ABSTRACT

In recent times, number of accidents has been increasing mainly due to the over-

speeding of the vehicles and the carelessness of the driver, an automation system is

designed to control the vehicle speed and limit accidents and it is “Automatic

over Speed Controlling System of a Vehicle and Automatic Parking”. In the

areas where the speed is to be limited, an RF transmitter is placed and it transmits

signals to the receiver which initiate the control operation and the microcontroller

sends command to control the speed of the vehicle. When driver falls asleep or

feels drowsy, the eye blink sensor senses the eye blinks and initiates the

microcontroller and thus making the vehicle to come under control.

Viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

 RF - Radio Frequency

 FM - Frequency Modulation

 AT - Atmel

 TMOD - Timer mode

 SCON - Serial Control Register

 TCON - Timer Control

 IE - Interrupt Enable Register

 TX - Transmitter

 INT - Interrupt

 IP - Interrupt Priority

 LCD - Liquid Crystal Display

 LED - Light Emitting Diode

 ROM - Read Only Memory

 RAM - Random Access Memory

 PCB - Printed Circuit Board

 I/O - Input and Output

 IC - Integrated circuits

 XTAL - External Crystal Oscillator

 GND – Ground ix
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

NO NO

5.1 Pin diagram of AT89S52 Microcontroller 15

5.3 Architecture of AT89S52 Microcontroller 17

6.1 Transmitter Schematic 25

6.2 Basic Block Diagram of Power Supply 26

6.3 7805 voltage regulator IC 28

6.4 LM7805 Voltage Regulator 30

6.5 External Crystal Oscillator 31

7.1 Receiver Schematic 35

7.2 Liquid Crystal Display 37

7.3 RF Module 38

7.4 Antenna 433.92 MHz 39

8.1a Darlington Pair 40

8.1b Optocoupler 40

8.2 Unipolar Stepper Motor 41

9.1 Block diagram of Transmitter Module 43

9.2 Block diagram of Receiver 44

x
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A Transmitter and Receiver module are used in this project to monitor and

control the vehicles over speed in particular areas like school zones, curves or

bends. Transmitter module has a Microcontroller, Encoder and RF Transmitter.

A Radio frequency signal is always transmitted by the RF Transmitter. The

Receiver module has microcontroller, decoder and RF Receiver. It is interfaced

with vehicle module. When the RF signal is received by the RF receiver, the

speed of the vehicle is decreased which is processed by the microcontroller.

The eye blink sensor is another added feature which is used for sensing the

driver’s consciousness; this sensor is used for sensing whether the user feels

asleep or drowsy. It senses the eye blink of the user and it makes a count. If the

count is less than twenty five, the signal is intimated to microcontroller and the

vehicle is parked automatically.

1
1.1 PROJECT MODULE

The projects modules are divided in two major modules are

1. Hardware Module

2. Software Module

1.1.1 HARDWARE MODULE

The hard ware modules are divided into these categories

 Transmitter Module
 Receiver Module
 Eye Blink Sensor
 Vehicle Module using Stepper Motor

Transmitter Module

In this, Radio Frequency signal is transmitted by the RF Transmitter when it is

switched on. It is processed by 89s52 Microcontroller which is from the family of
8051 Microcontroller.

Receiver Module

In this, Radio Frequency signal is received by the RF Receiver. This receiver

module is placed in the vehicle. When the RF signal is received, the speed of the
vehicle is reduced which is done by 89s52 Microcontroller.

Eye Blink Sensor

Eye Blink Sensor is used in vehicle which senses the eye blinking count of a user.
When the user falls asleep or feels drowsy, the eye blink sensor tracks the eye lids
and initiates the microcontroller and the vehicle is stopped.

2
1.1.2 SOFTWARE MODULE

 Embedded “C”
 Keil µvision Software

HARDWARE COMPONENT:

 Atmel 89s52
 RF Receiver and Transmitter
 LCD for display
 Eye Blink Sensor
 Power Supply in RF Transmitter and Receiver

SOFTWARE COMPONENT:

 Keil
 C

3
 CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION OF MICROCONTROLLER

 The true computer on a chip is nothing but a microcontroller. The design

incorporates all of the features found in a microprocessor CPU, ALU, PC,
SP and registers. It also had added the other features needed to make a
Complete computer

 ROM, RAM, parallel I/O, serial I/O, Counters and a clock circuits.

 Microprocessors are intended to be general-purpose digital computers

whereas microcontrollers are intended to be special-purpose digital
Controller.

 Microprocessor contains a CPU, memory-addressing circuits and Interrupt

handling circuits. Microcontrollers have these features as well as timers,
parallel and serial I/O, and internal RAM and ROM.

 Microcontroller models vary in data size from 4 to 32 bits. Four-bit units are
produced in huge volumes for very simple applications, and 8-bit units are
the most versatile. 16 and 32-bit units are used in high-speed control and
signal processing applications.

 Many models feature programmable pins that allow external memory to be

added with the loss of I/O capability.

4
2.1 MICROCONTROLLERS VS MICROPROCESSORS

A microcontroller has a CPU (a microprocessor) in addition to a fixed

amount of RAM, ROM, I/O ports and timers all on a single chip. In other
words, the processor, the RAM, ROM, I/O ports, and timers are all embedded
together on one chip. Therefore they are sometimes referred to as ‘system on a
chip’ or “Microcomputer”. The fixed amount of on chip ROM, RAM and a
number of I/O ports. In microcontrollers makes them ideal for many
applications in which cost and space are critical.

5
 CHAPTER 3

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

 An embedded system is a special purpose computer controlled

electromechanical system in which the computer is completely encapsulated
by the device it controls. An embedded system has specific requirements and
performs pre-defined tasks, unlike a general purpose personal computer.

 An embedded system is a computer-controlled system. The core of any

embedded system is a microprocessor, programmed to perform a few tasks
(often just one task). This is to be compared to other computer systems with
general purples hardware and externally loaded software. Embedded systems
are often designed for mass production.

