Coins ?
" Gold can be manufactured from other elements by several methods. The penultimate
means of transmutation is the Philosophers' Stone ( maybe a radioactive stone ? lead +
neutron bombardment into gold ) of any degree, but that is another matter altogether.
The transmutation of silver to gold is perhaps the easiest -- or least difficult -- of such
experiments. If nothing else, the attempt may serve to enlighten aspiring souffleurs "
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(1) Lead metal has 82 protons & electrons and contains Gold in it already.
Lead is the ONLY METAL that can be the STANDARD WEIGHT as 10kt Gold ( that
is semi safe to use )
(2) Lead metal will transmutate into Gold when bombarded with a source of neutrons.
(3) It is alleged that Lead naturally transmutes into Gold over millions of years within a
vein of quartz chrystals and the piezo electric effect interaction,
like coal into diamonds.
(4) Certain compounds when added to lead metal , will turn lead into golden color, see "
yellow lead "
" naples yellow " ( a gold color ) and see the golden lead chrystal, " Vanadinite ."
(5) Being the only metal suitable as the Standard Weight as 10kt gold, lead can be easily
transmuted into $100 US Created Gold Coins for the US Mint and its $100 Created Gold
certificates and if a layer of real 10kt gold covers the created gold coin, it will be safe for
people to handle.
1-315-472-5088
--------------------------------------------------------------
CITED REFERENCES:
ABSTRACT BELOW
---------------------------------------------------------------
Return to Home
Refining
Assaying
(Au), chemical element, a dense, lustrous, yellow precious metal of Group Ib, Period 6,
of the periodic table. Gold has several qualities that have made it exceptionally valuable
throughout history. It is attractive in color and brightness, durable to the point of virtual
indestructibility, highly malleable, and usually found in nature in a comparatively pure
form. The history of gold is unequaled by that of any other metal because of its value in
the minds of men from earliest times.
Gold is one of the heaviest of all metals. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity. It
is also soft and the most malleable and ductile of metals; an ounce (28 g) can be beaten
out to 187 square feet (about 17 square m) in extremely thin sheets called gold leaf. Note
that mining industry standards refer to troy ounces (1 troy ounce = 31.12035g).
Because gold is visually pleasing and workable and does not tarnish or corrode, it was
one of the first metals to attract human attention. Examples of elaborate gold
workmanship, many in nearly perfect condition, survive from ancient Egyptian, Minoan,
Assyrian, and Etruscan artisans, and gold has continued to be a highly favored material
out of which to craft jewelry and other decorative objects.
Owing to its unique qualities, gold has been the one material that is universally accepted
in exchange for goods and services. In the form of coins or bullion, gold has
occasionally played a major role as a high-denomination currency, although silver has
generally been the standard medium of payments in the world's trading systems. Gold
began to serve as backing for paper-currency systems when they became widespread in
the 19th century, and from the 1870s until World War I the gold standard was the basis
for the world's currencies. Although gold's official role in the international monetary
system had come to an end by the 1970s, the metal remains a highly regarded reserve
asset, and approximately 45 percent of all the world's gold is held by governments and
central banks for this purpose. Gold is still accepted by all nations as a medium of
international payment.
Gold is widespread in low concentrations in all igneous rocks. Its abundance in the
Earth's crust is estimated at about 0.005 parts per million. It occurs mostly in the native
state, remaining chemically uncombined except with tellurium, selenium, and possibly
bismuth. The element's only naturally occurring isotope is gold-197. Gold often occurs
in association with copper and lead deposits, and, though the quantity present is often
extremely small, it is readily recovered as a byproduct in the refining of those base
metals. Large masses of gold-bearing rock rich enough to be called ores are unusual.
Two types of deposits containing significant amounts of gold are known: hydrothermal
veins, where it is associated with quartz and pyrite (fool's gold); and placer deposits,
both consolidated and unconsolidated, that are derived from the weathering of gold-
bearing rocks.
The origin of enriched veins is not fully known, but it is believed that the gold was
carried up from great depths with other minerals, at least in partial solid solution, and
later precipitated. The gold in rocks usually occurs as invisible disseminated grains,
more rarely as flakes large enough to be seen, and even more rarely as masses or
veinlets. Crystals about 2.5 cm (1 inch) or more across have been found in California.
Masses, some on the order of 90 kg (200 pounds), have been reported from Australia.
Alluvial deposits of gold found in or along streams were the principal sources of the
metal for ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Other deposits were found in Lydia (now in
Turkey) and the lands of the Aegean and in Persia (now Iran), India, China, and other
lands. During the Middle Ages the chief sources of gold in Europe were the mines of
Saxony and Austria. The era of gold production that followed the Spanish discovery of
the Americas in the 1490s was probably the greatest the world had witnessed to that
time. The exploitation of mines by slave labor and the looting of Indian palaces, temples,
and graves in Central and South America resulted in an unprecedented influx of gold
that literally unbalanced the economic structure of Europe. From Christopher Columbus'
discovery of the New World in 1492 to 1600, more than 225,000 kg (8,000,000 ounces)
of gold, or 35 percent of world production, came from South America. The New World's
mines--especially those in Colombia--continued into the 17th and 18th centuries to
account for 61 and 80 percent, respectively, of world production; 1,350,000 kg
(48,000,000 ounces) were mined in the 18th century.
Because pure gold is too soft to resist prolonged handling, it is usually alloyed with
other metals to increase its hardness for use in jewelry, goldware, or coinage. Most gold
used in jewelry is alloyed with silver, copper, and a little zinc to produce various shades
of yellow gold or with nickel, copper, and zinc to produce white gold. The color of these
gold alloys goes from yellow to white as the proportion of silver in them increases; more
than 70 percent silver results in alloys that are white. Alloys of gold with silver or
copper are used to make gold coins and goldware, and alloys with platinum or palladium
are also used in jewelry. The content of gold alloys is expressed in 24ths, called karats; a
12-karat gold alloy is 50 percent gold, and 24-karat gold is pure.
Because of its high electrical conductivity (71 percent that of copper) and inertness, the
largest industrial use of gold is in the electric and electronics industry for plating
contacts, terminals, printed circuits, and semiconductor systems. Thin films of gold that
reflect up to 98 percent of incident infrared radiation have been employed on satellites to
control temperature and on space-suit visors to afford protection. Used in a similar way
on the windows of large office buildings, gold reduces the air-conditioning requirement
and adds to the beauty. Gold has also long been used for fillings and other repairs to
teeth.
The characteristic oxidation states of gold are +1 (aurous compounds) and +3 (auric
compounds). Gold is more easily displaced from solution by reduction than any other
metal; even platinum will reduce Au3+ ions to metallic gold.
Among the relatively few gold compounds of practical importance are gold(I) chloride,
AuCl; gold(III) chloride, or gold trichloride, AuCl3; and chlorauric acid, HAuCl4. All
three are involved in the electrolytic refining of gold. Potassium cyanoaurate,
K[Au(CN)2], is the basis for most gold-plating baths (the solution employed when gold
is plated). The soluble salt sodium aurichloride, NaAuCl42H2O, is used in the treatment
of rheumatoid arthritis. Several organic compounds of gold have industrial applications.
For example, gold mercaptides, which are obtained from sulfurized terpenes, are
dissolved in certain organic solutions and used for decorating china and glass articles.
atomic number 79 atomic weight 196.967 melting point 1,063º C (1,945º F) boiling
point 2,966º C (5,371º F) specific gravity 19.3 (20º C) valence 1, 3 electronic config. 2-
8-18-32-18-1
Refining
The Miller process is rapid and simple, but it produces gold of only about 99.5 percent
purity. The Wohlwill process increases purity to about 99.99 percent by electrolysis. In
this process, a casting of impure gold is lowered into an electrolyte solution of
hydrochloric acid and gold chloride. Under the influence of an electric current, the
casting functions as a positively charged electrode, or anode. The anode dissolves, and
the impurities either pass into solution or report to the bottom of the electrorefining tank
as an insoluble slime. The gold migrates under the influence of the electric field to a
negatively charged electrode called the cathode, where it is restored to a highly pure
metallic state.
Although the Wohlwill process produces gold of high purity, it requires the producer to
keep on hand a substantial inventory of gold (mainly for the electrolyte), and this is very
costly. Processes based on direct chemical purification and recovery from solution as
elemental gold can greatly speed gold processing and virtually eliminate expensive in-
process inventories.
Assaying
Fire assay is considered the most reliable method for accurately determining the content
of gold, silver, and platinum-group metals (except osmium and ruthenium) in ores or
concentrates. This process involves melting a gold-bearing sample in a clay crucible
with a mixture of fluxes (such as silica and borax), lead oxide (called litharge), and a
reducing agent (frequently flour). The fluxes lower the melting point of the oxidic
materials, allowing them to fuse, and the molten litharge is reduced by the flour to
extremely fine drops of lead dispersed throughout the charge. The drops of lead dissolve
the gold, silver, and platinum-group metals, then coalesce and gradually descend
through the sample to form a metallic layer at the bottom of the crucible. After cooling,
the lead "button" is separated from the slag layer and heated under oxidizing conditions
to oxidize and eliminate the lead. The shiny metallic bead that is left contains the
precious metals. The bead is boiled in nitric acid to dissolve the silver (a process called
parting), and the gold residue is weighed. If platinum metals are present, they will alter
the appearance of the bead, and their concentration can sometimes be determined by use
of an arc spectrograph.
In the jewelry industry, gold content is specified by karat. Pure gold is designated 24
karats; therefore, each karat is equal to 4.167 percent gold content, so that, for example,
18 karats equals 18 4.167, or 75 percent gold. "Fineness" refers to parts per thousand of
gold in an alloy; e.g., three-nines fine would correspond to gold of 99.9 percent purity.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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---------------------------------------------------------------
1. Overview
2. History
of use
3. Making the
pigment
4. Technical
details
Brief description of Naples yellow:
One of the oldest synthetic pigments with very good hiding power and good
chemical stability.
Natural mineral:
bindheimite
identical with the mineral bindheimite (at Mineralogy Database)
Other yellows
(intro) - - cadmium yellow - chrome yellow - Cobalt yellow - Indian yellow
lead tin yellow - Lemon yellow - Naples yellow - Orpiment - Orpiment - Yellow ochre
-------------------------------------------------------------
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Wulfenite
Red Cloud Mine, Silver District, Trigo Mts, La Paz Co., Arizona, USA
Classification of Wulfenite
Type Locality: Sankt Joannis von Nepomuceni mine, Annaberg, Lower Austria, Austria
Year of Discovery: 1845
Physical Properties of Wulfenite
Lustre: Sub-Vitreous,Resinous
Diapheny: Translucent
Colour: Typically orange-yellow, yellow, reddish-orange, rarely grey, brown, and even
black.
Streak: White
Hardness (Mohs') 2½ - 3
Hardness Data: Measured
Tenacity: Brittle
Cleavage: Distinct/Good
Distinct on {011}; indistinct on {001}, {013}.
Fracture: Irregular/Uneven,Sub-Conchoidal
Density (measured): 6.7 - 7 g/cm3
Density (calculated): 6.815 g/cm3
Crystallography of Wulfenite
Associates: Mimetite
Calcite
Hemimorphite
Cerussite
Duftite
Quartz
Barite
Psilomelane
Pyromorphite
Aragonite
6/G.01-70 Russellite Bi
2
WO
6
Formula: PbMoO
4
Elements: Mo, O, Pb
Common Impurities: W,Ca,V,As,Cr,W,Ti
Other Names for Wulfenite
Synonyms: Carinthit
Carinthita
Carinthite
Gelbbleierz
Lead molybdate
Melinose
Molybdän Bleispath
Molybdänbleierz
Molybdänbleirz
Wulfenit
Wulfenita
Yellow Lead Ore
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Table of yellow pigments
Comparison of yellow pigments Magyar English
név vegyület name compound empirical formula
brillantsárga brillinant yellow
anilinsárga p-amino-benzol aniline yellow p-amino-benzol
alizarinsárga trioxi-benzofenon alizarin yellow trioxi-benzophenone
kénsárga brimstone yellow
cinksárga, horganysárga zink-kromát zinc chromate primer zinc chromate ZnCrO3
antimonokker, szenarmonit antimony ochre, cervantite (Sb2O)4.H2Sb2O5
lipcsi sárga, párizsi sárga, királysárga, citromsárga Cologne yellow, chromium yellow
krómokker chrome ochre
antimonsárga bázisos ólomantimonát antimony yellow basic lead-antimonate
tropeolin gold yellow
flavantrén indanthrene yellow
indigósárga indigo yellow
flaviánsav naphtol yellow
urániumsárga uranium yellow
baritsárga, citromsárga, sárga ultramarin bárium-kromát barium yellow, baryta yellow,
lemon chrome barium.chromate BaCrO4
berberin, jamaicin berberine, huangbo [C20H18NO4]+
kadmiumsárga kadmium-szulfid cadmium yellow, greenockite cadmium-sulfide CdS
krómsárga ólom-kromát chrome yellow lead(II)-chromate(IV) PbCrO4
krómsárga ólomoxid-kromát chrome yellow deep lead(II)-chromate-oxide PbCrO4.PbO
narancsos krómsárga ólomoxid-kromát chrome yellow-orange lead(II)-chromate-oxide
PbCrO4.PbO
indiai sárga kálium-kobalt-nitrit cobalt yellow potassium-cobalt-nitrite
K3[Co(NO2)6].nH2O
indiai sárga euxantsav magnéziumsója indian yellow, euxenit magnesium salt of the
euxanthic acid MgC19H16O11.5H2O
gamboge gamboge-sav gamboge gamboge acids C38H44O8, C29H36O6
kalcium kromát kalcium-kromát yellow ultramarine calcium-chromate CaCrO4
ón-ólom sárga ólom-sztannát lead tin yellow lead(II)-stannate PbSnO4
ón-ólom sárga sziliciumos ólom-sztannát lead tin yellow silicon substituted lead(II)-
stannate PbSn..SixO3
Mars sárga szintetikus vas-hidroxid Mars yellow synthetic iron(III)hydroxide Fe(OH)3
nápolyi sárga ólom-antimonát Naples yellow lead(II)-antimonate Pb2Sb2O7
ólomglét ólom-oxid massicot orthothrombic lead(II)-oxide PbO
auripigment arzén-szulfid orpiment arsenic(III)-sulfide As4S3
pararealgár arzén-monoszulfid pararealgar arsenic(II)-monosulfide As3S3
sáfrány crocetin, karotenoid dikarboxilsav saffron caroteoid-dicarboxylic acid
C20H24O4
stronciumsárga stroncium-kromát strontium yellow strontium-chromate SrCrO4
aranyokker, földsárga, tuzvasérc kova, agyag, aluminiumszilikát yellow ochre, goethite
clay, silica Fe2O3.H2O.Al2(SiO3)3
cinksárga cink-kromát zinc yellow zinc-chromate ZnCrO4
kvercitron quercitron (Quercus tinctoria)
---------------------------------
Vanadinite Image
Images: Vanadinite, Mibladen, Midelt, Morocco. 3 x 2.5 cm.
Photo by Francesc Fabre / Fabre Minerals
Vanadinite Crystallography
Axial Ratios: a:c = 1:0.71077
Cell Dimensions: a = 10.331, c = 7.343, Z = 2; V = 678.72 Den(Calc)= 6.93
Crystal System: Hexagonal - DipyramidalH-M Symbol (6/m) Space Group: P 63/m
X Ray Diffraction: By Intensity(I/Io): 2.988(1), 3.068(0.85), 3.384(0.6),
Forms:
Mouse
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RMB - Cycle Display Modes
Drag1 - Manipulate Crystal
Drag2 - Resize
Keyboard
S - Stereo
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<space> - Start-Stop Rotation
F - Fit to Screen
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Forms: [ 0 1 0] [ 0 0 1]
Warning: this large pop-up is very compute intensive and may not work well with some
computers.
Vanadinite Classification
Dana Class: 41.8.4.3 (41)Anhydrous Phosphates, etc. Containing Hydroxyl or Halogen
(41.8)where (A)5 (XO4)3 Zq
(41.8.4)Dana Group
41.8.4.1 Pyromorphite Pb5(PO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m
41.8.4.2 Mimetite Pb5(AsO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m
41.8.4.3 Vanadinite Pb5(VO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m
Strunz Class: VII/B.39-170 VII - Phosphates, Arsenates and Vanadates
VII/B - Waterfree phosphates with unfamiliar anions F, Cl, O, OH. cations of medium
and big size: Mg, Cu, Zn, and Ca, Na, K, Ba, Pb
VII/B.39 - Apatite - Pyromorphite group
VII/B.39-10 Fluorapatite Ca5(PO4)3F P 63/m 6/m
VII/B.39-20 Chlorapatite Ca5(PO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m
VII/B.39-30 Hydroxylapatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH) P 63/m 6/m
VII/B.39-40 Carbonate-hydroxylapatite Ca5(PO4,CO3)3(OH) P 63/m 6/m
VII/B.39-50 Carbonate-fluorapatite Ca5(PO4,CO3)3F P 63/m 6/m
VII/B.39-60 Svabite Ca5(AsO4)3F P 63/m 6/m
VII/B.39-70 Turneaureite Ca5[(As,P)O4]3Cl P 63/m 6/m
VII/B.39-80 Johnbaumite Ca5(AsO4)3(OH) P 63/m,P 63 Hex
VII/B.39-90 Fermorite (Ca,Sr)5(AsO4,PO4)3(OH) P 63/m 6/m
VII/B.39-95 Fluorcaphite! (Ca,Sr,Ce,Na)5(PO4)3F P 63 6
VII/B.39-100 Strontium-apatite (Sr,Ca)5(PO4)3(F,OH) P 63/m 6/m
VII/B.39-110 Belovite-(Ce)* (Sr,Ce,Na,Ca)5(PO4)3(OH) P 3 3
VII/B.39-115 Belovite-(La)! (Sr,La,Ce,Ca)5(PO4)3(F,OH) P 3 3
VII/B.39-120 Alforsite Ba5(PO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m
VII/B.39-130 Morelandite (Ba,Ca,Pb)5(AsO4,PO4)3Cl P 63/m,P 63 Hex
VII/B.39-140 Hedyphane Ca2Pb3(AsO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m
VII/B.39-150 Pyromorphite Pb5(PO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m
VII/B.39-160 Mimetite Pb5(AsO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m
VII/B.39-165 Clinomimetite Pb5(AsO4)3Cl P 21/b 2/m
VII/B.39-170 Vanadinite Pb5(VO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m
Vanadinite
Pb5(VO4)3Cl
Dana No: 41.8.4.3 Strunz No: VII/B.39-170
Locality:
Notes:
--------------------------------------------------------------
GOLDEN YELLOW LEAD METAL/MINERAL CRYSTAL
Vanadinite
Composition: Pb5(VO4)3Cl
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Minerals | By_Name | By_Class | By_Groupings | Search | Properties | Sulfates
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
Color is red, orange, yellow, silver and white.
Luster is vitreous.
Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent.
Crystal System is tetragonal; 4/m or 4
Crystal Habits include very thin square or octahedral pinacoidal plates with pyramidal
faces truncating just the edges of the crystal. At times the pyramids become prominant
and psuedo-dipyramidal crystal habits are seen, sometimes because of twinning.
Prismatic faces are also seen and can make psuedo-cubic crystals. Also encrusting and
cavernous aggregates due to intergrowth of crystal plates.
Cleavage is perfect in one direction.
Fracture is conchoidal.
Hardness is 3.
Specific Gravity is approximately 6.8 (very heavy for translucent minerals)
Streak is white.
Associated Minerals are mimetite, limonite, smithsonite, vanadinite and galena.
Other Characteristics: index of refraction is 2.28-2.40 (very high, but typical of lead
minerals).
Notable Occurances include Morocco; Tsumeb, Nambia; Mexico and Arizona and New
Mexico, USA.
Best Field Indicators are crystal habit, color, density and luster.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Adept Alchemy
by
Robert A. Nelson
Part II ~ Chapter 1
Transmutations of Silver
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Gold can be manufactured from other elements by several methods. The penultimate
means of transmutation is the Philosophers' Stone of any degree, but that is another
matter altogether.
The transmutation of silver to gold is perhaps the easiest -- or least difficult -- of such
experiments. If nothing else, the attempt may serve to enlighten aspiring souffleurs
("Puffers", an old French alchemical label for deluded fools who pump their bellows in
vain) to wise up, get a life, and do something more worthwhile, profitable, and less
dangerous. Employing the methods developed by Francois Jollivet-Castelot, however,
there is every chance of success, albeit at great risk due to the use of arsenic.
It has been argued by some purists that transmutations such as these are not alchemy at
all, but rather "hyper-chemistry" or "archymy". Mayhap so, but I choose to include these
factoids in this collection.
Most of the 19th and 20th century experimenters in this genre used a variety of "wet"
techniques (refluxing with nitric acid, etc.), or "dry" transmutations with alloys in the
furnace. Dr. Stephen Emmens used high-pressure hammering (500 tons/sq. in.) of silver
at low temperature, followed by fluxing, granulation, more hammering, treatment with
"modified nitric acid", and refining.
(1) T. Tiffereau
(2) R. Hunter
(3) A. Waite
(4) Fulcanelli
(5) F. Jollivet-Castelot
(6) S. Emmens
(7) C. Lea
(8) References
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Tiffereau attempted many modifications of his techniques, and claimed that certain
experimental conditions influence the transmutation of silver to gold:
1) Pure silver filings were used, sometimes mixed with pure copper filings (Ag 9:1 Cu)
and traces of zinc, iron, alumina and silica;
3) The silver was refluxed with concentrated nitric acid, hyponitrous acid, and nitrogen
protozide or deuteroxide;
5) The acids were exposed to sunlight to "solarize" them. Tiffereau complained that the
French sun was not so effective as the Mexican;
6) Halides and sulfur in the presence of oxides of nitrogen improved the reaction, and so
did ozone;
Tiffereau attributed the production of gold in the earth to the action of the "microbe of
gold". This was confirmed in the 1980s by the discovery that placer gold nuggets form
around a nucleus of bacillus cereus.
"After having exposed, over two days, pure nitric acid to the action of solar rays, I added
pure silver filings with pure copper filings in the proportions of the alloy of money (9:1).
A lively reaction manifested, accompanied with a very abundant deposit of intact filings
agglomerated in a mass.
"The disengagement of nitrous gas continued without interruption, and I left the liquid as
is over twelve days. I noted that the aggregate deposit was augmented sensibly in
volume. I then added a little water to the dissolution in which the product had
precipitated, and again abandoned the liquid to rest five days. During this time, new
vapors unceasingly disengaged.
"The five days having passed, I raised the liquid just to ebullition, which I maintained
until the nitrous vapors ceased disengagement, after which I evaporated it to dryness.
"The matter obtained from the dessication is dry, dull, blackish-green; it did not offer an
appearance of crystallization...
"Placing the matter again in pure nitric acid and boiling six hours, I saw the matter
become clear green without ceasing to aggregate in small masses. I added a new
quantity of pure concentrated nitric acid and boiled it anew; it is then that I finally saw
the disaggregated matter take the brilliance of natural gold...
[The third test in this series] "presented an extraordinary phenomenon to be noted: the
quantity of the alloy that I used experienced a transformation entirely to pure gold."
Carey Lea suggested that Tiffereau and other experimenters had merely prepared a gold-
colored form of allotropic silver.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(2) R. M. Hunter ~
In 1908, Sir Henry Baskerville made mention of a contemporary claim to the production
of artificial gold:
"Among the many communications reaching the writer, one is of more than passing
interest. Mr. R.M. Hunter, of Philadelphia, has written concerning 'synthetic gold' as
follows:
"I have so perfected the process that in my judgment, based on my actual experience,
gold may be manufactured at enormous profit, and to this end I have designed a plant to
be erected in Philadelphia and am at this moment negotiating for $500,000 capital for its
erection. I realize that the public and most scientific men are adverse to the belief in the
possibility of such an enterprise, but I know what I am doing and can afford to allow
public sentiment to follow its own course.
"Enclosed with the letter was an affirmative affadavit. On request, Mr. Hunter promptly
forwarded me samples of silver in which the gold is 'growing' and some 'grown-up' gold,
said to have been produced by his secret process. I have not made analyses of the
samples." (5)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
"In the focus of a Burning-Glass, 12 inches in diameter, place a glass Flask, 2 inches in
diameter, containing Nitric Acid, diluted with its own volume of water:
"Pour into the Nitric Acid, alternately, small quantities of a Solution of Nitrate of Silver
and of Muriatic acid, the object being to cause the Chloride of Silver to form a minutely
divided state, so as to produce a milky fluid, into the interior of which the brilliant
convergent cone may pass, and the currents generated in the Flask by the Heat may so
drift all the Chloride through the Light.
"The Chloride, if otherwise exposed to the Sun, merely blackens on the surface, the
interior parts undergoing no change: This difficulty, therefore, has to be avoided. The
Burning-Glass promptly brings on a decomposition of the salt, evolving, on the one
hand, Chlorine, and disengaging a metal on the other. Supposing the experiment to last
two or three entire hours, the effect will then be equal to a continuous midday sun of
some 72 hours. The Metal becomes disengaged very well. But what is it? It cannot be
silver, since Nitric acid has no action on it. It burnishes in an Agate Mortar, but its
reflection is not like that of silver, for it is yellowish, like that of Gold.
"The Light must therefore have so transmuted the original silver as to enable it to exist
in the presence of Nitric Acid." ( 28)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(4) Fulcanelli ~
The renowned master Fulcanelli published this transmutation of silver in Les Demeures
Philosophales:
"The simplest alchemic procedure consists in utilizing the effect of violent reactions ---
those of acids on the bases --- to provoke in the midst of the effervesence the reunion of
pure parts, their new arrangement being irreducible. In this manner, starting from a metal
close to gold --- preferably silver --- it is possible to produce a small quantity of the
precious metal. Here is, in this order of research, an elementary operation whose success
we guarantee, providing the instructions are carefully followed.
"Empty into a glass retort, tall and tubular, one-third of its capacity in pure nitric acid.
Adapt to the receiver an escape tube and arrange the apparatus in a sand bath.
"Gently heat the apparatus short of reaching the boiling point for the acid (83o C). Turn
off the fire, open the tube, and introduce a small portion of virgin silver, or of cupel, free
from gold traces. When the emission of peroxide of azote has stopped and when the
effervesence has quieted, let drop into the liquor a second portion of pure silver. Repeat
introducing metal, with no hurry, until the boiling and issuing of red vapors manifest
little energy, which is indicative of the property of saturation. Add nothing more. Let it
rest for half an hour, then cautiously decant your clear solution into a beaker while it is
still warm. You will find a thin deposit in the form of black sand. Wash this with
lukewarm water, and let it fall into a small porcelain capsule. You will recognize by
making the assays that the precipitate is insoluble in hydrochloric acid, just as it also is
in nitric acid. Aqua regia will dissolve it and yields a magnificent yellow solution,
exactly like gold trichloride. Use distilled water to dilute this liquor; precipitate from a
zinc blade. An amorphous powder will be obtained, very fine, matte, of reddish brown
coloration, identical to that given by natural gold reduced in the same manner. Wash
well and dessicate this pulvurent precipitate. By compression on a sheet of glass or
marble, it will give you a brilliant, coherent lamina with a beautiful yellow sheen by
reflection, green by transparence, having the look and superficial characteristics of the
purest gold.
"To increase with a new quantity this miniscule deposit, you may repeat the operation as
many times as you please. In this case, take up again the clear solution of silver nitrate
diluted from the first washing water; reduce the metal with zinc or copper. Decant this
silver into a powder and use it for your second dissolution." (14)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Francois Jollivet-Castelot was the Secretary General (and later President) of the
Alchemical Society of France (founded in 1896). He also edited the Society's journal
L'Hyperchemie, and served as a special delegate of the Supreme Council of Martinists.
He authored several books and articles on alchemy and "hyperchemistry", a system of
non-occult chemical methods of transmutation. (17-20)
"This process gives a very high yield which has already been confirmed by several
chemists, in particular by Mr. Ballandras, Chemical Engineer of Lyons, and Mr. Outon,
Chemical Engineer of Buenos Aires...
"The object of the present leaflet is to enable chemists to repeat and check my
experiments in their turn...
"I acted on 22 gr of chemically pure silver ... and on 3.5 gr of chemically pure
orpiment... The mixture was heated to about 1600o C In a metal smelting furnace for
about three quarters of an hour. The residue obtained was again melted with the addition
of orpiment. After having hammered for half an hour and remelted with the addition of
small quantities of orpiment every ten minutes, it was withdrawn.
"After cooling and the addition of chemically pure antimony sulfide, it was again put
back into the furnace, small quantities of orpiment being thrown in every five minutes.
The residue obtained had a dark metallic tint. After hammering it became slightly
golden.
"The residue dissolved in chemically pure 36o nitric acid first cold and then hot, gave an
abundant pulvurent deposit. This deposit after being washed and treated with ammonia
to dissolve the arsenic and antimony salts was completely dissolved in aqua regia. The
liquor then being chlorinated and filtered was subjected to the reagents of platinum and
gold. Mr. Andre Vandenberghe who was acting as preparator for this experiment, had
thought that in accordance with the law of the evolution of matter, the transmutation of
bodies into gold should be preceded or accompanied by their transmutation into
platinum...
"The reactions of gold were quite characteristic; the reactions of platinum also seemed to
reveal its presence.
"The quantity of gold obtained in this experiment was about one gramme.
"I submit the hypothesis that the arsenic acts as a catalyst and the sulfur as a ferment in
this transmutation." (December 1925; Douai, France)...
"As a sequel to my previous work on the artificial synthesis of gold, I have introduced
tin into these new tests as it is also often associated with gold in Nature. The following
is a description of this new process, thanks to which the percentage of gold obtained
destroys all the objections that are raised with regard to impurities.
"The residue obtained was treated for a long time in 36o nitric acid, first cold and then at
the boiling point; the insoluble residue was next washed with distilled water, treated
with ammonia, washed again and finally treated for a long time with boiling aqua regia.
"The liquor when filtered and subjected to the reagents of gold showed the presence of
this metal in the form of abundant deposits which may be estimated at 0.05 gr in all,
which is very high considering the 6 gr of silver employed. The deposits when collected
and dried had a yellow green metallic color and possessed all the characteristics of
gold...
"The addition of tin to the other bodies has certainly facilitated the reactions of the gold
and increased the yield of this metal which can be manufactured artificially by my
process, i.e., by synthesis and in measurable quantities.
"It would be very easy to show that, given the respective prices of gold and of the other
substances that are used in my process to produce it, a profit could be obtained if the
process were worked industrially, all the more so as the greater part of the silver
employed can be recovered at each test..
"I believe I now hold the key to the regular and even industrial manufacture of gold.
"But the industrial question is voluntarily put aside from my thoughts, for my only
object is the search for pure scientific truth."
"It must be noted that this thing happened during the ebullition. The washed residue
contained the slighter part of gold; this thing would be found dissolved in the last liquor
which I obtained.
"After 18 hours of digestion at about 25o, I subdued the mixture to ebullition during 3
hours. After refrigeration, I filtered on glass wool and I looked if parts were not drawn
along in suspense. I found nothing. Then, I decided to proceed to a circumstantial
analysis of the liquor which I obtained...
