TE waves the lowest order mode is TE 10 wave which is called
the dominant mode. For dominant TE 10 mode rectangular waveguide 0, g and c are related as
below:
1 1 1
—— = —— + ---- ----- 1
λ0 2 λg 2 λc 2
PROCEDURE:
c 1 1
f= = c. 2
2
g c
Where c = 3 108 meter/sec i.e. velocity of light.
CALCULATIONS:
TABLE:
Measure λc=2a, calculate λ0 from equation1
Guide Operating
Frequency (in GHz) frequency
wavelength
S.No From frequency c
d 1 (in c m) d 2 (in c m) (g)
meter f=
=2(d1-d2) 0
INFERENCE:
Frequency and wavelengths are measured in rectangular wave guide for TE 10 mode propagation.
CRITICISM:
WORK SPACE
IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT
Date:
Pre-Lab:
Objective:
To measure an unknown impedance using the smith chart with the help of microwave test
bench.
Equipment required:
1. Klystron Oscillator
2. Variable Attenuator
3. Wave meter
4. Slotted Line section
5. Unknown Load Impedance.
6. Shorted termination plate.
Detector
Unknown
load
impedanc
Fig.6.1 Set up for Impedance measurement e
Theory:
Measurement of impedance is an important part of microwave engineering as it enables us to
design of impedance matching networks.
There are two types of impedance matching namely, conjugate matching and Zo matching.
ZG = RG + j XG
ZG
Matching
Network ZL
V
G ZL
VG
MATCHING
NETWORK ZL
ZO
Fig 6.2 Matching a load impedance ZL to a transmission line of characteristic impedance Zo (Zo
matching)
Procedure:
2. Adjust the position of the Traveling wave detector to the point of minimum detector
output. Record the corresponding position of the traveling detector as L1.
3. Replace the short circuit by the given unknown Load Impedance. The minima position
would have changed since the Load is changed.
4. Find the new position of the minima by moving either to right (towards Load) or to left
(towards generator). Record it L2 and Calculate
Dmin = │ L2 – L1 │.
INFERENCE:
Criticism:
1. Write the mathematical expression for the input impedance of a loss transmission line.
2. The half wave length line acts as a _______.
3. The quarter wave length line acts as a _____.
4. Define SMITH CHART.
5. A 5.2 Cm length of lossless 100Ω line is terminated in a load impedance ZL = 30+j50 Ohms
calculated TL , ΦL and the SWR along the line.
6. Define a stub.
7. What do you mean by a single stub tuner?
8. What do you mean by a double stub tuner?
9. Define scattering matrix.
10. Mention the frequency range of microwave.
WORK SPACE
Equipment required:
THEORY:
CIRCULATOR:
Circulator is defined as a device with ports arranged such that energy entering a port is
ISOLATOR:
. An isolator is a 2 port device that transfers energy from input to output with little
attenuation and from output to input with a very high attenuation
A.INSERTION LOSS:
Insertion loss is the ratio of power detected at the output to the power supplied .
B. ISOLATION:
Isolation is the ratio of power detected at the undesired output port to the power supplied
with all other ports is terminated with matched load.
PROCEDURE:
Measurement of IL and Isolation for a 3 port circulator:
1. The scattering matrix for a 3 port circulator is given by S =
DETECTOR CRO
PROBE
PORT 1 PORT 2
Matched termination
INFERENCE:
Now substitute the ratio for the scattering elements (from your measurements) and obtain the
practical S-matrix.
CRITICISM:
WORK SPACE
Date:
Pre-Lab :
Equipment required:
Microwave source, Isolator, Frequency meter, Variable attenuator, and Detector mount,
Magic Tee, Cooling Fan, BNC-BNC Cable and Accessories.
THEORY:
The device magic T is a combination of the E and H planes T’s. Arm 3 is the H arm and
arm 4 is the E arm. If the power is fed, into arm 3 the electric field divides equally between arm 1
and 2 with the same phase and no electric field exists at arm 4. Similarly, if the power is fed into
arm 4 the electric field divides equally between arm 1 and 2 with 180 phase and no electric field
exists at arm 3. If power is fed into arm 1 the electric field gets divided equally between arms 3 and
4, no power exists at port 1.
In a nutshell, in a magic T – the opposite arms will not see eye-to eye.
E- ARM
1 2
H-ARM
3
Fig.8.1 Schematic representation of magic –T
Applying lossless, reciprocal and impedance matched conditions, the final S-matrix for magic
T (with the above port designations) is given ass
0 0 1/ 2 1/ 2
S= 0 0 1/ 2 -1/ 2
1/ 2 1/ 2 0 0
1/ 2 -1/ 2 0 0
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the setup as shown in fig.2, by passing the magic T. Measure the peak-to-peak
amplitude of the detected output, with the help of detected probe and CRO, at the end of the
variable attenuator. Designate this as input to magic –T(vin).