 Embedded systems are computer systems in the widest sense. They include
all computers other than those specifically intended as general-purpose
computers. Examples of embedded systems range from portable music
players to real-time controls for systems like the space shuttle.

 Most commercial embedded systems are designed to do some task at a low

cost. Most, but not all have real-time system constraints that must be met.
They may need to be very fast for some functions, but most other functions
will probably not need speed. These systems meet their real-time constraints
with a combination of special purpose hardware and software tailored to the
system requirements.

6
 It is difficult to characterize embedded systems by speed or cost, but for high
volume systems, cost usually dominates the system design. Often many parts
of an embedded system need low performance compared to the primary
mission of the system. This allows an embedded system to be intentionally
simplified to lower costs compared to a general-purpose computer
accomplishing the same task, by using a CPU that is just ‘good enough’ for
these secondary functions.

 For low-volume embedded systems, personal computers can often be used,

by limiting the programs or by replacing the operating system with a real
time operating system. In this case special purpose hardware may be
replaced by one or more high performance CPUs. Still, some embedded
systems may require high performance CPUs. The software written for many
embedded systems, especially those without a disk drive is sometimes called
firmware. Firmware is software that is embedded in hardware devices, e.g.
in one or more ROM/Flash memory IC chips.

 Programs on an embedded system often run with limited hardware resources

often there is no disk drive, operating system, keyboard or screen, the
software may not have anything remotely like a file system, or if one is
present, a flash drive may replace rotating media. If a user interface is
present, it may be a small keypad and liquid crystal display.

 Embedded systems reside in machines that are expected to run continuously

for years without errors. Therefore the software is usually developed and
tested more carefully than software for personal computers. Many embedded
systems avoid mechanical moving parts such as disk drives, switches or
buttons because these are unreliable compared to solid-state parts such as
flash memory.

7
 In addition, the embedded system may be outside the reach of humans
(down an oil well borehole, launched into outer space, etc.,) so the
embedded system must be able to restart itself even if catastrophic data
corruption has taken place.

 This is usually accomplished with a standard electronic part called a

watchdog timer that resets the computer unless the software periodically
resets the timer.

8
3.2 CHOOSING MICROCONTROLLER – WHY 8051?

 There are four major 8-bit microcontrollers. They are Motorola’s 68xx,
Intel’s 805x, Zilog’s Z8, and PIC 16x from Microchip Technologies. Each
of these has a unique instruction set and register set, therefore not
compatible with each other. Programs written for one will not run on the
others. There are also 16-bit and 32-bit microcontrollers made by various
makers.

 The first and foremost criterion is that it must meet the task at hand
efficiently and cost effectively. Here we choose between 8/16/32 bit
microcontrollers according to our need. Various other considerations are
Speed, Power consumption, amount of on-chip RAM and ROM, no of I/O
ports available, cost etc. The availability and ease of development are some
other considerations.

 Considering all these, one of the best choices before us was to select Atmel
Corporation’s AT89s52 microcontroller, which was readily available in the
market and cheaper in cost. The major manufacturers of 8051 are AMD,
Atmel, Intel, Matra, OKI, Philips, Siemens, SMC, SSI etc.

9
 CHAPTER 4

THE 8051 MICROCONTROLLER

4.1 INTRODUCTION

 8051 micro controller was introduced by Intel Corporation in the year 1981.
It is an 8-bit microcontroller with Harvard Architecture manufactured by
advanced CMOS processes. It has 128 bytes of on chip RAM, 4k bytes of on
chip ROM, two 16 bit timers/counters, four 8-bit ports of which one is a
serial port, etc. There are 6 interrupt sources.

 Since this is an 8-bit micro controller, the CPU can work on only 8 bits of
data at a time. Data larger than 8 bits has to be broken down to 8 bit pieces.
Though it has an addressing capability of 64 Kbytes, only 4k bytes have
been provided on chip.

 8051 is available in different memory types, such as UV-EPROM, FLASH,

and NV-RAM. The UV-EPROM version of 8051 is the 8751. This chip has
only 4K bytes of on chip UV-EPROM. To use this chip for development
requires access to a PROM burner, as well as a UV-EPROM eraser to erase
all the contents of UV-EPROM inside the 8751 chip before you can program
it again.

 Atmel Corporation’s AT89s52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-

bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of flash Programmable and Erasable Read
Only Memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high
density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry
standard MCS-51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip flash allows the
program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional on
10
 volatile memory.

 By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the

Atmel AT89s52 is a powerful microcomputer that provides a highly flexible
and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.

 Flash memory can be erased in seconds compared to 20 minutes needed for

8751. For this reason 89s52 is used in place of 8751 to eliminate the waiting
time needed to erase the chip and thereby speed up the development time.
The development system requires a ROM burner that supports flash
memory.

 The entire contents of ROM should be erased in order to program it again

the PROM burner itself does this. The 89s52 Flash reliably stores memory
contents even after 10,000 erase and program cycles. AT89s52 is a popular
chip of this category from Atmel Corporation.

 Another popular version of 8051 is DS5000 chip from Dallas

Semiconductor. The on chip ROM is in the form of NV-RAM. The
read/write capability of NV-RAM allows the program to be loaded into the
on chip ROM while in the system. This can be done via a serial port of a PC.

 Another advantage of NV-RAM is the ability to change the ROM contents

one byte at a time. The entire ROM must be erased before programmed
again in the case of UV-EPROM and flash memory.

11
 There are also OTP (One Time Programmable) versions of the 8051
available from different sources. Flash and NV-RAM versions are typically
used for product development. When a product is designed and finalized, the
OTP version of the 8051 is used for mass production since it is much
cheaper in terms of price per unit.