"The quantity of gold which was obtained was 0.476 gr for 10 gr of silver employed, or
0.0476 gr of gold per gram of silver."
Jollivet-Castelot read this memorandum to the Academie Royal des Sciences (Belgium)
on June 6, 1926:
"When subjected to the action of nitric acid, the residue was attacked with difficulty and
greenish metallic particles become detached. The solution was then decanted and a
greenish-yellow residue remained which was kept at the boiling point of nitric acid for
several hours. After decanting off the liquor once again, the residue, which had not
changed, was washed, treated with ammonia and then subjected to the action of boiling
aqua regia in which it was entirely dissolved after boiling for several hours.
"[The solution was chlorinated and subjected to the reagents of gold with positive
results, although] a certain amount of gold was certainly lost in this test just as in all my
previous tests, for it is known that arsenic, antimony, and tellurium entrain gold in their
fusion and their volatilization.
"In order to obviate this disadvantage, I had thought of making the vapors of arsenic acid
and antimony sulfides and of tellurium act on the silver in fusion in a closed vessel by
means of a special device...
"I consider it certain that if the vapors were allowed to bubble through the melted silver,
a much higher yield of gold would be obtained than that I have obtained hitherto by an
imperfect and too rapid contact of the bodies in presence, while it is undoubtedly
necessary to make them react on one another in the vapor state in a closed vessel."
"Dear Sir... I have repeated the experiments... in my laboratory and am amazed at the
results. For the moment, it is only the scientific side which interests me, since the cost of
the gold obtained is often greater than the value of the metal..."
Mr. A. Ballandras also replicated the experiments and reported the results:
"I will not conceal the fact that I have often heard ironical remarks aboutprocesses by
which he succeeded in manufacturing gold. I determined to check his tests with the
greatest possible accuracy...
"The glass wool was then macerated in aqua regia rich in hydrochloric; after 18 hours
maceration, the whole was boiled for 3 hours. I again filtered on glass wool in order to
separate any traces of the filter from the liquor... Any gold that might have been
obtained would necessarily be found in the last liquor... It was of importance to prove its
existence qualitatively at least.
"For this purpose, I tried the various standard reagents, the results being the following:
1) Oxalic acid: flakey precipitate; 2) Iron sulfate: glossy metallic black; 3) Tin chloride:
peach pink precipitate; 4) Formol: rather light bluish coloration; 5) Sodium carbonate,
potassium carbonate: light coloration after boiling; 6) Sodium hydroxide, potassium
hydroxide: yellowish coloration, cloudy.
"These reactions are sufficiently characteristic and clearly prove the existence in the last
liquor of a metal which, even if it is not gold, must nevertheless be placed very close to
the latter... the metal obtained and gold must be perfectly isotopic.
"I have repeated this test several times and I have observed: 1) That the production of
gold is a function of the rapidity with which the necessary heat is obtained; 2) That it is
also a function of the degree of tightness of the crucible. A crucible that is closed as
tightly as possible gives better results; 3) That the amount of gold obtained was not
always uniform; some of the tests were absolutely sterile and I inferred that this was due
to some defect in the mounting.
"I think there must be a certain temperature that should not be exceeded and that the
external conditions of pressure and electricity must be of considerable importance."
In another experiment, Ballandras used silver (10 gr), tin (3 gr), orpiment (3 gr), and
antimony sulfide (3 gr):
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Early in 1897, the British chemist Stephen H. Emmens, then residing in New York,
announced the discovery of a new element which fills the "vacant space existing in the
sub-group of Group I", and which he thought to be the intermediate matter from which
silver and gold are formed. Dr. Emmens said:
"Our claim is that the element in question is therefore neither silver nor gold, but which
may, by our new physical methods, be converted into gold." (14)
In 1897, Dr. Emmens' Argentaurum Laboratory on Staten Island produced over 660
ounces of gold from silver and sold it to the U.S. Assay Office. He revealed a few
historical and technical details of his transmutation process in his book, Argentaurum
Papers #1: Some Remarks Concerning Gravitation:
"Our work, which converts silver into gold, had its origin in the course of certain
investigations which I undertook for the purpose of preparing chemically pure nickel...
in 1892. In attempting to prepare these pure metals [nickel and iron], a certain product
was obtained which seemed to differ from anything recorded in the textbooks. The same
product was subsequently found when the investigation was extended to the case of
metallic cobalt... The phenomena observed afforded indications of the existence of some
substance common to the whole of the elements in what is known as Series 4 of Group 8
of the classification of Chemical Elements... It appeared to us almost self-evident that if
we were right in supposing a common substance to be present in any single series of
elements, the same would hold good for each group.
"And as Group I of the classification contains the precious metals --- gold and silver ~ it
was obvious that our time and attention should be directed to these metals rather than to
any other...
"Our starting point, so far as silver and gold were concerned, was afforded by the
remarkable discoveries of Mr. Carey Lea with regard to [colloidal silver]... It was found
that... this subdivision of metallic silver was attended by very considerable changes in
the physical properties of the substance...By certain physical methods and by the aid of a
certain apparatus, we succeeded in bringing about a further subdivision of the silver. We
were not surprised to find that the substance obtained differed so far from ordinary silver
that it could no longer be regarded as the same elementary substance. It seemed to
require a new name and a new chemical symbol. Inasmuch, therefore, as our theory was
that this substance was common to both gold and silver, and in reality was the raw
material out of which both gold and silver were constructed by the hand of nature, we
named the substance Argentaurum...
"The next step was to ascertain whether this substance could be so treated as to be
grouped into molecules of greater density than those of silver... We found that...
Argentaurum can be aggregated into molecules having a density considerably superior to
that of ordinary gold molecules. Whether we are right as to this or not, the condensed
Argentaurum presents the appearance and is endowed with the properties of ordinary
metallic gold...
"We do not consume any chemicals and other costly materials in our process; what we
use is mainly energy in some of its various forms, such as heat, electricity, magnetism,
gravity, cohesion, chemical affinity, x-rays and the like... Our chief source of expense is
the time required for bringing about the desired molecular changes... One ounce of silver
will produce three-quarters of an ounce of gold..." (6)
Herbert Fyfe reported that Dr. Emmens' process comprised five stages: 1) mechanical
treatment; 2) fluxing and granulation; 3) mechanical treatment; 4) treatment with a
"modified nitric acid", and 5) refining. Dr. Emmens said:
"I regard the mechanical treatment as the causa causans. The fluxing and granulation
serve, I think, merely to render the molecular aggregate susceptible of displacement and
rearrangement." (15)
The mechanical treatment was accomplished by means of Dr. Emmens' "Force Engine",
which exerted pressures in excess of 500 tons/in2 at very low temperatures. Step 4,
using "modified nitric acid", contradicts the statement made elsewhere, that "we do not
consume any chemicals... in our process." (4, 7-12, 15, 16, 23)
Dr. Emmens included a sample of Argentaurum and these instructions in a letter (21
May 1897) to Sir William Crookes:
"Take a Mexican dollar and dispose it in an apparatus which will prevent expansion or
flow. Then subject it to heavy, rapid, and continuous beating under conditions of cold
such as to prevent even a temporary rise of temperature when the blows are struck. Test
the material from hour to hour, and at length you will find more than the trace (less than
one part in 10,000) of gold which the dollar originally contained."
Sir Crookes was unable to replicate the experiment to his satisfaction. He reported:
"A specimen of Argentaurum sent me by Dr. Emmens has been examined with the
spectrograph. It consists of gold with a fair proportion of silver and a little copper. No
lines belonging to any other known elements, and no unknown lines, were detected."
This analysis resembles that of ordinary bullion gold, which contains silver and copper
to make it harder and more fusible than pure gold.
"I have received a letter from a very eminent Fellow of the Royal Society informing me
that he has performed the crucial experiment suggested in my letter of May 21, 1897, to
Sir William Crookes. The gold contained in the Mexican dollar after 40 hours of intense
cold and continuous hammering was found to be 20.9% more than the quantity of gold
contained in the same dollar before the test."
In 1898, Emmens floated the Argentaurum Company, a syndicate which promised that
for one ounce of silver (then worth about 50 cents) entrusted with payment of $4.50 per
ounce for conversion costs, the investor would be repaid with 3/5 ounce of gold (then
worth about $11). Dr. Emmens' application for a patent on his process was refused,
however, so production never began, since he would not have been able to protect his
methods from unscrupulous competitors. (24, 29, 30)
Dr. Emmens was issued several U.S. Patents for inventions; at least two of them may be
related to his process: #501,996 (25 July 1893), Electrolytic bath; and #501,997 (25 July
1893), Apparatus for Electrolytic Extraction of Metals. Dr. Emmens' Force Engine
produced hammering pressures in excess of 500 tons/in2 at very low temperatures.
These effects can be achieved by a variety of modern methods.
Semantic ambiguities in Dr. Emmens' writings confuse the understanding of the process.
At times, Argentaurum refers to a new element, or to the gold produced from it, or to
Lea's intermediate allotropic silver.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Carey Lea discovered the preparation of so-called "allotropic" and "intermediate" silver
in 1889 while he was studying reductions of silver nitrate. "Allotropic" is a misnomer,
however. In 1925, Dr. Richard Zsigmondy, Professor of Chemistry at the University of
Göttingen, received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his study of Lea's "allotropic"
silver under the ultramicrosope. Dr. Zsigmondy found that such silver actually was a
monoatomic colloid of ordinary silver, not another isotope.
Lea determined that silver occurs in "allotropic", "intermediate", and ordinary forms.
Ordinary silver is protean in nature. The aqueous solutions are colloidal monoatoms, and
give perfectly clear solutions. The several forms of "allotropic" silver (a-Ag) dry with
their particles in optical contact with each other, thus forming continuous films that are
beautifully colored, perfect mirrors. Strong acids and pressure will convert a-Ag to the
normal form. There are three forms of a-Ag, and all are unstable. (21, 22)
There is also a very stable "intermediate form" of silver (i-Ag) which is easy to prepare.
It occurs as bright gold-yellow or green crystals with a metallic luster. Treatment with a
very dilute solution of ferric chloride will enhance the appearance of its foliar structure,
interpenetrating with plant-like ramifications, or fine acicular crystals up to 1 inch long.
"It has long been known that golden-yellow specks would occasionally show themselves
in silver solutions, but could not be obtained at will and the quantity thus appearing was
infinitesimal. Probably this phenomenon has often led to a supposition that silver might
be transmuted into gold. This yellow product, however, is only an allotropic form of
silver, but it has all the color and brilliancy of gold, a fact which was apparent even in
the minute specks hitherto obtained...
"It is a little curious that its permanency seems to depend entirely on details in the mode
of preparation. I have found many ways of obtaining it, but in a few months the
specimens preserved changed spontaneously, to normal silver... The normal silver
produced in this way is exquisitely beautiful. It has a pure and perfect white color like
the finest frosted jewelers' silver, almost in fact exceeding the jeweler's best products. I
found, however, one process by which a quite permanent result could be obtained... the
following proportions give good results:
"Two mixtures are required: No. 1 containing 200 cc of a 10% solution of silver nitrate,
200 cc of 20% solution of Rochelle Salt [Sodium potassium tartrate] and 800 cc of
distilled water. No. 2, containing 107 cc of a 30% solution of ferrous sulfate, 200 cc of a
20% solution of Rochelle salt and 800 cc of distilled water. The second solution (which
must be mixed immediately before using only) is poured into the first with constant
stirring. A powder, at first glittering red, then changing back to black, falls, which on the
filter has a beautiful bronze appearance. After washing it should be removed whilst in a
pasty condition and spread over watch glasses or flat basins and allowed to dry
spontaneously. It will be seen that this is a reduction of silver nitrate by ferrous sulfate...
"Although the gold-colored silver (into which the nitrate used is wholly converted) is
very permanent when dry, it is less so when wet. In washing, the filter must be kept
always full of water; this is essential. It dries into lumps exactly resembling highly
polished gold...
"If we coat a chemically clean glass plate with a film of gold-colored allotropic silver,
let it dry, first in the air, then for an hour or two in a stove at 100o C, and then heat the
middle of the plate carefully over a spirit lamp, we shall obtain with sufficient heat a
circle of whitish gray with a bright, lustrous golden ring round it, somewhat lighter and
brighter than the portion of the plate that has not been changed by heat. This ring
consists of what I propose to call the "intermediate form"...
"With sulfuric acid diluted with four times its bulk of water and allowed to cool, an
immersion of one or two seconds converts a film on glass or on pure paper wholly to the
intermediate form...
"Its properties are better seen by using a film formed on pure paper, one end of which is
heated over a spirit lamp to a temperature just below that at which paper scorches. The
change is sudden and passes over the heated portion of the surface like a flash.
Examining the changed part, we find:
1st. That it has changed from a deep gold to a bright yellow gold color.
2nd. When subjected to a shearing stress it does not whiten or change color in the
slightest degree.
4th. It no longer shows the color reaction with potassium ferricyanide and ferric
chloride, changing only by a slight deepening of color.
"Of these characteristic changes the second is the most remarkable. The gold-colored
silver in its original condition changes with singular facility to white silver; almost any
touch, any friction, effects the conversion...
The intermediate form is distinguished from normal silver almost solely by its bright
yellow color and its higher luster."
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(8) References ~
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Alchemical substances
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cadmia, which was also called Tuttia or Tutty, was probably zinc carbonate.
Philosophers' Wool, or nix alba (white snow). Zinc oxide made by burning zinc in air.
Called Zinc White and used as a pigment.
White vitriol. Zinc Sulphate. Described by Basil Valentine. Made by lixiviating roasted
zinc blende (zinc sulphide).
Calamine. Zinc carbonate.
Antimony. From latin 'antimonium' used by Constantinius Africanus (c. 1050) to refer to
Stibnite.
Glass of Antimony. Impure antimony tetroxide, obtained by roasting stibnite. Used as a
yellow pigment for glass and porcelain.
Butter of Antimony. White crystalline antimony trichloride. Made by Basil Valentine by
distilling roasted stibnite with corrosive sublimate. Glauber later prepared it by
dissolving stibnite in hot concentrated hydrochloric acid and distilling.
Powder of Algaroth. A white powder of antimonious oxychloride, made by by
precipitation when a solution of butter of antimony in spirit of salt is poured into water.
Stibnite. Antimony trisulphide. Grey mineral ore of antimony.
Wismuth. Bismuth.
Pearl white. Basic nitrate of bismuth, used by Lemery as a cosmetic.
Chrome green. Chromic oxide.
Chrome yellow. Lead chromate.
Chrome red. Basic lead chromate.
Chrome orange. Mixture of chrome yellow and chrome red.
Wood-ash or potash. Potassium carbonate made from the ashes of burnt wood.
Caustic wood alkali. Caustic potash. Potassium hydroxide. Made by adding lime to
potash.
Liver of sulphur. Complex of polysulphides of potassium, made by fusing potash and
sulphur.
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COMMENTS ON TRANSMUTATION ARE BELOW THE RECIPES; also links which
provide the images and an htm file that will help with visualization of the atom as it truly
is.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
at the bottom is a letter from someone who followed instructions with a bit of creative
ingenuity and had solid success.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Last modified January 4, 2003
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RECIPE # 1
************
It was Joe Champion who was, I believe, imprisoned for this process.
************
Joe Champion
4833 Woodmere Fairway E-1
Scottsdale, Arizona 85251
(602)481-6249 (home)
Personal Profile:
SUMMARY OF DIRECTION
In 1989 I was fortunate to witness a phenomena which for all intents and purposes has
been ruled by the established scientific community as an impossible event. In my
observation of an experiment being performed by a non-scientific person, I observed
what appeared to be the instant conversion of one element to another. This "conversion"
occurred under conditions wherein the applied energies were lower than those normally
considered possible.
Replication of this event under controlled conditions caused me to consider the fact that
nuclear events could occur under two sets of conditions; the accepted norm of "high
energy physics" and under a low energy nuclear exchange.
Since the initial introduction to this event, I have dedicated full time to the cause and
potential effects of this discovery. In an attempt to fully comprehend my findings I have
collaborated with institutions throughout the world to solidify my position and priority.
Work Experience;
Instituto TE.S.R.E.
Roberto A. Monti
LOW ENERGY TRANSMUTATIONS
(cold fusions and cold fissions)
Introduction.
***********
Experiment 2.
S 30 g (Spectrum)
1) The total B (beta) radiation count was 2.2 -10^4 CPM and five
different energy peaks were observed.
Roberto A. Monti
COLD FUSION AND COLD FISSION : EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE FOR THE
ALPHA-EXTENDED MODEL OF THE ATOM.
Summary.
On the basis of Thomson's, Parson's, Lewis, Allen's and Harkins' hypotheses a new
model of the atom is advanced, characterized by the following features: 1) substantial
asymmetry of the Coulomb electric and magnetic fields of electrons and protons: 2)
existence of positions of stable electromagnetic equilibrium of electrons in the vicinity
of nuclei; 3) the neutron is a particular "bond state" of the hydrogen atom; 4) the nuclei,
whose dimensions are greater than supposed by Rutherford, are composite structures of
hydrogen atoms, of period 4 (Alpha-extended model); 5) Physical and chemical
properties of each atom depend on the various, possible, isomeric configurations.
In the light of this new model, the Periodic Table of the Elements has been
reconstructed.
The genesis of the elements and the Slpha-extended model of the atom are shown by
means of: 1) neutron synthesis, starting from a cold plasma of protons and electrons; 2)
the synthesis of deuterium, Tritium, Helium-3 and Helium-4, starting from the hydrogen,
ultra cold neutrons and thermal neutrons; 3) the production an decay of Helium-B; 4) the
production and decay of the nuclei from 11 a (alpha?) to 18 a (alpha?) ; 5) "cold fusion"
of Iron-56 ; 6) cold fission; 7) carbon isomeric configurations (allotropic forms); 8) cold
fusion in metal lattices; 9) biological cold fusions and cold fissions (weak energy
transmutations); 10) the distribution of the scattered radiation.
Reference.
(1) R.A. Monti. A brief history of the atom, cold fusion and cold fission. Proceedings of
the international Conference: "What Physics for the next century?" Ischia, Italy, 29 Ray-
I June 1991
RECIPE # 3
The electrodes inserted into the mixture are copper coated or copper.
No sources for parts and equipment are available, you will have to check
locally.
There IS a device that will plug into house current and give the specified
electrical input in DC. That device costs $250.00.
......... zeropoint
items needed
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A FOURTH PROCESS/RECIPE from France!
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This site will eventually and soon include the explanations for how these effects are
possible. It is very simple but depends on the visualization of the ACTUAL shape of the
atoms involved and how they interact. This information is dispersed throughout the page
and will be pathed to this first link dealing with transmutation.
It was an ancient Arabic text which caused the infamous quest to make gold from base
metals. The text described the testing of a preparation of medicine, "if when flame is
applied to the powder, the powder turns to gold, the medicine is ready and should be
taken." This science depends on the facts articulated in the new science of ORMES. The
formation of ORMES as described in the link to David Hudson's site. The means of
determining the nature of the shape of the atom and of its substructure is esoteric in
nature, Kundalini.
The results of many overunity inventors end up in being piles of dust... the metal device
turns to powder on the lab bench, as is described in japanese.htm. It is this powder that
is the key. It is possible to make ORMES that when ingested do heal. Subsequent eating
of certain of these preparations render the person a spirit who may spend millions of
years in the state of the ethereal and require special fixation to be able to materialize. It
is suggested that various diabolical practises are merely rituals intended to give purchase
to the material world to persons who very long ago ate such preparations but cannot
orient to our state without contrivances by fools who engage is certain practises. The
ability to manipulate matter and circumstances in this manner, scalar physics and, with
respect to transmutation itself, frank CORRECT chemistry/physics, is that "magic"
which the Holy Bible says will disappear, e.g., be forgotten. The keeping of this science
from the public is designed to allow maximum shock value when it is implemented.
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Paranormal Observations Of ORMES Atomic structure This link is defunct in its
original location and is provided with images that show the atomic structure and
substructure as visualized by the unusual means described in this large htm file. The
images will be hooked up to the htm by April 2, 1998. And otherwise placed in this
paragraph. The viewing of the images and the understanding of what they show will
explain the simplicity of transmutation. bar.gif, dumbell.gif, dumbval.gif, subhelix.gif,
rebal.gif. ftp/ pictures/ subdirectory. Gold atom in rest state, dumbval shows gold in
high-pin state. Flanges at ends are valence attachment points which, in high spin state
allow for Cooper Pairing of the atom with itself or another atom. subhelix.gif shows
substructure of the atom itself. bar.gif shows another one of the several types of atomic
configuration for another element.
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http://www2.murray.net.au/users/egel/VISIT THIS SITE FOR MORE OVERUNITY
DEVICES AND GOOD GRAPHICS.
LE FastCounter
Contact information
Fourth Millennium
zap@dnai.com
P.O. Box 154
Berkeley, CA 94701-0154
(510) 841-4819
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hi to all at ZAP
I am writing to say THANK YOU THANK YOU THANK YOU THANK YOU
THANK YOU THANK YOU THANK YOU THANK YOU THANK YOU..
I have just completed the successful transmutation of gold as given by the recipe on your
site. This is the one involving the use of silver, mercury & sulpher.
I was very skeptical that this could possibly work, but since I had on hand some .999%
pure silver in coins,( Liberty Silver 1 oz ) I was able to proceed with only the minor
expense of purchasing the sulfur and Cinnabar (mercury). I was also concerned with the
possible fumes from the reaction and so arranged an extractor fan to suck out fumes via
a 6in chimney flue using a discarded computor cooling fan. this worked well and no
problems were experienced with dangerous fumes. Another concern was the regulating
of the current to 3 amps a min, this is a non scientific term as current flow is not
measured in time but in instantaneous amperage, well in any event we set up a Rheostat
to limit current to 3amps as the flow rate. using a dashboard lamp dimmer from a
wrecked truck and a multimeter to show the current.
The whole thing sure looked weird in the shed, but WOW the results say it all... I am
astonished that this kind of information is available, and even more amazed that it
WORKS.
I have several more coins to file down to powder, that's the hard part, I didn't want to use
a grindstone for fear of contamination of the formula with stone particles, maybe I will
give it a go as it seems a lot of the mixture is dross in any event, and I am sure a few
micrograms of stone will be absorbed as part of it, after it cools and hardens.
Once again THANK YOU, I am now sure I will be able to produce about 50 oz gold
with the remaining silver I have on hand and then we will see what to do next.
You may be interested to know that here in xxxxxxxxxx a person who finds gold as in
prospecting, does not have to pay tax on it, it is redeemable for cash at the
xxxxxxxxxxxx, some 120 miles from where I live, when I have finished the 50 oz
I will pour it all into one bar and take it up there, the estimated value is $12500:00 xx, so
you can see why I am so happy. thanks again...
Contact Information
Fourth Millennium
zap.dnai@rcn.com
(510) 761-4602
toes show picture is fake
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Chapter 7
CHAPTER VII
MODERN ALCHEMY
§ 85. "Modern Alchemy".
Correctly speaking, there is no such thing as "Modern Alchemy"; not that Mysticism is
dead, or that men no longer seek to apply the principles of Mysticism to phenomena on
the physical plane, but they do so after another manner from that of the alchemists. A
new science, however, is born amongst us, closely related on the one hand to Chemistry,
on the other to Physics, but dealing with changes more profound and reactions more
deeply seated than are dealt with by either of these; a science as yet without a name,
unless it be the not altogether satisfactory one of "Radioactivity." It is this science, or,
perhaps we should say, a certain aspect of it, to which we refer (it may be fantastically)
by the expression "Modern Alchemy": the aptness of the title we hope to make plain in
the course of the present chapter.
-117-
-118-
tube,<http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?
id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=pu
blic&part=7&division=div1> and it was found that more powerful effects can be
produced by inserting a disc of platinum in the path of the kathode particles. It was M.
Becquerel who first discovered that there are substances which naturally emit radiations
similar to X-rays. He found that uranium compounds affected a photographic plate from
which they were carefully screened, and he also showed that these uranium radiations,
or "Becquerel rays," resemble X-rays in other particulars. It was already known that
certain substances fluoresce (emit light) in the dark after having been exposed to
sunlight, and it was thought at first that the above phenomenon exhibited by uranium
salts was of a like nature, since certain uranium salts are fluorescent; but M. Becquerel
found that uranium salts which had never been exposed to sunlight were still capable of
affecting a photographic plate, and that this remarkable property was possessed by all
uranium salts, whether fluorescent or not. This phenomenon is known as "radioactivity,"
and bodies which exhibit it are said to be "radioactive." Schmidt found that thorium
compounds possess a similar property, and Professor Rutherford showed that thorium
compounds evolved also something resembling a gas. He called this an "emanation."
§ 87. The Discovery of Radium.
Mme. Curie<http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?
id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=pu
blic&part=7&division=div1> determined the radioactivity of many uranium and thorium
compounds, and found that there was a proportion between the radioactivity
-119-
of such compounds and the quantity of uranium or thorium in them, with the remarkable
exception of certain natural ores, which had a radioactivity much in excess of the
normal, and, indeed, in certain cases, much greater than pure uranium. In order to throw
some light on this matter, Mme. Curie prepared one of these ores by a chemical process
and found that it possessed a normal radioactivity. The only logical conclusion to be
drawn from these facts was that the ores in question must contain some unknown, highly
radioactive substance, and the Curies were able, after very considerable labour, to
extract from pitchblende (the ore with the greatest radioactivity) minute quantities of the
salts of two new elements -- which they named "Polonium" and "Radium" respectively
-- both of which were extremely radioactive.
M. Debierne has obtained a third radioactive substance from pitchblende, which he has
called "actinium."
-120-
, ,
. The -rays
have been shown to consist of of electrically charged (positive) particles, with a mass
approximately equal to that of four hydrogen atoms; they are slightly deviated by a
magnetic field, and do not possess great penetrative power. The
-121-
great penetrative power, and are not deviated by a magnetic field. The difference in the
effect of the magnetic field on these rays, and the difference in their penetrative power,
led to their detection and allows of their separate examination. Radium salts emit also an
emanation, which tends to become occluded in the solid salt, but can be conveniently
liberated by dissolving the salt in water, or by heating it. The emanation exhibits the
characteristic properties of a gas, it obeys Boyle's Law (i.e., its volume varies inversely
with its pressure), and it can be condensed to a liquid at low temperatures; its density as
determined by the diffusion method is about 100. Attempts to prepare chemical
compounds of the emanation have failed, and in this respect it resembles the rare gases
of the atmosphere -- helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon -- whence it is probable
that its molecules are monatomic, so that a density of 100 would give its atomic weight
as 200.<http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?
id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=pu
blic&part=7&division=div1> As can be seen from the table on pp. 106, 107, an atomic
weight of about 220 corresponds to a position in the column containing the rare gases in
the periodic system. That the emanation actually has an atomic weight of these
dimensions was confirmed by further experiments carried out by the late Sir William
Ramsay and Dr. R. W. Gray.<http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?
id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=pu
blic&part=7&division=div1> These chemists determined the density of the emanation
by actually weighing minute quantities of known volume of the substance, sealed up in
small capillary tubes, a specially sensitive
-122-
balance being employed. Values for the density varying from 108 to 113½,
corresponding to values for the atomic weight varying from 216 to 227, were thereby:
obtained. Sir William Ramsay, therefore, considered that there could no longer be any
doubt that the emanation was one of the elements of the group of chemically inert gases.
He proposed to call it Niton, and, for reasons which we shall note later, considered that
in all probability it had an atomic weight of about 222½.
-123-
strike the walls of the vacuum tube or a platinum disc placed in their path. The
and -rays
do not, however, result immediately from the exploding radium-atoms, the initial
-124-
Becquerel, on repeating the experiment, found that the activity of the residual uranium
was slowly regained, whilst that of the uranium X decayed. This is most simply
explained by the theory that uranium first changes into uranium X. It has been suggested
that radium may be the final product of the breaking up of the uranium-atom; at any rate,
it is quite certain that radium must be evolved in some way, as otherwise there would be
none in existence -- it would all have decomposed. This suggestion has been
experimentally confirmed, the growth of radium in large quantities of a solution of
purified uranyl nitrate having been observed. Uranium gives no emanation. Thorium
probably gives at least three solid products -- Meso-thorium, Radio-thorium, and
Thorium X, the last of which yields an emanation resembling that obtained from radium,
but not identical with it.
-125-
-126-
proves this point. Sir William Ramsay's results were confirmed by further careful
experiments by Sir James Dewar and other chemists. It was suggested, therefore, that the
<http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/images/modeng/public/RedAlch/RedAl126.jpg>
-127-
-128-
is the lightest of all known gases with the exception of hydrogen and has been liquefied
only by the most persistent effort. 13 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-
new?
id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=pu
blic&part=7&division=div1> The emanation, moreover, is radioactive, giving off
-129-
-130-
-131-
-132-
on water. Out of five experiments no neon was obtained, save in one case in which a
small air leak was discovered; and, since the authors find that very minute quantities of
this gas are sufficient to give a clearly visible spectrum, they conclude that Ramsay's
positive results are due, after all, to leakage of air into the apparatus. But if this is the
true explanation of Ramsay's results, it is difficult to understand why, in the case of the
experiment with a solution of a copper salt described below, the presence of neon was
not detected, for, if due to leakage, the proportions of the rare gases present should
presumably have been the same in all the experiments. Further research seems necessary
conclusively to settle the question.
-133-
copper into lithium and sodium, and emanation into argon. They also observed that
apparently carbon dioxide is continually evolved from an acid solution of thorium nitrate
(see below, § 100). It is worth while noticing that helium, neon and argon occur in the
same column in the Periodic Table with emanation; lithium and sodium with copper, and
carbon with thorium; in each case the elements produced being of lighter atomic weight
than those decomposed.21 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?
id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=pu
blic&part=7&division=div1> The authors make the following suggestions: "(1) That
-134-
-135-
-136-
of silicon, titanium, zirconium and thorium. In the case of lead, the amount of carbon
dioxide obtained was inappreciable. 26 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-
new?
id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=pu
blic&part=7&division=div1>
-137-
Certain substances are known which, although differing in their physical properties very
markedly, behave chemically as if they were one and the same element, giving rise to
the same series of compounds. Such substances, of which we may mention diamond,
graphite and charcoal (e.g., lampblack) -- all of which are known chemically as "carbon"
-- or, to take another example, yellow phosphorus (a yellow, waxy, highly inflammable
solid) and red phosphorus (a difficultly-inflammable, dark red substance, probably
possessing a minutely crystalline structure), are, moreover, convertible one into the
other.27 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?
id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=pu
blic&part=7&division=div1> It has been customary to refer to such substances as
different forms or allotropic modifications of the same element, and not to regard them
as being different elements. As Professor Howe says, "If after defining `elements' as
substances hitherto indivisible, and different elements as those which differ in at least
some one property, and after asserting that the elements cannot be transmuted into each
other, we are confronted with the change from diamond into lampblack, and with the
facts, first, that each is clearly
-138-
indivisible hitherto and hence an element, and, second, that they differ in every property,
we try to escape in a circle by saying that they are not different elements because they
do change into each other. In short, we limit the name `element' to indivisible substances
which cannot be transmuted into each other, and we define those which do transmute as
ipso facto one element, and then we say that the elements cannot be transmuted. Is not
this very like saying that, if you call a calf's tail a leg, then a calf has five legs? And if it
is just to reply that calling a tail a leg does not make it a leg, is it not equally just to reply
that calling two transmutable elements one element does not make them so?
