CANAL CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS/STRUCTURES

Necessity of Cross Drainage Works/Structures

A cross drainage work (also called CD work) is a structure built on a canal where it is crosses
a natural drainage, such as a stream or a river. Sometimes, a cross-drainage work is required
when the canal crosses another canal. The cross-drainage work is required to dispose of the
drainage water so that the canal supply remains uninterrupted. A cross-drainage work is also
called as drainage crossing. The canal at a cross-drainage work is generally taken either over
or below the drainage. However, it can also be at the same level as the drainage.
The canals are, preferably, aligned on the watershed so that there are no drainage
crossings. However, it is not possible to avoid the drainages in the initial reach of a main
canal because it takes off from a diversion headworks (or storage works) located on a river
which is a valley. The canal, therefore, requires a certain distance before it can mount the
watershed (or ridge). In this initial reach, the canal is usually a contour canal and it intercepts
a number of natural drainages flowing from the watershed to the river. After the canal has
mounted the watershed, no cross-drainage work will normally be required, because all the
drainage originate from the watershed and flow away from it. However, in some cases, it may
be necessary for the canal to leave the watershed and flow away from it. It may be necessary
for the canal to leave the watershed for a short distance where the watershed takes a sudden
small loop and it is not possible to align the canal along the loop. In that case, the canal
intercepts the drainages which carry the water of the pocket between the canal and the
watershed and hence the cross-drainage works are required.
A cross-drainage work is an expensive structure and should be avoided as far as
possible. The number of cross-drainage works can be reduced to some extent by changing the
alignment of the canal. However, it may increase the length and hence the cost of the canal.
Sometimes it is possible to reduce the number of cross-drainage works by diverting the small
drainages into large drainages or by constructing the cross-drainages work below the
confluence of two drainages by shifting the alignment. However, the suitability of the site for
the construction of the structure should also be considered while deciding the location of the
cross-drainage works.
Types of CD Works
Depending upon the relative positions
of the canal and the drainage, the cross-
drainage works may be broadly
classified into 3 categories. In each
category, there are further sub-types:
1. Canal over the drainage
• Aqueduct
• Syphon aqueduct
2. Canal below the drainage
• Superpassage
• Canal syphon
3. Canal at the same level as drainage

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 • Level crossing
• Inlet
• Inlet and outlet
1. Canal over the drainage
(i) Aqueduct: An aqueduct (also called an
ordinary aqueduct) is a structure in which
the canal flows over the drainage and the
flow of the drainage in the barrel is open
channel flow. An aqueduct is similar to an
ordinary road bridge (or railway bridge)
across drainage, but in this case, the canal is
taken over the drainage instead of a road (or
a railway). The canal is taken over the
drainage in a trough supported over the
piers constructed on the drainage bed. An
aqueduct is provided when the canal bed level is higher than the H.F.L. of the drainage.
[Note: In the case of an aqueduct, the term culvert is commonly used for the barrel.]
(ii) Syphon aqueduct: In a
syphon aqueduct also the
canal is taken over the
drainage, but the flow in
the barrel of the drainage is
pipe flow. A syphon
aqueduct is constructed
when the H.F.L. of the
drainage is higher than the
canal bed level. When
sufficient level difference is
not available between the
canal bed and the H.F.L. of the drainage to pass the drainage water, the bed of the drainage
may be depressed below its normal bed level. The drainage is provided with an impervious
floor at the crossing and thus a barrel is formed between the piers to pass the drainage water
under pressure. These barrels actually form an inverted syphon and not syphon. However, in
the common usage, the term syphon is generally used.
2. Canal below the drainage
(i) Superpassage: In a superpassage, the canal is
taken below the drainage and flow in the canal is
open channel flow. A superpassage is thus reverse of
an aqueduct. A superpassage is required when the
canal F.S.L. is below the drainage bed level. In this
case, the drainage water is taken in a trough
supported over the piers constructed on the canal bed.
(ii) Canal syphon: A canal syphon (or simply a
syphon) is a structure in which the canal is taken
below the drainage and the flow in the barrel of the canal is pipe flow. It is thus the reverse of
a syphon aqueduct. A canal syphon is constructed when the F.S.L. of the canal is above the

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drainage bed level. Because some
loss of head invariably occurs when
the canal flows through the barrel of
the canal syphon, the command of the
canal is reduced. Moreover, there
may be silting problem in the barrel.
As far as possible, a canal syphon
should be avoided.
3. Canal at the same level as the drainage
(i) Level crossing: A level crossing is provided when the canal and the drainage are
practically at the same level. In a level crossing, the drainage water is admitted into the canal
at one bank and is taken out at the
opposite bank. A level crossing
usually consists of a crest wall
provided across the drainage on the
upstream of the junction with its
crest level at the F.S.L. of the
canal. The drainage water passes
over the crest and enters the canal
whenever the water level in the
drainage rises above the F.S.L. of
the canal. There is a drainage
regulator on the drainage at the d/s
of the junction and a cross-
regulator on the canal at the d/s of
the junction for regulating the
outflows. A level crossing is
provided on the canal when it is more or less at the same level as the drainage and there is a
large discharge in the drainage for a short duration. The main disadvantage of a level crossing
is that an operator is required to regulate the discharge.
(ii) Inlet: An inlet alone is sometimes provided when the drainage is very small with a very
low discharge and it does not bring heavy silt load. Of course, it increases the discharge in the
canal, which is absorbed in the space provided as the free board above the F.S.L.
(iii) Inlet and outlets: An inlet-outlet structure is provided when the drainage and the canal
are almost at the same level, and the discharge in the drainage is small. The drainage water is
admitted into the canal at a suitable site where the drainage bed is at the F.S.L. of the canal.
The excess water is discharged out the canal through an outlet provided on the canal at some
distance downstream of the junction. An outlet is usually combined with some other masonry
work where an arrangement for removing the excess water is even otherwise required.
Selection of a Suitable Site of Cross Drainage Work
The following points should be considered while selecting the site of a cross-drainage work:
1. At the site, the drainage should cross the canal alignment at right angles. Such a site
provides good flow conditions and also the cost of the structure is usually a minimum.
2. The stream at the site should be stable and should have stable banks.
3. For economical design and construction of foundations, a firm and strong sub-stratum
should exit below the bed of the drainage at a reasonable depth.