 There are two other members in the 8051 family of microcontrollers. They
are the 8052 and the 8031.The 8052 has all the standard features of the 8051
in addition to an extra 128 bytes of RAM, an extra timer, extra 4K bytes of
on chip ROM, and two more interrupt sources. Therefore all programs
written for 8051 will run on 8052, but the reverse is not true.

 8031 is often referred to as ROM-less 8051 since it has 0K bytes of on chip

ROM. To use this chip we must add external ROM to it. The ROM
containing the program attached to the 8031 can be as large as 64K bytes.
For adding external ROM two ports are needed out of 4 ports, leaving only 2
ports for I/O operations. To solve this, external I/O ports like 8255 can be
added to 8031.

12
4.2 FEATURES OF 8051 MICROCONTROLLER

 8-bit CPU with registers A (the accumulator) and B.

 16-bit Program Counter (PC) and Data Pointer (DPTR).

 16 bytes, which may be addressed at the bit level

 80-bytes of general – purpose data memory.

 32-I/O pins arranged as four 8- bit ports: P0-P3.

 Two 16 – bit timer/counters: T0 and T1.

 Full duplex serial data receiver/transmitter: SBUF

 Control Registers: TCON, TMOD, SCON, PCON, IP and IE.

 Oscillator and clock circuits.

4.3 RTX51/RTX Tiny

Another Operating System, from Keil Software, is called RTX. It concentrates on

the very small applications like DCX. In addition to the RTX tiny version, which
runs totally in on-chip RAM, there is an RTX51, which more closely resembles
DCX, RTX tiny uses no more than 64 bytes of RAM depending on how many of
the sixteen possible tasks you use. It has code of only about 800 bytes and has only
six system calls. RTX51 is still modest sized, requires, tasks at one time, and
includes message passing as well as timing, interrupts, task signaling, and memory
pool management. RTX tiny is a “Subset”, supporting only timing, interrupts, and
inter-task signaling, which is enough to build up virtually any application. Both
systems will run tasks in round robin fashion, but the RTX51 is similar to DCX in
providing priority levels for tasks. RTX51 time-slices equal-priority tasks whereas
DCX let equal priority tasks run to a wait on a first-come first-serve basis.

13
 CHAPTER 5

AT89S52 MICROCONTROLLER

 The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit

microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory.
The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory
technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 instruction
set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory
programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system
programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful
microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution
to many embedded control applications.

 The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash,

256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three
16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full
duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the
AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency
and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode
stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and
interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the
RAM contents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions
until the next interrupt or hardware reset.

14
5.1 PIN DIAGRAM OF AT89s52 MICROCONTROLLER

Figure 5.1Pin diagram of AT89S52 Microcontroller

 The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in

system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By
combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel
AT89s52 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly- flexible and
cost effective solution to many embedded control applications.
15
5.2 FEATURES

 Compatible with MCS-51® Products

 8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory
 Endurance: 1000 Write/Erase Cycles
 4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range
 Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz
 Three-level Program Memory Lock
 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM
 32 Programmable I/O Lines
 Three 16-bit Timer/Counters
 Eight Interrupt Sources
 Full Duplex UART Serial Channel
 Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes
 Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode
 Watchdog Timer
 Dual Data Pointer
 Power-off Flag

16
5.3 AT89S52 ARCHITECTURE

The Microcontroller AT89S52’s architecture is shown below.

Figure 5.3 Architecture of AT89S52 Microcontroller

17
5.3.1 Pin Description

VCC

 Supply voltage.

GND

 Ground.

Port 0

 Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each
pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins
can be used as high impedance inputs.

 Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data

bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0
has internal pull ups.

 Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs
the code bytes during program verification. External pull ups are required
during program verification.

Port 1

 Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull ups. The Port 1
output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port
1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull ups and can be used as
inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source
current (IIL) because of the internal pull ups.

 In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2

external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input
(P1.1/T2EX), respectively, as shown in the following table. Port1 also
receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and
18
 verification.

Alternate Functions of Port pins

 P1.0 T2 (external count input to Timer/Counter 2), clock-out

 P1.1 T2EX (Timer/Counter 2 capture/reload trigger and direction control)

 P1.5 MOSI (used for In-System Programming)

 P1.6 MISO (used for In-System Programming)

 P1.7 SCK (used for In-System Programming

Port 2

 Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull ups. The Port 2
output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port
2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull ups and can be used as
inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source
current (IIL) because of the internal pull ups.

 Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external
program memory and during accesses to external data memory that uses 16-
bit addresses (MOVX @DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong
internal pull ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory
that uses 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2
Special Function Register.

 Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals
during Flash programming and verification.

19
Port 3

 Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull ups. The Port 3
output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port
3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull ups and can be used as
inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source
current (IIL) because of the pull ups.

 Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89S52,
as shown in the following table. Port 3 also receives some control signals for
Flash programming and verification.

Alternate Functions of Port pins

 P3.0 RXD (serial input port)

 P3.1 TXD (serial output port)

 P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0)

 P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1)

 P3.4 T0 (timer 0 external input)

 P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input)

 P3.6 WR (external data memory write strobe)

 P3.7 RD (external data memory read strobe)

RST

 Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is
running resets the device. This pin drives High for 96 oscillator periods after
the Watchdog times out. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can
be used to disable this feature. In the default state of bit DISRTO, the
RESET HIGH out feature is enabled.

20
ALE/PROG

 Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of
the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program
pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming.

 In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator

frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note,
however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data
memory.

 If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location

8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC
instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE
disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.

PSEN

 Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program

memory.

 When the AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory,

PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN
activations are skipped during each access to external data memory.

EA/VPP

 External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the

device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at
0000H up to FFFFH.

21
  Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally
latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program
executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage
(VPP) during Flash programming.

XTAL1

 Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock
operating circuit.

XTAL2

 Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

Special Function Registers

 A map of the on-chip memory area called the Special Function Register
(SFR) space is shown in Table 1.

