Experiment #4

Standard Tension Test

Stephen Mirdo

Performed on October 25, 2010

Report due November 1, 2010

 Table of Contents

Object ………………………………………..………………………….………….…. p. 1

Theory …………………………………………………………………………..…pp. 1 - 3

Procedure ………………………….…………………………………...……..……..... p. 4

Results ….................................................................................................................. p. 5 - 7

Discussion and Conclusion …………………….......……………………..............…... p. 8

Appendix ……………………………………..…………………..….……..…... pp. 9 - 11

 Object
The object of this experiment was to establish the stress-strain relation ship of ductile
metals and brittle materials.

Theory
The determination of a material’s mechanical properties indicates what type of
applications a material can be used for. For example, a material that has a high elastic
tendency would be an ideal material to select for the manufacture of a spring, whereas a
highly ductile material with a low elastic tendency would be a poor choice. The
mechanical properties of a material consist of its yield strength, tensile strength, modulus
of elasticity and a host of other properties beyond the scope of this experiment. The term
strength is used instead of stress because the strength is a property applied to the test
material and stress, σ, is related to the magnitude of the applied load, F, divided by the
cross sectional area of the specimen, A.

σ = F/A (Equation 1)

The determination of a material’s tensile properties can be accomplished by

means of a uniaxial tension test. A depiction of a tension test apparatus can be seen in
Figure 1. A test specimen is locked into the apparatus and a load is applied in either
compression or tension. For the purposes of this experiment, a tension test will be the
focus. As a tensile force is applied, the material will elongate and eventually fracture.
As the material’s dimensions change, observations of the force applied are made and used
to determine certain mechanical properties of the material such as the yield strength and
the ultimate tensile strength.

Figure 1: Uniaxial tension test apparatus (Source: Fundamentals of Material Science

and Engineering: An Integrated Approach, W.D. Callister, Jr and D.G. Rethwish, 2008)
 The yield strength of a material is defined as the maximum stress a specimen can
sustain without suffering any plastic, or unrecoverable, deformation. As force is applied
to the test specimen, as seen in Figure 1, uniaxial stress occurs in the specimen. The
specimen will elongate as the force is applied. However, if the magnitude of the applied
force is such that the induced stress in the material does not exceed the material’s
proportional limit, once the stress is relieved, the material will regain its original
proportions. This implied that the deformation incurred at or below the yield strength of
the material results in plastic deformation.

The yield strength can be identified on a stress-strain plot as seen in Figure 2

below. The yield strength, σy, is the point along the stress-strain curve where the
relationship between the induced stress and incurred strain ceases to be linear. The
expanse between the origin and the yield strength point is the proportional limit of the
material. Any further induced stress in the material beyond the yield strength will result
in plastic deformation.

Figure 2: Typical stress-strain plot of a ductile material

The ultimate tensile strength of a material is defined as the maximum stress a

specimen can sustain before it begins to fracture. The ultimate tensile strength is located
within the plastic deformation region of the stress-strain curve. Prior to this point,
indicated as σUT in Figure 2, deformation is uniform in the test specimen. When the
ultimate tensile strength has been achieved, necking will occur in the test specimen and
any subsequent deformation is confined to this necked region. Necking is defined as a
non-uniform reduction in cross sectional area of the test specimen and a visual
representation can be seen in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Diagram of the test specimen through tension test. Subset (a) depicts the
original proportions of the test specimen, subset (b) depicts elongation that occurs at σy
and subset (c) indicates necking that occurs at σUT.

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 By employing Hooke’s Law, the modulus of elasticity, E, can also be determined
using the stress-strain plot in Figure 2. The slope of the stress-strain curve from the
origin to the yield strength is equivalent to the modulus. The modulus of elasticity of a
material is defined as a measure of how a material deforms when under stress. This
property is indicative of a material’s ability to transmit stress through the test specimen.
Hooke’s Law is defined as the proportionality of a load to deflection incurred by the load.
For a uniaxial loading scenario, Hooke’s Law is written as:

σ = Eε (Equation 2)

where σ is the uniaxial stress, E is the modulus of elasticity of a material and ε is the
uniaxial strain. The uniaxial stress, or in this case, the tensile stress is determined using
Equation 1, where F is the applied force and A is the cross-sectional area of the
specimen. The strain, ε, is computed by dividing the difference in the gage length of the
test specimen (ΔL) due to loading by the original length of the test specimen, L. Strain is
usually written as a unitless number, but can be written as a length per length such as
in/in.
ε = ΔL / L = (Lf – Li) / L (Equation 3)

Rearranging Hooke’s law in Equation 2 to solve for the modulus of elasticity, E, is

written as follows:
E = σ / ε (Equation 4)

Relating the slope of the stress-strain curve as seen in Figure 2 allows Equation 4 to be
written as follows:
E = Δσ / Δε (Equation 5)

where Δσ is the difference of stresses at two given points on the stress-strain curve and
Δε is a corresponding difference of strains at the defined points.