"Is it philosophical to point to the fact that two such transmutable elements yield but a
single line of derivatives as proof that they are one element? Is not this rather proof of
the readiness, indeed irresistibleness, of their transmutation? Does not this simply mean
that the derivativeless element, whenever it enters into combination, inevitably
transmutes into its mate which has derivatives?28
<http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?
id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=pu
blic&part=7&division=div1>
According to the atomic theory the differences between what are termed "allotropic
modifications" are generally ascribed to differences in the number and arrangement of
the atoms constituting the molecules of such "modifications," and not to any differences
in the atoms themselves. But we cannot argue that two such "allotropic modifications"
or elements which are transmutable into one another
-139-
are one and the same element, because they possess the same atomic weight, and
different elements are distinguished by different atomic weights; for the reason that, in
the determination of atomic weights, derivatives of such bodies are employed; hence, the
value obtained is the atomic weight of the element which forms derivatives, from which
that of its derivativeless mate may differ considerably for all we know to the contrary, if
we do, indeed, regard the atomic weights of the elements as having any meaning beyond
expressing the inertia-ratios in which they combine one with another.
If we wish to distinguish between two such "allotropic modifications" apart from any
theoretical views concerning the nature and constitution of matter, we can say that such
"modifications" are different because equal weights of them contain, or are equivalent
to, different quantities of energy,29 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?
id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=pu
blic&part=7&division=div1> since the change of one "form" to another takes place only
with the evolution or absorption (as the case may be) of heat. 30
<http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?
id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=pu
blic&part=7&division=div1> But, according to modern views regarding the nature of
matter, this is the sole fundamental
-140-
difference between two different elements -- such are different because equal weights of
them contain or are equivalent to different quantities of energy. The so-called "allotropic
modifications of an element," therefore, are just as much different elements as any other
different elements, and the change from one "modification" to another is a true
transmutation of the elements; the only distinction being that what are called "allotropic
modifications of the same element" differ only slightly in respect of the energy they
contain, and hence are comparatively easy to convert one into the other. whereas
different elements (so called) differ very greatly from one another in this respect,
whence it is to be concluded that the transmutation of one such element into another will
only be attained by the utilisation of energy in a very highly concentrated form, such as
is evolved simultaneously with the spontaneous decomposition of the radium emanation.
§ 103. Conclusion.
We have shown that modern science indicates the essential truth of alchemistic doctrine,
and our task is ended. Writing in 1904, Sir William Ramsay said: "If these hypotheses
[concerning the possibility of causing the atoms of ordinary elements to absorb energy]
are just, then the transmutations of the elements no longer appears an idle dream. The
philosopher's stone will have been discovered, and it is not beyond the bounds of
possibility that it may lead to that other goal of the philosophers of the dark ages -- the
elixir vitæ. For the action of living cells is also dependent on the nature and direction of
the energy which they contain; and who can say that it will be
-141-
impossible to control their action, when the means of imparting and controlling energy
shall have been investigated?" 31 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?
id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=pu
blic&part=7&division=div1> Whatever may be the final verdict concerning his own
experiments, those of Sir Ernest Rutherford, referred to in the Preface to the present
edition, demonstrate the fact of transmutation; and it is worth noticing how many of the
alchemists' obscure descriptions of their Magistery well apply to that marvellous
something which we call Energy, the true "First Matter" of the Universe. And of the
other problem, the Elixir Vitæ, who knows?
1. They must not be confused with the greenish-yellow phosphorescence which is also
produced: the X-rays are invisible.
12. By Ramsay. See Proceedings of the Chemical Society, vol. xxv. (1909), pp. 82 and
83.
13. By Professor Onnes. See Chemical News, vol. xcviii. p. 37 (July 24, 1908).
14. See Professor H. C. JONES: The Electrical Nature of Matter and Radioactivity
(1906), pp. 125 -- 126.
15. It has been definitely proved, for example, that the common element potassium is
16. Says Peter Bonus, however, " . . . we know that the generation of metals occupies
thousands of years . . . in Nature's workshop . . ." (see The New Pearl of Great Price,
Mr. A. E. Waite's translation, p. 55), and certain others of the alchemists expressed a
similar view.
17. Sir WILLIAM A. TILDEN: The Elements: Speculations as to their Nature and
Origin (1910), pp. 108, 109, 133 and 134. With regard to Sir William Tilden's remarks,
it is very interesting to note that Swedenborg (who was born when Newton was between
forty and fifty years old) not only differed from that great philosopher on those very
points on which modern scientific philosophy is at variance with Newton, but, as is now
recognised by scientific men, anticipated many modern discoveries and scientific
theories. It would be a most interesting task to set forth the agreement existing between
Swedenborg's theories and the latest products of scientific thought concerning the nature
of the physical universe. Such, however, would lie without the confines of the present
work.
18. Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY: "The Chemical Action of the Radium Emanation. Pt. I.,
Action on Distilled Water," Journal of the Chemical Society, vol. xci. (1907), pp. 931 et
seq. ALEXANDER T. CAMERON and Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY, ibid. "Pt. II., On
Solutions containing Copper, and Lead, and on Water," ibid. pp. 1593 et seq. "Pt. III.,
On Water and Certain Gases," ibid. vol. xciii. (1908), pp. 966 et seq. "Pt. IV., On
Water," ibid. pp. 992 et seq.
22. Journal of the Chemical Society, vol. xci. (1907), pp. 1605-1606. More recent
24. EDGAR PHILIP PERMAN: "The Direct Action of Radium on Copper and Gold,"
Proceedings of the Chemical Society, vol. xxiv. (1908), p. 214.
25. Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY: "Elements and Electrons," Journal of the Chemical
Society, vol. xcv. (1909), pp. 624 et seq.
26. For a brief account in English of these later experiments see The Chemical News,
vol. c. p. 209 (October 29, 1909).
27. Diamond is transformed into graphite when heated by a powerful electric current
between carbon poles, and both diamond and graphite can be indirectly converted into
charcoal. The artificial production of the diamond, however, is a more difficult process;
but the late Professor Moissan succeeded in effecting it, so far as very small diamonds
are concerned, by dissolving charcoal in molten iron or silver and allowing it to
crystallise from the solution under high pressure. Graphite was also obtained. Red
phosphorus is produced from yellow phosphorus by heating the latter in absence of air.
The temperature 240-250o C. is the most suitable; at higher temperatures the reverse
change sets in, red phosphorus being converted into yellow phosphorus.
29. For a defence of the view that chemical substances may be regarded as energy-
complexes, and that this view is equally as valid as the older notion of a chemical
substance as an inertia-complex, i.e., as something made up entirely of different units or
atoms each characterised by the possession of a definite and constant weight at a fixed
point on the earth's surface, see an article by the present writer, entitled "The Claims of
Thermochemistry," Knowledge and Scientific News, vol. vii. (New Series), pp. 227 et
seq. (July, 1910).
30. In some cases the heat change accompanying the transformation of an element into
an "allotropic modication"{sic} can be measured directly. More frequently, however, it
is calculated as the difference between the quantities of heat obtained when the two
"forms" are converted into one and the same compound.
31. Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY: "Radium and its Products," Harper's Magazine
(December 1904), vol. xlix. (European Edition), p. 57.
THE END.
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Chapter 5
The lamp was constructed of lead quartz. Two legs (A, B), ending in narrow tubes,
contain two steel electrodes cemented with sealing wax. The electrodes were inserted in
two small removable copper water coolers (G, H). Pure liquid lead was poured into
storage vessel C, after which the open end was sealed off. The lead was kept liquid at
350o C by an electric furnace around C. Tube D contained capillary F and terminated in
stopcock K, which was connected to a mercury diffusion pump (Fig. 5.1).
When a high vacuum was attained, vessel C was further heated with a Bunsen burner to
dissociate all the oxide and gases. Stopcock K was then closed and disconnected from
the pump. The apparatus was tilted so the liquid lead ran into the two legs (A, B) of the
lamp. The legs of the lamp were heated to redness to drive off the gases from the
electrodes, and the lamp was evacuated again. Then copper water coolers were placed
around the legs, and the lamp was ready to use. At the end of the experiment, the liquid
lead was returned to vessel C, which was continuously heated. The lead was specially
prepared and purified by the firm of Kahlbaum of Berlin to prevent every contamination,
especially mercury.
The experiment was monitored with a quartz spectroscope. After a current of 30-35
amperes/8 volts was passed through the system for 6 hours, a few mercury lines began to
appear in the spectrum. After 10 hours, the entire series of lines of mercury, plus those
of thallium, were apparent in the visible and ultraviolet spectrum.
After filling the storage vessel, the lamp and the lead were heated in high vacuum to
redness. The lead oxide being dissociated, the liquid lead was as brilliant as mercury.
Then the lead was brought into the lamp, and after ignition the spectrum was observed at
25 V/36 A, by a Hilger quartz-spectrograph. Further, the spectrum of a quartz mercury
lamp was observed, and also the scale in such a way that, to facilitate comparison, the
different spectra were adjacent. Thus we obtained the spectrum of the lead in its initial
state. After that we burned the lamp at 40 A/80 V for 10 hours. After having done this
the lead was poured into the storage vessel to obtain thorough mixing; the lead was then
brought into the lamp again, and after ignition the spectrum was observed at 25 V/36 A.
The result was that, whilst initially the lead spectrum showed only very weakly the
mercury line 2536 in the ultra-violet, after 10 hours' burning the strongest mercury lines
had appeared in the visible as well as in the ultra-violet part of the spectrum, and also the
most characteristic thallium line, indicating a transmutation of lead into mercury and
thallium.
Since our experiments showed that a high current density is very favourable to this
transformation, we used currents up to 60 A, but that seemed to be dangerous, because
only by intensive air cooling could melting of the quartz-lamp be prevented.
This, however, does not yet prove the transmutation to be strong, as it is known that a
relatively strong quantity of mercury can cause the spectrum of another element to
disappear. But at all events our spectra show in a very convincing way the transmutation
of lead into mercury...
In the case of the transmutation of lead into mercury, the inactive isotopes having the
atomic weights 206, 208 and 210, we may assume, for example, that the isotope 206
suffers a transmutation giving an isotope of mercury:
Pb - a = Hg
201 - 4 = 202
82 - 2 = 80
But we may also assume that the other isotopes 208 and 210 undergo a transmutation. In
that case we obtain:
Pb - 2a - 2q = Hg
208 - 4 = 202
82 - 2 = 80, and:
Pb - 2a - 2q = Hg
208 - 8 = 200
82 - 4 + 2 = 80
In the case of the transmutation of lead into thallium we can assume, for example, the
following process:
Pb - a - q = Tl
208 - 4 = 204
82 - 2 + 1 = 81
We see that of the different transmutation possibilities, [the first] is most simple.
Moreover, I suspected this process could be expected first, as lead is the end-product of
the spontaneous radioactive transformations... The best method of learning the nature of
the transmutation is to examine spectroscopically whether the process is accompanied by
the formation of helium or hydrogen, and to determine the atomic weights of the heavier
products...
While using the old quartz-lead lamp, negative results were obtained only if the current
strength was lower than 15 amperes, but now, with our new lamps... spectroscopically
negative results were found even using 60 amperes. The lamp showed distinctly
different properties in burning and sparking. This proves that the phenomena taking
place in the quartz-lead lamp depend on influences unknown until now, so that
transmutation in the quartz-lead lamp is not so easy to reproduce as we expected. (2)
In 1926, A.C. Davies and Frank Horton reported that they had been unsuccessful in their
attempts to replicate the Smits-Karssen experiments. They offered these speculations:
In the case of the transmutation of lead (82) into mercury (80), the change may occur
either by the intermediate production of thallium by one of the processes already
suggested [viz, "the entry of an electron into, or by the removal of a proton from, the
nucleus of the mercury atom."], and the subsequent conversion of the thallium into
mercury by a second similar process, or it can occur as a one-stage change by the
ejection from the lead nucleus of either one doubly charged positive particle
(presumably an a -particle) or two singly charged positive particles (presumably protons)
simultaneously. If the process occurs by the intermediate production of thallium, one
would expect to find evidence of a relatively large amount of thallium compared with
the amount of mercury produced. Prof. Smits does not seem to have found such an
effect, for he records stronger evidence of the production of mercury than of the
production of thallium...
For some unknown reason, these explorations were not continued, and the issue
disappeared from the scientific literature after 1928. This line of research remains open
to exploration, since the questions it raised remain unanswered to this day.
(2) References
2. Davies, A.C., & Horton, Frank: Nature 117 (2935): 152 (30 Jan. 1926).
4. Smits, A., & Karssen, A.: Scientific American 133 (4): 230, 231 (Oct. 1925); ibid.,
134 (2): 80, 81 (Feb. 1926).
5. Smits, A.: Nature 114 (2869): 609, 610 (25 Oct. 1924); ibid., 117 (1931): 13-15 (2
Jan. 1926); ibid., 117 (1948): 620 (1 May 1926).
6. Thomassen, L.: Nature 119 (3005): 813 (4 June 1927).
***
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" Gold can be manufactured from other elements by several methods. The penultimate
means of transmutation is the Philosophers' Stone of any degree, but that is another
matter altogether.
The transmutation of silver to gold is perhaps the easiest -- or least difficult -- of such
experiments. If nothing else, the attempt may serve to enlighten aspiring souffleurs "
In a life filled with many accomplishments, Ben Franklin gained notoreity for, among
other things, "discovering" electricity and helping to write the U.S. Constitution. But as
if those things were not enough, he also took time out during his busy life to predict,
Nostradamus-style, the future practice of cryonic suspension.
Sort of.
In the letter below, to his friend and fellow scientist Jacques Dubourg, he says several
things that now seem almost eerily prescient. More than anything, his words convey a
general optimism about science and its value, and a desire to be around in the far future
to see how it all turns out. Today's cryonicists generally find more than a little to
symapthize with in these thoughts.
Too bad that, as he feared, the science of his age was "too little advanced" to afford him
the opportunity for more life. There is no doubt that having him around today would be a
tremendous boon to historians and the curiousity-filled public. Of course, having Ben
Franklin alive today would have beend an even bigger boon to Ben Franklin himself,
historical figure or not.
"A hundred years hence," will people be saying the same thing about you? Ruminating
your passing? Wondering how you would have liked the way the world turned out?
Unlike poor Ben, you have at least one option for avoiding that. Will you?
***
To Jacques Dubourg.
Your observations on the causes of death, and the experiments which you propose for
recalling to life those who appear to be killed by lightning, demonstrate equally your
sagacity and your humanity. It appears that the doctrine of life and death in general is yet
but little understood...
I am, etc.
- B. FRANKLIN.
[From Mr. Franklin, A Selection from His Personal Letters, by L. W. Labaree and W. J.
Bell, Jr. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1956), pp. 27-29.]
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------
Tomas Edison certainly read this book and later used its knowledge to invent
devices by 1875
I,
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MEM3NR OP THE ACAnEMV OF NATITRAL SCI~XO~8, PR!LADELPH!£
L'honirne ~ur 'In Ynondc d~ pou~~i~rc qui to~rn~ Ct 1~e~pnrt, ave, 'Upidite', ~
mesure' ~ dCs Ci'UX. 11 voue dira Ia graud~ur dci Istres leur Vitesse Ct cur
di~tar~re i'IterrO~~z~Ia ear 'utume qui esl taprec de lur, ii gardera Ic sjIe'tce.
L. ~
ONE i1UNr~i:I) ANn z~ytmiI T1!OcJ~~Nfl
PHTh~D£LPItI~:
J. B. LIPPI~£ 0 TT & ~o
NO.20 NORTh FnU?T~ ST~~EET
1860.
I-
m
opeba OF 14
1~' )rutr
At a meeting ofthe floard of Educatico of the Ittouhi; ~ehlie ~hooii held flee, 2, laCi,
the fuituwilIg tesetutico ~ve~ tttoeled
Resateed, Th~i '4 Petercue's Familiar Sciente," be adopted as a tegl seek fur utS in
the Public aehoots.
W. a. DILTANGIIAM, -C~trls~ts efc~. om &hocZ Beeia
t~t,,t,t, 9. L. itoLeitet, See'y.
Entored according to '.,' Act cf OIIugre~e, to the year 1~tl by ~O~ETh 41;.
-~ t~e Clock's Ci't~ Os II"))" C44tttt of the Laslera th~tnci
c--f i'~itta2yt'~utl.
4
F
~P~E~ACE.
I.
A part of the f~ollewin,e work '5 lco'a the pen of the Re~ Or. Brewer, of Innity
11411, Cambri'- 'go; al so, Head ~'1astef of King's C&Aege ~ch~ol, Igorwiob-in
union with I'~ing'it ('ollege, London. It cOni4Ii)5 mud' useful, as well a prac tical
scientific knowledge, in -t very popnlar and entertaining
kim,
wait not only sn nian~ ~ 0 uts Un itt d to the Anterican pupil, -.The work, however,
as it erianated fiom the ~nghsh press,
but was eAtremely deh~'~iit in its arran~ement Ihe L'ditor has endeavored to
r~m~ ly ibes defects, by making many
4 additions, q5 ~ cli a-s by t~i-t ~4c those ilarts which wero -pm'ely applicable
to Gicat britain, and adapting the whole to our own country As to the orron emial,
be ~els con-fident it will be the 'c~~v - I f--'I~ ,~o the acquirement of
the great u'~ie'tii~ efu -4 1 i ~ ~~bodied ii the wor'g,
and also of clas~~~ yin- in '10 ioi'id of the pupil the different I-branches of ~ 1iich it
14 t
'4 No science is mere generally interesting than that which ~xplains tIes COinitlon
phenomena of life. ~ see that salt md snow i.e boili wldto, a mS red, leaveS green,
and the violet a deep puiplc 1)1.-' b~w few persons ever ask the rca-
-- son why ~ e knou that a flute prodtices a ineesical sound, and a cracI-ed hell
a ducordaut one-that fire is hot, ice cold, and a candL' luininous th '1 n ater boils
when subjected to heat, and Ire~zes fi'om cold but when a child looks up into our
face and ask u~ why '-how many times is it silenced with a frown or called very
foolish for asking such silly
qnestions
p This book intended for the use of faneilies and itchoola, ~plains about t~ 0
thousand of tliese questions, and is wi-it-ten in language so pl~n as to be nngu~tood
by all. Care has been taleen howeveir, in the endeavor, to render it intelligible to
the yenPog, to avoid that childish simplicity which ~ight be un~ccep~-~~de to tl4ose
of riper years.
A verji foil Index is app ecided to the work, to facilitate thi pupil's researches.
-4 Dr Brew~'c Preface
Ii
I
IV PrtE~ACE.
m m ____
1<
CONTENTS.
PART 1.-HEAT.
DAIL
CIEIP I ~ - - . - .
See 1 iSo -Ca the PC~trCC2 ~oorre of heat. 7
u II E 2 c ire . -
9
See 1 1 lrrrr~c~ty prodaerj I friction. . 0
') ~ - 12
I 5 D u-~ from t~~h~otng. . . 19
ra. . . 25
ret- of Itghtaittg. . . 12
3 TI,urd,r . . - - 15
Iii CHFMtCAL Ar . . . 42
See I 1~o, ·~r4 . -- 43
Itt 5Tc~3. 43
- . 51
- . . 59
2 ~ -t - . . . 79
i I .~l of heat . . 9
5 . . . - 99
S ch',n~~ . . . 197
4 1 1 tt~ot heat . . . 110
2 ~o,lt' to~~ . . . . 111
2]; . . 121
4 Vi . e . 131
113
4 R~,ti it ii.. . . . - 117
5 Rell, 'im'. . . . . 141
6 Al) iri'nou . - . . . 142
a IV. MEra~~irAL ~~TWN. . . . . . 161
See trru--~iot. . . - . . 101
2 Friet,ou. . - . . . - 151
2 co,,dcit-anoa or eompe~io1. - . . 151
PART Y.-METEOROLOGY.
CHAP. I.~ATMo~rnEaE. . · 227
See. 1. Teode ~viadc. - 256
2. 11'~tt~ooue ·- · 245
~ 112.-cLouns. . · · 240
Sec. 1. Ilodificotjocc of eloude. · 256
2. Dew. · 269
3. R~o'I. ~',ow. IlotI. · 274
4 .11L~, F0 F£Ost.- · 258
cc IV,~~cE. - · 259
· 413
PART YI.-OPTICS.
C·I- A?. 1,-Littur.- . . · · · 427
II- Sec. 1. The eye the eeat of vision. · ·
412
2. DeceptionS of vtctou. · · · 4ic
cc PI.--HFcOACTIOY. - . · . -.- 1,1
cc itt.-UPeLocT,oe. - · - · . 472
" IV.-coLoII. - · · · · · , 477
PART VII.-SOU~~
CHAP I -~TRANSM'SStON Or. SOuND. · · · 415
Sec. 1. ITusjeal counds. · · · · . 416
5. Eehs. · · · .- · 490
MItacELLANEGUS. . · . · · m
PART I.-H1~AT.
1.
Q. WI ~at is ~o~?
A. The sensation of warm~h.
e
2
8
ThE SUN.
kncwn; hut fires are never so bright wheu thc~ nm shines on them. It is generaTly
~posed some chem~al e~ect is produced r~r)f~~n the ~ in contact with the fire
which rn~~cc(es the progress of combustion.
5ECTiO~ iI~--cALoETC.
5.
6.
Q. WIiat is that "sn~tle invisi&le stream called, which flows from the hotter su~
stance?
A. CALORIc. Co'lorJc, therefore is the agent, which produc~s the sensation of
warmth; but HFAT is the sensatica itself.
I
CALORIO. 9
~ture is 82~o, while at the potes it is believed to be about 130 below Zero.
Average ~ that iv, tica mean or medium tempemture.
8.
9.
10.
Q. When you rub a piece of p~er with Tndian r~~bber, why does it adhere to the
t~ ble?
J2 ELECTRICITY.
:9.
Q has this peculiar odor called "Ozone" been observed in thunder storms?
A. Yes; sometimes the~sulphurous odor prevfiils, and sometimes the
phosplloric.
LIGHTNING. Is
20.
-Q- Why are there differen~ coior~ in the Aurora Borealis, such as white, yellow,
red aiid I)urple?
A. Because the electric ~uid passes through~air of different densit~es. The most
rai~fi~d air produces a white light; the most d?y air, red; and the most damp
produces yellow streaks.
SECTION 11.-LIGHTNING.
21.
t
~. What is lightning?
A. Lightning is accumulated electricity ~ charged from the clouds.
Like that from a "Leyden Jar."
22.
I
LIGHTNING. Is
¼;
I'
20.
Q. Wily are there different col0T6 in the Aurora Borealis, such as white, yellow,
i~d Rild purple?
A. Because the electric fluid passea through air of different densitzes. The most
rar~ed air produces a white light; the most y air, red; and the most damp producea
yellow streaks.
SECTION 11.-LIGHTNING.
2L
~. What is lightning?
A. Lightning is accumulated electricity ~ charged from the clouds.
Like tbat from a ~' Leyden jar."
22.
2nd.-The chem~c~ changes which take ~ace on tbe earth's surface~; 5nd
3rd.-Currents of air of unequal tempera{~ire, which excite electricity by frictio~, aa
they come in contaci with each other.
2
p
-~
-i
14
~WITY.
23.
Q. What causes the discharge of an eleo. tric cloud?
A. ~~hen a cloud, overcharged with ele~ tnc fluid, 'pproaches ano flier which is
a~ dercharge(7, the fluid rushes from the former into the latter, till both contain the
same quantity.
There are t~vo d~frereat kinde of T'.ertr?ei~y~one Vi~re~u~, rT(~ toe ctIIei
~eti'i~~ut : fliore ~r~qure~tiy e.'~~led P~~itive a~id ~Q0'qt~Ve E~e~i rily.
24
Q. i~ there any other cau~e of Lightntng besides flie one iu~t mentioned?
A. Yes ; some ~ ~ mount~ins, trees, ~nd sfe~les, wi~ d1 ch~rge the li{+tl~~.ng
from a cloud floatin~ ne~r; ~d s~eti'nes electric fluid rushes ottt of the earth into
the r]oU~s.
25.
I
LIGHTNING. 15
Q. How does the ro44ance of the air make til3 lib taing zig-zag?
A. As the Jighti~ing condenses the air in the inn nec' cite ad\-ance of its path, it
flies from side to side, in order to pass where there is the least resistance.
29.
Q. Why are there sometimes two fla~1iei of for~4 li~litning at the same moment?
A. Becanse (in very severe storms) the fln~ will diwide into two or more parts)
each of whiuli will assume the zig-zag form.
30.
Q. Why is the flash sometimes quite ~traight?
L
[11
F.
10 EIJ~cThIclTY.
32.
33.
MGIITNING. 17
is disturbed by tile pass~~;e of the ligllti)]flg, and wind is tile result ci this
disturbance.
3
Q. Wily is there n~ thunder to what is ~alled summ£~r lightnin~'?
A. Becansc the Iigiltuing~cIoucls are so J~r distant, that the sound of the
thunder is lost before it reaches tile ear.
36.
Q. When lightning flashes from the earth ~o tile clouds, what i~ the flash ca1l~d?
A. It is popularly called the "return~~ ~roke;" because the earth (being
overcharged with electric fluid,) returns the surplus quantity to the clouds.
Q. Why is lightning more common in ~mmer and in autumn than in spring and
winter?
A. Because the heat of summer and autumn produces great evaporation; and the
~onversion- of water into vapor always developes electricity.
38
Q. Why is a tree sometimes scor~hcd by lightning, as if it had bean set on fire?
A. The electric flu~d scorches by its own positive heat, just the same as fire
would.
9*
I
U'
18 ELEOTRICITY.
A
I.- Dangerffom Lightni~g.
20 ELECTRIOITY.
48.
t
DANGER ~ROM LIGHTNING. 21
54.
a
Q. ~'hy is it d~ngero~e to b~ near a deep river, or any other running water
during a thunder storm?
A. Becaus~ running water is a good co~~ duc§~r; and lightning always takes in
it~ course the Jtest coniNctor~.
~5.
I
ELECTRIcITY.
A Because tile height of a m~in ~ay be ~ufficient to discil~ge a ~oud; ~id (if there
~Vere 110 t~A'er obj~ct nigil) t}ie lightning nught make tile man its conductor to
tile ~vatcr
56.
Q- Wil~ is it dan~~ovs to rin~
during a tilunder stoini? chureli hells
A. Por tViO ~ I ]st. Beonse the
~
5tCCj)'(' ~Il~y
di~ch~IU~~e
merely from its hc~ ilt and
2n~.-As tile swrnging of tile bells puts tile air in~motio~, it diminisiles its resistance
to tile electric fluid.
57
9. Wily is it unsaQ~ to run or drive ~ luring a tilunder storm?
-
I
I
24 ELECTRICITY.
A Bell-wire is an ercellent conductor, and a person were to touch the bell handle
the electric fluid, passing down tile wire might run through ilis hand and injure it
63
I
A. Because the crowd, and great '~apor arisilig from so many living bodies,
render it ~n excellent conductor of lightning.
67.
Q. ~Y11y is a flock of sheep, herd of cattle, ~tc., in greater danger than a smaller
nuin
[
I
ELECTRICITY.
70.
house, before it reaciled tile middle story in consequence of which its force would be
weakened.
74.
Q. Why is the middle of a room more safi ~ian any otiler part of it in a ~iunder
~torm?
A. Because tile lightning (if it should strike the room at all,) would come down
the chimney or walls of the room; and, therefore, tile further distant from these, the
better.
75.
Q. What is tile safest thing a person can do to avoid injury from lightning?
N. ile should draw his bedstead into the middle of his room, commit himself to
the care of God, and go to bed; remembenug that our Lord has said, "The very
hairs of your head are all numbered."
No greot danger flee,! really to be apprehended from lightning, it you ivoid taking
your position near tall trees, spires, or other elevated nljeelt
J
f
28
ELECTRICITY.
77-
Q. Is it better to be wet or dry during a tilLmder storm?
A. To be wet; if a person be in the open field, tile best tiling be can do, is to stand
about twenty feet from some tree, and get co?nplete/y drenched to the skin.
78.
ll.~LigAtning Conductor.
79.
Q. w.~at metal is best for tius purpose? A Copper makes tile best conductor.
81.
'I
LIG1iT~ING CONI)UCTOll~5. 29
64.
Q. How far will the beneficial influence
a lightning-conductor extend?
A. It will protect a space all round, four times the length of that part of the roil
which riecs vY)oi~e the littilding.
3-
ELECTRICfl~.
85.
UGHTIING CONDUCi~R5. 31
A. Because the path of. the fluid is obItrileted by the joint; an4 the shock (f.elt at
the elbow) is caused by tlie fluid leaping from one bone to another.
90.
Q. Why does lightning part file air through which it passes? it does not part a
rod of iron.
A. As iron is a conductor, it allows the fluid to pass freely thi~ugh it; but air
(being a non~conductor,) resists its passage.
92
Q. Wilv is an oak stru~~ by lightning more frequently than any other tree?
A. Because the grain of the oak, being closer than that of any other tree of tile
same bulk, renders it a better conductor.
~t jesald thst tite sap ofthe oak rontaiss a larce qaastitvo~i~aa in 500-lion, which
impregitat~ the wood and bark, thus inoreasing its eonduclir~ ~ower.
93.
32
ELECTRICITY
94.
Q. Why does lightning pass down the outside 0£ a tree?
A. Because it always makes choice of the best conducto;~; and tile outside of a
tree L5 a better conductor than the inside.
95.
96.
Q. Why would tile lightning run through a man touching a bell ilandTe?
A. Because tile human body is a better conductor than tile wall, which is
between tile bell handle and the floor; and as ligil~ fling always chooses tile best
conductor fo~ its path, it would (in this case) pass tlirough tile nian.
97.
Q. Why would lightning fly from a tree or spire into a man standing near?
A. Because tile electric fluid (c~ed lig~~ ning) aiways chooses for its p.'.~h tile
o~~Z canductors; and, if tile iluman fluids proved the better conductor, it would
pass through the man standing near tile tree, rather than down tile tree itself.
There ~voaTd he no d~s~er if he ~pire were made of eteral; bceaut~
metal i~ a better eoodoeto? than the human fluids.
IIl.-~ffec's of Lightning.
99.
Q. Wity is the bark of a tree often rippe~ quite off by a fla~ of lightiung?
ELECTRIcITY.
A. Because the latent heat of tile tret (being very rapidly developed by the
electric fll~id) forces away tile bark in its im petuosity to escape.
Ssme part of this is prohsbly due to the simple earchaniral tsrre of the tghtr.irg.
102.
Q. Can you tell me how St. Bride's church, (London,) was nearly destroyed by
lightning, about one ilmidred years ago?
A. The lightning first struck the meta1.. vane, and ran down the rod; it thell
darted to the iron cramps, employed to snppor~ tbe building; and (as it flew from
bar ii~ bar) smashed the stones of the church, which lay between.
104.