 Note that not all of the addresses are occupied, and unoccupied addresses
may not be implemented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses will
in general return random data, and write accesses will have an indeterminate
effect.

 User software should not write 1s to these unlisted locations, since they may
be used in future products to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or
inactive values of the new bits will always be 0.

Timer 2 Registers:

 Control and status bits are contained in registers T2CON (shown in Table 2)
and T2MOD (shown in Table 3) for Timer 2. The register pair (RCAP2H,
RCAP2L) are the Capture/Reload registers for Timer 2 in 16-bit capture
mode or 16-bit auto-reload mode.

22
Interrupt Registers:

 The individual interrupt enable bits are in the IE register. Two priorities can
be set for each of the six interrupt sources in the IP register.

Dual Data Pointer Registers:

 To facilitate accessing both internal and external data memory, two banks of
16-bit Data Pointer Registers are provided: DP0 at SFR address locations
82H-83H and DP1 at 84H-85H. Bit DPS = 0 in SFR AUXR1 selects DP0
and DPS = 1 selects DP1. The user should always initialize the DPS bit to t
appropriate value before accessing the respective Data Pointer Register.

Power off Flag:

 The Power off Flag (POF) is located at bit 4 (PCON.4) in the PCON SFR.
POF is set to “1” during power up. It can be set and rest under software
control and is not affected by reset.

Memory Organization

 MCS-51 devices have a separate address space for Program and Data
Memory. Up to 64K bytes each of external Program and Data Memory can
be addressed.

Program Memory

 If the EA pin is connected to GND, all program fetches are directed to

external memory. On the AT89S52, if EA is connected to VCC, program
fetches to addresses 0000H through 1FFFH are directed to internal memory
and fetches to addresses 2000H through FFFFH are to external memory.

23
Data Memory
 The AT89S52 implements 256 bytes of on-chip RAM. The upper 128 bytes
occupy a parallel address space to the Special Function Registers. This
means that the upper 128 bytes have the same addresses as the SFR space
but are physically separate from SFR space.

 When an instruction accesses an internal location above address 7FH, the

address mode used in the instruction specifies whether the CPU accesses the
upper 128 bytes of RAM or the SFR space. Instructions which use direct
addressing access of the SFR space.

 For example, the following direct addressing instruction accesses the SFR at
location 0A0H (which is P2). MOV 0A0H, #data

 Instructions that use indirect addressing access the upper 128 bytes of RAM.
For example, the following indirect addressing instruction, where R0
contains 0A0H, accesses the data byte at address 0A0H, rather than P2
(whose address is 0A0H). MOV @R0, #data

 Note that stack operations are examples of indirect addressing, so the upper
128 bytes of data RAM are available as stack space.

24
CHAPTER 6
 6. TRANSMITTER MODULE

 At the core of the transmitter module is the AT89s52 microcontroller. Its

basic purpose is to hold and continuously transmit the RF signal. The data
transmission is enabled through the TXD pin. The schematic is shown in
figure below.

TRANSMITTER SCHEMATIC

Figure 6.1 Transmitter Schematic

25

6.1 COMPONENTS OF TRANSMITTER MODULE

  AT89s52 MICROCONTROLLER

 230/12 V STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER

 BRIDGE RECTIFIER

 7805 IC VOLTAGE REGULATOR(12V/5V)

 RF TRANSMITTER

 EXTERNAL CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

6.2 POWER SUPPLY

 A power supply (sometimes known as a power supply unit or PSU)

is a device or system that supplies electrical or other types of energy
to an output load or group of loads. The term is most commonly
applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones,
and rarely to others.

Figure 6.2 Basic Block Diagram of Power Supply

26
  As illustrated in the figure, the first section is the TRANSFORMER.
 The transformer steps up or steps down the input line voltage and
isolates the power supply from the power line.
 The RECTIFIER section converts the alternating current input signal
to a pulsating direct current.
 A FILTER section is used to convert pulsating dc to a purer, more
desirable form of dc voltage.
 The final section, the REGULATOR, does just what the name
implies. It maintains the output of the power supply at a constant level
in spite of large changes in load current or input line voltages.

6.2.1 LM 7805 REGULATOR

 Voltage Regulator (regulator), usually having three legs, converts varying

input voltage and produces a constant regulated output voltage. They are
available in a variety of outputs.

 The most common part numbers start with the numbers 78 and finish with
two digits indicating the output voltage. The number 78 represents positive
voltage. The 7805 series of voltage regulators are designed for positive
input.

Examples:
 5V DC Regulator Name: LM7805 or MC7805

 -5V DC Regulator Name: LM7905 or MC7905

 6V DC Regulator Name: LM7806 or MC7806

 -9V DC Regulator Name: LM7909 or MC7909

27
 The LM7805 series typically has the ability to drive current up to 1A. For
application requirements up to 150mA, 78LXX can be used. As mentioned
above, the component has three legs: Input leg which can hold up to 36VDC
Common leg (GND) and an output leg with the regulator's voltage. For
maximum voltage regulation, adding a capacitor in parallel between the
common leg and the output is usually recommended. Typically a 0.1MF
capacitor is used. This eliminates any high frequency AC voltage that could
otherwise combine with the output voltage. See below circuit diagram
which represents a typical use of a voltage regulator.

Figure 6.3 7805 voltage regulator IC

 The transformer drops the 240 volts 'main' voltage to 8.5 volts. The diode
'bridge' rectifies the 8.5 volts AC from the output side of the power
transformer into DC. The 2500μF capacitor helps to maintain a constant
input into the regulator.

 As a general guide this capacitor should be rated at a minimum of 1000μF

for each amp of current drawn and at least TWICE the input voltage. The
0.1μF capacitor eliminates any high frequency pulses that could otherwise
interfere with the operation of the regulator.