2. Now connect the setup as in fig.2.
a) Measure V2 (port 3 and 4 should be terminated with matched loads). Calculate
20log(V2/Vin ) this is S21.
b) Measure V3 (port 2 and 4 should be terminated with matched loads). Calculate
20log(V3/Vin) this is S31.
c) Measure V4 (port 2 and 3 should be terminated with matched loads). Calculate 20log(V4/Vin)
this is S41.
d) It is assumed impedance matched, hence S11=0 and the first column in S-matrix is now
obtained.
Repeat this procedure and obtain scattering elements is 2 nd, 3rd and 4th columns of S-matrix
for magic –T.
Finally form the Scattering matrix for MAGIC-TEE.
DETECTOR CRO
Microwave test bench setup: PROBE
Matched termination
PORT 4
PORT 1 PORT 3
Matched termination
Fig.8.1 Setup for measurement of S-Matrix for a Magic -T
INFERENCE:
CRITICISM:
WORK SPACE
PART – B
1. Characterization of LED.
2. Characterization of Laser Diode.
3. Intensity modulation of Laser output through an optical fiber.
4. Measurement of NA.
5. Measurement of Losses for Analog Optical link.
Objective:
1. To study relationship between the LED dc forward current and the LED optical power
output.
2. To determine the linearity of the device at 660 nm.
3. To determine conversion efficiency of the LED 660nm.
Equipment required: optical communication kit, Digital multi meters.
THEORY:
LED’s and laser diodes are the commonly used sources in optical communication systems,
whether the system transmits digital or analog signals. In the case of analog transmission, direct
intensity modulation of the optical source is possible, provided the optical output from the source can
be varied linearly as a function of the modulating electrical signal amplitude. LED’s have a linear
optical output with relation to the forward current over certain region of operation. It may be
mentioned that in many low cost and small bandwidth applications LED’s at 660nm, 850 nm and
1300 nm are popular. While direct intensity modulation is simple to realize, higher performance is
achieved by FM modulating the base-band signal prior to intensity modulation.
This relationship between an LED optical output Po and the LED forward current If is given by
Po =K If (over a limited range), where K is constant.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in diagram 1. Connect one end of cable 1(1 m) to
the FO LED1 (660 nm) port and the other end to the FO PIN port (power
meter).
2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Adjust the potentiometer Po, so that the power meter reads 15.0 dBm.
4. Connect the digital mutimeter at V01 terminal provided at FO LED 1 and
measure voltage V01 in milli volts.
If1 =V01 (mV)/R1 in mA.
Where If1 =660 nm LED forward current.
R1= Internal Resistance (100 Ohm)
5. Adjust the potentiometer PO to the extreme anti clock wise position to reduce
If1 to 0
6. Slowly turn the potentiometer Po clockwise to increase I f1. The power meter
should read -30.0 dB approximately. From here vary the pot PO in suitable
steps and note the V01 and note the power meter reading, Po, record up to the
extreme clockwise position and note down the values in table 2.1.
7. Switch OFF the power supply.
8. Repeat the complete experiment for Fo LED2 and tabulate the reading in table
2.2 for V02 and Po. If2 = V02 (mV)/R2 in mA. (Apply the conation of 2.2 dB
discussed in experiment for the 850 nm LED).
Where If2 =850 nm LED forward current.
R2 = Internal resistance (100 Ohms).
Table:
660 nm LED
S.NO V01(mV) If1=(V01/100) mA Po(dBm) P0(mW)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
INFERNCE:
From this experiment we can observe that the LED at 660 nm have a linear response for Po
vs If. By selecting this region of If for operation, a linear intensity modulation system for signal
transmission may be designed. We choose quiescent DC operating current of 10mA (approx.) for the
660 nm .
Criticism:
1) Define optical communications.
2) Compute the advantages and disadvantages of optical fiber over metallic cables.
3) Define light source and optical power.
4) The human eye can detect only those light waves between approximately
_____nm and ___nm.
5) Mention few semiconductor materials used in led construction and their
respective output wave lengths.
6) Differentiate between homo junction LEDs and hetero junction LEDs.
7) Define process called lasing.
8) Mention advantages of ILDs over LEDs.
9) Mention disadvantages of ILDs over LEDs.