EFFECT~ OF LIGHTNING. 35
A. Because it always takes in its course the b~st condudors; and will fly both
right ind left, in order to reach tilem.
105.
106.
Q. What is the difference between combining and mixing?
A. When different ingredients are mingled together without undergoing any
chemical change, tiley are said to be mixed; but when tile natural properties of each
are altered by the union, then those ingredients are said to be combined.
107.
Q Give me an example?
A. Different colored sands (shaken together in a bottle) will mir, but not com
* Tee sir is composed of two gasee, called oxycen and nitrogen, tegether htxt not
remhierd. Oxygen cesthin~d with nitr'~grn, prodttcei lYe deadly poirons, viz
-nitross oxide, nitric oxide, hyponitrous seid, sitrous achI, sad nitric arid, according
to the proportion of earh gss Is Its SSsseiesti(m
r
36 ELECTRICITY.
bine; but water poured on quick~lime, will combine with the lime and not mix with
it.
108.
Q. Why are different grains of sand sail.' 0 be mixed when they are shaken toge
flier? A Because (though nlingled together, ~lie property of each grain remains t.7ie
saine ~ it was before.
109.
Q. Why does lightning turn beer sour al(hough contained in a close cask?
A. Because if beer be new and the pro
-~ss of fermentah.~ incomplete, lightning so acc~!erate the process, as to turn ~)C
EFFECTS OF LIGHTNING
~~gar into acetic acid at once, without pass mg through the intermediate state of
a/co ~ol.
112.
Q. Whv is not old beer and strong porter ~a~e sour by lightning?
A. Because the fermentation is more co~~ete; and, therefore, is less affected by
electrical influence.
113.
115.
ELECTRICiTY.
A. Nitric acid acts very powerfully i~ d~ ~roying the exhalations, which arise
froni ~itrid vegetable and animal matters.
116.
Q. Does not lightning sometimes affect the character of iron and steel?
A. Yes; bars of iron and steel are some-times rendered magnetic by lightning.
117.
Q. Give mc an instance of the magnetic effects of lightning?
A. Sometimes it will reverse the needle of the magnet, and sometimes destroy its
magnetism altogether.
118.
SECTION I~I.-THUND~R.
119.
Q. What is thunder?
A. The noise made by the concussion oi
r
THUNDER.
~he air when it closes again, after it has been parted by the ligh~ng flash.
A part of hO noiee icowing to certain ~'~aical aed cittc,drtal chai,eei p~ fhtced ii the
air hy the electric fluid.
120.
Q. Why will those vibrations be heard first, which are made last?
A. Because the flash (which produces the
40 ELECTRICITY.
Bound) is aimost instantaneous, but s~lnd tal\es a ~io1e second of time to travel
three hundred and eighty yards.
124.
125
127.
Q ~Yhat is the cause of rolling /hunder?
A. The vibrations of air (having differen~ lengths to travel) reach the ear at
successive il~tervals.
The reverhcrati~~ (or echo) tamongtt the tuasaive cloud, contrihutee in ~ILe
mea,ure t~ thia effect.
:28.
129.
42 ELECTRICITY.
A. Yes ; the flash is instanfaneous,* bul thunder will t~re a whole second of time
tc travel three huudred and eighty yards Ilence, if the flash be five secoud~ he~ore
the thunder~ the cloud is nineteen hundI~etl )~ttt~l5 off.
L e 380 ~5=l90I yarda.
131.
EXPANSIO~.
IECTION 1.-EXPANSION.
135.
136.
A. Because the heat of flie fire will drive the particles of air apart from each
other, and cause them to occupy more room than they did before.
138.
Q. Does heat expand everything else be. ~ides air and water?
A. Yes; every thing (that man is acquainted with) is expanded by heat.
139.
141.
Q. Why does the sudden burst~ng of the or snapping of a piece of wood, m~~e
a report?
A. Because a violent jerk is given to ~e air, when the attraction of cohesion ]5 ti)
IlS suddenly overcome. This jerk produces rapid undulations in the air, which
(strik~g upon the ear) give th~ ~~ram a sensation of sound.
142.
Q. Why does the escape of air froin the chestnut, or the explosion of gunpowder,
pro duce a report?
A. Because the sudden expansion o~ the imprisoned air produces a parti)LI
vacuum the report is caused by the rushing of fresh air to fill up this vacuum.
143.
Q. If a chestnut be slit, it will not crack; why is this?
A. Because the heated air of the ~estuitt can then freely escape through the slit
in lie rind.
144.
CHEMICAL ACTION-
air, which (being expanded by the heat ~ the fire) bursts through the peel, carrying
th~ aice of the apple along with it.
145
Q. When an apple is roasted, why is one part made soft, while all the rest
remains hard?
A. Because the air in those cells next the fire is expanded, and flies out; the cell~
ai'~ broke??, ~d their juices mixed together; so flie apple coliapses(from loss of air
and jitice,) and feels soft in those parts.
148.
A. It means that the plumpness gives way, and the apple becomes flabby arid
shriveled.
149
Q. Why do sparks of fire start (wi~i a crackling noise) from pieces of wood laid
upon afire?
A. Because the air (expanded by the heat) forces its way through the pores of the
wood; and carries along with it the coverin~ of the pore, which resisted its passage.
150.
Q. What are the sparks. of fire which burst from the wood?
A. Very small pieces of wood made red hot, and separated from the. log by the
force of the air, when it bursts from its confinement
152.
Q. Why does light porous wo6d make more snapping than any other kind?
A.. Because the pores are very large, and ~ontaiu more air than woo~ of a c/c~~i
groin.
48 CIIE~IICAL ACTION.
153.
Q. Why does gree~a wood make less snape piug than dry?
A. Bc~cause the pores being filled witb sap, contain very little air.
154.
Q. Why 4oes dry wood make more snap ping than green?
A. Because the stip is dried up, and the pores are filled with air instead.
155
Q. Wily does dry wood burn more easily than green or wet wood?
A. Because the pores of dry wood are ~lcd with air which supports combustion;
but flic pores of green or wet wood are filled with rnoistl~re, which extingnishes
flame.
156.
Q. Why do stones snap and fly about when ~eated in the fire?
I
p
-1
48 CHEMICAL ACTION.
I
153.
Q. Why does green wood make less snap. ph?~~ tl1~ (ir/I?
A. Because the pores being filled with Sal), eont~~in verj~ /1(1/c air.
154.
Q. Wfiy does dr1, wood ~urn more eas~y tTian Oreen or wet ~oo(1?
A. Beeau~e ~1e pores of dry wood are flied with air wjiie}i supports Comhust]on
~t ~1C ~)ores of green or wet wood are filled ~vith 'noist)(re, which extin~iishes
flame.
Q. ~)y (loes moisture eyti7)~vish flame ?
A. 1st.~ecause it pre\~~ts the h~~drogen of the fuel fro~n ~iN1n,r with the
OY/I(ren of the air, to fi)nu ear/1'ooie arid sas ; and
2n4l.~Becanse heat is per~)etually carrie~ off; by the forniat~on of the sap or mois
ture into steam.
157.
Q. why do stones snap and fly about when ~eated in the fire?
44(
r _
EXPANSION OF LIQUII)5 AND OASES. 49
A. Because the close texture of the stone prevents the hot air from escaping; in
con-sequence of which, it bursts forth with great violence, tearing the stone to
atoms, and ~)rciflg the fragments into the room.
~~rohabty some part of this effect is due to the setting free of the
~ r~~taLlizatiea
158.
Q. When bottled ale or porter is set befbre a fire, why is the cork forced out
sometimes?
A. Because the carbonic acid of the liquor expands by the heat, and drives out
the cork.
Garhonie acid gas is a componod of carbon and oxygen
159.
Q. Why does ale or porter froth more after it has been set before the fire?
A. Because the heat of the fire sets free the carbonic acid of the liquor; which is
entangled as it rises through the liquor, and produces bubbles or froth.
160.
Q. When a boy makes a balloon, ana sets firo to the cotton or sponge (which has
been steeped in spirits of wine,) why is the balloon inflated?
A. Because the air of the balloon is ex5
50 CHEMICAL ACTION.
panded by the flame, till every crumple i~ inflated and made smooth.
161.
Q. Why does the balloon rise after it h£is been inflated by the expanded air?
A. Because the same quantity of air 1~ expanded to three or four times its
original volume; and made so much lighter, that eveii when all the paper, wire, and
cotton are added, it is still lighter than common air.
162.
Q. Why will a long chimney smoke, unless the fire be pretty fierce?
A. Because the heat of the fire will not ~e sufficient to rarify all the air in the
chim
164.
Q. Why will the chimney smoke. unles~ the fire be fierce enough to heat all the
air in the chimney flue?
I
EXPANSION OF LI~U1D5 AND OASES.51
A. Because the cold air (condensed in ~he upper part of the flue) will sink from
its own weight; and sweep the ascending smoke back into the room.
165
Q. ilow are houses and other buildings heated with hot air?
A. The fire is kindled in a grate or stove which is erected in the cellar. This fire
heats the air in contact with it in tI)e air chamber, as it is called-and as heated air
always ascends, it is forced up into the dif~ ferent apartments of the building.
52 CHEMICAL ACTION.
168.
169.
Q. Why are the bricks and flag stones of our pavements frequently loosened
after a frost?
A. Because the moisture beneath them, expanded dunug the frost, and raised the
bricks and flag-stones from their beds; but afterward, the moisture thawed and
condensed again, leaving the bricks and stone~ loose.
170.
A. Its principal use is to hold the crust up, and prevent it from sinking, when the
cooked frtiit gives way under it.
171.
Q. Does not the cup prevent the fruit of the pie from boili~g over?
A. No-it will rather tend to make it boil over, as there will be less room in the
dish.
172.
Q. Explain this.
A. When the pie is put into the oven the air in the cup will begin to expand, and
drive every particle of juice from under it; in c~isequence of which, the pie-dish will
have a cup-full less room to hold its fruit in, than if the cup were taken out.
173.
Q. If the juice is driven out of the cup, why is the cup always full of juice when
the pie is cut up?
A. Because as soon as the pie is taken out of the oven, the air in the cup begins to
condense again, and occupy a smaller space, and, as the cup is no longer full of air,
juice rushes in to occupy the void.
174.
Q. Why does juice rush into the cup when the cup is not full of air?
A. Because the external air presses upon ~4e s'irfa~ of the juice, which rushes
unob
CHEMICAL ACTION.
~ructed into the cup; as mercury ri~e~ thrc'ugh the tube of a barometer.
N. T3. Sieee the juice of tie pie rune into the cup. us soon 55 It is teket Out of the
uven tIe cup peve.ts the 3uiee fuun hei'~g upul SteT tI~e Crssst ~hes the pie je
Curried utout fu~m place to plaeC,' aittough it does n~ ~revcut the fruit frum
huilitig over.
I I.-Expa~~ioit of Metats.
175.
EXPA\~~SiON O~ METALS.
55
A. Because heat expa~ds the metal, which ~beiug increased in bulk) occupies a
largef fipace; and, consequently, rises higher rn the tube.
179.
Q. Why is not the outside of the glas~ expanded by the hot water as well as the
inside?
A. Because glass is a bad conductor of ~eat, and breaks before the heat of the
inner surface is conducted to the outside.
181.
Q. Why does a glass snap because the inner surface is hotter than the outer?
A. Because the inner surface is expanded and not the outer; in consequence of
which, an opposing force is created, which break~ the glass.
182
A Because it is a bad conductor; and, a~ ~ie inner surface expands from the heat,
(and not the outer,) an opposing force i~ ~reated, which breaks the cup.
183.
Q. Will the iron contract in size on cooling, after it has been heated?
A. Yes; it will return to its former dimensions on getting cold again.
185.
Q. Why do most persons dip their razoi in hot water before shaving with it?
A. Because the heat of the water expands the edge; by that means rendering
more fine and sha~.
186.
Q. Why does a cooper heat his hoops re~ lot when he puts them on a tub?
A ~st.-As iron expands by r1~eat, tb~ hoops wUl be large- when they are r~d ~i~t;
EXPANSION OF METALS. 57
LI' consequence of which, they will fit on Lhe tub more easily; and
2nd -As iron contracts by cold, the hoop~ will shrink as they cool down, and girt the
tub with a tighter grasp.
187.
Q. Why does a wheelwright make the tire re~ hot which he fixes on a wheel?
A. lst.-That it may fit on more easily; and
2nd.-That it may girt the wheel mor~ tightly.
186.
Q. Why will the wheelwright's tire fit the whee~ more easily, for being made re~
hot?
A. Because it will be expanded by the heat; and (being larger) will go on the
wheel more easily.
189.
Q. Why does a stove make a c'.~wkl'iog ~ise when a fire is very hot?
58 CHEMICAL ACTION
A. Because it expands from the heat; anci ~ie parts of the stove ru~bing against
each other, or driving against the bricks, prod uco q crackling noise.
191.
Q Why does a stove make a similar crackltng noise when a large fire is put out?
A. Because it contracts again, when the fire is removed; in consequence of
which, the parts rub against each other again, and the bricks are again disturbed.
192.
Q. Why does the plaster roulfd a stove crack and fall away?
A. Because (when the fire is lighted) the iron work expands more than the bnck-
work and plaster, and pushes them away; but (when the fire is put out) the metal
shrinks again, and leaves the "setting" behind.
The ~' setting ' la a technical word for the plaeter, etr., in stumediata roufart with
the stove.
The~e qoe~~ions apply more particularly to what is called a ~ Frankliz ~ove ~~they
may be seen it' many of our farm housm.
193.
194<
Q. If the boiler or kettle attached to a ldtchen range, be filled with cold water
sometime after the fire has been lighted, it Will be very lIely to crack or burst.
Why is this?
A. Because the heat of the fire has caused the metal of which the boiler is
composed to erpand; but the cold water very suddenly contracts again those parts
with which it comes in contact; and as one part is larger than the other, the boiler
cracks or bursts.
196.
a
Q When the stopper of a decanter or smelling-bottle sticks, why will a cloth wrung
out of hot water, and wrapped around the neck of the bottle, loosen the stopper?
A. Because the hot cloth heats tbe neck
I
60
CHEMICAL ACTION.
of the bottle, causing it to expand, and con sequently loosens the stopper.
197.
A. If the stopper be damp, it fits the decanter air-tight; and if the decanter was
last used in a heated room, as soon as the hot air enclosed in the inside has been
condensed by the cold, the we¼Ait of the external air will be sufficient to press the
stopper down, and make it stick fast.
198.
§ ~ii.- Ventilation.
199.
Q. What is ventilation?
A. The renewal of fresh air-a con hnual §hange of air.
\¼
VENTILATION.
200.
61
Q. Is the air in a room in perpetual mo~ tion as the air abroad is?
A. Yes; there are always two urrent~ of .qfr in the room we occupy; one of hot
tiir Ilowing out of the room, and another of cold air fiow~ig into the room.
201.
Q. flow do you know that there are these two currents of air in every occupied
room?
A. If I hold a lighted candle near the Crevice at the top of the door, the flame
will be blown outward (towards the hall;) but if I hold the candle at the bottom of
the door, the flame will be blown inwards (into the room.)
N B. Thie is not the ease if a flee be in the room. When a fire i~ lighted, an inward
current is drawn through all the crevices.
202.
Q. Why would the flame be blown ou~wards (towards the hall,) if a candle be
held at the top of the door?
A. Because the air 6f the room being heated, and consequently rarifled, ascends,
and (floating about the upper part of the room) some of it escapes through the
crev~ce at the top of the door, producing a current of air outwards (into the hall.)
6
62 CIIEMICAL ACTi()N.
203
Q. Why would the flame be blown ~ wards (into the room,) if the candle be held
at the bottom of the door?
A. Because a partial vacuum is made at the bottom of the room, as soon as the
warm air of the room has ascended to the ceiling, or made its escape from the
room; and cold air from the hall rushes under the door, to supply the void.
204.
Q. What is meant by a "partial vacuum being made at the bottom of the room?"
A. A vacuum means a place from which the air has been taken; and a partial
vacuum" means a place from which a part of the air has been taken away. Thus,
when the air near the floor ascends to the ceiling, a partial vacunin is made near the
floor.
205.
Q, Give me an illustration?
A If I dip a pail into a pond and fill it with water, a hole (or vaenula) is made in
VENTILAI ION. 33
~he pond as ~ig as the pail; but Lhe m9fl~ent ~ draw the pail out, the hole is filled
up by the water around.
207.
Q. Why is a room (even without a fire) generally warmer than the open air?
A. Because the air in a room is not sul)ject to much chan~e and soon becomes of
the same temperature as our skin, when it no longer feels cold.
209.
'4
64 cIl~HCAL ACTION.
A. Because the air in the room we occupy is warmer than the air in the h~l;
there-fore, the air from the hall rushes through t~e keyhole into the room, and
causes a draught
211.
Q. Why is there a strong draught und~~ the door, and through the crevice on
each ~ide?
A. Because cold air rushes from the hall, to supply the void in the room, caused
by the escape of warm air up the chimney, etc.
212.
Q. If you open the lower sash of a wmdow, there is more draught than if you
open the upper sash. Explain the reason of this?
A. If the lower sash be open, cold external
air will rush freely into the room and cause
~ great draught inwards; but if the upper
~ be open, the heated air of the room will
Iii
-
VLNTILATION. 65
e
AL. A room is better ventilated by Opening the upper sash; because the hot vitiated
air ~which always ascends toward the ceiling) ~an escape more easily.
215.
Q. 1))y which means is a hot room more quickl) cooled-By opening the upper or
the lower sash ?
A. A hot room is cooled more quickly by opening the lower sash; because the
c~d air can enter more freely at the lower part of the room, than at the upper.
216.
Q. Why is the gallery of all public places kotter thim the lower parts of the
building?
A. Beca~~e the heated air of the building ascends; and all. the cold air (which
cai~ en ter through the doors and wiladows) keep.? to the floor, till it has become
heated
6*
U
I
CII~IIC2~L ACTION.
218.
Q. Why is the gallery of a chuT ch or the. atre h~~tter than the aisle or pit?
A. Because the hot air ascends from the bottom to the top of the building; while
cold a~r flows to the bottom from the doors and windows.
219.
VLNTILATION. 67
air; which becomes so light, that it ascends, aiid carries the balloon with it.
222
Q. Wiy should stoves be fixed as neai the floor of a room as possible?
A. In order that the air in the loiter pw~ ~f the room may be heated by the fire.
223.
Q. Would not the air in the lower part of a room be heated equally well if the
stoves were more elevated?
A. No; the heat of a fire has very little effect upon the air below the level of the
grate; and therefore, every grate should be as near the floor as possible.
224.
Q. Our feet are very frequently cold when we sit close by a good fire; Explain
the reason of this?
A. As the fire consumes the air which passes over it, cold air nishes through the
crevices of the doors and windows, along the floor of the room, to supply the
deficiency; and these currents of cold air, rushing con. ~antly over our feet, deprive
them of theji warmth.
225
Q. What is smoke?
68 GIIEMIC~~ ACTiON.
A. Small particles of carbon, separated by combustion from the fuel, but not
consumed.
22G.
11
VENTILATiON. 69
230.
70 CHEMICAL ACTION.
Q. Why is the draught of a short flue more slack than that of a long one?
A. lst.-Because the fire is always dull and sluggish if the c~imney be too short:
2nd.-Becanse the smoke rolls out of the chimney before it has acquired its full
velocity; and,
3d.-Becanse the wind, rain, and air~ have more influence over a short funnel than
over a long one.
237.
Q. Why is the fire always dull and sluggish, if the chimney flue be very short?
A. Because flie draught is bad; and, as the rarifled sJr passes very tardily up the
chimney-fresh air flows as tardily toward the fire, to supply it with oxygen.
238.
Q. Why does not smoke acquire its full ~wlority in a ~hort fimnel?
VENTILATION. 71
A. Because the higher smoke ascends, (provided, the fire be clear and hot and
the flue be unobstructed) the faster it goes~; if; therefore, a funnel be very short,
the smoke never acquires its full velocity.
239.
Q. Does the draught of a chimney depend on the speed of the smoke through the
flue?
A. Yes. The more quickly hot air flies up the chimney, the more quickly cold air
will rush toward the fire to supply the place; and therefore, the longer the flue, the
greater the draught.
240.
El
K
I
72
CHEMICAL ACTION.
II ened, what is the best remedy to prevent
smoking?
A. To contract the opening of the chimney contiguous to the stove.
243.
Q. Why will a smaller opening in that part of the chimney near the fire prevent
~moking?
A. Because the air will be compelled to nearer the fire; and (being more heated'
pass I
will rise through the chimney more rapidly; this increase of heat will, therefore,
compensate for the shortness of the flue.
244.
Q. Why will a room be full of smoke if there be two fires in it?
A. Because the fiercer fire will exhaust the most air; and draw from the smaller
one, to supply its demand.
245.
jV
I
VENTILATION. 73
24G.
76 CHEMICAL ACTION.
A. Because the opening of the chimney place is so very large, that lunch of the ail
which goes up the chimney, has never passed near enough to the fire to become
heated; and this cold air (mixing with the hot) so reduces the temperature of the air
in the ~nmney, that it ascends very slowly and the draught is destroyed.
259
A. Because the current of air up the chimney is not powerful enough to buoy up
the smoke through the flue.
260.
VENTILATION. 77
denly chilled by the wind, and (being unable to ascend) rushes back into the room.
263.
Q. What is the use of a chimney-pot?
A. It serves to increase the draught when the opening of a chimney is too large.
264.
Q. Why do blowerg, when placed before d' grate, tend to kindle the fire?
A. Because the air (by passing through the fire) is made mnch hotter, and
ascends the chimney more rapidly.
266.
Q. Why is a fire better supplied with oxygen while the blower is before it?
A. Because the blower increases the draught; and the faster flie hot air flies up
~he chimney, the faster will cold air rush towards the fire, to supply it with oxygen
267.
Q. ~Yhy does a parlor often smcll di~ agreeably of' soot in s'im~or time ?
78 CHEMICAL ACTION.
A. Because flie air in the (~'~imney (beitig colder ~an the ~ur in the 12'(~~lor)
descends ii~to the room, and leaves a di:~:;reeable smell of so~t behind.
268.
Q. Why are fires placed on the floor of ~ room, and iiot towards the ceiling?
A. Because heated air always ascends. If, therefore, the fire were not near the
floor, the air of the lower part of the room would never be heated by the fire at all.
270.
Q. If you take a poker out of the fire, and hold the hot end downwards, why is
the hand!e intensely hot?
A. Because the hot end of the poker heats Ihe qir around it; and this hot air (in
its ascent) scorches the poker and the han (1 whi~'II h~ds it.
CONI)UCTION OF Il~AT. 79
271.
Q. How should a red hot poker be carried, ~ as not to burn our fingers?
A. With the hot end upwards; for then ~he air (heated by the poker) would not
p~~s over our hand and scorch it.
272.
i.-Cond~ctors of Heae
273.
277
Q. Why does a piece of wood (blazing at one end) not feel hot at the other?
A. Because wood is so bad a conductor, that heat does not traverse freeJy
through it; hence, ~io~gh one end of a stick be blaz~ the other end may be quite
cold.
278.~
Q. Why does hot metal feel more intensely icarm than hot wool?
A. Because metaT gives out a much greater quantity of heat in the same space of
lime; and the influx of heat is, consequently, more perceptible.
279.
Q. Why does money in our pocket fe ~1 Very hot when we stand !')efore a fii~e?
I
CONDUCTORS OF IJEAT.
81
A. Bcca~LsC metal is an excellent conduc~or, and becomes rapidly heated. For
the ~me reason, it becomes rapidly cold, whenever it comes in contact with a body ~
than itself.
280.
Q. Why does a poker (resting on a fe~ der) feel colder than the hearth-rug,
which ji further off the fire?
A. Because the poker is an excellent conductor, and draws heat from the hand
much more rapidly than the woolen hearth-rug. which is a very bad conductor:
though bcth, therefore, are equally warm, the poker seems to be the colder.
281.
I 282.
Q. Is the iron handle of the pump really colder than the wooden pump itself?
A. No; every inanimate substance (ex posed to the same temperature) possesse~
in re~ity the same degree of heat.
I
82 CHEMICAL ACTIO~.
283.
Q. Why does the iron handle seem bO in uch colder than the wooden pump?
A. Merely because the iron is a better :o~ dactor; and, therefore, draws off the
heat
our hand more rapidly than wood loes
284.
Q. Why does a stone or marble hearti? feel to the feet colder than a carpet or
hearth-rug?
A. Because stone and marble are good conductors; but woolen carpets and
bearth~rugs are very bad conductors.
285.
Q. Do not also the woo~n carpet and ~earth-rug conduct heat from the h~an
body?
A. Yes; but being very bad condnctors~ they convey the heat away so slowly,
that ~he loss is scarcely perceptible.
CONDUCTORS OF HEAT. 83
287.
Q. ilow long will the hearth-stone feel cold to the feet resting on it?
A. Till the fret and the hearth-stone are both of the same temperature; and then
the sensation of cold in the hearth-stone will go off.
289.
Q. Why would not the hearth-stone feel cold, when it is of the same temperature
as our fret?
A. Because the heat would no longer rush out of our feet into the hearth-stone,
in ~wder to produce equilibrium.
290.
Q ~Yliy does the hearth-stone (when the tn~ C- is lighted) feel hotter than the
hearth
A. Because the hearth-stone is an excellent conductor, and parts with its heat
verj' reaJily; but ~ie woo1T~i ~hearth-rug (being
I,
I
84 CHEMICAL ACTIO~.
292.
Q. Why does the non-conducting power of the hearth-rug prevent its feeling so
hot as it really is?
A. Because it parts with its heat so slowly and gradually, that we scarcely
perceive its transmission into our feet.
293.
CONDUCTORS OF HEAT. 85
Q. When we plunge our hands into a basin of water, why does it produce a
sensation of cold?
A. Because water is a better conductor than air; and, as it draws off the heat
from our hands more rapidly, it feels colder.
298.
Q. Why does the conducting power of water make it feel colder than air?
A. Because it abstracts heat from our h and~ ~ rapidly, that we feel its loss; but
the air
8
86 CIIEMICAL ACTION.
CONDUCTORS Ol IIEAT S-
employed in cold weather to keep the feLt warm?
A Because bricks are bad conduc~rs of ~eat, and cloth or flannel still worse; in
conseqnence of which, a hot brick (wrapped in ~ai~nel) will retain its heat a very
long time.
304.
Q. If air be a bad conducto~ of heat, why should we not feel as warm without
clothing, as when we are wrapped in wool and fur?
A. Because the air (which is cooler th~n our body) is never at rest; and ever~
fresh particle of air draws off a fresh portion of heat.
307.
Q. Why are woolens and furs Ilse(1 foT clothing in cold weather?
88
B
m
CHEMICAL AC~ ION.
A. Because they are very bad conduc(or~ of heat; and, therefore, prevent ~he
warmth of the br dy from being drawn off by the ~
alr.
308.
Q. Do not woolens and flIrs act~al1y i~;~ I~art heat to the body?
A. No; they merely prevent the heat of the body from escaping.
309.
Q. Where would the heat escape to, if the body were not wrapped in wool or
fur?
A. The heat of the body wonld fly off into the air; for the cold air (coming in
contact with our body) would gradually draw away its heat, till it was as cold as the
air itself.
310
CONDUCT~5 O~ nEAT. 89
Q. Why are wool, fur, hair and feathers, s~ich slow conductors of heat?
A. Because a great quantity of air lurks entangled between the fibres; and air is
a very bad conductor of heat.
The ~varmeet clothing is that which fits the hody rather losnezg; beean~ teore hot
nc wit be confined by a moderately mess garment than by one which fiti the body
tightly.
314.
Q. Why is moderately loose clothing warm~ than that which fits tightly?
A. Because air is a bad conductor; and tbe qn mtity of air confined between our
bodies and ~othing-prevents;
1.~..- -The heat of our bodies from escap i??g; and
S*
1
U
I
90 CIIEMICAL ACTION
2nd.-The external air from coming i~to contact with our bodie~. But if our cloth
ing is sufficiently loose to admit of a free circulation of air, we shall feel cold; and
3n the contrary if it fits very tightly it impedes tiLe free circulation of the blood and
we feel cold.
315.
Q. Does,iiot the bad conducting power of air enable persons to judge whether an
egg be new or stale?
A. Yes; touch the larger end of the shell with your tongue; if it feels warm, the
egg is stale , if not, it is new-laid.
316.
Q. Why will the shell of a stale egg fe~ warm to the tongue?
A. Because the thick end of an egg contains a small quantity of air (between the
shell and the white;) when the egg is stale the white shrinks, and the confined air
accordingly expands.
317.
318.
Q. Show the wisdom of God in makin~ the air a bad conductor?
A. If air were a good onductor '~like iroil ~nd stone) heat would be drawn
S( rapidlj? fn m our body, that we should be chilled ~o death. Similar evils \vould
be felt ~so ~y all +he animal and vegetable world.
319.
Q. Why are rooms much warmer, for })e~ ing furnished with double doors and
t'~indows?
A. Because air is a bad conductor; And the air confined between the double
d~)or~ and windows, opposes both the escape of warm air out of the room, and of
cold aii into the room.
320.
Q. Why is a room warmer when the window curtains are drawn or the shutters
shut?
A. Because air is a bad conductor; ~nd the air confined between the curtains or
shutters and the window, opposes both the escape of warm air out of the room, and
of cold air into it.
321.
I
92 CIIEMICAL ACTION.
A. Because linen is a much better ~iidut. tor than cotton; and, therefore, (as soon
as it touches the bodv) it draws away the heat more rapidly, and ~roduces a greater
sensation of cold.
322.
Q. Why is the face cooled by wiping the t~m~es with a flue cambric
handkerchief?
A Because the fine fibres of the cam~wic have a strong capillary attraction for
moisture, and are excellent conductors of heat~. in consequence of which, the
moisture and heat are abstracted from the face by the cam~ bric, and a ~ensation of
coolness produced.
Capillary attesetiun," i. C. thc atteactien ef a thread cc its ic. Ths wick ~f a eandle is
Wet with grease, because tite melted tallow runs up the Cotton from eapulary
attraction.
323.
CONDUCTORS OF IIE~T.
325.
93'
Q. Why is the earth a bad conductor of beat?
A. Because ]'Ls particles are not continu ous; and the power of conducting heat
le pends upon the continuity of matter.
326.
Q. Why is the earth- (below the surface) warmer in winter than the surface
itself?
A. Because the earth is a bad conductor of heat; and, therefore, (although the
ground be frozen,) the frost never penetxates more than a few inches below the
surface.
327.
Q. Why is the earth (below the surface) cooler in summer than the surface itself?
A. Because the earth is a bad conductor of heat; and, therefore, (although the
sur face be scorched with the burning sun,) the intense heat cannot penetrate to the
i
of the plants and trees
328.
Q. Why does the Bible say, that God giveth snow like wool?"
A. Because snow (beilig a very bad comductor of heat) protects vegetables and
seeds from the frost and cold.
330.
Q. How does the non-conducting power of snow protect vegetables from the
frost and cold?
A. It prevents the heat of the earth from being drawn off by the cold air which
rests upon it.