Ductility is another important mechanical property and can be expressed as a

percent elongation or percent area reduction. The specimen under tension will elongate
and naturally have a longer final length. The percent elongation is calculated as follows:

%EL = [(Lf – Li) / Li] * 100 (Equation 6)

As the specimen elongates during the tension test, it will experience a reduction in cross-
sectional area. The percentage of reduction relates to the ductility of the material. The
greater the value of percent reduction in area, %RA, a material has, the greater the ductile
property of the material. The percent reduction in area can be calculated with the
following equation:

%RA = [(Af – Ai) / Ai] * 100 (Equation 7)

where Af is the final cross-sectional area measured after the fracture of the specimen and
Ai is the initial cross-sectional area measured before the tension test.

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 Procedure
Equipment:

Tension Test Apparatus

Aluminum 2017 Test Specimen
Steel C1045 Test Specimen
Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA) Test Specimen

Experiment:

1) Measure and mark the initial length and diameter of the gage section of the
test specimen. If the specimen is not circular in cross-section, measure the
thickness and width of the mater for computation of the cross-sectional area.

2) Mount the specimen into the grips of the tension testing apparatus. Ensure
that the threads of the specimen are screwed far enough into the mount. If
using a specimen that is not of circular cross-section, ensure that the specimen
is loaded completely vertical.

3) Zero all load ranges using the range selector and appropriate zero adjustor.

4) Close the unload valve.

5) Apply the load slowly and record the yield load.

6) Continue loading the test specimen and record the ultimate load.

7) Remove the broken test specimen from the machine.

8) Record the final gage section length and the neck diameter.

9) Repeat steps 1 – 8 for each test specimen.

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 Results
Table 1: Initial and final dimension of the Aluminum 2017 test specimen
Initial Diameter (in) 0.505
Diameter at Fracture (in) 0.370
Initial Gage Length (in) 2.000
Gage Length at Fracture (in) 2.580

Stress-Strain Plot of Aluminum 2017

80000

70000

60000

50000
Stress (psi)

40000

30000

20000

10000

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Strain (in/in)

Figure 4: Stress-strain plot of Aluminum 2017 from which the elastic modulus was
calculated and the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength was determined.

Table 2: Calculated modulus of elasticity as well as determined yield and ultimate yield
strengths with applicable percent error.
Experimental Theoretical % Error
Modulus of Elasticity E (ksi) 9873.7 10500 6.0%
Yield Strength (psi) 48900 40000 22.3%
Ultimate Tensile Strength (psi) 69800 62000 12.6%
% Elongation at Fracture 23.8% N/A N/A
% Reduction in area at Fracture 46.3% N/A N/A

The elastic modulus for the aluminum specimen was determined by using
Equation 5, employing Hooke’s Law. The data points selected for this calculation were
within the linear portion of the stress strain curve. The yield strength was determined by
examining where the stress-strain curve ceased to be linear. The tensile strength was
determined by examining the peak of the stress strain curve. The reduction in area was
calculated by using Equation 7 and percent elongation was determined by using Equation
6.

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 Table 3: Initial and final dimension of the Steel C1045 test specimen
Initial Diameter (in) 0.505
Diameter at Fracture (in) 0.370
Initial Gage Length (in) 2.000
Gage Length at Fracture (in) 2.580

Stress-Strain Plot of Steel C1045

120000

100000

80000
Stress (psi)

60000

40000

20000

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Strain (in/in)

Figure 5: Stress-strain plot of Steel C1045 from which the elastic modulus was
calculated and the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength was determined.

Table 4: Calculated modulus of elasticity as well as determined yield and ultimate yield
strengths with applicable percent error.
Experimental Theoretical % Error
Modulus of Elasticity E (ksi) 26002 29000 10.3%
Yield Strength (psi) 84700 84800 0.1%
Ultimate Tensile Strength (psi) 113300 95000 19.3%
% Elongation at Fracture 17.90% N/A N/A
% Reduction in Area at Fracture 37.3% N/A N/A

The elastic modulus for the steel specimen was determined by using Equation 5,
employing Hooke’s Law. The data points selected for this calculation were within the
linear portion of the stress strain curve. The yield strength was determined by examining
where the stress-strain curve ceased to be linear. The tensile strength was determined by
examining the peak of the stress strain curve. The reduction in area was calculated by
using Equation 7 and percent elongation was determined by using Equation 6.