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4. The site should be such that long and high approaches of the canal are not required.
5. The length and height of the marginal banks and guide banks for the drainage should be
small.
6. In the case of an aqueduct, sufficient headway should be available between the canal
trough and the high flood level of the drainage.
7. The water table at the site should not be high, because it will create dewatering problems
for laying foundations.
8. As far as possible, the site should be selected d/s of the confluence of two streams, thereby
avoiding the necessity of construction of two cross-drainage works.
9. The possibility of diverting one stream into another stream upstream of the canal crossing
should also be considered and adopted, if found feasible and economical.
10. A cross-drainage work should be combined with a bridge, if required. If necessary, the
bridge site can be shifted to the cross-drainage work or vice versa. The cost of the combined
structure is usually less. Moreover, the marginal banks and guide banks required for the river
training can be used as the approaches for the village roads.
Selection of a Suitable Type of Cross Drainage Work
The following factors should be considered while selecting the most suitable type of the
cross-drainage work.
1. Relative levels and discharges: The relative levels and discharges of the canal and of the
drainage mainly affect type of cross-drainage work required. The following are the broad
outlines: (i) If the canal bed level is sufficiently above the H.F.L. of the drainage, an aqueduct
is selected. (ii) If the F.S.L. of the canal is sufficiently below the bed level of the drainage, a
superpassage is provided. (iii) If the canal bed level is only slightly below the H.F.L. of the
drainage, and the drainage is small, a syphon aqueduct is provided. If necessary, the drainage
bed is depressed below the canal. (iv) If the F.S.L. of the canal is slightly above the bed level
of the drainage and the canal is of small size, a canal syphon is provided. (v) If the canal bed
and the drainage bed are almost at the same level, a level crossing is provided when the
discharge in the drainage is large, and an inlet-outlet structure is provided when the discharge
in the drainage is small. However, the relative levels of the canal and the drainage can be
altered to some extent by changing the canal alignment to have another crossing. In that case,
the most suitable type of the cross-drainage work will be selected depending upon the levels
at the changed crossing.
2. Performance: As far as possible, the structure having an open channel flow should be
preferred to the structure having a pipe flow. Therefore, an aqueduct should be preferred to a
syphon aqueduct. Likewise, a superpassage should be preferred to a canal syphon. In the case
of a syphon aqueduct and a canal syphon, silting problems usually occur at the crossing.
Moreover, in the case of a canal syphon, there is considerable loss of command due to loss of
head in the canal. The performance of inlet-outlet structures is not good and should be
avoided.
3. Provision of road: An aqueduct is better than a superpassage because in the former, a road
bridge can easily be provided along with the canal trough at a small extra cost, whereas in the
latter, a separate road bridge is required.
4. Size of drainage: When the drainage is of small size, a syphon aqueduct will be preferred
to an aqueduct as the latter involves high banks and long approaches. However, if the
drainage is of large size, an aqueduct is preferred.

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5. Cost of earthwork: The type of cross-drainage work which does not involve a large
quantity of earthwork of the canal should be preferred.
6. Foundation: The type of cross-drainage work should be selected depending upon the
foundation available at the site of work.
7. Material of construction: Suitable types of material of construction in sufficient quantity
should be available near the site for the type of cross-drainage work selected. Moreover, the
soil in sufficient quantity should be available for constructing the canal banks if the structure
requires long and high canal banks.
8. Cost of construction: The cost of construction of cross-drainage work should not be
excessive. The overall cost of the canal banks and the cross-drainage work, including
maintenance cost, should be a minimum.
9. Permissible loss of head: Sometimes, the type of cross-drainage is selected considering the
permissible loss of head. For example, if the head loss cannot be permitted in a canal at the
site of cross-drainage, a canal syphon is ruled out.
10. Subsoil water table: If the subsoil water table is high, the types of cross-drainage which
requires excessive excavation should be avoided, as it would involve dewatering problems.
11. Canal alignment: The canal alignment is sometimes changed to achieve a better type of
cross-drainage work. By changing the alignment, the type of cross-drainage can be altered.
The canal alignment is generally finalised after fixing the sites of the major cross-drainage
works.
General Design Requirements for CD Works
1. Data
For preparing the design of a cross drainage structure, the following specified hydraulic data
should be made available.
(a) Canal - Full supply discharge, Q; Bed width; Full supply depth; Water surface slope; Bed
level; Bed slope; Full supply level; Top of bank level; Cross section of canal showing Natural
Ground Level; Subsoil water level; and Nature of bed material and value of ‘n’ (rugosity
coefficient in Manning’s formula).
(b) Drainage Channel - Extent and nature of drainage area (catchment area); Maximum
annual rainfall and the period (years) of data; Maximum intensity of rainfall with year;
Maximum observed flood discharge at the site; Maximum flood level; Water surface slope;
Site plan of proposed crossing including contours; Log of borehole or trial pit data; Type of
bed load of drainage channel; Longitudinal section of the stream for suitable distance
upstream and downstream of the canal depending upon site conditions; Cross section of the
drainage channel for a distance 100 m to 300 m upstream and downstream, at intervals of 10
m to 50 m; Waterways provided in road and railway bridges or other hydraulic structures on
the drainage channel; Spring water level at the crossing site in May and October; and Silt
factor.
2. Design flood
The design discharge of the drainage should be selected considering various factors such as
the size of the drainage, the size of canal, importance of the canal and type of the cross-
drainage work. The following are the broad guidelines for estimating the design discharge.
1. For very large cross-drainage works where the failure of the structure may lead to
disruption of canal supplies over a long period, the design flood should be taken equal to the

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standard project flood (S.P.F.).
2. For moderate type of structures, the waterway is usually determined for the flood of 50
years recurrence interval but for the foundation and free board, the flood of 100 years
recurrence interval is taken.
3. For small cross-drainage works, the design flood is usually taken as 10 to 25 years flood,
and an increased afflux is also considered.
4. For important structures, an additional margin of safety is usually provided in the design of
foundation and free board fixation to the take care of unexpected large floods by increasing
the design discharge, depending upon the area of catchment.
3. Waterway
Waterway for a cross drainage work is fixed from hydraulic and economic considerations
with particular reference to: a) design flood, b) topography of the site, c) existing and
proposed section and slope of the drainage channel in the vicinity of the crossing, d)
permissible afflux, and e) construction and maintenance aspects. In plains, the drainage
channels are generally in alluvium and the waterway usually provided in works without rigid
floor is about sixty to eighty percent of the perimeter, given by Lacey’s formula P = C Q
where C = a coefficient varying from 4.5 to 6.3 according to local conditions, the usual value
adopted being 4.8 for regime channel.