331.
the rays of the sun are warded off; the air (beneath the tree) is not heated by the
reflection of the earth; and
3rd.-The leaves of the trees, being no~ conductors, allow no heat to penetrate them
333.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------
4
SCI]~NCi~ OF CO~~~ON TIIINGS;
A
FAMILIAR EXPL~ATJO~
O~ THE
FON
~~uzttat~~ ~ n~m2r~~z ~
NY
DAVID A. WELLS, A.M.
NEW YORK:
IVISON & PIIINNEY, 48 & 50 WALKER ST.
CHICAGO: S. C. GRIGCS & Co., ~9 & 41 LAKE ST.
CINCINNATI: NOORI, WIGITAC~ KRYI & GO. IT. lOUIS NNITII & WOODS.
PHThADIILPI[IA; SOWER, NARNIS & GO. NUFFALO: PHINNEY & Co.
NEWBONG: T. S. qUACEENBUSIL
1 85 9.
II
1
1.
I
the (~eI~'8 Office of the listrict Cett,4 of tbe United ctitee foc tile Southern I)~rict
Of~eW Yoc~
F½
PREFACE.
Tn~ design of the present volume is to furnish for the use of schools and young persons,
an elementary text-book on the first principles of science. For this purpose, the ~ system
of question and answer, which for certain ~asses
of pupils and for familiar instruction has proved e~nently popular, has been followed.
The advantages of this
system are -first, that it atfords a most simple mid easy--method of communicating
useful and practical informa~ - -tion -second, the quesi~)n excites a feeling of c~urio~ty
in the mind of the young studcnt, which serves to fix the subject~matter more strongly in
the memory -and thirdly, the form of question and answer imparts truth t~ the mind, in a
logical sequence of cause and efect, and by showing how consequents in scieuces are
deduced from antecedents, unconsciously trains and familiarizes the pupil to think and
-reason according to the true spirit of inductive philosophy.
-It is believed that the questions in the present volume -are simple, practical, and
expressed in the plainest language that the subject allows. ~~ngravings have also been
used
-- to illustrate more clearly the most important topics t~eated
of.
As this work has been designed exciusivelyas an elementary book, the more abstruse
and difiic~u~epartments 9f
J
f
4
IC
IC
I
i
I
vi PRHFACE.
physical science have been passed over, or briefly noticed; such as the theory and
npplication ofilie nacehanical powers, the polarization of light, crystallography, &O
Those who arc desirous of possessing a more complcte and claborate work, arranged in
the form of quostion and alisNyer,-cinbracing the whole subjects of Natural Philosophy,
organic and Inorgame Chemistry, the npplications of science to the Indnstrial Arts,
()cology, &C~~ are referred to a work by the author of the present volume, entitled "
Wells's Familiar Science" and to "Wells's Natural Philosophy," in both of which special
reference is made to the application of the principles of physical science to the useful
arts and necessities of every-day life.
In the preparation of the "Science of Common Things" especial care has been taken to
render the facts and principles given, full, complete, and accurate, and in strict
conformity with the very latest results and reseaa'ches ofmod era science.
e
CC SC'
CONTENTS.
PART L
PART IL
TO THE ARTS.
L How we apply Power 31
IL Strength of Maten'~ls 36
III. Application of Materials for Arcbitecturai and Structural
Purposes 38
IV. Principles of Areliltecture 41
PART IlL
PART IV.
SOUND.
I. Origin and Transmission of Sound 114
IL Vocal and Musical Sounds 120
III. Reflection of Sounds 124
lb
PART V.
HEAT.
PART Vt
· 129
· 133
· . 136
· 143
· . 162
· 171
170
PART VIL
PART VIII.
PART IX.
rAMILIAR CHEMISThY. 302
.1
a
SCIENO1~ OF COMMON THINGS.
S
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
We apply the term matter to any substance Which affects our senscs.
2 How do we kaow that eapth~g exists?
They are thc instruments, or means, by Which the mind is enabled to know that matter
exists aud 1)05-sesses certain ~roperties.
4 rnw onolay se~w aw there?
fi~~e; hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, and feeling.
5 Woold a ~erooa deorivect of aP seolatiop, he coaseisas of any oneteria~ existence S
He Would ~ot; for all knowledge of the material world is derived through the medium of
the sen~es.
8 Il the i~oreosioa treasmitted to the oniat hy each organ of seowation, Slifereat?
It is; each organ of sense is ada1)ted to receive a particular influence of matter; and is
designed to con-
vey to the mind immediate notice of sorac peculiar action. This is the more noticeable,
when we consider that, however delicate its structure~ each organ of sense is wholly
insensible to every iniluence except that to which it is especially adapted; thus, the eye is
never affected by so~~d, nor the ear by lhg~~.
7 What is meant ~ the term hoty 5.
The power8 belonging to the body, which are capable of exciting in our mmd certain
sensations.
9 What ow the generat properties of matter?
10 What is maguitade?
That quality of matter Which precludes the possibility of two bodies occupying the e~cie
eptece ~ ate ewiac time. ~lien bodies are said to be impenetrable, it is therefore meant,
that one cannot pass through another without displacing some, or all, of the component
parts of tliat other.
Thera arc many instancas of apparent ponetration; but in all thcec, tho paSts of the body
which seam to be penetrated are~nly displaced. Thus, if a needle he plunged into a
vessel of water, nil tha water which proVionsly illiad tha space into which the needlo
enters, will be displaced; and the level of the water will rise in tile vessel to the
samebeight as it
Would by pouring in so m~th more water as would fill tbe spaco occupied by the needle.
15 Why will water, or asy other titaid, poured into a fuaae~ closely iaserted in the
soteuth 0£ a lotte, or decanter, ran ewer the sides?
Recause the air liliing the bottle, and having no means pf escape, prevents the fluid from
entering the bottle; but if the funnel be lifted from the neck of the bottle a little, so as to
afford the air an opportunity to escape, the Water wfll then floW into the bottle in an
uninterrupted stream.
1~ WJtot is the figurs of a body?
Itsfo~im or s~ape, as expressed by its boundaries or terminating extremities.
17 What is meant by the divisibility of matter I
Jt5 property, or capability of being divided.
18 Is matter copahis of bring divided iato separate portiens infimlely or SOithoot hntit I
So far as We are able to perceive With our senses, all matter is capable of being divided
into separate portions Without limit; yet the recent investigations of chemistry have
proved beyond a doubt, that ~ere is a point beyond which matter iS 110 longer divisible.
Such a portion of matter as cannot be divided we call an atom.
19 What then is an atom of ulater I
A pdrtlWe so mi~te, as to admit of no division. Atoms are conceived to be the hrst
principles or component parts of all bodies.
~he extent to wliiab matter eon ha divided and yet be perceived by tbe senses, is
wonderhil.
An onnee of gold may be divided into ibur hundred and thirty-two thousand million
parts Each of these parts will retain all ibe obarsaters and qualities wbieh era found in
tilo lsrgest wasses of metal. It rntaias its solidity, texture, and color; it resists the same
agentS, and ent~ Si to eombination with the same suhstences.
it
The tei'm partide Is also nsed to express elatell corn-eoneietpzrts of matter, but is
generaily applied to those whichare ~ot too rnsnute to be discovered by observation.
1*
S
6
ilC~NCE or COMMON TIIINGS. ?orss ofa body. Compressibility. Density.
21 What are the pares of a toda?
Xo two particles of matter are supposed to be in ~ctu,al contact with each other; and the
openings, or interstitial spaces between these particles, are calied por08.
22 What is the reason that a soon ge, a piece of wood or metah can ~ preessere, be made
to ocesepit a swmtlor space than it did originatty 5
Because the particles of which the sponge, the piece of wood or metal, are composed,
are by pressure brought more closely together, diminishing at the same time the pores
and the space the body occupies.
28 What then is compressibility S
That quality of matter in virtue of which a body alloWs its volume or size to be
dIminielAec', without aiminishing the nnmb~ of atoms or material particles of which it
consists.
24 What reason hare toe for ~pposing that no two partictes of matter are in absolnte
contact S
Because all known bodies, whatever may be their nature, are capable of having their
dimensions reduced
~ without diminishing the amount of matter contained in them; hence the space by
which the volume may be diminished must, before diminution, consist of~ore8.
25 What is &~ity?
The proportion of the quantity of matter in a body to its ma~nitude. Thus, if of two
substances one contains in a given space twice as much matter as the other, it is said to
be twice cii de~e.
2~ What cennecion is there between the density of a hody and its porosit~ S
A body will be more or kss dense according as its p articles are near to or remote from
each other; and hence it is evident that the grett~er' the density the le8e' the porosity, and
the gre~~r the porosity the 1e88 the density.
27 Wh~ do we call load heavy, and feathers hght 7
Because the amount of matter contained in a quantity of lead occupying a given space is
much greater than in a quantity of teathers capable of occupying the
28 }mw is water or any other liqaid made pars ~y filteriag through paper, clot~ a layer of
sand, rock, &C S
The process of filtration depends on the presence of pores in the substance used as a
filter, of such a magnitude as to allow a~parsage to the liquid, but to ~fise it to those
impurities from which it is to be disengaged.
29 Why is not the suistauce suitaule for the filtration of one liguid sleePy adapted for the
filtration of all liluids I
Because the ~ previously existing in the pores be-comes displaced by the water, and
rises to the surface as bubbles.
81 What occasions the snapping of wood or cool when held upon thefire?
Because the air or liquid contained in the pores becories ex;[)anded by heat, and bursts
the covering in which it 15 confined.
82 What are the searks of fire whtch larst from the weed?
Yery small pieces of wood made re(1 ~ and separated from the log by the force # ~I~e
air when it bursts from its confinement.
88 Why does light, poroas wood make more snappiog thou any other ksnd?
Because the pores are very large, and contain inoro air than wo~d of a clo8er grain.
84 Why does grece wood make less suappieg than dry?
Because the sap is (7ief vp, and the pores are fillcd with air instead.
88 Why does dry wood larn more easily than green or wet evoed l
Because the pores of dry wood are wi1~ air, which supports combushon; but the pores
of green or wet wood are filled with mo~8c'ure, which extinguishes flaisie.
87 When is a ledy said to be elaslic I
All the bodies we meet with on the earth may be divided into ~hree great classes; viz.
807;(7s, lt~s4c's, and ](a8£ott8 or a(~~~O)~i)i bodies.
89 What is a solid I
A solid is a body whose particles of matter arc so close or dense that- they resi's~ the
impression or penetration of other bodies. itence the parts of solid bodies are not
movaNe or easily displaced like those of liqulds.
40 What is a liquidl
A liquid is a substance which, like water, manifests immcdiately to the touch but a very
feeble resistance; but quite sufflcieut, however, to indicate its presence, even when in a
state of repose. A liquid cannot be grasped between the fingers like a solid body; neither
can it be collected permanently in a heap, or made to assnine any partic~ar figure except
that of the vessel in wiuch it is inclosed.
41 What is a gaseone or aeriform lodo I
A gaseous or aeriform body is an elastic, and generally an invisilile, filihi, which, like
tile air surroandin g us, affords no evidence of its presence to the sense ot touch, when in
repose, Gaseous or aeriform bodies may be confined in vessels, from wiience they
exclude
liquids or other bodies, thus demonstrating their CXi8~ ence, though invisible, and also
their t.otpenetrtl~ilily.
42 J0 what particular respect does a gas differ froen a liquid S
A liquid, like water, oil, spirit, &c., can be made to flow down an inclined plane, but a
gas cannot.
43 Why is it defl cult to walk against a high wind S
Because the particles of the ah, although invisible, press against us violently in a
direction Opposite to that in which we are proceeding.
-44 When is a subetance send to he plastic S
When it possesses intermediate properties between ~ solid and a fluid. Pitdi is an ex~ple
of a plastic body: it presents the appearance of a solid, but will be found to be
continually changing its form by the movement of its particles, when left free to move.
45 When a sponge is placed in water, that liquid appears to penetrate
it. Does the water really enter the solid j)nrticles of Ihe opoo~ S
It does not; it only enters the ~)ores or vacant spaces between the particles.
48 When we plunge the hand iota a mais of ouo,l, do ne pn~etrate the sand S
~Iatter is iticapable of spontaneous change; and the term tner~~ (or ~iactivt~) signlties
~e total aba, ence of power in matter to change its state. A body endued with inertia
cannot of itselt; and independent of all external influences, commence to move from a
state of rest; neither can it, when moving, arrest its own progress and become qrncscent.
4ei When a carriage is in n~otioo, dra~rn ~ hor~co, uhy ic the same exertion of pwver io
the horoes T((]Oir~d to Otuj) it, as uould he arcessarg to lack it, ef it were at reot I
Because the force required to destroy motion in one direction is eq~al to that reqmred to
produce as rn~cA qno~on in (he eo~o8t(e di~~ec(ton.
4~ If a lody is incaputh ly itself of choogiug its state, why uill sot a loll fired from a
ceanou coutiane to enoce on for cuer S
52 When tOo sali~ of a noyc mo fr~t spread to roroc.c'o the force or in?pcdso of the
whad, why does not the vowel ar~nic.e har foil speed ha once I
Because it requires a little time for the ttn11&7~ii~y fo~~e to overcome ~e rne~t% of
the ~nciis of ~ie ~ip, or its dioposition to r~ain at rest.
SS TVOy, when the soils are takea ic, does the vosool cootiuno to strove for a
co'wkleeatle time t
Became the tner~a of I~e tnaoe is opposed to a ~ange of state, and the vessel will
coatintie to move ~til the resistance of the water overcomes tile opposition.
54 ~hy is a man stonclin9 carelessly in the store of a loot hello to full into the water leO
in d, whoa the liot legins to more?
Bee~se hisfie~ are pulled forward while the tt~r~ia q~ li ii ~oJy keeps it in the same
position, and, there-
-fore, behind its support. For a sinillar reason, when the boat stops, the man is liable to
fall forward.
55 Upon mOot does the hardness of a hotly depend?
Not, as is often supposed, upon the ~ett8iIy of a body, bitt upon the foree wi~} which
the atoms hold their places in some particular arracgement. Gold is
p
F _ I
SCIENCE OF COMMON TfllNG5.
Ii
noetility Malleability.Attesetion.
much more dense than the diamond, yet the metol is soft, while the diamond is the
hardest body in nature.
~8 When is a hody said to be ductile ~
When it is capable of being dra~c~ tn~ 'Wire. Jil ductile substances the atoms seem to
have no more fixed relation of position than in a liquid, but yet they cohere very
strongly.
57 When is a lody said to be mallealle 5.
When it is capable of being hammered or rolled into thin plates. Bodies that are
malleable are not always ductile. Lead and tin may be hammered out iulo very thi~
plates, hut it is difficult, or impossible, to draw out these metals into fine wire.
CIIAPTER II.
ATTRACTION.
58 What is attraction?
All matter is under the influence of attraction in some of its forms. Every particle of
matter attracts every other particle, and is in turn itself attracted.
eo What is r~idsn?
It is the force manifest in the movement of bodies from each other. Thus, if a piece of
glass, having been briskly nibbed with a silk . handkerchi~uch successively two
feathers, these feathers, if brought togeflier, will move asunder.
81 What is cohesive attcactiou?
bodies. Cohesion acts only between particics of matter of the same kind, and at
distances which are hot measurable, or, as tlicy are tcrined, ~~senitbls (fA~rnce8.
82 Athut is adlensioc I
~ocanse the adlicsive attractioa between the particles of the brick and the particles of
mortar is so strong, that they ~ite to form one solid mass.
84 Why is a tar of iron stronger thac a Icr of wood of the same Size?
~ecanse the cohesion existing between the particles of iroa is ~rea~~ than that existing
between the particles of wood.
85 Why ore the particles of a ly aid osore easily separated thou those of a solid I
~ecanse tllc cohcsive attraction wlilch binds together the particles of a liquid is much
less strong tliaa ~iat whi~i binds together the particles of a solid.
88 Why ~rill a small ro~dh carefully laid aoeu the surface of water flout?
~ccause its weight is not sufficient~to overcome ~ie cohesion of 4ie particles of water
constituting the stir-face; comequently, it cannot pass t]irough th~n and sink.
67 Jf you drop waler aud ioudaoum fl-am the same aessel why will sixty drops of the
scaler fill the saeae measure as one hundred drops of Zaudauum I
The cohesion between the particles of the two liquids is different, being greatest in the
water. Consequently, the number of particles which will adhere togetber to consti tate a
drop of water is gi~cater than in the edrop of laudanuin.
88 Why is the proscreptiou of quediclue hy droos mS ausafe method?
Because not only do drops of fluid from the same vessel, and often of the same fluid
from different ves
y
j
I'
SCIENCE OF COMMON T~G5.
Attraction of gravitation. uu~rations of gravi~tion.
13
sels, differ in size, but also drops of the same fluid, to the extent of a third, from
different parts of the Tip of the same vessel.
89 Why is it diffeult to pour water from a vered which has not a profreliny lip t
Because, in consequence of the attraction between the water and the sides of the vesseT,
the fluid has a tendency to run down along the inclined outside of the vessel, and not at
once to fall perpendicularly.
70 What is the attraction of gravitation I
We apply the term ~c~gravity,~~ or the "attraction ~f gravitation ," to that tendency
which every particle of matter in the universe has to approach all other matter.
T~rrestr~al gra~t~a~iot~ is the attraction of a body towards the centre of the earth.
71 Ia what respect does the attractiou of goovitaliori differ from all ether ottructive
forces I
Becans& it is the eommo~ ~roperty ~ edi 6ocl~8; since everything to which we can
attach the idea of materiality is aflected more or less by gravitation.
72 Why does an apph hooseuedfrooo the tree foil to the yroond I
Because the cor~ is ligAter ~Aan~ a~ e~ua~ 6~l~ of water, and is pressed up and
sustained by it in the sam~anner that the particles of smoke are sustaiaed by the particles
of air.
75 Why does a lolloon rise in the air r
Becanse it is filled with a ~as which is lighter, bulk. for bulk, than the air.
78 How long will smoke continue toftool clove the surface of the earth?
lintil its ~ilrtic7e8, uuitiu~, 6eco~rte heavi~r thiri~ the air, when they descend in the
form of small flakes of Soot.
77 Why do luIlles in a cup of tea range round the sides of the cup?
Because the large bubbles (being the superior masses) attract them.
79 Why do the lollles of a cup of tea follow a tea-spoon?
as the mass of the earth is infinitely greater than the feather, the influence of the feather
is infinitely smaH, and we ~e~unable ~ pereelve it
82 What would he the consequence f~ the feather seel seat attract the earth?
If an~ portio~ of the earth, however small, faild~ to attract another portion, and not be
itself attracted, the aris of the e~rth woul~ ~e immediatel~ ohasiged, involving an
alteration of climate, and the place of the ocean in its bed.
83 Why is it moredaugerare to fall from a lofty eleratlan than from a law one?
As the attraction of the earth varies inversely with the square of the distance, the force
with which a falling body will strike the ground will increase in proportion to the height
from which it has fallen.
84 In what direction does a lady, when not supported; endeav~o fall?
In a line drawn from its centre of gravity towards the centre of the earth.
85 Is the altraclion of the earth the same at all distenres front ils sue-face or centre?
7--
SCIENCE OF COMMON ~G5.15 Centre o~ ~aVity. r~~itiou In w~ich a bod~ cau mot
In the following manner :~if the earth attracts a body with a certain force at the distance
of o~e rn~e, it will attract with fou~ times tAo force ot Act/f a mile, mne ti~8 tAo force
ott on~tAiret of a mile, and so on in like prc~OrtiOn. On the contrary, it will attract with
but onefoui~Aqf tAo force. at two miles, onse~intA of tAo fosce at tA~ee rniles,
oaorsixteentA of tAo force at fo~~ miles, and so on as the distance increases.
~7 What do we meau hy the centre of gravity?
That foint in a body about which, if supported, the whole body will balance itself.
88 When you hulauce a rod a stick or any oUter body upon Uteftuger, eshero is the
centre of yraeity of the Stick or lody?
It is the point upon which the body will remain at rest, or upon which it is balanced.
89 In what poe itise only can S lody rest~
Ouly when its centre of gi~aoity is ~pportcd; and until this is accomplished the body will
move, and continue to do so, until it settles into a position in wijich the centre of gravity
cannot sink lower.
90 Why do~ a person carr~ing a w~iyht upon his lack stoop forward?
In order to ~bring the centre of gravity of his body and the load ~ver his feet.
A
I
n
If ho carried tiro load in tire petition of A, lip. 1, be wonki foil back-wards, us the
db.ecti~n of tire centre of gravity would foil beyond Ills beets; to l)nng tho centre of
gTavity over ~is feet, lie assumes the position indicoted by B, lip. 2.
91 Whea a ps~sea carries a load noons his head, why is it necessary to stand perfectly
upright I
El order that the centre of gravity may be over feet.
9~ Why does a person iu rising from a chair heriel forward I
When a person is sitting, the centre of gravity is supported by the scat; in an erect
position, the centre of gravity is stipported by tile fcet; therefore, before rising it is
necessary to change the centre of gravity, and by bending forward we transfer it from the
chair to a point over the feet.
98 l~y does a quadruped never raise leth feet en the same side simuh taneouslys
Because, if it did, the centre of gravity would be unsupported, and the animal would fall
over.
Because the centre of gravity of the turtle is, tn tAis ~osttion, ~t tAt lots~t ~otnt, and the
animal is unable to change it; thorefore it is obliged to remain at rest.
95 Why is it more diffcult to overthrete a lady having a lrourl lace than oce resting upon
a nurrew lasis?
Because a body cannot fall over, so long as a line directed from the centre of. gravity
vertically towards the surface upon which the body rests, falls within the figure formed
by the base of the body in question.
II~
~g 3
'ml
Fg 4
Ilence, the broafer ~Ae 6am of cc boily, a~e more secttre7y t~ 'WtU i(ancc.
Thus, in Hg. 8, thu line directed vertically from the centro of gruvity, n, falls within the
base of the body, und it remains stonding; but in Hg. 4 a similar line falls without the
base, und the body consequently cannot be maintained in on uprigbt posnion, urid mnst
ta..ll
So long as the perpendicular line drawn through its centre of gravity falis within its base.
The celebrated leaning tower of Pis~ 315 feet high, whiab inclines 12 feet from a
perfectly upright position, is an example of this principle. For iu~OnCO, the line in Hg.
5, falling from the top of the tower to the ground, and pass-lug through the centre of
gravity, falls within the base, and the tower stands securely. If; however; an attempt bad
been maele to build the tower a li~ tie higher, ao ~ the ~erpendictalar line pasetag
through the cenfre of gravity would have ftdlen beyond the base, the structure could no
longer have supported itseif~
In order that they may effectually keep the centre of gravity of the body over the base
formed by the soles of the feet.
99 ~rt canust a man, standing with his heela close to a perpenclisulur v~ Innel over
sufficiently to pick up any oltect that lies hefore him on the iromel, without fatling 5
Because the wall prevents him from throwing part of his body backward, to
counierb~itce tAs Aecc~ ast~ a~ that must project forward.
100 What is the reaaou that pecacor walkiny acn~in-arus shake aud jostle each other,
aulens they make the mecements of their feet to cenrespouc, as sold~cs do in ~aacchi~g
S
Whcn we walk at a moderate rate, the centre of gravity comes alternately over the right
and over the left foot. The body advances, therefore, in a
line; and unless two persons walking together keep step, the waving motion of the two
fails to coincide.
101 Where would the centre of ga-avity be in a wheel made entirely of wood and of a
umforus thickuess S
El the centre.
10~ Where would the centre of granity be ul a part of the rim of the same wheel were
made of iron S
It would be changed to some point a8itle from the centie of the wheel.
103 In what does the art of lalancing or walkiny upon a rope consistS
In keeping the centre of gravity in a line over the base upon which the body rests.
104 What is the lose upon which the huousa lody rests or is supported S
Because a body is tottering in proportion to its great altit~,1e and norrow ~ee. A child
has a body thus constituted, and learns to walk but slowly because of this difficulty,
(perhaps in ten or twelve months,) while the young of quadrupeds, having a ~os(1
~nppor~i~y
are able to stand and move about almost immediately.
107 Are all t~e limbe of a ~ tree acraugael in such a manner, that the
line directed from the centre of gravity is caused to fall within the luse of the iceel
~a~re cacses the various limbs to shoot out and grow from the sides with as much
exactness, in respect to keeping the centre of gravity within the base, as though they had
bcQn all arranged artiflci~y. 1~ach limb grows, in respect to all the others, in such a
manner as to preserve a due balance between the whole.
CHAPTER III.
wEmHr.
108 ~~isweight?
Weight ~ the measure of the attraction of gravitation, or, in Qther words, it is the
ineciiure of force with which a body is attracted by the earth. El an ordinar~ sense it
1Aequanti~ of ~w~r cen~ine~ in oi ~ody, cii ciicer~iited~hl~Ae6alaiice.
109 To what is the weight of a hocly proportional I
110 Why will a hall of leod weigh more than a hall of cotton of the ,ame size l
Because the quantity of matter contained in the ball of lead is mnch greater than the
quantity of matter contained in the ball of cotton. The attraction of gravitation being
proportioned to the quantity of matter, it follows that the lead ball will be drawn towards
the earth with a greater force (i. e. ~ill weigA ngore) than the ball of cotton.
111 A man of moderate weight upon the surface of the earth would
-gh two ions of tramelorted to the surface of the sun: why would he weigh
more ~
~ccnuse tite attractive force of the sun, on account of its greater magnitude, far exceeds
the attractive force of ~te earth.
lltl Why icill a inuse of iron weigh lea~ oo the top of a high mounbia thon ul the bed of
the ow I
~eeause tile attractiQil of gravitation is less at the top of the mountain than at the level
surface of the t(~rntho;f ~ ~i~ereasin~ as the attracdecreases, accov~~ny to
tAc sq~(£re8 of tAn (1Ata~cne.
A bail of iron, weighing n tienusand pounds at thu level of the sea, would ho percoived
to have lost two pounds of its weight if taken to tho top of a mountain fien? miles high, a
spring balanca being ilsud.
11~ Where will a hedy weigh the most on the surface of the earth I
At the poles of the earth, for at these points the attractive power is greatest.
It must ha remembered that thu. ourtb is not a perfoot sphere, but flattoeuuuatrd0at~u
poles; consequently, thu polos of tliu earth are nearer thu
traction (i. e. thu centre of the earth) than any other point on its surface.
114 Where will a lody weigh the leust oc the eoi~lh's sm/ace?
At the eqv~tor, for there the attractive power is less; the surface at this point being the
moist distant from the earth.
115 What would le the weight of a lody carried to the centre of the earth I
It would have 110 weight; for the attraction of gravitation acting equally in every
direction, no effect would be produced; and the body would be fixed as if sustained by a
number of magnetic points.
116 What two systems of weights are employed in the United htates aid Great Rritaiul
Troy weight is used for weighing gold and silver. It derives its name from the ancient
designation of London, Troy l'~ova itt, or from Troyne, in France, where it was first
adopted in Europe. It has existed in England from the tiine of Edward the Confessor.
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+
Llu', Vt t'~~1
~ the ~ or ~de. In tn~~ C A
the agency of the weiglit of tao wate r.I
I,
I
4-0
of the n~ateri21, ~
~pph.ed to it.
III-
for the
~ich have the pro~er~ of ~ coAeri~ wi~ ~ lx)di~ to wA~
~e obtainq
it. instaufly swells a
.at Ie~gth falls
Thi5. is denoinrnateQ --
~ +~e ~
ELtioa tile..
I
_______________-~ -. V--
-p
was held
to pieces wae~
I
1
I
I
s~~ing ~ me
tw.,
~now
I
I
N
II
1
"moN fliNGs.
TL GtGothfc
*
45
having to rise a steeper
rolan arch?
SM,,,
ider ad a certain
Or
at
wet er.: portico oi the
*38 NU four thousand feet long.
'8,with greater h£gAt tAan I-A in witk prqftwe onaan- ~iMly dedtetion of the leavES
and flowers of
a
A
~73 What is said to have heen the model of the aisle of a aothw ~ ctrel?
As a uteful ~
It is dagradi~ng the fine &ts to make them entirely subservient ~ utaity. It is out of taste
to make a statue ot Apollo hold a cen~1~
lina painting stand as a fireboard. Our houses are for use, and t~rt is thatuforo one of the
useful arts. In building, we should p150 the inside first, and then the outside to cover it.
275 Whp is it bad taste to construct a dtielling.honse in the fi~ of
Grecian tentple?
Beeau~ a Grecian temple was intended for extoi'a~ W~i-8Aip, not as a habitatioa~~ a
placie of meeting.
276 Had the Colts, wha pts~d Rome, anpthing to do nuth the ineention of Gothis
~rchitecture I
No; the name was introduced about two hundred years ago as a term of reproach, to
stigmatize the edifices of the Middle Ages, which departed from the purity of the antique
modelL
277 W~
978 Whatisccp~~
The l~wer par~ or ~ase of the colum~; a continued base; on wbic~ a range of c~umns is
e~ected, is called a ~
979 Whatistiebese~~coitmn?
The totteerpwrt, where it is distinct from the shaft.
280 WhatIstheahafl~
The mi~d~ er longest part of the column.
981 Whetisthe~£?
This term is applied to the lower part of tAepe~a~al U or to any square projecting basis,
such as those at the'
I
J
m of WaliR, and under the base of columns. The ~art of the pedest~ being called the
pliuth, the
will be termed the die,- and the upper ~ (&ee~ 13.)
· Cornice.
... .Arcbltmye.
· . Ba'...
Corn1~
{
~g ~
The ~pe prqjecting por~ of the entaUature. (For iZlhte~rarnio,tor of~ase dt~re~~ ~
8cs~. 13.)
~87 In setechag a stoat for arehitecturetyu~osw, hew mag we ~ el~ toferm an eeintoa
r~ecting its cturabitit~ aatt oermaatate?
By visiting the locellity from whence it was obtained, wemayjudge from the ~ which
have been lon~ ~osedto~ke we~~er if the rock is liable to yield to anuo8pAertO
~fluences, and the couditions under which it does so.
For example, if the rock be a grani~ ahd it he veiy oneven and rough, it may be inferred
that it is not very durshie; that the tsldspa; which formE one of its eon ponent parts, is
more resdiiy decemposed by the action of moistura -i- tiost thaa the ~ which is another
ingredient; and therefore that it is very tznsaitable for building purposea Moreover, if it
possesses an iron-brown or rnsty appearance, it may he set down as highiy perishable,
owing to the attraction which this metsi baa for oxygen, causing the rock to increase in
bulk, and so disinaegrate."
~ Wha are the ~cntstse~ ermed freestonen, dt odapted for the erternetportio~ Of ev~osed
buiZd~ngs ~
Be~anse they moidily absorb ~ois~re; and in countries where frosts occur, the frswiiitg
of the water in the wet surface ~o~~tinuaily~ ~ the ext~·na1 portions, and thus, in time,
~l oynainental work upon the stone will be defaced or destroyed.
2~9 Whe co some soecoes of reck become har~ when tethen fre,n the quarvg and
exposed to the at~~here?
This quality, in s~me species of stone, arises from the fact that the ~ce~r contained in it,
when fdrming part 6f the natural rock, evoporates, and the stone, becoming dryer,
beeomesMr~r.