10)Determine the optical power 10mW in dBm and dBu
WORK SPACE
Date:
Pre-Lab:
Objective:
The aim of the experiment is to study
Equipment required:
1. Optical communication kit
2. Digital multimeters.
THEORY:
LEDS and laser diodes are the commonly used sources in optical communication systems,
whether the system transmits digital or analog signals. In the case of analog transmission, direct
intensity modulation of the optical output with relation to the forward current over a certain region of
operation. It may be mentioned that in many low cost, short haul and small band width applications,
LEDs at 660 nm, 850 nm and 1300 nm are popular. While direct intensity modulation is simple to
realize, higher performance is achieved by FM modulating the base band signal prior to intensity
modulation.
Laser diodes (LDs) are used in telecom, datacom and viedo communication applications
involving high speed and long hauls. All single mode optical fiber communication systems use Lasers
in the 1300 nm and 1550 nm windows. Lasers with very small line widths also facilitates realization
of wave length division multiplexing (WDM) for high density communication over a single fiber. The
inherent properties of Lds that make them suitable for such applications are, high coupled optical
intensity, small line-widths(less greater than 1 mw), high speed (several GHz) and high
linearity( over a specified region suitable for analog transmission). Special lasers also provide for
regeneration/amplification of optical signals within an optical fiber. These fibers are known as erbium
doped fiber amplifiers. LDs for communication applications are available in the wavelength regions
650 nm, 780 nm, 850 nm, 980 nm, 1300 nm and 1550 nm. Even though a variety of laser diode
constructions are available there are a number of common features in all of them. We have selected
a very simple device (650 nm/ 2.5 mW) to demonstrate the functions of a laser diode. Interested
students may refer to additional information from the books listed in appendix III.
A Laser diode has a built in photo detector, which one can employ to monitor the optical
intensity of the laser at specified forward current. This device is also effectively utilized in designing
an optical negative feedback control loop, to stabilize the optical power of a laser in steep lasing
region. The electronic circuit scheme that employ the monitor photo diode to provide a negative
feedback for stabilization of optical power is known as the automatic power control alone to set
optical power then this mode is called the automatic current control mode (ACC). The disadvantage
of ACC scheme is that the optical power output may not stable at given current due to the fact that
small shifts in the lasing characteristics occur with temperature changes and aging. The
disadvantage of the APC is that the optical feedback loop may cause oscillations, if not designed
properly.
INFERENCES:
From the above table it is seen that the laser optical o/p does not increase
appreciably for IF below threshold current I th. Above Ith Po increases steeply Po is very
steep. The laser threshold may be determined from the graph or by recording closer
readings.
CRITICISM:
1. Light frequencies used in optical fiber communication systems are between ___ and
____Hz.
2. LASER means ______
3. SONET means _____
4. Subsonic frequencies are___ Hz
5. Cosmic rays ______Hz
6. Wave lengths ranging between 770nm and 10 6 nm are called____
7. Wavelengths ranging between 390nm and 770nm are called ____
8. Wavelengths ranging between 10nm and 390nm are called ____
9. What is Snells law?
10. Determine the light frequency for the following wavelengths
a. 670 nm
b. 7800Ao
c. 710nm
WORK SPACE
Date:
Pre-Lab:
Objective:
1. To study the Vin(ac) Vs Vout characteristics for fixed carrier Power Po and signal Frequency
Fo
2. To study the Vin max Vs Po characteristics for known distortion free Vout at fixed Fo.
Equipment required:
1. Laser TX unit.
2. Laser RX unit.
3. DMM (2 nos.)
4. CRO.
5. Patch cards.
6. Function generator.
7. PMMA FO cable.
8. Power supply.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Theory:
The Intensity Modulation /Demodulation system is realized using the LT-2023 TX Unit and
the LT-2023 Rx unit linked through an optical fibre. We use the 2- meter PMMA fibre cable. The laser
carrier power, Po is set by adjusting the SET P0 Knob in the middle laser region. Selection of
optimum carrier power is essential to minimize distortion. Limiting depth of modulation also ensures
distortion free Transmission. In the band width of the system in the present case is limited by the
Photo Detector. We may choose to operate in the ACC or APC mode to obtain Optical output
proportional to the modulating signal Vin.
An ideal Intensity modulation Transmission system will have the relationship Vout = G.Vin,
Where G is a factor dependent on LD conversion efficiency, Loss in the Optical Transmission path
and the Laser photo detector conversion efficiency. Distortion results from the LD being biased in
the nonlinear region. Band width is limited by the slowest device in the system; in this case it is
Photo Transistor. Speed can be increased by using a PIN diode, which is inherently a faster devise.