NOTES
1. When flow carries abrasive materials with it, the permissible values may be further
reduced by 25%.
2. Hard steel troweling, power floating, smooth surface finish and continuous long
curing can have higher abrasion resistance, and higher velocities than that given in
this table can be permitted, for surface using cement.

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 The value of wetted perimeter obtained is the total waterway between the two faces of
the abutments. In works with rigid floors, however, waterway can be further flumed within
the permissible limits of velocity negotiated through the available ventages. Ordinarily such
velocities should be limited to the values given in Table. For sub-mountainous and
mountainous terrains with flashy flows, the waterway is provided within the width of the
existing stream. Where the slope of the natural drainage channel is quite steep suitable
methods may be adopted to bring the velocity within the desired limits. The minimum
dimension of openings should be such as to permit, as far as possible, manual clearing of
deposits therein.
4. Free board
Free board in the case of canals is the difference between the F.S.L. of the canal to the top
level of banks or the formation level of guide banks. In the case of a drainage, the free board
is the difference between the H.F.L., including afflux, and the top of the embankment or
guide banks. A minimum free board of 0·6 m is usually provided. However, it should be
increased suitably for large discharges or wherever heavy wave action is anticipated.
5. Canal Transitions
A canal is flumed to reduce the length of barrels (or culverts) in an aqueduct (or a syphon
aqueduct). Fluming Ratio - Except when dictated by conditions particular to a specific
structure, a fluming ratio less than seventy percent may not be adopted. For the purpose of
computing the fluming ratio of canal, the width at mid depth may be taken as one hundred
percent. In drainage channel when the course is undefined, a fluming ratio from seventy to
ninety percent of the Lacey’s waterway may be adopted.
Suitable canal transitions are provided on the u/s and d/s of the flumed section. A
channel transition is a gradual change in the cross-section of the channel that produces a
change of flow from one uniform state to another. This change in flow occurs over the length
of transition. A transition avoids excessive energy loss, eliminates cross-currents and
turbulence and thus provides safety to the structure. Transition walls as seen in plan, should
at their ends turn nearly at right angles to the flow in the channel and should extend for a
minimum length of 0.6 m into the earth bank. Suitable pitching may be provided to the
slopes, beyond the Transition end. In a transition, varied flow (non-uniform flow) occurs, and
the accelerating or decelerating forces are more predominant than the frictional resistance.
Besides aqueducts and syphon aqueducts, fluming of canal is also sometimes done at
superpassages and canal syphons, falls, regulators and bridges to reduce the cost of the
structure. In all these cases, transitions are provided to minimise the head loss and reduce the
maintenance cost. Fluming can be done by either of the following two methods.
• By reducing the width of the channel without varying the depth of the channel.
• By reducing the depth of the channel with or without varying the width. However,
generally the width is also varied.
The transitions may be classified into two types:
1. Contraction transitions 2. Expansion transitions
1. Contraction transitions: In contraction transitions, the cross-sectional area is gradually
reduced. The design of contraction transition is relatively easy. In this case, the accelerating
forces tend to counterbalance the boundary shear and consequently the losses are small.
Unless the velocity is very high or the contraction too severe, any suitable streamlined shape
like a bell-mouth or a cylindrical quadrant of transition can be provided as a contraction
transition. The flow through a contraction transition is always stable because of favourable

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pressure gradient. The length of transition depends upon the degree of contraction adopted,
the approach condition, the type of structure and the permissible head loss. An average splay
of 2: 1 is usually provided. However, for important high-velocity flumes, an average splay of
3 : 1 to 4 : 1 will give better flow conditions. On the other hand, for low velocity, unimportant
structures, the splay may be even 1 : 1. The contraction transition should be tangential to the
walls at the throat of flume where velocity is high.
2. Expansion transitions: In expansion transitions, the cross-sectional area is gradually
increased. In this case, the decelerating forces tend to increase the boundary layer effect and
the losses are more. The pressure gradient is positive and hence unfavourable. The boundary
flow is unstable and may result in flow separation from the boundary and lead to turbulence
and eddies. Moreover, the high intensity of shear at the separation surface produces
appreciable circulation and rollers may be formed. These rollers are the main sources of head
loss associated with such flows, since the main flow has to infuse the energy to sustain them.
Therefore, expansions transitions should effect the change more gradually as compared to
that in contraction transitions. The exact laws governing the complex flow in expanding
transitions are not known. Simplifications are usually done to arrive at approximate solutions.
Providing very long transitions is quite costly. A splay of 3 : 1 is usually adopted. Sometimes,
splay of 4 : 1 and 5 : 1 are adopted in the cause of high velocity flumes. In addition,
separation control devices, such as splitter vanes, bed deflectors, sills, baffles, etc. are also
sometimes used for minimising the separation of flow.
Methods of Design of Transitions: The following methods are commonly used for the
design of transitions:
1. Chaturvedi's method
2. Mitra's method
3. Hind's method
In the first two methods, it is assumed that the depth remains constant and the width varies;
whereas in the third method, both the depth and width are varied.
1. Chaturvedi's method: Chaturvedi used the two dimensional approach to analyse the flow.
He assumed that the lateral velocity is a function of the depth but the longitudinal velocity
remains constant. He demonstrated that for a hyperbolic expansion, the lateral acceleration of
water is positive and increases with width. On the basis of experimental studies, he proposed
the following equations for a semi-cubical transition
of constant depth

x=
B
L f Bc1.5
1 .5
−B 1.5
(1 − (B f Bx )
1.5
)
c f

where x is the distance from the throat, Lf is the

length of transition flume, Bc is the normal width of
the channel, Bf is the width of throat and Bx is the
width of transition at a distance x from the throat.
2. Mitra's method: Mitra proposed a hyperbolic
transition, based on the following two assumptions:
1. The rate of change of velocity along the
length of transition remains constant.
2. The depth of flow remains constant.