~9O Wh~ eto seene atones, ~ hard when firet qtwrrte~ ~ceane ~ and/ertt topaecs, when
~eeed to the atmoseheree
Because they contain clezy or alv~i~a in such a state as to readily abeorb qnoietetoe
from the atmosphere; and thi~~ugh the agency of the moisture the par~~e5 lo~ ~·bci~
oo~&~oa and fall apart.
I
~I~il~ns. 49
In.
~A OF FLUIDS.
~; oil, molasses, etc.; arid into air; carbonic acid gas, oxygen, and
of aseos, w~h
OHAPTER I.
Because the particles are equally a~iraotetl teseas ~Ae eae~A by grav~ty, and are all
equally and _ movable among themselves.
~96 How sbght a oeoirntp is sifflcimt to give a running motton to water?
TAree ~v~e to a ~ile iri a smooth, straight gives a velocity of about three miles per hour.
nver Ganges, at a distance of 1800 miles from its mouth, is only 800 feet above the level
of the sea. ~97 om what eri?wipte are we euabkd to condurt water sinder grotm~ tlroigh
isregvk~ tubes?
that water¾#iii.always ries to d's
or v~els oo~sta~
catl~ wi~ eack ~
4 If we connect together a
'y series of vesse~ no matter
/7 bow various their shapes aid
capacitie~ so that ~
that it wiil rise to the San
_____rise ~om the main
A B mto them, we shall Sr
upon pouring water into or
lev the vessel&
Th~ed6pendence 6r ~ill ~rra~e ni ants fbr co g water in aquedv nndar ground upon the
principle, that water m oiosed tubes or ye rises to a unitorni leve~ is deafly shown m Ag
15 ~ a, a, repri the water-level of a pond or reservoir upon elevatod ground. Iroxi~ pond
a line of pipe is laid, passing over a bridge or viaduct at ~
ra
under a river at C. The fountains, at b, ~ show the stream ~ to it~ level in the pond, a, at
two points of very different elevstio~
I
- -
'~w~or~
~als, nnti~ an imper
~. Here the wat~r ~ some point where
to t~e surf~ ace in
14) to
end b rrocI; water
p&oolating
~m~agh the gravel would re&~h the impervious ~ along whioh it would run im
~ ~
5-
y are supplied by ths ~~falli?~g ~ rcolates from the surface of the earth.
Water is sometimes obtained by bortng into ~ errtk with a species of auger, until a veih
or sheet of water is found, which rises to the surface through the cylindrical excavation.
Such excavations are called Artesian wells, because the method was first invented and
employed at Artois, in France.
804 How do poe ~ for the water rising to the sarface in A~ sian, and sometimes in
ordinarp wehs?
Strata which are pe~viou~ frequently alternate with others which are ~ so; or may form a
boidn, the area of which is partially filled with clay, through which water cannot pass; in
such a case it is obvious that th~ bed of sand ~nesit the~y, fed by the rain which
descends o'i the uncovered margin of the basin, must form a reservoir where the water
will gradually accumulate beneath the central layer of clay, through which it caunot
escape. If the bed of clay be pen~ frated by natural or artificial means, the water must
necessarlly rise to the surface, and may even be thrown up iu ajet to an altitude which
will depend on the ~vel ofthe fluid in the sitbterranean reservoir. a
&
Thus, if a ssndy Stratum, aa (~. 17), acting as a Iliter, Oecopies an Inclined positiou.
between two other strata impervious to w~t, Such as clay, the water being absorbed by
the supericial parts ofthe strata, as at a a (which may he of very~t extent), will penetrate
through its whole depth, and, tinding no ~ below on account of the basin.like form of the
stratum, or from its testing at the lower termination upon a aompact roci', wlil
accumulate. The porous strata, therethre, becomes a reservoir to a greater or less extent,
and if; by boring through the super. incumbeDt mass, we form an opening into the
stratum, as at b, the water
I
will rise in it, and flow over in a jet proportionat to the height o~ the water accumniated
in the stratum from whence it flow~
805 What generat effect does the cativatan. and drainage of a coent~~ have n~ the
springs?
In a well cultivated and improved conutry the springs are comparatively few in number
and not constant. While the face of a country is rough, the rain-water remains long
among its inequalities, slowly sinking into the earth to feed the springs, or slowly run-
fling away from bogs and marshes towards the rivere; but in a well drained, eountry the
water ~ quickly, often producing dangerous floods.
aoe How is the ~}ressare of water exerted?
I
8CTh:N·CE OF COMMON TH~~e.
What ts water?
What i~ hard water?
sides ~of a vessel or on its bottom, or on any body immersed in it, is nearly one pound
on the square inch for every two feet of depth.
818 Whattowater?
Water is a ~ com~osed of ouyg~ and kyd~ogo~ in the proportion of cig t parts of oxygen
to one part of hydrogen.
814 Whg is waterficid?
Because its ~ar~cle8 are kept separate by latent heat; when a ce~ain qnantity of this
latent heat is driven out, ~water becomes solid, and is called ice.
By increasing its iniant hea~ the particles of water are again iubdi~ded into ~ sease.
When it filters through tlie earth, it becomes impregnated with sul~iate of lime,
carbonate of lime, carbonic acid, magnesia, and many other impurities, from the e~t~
oad ~i~rotls with which it comes in contact.
817 What is the cease qf mineral springs?
When water trickles through the ground, it &e'80lvte' some of the substances with which
it comes in contact; if these substances arc retained in solution, the water will partake of
their mineral character.
818 When is a mineral water caled a c~~eni P
When it contains t~, in some form, dissolved in it.
819 Mineral springs er~ in alt paris qf cor conn~r~~: what is the natare of the surstanres
caaiained in them?
The great majority of them are only e~preg~~e~ wi~ teon, 8alt, or ~ Some few,
however, contain many different su~~ces, as the mineral waters of Saratoga.
820 Whp are springs containing iron in lwrg8 qnanteties teneficiatto ',.~ invalids?
~, ,
85
SCIENCE or COMMON ~
?nrity ot water,. Mr in water. Do mhes breatha air?
Any water which contains Isas ~ of solid mineral matter in a gallon, is considered as
~m~arr~se' ely pt&re. Some natural waters are known so pure that they contain only ~th
of a grain of mineral matter to the gallon, but such instances are very rare.
Waters obtained from diff~rent snurees m&7 be -d ~ corn parative puntyas ~llows:
Rain water must be considered M the purest narural water, o~eoisliy that which tails in
districts remote from towns or habitations; then comes river water; nex~ the water of
lakes and pends; next, spring waters; and then the waters of mineral springs. Succeeding
these, ere the waters of great arms of the ocean into which immenSe rivers din aharge
their volume~ as the water of the Black Sea, whicli is only brackish; then the waters of
the ocean itself; then those of the Mediterranean and other inland seas; and last of all,
the waters of those lakes which have uo outle~ as the Dead Se~ Caspian, Great Salt
Lake of Utah, etc etc.
From elevea tAovsan~ to tweiaty~ t~a~ ~osa,s, or nearly one-fourth part of its weight.
824 Does air exist in alt natar~ waters?
It does: ~sAes and otAer m~sne a~~mols are dependent on the air which water contains
for their existence.
825 Wtnid ahsoiate~ pure water art as a poison to afish?
The purest natural water that can be procured is obtained by melting fresAlyf~~ ~ or by
reeeiv~ ing rain in clean vessels at a distance from houses.
827 Whp isfiowing water not iab~ to ~erome S-.wII~ Because its cu~e~ts oor~ diti'ay
511
to Boa.
a
SCI]~(3~ 0? COMMON ThING8.
Because they are filled with the wa~ air of the lungs, wliich is llghter than cold air.
881 Wh~ is water fresh ~em the wel~ or fonniain more sparkling and refreshing than the
same water after it hat leen for some time espased to the air?
All spring and well waters contaiif~~ oar, and ewr~omw ~ di~~~~iyed ji' them
The ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ter, depends upon its
temper~ cold v~ diss~lving and retaining a larger quantity than ~rm Or tepM watere.
When cold waters from springs or fountains are exposed to the air, they become elevated
in temperature, and the gasas eontained in them escape, rendering the water flat and
insipid. The principal agent in imparting a sparkle and freshness to watar is atmo~ ~heric
air, and not carhonic acid, as is often supposed and taugh~ The ~uantity of carhonie acid
present in ordinary spring w~ters is generally inconsiderallea
882 ~
Because the ~ater eontaius 8al~ ~ter8, which deprive the water of a part of its solvent
p(~wer.
883 Whpisit d'~ttowash wilt soa~in salt water?
Because many stains are of a greasy nature and the alkali of the soap has the power of ~
~ ~ ~xiatters, and rendering them soluble in water.
886 Wh~~rainwaterso~?
887 Whi' is it more eaep to wash wah ~ water than with hard?
Because soft water ~ites free1~~ with soap and dissolves it; in hard water the soap ]s
either insoluble or
w
5CIE~~CE O~ COMMON ThINGS.
5?!
becomes decomposed. The solvent power of water increases aiso with its purity or
softness.
888 When we wash with soap in water what chanic~ astton tohes
The soap is resolved into a fa~y ~ and z~' al~i; the alkali dissolves most of the organic
sub-stances which constitute the dirt which we wish to remove, and the greasy matter
effects by its hibricity an easy washing away of the dissolved matter from other
substances.
889 Whg do wood ashes render hard water sofi?
The sea has undoubtedly derived all its salt and other soluble mineral substances
byw~k~gs ~ ~Ae l~nd. The streams tbat have flowed into it for ages have been
constantly adding to its quantity, until it has acquired its present condition.
848 Wh~ is not rain water sa~ atthtgh most of it is esapestied from thesea?
Because 8al~ will ~ ev~on'ate, and therefore when sea water is turned into vapor, its
8ul~ is left behind.
844 Istheremoreortessofsattinesegspang, ricer, or~?
The saline condition of sea water is ~ exaggeration of that of all ordinary lakes, riv~, and
springs; they all contain lm~6 Or ~8 of~, but their contents
--1
58
~IENCE OF COMMON ThIN~.
Salt InkeL Effect of ~t in the ocean. Mlner~ epriog&
are continually changing and discharging themselves into the sea; therefore the salt does
not accumulate.
845 Is everg take into which rivers fow, and from which there is no ontet erc~t b',
eeaparatio~; a satt take?
It is; and it is curious to observe that this condition disappears when an artificial outlet is
provided for such waters.
Such lakee are t~ Dead Se~ the Caspian, the Sea of Arad, and the Great S~t Lake of
Utah, the ealiness of all of which exceeds that of the ocean.
84~ What good on~oses does the i,resence of so maci sa~ in the ocean sabeerve?
The most abundant substance is eom~on saU; next, certain cooabisia~ions of magnesia;
then salts of lime, with small proportions of potauk, ~on, ~ and br~ mine.
848 Are then substances found in most springeP
With the exception of iodine and bromine, they may be fo~d in small quantities in
almost all soriregs and rivers.
849 Are those sahetasces ~tch we c~ impurities in water of ang service to animaZ or
vegeta~~ egetems?
They give to water its fres~ness and soarklingprt1)e~es; pure distilled water is very
disegreeable to drink; these substances are also generally beneficial to the Systems of
plants and animals, and are absorbed by them with the water.
850 Does water form part 0! the oo,npoeitton of most l)odies?
It enters directly into the composition of nearly all ~stslliza~le bodies and most organi~
coo~oetnos.
851 If the waters of the ocean were not agitated ~ winde, arrente, end ~het wotetd be
the ejfrct?
Water contaminated with animal and vegetable matter, if kept for some time, undergoes
a ~ontaneoua pttrift~cation, losing its offensive odor and color, and depositmg more or
less sediment. Water, for the su~ ply of ships, is well known to undergo this process of
purification by fermentation; and the larger the qu{tntity of destructible matter
suspended in it, the more complete and rapid is its purification.
856 Whatisatide?
A tide is a waine of the whole ocean, which is elevated to a certain height, and then
sinks, after the manner of a common wave.
854 Whatistheoauseoftides?
The attraction of the san and moon upon the waters of the ocean. The moon being
nearest to the earth, her attraction is six times greater than that of the sun. This attraction
of the moon raises the waters of the ocean as they come under her influence by the
motion of the earth on its axis.
855 How many tides are there in a day?
Because ~e attn and moon are flien in such a position that they exert their influence
together. For every five feet of height in tide prod'#by the moon, the influence of the sun
adds one foot. ~
858 What are map tides?
Low tides.
859 Why are map tides &n£'er than other wica?
Because then the sun and moon have su~ ositions that their attractive influence is
q~~o8ed to eac£ other;
and for every six feet of the moon's tide, the opposite attraction of the sun takes away
one foot.
seo Dbw fast does the tide wave move?
The rate of movement of the tide wave dependi~ upon the nature and depth of the sea
bottom. Witha depth of one fathom, its rate is e~A~ ~slrs pe~ ~oter; an~ with one
hundred fathoms, e~hty in~lssp~ ~
881 Does the height of the same tide varp in el~ereet ~haes?
The heigi~t of the tide in differeut places depends much on the co#y~cret~~ of the la~t~;
the same tide may rise in one place three inches, and in another place thirty feet.
882 At what~~doring the eta~ is it high water?
When the ritoon pesses tke nierid~n-that is, when it is nearly vertical over the place-the
sea is elevated to the greatest extent, and it is~said to be high water.
888 When is it low water?
When the moon is upon the itorzzon., or about six bours after high tide. As the moon
passes the me]idian below the horizon, another elevation occurs, so that we have the ebb
and flow 6f the tide twice every day.
884 How mach later does the tital eh~ andfow oo6t£r each dog?
The thue becomes later every day by about ~<ty helf ~rt~es, which is the excess of a
Innar day
above a solar one: 28~ minutes of the former being equal to ~ minutes of the latter.
885 What is the cause of ordinarV sea awees?
The wioid, ptessing unequally on the surface of the sea, depresses one part more than
another~; evety depression causes a eorresponding elevation, and these undulations are
called u'a~es.
It must be remembered that waves have no other than a vertical mattesi~ i.e. up nud
down. Any substance, aR a buoy, floating on a wave, is merely elevated and depressed
alternately; it does n6t otherwise ohange its place.
888 If waves are stationa~i, and only moee up and down, why do they Beem to advance
towarets the shore?
turned round, the thread appears to move forward; and the apparent onwar~ motion of
the waves of the sea is a similar dehision.
367 What is the cause of breakers?
The interference of rock8 or rieieiis ban~ in the sea with the regul~ form of tlie wave, by
which the outline or cnrve of the wave is broken.
368 What comes the sprap of waves?
The wv~ driving the eurfaoo of the water from the
870 What do we ~now concerning the magnitude and velscitp of ocean waves?
On the Aflautic, during a storm, the waves rise to a height of about fort~~ivefeat above
the hollow occupied by the ship; the t6tal distance between the crests of two large waves
being 559 feet, which distance is passed bythe wave in about seventeen seconds of time.
871 With what vehuty is it estimated that saci ~ wanes as the atove descrihed travel?
Becaune the i'e ~ Ae~ar than the alcohol, and the iroa it' light&r than the quicksilver.
876 What do we mean, when we say that ice is Ighter than iron?
We mean that, taking egu~ bulke of each, the former weighs less than the latter; and
when we say that qm.c~silver is heavier than water, we mean that, in e~ual volurne8, as
a pint, for instance, the quicksilver has a greater weight than the water.
877 W~ th ~ ~ graneti?
It is the weigAt of a body compared with the weight of an equal bulk of water.
878 ll~w does it dzfferfrom ordi~rp or atovItte weight?
In ab~olute weigkt no re~~ is paid to the ~olume or bu~ of substances. In sy ifie' weight,
a given bulk or volume is compared with an equal volume or bulk of water.
879 What~hasthe~~~ht?
ne
SCIENCE OF COMMON ThINGS. 63
Swimming in fresh smd nit water UnstiW~I swimme~
to the water, renders the specific gravity of the brine greater than that of fresh water, or
of the egg.
882 How do coche sometimes ascertain f thair brine le salt enoagh for
;ickling?
They put an egg nato ~ b~ie. If the egg ~ the brine is ~ 8Vroag enosttgk; if the egg ~ate,
it ~.
888 Wh~ will an egg sinh, Cf the brine ~ not strong eneagh j~rpic~ Zing?
Because an egg will be the ke~~ser; but if as much 8al~ be added as the water can
dissolve,an egg will be lighter than the strong brine, and consequentiyfi6at on the
surface.
884 Wh~ is it more e~ to swim in the sea than in a river?
Because the ~ gravi~y of salt water is grea~ than that of fresh; and, therefore, it bstoy8
up the swimmer better.
885 Why do ~ascns SiCh in water when they are ~Zilfd swimmers?
Because they struggle to keep their ~ ~water.
886 ~hinhowthisis?
When otr head is thrown back boldly into the water, our mouth is kept above ~e 8nrfaoe,
and we are able to breathe; but when the head is kept above tAe ~rof the water, the chin
and mouth sink b~~k it,
dthe swimmer is suffocated.
This mny be ifiustrated thus:~ a picce of wood be of Such specific ~ravity that only two
~earo inther can float out of water, it is manifest, that if two other Inches are reised out,
the two fmmer inches must be plunged in. The body (in floating) resembles this piece of
wood~ If two square inches of ourface float out of the water, we Oan breathe; but if part
of the l}aci and crown of the head are raised above the water, the lower part of the r~:
will be depressed beneath it.
2. The position and muscular action of a ;;~r~' (when swimming) differ greatly from
his ordinary habits; but beasts swim in their ordinary position.
889 Whp can fat neen swim more easily than spare men?
Because f~ is lig~ter than wate~; and the fattes' a maii is, the more buoyant will he be.
890 i7~as arefishes dIe to ascend to the surface of water?
Fishes have an ai~blarlasr near the abdomen; when ~is blad~er is ~lled u'ith air, the fish
increases in size and (being lighter) ascends through the water to its surface.
891 How arefshes ahIe to dive in a minute to the lottom Of a stream?
They ~pel ~ir from~hcir a~b1adder; in consequence of which their ~ is di~~isketl, and
they sink instantly.
89~ Why does the iody of a drowned ~erson rise and foat u,on the surface several onys
afier death S
Because, from the accumulation of gao within the body (caused by incipient
putrefaction), the body becomes specifically lighter than water, and rises and floats upon
the surface.
898 Hew are lsfe.looispreventelfremsi~ng?
They contain in their sides air-tight ~ or filled with air, which by their buoyancy prer~t
the boat from sinking even when it is filled widi water.
894 The slaves of the West Indies have a ~lan of stealing reemfrom a cas~ It inserting
the tong nech of ~ lo~te, fdll of water, throegh the leng. Hen' er' they ~d in this manner
to obtain the reem?
The 1~~is very much lighter than ~e ~; and as the ~ ~ater falls ont of the bottl~ in~ the
cask, the lighter riem rises to take its place.
895 Why does cream rise upon melk?
Because it is composed of particles of ~ or.fatty matter, which are lighter than the ~
particles of the milk.
896 Why do stale eggsfoatt~po~~ water?
Because, by keeping, air is substituted for a portion of ~ of the egg, which escap~
Ir
SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS. 65
Iron ~blp& ~evemeat Of Stones in Water. Capillary sttr~tjen.
897 Why does not a vessel constructed of iron sink, as the iron is much heavier than the
water I
Because the vessel is constructed in a coacave form, and is thus rendered buoyant. Every
substance becomes h~hter in water, in Pr~Or~onto~e amosen~ of water d~laceol'. This
is a law of nature: if it displaces less water than its weight in air, it sinks; if more, it
floats. The ship, being concave, displaces a greater weight of water than the weight of
the iron of which it is composed in the air.
A thick piece of iron, weighing half sn ounce, loees in water nearly one-eighth of its
weight; hut if it is haenmered cut into a plate or vessel, of such a size that it occupies
eight times as much space as before, it then loses its whole weight in water, and will
float, sinking just to the brim. ~ made twice as large, it will displace one ounce of water,
consequently, twice its own weight; it will then sink to the middle, and can be loaded
with half an ounce weight before sinking entirely.
898 Why are stones, graset, and sand so easily moved hy, waves and eurrente?
Because the moving water has only to overcome about kalf ~ wei;'A~ of the stone.
899 Why can a sione whach, on land, regaires the strength of two men to hfi' it, he lgisd
and cerreed in water ly one man?
Because the water Aol~e t£p ~e atone with a force equal to the weight of the volume of
water it displaces.
OXAPTEB III.
C~ILLARY ATInACTION.
Because very Ihinute particles of water insinuate themselves into the ~orea of the salt by
~ a~ lraetion, and force the crystals apart from each other.
401 Why does water melt sugar?
themselves into the pores of the sugar by capillary a~~ac~on. ~d force the crystals apart
from eacli o~ier.
&
402 What is copillary attractian 5
The power which very minute tubes possess of causing liquid to riee in them above it8
level.
"Capillary," from the Latin word, "cnpillaris" (like a hair); the tubes referred to are
almost as fine and delicate as a hair. Water ascends thro~gh a lump of sugar or piece of
sponge, by capillary attraction.
N. B. The smaller the tube, the higher will the liquid~he attracted by it. ~. 18
illustrates the manner in whioh water will n~ in tubes of diffemELt dietena
408 Why is vegetateon on the margin of a river more lururiant than in an ooenfiell?
Because the porous earth on the bank deawe up wate'r to the roots of the plants by
eas'illary a~raction.
404 Why do persons who water plants very often pour the water into the saucer, and not
over the plants S
Because the water in the saucer is drawn up by the inould (thro~gh the hole at the
bottom of the flower-pot), and is transferred to the stem and leaves of the i)Tant by
capillary attraction.
405 Why is cotton lest adopted for lamp-wicks?
Because the arrangement of the fibres of the cotton-wick is such, that the whole forins a
~undle of minute tu6es, in which the oil ascends and supplies the flame by carn~
attraction.
408 Wh~ does llottingpapsr alserl ink?
The ink is drawn up between the minute ~/~bree of the paper by caoillary attraction.
407 Why will not writing or sized paper ahearI ink?
Because the eizing, being a species of glue into whi cli writing papers are dipped,~up
the litae intereticee or epaces between t~~oe,and in this way prevents all capillary
attraction.
408 Hew does a sponge absorb water?
F
SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS. 67
The pores of the sponge constitute ~ litebes in which the water rises by capillary
attract~n.
409 Why does dry wced, immersed in water, swell?
Because the water enters ~heporas of wood by capillary attraction, and ~orces the parti~
ft~rther ~par~ from each other.
410 Whp does sugar or salt give a favor to water?
Because the sugar or salt (beiug separated into ve~ ~ minute particles) ~ats about the
water, and with it intimately.
411 Why does hot water dissolve sugar and sale more readely than cold water?
Because the heat of the water assists its solvent action, and openel for the water a
passage through the particles of the substance.
CHAPTEIR Iv.
THE GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AERIEORM OR GASEOUS
RODIES.
The distinction between liquids and those~more elastic fluids which we term air, gas,
vapor, steam, etc., depends principally on heat an(1 pressurs. Thus, w~ ter, according to
the addition or subtraction of heat, may exist as a solid, ice; as a liquid, water; or as a
vapor, steam.
41~ Under what pressare of the atmosohere is water converted into stecon?
Under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere, water is converted into steam at 212
degrees, Fahrenheit's thermometer; if thia pressure is increased, it requires
F-
68 SC~NCa OF COMMON THINGS.
Varieties of ~eous bodies. Oompesiuon of tbe atmosphere. Air porous.
Those whic19 under oommou oir~mstonce8 of tonend pres~re, are ~ways in a gaseous
state,
as common air; and those which become gases okiefty a~ ki;'~ ~ as steam, or vapor of
water.
415 Are 011 gases invneh''le or colarhess ~ atmospheric air?
Some gases possess color, but the greater number are colorless and invisible.
416 Of what is atmospheric air consposed 7
Principally of two gases, o~g'~ and ~trogaa, mixed together in the following proportion:
viz. one volume of oxygen to four of nitrogen.
It must not be forgotten tnat the air contains small quantities of otlier gaseous substances
also, as vapor qf water, carlonic aci~ and ammonia,
417 Do the particlas of which atmospheric air and ether gaseous bodies are composed,
appear to have any cohesion ~etween themeelves?
The ultimate particles of which air and other gases are composed appear to be destitute
of cohesion; hence air has a disposition not only to sink down and spread out laterally,
like liquids when unconfined, but also to expand and rise upwards.
418 Istheairperous?
Because air readily yields to pressure, and a great bulk of it may be forced to occupy a
very small space.
420 Is air also impenetrable?
Steam has but little more than heelf the wei;'~t of aimo~heric ai~; and hence it rises and
floats in the air as a cork rises and floats in water.
5CIENCLC OF CO~MOX TUINGS.
69
~Vhat is the atmosphere?
CIIAPTE~
why meiletains appear hine.
AT~O5PIIE~~.
The thin transparent fluid which surrounds the earth to a Considerable height above its
surface, and which, by its peculiar constitution, supports animal life by respiration, and
is also necessary for the due exercise of the vegetable f~nctions.
423 Is the atmosphere inenThie?
Because when we look upwards into the firmament on a clear day, the space appears of
a~ az~re or clear OOlor.
This color beIon~ not to anjething which occupies the space in which the stars or other
c~estiil objects nre placed, but to the mass of air through which tbe bodies are seen.
425 Why do distant mou~eens appear hiete?
Xot because it is tiieir color, but because it is ~ color of t4e air ~Aroug~ wMcA ~ are
veest.
42~ Has air weight?
By weighing a vessel filled with air, and the same vessel after the air has been exhausted
from it.
428 Can the eristence of air he known hy the sense of touch or feeling~
It can; since it opposes reeieta~ee wAen aoie~ ~ and strikes with a fo~ce proportionate
to the speed of its motion.
429 Why do we always feet a hreeze on the deck of a ettaisloat in notion, even upon the
catenest day 5
Because our bodies forcibl~ displace the air ~ we are carried tArou~A ~t.
4
By the force of ~ke air i~ mo~io~, or wind strIking upon the surface of the water.
481 Could a hird fly in a space devoid of air, even s! it could ertet without repO.etien9
It could ~o~; as the bird rises simply by the resie~ ance of the particles of air to the
beating of its wings.
482 How do we know that air is elastic?
Because a volume of compressed air, the pressure being removed, immediately restores
itself to its original biilk.
488 When is air said to he rarefied?
When a given quantity of air is caused to expand and occupy a greater space, it is said to
be rarefied.
When a part of the air inclosed in any vessel is withdrawn, titat which remains,
expanding by its e]astic property, niways fills flie dimunsions of the vessel us
complotokv as hofore. ~f nine4unths were withdrawn, thu remaining one-tenth would
occupy the same space that the whole did formerly.
484 What is the height of the atniosphere alare the surface of the earth?
It is supposed to be about 45 milee; the zone or shell of air which surrounds the earth to
the height of nearly 2~ miles from its surface, contains one-half of the atmosphere; and
the remaining half being relieved of this superincumbent pressure, expands into another
zone or belt Qf the thickness of 41 or 42 miles.
~ome authorities suppose this last zone to havo a much greater area. 485 What is the
weight of air compared with that of water?
Water is about 840 ~mee the weight of air, taken ~ulkfor bulk.
48G What is the estimated weight of the whole atmosphere enveloping the glohe?
At the level 0/ tile ocean the atmosphere exerts a pressure of about 15 pounds for' every
e~uare incil of eeies-faoi.
438 Jf the cir were condeosed, so Os to occopy no wore space then the sane weight of
water, to how great au elevatina clove the earth would it ectesel ~
To an elevation of tltietyfourfee~.
439 Iu what direction is the pressure of the atmaphere erertet I
Jt is the nature of a fluid to transmit pressure in eve~y direction e~ually; therefore the air
presses ~pward8, downword~, laterally, and obli~uely, with the same force.
440 How greet a pressure is e~erted hy the air ispen the ~ody of a wan or animal having
a surface of 2000 square inches?
~ot less than 30,000 po~n1si, or abut 15 ton&
441 Why is not the individuel creshed heneath so enormous a lend I
Because the atmoepliere ~C88~8 c~ztally in all direetion8, and otir boelie8 are ~lled
with liqtiid8 capable of sustaining pressure, or with air of the 8ame density as the
external air; so that the erternal pressure is met and counteracted by the internal
resistance.
449 Whet seould lv the effect upon a man or animal if at once relieved of all atmeipheric
pressure?
All the blood and ~ids of the body would be fo~ed ly e~ansion to the suface, and Uie
auimal wouid burst.
448 What do ice wean ly a vecaumi
A space de~oid of all matter; in general, we mean by a vacuum, a space devoid of air.
444 Can a perfect vacuum ~ produced eriwicially?
~o; but confined spaces may be deprived of air sufficiently for all experimental or
practical purposes.
445 Are Ciere any issstances of a vacuum in nature I
There is no reason for supposing that the spaces which exist between the van~s planets
and other heavenly bodies, are occupied with any material substance.
446 Is the eristence of air necessory te the production of sound I
It is; in a vacuum there can be no sound; and on the top of high mountains, where the air
is greatly rarefied, as on Mont Blanc, the report of a pistol can hardly be heard.
Because, owing to the ex~eme rari~ of the air on the top of the mountain, a person,
although expanding his chest as much as usual, really takes in only half as much air as
he does when at the foot of the mountain.
44~ If the lips te applied to the hack of the hand, and the treath drawn in so as to
produce a partial vacuum in the mouth, why will the skin he drawn or sucked in 5
~ot from any force resident in the lips or the mouth drawing the skin in, but from the fact
that the usual external pressure of air is removed, and that the presisurefeosa u,it~i~ die
8kiTh is suffered to prevail.
449 How is a tog enahled to left a stone lii means of the common sucker?
The sucker consists of a di8k of moi8tefleol lea~Jier, with a string by which it may be
suspended with any weight attached to it. If its smooth moist surface be pressed so
closely against flie flat side of a stone or other body that the air cannot enter between
them, the weight of the atmosphere pressing upoa ~ie upper surface of the leather makes
it adhere so strongiy, that a stone of weight proportioned to the extent of the disk of
leather may be raised by lifting the string.
450 How are flies end other small insecto enatled to walk on ceilings and surfaces
presented downwards, or upon smooth panes of glass in an upright position?
Their feet are formed in such a manner that they ad ots email air-pumpe or euckero,
excluding the air between them and the surface with which they are in contact; and the
atmospheric pressure keeps the animal in position.
451 Why in treathing do we first draw in the treath, Os it is ter~wed?
Because by so doing we make an enlargeol enace in t~e eAe8~, and the pree8ure of tke
ex~rnttl ot~moeoAere forces the air in to fill it.
The air entors the lungs, not because they draw it in, but by use weight of the
atmosphere forcing it into an empty space.
mnscnlar action compress the air contained in them and give to it by compression a
greater elasticity than the air without. By the excess of the elasticity it is propelled, and
escapes by the mouth and nose.