28
  Voltage regulators are very robust. They can withstand over-current draw
due to short circuits and also over-heating. In both cases the regulator will
shut down before damage occurs. The only way to destroy a regulator is to
apply reverse voltage to its input.

 Reverse polarity destroys the regulator almost instantly. To avoid this

possibility you should always use diode protection of the power supply. This
is especially important when using nine volt battery supplies as it is common
for people to 'test' the battery by connecting it one way and then the other.

 All of the interfaces described on this site have protection diodes connected
into the power supply circuit to prevent damage due to incorrect polarity.
Generally a 1N4004, 1 amp power diode is connected in series with the
power supply. If the supply is connected the wrong way around, the
regulator will be protected from damage.

6.2.2 INPUT VOLTAGE

 As a general rule the input voltage should be limited to 2 to 3 volts above the
output voltage. The LM78XX series can handle up to 30 volts input, but the
power difference between the input voltage/current ratio and output
voltage/current ratio appears as heat. If the input voltage is unnecessarily
high the regulator will get very hot.

 It is possible to increase the output voltage of a Regulator circuit using apair

of 'voltage-divider' resistors (R1 and R2 in the diagram below), or a zener
diode. It is not possible to obtain a voltage lower than the stated rating. You
could not use a 12 volt regulator to make a 5 volt power supply, but you
could use a 5 volt regulator to make a 12 volt supply.

29
  If R1 is replaced with a suitable variable resistor ("potentiometer") it is
possible to make a simple 'variable' power supply.

Figure 6.4 LM7805 Voltage Regulator

 Some regulators are designed to produce a regulated voltage as low as 1.7
volts, for example the LM317. This type of regulator is ideal to use in
'variable' power supplies able to provide 1 amp regulated DC at voltages
ranging from 1.7 to around 40 volts.

 The interfaces described on this site are based on either 5 volt, or 12 volt
integrated circuits. They use either LM7805, or LM7812 regulators.

6.2.3 FEATURES OF 7805 IC

 Complete specifications at 1A load

 Output voltage tolerances of ±2% at T = 25°C

 Load regulation of 0.3% of Vout

 Internal thermal overload protection

 Internal short-circuit current limit

 Output transistor safe-area protection

30
6.3 EXTERNAL CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

Figure 6.5 External Crystal Oscillator

 First power and ground are connected to the upper right and lower left pins
respectively. Next, a crystal is connected to the XTAL pins to provide
stimulus for the internal oscillator as shown in the figure 6.4. When using a
crystal, a buffering capacitor of 10 to 40pf is connected from each pin to
ground. The crystal frequency ranges from 3 to over 50 MHz However, the
choice of frequency is often determined by outside connections. For
example, serial communications requires rather unusual frequencies such as
11.059 MHz If an oscillator is used, XTAL1 is the input to the oscillator
amplifier and the input to the internal clock. XTAL2 is the output from the
inverting oscillator amplifier. An 11.059 MHz crystal will provide good
performance and excellent communications.

 Crystal oscillators are oscillators where the primary frequency determining

element is a quartz crystal. Because of the inherent characteristics of the
quartz crystal the crystal oscillator may be held to extreme accuracy of
frequency stability. Temperature compensation may be applied to crystal
oscillators to improve thermal stability of the crystal oscillator.

31
 Crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance
of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal
with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep
track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for
digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters.

 Using an amplifier and feedback, it is an especially accurate form of an

electronic oscillator. The crystal used therein is sometimes called a "timing
crystal". On schematic diagrams a crystal is labeled Y.

 Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal,
with appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural resonant
frequencies of vibration. For example, steel is very elastic and has a high
speed of sound. It was often used in mechanical filters before quartz. The
resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity and the speed of sound
in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically cut in the shape of a
simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used in
digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For
applications not needing very precise timing, a low-cost ceramic resonator is
often used in place of a quartz crystal. When a crystal of quartz is properly
cut and mounted, it can be made to bend in an electric field, by applying a
voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as
piezoelectricity.

 When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field as it
returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is
that a quartz crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an inductor,
capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency.

 Quartz has the further advantage that its size changes very little with
temperature. Therefore, the resonant frequency of the plate, which depends
on its size, will not change much, either. This means that a quartz clock,
filter or oscillator will remain accurate. For critical applications the quartz
oscillator is mounted in a temperature-controlled container, called a crystal
oven, and can also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation
by external mechanical vibrations.

32
  Quartz timing crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of
kilohertz to tens of megahertz. More than two billion (2×109) crystals are
manufactured annually. Most are small devices for consumer devices such as
wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cell phones. Quartz crystals are
also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal
generators, and oscilloscopes.

 The variable resistor connected at LCD pin 3 (VD) and ground, controls the
LCD display contrast. LCD's with extended temperature range (negative °C)
can need a negative voltage at the VD pin (3), so the variable resistor need to
be connected in a different way - the center tap goes to pin 3 (VD), one side
to +5Vdc, while the other goes to a negative voltage around -3Vdc or more.
To reduce power consume over this trim pot, you can try values higher than
10k ohms. I observed several LCD's that connecting VD to Ground is
enough to result in a good display contrast.

6.4 TRANSMITTER WORKING

 The 230 volts AC supply at the input terminals is rectified using a bridge
rectifier to 12 volts DC. The rectified voltage is fed to the voltage regulator
LM7805 whose function is to generate a regulated 5 volts DC output. The 5
volt DC output for the IC89S52, TX remote and to the Reset circuitry. The
reset circuit consists of the switch, diode IN4007, and a RC circuit. The
function of the diode in the reset circuitry is to allow the use of a PNP or an
NPN microcontroller.

 The Reset pin is initially at active low state and whenever a reset action is
required to reset the microcontroller chip the reset switch set to active high
and the 5 volts DC is applied at the pin 9 of the chip which resets the
microcontroller. The crystal oscillator generates a frequency of 11.059 MHz
through XTAL1 and XTAL2, which acts as the clock for the
microcontroller.