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An equation for the shape of transition can be derived these assumptions. According to the
first assumptions
V f − Vx V f − Vc
=
x Lf
where Vf and Vc are velocities in the flume and channel respectively; and Vx is the velocity in
the transition at a distance x from the throat.
From continuity and the second assumption
B f d V f = Bc d Vc = B x d V x = Q ⇒ B f V f = Bc Vc = B x V x = C (say )
Therefore,
Vf = C Bf Vc = C Bc Vx = C Bx
Substituting these values in the Equation based on the first assumption

1  C C  1  C C  1 1 1 1
− = − ⇒ − = −
  
x  B f B x  L f  B f Bc  xB f xBx L f B f L f Bc

Solving for Bx
Bc B f L f
Bx =
Bc L f − x(Bc − B f )
Mitra's transitions have been commonly used in U.P. and elsewhere and have been found to
be quite satisfactory. In these transitions, there is a positive lateral acceleration which
eliminates separation. However, these transitions are useful for constriction less than 50% i.e.
width at the throat is more than 50% of the normal width.
Disadvantages of transitions: It is very costly to provide long expanding transitions.
Sometimes transitions of shorter length are used and various separations control devices, such
as splitter vanes, bed deflector, sills, and baffles are provided to reduce separation of flow.
However, these devices increase the loss of head and should be used with caution
6. Foundations of Cross-Drainage Works
The cross-drainage works are somewhat like road and railway bridges. The load acting on
these works is mainly due to the weight of water. However, some portion of the aqueducts
and syphon aqueduct is generally used as a road bridge which should be designed for the
loads specified for the bridges. The choice of the type of super-structure depends upon the
most economical arrangement possible at a given site. A common criterion used for the
determination of the most economical span is to keep the cost of superstructure equal to that
of substructure. However, while applying this criterion, the foundation conditions should also
be considered. If the cost of individual piers and their foundations is high, the minimum
number of piers should be provided by increasing the span and vice-versa. The cost of
substructure depends upon the type of foundation and the height of piers.
7. Depth of Scour
The type of foundation usually depends upon the depth of scour. If the scour is small, shallow
foundations may be adopted. However, if the scour is excessive, deep foundations are
required. Generally, the well foundations are used as deep foundations. The normal scour
depth in alluvial streams is usually determined by Lacey's formula. The mean depth of scour

9
in metres below the check/high flood level may be calculated from the equation:

(
d sm = 1.34 Di2 K sf )
1/ 3

where Di = the discharge in cumecs per metre width. The value of Di should be the maximum
of the following: (i) the design flood divided by the effective linear waterway between
abutments or guide bunds, as the case may be. (ii) The value obtained should take into
account any concentration of flow through a portion of the waterway assessed from the study
of the cross section of the drainage channel. Such modifications of the value may not be
deemed applicable to minor cross drainage structures with overall waterway less than 60 m.
(iii) Actual observation, if any. Ksf = the silt factor for representative sample of the bed
material obtained up to the level of the deepest anticipated scour and given by the expression
1.76 d m in which dm being the weighted mean diameter in millimetres. dm may be taken as
the grain size at 50% passing from grain size distribution curve. The above method of
estimating dsm is based on Lacey’s theory for regime conditions in alluvial beds.
Maximum Depth of Scour for Design of Foundation: The maximum depth of scour below the
Highest Flood Level (H.F.L.) at obstructions and configurations of the channel should be
estimated from the value of ‘dsm’ on the following basis : For the design of piers and
abutments located in a straight reach and having individual foundations without any floor
protection works
(i) In the vicinity of piers = 2.0 dsm
(ii) Near abutments = 1.27 dsm (approach retained) or 2.00 dsm (scour all around).
For the design of floor protection works, for raft foundations or shallow foundations, the
following scour values should be adopted:
(i) in a straight reach 1.27 dsm
(ii) at a moderate bend 1.50 dsm
(iii) at a severe bend 1.75 dsm
(iv) at a right angled bend 2.00 dsm.
NOTE - The values of scour depth obtained as above may be suitably modified where actual
observed data is available.
8. Bank Connection
The bank connection consists of masonry wing walls of the canal and the drainage. These are
required to connect the regular section of the canal and the drainage to the modified section at
the cross-drainage site.
Canal wing walls are provided on the upstream and downstream side of the aqueduct
to guide the canal flow and to retain the earth of the canal banks on both sides of the canal
trough. The foundation of the canal wing walls should kept on the sound natural ground. It
should not be left on the made up formation. The faces of wing walls are warped from the
natural section of the canal (usually, 1.5 : 1) to the vertical at the trough.
Drainage wing walls are provided on the upstream and downstream of the barrel (or
culvert) to guide the drainage flow and to retain the natural banks of the drainage. The wing
walls should be taken sufficiently deep into the guide banks. The wing walls should be
shaped such as to provide smooth entry and exit at the drainage barrel. As the bed of the
drainage gets scoured during floods, the foundation of the drainage wing walls should be

10
taken deep below the maximum scour
depth. The wing walls of canal and drainage
are designed to withstand earth pressure due
to the dry soil above the hydraulic gradient
line and due to the submerged soil below
this line.
9. Weep holes
Weep holes are small openings in the
retaining walls, like wings (i.e. transitions
of natural stream). These are to facilitate the
drainage of backfills and avoid build up of
pressure. Weep holes may be provided
above the flow net line of zero water
pressure, under the condition of canal
flowing full and natural stream with lowest annual flow. Weep holes if provided, should have
filters with graded material suitably provided to avoid piping of earth fill behind the wall and
also to avoid choking of the holes. The provision of weep holes should be so, as to not render
the creep coefficient of seepage unsafe, and. should also not contribute to enhanced loss of
canal water.
DESIGN OF AQUEDUCTS
Types: Depending upon the cross-section of the canal over the barrel (or culvert), the
aqueducts and syphon aqueducts are classified into the following three types:
1. Type I Aqueduct: In this type of aqueduct (or syphon aqueducts), the cross-section of the
canal is not changed. The original cross-section of the canal with normal side slopes is thus
retained. The length of the barrel through which the drainage passes under the canal is a
maximum in this type of structures, because the width of the canal section is a maximum. In
this type of structures, the canal wings are not required. This type is suitable when the width
of the drainage is small (say less than 2.5 m). If the section is changed, the cost of canal
wings would be large in comparison to the saving resulting from decreasing the length of
culvert.
2. Type II Aqueduct: In this type of aqueduct (or syphon aqueduct), the outer slopes of the
canal banks are discontinued and replaced by retaining walls. Thus the length of the barrel is
reduced, but the cost of retaining wall is added to the overall cost. This type of structure is
suitable when the width of the drainage is moderate (say 2.5 m to 15 m) so that the cost of
retaining walls is less in comparison to the saving resulting from decreasing the length of
barrel.
3. Type III Aqueduct: In this type of aqueduct (or syphon. aqueduct), the entire earth section
of the canal is discontinued and replaced by a concrete or masonry trough over the drainage.
This type of structure is generally suitable when the width of the drainage is very large (say
more than 15 m), so that the cost of the trough and canal wing walls is less in comparison to
the saving resulting from decreasing the length of barrel. In this type of structure, the canal
can be easily flumed, which further reduces the length of the barrel.