Procedure:
1. Connect one end of the PMMA FO cable to the Laser port on the TX unit. The other end is
first connected to FO PIN to set carrier power level of the laser. Then it is removed and given
to FO PT (Rx unit) to study the response of the IM system.
2. Set DMM to the 2000mV range. Connect it to P0. The Power meter is now ready for use. P0
= (Reading)/ 10 dBm.
3. On the TX unit connect Vin to a Function Generator (10 Hz to 500 kHz sine wave output,
10mV to 2ooomV p-p output. The black lead is GND. Give the function generator output to
CH 1, as shown.
Table of Readings:
9. Set signal frequency to 2kHz and P0 to -25.0 dBm. Disconnect Vin before Po measurement.
Set Vin to its max value for distortion free Vout. Note the values of Vin and Vout. Repeat this
for other values of P0 and record change in gain if any. We may additionally observe the
wave forms in the Oscilloscope dc coupled position too. You may also compare the ACC and
the APC modes in the case of IM.
Table of Readings:
1.
2.
3.
INFERENCE:
CRITICISM:
WORK SPACE
Date:
Pre-Lab:
1. Study the optical communication kit.
2. Study about velocity of propagation, Refraction, refractive index, Critical angle,
acceptance angle, acceptance cone and NA
Objective:
The aim of the experiment is to determine the Numerical Aperture of the given Optical Fiber
(either glass fiber or plastic fiber).For glass fibers the NA may vary between 0.1 to 0.25 and for
plastic fiber it may be between 0.4 to 0.5.
Equipment required:
Theory:
Numerical aperture of any optical system is a measure of how much light can be collected by
the optical system. It’s the product of the refractive index of the incident medium and the sine if the
maximum ray angle.
NA = ni.sinθmax. ni = 1 for air.
For a step index fiber, as in the present case, the Numerical aperture is given by
N = (ncore² -ncladding²)½.
The experimenter may refer to the specifications of the PMMA fiber given in Appendix 1 and
record the manufacturer’s n (cladding) and n (core) and ө.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the end of the PMMA FO Cable to Po LT-2023 TX Unit and the other end to the
NA Jig, as shown.
2. Plug the AC Mains, Light should appear at the end of the fiber on the Na Jig. Turn the
SET Po knob clock wise to set to maximum Po. The light intensity should increase.
3. Hold the white scale-cum screen, provided in the Kit vertically at a distance of 15 mm
(L) from the end view the red spot on the screen. A dark room will facilitate good
contrast. Position the screen-cum scale to measure the diameter (W) of the spot.
Choose the largest diameter.
4. Compute NA from the formula NA = W/ (4L²+W²)½. Tabulate the readings and repeat
the experiment for 10mm 20mm 25 mm distance.
TABLE OF READINGS
1.9CM
2.4 CM
1.4 CM
0.9CM
INFERENCES:
The Numerical aperture as recorded in the manufacturer’s data sheet is 0.5 typically.
The value measured here is 0.437. The lower reading recorded is mainly due to the fiber being
under filled. The acceptance angle is given by 2Өmax. The value of 52 degrees recorded in the
experiment is close to the range 0f 55-60 degrees. The lower reading is again due to the fiber being
under filled.
The procedure may be repeated for cable 2 too. Since the power from the smaller core
fibers will not be intents, we may have to carryout the experiment in a dark room.
CRITICISM:
WORK SPACE
Pre-Lab:
1. Study the optical communication kit.
2. Study about optical fiber configurations, optical fiber classifications, losses in optical fiber
cables.
Objective:
The aim of the experiment is to study the various types of losses that occur in optical fibers
and measure the loss in dB of optical patch cords individually and also connected in tandem using an
in-line adaptor.
Equipment required:
1. Laser transmitter and receiver Optical fiber
2. connector and Accessories
Theory:
Attenuation in an optical fiber is a result of number of effects. This aspect is well covered in
books referred. We will confine our study to attenuation in a fiber due to macro bending and
estimate the losses in the patch cords.
The loss as a function of the length of the fiber is not measurable here as the lengths of
fibers under consideration are too short. Fiber loss variations with wavelength for the PMMA fiber
under consideration are shown in Appendix 1. The details of glass graded index multimode fibers are
given in Appendix 1.
The optical power at a distance L in an optical fiber is given by
PL = P0 10*(αL/10). Where P0 is the launched power and α is the attenuation coefficient in dB
per unit length. The typical attenuation coefficient value for the PMMA fiber under consideration here
is 0.3 dB per meter for light at a wave length of 660 nm. For the GI fibers it is of the order of 3 to 4
db per km at 850 nm.