33
 The microcontroller is programmed to transmit the required data. When the
circuit is turned on, the microcontroller starts transmitting the data through
the TXD pin which turns high and drives the base of the transistor thereby
making it to conduct. As the transistor starts conducting the TX Remote is
connected to the microcontroller through TXD and starts transmitting the
data, at a frequency of 38 KHz continuously.

34
 CHAPTER 7

7. RECEIVER MODULE

 The operation of receiver module is two-fold. It receives the data and

displays the corresponding area in LCD display.

RECEIVER SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

Figure 7.1 Receiver Schematic

35
7.1 COMPONENTS OF RECEIVER MODULE:

 AT89s52 MICROCONTROLLER

 230/12 V STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER

 BRIDGE RECTIFIER

 7805 IC VOLTAGE REGULATOR (12/5V)

 LCD DISPLAY

 RF MODULE

 EXTERNAL CRYSTAL OSCILATOR

7.2LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

 The Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) was first developed at RCA around 1971.
LCDs are optically passive displays (they do not produce light). As a result,
LCDs require all most no power to operate. Many LCD calculators can
operate from the power of a solar cell; others can operate for years from
small button cell batteries. LCDs work from the ability of liquid crystals
(LC) to rotate polarized light relative to a pair of crossed polarizers
laminated to the outside of the display. There are two main types of LCD
displays used for calculators today: Twisted nematic (TN) and super twisted
Nematic (STN). TN displays twist polarized light to 90 degrees and have a
limited viewing angle. STN displays were developed to twist polarized light
between 180 to 260 degrees resulting in better contrast and a wider viewing
angle.

 A LCD consists of two plates of glass, sealed around the perimeter, with a
layer of liquid crystal fluid between them. Transparent, conductive
electrodes are deposited on the inner surfaces of the glass plates.

36
  The electrodes define the segments, pixels, or special symbols of the display.
Next a thin polymer layer is applied on top of the electrodes. The polymer is
etched with channels in order to align the twist orientation of the LC's helix
shaped molecules. Finally, polarizing films are laminated to the outer
surfaces of the glass plates at 90 degree angles. Normally, two polarizing
films at 90 degrees should be dark, preventing any transmission of light but
due to the ability of LC to rotate polarized light the display appears clear.
When AC voltage is passed through the LC, the crystals within this field
align so that the polarized light is not twisted. This allows the light to be
blocked by the crossed polarizer’s thus making the activated segment or
symbol to appear dark.

Figure 7.2 Liquid Crystal Display

7.2.1 LCD THEORY OF OPERATION

 Many other types of LCD displays are being developed for the laptop and
CRT replacement market including full color versions. These include double
and triple twisted pneumatic (DSTN and TSTN) displays and the Active-
matrix Thin-film Twisted Pneumatic and Metal-Insulated-Metal Twisted
Pneumatic (TFT-TN and MIM-TN) displays. Unfortunately these advanced
displays are too expensive for most of the calculator market. TN LCD’s
almost completely dominate today’s calculator market due to their extremely
low power requirements, thin size, and low cost.

37
7.3 RF MODULE

In Receiver circuit, we are using RF receiver to receive the signal which is

transmitted by the RF Transmitter in the frequency of 433.92MHZ.

Figure 7.3 RF Module

 This is similar to a spiral that is not flattened. Start with a piece of wire that
is 2 or 3 times longer than a whip and wind it into a coil. The number of
turns on the coil will depend on wire size, coil diameter, and turn spacing.
The coil will need to be cut to resonate, and can be fine tuned by spreading
38
 or compressing the length of the coil. If the coil is wound tightly enough, it
may be shorter than one-tenth of a wavelength. This antenna tunes sharply,
requiring care in tuning. The real part of the antenna impedance is less than
20 ohms, and depends on the size of the coil and its orientation to ground.

Figure 7.4 Antenna 433.92 MHz

 For 433.9 MHz, we wound 14 turns of 22 gauge wire around a 0.25 inch (6
mm) form. When tuned, its length was just less than one inch. The proximity
of this coil to ground makes a big difference in performance. When the coil
runs near and parallel to ground, maximum gain is only -18 dBd. When the
loose end of the coil was pulled away from ground, as shown in the alternate
version drawing, gain increased to -5.5 dBd, and the null became deeper.

 It can be easily de-tuned by nearby objects, including a hand, so it may not

be good for hand-held use

39
 CHAPTER 8

8. VEHICLE MODULE USING STEPPER MOTOR

 Stepper Motor is used to drive the vehicle in this vehicle module. Two
stepper motors are used. Stepper motor 1 is used to control the left and right
movement of vehicle and stepper motor 2 is used to control the front and
back movement of vehicle. These two stepper motor s are driven by driver
circuit which has optocoupler, darlington pair transistor.

Figure 8.1a Darlington Pair Figure 8.1b Optocoupler

 The Drivers of the stepper motor 1 and stepper motor 2 are connected to
microcontroller. As per the program in microcontroller the driver drives the
stepper motor in high speed which can rotate the wheel of the vehicle
module in 10 rpm. When the radio frequency signal is received then the

40
driver drives the stepper motor in normal speed which can rotate the wheel
 of a vehicle module in 5 rpm. Therefore, the speed of the vehicle module is
reduced when the RF Signal is received.

8.1 UNIPOLAR STEPPER MOTOR

Figure 8.2 Unipolar Stepper Motor

 The schematic diagram of uni polar stepper motor is shown above. In

Vehicle module two uni polar stepper motors are used to run it. In front side
of the module stepper motor 1 is fixed between two wheels to control the left
and right direction of the vehicle module.

 The stepper motor 2 is connected between the two back side wheels to
control the front and down movement of the vehicle module.

 ULN2003 is the IC used in unipolar stepper motor to process the signal from
driver circuit which is connected to 89S52 microcontroller. First four pins of
ULN2003 are interfaced to the driver circuit and the fifth pin is grounded.