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Selection of suitable type: The choice of the type of aqueduct should depend on consideration
of economy which in turn would depend mainly upon the size of the drainage to be passed in
relation to the size of the canal and the foundation strata. Over a small drainage channel, an
aqueduct of Type 1 may be suitable as NO canal transitions would be required. The savings
made due to absence of canal transitions would more than compensate the increased cost due
to the length of drainage culverts which would have larger length (across the canal). Over a
large river an aqueduct of Type 3 may be more economical as the length of drainage culverts
across the canal is small and the saving made in cost of drainage culverts would be greater
than the increased cost of canal transitions. For intermediate conditions an aqueduct of Type
2 may work out to be more
economical. However, techno-
economic studies should be
carried out to decide the exact
type of aqueduct to be
constructed. Therefore, a very
small drainage requires a type I
aqueduct, which in many cases
may be merely a pipe or a small
culvert passing under the canal.
On the other hand, over a river of
a large size type III aqueduct
would be the most economical.
For moderate size of the
drainage, type II aqueduct may be
most suitable. However, the
actual limits with regard to the
size of drainage for which one
particular type of aqueduct will
be the most suitable will vary
with local conditions and the cost
of construction. Comparative
estimates should be prepared for
finding out the most economical
type of aqueduct for a particular site.
Design Load and Structural Stability: The forces acting on the various parts of the
structure are evaluated and the worst combination of forces is taken in the design. The loads
and forces to be considered in designing aqueducts are as follows: (a) Dead load; (b) Water
load; (c) Live load; (d) Impact or dynamic effect of the live load; (e) Longitudinal forces
caused by the tractive effort or by braking force of vehicles and/or those caused by restraint
to free movement of bearings; (f) Wind load; (g) Horizontal force due to water currents; (h)
Centrifugal forces - in case the aqueduct and/or the road is curved in plan; (i) Buoyancy; (k)
Earth pressure; (1) Forces due to temperature variation; (m) Erection loads; (n) Seismic load;
and (p) Water pressure.
NOTE - (d) and (e) are applicable only in case a road bridge is provided over the aqueduct.
Wind load should not be considered simultaneously with earthquake.
Generally the following design combinations should be considered: (a) Canal empty
and stream/drain at its low water level - normal condition without earthquake; (b) Canal
running full up to its F.S.L. and stream/drain at its low water level – normal condition
without earthquake; (c) Canal empty and stream/drain at its H.F.L. without earthquake; (d)

12
Canal running full up to F.S.L. and stream/drain at its H.F.L. without earthquake; (e)
Construction condition (i) Pier is constructed and superstructure is not constructed and
stream/drain at it’s H. F. L. (design) without earthquake. (ii) Superstructure is constructed on
one side of a pier and stream/drain at it’s H.F.L (design) without earthquake. NOTE - (a) and
(b) combinations of loadings may also be checked for seismic conditions after accounting for
higher permissible stresses. For design of aqueducts the effect of earthquake forces in all the
three directions that is longitudinal (L), transverse (T) and vertical (V) should be taken into
account. The combination of these should be either T + V or L + V at a time.
Layout
The layout of the aqueduct should be so fixed that it is preferably in a straight reach of
drainage channel. The canal/carrier channel should be at right angles to the drainage channel
as far as possible. Bank connections to canal and drainage channel should be provided
depending upon the properties of the soil available in the area. Wing walls for drainage may
be provided with 2 : 1 and 3 : 1 splays on upstream and downstream side; the splay should
not be flatter than 3 : 1 and 4 : 1 respectively. Drainage wing walls should be suitably
connected to high ground. Canal transitions should preferably be provided with 2 : 1 and 3 : 1
splays on upstream and downstream side, but not flatter than 3 : 1 and 5 : 1 respectively.
However, it should be ensured that the flow follows the boundaries of the transition. The
drainage .channel shall be directed towards the structure by suitable training works like
training walls, guide banks, spurs, etc. The canal banks adjacent to the cross drainage work
should be protected by suitable protective measures such as turfing, pitching and launching
apron, wherever necessary. Uplift pressure and exit gradient caused by seepage flow from the
canal when it is running full and the drainage channel is dry, be accounted for in design. For
reducing the uplift pressure and exit gradient pucca floor should be provided for in the canal
bed in adequate lengths upstream and downstream of the work with cut-off walls at the ends.
Pucca floors of adequate lengths should be provided at either end of the barrel in the drain
with cut-off wall at the end.
Clearance for Aqueducts
The clearance for Rectangular Openings will depend upon the relative levels of the canal bed
and high flood level of the drainage channel. Values given in Table are suggested as suitable
minimum clearances (taking into account allowable afflux) for purposes of design, where
available.

Design Steps
As already discussed, an aqueduct carries the canal water over the drainage such that the
bottom of the canal trough (or the roof of the culvert or barrel) is above the H.F.L. of the

13
drainage. Before the actual design, all the available data of the canal and drainage at the
crossing site should be collected. The design discharge and H.F.L. of the drainage should be
estimated. The types of super-structure should be selected. The design procedure may be
summarised as follows:
1. Check whether proper clearance is available or not.
2. Determine the required waterway from Lacey's equation, P = 4.75 Q . From the
waterway, select suitable span and the number of spans.
3. Determine the canal waterway after deciding the fluming ratio and type of aqueduct.
Generally for large canals, the canal is flumed and type III aqueduct is provided.
4. Fix the dimensions of the canal trough, and the number of compartments. Generally,
an inspection road is provided over one of the compartments of the trough.
5. If the canal is flumed, deign the transitions.
6. Find the losses in transitions and canal trough and then fix levels of the TEL, WSL
and canal bed level at key points.