453 Why do~ a toitle or jag gurgle srhne houjet is freely poured from it.~
On account of the pr~88ure of t/~ a(mo8pheroforo~ng air into the interior of the bottle.
hi 4ie first instance, the neck of the bottle is tilled with liquid, so as to stop the
admission of air. When a part has flowed out, and an empty space is formed within the
bottle, the atmospheric pressure forces in a bubble oj air through the liquid in the neck,
which, by rushing suddenly hito the interior of the bottle, produces the sound.
454 How long wilt a ~ottle continue to gargle?
So lony a8 ~ke neck cOfl~flUC8 ~ be o~oke~ wi~~ liyui~ But as the contents of the
bottle are discharged, the liquid, in flowing out, only partially fills the neck; and, while a
stream passes out throngh the lower half of the neck, a stream of air passes in thr~igh the
upper part. The flow being now continued and uninterrnpted, no sound takes place.
455 Does air erist in woter?
Water, and most liquids exposed to the air, abeorb ~ greater ar 1e88 q~an~ty, which is
maintained in them by the pressure of the atmosphere acting on the surface.
458 Why is holled woterfiot and insipid?
Because the ayene~ of tt~e iteat e~e7t tI~ air which the water previously contained.
457 Coold fishes and other marine onimale live in water deprived of Oir?
T~y ooul~ no~ as they breathe the air contained in the water.
458 Why do ale, porter, and cider froth, and champagne sparkle when uncurked and
poured into an open vessel?
When these liquors are bottled, the air confined under the cork io oonclen8eo', and
exerts upon the surface a preteure greater than that of the atmosphere.
This has thc effect of llOl(lin g, ill colnbination with tile liquor, air or gas wilicli, under
tile atmosphene pressure only, would escape. If any air or gas rise fi~om the liquor after
being bottled, it causes a still greater condensation, and an increased pressure above its
surface. When the cork is drawn from a bottle containing liquor of this kind, the air fixed
in the liquid, beilig released fi~m the pressure of the air which was condensed under ~ie
cork, instantly makes its escape, and, rising in bubbles, produces effervescence and
froth.
459 Why do hottin coutah~ing ale, cittec, porter, &c., frequcutly l)arol ~
It is the nature of these liquids to produce giel or atr in considerable quantities, tke
diestto force of wh;c~ sometimes becomes greater than the cohesive strength of the
particles of matter composing the bottle, wiucli then necessarily gives way, or bursts.
450 Why does one kind of lionoc froa, and another kind only soackle?
Those uquors only whi~i are vtsc;cl, ~l~t~ntotie, or tkicic, frotA, because they retain the
little bubbles of air as they rise; while a thin liquor, like champagne, suffers the bubbles
to escape readily.
CHAPTER VI.
ATMOSPIIFRIICAL PHENOMENA.
451 What designotion do coo gice to that deportment of scioucs which treats of the
various phenomena of the alcnosphere?
~Ieteorology.
462 rnco is the oir heated?
In two ways ; either by the rays of the sun passing through it, or by the heat
communicated to it by the earth.
'lent rareftes or makes it tighter; that is, a quantity of air heated will occupy more space
than the same ~uantity which has been cooled.
488 What is wind I
Wind is air pu~ in mo~s.on.
489 Whar occasions those mocensents of the air which We ca~ wind?
The principal ca'ise is the variation of temperaturo produced by the alternation of day
and night and the succession of the seasons.
470 How can winds originate through variations of temperature?
When through the agency of the sun a particular portion of the earth's surface is heated
to a greater degree than the remainder, the air resting upon it becomes rarefied dud
ascends, while a current of cold air rushes in to supply the vacancy. Two currents, the
one of warm air flowing out, and the other of cold ah flowing in, are thus continually
produced; and to these
Yes; there is always soma wo~o~ in the ah-; but the violence of the motion is
pei~etually varying.
47~ Does the rotation of the earth upon ite axis o~ect the motitn of the air I
Yes, in ~wo ways: 1. As the earth moves round its axis, the thin movable air is left
somewhat bcAintl, and tiierefore seems (to a stationary object) to be blowing in the
opposi~ direction to the earth's motion; and
~. As the earth revolves, diffe~n~ portions of its surface are continually passing under
the vertical rays of tAo sun.
478 When are the rays of the sun called vertical rays I
When the sun is in a direct Zinc above any place, his ~ays are said to be "vertical" to
that place.
474 When the sun is vertical or nearly over head at any place, what time of day is it at
thai place I
Noon.
475 How does a change in the heat of air produce wind?
The air always seeks to oreser~e ala eguil~uia; so ~ld air rushes into the void made by
the ~ward curvent of warin air.
476 Why tees uct the wind always tlow one way, following the direction of the sun?
Because the direction of the wind is subject to perpetual interruption from Aills and
valleys, deserts, seas, &C
477 How can hille or mountains aifret or change the direction and course of the wind?
If a current of air, blowing from a particular direction, strike against the side of a
mountain, it will necessanly be de~ctedfroin a straigAt line, and must either oscend the
mountain, turn lack, or assume a lateral direction.
47~ Why are those winds which ~low over large ctntinents or tracts Of land generally
dry I
velocity ci wiod~.
Force ci winds.
Because in their passage they ~1)8or~ very litac waler, as they do not blow over large
oceans.
479 Why do our handc and t~s chop inf~ty and windy weather I
Because the wind or frost absorbs the rnoA~nre from the surface of the skin; and t~i8
ae~on of u'sntl or fro8t proolnoes ec k~tl of ~ft~m~c£1~on Ol~ t~C skin.
480 W~~ud the wind Ilow regulorly from east to west cf all olatructions were resnoced
5.
Without doubt. It' the whole earth were covered with water, the winds would always
fol~w ~8 8U~, and blow uniformly in one fzreetiom.
481 ~o winds ever ~low regolorly I
Yes, in those parts of the world which present a l~rge suiface of water, as in tite Atlantic
and PacIfic Oceans.
48ta With whot velocity do win do move I
£cer~ graIuat~n exists in the speed of winds, from the mildest zephyr to tlie most violent
hurricane.
483 With what velocity does a wind which is hardly perceptihle move?
With a velocity of about oi?C ritile per /tottr, ~d with a perpendicular force on one
s(1liare foot of 005 lbs. avoirdupois.
484 Iv a gentle wind, what is the velocity and estiniated pressure?
Fromfour toftve m~esper ~our, and a force of 079 to 1~3 lbs.*
485 In a very Irish wind, whot is the velocity ond pressnre I
From ~wen~y ~ ~wenty-}~ec ti~1es per itour; force 1~9 to 3~07 lbs.
486 Whet is the velocity ondprwcnre of the wind in a storm?
From ftf~y ~ t~ir~ tmt7es per hour, with a pressure of7 to 12' lbs.
487 Jo a hurricane, who~ is the estinioted velocity and pressure I
From et~h~ ~o one httndre~ miles per hour, with a vary~g force of 31 to 50 lbs.
* jil tlioso ostimatos tlie prossura is computed per squnre foot in pounds
uvoirdupois.
4*
m
SOIENOE OF COMMON THINGE.
488 Why do we sometimes see clonds ot one elevation moving in one direction, ond at
another elecation, at the some time, others awnog in a contrary direction 5
490 Whet is en instromeni for mensaring the force of the wind called I
An Anetmome~r.
491 Whet ore tlte constant winds whirls 110w over the Atlentic and Pacuic Oceans
called S
They are called "~atle-w~~tl8."
492 Why ore they called trade-winds?
Because they are very cotivenient to nttv'1~~~r8 who have to cross the ocean, itiasmucil
as they always blow in one ~irectton.
498 In what direction do the toads-winds lhw S
That in the northern hemisphere blows from the north-east ; that ill tile southern
h~nisphere from the south-east.
494 Do trade-winds Ilow from the north-east end south-east all the veer round S
Yes, tm ~ open 8e~; that is in the Atlantic and Pact~c oceans, for about 250 each side of
the equator.
495 Where olo the trade-winds liow with unsform force and constancy?
Jn matiy parts of ~ie Pacitic embraced within the region of tiie trade-winds, a vessel may
8~il for ot week without ~~ring t~e po~ltton of ci scii~ or rope.
Cause of sea breezes North and south wiod~ 490 Why does a sea Ireeze feel cool I
Because tile sun cannot make the surface of the 8d~ so hot as the laitd; therefoFe the air
wiuch blows from the sea is cooler ~ ~ air of ~e lard.
497 Why is there generally a fresh Ireeze from the sea during ~ summer and autumn
mornings I
Because lard is igore hea~d by ~e 8UH than the 8~ is; and the land air becomes hotter
than that over the sea; in consequence of which the cooler sea air glides inland to restore
the equilibrium.
498 Why are the west winds in the Atlantic States generally dry?
Because they come over large ~ac~ of land, and therefore absorb very ls~le water; and
being thirsty, they Feadily imbibe moisture from the air and clouds and therefore bring
dry w~at~er.
499 Why is the north wind generally cold?
Because it comes from the polar regions, over mountains of snow and seas of ice.
500 Why are norih winds generally dry I
Because they come from colder regions, and being warined by the heat of our climate,
ab8orb inoistl£r~ from everything they touch; in consequence of which they are
generally dry.
501 Why are south winds generally warm?
Because they come over countries warmer than our own, where they are much heated.
50~ Why are winds which Ilote over a vnst lody ofwater generally rainy P
Because they come laden with racer; ii, therefore, they meet with the least c~ill, some of
the vapor is deposited as rain.
503 Why is the,-e oftess an evening Ireeze during the summer months?
Because the earth radiates ~eat a~ sunset, and the air is rapidly cooled down by contact;
this condensation causes a motion in tAc air, called the evening breeze.
504 Why do south winds ofen Iring rain?
hea~ed, and absorb ~'a~r very plents~illy as they pass over the ocean.
505 Ilew does this account for the rainy character of south winds?
As soon as they reach a cold climate they are aoi~ deitsed, and can no lo~gQr hold all
their vapor in smpension; in consequence of which some of it is deposited as rain.
508 Why are dry winds in the spring monthe desiralle and advanlageons for agricultural
operations?
They dry t~e soti saturated with the moisture of winter, break ~ ~e keavy clods, and fit
the land for the osed committed to it.
507 Why is afine clear dan sometimes overcast in afew minutes?
Because some sudde~ oha~ge of ~~era~ura has condensed the vapor of the air ~ clouds.
508 Why are cloods somctio?es dissinated very suddenly?
Because some ~ wird (blowing over the clouds) it~b;bes Micir tnoistu<i'e, asid carries it
off in invisible vapor.
509 Why does wind su~etimes iring rain, and sonnetijoes fins sceather?
If the wind be colder ~ ~e clouds, it will condense their vapor into rasm; but if the wind
ts warsaer ~ the douds, it will dtssdve them and cause them to disappear.
510 What is a hurricane?
The hurricane is a re~narkalle storin w;nd, peculiar to certain portions of the world. It
ras-cly takes its rise beyond the tropics, and it is the only storm to dread within the
region of the trade-winds.
511 How are hurricanes especially distingunshed from other kinds of tempests?
By their extent, ~rress.sttlle power, and the ~dden changes that occur in the ds.rectson of
the wind.
512 Do any particular portions of the tropies appear to la especially Visited witil
hurricanes I
In the northern hemisphere, the hurricane most freq~entiy occurs in the regions of the
TWest Indies; in
The West Indian occur from Aug~e~ ~ Odober; the Mauritian from i~bru~ry ~o Aprzl.
514 What have recent investigntiois shown the hurricanes to he?
~x~dn8~d slorme of wird, which revolve roun~ a~ cieje either upright or inclined to the
horizon; while at the same time the body of the storm has a progredsvve smo~on over
the surface of the ocean.
515 Ilinstrate wore clearly the wanner in which a hurricone woves?
It is the nature of a hurricane to travel ro~~fl(l ~rd ~ound as well as forwar(l, mu~ as a
corkscrew travels through a cork, only the circles are all ftyt, and described by a rotatory
wind upon the surface of the water.
513 In what direction would a ship revolving in the circles of a hurricane find the wind?
As the ship revolved, she would in turn find the wind blowing from every po~~ of ~e
Comoad8.
517 What is known concerning the distance travelled hy hurricanes?
The distance traversed by these terrible tempests is immense. The great gale of August,
1830, which occurred at St. Thomas on the 12th, reached the Banks of Xewtoundland on
the 19th, having trave]led more than ~kree ~Aou8und ~au~e~l m~e8 'Th 8C~Cfl day~;
the track of the Cuba hurricane of 1814 was but little infenor in length.
518 What is known of their progressive and rotary velocity?
Their progressive velocity is from 8eve~ton to forty ~iles per hour; but distinct from the
progre~e~ve velocity is the rotary, which increases from the exterior boundary to the
centre of the storm, near which pohit the force of the tempest is greatest,.the wind
sometimes blowing at the rate of o~e Aun~red mi7es per hour.
519 How great is the trenclth of t~ hurricane?
They are supposed to be generally produced by the lateral action of an Opoossng wind,
or the influence of a brisk gale upon a portion of the atmosphere in repose.
527 How are the eddies or whiripoole produced sohich occur in water, and which in
Oseir formation resemble some tornadoes?
Fddies or whirlpools are most fre~iently formed in water when two streams flowing
unequally meet. They may be seen at the junction of two brooks or rivers.
528 How are toe whirlwinds which we ~egasntly see at the corners of streets in citios
produced 5
They are caused by a gui~ of u'iittl sweeping round a corner of a building, and striking
the calm air beyond it.
529 What is a waterspont S
A waterspout is a u'~irlw;nel over ~e ciurface of water, and differs from a whirlwind on
land in the fact that water ts subjec~ed to the action of the wind, iustead of objects on
the surface of the earth.
580 Why choes wind generally fee~ co~ 5
Because a oonstona~e4an~~q surface comes in contact with our body to draw off its
heat.
581 What are the epicts of wind noticed in Ce Arctic regions 5
Arctic explorers inform us that in those regions, when the thermometer ranges from 400
to 600 below zero, the cold of the external air is easily endurable, provided the air is
calm and the irdivilual exercises freely; but if a wind arises at this temperature, the
severity of the cold becomes too grea~ for Auma~ endurance.
582 If the winds shonki cease to hiow over the ocean, what woold he the effect
The water would undoubtedly become s~gnan~ Tempests and hurricanes also exercise a
beneficial effect by agitating and purifying the atmosphere, and sweeping from it the
seeds of pestilence and contagion.
588 What are clouds?
Moisture evocorateci f~m ~ eart/~, and again partially cordenseil in the upper regions of
the air.
584 What is the dfference hetween a fog and a cloud S
Clouds and fogs differ only in one respect. ~lords are elevated above our Acads, but
fogs come in contac~ witk Ike surface of Ike earlk.
585 Why are clouds higher on a fine days
~. The air ~8elf (on a line day) retains much of its vapor in an ~nv~~6le form.
537 Why do clouds flout so readily in the air I
Pecanse they are composed of very viinu~ glo~ulei (called vesicles), which (being
lighter than air) float like 8o~p-bu~ble8.
5851 Are all clouds alike I
Dnring the daily process of evaporation from the surface of the earth, warm, A~mi7
eurren~i of air are continu~y ascending; the higher they ascend, the colder is the
atmosphere into which they enter; and, as they continue to rise, a point will at length be
attained where, in union with the colder air, their original humidity can no longer be
retained: a cloud will then appear, which increases in bnU~ with the upward progress of
the current into colder regions.
540 rnw do changes in the wind produce elomis I
If a cold curren~ of wind blows suddenly over any region, it condenses the invisible
vapor of the air into cloud or r&n,· but if a ~(lrin eurren~ of wind blows over any region,
it dis})erses the clouds by a~orbing ~eir vapor.
541 What distance are the clouds f~~om the cm'th I
Some ~Itin, ligh~ clouds are elevated above the highest mountain4op ; some heavy ones
touch the stee})les, trees, and even the earth; but the average height is between one and
~wo miles.
Streaky, curling clouds, liko hair, are often fivo or six unilot high.
Some clouds are many sqsiare miles in surface, and above a wile in ~iliekness,· while
others are only afew yards or inches.
548 How can persons ascertain the thickness of a cloud I
As the tops of high mountains are generally above the clouds, travellers may pass ~uits
through them into
q
5CIL~NCE OF cOMMON TIJLNG5. 85
Cause of tbe appearance ef clouda. Color of clouds.
544 Why do clonds when not continuous over the whole susfoce of the sig
apoeoriagg~d, rough, aod noerea 5.
The ray8 of ~/tC s~ln, falling upon different ~rfaces at different angles, mell ~ one set of
elevations, and ere(t~ another set of depressions; the heat also which is liberated from
below in the process of condensation, the currents of warm air escaping from the earth,
and of cold air descending from above, all tend to keep the clouds in a state of agitation,
upheaval, and depression. Undei their various influences the masses of vapor coulposiug
the ~ouds are caused to assume all manner of grotesque and fanciful sli apes.
545 What effect have winds on the sha~e of clonds 5
They sometimes ab8orb t~e~ en~irety; sometimes ~erease Micir vol~rne an~ deu8zty;
and sometimes o~~flye ~ of ~keirparie.
548 imw can winds alsorh clouds altogether?
Tarm, dry winds will convert the substance of clouds into i~visible vapor, which they
will carry away in their own cui'rent.
547 How can winds increase the lath and density of clouds?
Col~ currents of wind will condense the invvsibla vapor of the air, and ~ i~ ~ ~e olou~s
with which they come m contact.
548 Why is not the color ofclonds always atd~ S
Because their size, deusity, and si(~~a1ion in i~egard to the sun are perpetually varying,
so that sometunes OflO color is reflected and sometimes afio(her.
549 Why do the clouds after sunset abut the western harizon often eshitit a leant fat
cri~naon oppeora~we 5
Because the red rays, of which the sun's light is in part composed, are less refrangiNe
~an any of the other colors. In consequence of this, they are not bent out of their course
so much as the blue and yellow rays, and are the last to disappear.
For ~ same reaso~ ~riey are ~Ae frsl to aepear i~
5
Tm
86
SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS.
Itefrangibility of light.
Ead ~eud~ at sunrise ~d sunset.
~ke mornIng w~en ~d 8Ilfl rI8e8, and impar~ to mornIng clouds red or crImson colors.
-&½¼¼~~
~ig. 19.
let us aupposo, ns in fig. 19, a my of light, proceeding from the sun, S, to outer the
enrth's etmoophore at the point P. The red rays, which compose in part tho solar beam,
boing the best refrangible, or the least doviated from their course, will reach the eye of a
spectator at the point A; while the yellow and blue rays, being refracted to a greater
degree, will reach the surface of the earth at the intermediate points B and a. 'They will,
consequently, be quite invisible from the point A.
Being less a6le ~ le len~. Blue and yellow rays are more easily bent below ~he horIzon
through the action of the atmosphere, but red rays are not so much len~ down, and
titerefore we see them later in the evening.
551 What is the cense of a red sunset S
The vapor of the air not being ae~ally condeneed ~nto clouds, but only on the poin~ of'
beIng condensed.
In the same manner, if light be transmitted throngh steam mingled with air, and therefore
on the verge of condensation, it assumes a deep orange or red color.
552 Why is a red and lowering sky at sunrise an indication of a wet day S
The red and lowering appearance of the morning sky, which indicates foul weather,
probably depends upon such an excess of' vapor being present in the whole atmosphere
that clouds are actually forming in ~he
V
tlCIFN~E OF COMMON TIIINGS.
San ness at tbe Indian nu~mer. u~hsn vapor tarsus clouds and togs.
(2 re](i0218, or upon the point 0£ condensation, which the rising sun cannot disperse.
T{oneo our Lard's o1)sacvstimi-~ Jo ~o irloriling ya say, It will be foul woatlior to~dsy,
for thu sky is rod nod lowonog." (Malt. xvi. 3.)
Because the red rays of light have a greater power to pass througii a ~~ick, ole~8e
a~~no8p/tere than any of the other colored rays.
sse Why does ropor someti?ocs farna iota clouds, and somedmes rest upon the earOs as
mist orf)gr
This depends on the ~soperel~ure of the air. When the surface of 1/te earlk is warmer
Ikan Ike lower air, the vapor of the earth (being condensed by the chill air) becomes misl
orfog. But ~len the lower aIr is warmer Ikan Ike carlA, the vapor rises lkrougk Ike aIr,
and becomes cloud.
557 Why do clouds often horer around nsonntaia praks, when the atmosphere eloewhere
is cloar anefreefroos clouds S
It is caused by the wind impelling up the sides of the mountains the warm kumid aIr of
Ike valleys, which in its ascent gradually becomes condensed by the cold, and its excess
of moisture becomes visible, and appears as a cloud.
558 Why are windosra at night often cowered with thick mis4 and the frames wet with
standing wator?
Because the temperature of the exlernal air always
88 SCIENCE or COMMON THINGS.
Mi~ on wiodowi In,~sibIe per~piratioo~
~alls at sunset, and c~ll[8 the wi~(1ow-~(a88 with which it comes in contact
559 How does this account for the mist and water on a window?
As the warm vapor of the room ~Yelteg tile col~ gla8d it is e~lYle(1 and confen8e(1
into m;8~ and the mist (collecting into drops) rolls dow~ tile window~rame in little
streams of water.
560 Does the glass of a window cool dwaa more rapidly than the air of the roaw isoif I
Yea; because the air is ~ warm l}~ f~ed and by the anIo~al ~ea~ of the people in the
room; in consequence of which the ~r of a room suffers ~'ery lI~~e diminution of heat
from the setting of the sun.
561 Whence arises the vapor of a room?
The air of the room always contains vapor; vapor also arises fr~n the breath and
insensible perspiration of the inmates, from cookiag and the evaporation of water.
562 What is meant hy "the inse~illo perspiration r'
From every part of the human body an lIlSenSIble and InvIsIble perspiration issues all
night and day, not only in the hot weather of summer, but also in the coldest days of
winter.
568 If the persoiration he lath insensille and invidhle~ how is it known ihat there is any
such perspi~ation I
If you put your naked arm into a clean, tlry glass t~e, the perspiration will contlense on
the glass like mist.
564 Why is a tam Iler of cotd water made quite doll with mis~ when hrought mis a
warns roona S
Because the Ao~ vacor of the room is con&nsetl upon the cold tumbler, with which it
comes in contact, and changes its invisible and gaseous form into tliat of dew.
565 Why does Ireathing on a glass make it quite dull I
Because the hot breath is eordeneetl by the cold glass, and therefore covers it with dew.
566 Why are the walle of a house covered with damp iu a sudden thaw?
as fast as ~ie air; in consequence of whi~i they re1aI~ their col~ after the thaw has set
in.
587 How does 'retaining their cad" account for their heing so wet?
As the vapor of the warm air touches the cold walls, it is cbIY~d and confen8e(l into
~ater, which either ctieks to the walls or trickles down in little streams.
568 Why is our ~reath visule io winter, and not in summer?
Because the inteuse cold condenses our breatlt into rit;lle vapo~ but in iumme~ the air is
not cold enough to do so.
569 Why are am' hair and the hrim of oor hat ofton covered with litIlo drops of p~a4a
deto itt winter-time I
Because our hrcath is condensed ilS soon as it comes in contact wi~i ~ir cohi hair or hat,
and hangs ~iere in little dew-drops.
570 What are fogs?
Fogs are ~vAi~7e V~}2OT8 that float in the atmosj4ierc near the surfice of the earth.
571 What is the cause offogs?
They originate in the eIIiO eott,ieg iti iot~thc union of a cool body of air wi~ one ~at is
warm and Immid when ~te precipitation of nioistui-e is slight, fogs arc produced ; ~ien it
is copious, rains are the result.
572 What distinction is to ~e tnade hetween a snist and a fog?
~fli~ is generally cousidei-ed to be aftt~e tatti, while fog is vapor not sufficiently
condensed to allow of its precipitation in drops.
Tho term mist is' ~ea gonor~1y nynliod to vapors oan(1oo sod on nsarshes rirers, nod
lakes, ~~hi1a ~sa anmo fog is afton nppliod to vapors candensod on land, ospocially if
ttiaoo vapors nro ladon ~~itii eniako.
Because the chill of the air is so ra~i(1 that vapor is condensed faiter than it cavi be
d&poit(e(J, and covenn~ the earth in a fog) prevents any further raJia~o~
~ea~ from the earth.
574 When Ow earilt cats no loog~r radiate hestt upwards, does it con tinue to condense
the vapor of the air?
about equal in tonperaI~tre with tl~ surface of the ear~i itseU~; for which reason the fog
is not con deJl8ed into dew, but remains fto~1ing above the ear~A as a thick cloud.
575 This fog seems to rise higher and higher, and net remains quite as dsnse helow as at
first: e~ploin the canoe of this 5
The ah resting on the ear~~ is ~rst chilled, and e1~i7~ the air resting on I~ ; the air
which touches this new layer of fog being alto condensed, layer is added to layer; and
thus the fog seems to be rliting, when (iii fact) it is only deepea't~g.
57e Why are there not fogs every night?
Because the air will always hold in so~tion a certain quantity of vapor (which varies
according to its temperature); and, when the air is not eaturated, it may be cooled
without parting with its vapor.
577 When do fogs occur at n~ht5
When the air is saturated wi4i vapor during the (lay. When this is the case, it deposits
seine of its superabundant moisture in the form of dew or fog as soon as its capacity for
holding vapor is lessened by the cold nIgA~.
578 Why is there very ofien a fog over marshes and rivers at nighttime S
Because the air of marthes is almost always near sa~ura~on; and therefore ~ie least
depression of (etapera(ure will compel it to relinquish some of its moist~rc in the form
of dew or fog.
579 Why does vapor sometimes form into clouds, and sometimes rest upon the earth as
suist or fogs
~s depends on the (etttpera(tit~ of the air. When the sutf~ee of (he ear(h is warmer than
(he air, the vapor of the earth (being condensed by the chill air) becomes qnA( or fog.
But, when the aIr is warmer (ham (he earth, the vapor rI8e8 through the air, and
becomes cloud.
580 If cold air produces fog, why is it not foggy on a frostg morning?
and 2. The vapor is frozen upon the gro?~nol before it can rise from tlie earth, and
becomes ~oarfro8~
581 Whatisrainl
11am is the vapor of the clouds or air aondense~ and precipitated to the earth.
582 In what manner is the vapor of the air condsnsed so as to form rain S
When ~wo or more volume8 of humid air differing considerabTy in temperature uni~,
the several portions in union are incapable of absorbing the same amount of moisture
that each could retain if they had not united. The excess of moisture, if very great, is
precipitated as rain ; if in slight amount, it appears as clouds, fogs, or mists.
588 Upon what law does this condensation of vapor and formation of rain depends
Upon the law that the oap~cIty of the air for moI8~ ~re deorea8es in a greater ratio than
the temperatiire.
584 Why does rain fail in drops S
Because the vapory particles in their descent ~((rae~ eacA o~her; and those which are
sufficiently near UUIld and form into drops.
The size of the rain-drop is increased according to the rapidity with which tho vapors are
condensed.
585 Why does not the void of night always canse rain?
Because the air is not always near saturation; and unless this be the case, it will be able
to hold its vapor in solution, even after it is condensed by the chilly niglit.
58~ Why does a pessing cloud often drop rain?
Because the cloud (travelling about on the wind) comes into contact with gosne~hin~
~Aa~ cAilli I~; and its vapor being condensed, ~all8 ~ ~e ear~ as raIn.
587 Can the air a~orh nnoisture at all tensperatures, and retain it in an invisille state?
It can; and this power of the air is termed its c~a~ty of ab8~tion.
For every 27 additional degrees of heat, the quantity of moisture it can absorb at 320 is
doubled. Thus a body of air at 320 F. absorbs the 160th part of its own weight; at 590 F.
the 80th; at 860 F. the 40th; at 1130 F. the 20th part of its own moisture. It follows from
this that, while the temperature advances in an arithmetical series, the capacity is
accelerated in geometrical series.
590 In whatsituations is the air eheogs saturated?
In the trop~e, where the temperature of the air, and its conseq~ent Capacity for moisture,
is the greatest.
592 Whatissnow?
The condensed vapor of the air fi~zen and precipitated to the earth.
598 What is the cause of snow?
When the air is n earTy saturated with vapor, ~d is acted on by a current of aiy below
1~e feeezlugpolnt, ~ome of the vapor is condensed, and frozen into snow.
A few years ago, some fisherman (who ~iu~ered at Nova Zembla), after they had been
shut up in a hut for several days, opened the window and the cold external air rushing in,
instantly condensed the air of the hut, and its vnpor fell on the floor in a shower of snow.
It keeps the surface of the earth warin, protects vegetation to a considerable extent from
the cold, and acts as afer~lizer.
Because tlie /eea~ of 1/ce ~ adjacent to the earth melts it in its descent, and prevents it
from reaching the surface of tlie earth.
599 Why is snow white?
Because it is formed of an infinite number of very minute crystals and prisms, whieli
reflect all the colors of the rays of light from different points, and these colors, un'1In~
before tiley meet tlie eye, cause snow to appear white.
TIto samo answer npphos to salt, loaf-sugur, etc.
eoo Undsr what cireconstanses does snowfall iu harge flakes, and when in small?
Th~ largest flakes are formed wlien the air abounds wilA va~o~ and the temperature is
about 320 F. ; but as tlie moisture diminishes, and the cold increases, the snow becomes
finer.
eoi What is the snowflake composed of?
~egItlar and 8yt~ine1PI'cal cry81a18, having a great diversity of forms.
602 1)o we see the same crystalo in ice I
They exist in ice, but are so bletided together that 'their s~v~me1ry 18 lotI in the
compact mass.
~03 How muck more lulky is snow than water I
The bulk of recently-fallen snow is ton ot' twelve ~me~ ~~aler than that of the water
obtaiued by melting it.-'
5
804 Does sno,o ever occur of any othcr appearance than white I
Ye8; in the Arctic regions and on some mountains it is red, and occasionally
805 What is the canse of these appearances I
These singular hues are occasioned by little m~ro scoplo plan~, which germinate and
live in the snow. They consist of little giobuics from ~ of an inch to ~ of an inch. Each
globule is divided into seven or eight c~ls filled with a liquid, which gives a color to the
snow, and is sometimes green and sometimes red.
808 What is hail?
Raiu, which has passed in its descent ~rong~ some cold bed of air, and has been frozen
into drops of ice.
807 What makes ons led of air colder than another
Because the air is more ~sg~ly dec~ifted in summer and autumn than in winter and
spring; and the vapors in summer and autumn (being rarefied) ascond to more elevated
regions, which are colder than those nearer the earth.
810 Is the occurrence and formation of hail clearly understood?
It is ito~; much information exists uj~on the sub~ect, but no ~eo~ has yet been formed
which sa~8fac~rIly accoeents for all the facts which have been observed.
811 What are meteorites?
Meteorites are solId, lumIli 0118 bodles, which from time to time visit the earth, moving
with immense velocity, and remaining visible but for a few moments. They are generally
accompanied by a luminous train, and during their progress explosions are often heard.
619 What is an aerolite?
Ye8; in the Arctic regions and on some mountains it is red, and occasionally
805 What is the canse of these appearances I
These singular hues are occasioned by little m~ro scoplo plan~, which germinate and
live in the snow. They consist of little giobuics from ~ of an inch to ~ of an inch. Each
globule is divided into seven or eight c~ls filled with a liquid, which gives a color to the
snow, and is sometimes green and sometimes red.