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Table 5: Initial and final dimension of the Polymethyl Methacrylate test specimen
Initial Area of Cross-section (in^2) 0.03236
Cross-sectional Area at Fracture (in^2) Unknown
Initial Gage Length (in) 1.000
Gage Length at Fracture (in) 1.047

Figure 6: Stress-strain plot of Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA) from which the elastic
modulus was calculated using a secant line due to the material’s nonlinear elastic region
of its stress-strain curve.

Table 6: Calculated modulus of elasticity as well as determined yield and ultimate yield
strengths with applicable percent error.
Experimental Theoretical % Error
Modulus of Elasticity E (ksi) 115.2 479 76.0%
Yield Strength (psi) ? 40000 N/A
Ultimate Tensile Strength (psi) 4879 10400 53.1%
% Elongation at Fracture 4.7% 2% - 5% N/A
% Reduction in area at Fracture Unknown N/A N/A

Some materials, such as the polymer PMMA, do not exhibit a linear stress-strain
curve beneath the material’s proportional limit. In lieu of calculating the slope of the
actual curve, the slope of a secant line from the origin to an arbitrary point on the curve
was used. The calculated elastic modulus is not in agreement with accepted values. The
yield strength of the material is indeterminable using this experimental method. The
ultimate tensile strength was determined by the stress at fracture. The elongation was
calculated using Equation 6. The reduction in area is unknown as the final dimensions
were not given.

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 Discussion & Conclusion
From the results of the percent reduction in area calculations, a comparison of the
ductility of the two metal test specimens, aluminum 2017 and steel C1045 can be made.
It was noted that the %RA of the aluminum, 46.3%, had a higher value than that of the
steel, 37.3%. This implies that steel would be better suited to an application where the
strength of the material is an asset and aluminum would be a good choice for an
application where a more ductile material is needed.

The steel specimen has an ultimate tensile strength value of 113,300 psi, which is
greater than that of aluminums, 69,800 psi. This implies that the steel can sustain higher
stresses before necking and inevitably fracturing. Therefore, it can be concluded that the
steel is a tougher material than the aluminum.

Another method of determining the strength of a material using the stress-strain

curve employs calculus. Develop an equation for the stress-strain curve and integrate it
with respect to the strain axis. The integrand will yield the area under the stress-strain
curve and its value can be interpreted as the strength of the material.

The PMMA test specimen used in this experiment is considered to be a brittle

material. The material fractured at a stress concentration that was far less than the values
yielded by the steel or aluminum. A percent reduction in area calculation, used to
determine the ductility of the material, could not be carried out as the final cross-sectional
area of the specimen was not recorded. A percent elongation calculation, however, can
also be used to determine a material’s ductility. The calculation indicated that at 4.7%
elongation before fracture, PMMA is not a very ductile material. It is better suited for
applications where a lightweight, yet rigid material is sought.

Error is present in this experiment. The PMMA test specimen did not appear to
be loaded completely vertically in the test apparatus. This discrepancy may have caused
the skewed values for elastic modulus and tensile strength. Another source of error was
that the testing apparatus for the ductile and brittle materials were not zeroed out before
the test began. The applied force before testing began may have skewed the actual
values. Error is also present in that the extensometer used in the aluminum specimen’s
tension test may have slipped during the experiment. This would cause the strain values
used in calculation to be inaccurate.

Improvements to this experiment are few and far between. The tension test is an
excellent way to gather certain mechanical properties of materials. However, the rate at
which the load is applied to the test specimen is “tweakable.” If the load is applied at a
slow rate, such as 100 lbf/min, the mechanical properties of the material can be more
accurately obtained. The speed of loading can influence how a material will behave.
Another improvement to this experiment would be to know the treatments, such as
coldworking, a material specimen received before undergoing a tension test to
demonstrate how said treatments influence material properties.

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 Appendix
Data Usage

Sample calculation of elastic modulus for the aluminum 2017 test specimen:

(32700 psi – 2080 psi) / (0.00493499 in/in - 0.001833813 in/in) = 9873.7 ksi

Sample calculation of percent area reduction for steel C1045 test specimen:

| (π/4) * [(0.505 in)2 – (0.400 in)2] | / [(π/4) * j33] x 100 = 37.3%

Sample calculation for percent elongation at fracture for PMMA test specimen:

|1.047 in – 1.00 in| / 1.00 in x 100 = 4.7%

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Bibliography

Mechanics of Materials, 2nd Edition

Timothy A. Philpot (2011)

Fundamentals of Material Science and Engineering: An Integrated Approach

W.D. Callister, Jr and D.G. Rethwish (2008)

Materials Laboratory Manual, Fall 2010

University of Memphis, Department of Mechanical Engineering

MatWeb Material Property Data

http://www.matweb.com

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