7. Determine the height of the piers and abutments.

8. Estimate the maximum scour and design the foundation.
9. Provide suitable bank connections.
DESIGN OF SYPHON AQUEDUCTS
Layout: The layout of syphon aqueduct shall be so fixed that the drainage channel crosses
the carrier channel preferably at right angles.
Materials: For the construction of the syphon barrels, prestressed concrete, RCC or masonry
or a combination of these may be used depending upon the availability of materials, labour

14
and relative economy.
Types of Syphon aqueducts: Syphon aqueducts may be classified into the following two
types:
1. Barrel type, using barrel for drainage waterways, and
2. Trough type, using trough section for carrier channel waterways.
The type of syphon aqueduct to be adopted shall be decided on the basis of relative economy
and restraints of carrier channel design.
Barrel Type
In barrel type of syphon aqueducts, the entire carrier channel portion may be taken as it is
over the barrel or it may be flumed to a rectangular or trapezoidal section to reduce the length
of barrels. The floor level of barrels shall be fixed in relation to the drainage bed level at the
syphon aqueduct site. The future retrogression and regrading of drainage channel depending
on outfall conditions may also be considered. The floor level is combination with ventway
shall be judiciously fixed below the existing drainage bed in such a manner that a water seal
of 1.5 times the change in velocity head, with a minimum of 150 mm, should be provided
over the crown of barrels at start to prevent air entering the barrel. At the outlet end of the
syphon, the top of the barrel may be kept slightly depressed below the normal downstream
flood level in the drainage channel. The amount of this depression may be equal to the
difference in the velocity head at the exit end of the barrel and that in the drainage channel on
the downstream side. In case of barrel of RCC box type or RCC slab with masonry walls, a
minimum cushion of 300 mm may be provided with the precaution that heavy vehicles do not
ply over the barrels unless the cover is suitably increased and the structure is properly
designed. In case of RCC pipes and circular barrels, a minimum cushion of 900 mm should
be provided. This will protect the pipes and barrels against damage by the movement of
construction equipment over them. This cover also permits any future regrading of the carrier
channel.
At the site of syphon aqueduct the drainage bed is generally depressed and provided
with PUCCA floor. On the upstream side, the drainage bed may be joined to the PUCCA
floor by a vertical drop (when drop is of the order of 1 m or less) or by a glacis of 3:1 (when
drop is more then 1 m). The downstream rising slope should not be steeper than 5:1.
Depending upon the bed level of carrier channel and HFL of drainage channel, the
barrels under the carrier channel bed portion are generally lower than the barrels at the entry
and exit. This difference is negotiated with the provision of sloping length of barrels under
carrier channel banks. The upward inclination of the barrel shall start from a point at least 1.0
m away from the end of the carrier channel bed width on either side.
The length of barrels should be fixed on the consideration of economics of increasing
barrel length with respect to reduction in length of wing walls of drainage channel and height
of breast wall and practical and economical depth of cutoff under barrels for safe exit
gradient. However the length should be sufficient to accommodate the width of service road.
The main considerations for design of syphon barrels are the following: a) It should
be safe against uplift, b) It should be strong to resist internal and external forces, c) It should
be safe against subsurface flow, and d) It should be safe against surface flow.
Safety against Uplift: The barrels shall have enough loads to resist upward buoyancy force
tending to lift it. The barrels underneath carrier channel bed are critical for checking against
uplift. The safety of barrels should be checked for the following three conditions: a) Carrier

15
channel at full supply level and drainage barrels empty, b) The drainage channel at designed
flood level and carrier channel empty, and c) Carrier channel is suddenly closed and drainage
barrel is empty thereby causing two thirds of the head corresponding to carrier channel full
supply level to act. Lesser percentage of head up to one-third of total head may be considered
in case the carrier channel section is made of relatively permeable material. The minimum
factor of safety against uplift should be 1.2 in all the three conditions.
NOTE: Full hydrostatic head from carrier channel full supply level to the drainage barrel
foundation should be taken for checking the stability. The bottom slab of barrel may be
suitably projected beyond its side walls to take advantage of the weight of the earth wedge
over the projection in counteracting the uplift forces. If the weight is taken to counteract
uplift in design computation, the earth cushion over the barrels should not be allowed to fall
below the corresponding design depth. In such cases the carrier channel bed should be
adequately protected against erosion by providing a suitable protective cover over the earth
extending 20 m upstream and downstream of the syphon. Lean concrete/random rubble
masonry over the barrel as additional weight may be provided.
Safety against Internal and External Forces: The barrels should be designed strong enough
for the dead load of the structure, earth and water loads, earth and water pressures, soil
reaction and uplift pressure and live load, if any. The combination of loads which will result
in maximum stresses shall be carefully considered. Due to the difference in loading, the
length of barrels of major structures can be divided into two portions, one under carrier
channel bed and the other under carrier channel banks for economical design. The barrels for
the purpose of transverse analysis shall be treated as a box. The box shall be analyzed by any
standard method. For the following conditions and loadings to determine the worst moments,
shear and thrust at any section: Condition (i) Carrier channel at full supply level and barrels
dry. Condition (ii) Carrier channel dry and the drainage channel at degined HFL including
afflux. Longitudinal analysis shall be made in cases where loose soil or various types of soils
are met with at the completed final level of foundation.
Safety against Sub Surface Flow: Cut-offs: The depths of cut-off shall be calculated from
scour and exit gradient considerations. Depth of cut off below the entrance and exit ends of
barrels may be provided along the width of the barrels and along the river or the drainage
channel wings up to 1.25 to 1.5 times the normal scour depths below HFL based on the site
conditions. In case of rocks the cut off shall be taken minimum 1.0 m from the sill of the
barrel into the fresh rock. The width of concrete cut off shall not be less than 0.3 m. Depth of
cut off shall be checked for safe exist gradient in accordance with Khosla’s theory for two
dimensional flow. In syphons of carrying capacity over 20 cumecs the effect of 3 dimensional
seepage flows on exit gradient shall be considered. For this, electrical analogy model testing
should be carried out and cut offs at the end of the barrels should be provided accordingly.
The safe value of exit gradient for different types of soil generally adopted can be as follows:
Clay - l in 4; Shingle - l in 4 to 5; Coarse sand – l in 5 to 6; Fine sand – l in 6 to 7. The
vertical cut off shall also be provided under river or drainage channel wings. However, the
depth of cut off may be suitably reduced under wings depending upon the length of wings,
but should be adequate from scour considerations. Ribs at suitable spacings may be provided
to increase the seepage path. A suitable filter under open jointed cement concrete blocks or
rubble should be provided along the cutoff that is u/s of upstream cut-off and d/s of
downstream cut-off. The length of filter to be provided should be 1.5 times the, scour depth
(below drainage bed). The filter should be designed in accordance with standard criteria
conforming to IS 8237. The safety of filter should also be checked against heave. Scour shall
be considered at entry and exit of syphon barrels in accordance with IS 7784 (Part 1) and
launching appron adequate to provide a cover of 0.6 to 0.9 m over the entire slope of the