41
 This stepper motor works in 12v power supply and current is 1.5 to 2 amps.
It is 3kg torque stepper motor which can rotate in 27 rpm. It can pull the load
up to 5kg to 6kg. In this vehicle module the gear ratio of stepper motor is
1:3.

 Two stepper motors are driven by two separate driver circuit. The driver
circuit of stepper motor 1 is interfaced with microcontroller in port 0. The
driver circuit of stepper motor 2 is interfaced in port 2 of microcontroller.

42
 CHAPTER 9

9. BLOCK DIAGRAM

9.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSMITTER MODULE

Power supply

AT89S52
Encoder RF Transmitter
Micro controller

Figure 9.1 Block diagram of Transmitter Module

Description

 The 230 volts AC supply at the input terminals is step downed to 12

volts AC by Step down transformer and it is rectified using a bridge
rectifier to 12 volts DC. The rectified voltage is fed to the voltage
regulator LM7805 whose function is to generate a regulated 5 volts DC
output. The 5 volt DC output is for the 89S52 microcontroller, HT-12E
and RF Transmitter.

 When the transmitter module is connected to the supply, the

microcontroller starts to process as per the program coded in it.
43
  The Encoder is connected in the Port 2 of 89S52 microcontroller. The
signal is encoded in the encoder and it is transmitted by the RF
Transmitter.

 The RF Transmitter will be transmitting the RF Signal until it is

disconnected from the power supply.

9.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF RECEIVER MODULE

Power supply

RF Receiver Decoder LCD

AT89S52

Micro controller
Eye Blink sensor Stepper driver

Stepper

Motor

Figure 9.2 Block diagram of Receiver

Description

 The 230 volts AC supply at the input terminals is step downed to 12

volts AC by Step down transformer and it is rectified using a bridge
rectifier to 12 volts DC. The rectified voltage is fed to the voltage
44
 regulator LM7805 whose function is to generate a regulated 5 volts DC
output. The 5 volt DC output is for the 89S52 microcontroller, HT-12D,
RF Receiver, LCD, and Eye Blink Sensor.

 For stepper drivers, separate 230V – 12V Step down transformer is used
for power supply. Bridge circuit is used for rectification and filter is used
to remove the AC ripples. By using voltage regulator LM7812, a
constant 12V DC supply is taken as output. The current rating of the
stepper motor is 1.2 to 2 amps, so separate power supply circuit is
applied for stepper drivers.

 The vehicle module starts to run when it is connected to power supply.

The speed of the vehicle module is displayed in the LCD. The RF
transmitter is placed in an area. When the vehicle module passes through
that area, the RF receiver in the receiver module starts to receive the RF
signal from RF transmitter.

 When the RF signal is received, the signal is decoded using a decoder.

The decoder is interfaced with microcontroller. As per the program, the
microcontroller runs the delay program. The signal given to stepper
driver is changed which can drive the stepper motor in less rpm.
Therefore, the wheel of the vehicle rotates in slow speed and hence the
speed of the vehicle module is reduced. The controlled speed is
displayed in LCD.

45
9.3 Automatic Parking

 Eye blink sensor is used to sense the eye blinking count of user of the
vehicle. Here we have used the model of eye blink sensor. This sensor is
connected in the head of the user of vehicle.

 When the user blinks his eyes, the eye blink sensor takes it as count.
Actual use of the sensor is to make a count whenever the user blinks his
eyes. The count of eye blink sensor is displayed in LCD.

 Normally, a vehicle user will blink his eyes twenty five times per minute.
So the eye blink sensor should make twenty five counts in every minute.
If the user of the vehicle falls asleep or feels drowsy then the blinking
count of his eyes will get decrease.

 If the eye blink sensor makes a count below twenty five in a minute,
immediately it is intimated to microcontroller. The microcontroller
confirms that the user is drowsy and it changes the signal given to
stepper driver.

 The vehicle speed is reduced and the left indicator is switched on

automatically. The vehicle module takes a left turn and it stops. The four
indicators of all side are switched on automatically to indicate that the
vehicle is parked in that area. Also it helps the user who comes after this
vehicle to confirm that vehicle is parked and to pass that area safely
without any accident.

46
 CHAPTER 10

APPENDICES

10. PROGRAM

10.1 LCD

#include<regx51.h>

#include<intrins.h>

void delay(unsigned int x);

sbit busy=P1^7;

sbit RS=P3^5;

sbit RW=P3^6;

sbit EN=P3^7;

void lcd_initial();

void command_initial(unsigned int a);

void data_initial(unsigned char b);

void check();

void write_lcd(unsigned char *s);

void lcd_conv(unsigned int v);

void lcd_conv(unsigned int v)

int a,x,y,z;

a=v%100;

47
x=v/100;

y=a/10;

z=a%10;

data_initial(x+0x30);

data_initial(y+0x30);

data_initial(z+0x30);

void lcd_initial()

command_initial(0x38);

command_initial(0x0c);

command_initial(0x01);

command_initial(0x80);

command_initial(0xc0);

command_initial(0x05);

void command_initial(unsigned int a)

P1=a;

RS=0;

RW=0;

EN=1;

48
delay(1);

EN=0;

check();

void data_initial(unsigned char b)

P1=b;

RS=1;

RW=0;

EN=1;

delay(1);

EN=0;

check();

void check()

busy=1;

RS=0;

RW=1;

EN=0;

delay(1);

EN=1;

49
while(busy==1);

void write_lcd(unsigned char *s)

while(*s!='\0')

data_initial(*s);

s++;

_nop_();

10.2 RECEIVER

#include <REGX51.H>

#include<intrins.h>

void check();

void lcd_initial();

unsigned int str_count=500,veh_count=500,spd_cout=200;

void command_initial(unsigned int a);

void data_initial(unsigned char b);

void write_lcd(unsigned char *);

void stop(unsigned int y);