Loss in fibers expressed in dB is given by -10 log (Po/Pf) where, Po is the launched power
and Pf is power at the far end of the fiber. Typical losses at connector junctions may vary from 0.3 to
0.8 dB.
The loss equation for a simple fiber optic link is given as:
Pin(in dB) – Pout(in dB) = Lj1+Lj2+LFIB2+Lj3(dB), where Lj1 is the loss at LED connector junction,
Lj2 is the insertion loss at a splice or in-line adaptor, LFIB2 is the loss at cable 2 and Lj3 is the loss
at the connector detector junction.
Losses in fibers also occur at fiber –fiber joints or splices due to axial displacement,
angular displacement, separation, mismatch of cores diameters, numerical apertures, improper
cleaving at the ends.
PROCEDURE:
1. On the RX unit set the DMM to the 2000mV range. Connect it to the Po port of the RX unit.
2. Connect FO cable 1 between Po and Pin as shown. Set APC Mode.
3. Adjust the SET Po knob to set PO to a suitable value, say -12.0 dBm (the DMM will read
-150 mV). Note this as Po1.
4. Next repeat measurements with cable 2and note reading as Po2.
5. Use the In – Line SMA adaptor and connect the cables in series as shown and note down the
readings Po3.
TABLE:
INFERENCES:
Power coupled into a fiber with in the acceptance angle proportional to core cross
sectional area. The power coupled into a 1000 micron core PMMA fiber (cable 1) as compared with
the 62.5 micron core GI MM fiber (cable 2) will be 250 times greater or 24 dB higher. The measured
readings match the expected value.
CRITICISM:
WORK SPACE
PART-C
PR = (Pt G1 G2 λ 2) / (4∏ S) 2
Where Pt = Transmitted power
Pr = Received power
G1, G2 =Gains of transmitting and receiving antennas
λ = Free – space wavelength
S = Distance between the two antennae
If both transmitting and receiving antennas are identical having gain G, then
Pr = (Pt G2 λ 2)/ (4∏ S) 2
G= (4∏ S/λ) √ (Pr/Pt)
Procedure:
In our above example suppose the operating frequency is 9GHZ and distance between antennas is
150 CM.
7. Covert G into dB in above example
G in dB = 10 log10 318 = 15dB
CRITICISM:
1. Define an Antenna.
2. Define Gain of an Antenna.
3. Mention different type of microwave antennas.
4. What do you understand by RADIATION PATTERN of an antenna.
5. What is FRIIS TRANSMISSION equation?
6. Differentiate between Gain and Directivity of an antenna.
7. What are look angles?
8. Define LOS.
9. Define Beam width of an antenna.
10. Differentiate between Beam width and Bandwidth of an antenna.
WORK SPACE
Date:
Pre-Lab:
1. Study the microwave test bench.
2. Study about different materials like TFG, Alumina and etc.
Objective:
To determine the Dielectric Constant of a Homogeneous Material.
Equipment required: Klystron power supply, Klystron oscillator, Frequency Meter, Isolator,
Variable Attenuator, Detector Mount, Waveguide Containing sample material.
Theory:
x H = σE +jωεE ---------(2)
Where ε = (Real) Dielectric constant
The equation 2 can be rewritten as
x H = jω(ε-j σ/ω)E
Where ε* = ε -j σ/ω , is a complex Dielectric constant
The above equation can also be written as
ε* = ε0 (ε' -j ε")
Where ε"= σ/ω ε0 and ε' = ε/ ε0
It is usual practice to employ normalized complex dielectric constant
ε r= ε*/ ε0 = ε' -j ε"
In the above terms ε” is called loss factor and ε' is associated with ability of material to store
electric energy.
DETECTOR
D Short Circuit
KLYSTRON KLYSTRON FREQUEN VARIABLE SAMPLE
POWER OSCILLATOR CY METER ATTENUATOR
SUPPLY
VA
DETEC
ISOLATOR WG containing
METER sample
TOR
MOUNT
R Fig. 2.1 Setup for measuring dielectric constant
Procedure:
1. With no sample in the short circuited line find position of voltage minima Dr with respect to
an arbitrarily chosen reference, with the help of a slotted section with detector probe.
2. Measure the guide wave length λg by measuring the distance between two adjacent minima
in slotted line.
3. Remove short circuit, insert a sample and replace the short circuit in such a manner that it
touches the end of the sample.
4. Measure D, the position of minima in slotted line w.r.t the same reference as in step2.
5. Measure VSWR in the slotted line.
6. Repeat steps 1 to 6 with sample having different lengths.
Result:
CRITICISM:
WORK SPACE