16
scour shall be provided.
Trough type
In trough type of syphon aqueducts, carrier channel water is taken across drainage channel
through a trough supported on barrels or on piers/abutments raised from the drainage bed.
Bottom of the trough of carrier channel is lower than HFL of drainage channel. An
impervious floor, if necessary, with protection against surface and subsurface flow may be
provided in drainage bed. In the case of trough type syphon aqueduct, both carrier channel
transitions and drainage wings shall be provided.
The basic design features of this type shall be the same as those of aqueducts [see IS
7784 (Part 2/See l)]. However, the carrier channel trough in this type should be designed so
as to provide the dead load of the trough at least 1.2 times the upward thrust acting on it when
the drainage channel is in high floods and the carrier channel is dry. If it is not so, the trough
shall be suitably anchored to the piers. The floor of the syphon aqueduct shall be suitably
designed for the uplift pressures acting on it.
Additional Provisions
The outer slopes of carrier channel banks and drainage channel slope should be protected in
the vicinity of syphon aqueduct by pitching. For large size drainage channel, properly
designed guide banks should be provided. In major syphon aqueducts stop-log grooves in the
barrels at the upstream and downstream ends may be provided by extending the partition
walls to facilitate isolating one or more barrels for annual repairs and maintenance. Stability
of barrels shall be suitably ensured in this case. A retaining wall should be constructed over
the barrels to retain the carrier channel banks slopes over the barrels. If constructed in
reinforced cement concrete, these walls (breast wall) should be constructed monolithically
with the top slab of the barrels. Adequate anchorage of reinforcement as well as
reinforcement for proper transference of loads and moments to the top slab shall be provided.
The effect of live load, wherever applicable, shall also be considered in the design of this
wall. At the junction of this wall with barrel, a haunch of suitable size shall be provided. The
design of the wings, both for carrier channel and the drainage channel shall be carried out for
earth and water pressures calculated according to standard practice. The effect of live load
and surcharged effect, if any, shall be taken into account while designing the wings. Wing
walls shall be checked for earthquake conditions also, in seismic zones.
Drainage Wings
The length of drainage wings shall be adjusted so as to contain the slopes of carrier channel
embankments. The wings shall be provided straight or in a smooth curve giving a minimum
splay of 2:1 on upstream and 3:1 on downstream. If necessary, return wall may be provided
thereafter. The top of wings shall be kept at least 300 mm higher than the HFL of the
drainage channel. The wing wall sections shall be checked for carrier channel full and
drainage channel dry condition, considering backfill as saturated. No passive resistance shall
be considered from drainage channel side. If the foundation of wing wall requires to be taken
deeper than 1.5m from consideration of scour, a concrete cut-off of required depth shall be
provided along the upstream face of the wing wall.
Carrier Channel Section and its Fluming
The carrier channel embankment adjoining the syphon aqueduct should have adequate
provisions to avoid possibility of any breach and to minimize seepage. The outer slope of
bank should have a clear cover of 600 to 900 mm over the designed phreatic line often
referred to as hydraulic gradient. High banks (say, more than 6 m height above ground level)

17
should be checked for slope stability and normal provisions of filter and rock toe should be
made. In cases where HFL in the drainage channel is substantially higher than bed of the
carrier channel, the bank of the carrier channel should be checked for the condition when
drainage channel is in high floods and the carrier channel is dry.
Fluming ratio shall be adopted as given in IS 7784 (Part 1) keeping in view the
permissible head loss in the carrier channel, and whether the carrier channel is lined or
unlined.
Limiting Velocity
The vertical slope on approaches should not be steeper than 1 in 3 on the entry side and 1 in 4
on the exit side. The minimum permissible velocity allowed in the drainage channel may be
derived from Table. However, the velocity in the barrels shall not exceed the maximum
permissible velocity.

Afflux
The afflux to be adopted in the design should be that which would correspond to the design
flood. The afflux should be restricted to such a value that the resulting velocity does not
cause serious bed scour in the drainage or does not create submergence which cannot be
permitted.

18
Rational formulae
Broad crested weir discharge formula or orifice discharge formula depending upon the flow
conditions through the cross drainage work openings, may be applied for calculating afflux.
When the performance of the cross drainage work openings remains unaffected by the depth
downstream of the obstruction, that is, a standing wave is formed, weir formula is applicable,
otherwise the orifice formula holds good. Approximately, when the downstream depth Dd
above the crest is more than eighty percent of the upstream depth Du the weir formula does
not hold good.
a) Weir formula
Q = 1.7C w LH 3 / 2
where Q = discharge through the openings in m3/s; Cw = coefficient of discharge accounting
for losses in friction; the values may be taken as 0.94 for Narrow openings with or without
floors; as 0.96 for Wide openings with floors; and as 0.98 for Wide openings without floors;
L = Linear waterway in m; H = total energy head upstream of the obstruction in m, that is,
Du + V 2 2 g ; V = average velocity in the approach section worked out from the known width
of unobstructed section (W).
b) Orifice formula

(
Q = C 0 2 g LDd h + (1 + e) V 2 2 g )
1/ 2

where C0 = coefficient of discharge; g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2; h = afflux in m, e

=a factor accounting for recovery of some velocity as potential head on emergence from the
cross drainage work openings. The value of C0 and e to be adopted from given Figures. The
afflux can be calculated knowing (a) the discharge, (b) the unobstructed width of the stream,
and (c) the average depth downstream of the cross drainage work opening.