50
void forward();

void forward1();

void slow();

void uturn();

void stright();

void speed();

void left();

sbit eye=P3^2;

sbit led1=P3^0;

sbit led2=P3^1;

bit timer_flag=0;

//void stop();

unsigned int eye_count=0,count_val=0,rpm=10,rpm_school=5;

void lcd_conv(unsigned int v);

void delay(unsigned int x)

int i;

for(i=0;i<=x;i++)

_nop_();

51
void eye_check()interrupt 0

if(eye==0)

eye_count=eye_count+1;

delay(2500);

}while(eye==0);

void eye_time()interrupt 1

TL0=0x00;

TH0=0x00;

count_val=count_val+1;

if(count_val==220)

timer_flag=1;

TR0=0;

TL0=0x00;

count_val=0;

if(timer_flag==1)

if(eye_count<25)

52
{

led1=0;

led2=1;

timer_flag=0;

command_initial(0x01);

command_initial(0x80);

timer_flag=0;

write_lcd("driver drowsy");

left();

eye_count=0;

count_val=0;

led1=0;

led2=0;

while(1);

}//while(eye_count<10);

if(eye_count>25)

eye_count=0;

count_val=0;

timer_flag=0;

command_initial(0x01);

command_initial(0x80);

53
 write_lcd("driver normal");

delay(10000);

delay(10000);

delay(10000);

timer_flag=0;

TR0=1;

}while(eye_count>10);

void main()

TMOD=0x01;

TL0=0x00;

TH0=0x00;

IE=0x83;

PX0=1;

PT0=1;

eye=1;

54
P0=0xff;

led1=1;

led2=1;

lcd_initial();

command_initial(0x80);

write_lcd("vechile normal");

command_initial(0xC0);

write_lcd("speed:");

command_initial(0xC6);

lcd_conv(rpm);

command_initial(0xC9);

write_lcd("eye:");

command_initial(0xCd);

lcd_conv(eye_count);

count_val=0;

TR0=1;

while(1)

if(timer_flag==0)

do

55
forward();

command_initial(0xCd);

lcd_conv(eye_count);

}while(P0==0xFF);

if(P0==0xf1)

command_initial(0x01);

command_initial(0x80);

write_lcd("school zone low");

command_initial(0xC0);

write_lcd("speed:");

command_initial(0xC6);

lcd_conv(rpm_school);

command_initial(0xC9);

write_lcd("eye:");

command_initial(0xCd);

lcd_conv(eye_count);

slow();

command_initial(0x01);

command_initial(0x80);

write_lcd("vechile over");

56
command_initial(0xC0);

write_lcd("speed control");

forward();

}while(P0==0xf1);

10.3 VEHICLE

#include <REGX51.H>

#include<intrins.h>

sbit led1=P3^0;

sbit led2=P3^1;

void stop();

sbit buzzer=P3^3;

void delay(unsigned int x);

unsigned int count_spd=50,count=400,str_count=200,veh_count=200;

void stop(unsigned int y)

int j;

57
for(j=0;j<=y;j++)

_nop_();

void forward()

P2=0x0a;

delay(300);

P2=0x09;

delay(300);

P2=0x05;

delay(300);

P2=0x06;

delay(300);

void left()

int val=200;

buzzer=1;

58
do

led1=0;

P2=0xaa;

led1=1;

delay(650);

led1=1;

P2=0x99;

led1=0;

delay(650);

led1=1;

P2=0x55;

led1=0;

delay(650);

led1=1;

P2=0x66;

led1=0;

delay(650);

val--;

}while(val!=0);

P2=0x00;

buzzer=0;

59
delay(65000);delay(65000);

P0=0x00;

void slow()

int count=500;

do

P2=0x0a;

stop(1200);

P2=0x09;

stop(1200);

P2=0x05;

stop(1200);

P2=0x06;

stop(1200);

count--;

}while(count!=0);

void uturn()

60
veh_count=200;

do

P2=0x6a;

delay(450);

P2=0x59;

delay(450);

P2=0x95;

delay(450);

P2=0xa6;

delay(450);

veh_count--;

} while(veh_count!=0);

void stright()

str_count=200;

do

P2=0xaa;

delay(350);

P2=0x99;

61
delay(350);

P2=0x55;

delay(350);

P2=0x66;

delay(350);

str_count--;

}while(str_count!=0);

forward();

void stop()

count_spd=50;

do

P2=0x00;

stop(500);

count_spd--;

}while(count_spd!=0);

62
10.4 CONCLUSION

The method of over speed monitoring and controlling has been discussed in this
project. It is believed that this method offers more security than other methods.
This being a real time project can be implemented in risky areas to save more life
from accidents. The technological advancement in the field of electrical and
electronics has paved the path to this valuable project which plays a major role in
saving the valuable lives of people. At the same time, this project can be enhanced
in various such as wireless techniques which makes more sophisticated, reduces
the accidents. The project can be applied in various areas because of its advantages
namely man power is reduced, automatic control without user interface. It is
simple and easy to implement. Many methods have been put forth but this has
become an effective method.

63
10.5 REFERENCES

• Yunseop (James) Kim, Robert G.Evans, and William M.Iversen “Remote

Sensing and Control of an Irrigation System Using a Distributed Wireless
Sensor Network” IEEE Transaction on Instrumentation and measurement,
vol.57,no.7, july2008

• Everett E. Crisman, Anne Loomist, Robin Shaw, Zofia Laszewski “Using

the eye wink control interface to control a powered wheelchair” Annual
International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology
Society, Vol. 13, No. 4. 1991

• Kohji Mitsubayashi, Takuo Kon and Yuki Hashimoto “Optical bio-sniffer

for ethanol vapor using an oxygen-sensitive optical fiber ” Biosensors and
Bioelectronics, Volume 19, Issue 3, 30 November 2003, Pages 193-198

64