19
Empirical formula
When the area of obstruction is not very large compared to the original unrestricted area, the
following formula gives reasonably good results:
( )( )
h = 0.0152 + V 2 17.85 ( A / a ) 2 − 1
where A = the unobstructed sectional area drainage channel in m2, and a = sectional area of
the drainage provided in the construction in m2. If the value of V varies considerably in the
unobstructed cross section of the drainage channel, as in the case of a drainage channel which
spills over its banks, V for the purposes of this formula may be taken as the average velocity
in the main channel and correspondingly the value of A should be determined by dividing the
total discharge by V. In case of readily erodable beds, full afflux as calculated may not occur.
It may be noted that greater the afflux, the more will be submerged area on the U/S of
the syphon aqueduct. The extent of submergence which can be permitted at a particular site
will depend upon the value of the property on the upstream side and the topography of the
area. If the submergence can be increased without submergence of property, the afflux may
be kept more. Thus the waterway may be reduced and the number of barrels can be reduced.
However, the velocity in the barrel should not be permitted to increase beyond the safe limit
which is normally taken as 3 m/s for concrete barrels; otherwise abrasion of the barrel surface
will occur. The afflux is usually limited to 1 m for large catchments. In the case of a canal
syphon, the afflux occurs in the canal u/s. It can be computed using the same procedure.
Uplift Pressure on the Roof of a Barrel
As the barrel of a syphon aqueduct runs full during floods, an uplift pressure acts on the roof
of barrel (or on the under of the canal trough). The uplift pressure at any point of the barrel
can be obtained from the hydraulic gradient line H.G.L. The uplift pressure at any point is
obviously equal to the ordinate between the hydraulic gradient line and the roof of the barrel
at that point. Because of entry loss, there is a sudden drop in the HGL at that entrance. It is
followed by a gradual drop due to friction throughout the length of barrel and again there is a

20
sudden drop at the exit. The
maximum uplift occurs just
after the entry point at the
upstream end of the barrel.
While designing the trough,
the following two extreme
conditions are considered (i)
The canal trough is carrying
full discharge but the barrel
is empty; (ii) The barrel is
running full but there is no
water in the trough.
Generally, the thickness of the trough designed for downward loads is sufficient to
counterbalance the uplift pressure. In case it not sufficient, it is generally more economical to
anchor the trough to the piers and abutment than to increase the thickness of slab. The uplift
pressure on the roof of a canal syphon can be found by the same method.
Uplift Pressure on the Floor of a Syphon Aqueduct
The floor of a syphon aqueduct is subjected to an uplift pressure due to following causes:
1. Rise of water table: The maximum uplift on the bottom surface of the floor occurs when
the barrel is empty and the subsoil water table rises upto the drainage bed. The uplift pressure
is equal to the difference of the bed level of the drainage and the bottom surface of the floor.
Thus, Uplift head (h1) = Drainage bed level - bottom level of floor.
2. Seepage from canal: The maximum uplift pressure due to seepage from the canal occurs
when the canal is full and the barrel is empty. The uplift pressure due to seepage from canal
is difficult to compute because the subsurface flow is three-dimensional. Because the flow
cannot be approximated as two
dimensional, Khosla's theory cannot be
used for the estimation of uplift pressure.
Relaxation method can be used but it is
very laborious. Generally a simple
analysis based on Bligh's theory is used
for small works. Total seepage head =
Canal F.S.L. - D/s bed level of drainage.
However, for large and important works
the uplift pressures should be obtained by
electrical analogy method or by model
studies.
In order to reduce the thickness of
floor, a RCC raft may be provided as the
impervious floor. In that case, a part of the uplift pressure is resisted by the weight of floor
and the remaining part resisted by bending strength of the raft supported between the piers.
Thus the uplift pressure gets transferred to the piers and is resisted by the weight of the entire
superstructure. If the uplift pressure is very high, it can be reduced by the following methods:
• The creep length is increased by increasing the length of the impervious floor at
the bed of the canal.
• Drainage holes (or relief holes) are drilled in the floor of the barrels to release the

21
 uplift pressure. Inverted filter is provided below the holes to prevent piping. These
holes are covered by flap values which open only upwards.
A depressed floor is usually required in the case of a syphon aqueduct. The floor should be
protected against scour by providing suitable sheet piles and loose apron on either side of
floor. The floor may be designed as a gravity section. However, when the thickness required
is large, a RCC raft is provided. The choice between a gravity section and a RCC raft is
usually a matter of economy. A raft is structurally superior and is usually more economical in
the case of poor foundations.
Design Steps
The design of a syphon aqueduct in many respects is similar to that of an aqueduct. However,
the design of barrel is somewhat different, as explained below
1. Design of barrel: The area of flow of the barrel is determined from the maximum
permissible velocity V, thus Cross-sectional area, A
A=Q V
The maximum permissible velocity depends on the material as listed in the previous table.
This velocity is usually limited to 3 m/s. The higher velocity may cause abrasion of the barrel
surface by rolling grits. Moreover, it will cause more afflux, requiring higher and larger
marginal banks. The total required area when divided by the number of spans gives the cross-
sectional area of each opening. While designing a syphon aqueduct barrel, care shall be taken
to maintain the minimum scouring velocity required to prevent silting. The minimum
scouring velocity should be maintained for the normal floods which may occur quite
frequently so as to cause flushing of the deposited sediment in the barrels.
2. Knowing the span and the shape of opening, the height of opening can be calculated. That
is: the height of barrel is determined as h = A/Clear water way.
However, the height of barrel should not be less than 2 m so that a person can enter for
cleaning the barrel when required. If necessary, the floor of the barrel is depressed. Generally
a vertical drop in provided at inlet to join the drainage bed to the barrel. However, if the drop
is greater then 1 m, a glacis of 3: 1 is provided. On the d/s side, a ramp with a slope of 5: 1 is
provided so that silt is carried by the drainage water. The vertical distance between the d/s
bed and the underside of the trough should be not less than 1·0 m. Likewise, the distance
between the vertical drop wall and the u/s end of the pier should not be less than 1 m.
3. Compute afflux from orifice formula and then find uplift on the barrel roof. The roof of the
barrel is designed for the maximum uplift pressure which occurs when the canal is empty and
the maximum discharge occurs through the barrel.
4. The floor of the barrel is designed for the maximum uplift pressure which occurs when the
canal is full and the barrel is empty.
5. The design for canal, its fluming, u/s and d/s transitions and fixing of bed levels remain
similar to aqueduct.

22