808 What is hail?
Raiu, which has passed in its descent ~rong~ some cold bed of air, and has been frozen
into drops of ice.
807 What makes ons led of air colder than another
Because the air is more ~sg~ly dec~ifted in summer and autumn than in winter and
spring; and the vapors in summer and autumn (being rarefied) ascond to more elevated
regions, which are colder than those nearer the earth.
810 Is the occurrence and formation of hail clearly understood?
It is ito~; much information exists uj~on the sub~ect, but no ~eo~ has yet been formed
which sa~8fac~rIly accoeents for all the facts which have been observed.
811 What are meteorites?
Meteorites are solId, lumIli 0118 bodles, which from time to time visit the earth, moving
with immense velocity, and remaining visible but for a few moments. They are generally
accompanied by a luminous train, and during their progress explosions are often heard.
619 What is an aerolite?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------
YES THERE IS A REAL SEC GOV $19 TRILLION DOLLAR TRUST ( I THINK IT
IS NOW $22 TRILLION )
----------------------------------------------------------------------
USE
(1) USC Title 12 sec 412; Apllication for Notes Collateral Required:
Then
(2) USC TITLE 12 SEC § 342. Deposits; exchange and collection; member and
nonmember banks or other depository institutions; charges
THEN
(3) DEPOSIT THE $19 TRILLION DOLLAR NOTE FROM USC TITLE 12 SEC 412,
342, SECURED BY THE $19 TRILLION DEPOSITORY TRUST COMPANY AS
SIMPLE COLLATERAL
THEN
(4) DEPOSIT SAID $19 TRILLION DOLLAR NOTE; BUT IN TRUST ; ( NOTE NOT
TO BE CIRCULATED ) WITH THE UNITED STATES TREASURY
THEN
(5) REMOVE THE UNITED STATES DEBT OBLIGATIONS FROM THE GENERAL
FUND
OBLIGATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES AND SEPARATE THESE DEBT
PAYMENTS FROM THE GENERAL FUND
THEN
(6) MAKE A PAYMENT PLAN TO SLOWLY PAY THE UNITED STATES DEBT
OBLIGATION FROM THE $19 TRILLION DOLLAR TREASURY TRUST FROM
NUMBER 3 ABOVE
WHEREAS THE ENTIRE UNITED STATES DEBT IS NOW SUNK, SECURED AND
IN THE PROCESS OF PAYMENT THRU TREASURY TRUST FUND OF PART 3
BY BR DAN IZZO
----------------------------------------------------------------------
AMERICA HAS EXTRA TRILLIONS OF CAPITAL UNUSED
THIS EMAIL MAYBE THE MAP TO LEGALLY SINK THE UNITED STATES
DEBT WITHOUT CIRCULATING EXTRA MONEY
HOW TO LEGALLY SELF FUND THE US MILITARY AND MAYBE SINK THE
NATIONAL DEBT
USE
(1) USC Title 12 sec 412; Apllication for Notes Collateral Required:
Then
(2) USC TITLE 12 SEC § 342. Deposits; exchange and collection; member and
nonmember banks or other depository institutions; charges
THEN
(3) DEPOSIT THE $19 TRILLION DOLLAR NOTE FROM USC TITLE 12 SEC 412,
342, SECURED BY THE $19 TRILLION DEPOSITORY TRUST COMPANY AS
SIMPLE COLLATERAL
THEN
(4) DEPOSIT SAID $19 TRILLION DOLLAR NOTE; BUT IN TRUST ; ( NOTE NOT
TO BE CIRCULATED ) WITH THE UNITED STATES TREASURY
THEN
(5) REMOVE THE UNITED STATES DEBT OBLIGATIONS FROM THE GENERAL
FUND
OBLIGATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES AND SEPARATE THESE DEBT
PAYMENTS FROM THE GENERAL FUND
THEN
(6) MAKE A PAYMENT PLAN TO SLOWLY PAY THE UNITED STATES DEBT
OBLIGATION FROM THE $19 TRILLION DOLLAR TREASURY TRUST FROM
NUMBER 3 ABOVE
WHEREAS THE ENTIRE UNITED STATES DEBT IS NOW SUNK, SECURED AND
IN THE PROCESS OF PAYMENT THRU TREASURY TRUST FUND OF PART 3
IDEA: (100s of good silver ore mine exist in the US, but are abandoned because of the
cost of operations, perhaps those in prison are willing to volunteer
to mine them in exchange of early release from prison. )
it can use the $19 Trillion Depository Trust Company ( a gov trust )
@ $20 a week to school children, as a reward and compensation, required under the 5th
amendment of the Constitution and Just Compensation for Kids.
use it to
benefit our Families and Lives.
Br Daniel Izzo
512 Onondaga Ave
Syracuse, NY 13207
----------------------------------------------------------------------
PART 1 US CODE COLLECTION
Collection home Search Donate
TITLE 12 > CHAPTER 3 > SUBCHAPTER XII > § 412 Prev | Next
Any Federal Reserve bank may make application to the local Federal Reserve agent for
such amount of the Federal Reserve notes hereinbefore provided for as it may require.
Such application shall be accompanied with a tender to the local Federal Reserve agent
of collateral in amount equal to the sum of the Federal Reserve notes thus applied for
and issued pursuant to such application. The collateral security thus offered shall be
notes, drafts, bills of exchange, or acceptances acquired under section 92, 342 to 348,
349 to 352, 361, 372, or 373 of this title, or bills of exchange endorsed by a member
bank of any Federal Reserve district and purchased under the provisions of sections 348a
and 353 to 359 of this title, or bankers’ acceptances purchased under the provisions of
said sections 348a and 353 to 359 of this title, or gold certificates, or Special Drawing
Right certificates, or any obligations which are direct obligations of, or are fully
guaranteed as to principal and interest by, the United States or any agency thereof, or
assets that Federal Reserve banks may purchase or hold under sections 348a and 353 to
359 of this title. In no event shall such collateral security be less than the amount of
Federal Reserve notes applied for. The Federal Reserve agent shall each day notify the
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System of all issues and withdrawals of
Federal Reserve notes to and by the Federal Reserve bank to which he is accredited. The
said Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System may at any time call upon a
Federal Reserve bank for additional security to protect the Federal Reserve notes issued
to it. Collateral shall not be required for Federal Reserve notes which are held in the
vaults of Federal Reserve banks.
Notes
Updates
Parallel authorities (CFR)
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PART 2
US CODE COLLECTION
Collection home Search Donate
TITLE 12 > CHAPTER 3 > SUBCHAPTER IX > § 342 Prev | Next
§ 342. Deposits; exchange and collection; member and nonmember banks or other
depository institutions; charges
Any Federal Reserve bank may receive from any of its member banks, or other
depository institutions, and from the Unites States, deposits of current funds in lawful
money, national-bank notes, Federal reserve notes, or checks, and drafts, payable upon
presentation or other items, and also, for collection, maturing notes and bills; or, solely
for purposes of exchange or of collection may receive from other Federal reserve banks
deposits of current funds in lawful money, national-bank notes, or checks upon other
Federal reserve banks, and checks and drafts, payable upon presentation within its
district or other items, and maturing notes and bills payable within its district; or, solely
for the purposes of exchange or of collection, may receive from any nonmember bank or
trust company or other depository institution deposits of current funds in lawful money,
national-bank notes, Federal reserve notes, checks and drafts payable upon presentation
or other items, or maturing notes and bills: Provided, Such nonmember bank or trust
company or other depository institution maintains with the Federal Reserve bank of its
district a balance in such amount as the Board determines taking into account items in
transit, services provided by the Federal Reserve bank, and other factors as the Board
may deem appropriate: Provided further, That nothing in this or any other section of this
chapter shall be construed as prohibiting a member or nonmember bank or other
depository institution from making reasonable charges, to be determined and regulated
by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, but in no case to exceed 10
cents per $100 or fraction thereof, based on the total of checks and drafts presented at
any one time, for collection or payment of checks and drafts and remission therefor by
exchange or otherwise; but no such charges shall be made against the Federal reserve
banks.
Notes
Updates
Parallel authorities (CFR)
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Adept Alchemy
by
Robert A. Nelson
Part II ~ Chapter 1
Transmutations of Silver
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Gold can be manufactured from other elements by several methods. The penultimate
means of transmutation is the Philosophers' Stone of any degree, but that is another
matter altogether.
The transmutation of silver to gold is perhaps the easiest -- or least difficult -- of such
experiments. If nothing else, the attempt may serve to enlighten aspiring souffleurs
("Puffers", an old French alchemical label for deluded fools who pump their bellows in
vain) to wise up, get a life, and do something more worthwhile, profitable, and less
dangerous. Employing the methods developed by Francois Jollivet-Castelot, however,
there is every chance of success, albeit at great risk due to the use of arsenic.
It has been argued by some purists that transmutations such as these are not alchemy at
all, but rather "hyper-chemistry" or "archymy". Mayhap so, but I choose to include these
factoids in this collection.
Most of the 19th and 20th century experimenters in this genre used a variety of "wet"
techniques (refluxing with nitric acid, etc.), or "dry" transmutations with alloys in the
furnace. Dr. Stephen Emmens used high-pressure hammering (500 tons/sq. in.) of silver
at low temperature, followed by fluxing, granulation, more hammering, treatment with
"modified nitric acid", and refining.
(1) T. Tiffereau
(2) R. Hunter
(3) A. Waite
(4) Fulcanelli
(5) F. Jollivet-Castelot
(6) S. Emmens
(7) C. Lea
(8) References
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Between 1854-55, Theodore Tiffereau submitted six memoirs to the French Academie
des Sciences concerning transmutations of silver to gold. He published a compilation of
the papers ( Les Metaux sont des Corps Composes ) in 1855.(25-27)
Tiffereau attempted many modifications of his techniques, and claimed that certain
experimental conditions influence the transmutation of silver to gold:
1) Pure silver filings were used, sometimes mixed with pure copper filings (Ag 9:1 Cu)
and traces of zinc, iron, alumina and silica;
3) The silver was refluxed with concentrated nitric acid, hyponitrous acid, and nitrogen
protozide or deuteroxide;
5) The acids were exposed to sunlight to "solarize" them. Tiffereau complained that the
French sun was not so effective as the Mexican;
6) Halides and sulfur in the presence of oxides of nitrogen improved the reaction, and so
did ozone;
Tiffereau attributed the production of gold in the earth to the action of the "microbe of
gold". This was confirmed in the 1980s by the discovery that placer gold nuggets form
around a nucleus of bacillus cereus.
"After having exposed, over two days, pure nitric acid to the action of solar rays, I added
pure silver filings with pure copper filings in the proportions of the alloy of money (9:1).
A lively reaction manifested, accompanied with a very abundant deposit of intact filings
agglomerated in a mass.
"The disengagement of nitrous gas continued without interruption, and I left the liquid as
is over twelve days. I noted that the aggregate deposit was augmented sensibly in
volume. I then added a little water to the dissolution in which the product had
precipitated, and again abandoned the liquid to rest five days. During this time, new
vapors unceasingly disengaged.
"The five days having passed, I raised the liquid just to ebullition, which I maintained
until the nitrous vapors ceased disengagement, after which I evaporated it to dryness.
"The matter obtained from the dessication is dry, dull, blackish-green; it did not offer an
appearance of crystallization...
"Placing the matter again in pure nitric acid and boiling six hours, I saw the matter
become clear green without ceasing to aggregate in small masses. I added a new
quantity of pure concentrated nitric acid and boiled it anew; it is then that I finally saw
the disaggregated matter take the brilliance of natural gold...
[The third test in this series] "presented an extraordinary phenomenon to be noted: the
quantity of the alloy that I used experienced a transformation entirely to pure gold."
Carey Lea suggested that Tiffereau and other experimenters had merely prepared a gold-
colored form of allotropic silver.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(2) R. M. Hunter ~
In 1908, Sir Henry Baskerville made mention of a contemporary claim to the production
of artificial gold:
"Among the many communications reaching the writer, one is of more than passing
interest. Mr. R.M. Hunter, of Philadelphia, has written concerning 'synthetic gold' as
follows:
"I have so perfected the process that in my judgment, based on my actual experience,
gold may be manufactured at enormous profit, and to this end I have designed a plant to
be erected in Philadelphia and am at this moment negotiating for $500,000 capital for its
erection. I realize that the public and most scientific men are adverse to the belief in the
possibility of such an enterprise, but I know what I am doing and can afford to allow
public sentiment to follow its own course.
"Enclosed with the letter was an affirmative affadavit. On request, Mr. Hunter promptly
forwarded me samples of silver in which the gold is 'growing' and some 'grown-up' gold,
said to have been produced by his secret process. I have not made analyses of the
samples." (5)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
"In the focus of a Burning-Glass, 12 inches in diameter, place a glass Flask, 2 inches in
diameter, containing Nitric Acid, diluted with its own volume of water:
"Pour into the Nitric Acid, alternately, small quantities of a Solution of Nitrate of Silver
and of Muriatic acid, the object being to cause the Chloride of Silver to form a minutely
divided state, so as to produce a milky fluid, into the interior of which the brilliant
convergent cone may pass, and the currents generated in the Flask by the Heat may so
drift all the Chloride through the Light.
"The Chloride, if otherwise exposed to the Sun, merely blackens on the surface, the
interior parts undergoing no change: This difficulty, therefore, has to be avoided. The
Burning-Glass promptly brings on a decomposition of the salt, evolving, on the one
hand, Chlorine, and disengaging a metal on the other. Supposing the experiment to last
two or three entire hours, the effect will then be equal to a continuous midday sun of
some 72 hours. The Metal becomes disengaged very well. But what is it? It cannot be
silver, since Nitric acid has no action on it. It burnishes in an Agate Mortar, but its
reflection is not like that of silver, for it is yellowish, like that of Gold.
"The Light must therefore have so transmuted the original silver as to enable it to exist
in the presence of Nitric Acid." ( 28)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(4) Fulcanelli ~
The renowned master Fulcanelli published this transmutation of silver in Les Demeures
Philosophales:
"The simplest alchemic procedure consists in utilizing the effect of violent reactions ---
those of acids on the bases --- to provoke in the midst of the effervesence the reunion of
pure parts, their new arrangement being irreducible. In this manner, starting from a metal
close to gold --- preferably silver --- it is possible to produce a small quantity of the
precious metal. Here is, in this order of research, an elementary operation whose success
we guarantee, providing the instructions are carefully followed.
"Empty into a glass retort, tall and tubular, one-third of its capacity in pure nitric acid.
Adapt to the receiver an escape tube and arrange the apparatus in a sand bath.
"Gently heat the apparatus short of reaching the boiling point for the acid (83o C). Turn
off the fire, open the tube, and introduce a small portion of virgin silver, or of cupel, free
from gold traces. When the emission of peroxide of azote has stopped and when the
effervesence has quieted, let drop into the liquor a second portion of pure silver. Repeat
introducing metal, with no hurry, until the boiling and issuing of red vapors manifest
little energy, which is indicative of the property of saturation. Add nothing more. Let it
rest for half an hour, then cautiously decant your clear solution into a beaker while it is
still warm. You will find a thin deposit in the form of black sand. Wash this with
lukewarm water, and let it fall into a small porcelain capsule. You will recognize by
making the assays that the precipitate is insoluble in hydrochloric acid, just as it also is
in nitric acid. Aqua regia will dissolve it and yields a magnificent yellow solution,
exactly like gold trichloride. Use distilled water to dilute this liquor; precipitate from a
zinc blade. An amorphous powder will be obtained, very fine, matte, of reddish brown
coloration, identical to that given by natural gold reduced in the same manner. Wash
well and dessicate this pulvurent precipitate. By compression on a sheet of glass or
marble, it will give you a brilliant, coherent lamina with a beautiful yellow sheen by
reflection, green by transparence, having the look and superficial characteristics of the
purest gold.
"To increase with a new quantity this miniscule deposit, you may repeat the operation as
many times as you please. In this case, take up again the clear solution of silver nitrate
diluted from the first washing water; reduce the metal with zinc or copper. Decant this
silver into a powder and use it for your second dissolution." (14)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Francois Jollivet-Castelot was the Secretary General (and later President) of the
Alchemical Society of France (founded in 1896). He also edited the Society's journal
L'Hyperchemie, and served as a special delegate of the Supreme Council of Martinists.
He authored several books and articles on alchemy and "hyperchemistry", a system of
non-occult chemical methods of transmutation. (17-20)
Jollivet-Castelot began experimenting with transmutations of silver in 1908. In 1920, he
published La Fabrication Chimique de L'Or to report his successes using both "wet" and
"dry" methods of transmutation:
"This process gives a very high yield which has already been confirmed by several
chemists, in particular by Mr. Ballandras, Chemical Engineer of Lyons, and Mr. Outon,
Chemical Engineer of Buenos Aires...
"The object of the present leaflet is to enable chemists to repeat and check my
experiments in their turn...
"I acted on 22 gr of chemically pure silver ... and on 3.5 gr of chemically pure
orpiment... The mixture was heated to about 1600o C In a metal smelting furnace for
about three quarters of an hour. The residue obtained was again melted with the addition
of orpiment. After having hammered for half an hour and remelted with the addition of
small quantities of orpiment every ten minutes, it was withdrawn.
"After cooling and the addition of chemically pure antimony sulfide, it was again put
back into the furnace, small quantities of orpiment being thrown in every five minutes.
The residue obtained had a dark metallic tint. After hammering it became slightly
golden.
"The residue dissolved in chemically pure 36o nitric acid first cold and then hot, gave an
abundant pulvurent deposit. This deposit after being washed and treated with ammonia
to dissolve the arsenic and antimony salts was completely dissolved in aqua regia. The
liquor then being chlorinated and filtered was subjected to the reagents of platinum and
gold. Mr. Andre Vandenberghe who was acting as preparator for this experiment, had
thought that in accordance with the law of the evolution of matter, the transmutation of
bodies into gold should be preceded or accompanied by their transmutation into
platinum...
"The reactions of gold were quite characteristic; the reactions of platinum also seemed to
reveal its presence.
"The quantity of gold obtained in this experiment was about one gramme.
"I submit the hypothesis that the arsenic acts as a catalyst and the sulfur as a ferment in
this transmutation." (December 1925; Douai, France)...
"As a sequel to my previous work on the artificial synthesis of gold, I have introduced
tin into these new tests as it is also often associated with gold in Nature. The following
is a description of this new process, thanks to which the percentage of gold obtained
destroys all the objections that are raised with regard to impurities.
"The residue obtained was treated for a long time in 36o nitric acid, first cold and then at
the boiling point; the insoluble residue was next washed with distilled water, treated
with ammonia, washed again and finally treated for a long time with boiling aqua regia.
"The liquor when filtered and subjected to the reagents of gold showed the presence of
this metal in the form of abundant deposits which may be estimated at 0.05 gr in all,
which is very high considering the 6 gr of silver employed. The deposits when collected
and dried had a yellow green metallic color and possessed all the characteristics of
gold...
"The addition of tin to the other bodies has certainly facilitated the reactions of the gold
and increased the yield of this metal which can be manufactured artificially by my
process, i.e., by synthesis and in measurable quantities.
"It would be very easy to show that, given the respective prices of gold and of the other
substances that are used in my process to produce it, a profit could be obtained if the
process were worked industrially, all the more so as the greater part of the silver
employed can be recovered at each test..
"I believe I now hold the key to the regular and even industrial manufacture of gold.
"But the industrial question is voluntarily put aside from my thoughts, for my only
object is the search for pure scientific truth."
"It must be noted that this thing happened during the ebullition. The washed residue
contained the slighter part of gold; this thing would be found dissolved in the last liquor
which I obtained.
"After 18 hours of digestion at about 25o, I subdued the mixture to ebullition during 3
hours. After refrigeration, I filtered on glass wool and I looked if parts were not drawn
along in suspense. I found nothing. Then, I decided to proceed to a circumstantial
analysis of the liquor which I obtained...
"The quantity of gold which was obtained was 0.476 gr for 10 gr of silver employed, or
0.0476 gr of gold per gram of silver."
Jollivet-Castelot read this memorandum to the Academie Royal des Sciences (Belgium)
on June 6, 1926:
"When subjected to the action of nitric acid, the residue was attacked with difficulty and
greenish metallic particles become detached. The solution was then decanted and a
greenish-yellow residue remained which was kept at the boiling point of nitric acid for
several hours. After decanting off the liquor once again, the residue, which had not
changed, was washed, treated with ammonia and then subjected to the action of boiling
aqua regia in which it was entirely dissolved after boiling for several hours.
"[The solution was chlorinated and subjected to the reagents of gold with positive
results, although] a certain amount of gold was certainly lost in this test just as in all my
previous tests, for it is known that arsenic, antimony, and tellurium entrain gold in their
fusion and their volatilization.
"In order to obviate this disadvantage, I had thought of making the vapors of arsenic acid
and antimony sulfides and of tellurium act on the silver in fusion in a closed vessel by
means of a special device...
"I consider it certain that if the vapors were allowed to bubble through the melted silver,
a much higher yield of gold would be obtained than that I have obtained hitherto by an
imperfect and too rapid contact of the bodies in presence, while it is undoubtedly
necessary to make them react on one another in the vapor state in a closed vessel."
"Dear Sir... I have repeated the experiments... in my laboratory and am amazed at the
results. For the moment, it is only the scientific side which interests me, since the cost of
the gold obtained is often greater than the value of the metal..."
Mr. A. Ballandras also replicated the experiments and reported the results:
"I will not conceal the fact that I have often heard ironical remarks aboutprocesses by
which he succeeded in manufacturing gold. I determined to check his tests with the
greatest possible accuracy...
"I allowed this residue to cool in pure nitric acid in which the greater part was dissolved
fairly easily. After prolonged boiling the liquor was filtered on a new glass wool. The
resultant liquor was very clear and absolutely free of any particles.
"The glass wool was then macerated in aqua regia rich in hydrochloric; after 18 hours
maceration, the whole was boiled for 3 hours. I again filtered on glass wool in order to
separate any traces of the filter from the liquor... Any gold that might have been
obtained would necessarily be found in the last liquor... It was of importance to prove its
existence qualitatively at least.
"For this purpose, I tried the various standard reagents, the results being the following:
1) Oxalic acid: flakey precipitate; 2) Iron sulfate: glossy metallic black; 3) Tin chloride:
peach pink precipitate; 4) Formol: rather light bluish coloration; 5) Sodium carbonate,
potassium carbonate: light coloration after boiling; 6) Sodium hydroxide, potassium
hydroxide: yellowish coloration, cloudy.
"These reactions are sufficiently characteristic and clearly prove the existence in the last
liquor of a metal which, even if it is not gold, must nevertheless be placed very close to
the latter... the metal obtained and gold must be perfectly isotopic.
"I have repeated this test several times and I have observed: 1) That the production of
gold is a function of the rapidity with which the necessary heat is obtained; 2) That it is
also a function of the degree of tightness of the crucible. A crucible that is closed as
tightly as possible gives better results; 3) That the amount of gold obtained was not
always uniform; some of the tests were absolutely sterile and I inferred that this was due
to some defect in the mounting.
"I think there must be a certain temperature that should not be exceeded and that the
external conditions of pressure and electricity must be of considerable importance."
In another experiment, Ballandras used silver (10 gr), tin (3 gr), orpiment (3 gr), and
antimony sulfide (3 gr):
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Early in 1897, the British chemist Stephen H. Emmens, then residing in New York,
announced the discovery of a new element which fills the "vacant space existing in the
sub-group of Group I", and which he thought to be the intermediate matter from which
silver and gold are formed. Dr. Emmens said:
"Our claim is that the element in question is therefore neither silver nor gold, but which
may, by our new physical methods, be converted into gold." (14)
In 1897, Dr. Emmens' Argentaurum Laboratory on Staten Island produced over 660
ounces of gold from silver and sold it to the U.S. Assay Office. He revealed a few
historical and technical details of his transmutation process in his book, Argentaurum
Papers #1: Some Remarks Concerning Gravitation:
"Our work, which converts silver into gold, had its origin in the course of certain
investigations which I undertook for the purpose of preparing chemically pure nickel...
in 1892. In attempting to prepare these pure metals [nickel and iron], a certain product
was obtained which seemed to differ from anything recorded in the textbooks. The same
product was subsequently found when the investigation was extended to the case of
metallic cobalt... The phenomena observed afforded indications of the existence of some
substance common to the whole of the elements in what is known as Series 4 of Group 8
of the classification of Chemical Elements... It appeared to us almost self-evident that if
we were right in supposing a common substance to be present in any single series of
elements, the same would hold good for each group.
"And as Group I of the classification contains the precious metals --- gold and silver ~ it
was obvious that our time and attention should be directed to these metals rather than to
any other...
"Our starting point, so far as silver and gold were concerned, was afforded by the
remarkable discoveries of Mr. Carey Lea with regard to [colloidal silver]... It was found
that... this subdivision of metallic silver was attended by very considerable changes in
the physical properties of the substance...By certain physical methods and by the aid of a
certain apparatus, we succeeded in bringing about a further subdivision of the silver. We
were not surprised to find that the substance obtained differed so far from ordinary silver
that it could no longer be regarded as the same elementary substance. It seemed to
require a new name and a new chemical symbol. Inasmuch, therefore, as our theory was
that this substance was common to both gold and silver, and in reality was the raw
material out of which both gold and silver were constructed by the hand of nature, we
named the substance Argentaurum...
"The next step was to ascertain whether this substance could be so treated as to be
grouped into molecules of greater density than those of silver... We found that...
Argentaurum can be aggregated into molecules having a density considerably superior to
that of ordinary gold molecules. Whether we are right as to this or not, the condensed
Argentaurum presents the appearance and is endowed with the properties of ordinary
metallic gold...
"We do not consume any chemicals and other costly materials in our process; what we
use is mainly energy in some of its various forms, such as heat, electricity, magnetism,
gravity, cohesion, chemical affinity, x-rays and the like... Our chief source of expense is
the time required for bringing about the desired molecular changes... One ounce of silver
will produce three-quarters of an ounce of gold..." (6)
Herbert Fyfe reported that Dr. Emmens' process comprised five stages: 1) mechanical
treatment; 2) fluxing and granulation; 3) mechanical treatment; 4) treatment with a
"modified nitric acid", and 5) refining. Dr. Emmens said:
"I regard the mechanical treatment as the causa causans. The fluxing and granulation
serve, I think, merely to render the molecular aggregate susceptible of displacement and
rearrangement." (15)
The mechanical treatment was accomplished by means of Dr. Emmens' "Force Engine",
which exerted pressures in excess of 500 tons/in2 at very low temperatures. Step 4,
using "modified nitric acid", contradicts the statement made elsewhere, that "we do not
consume any chemicals... in our process." (4, 7-12, 15, 16, 23)
Dr. Emmens included a sample of Argentaurum and these instructions in a letter (21
May 1897) to Sir William Crookes:
"Take a Mexican dollar and dispose it in an apparatus which will prevent expansion or
flow. Then subject it to heavy, rapid, and continuous beating under conditions of cold
such as to prevent even a temporary rise of temperature when the blows are struck. Test
the material from hour to hour, and at length you will find more than the trace (less than
one part in 10,000) of gold which the dollar originally contained."
Sir Crookes was unable to replicate the experiment to his satisfaction. He reported:
"A specimen of Argentaurum sent me by Dr. Emmens has been examined with the
spectrograph. It consists of gold with a fair proportion of silver and a little copper. No
lines belonging to any other known elements, and no unknown lines, were detected."
This analysis resembles that of ordinary bullion gold, which contains silver and copper
to make it harder and more fusible than pure gold.
"I have received a letter from a very eminent Fellow of the Royal Society informing me
that he has performed the crucial experiment suggested in my letter of May 21, 1897, to
Sir William Crookes. The gold contained in the Mexican dollar after 40 hours of intense
cold and continuous hammering was found to be 20.9% more than the quantity of gold
contained in the same dollar before the test."
In 1898, Emmens floated the Argentaurum Company, a syndicate which promised that
for one ounce of silver (then worth about 50 cents) entrusted with payment of $4.50 per
ounce for conversion costs, the investor would be repaid with 3/5 ounce of gold (then
worth about $11). Dr. Emmens' application for a patent on his process was refused,
however, so production never began, since he would not have been able to protect his
methods from unscrupulous competitors. (24, 29, 30)
Dr. Emmens was issued several U.S. Patents for inventions; at least two of them may be
related to his process: #501,996 (25 July 1893), Electrolytic bath; and #501,997 (25 July
1893), Apparatus for Electrolytic Extraction of Metals. Dr. Emmens' Force Engine
produced hammering pressures in excess of 500 tons/in2 at very low temperatures.
These effects can be achieved by a variety of modern methods.
Semantic ambiguities in Dr. Emmens' writings confuse the understanding of the process.
At times, Argentaurum refers to a new element, or to the gold produced from it, or to
Lea's intermediate allotropic silver.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Carey Lea discovered the preparation of so-called "allotropic" and "intermediate" silver
in 1889 while he was studying reductions of silver nitrate. "Allotropic" is a misnomer,
however. In 1925, Dr. Richard Zsigmondy, Professor of Chemistry at the University of
Göttingen, received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his study of Lea's "allotropic"
silver under the ultramicrosope. Dr. Zsigmondy found that such silver actually was a
monoatomic colloid of ordinary silver, not another isotope.
Lea determined that silver occurs in "allotropic", "intermediate", and ordinary forms.
Ordinary silver is protean in nature. The aqueous solutions are colloidal monoatoms, and
give perfectly clear solutions. The several forms of "allotropic" silver (a-Ag) dry with
their particles in optical contact with each other, thus forming continuous films that are
beautifully colored, perfect mirrors. Strong acids and pressure will convert a-Ag to the
normal form. There are three forms of a-Ag, and all are unstable. (21, 22)
There is also a very stable "intermediate form" of silver (i-Ag) which is easy to prepare.
It occurs as bright gold-yellow or green crystals with a metallic luster. Treatment with a
very dilute solution of ferric chloride will enhance the appearance of its foliar structure,
interpenetrating with plant-like ramifications, or fine acicular crystals up to 1 inch long.
Intermediate silver is hard, tough, and unaffected by pressure. It is nearly as indifferent
to oxidizing and chlorizing agents as is normal silver. Intermediate silver can be formed
from the allotropic varieties by light, heat, or chemical action. The simplest preparation
is as follows:
"It has long been known that golden-yellow specks would occasionally show themselves
in silver solutions, but could not be obtained at will and the quantity thus appearing was
infinitesimal. Probably this phenomenon has often led to a supposition that silver might
be transmuted into gold. This yellow product, however, is only an allotropic form of
silver, but it has all the color and brilliancy of gold, a fact which was apparent even in
the minute specks hitherto obtained...
"It is a little curious that its permanency seems to depend entirely on details in the mode
of preparation. I have found many ways of obtaining it, but in a few months the
specimens preserved changed spontaneously, to normal silver... The normal silver
produced in this way is exquisitely beautiful. It has a pure and perfect white color like
the finest frosted jewelers' silver, almost in fact exceeding the jeweler's best products. I
found, however, one process by which a quite permanent result could be obtained... the
following proportions give good results:
"Two mixtures are required: No. 1 containing 200 cc of a 10% solution of silver nitrate,
200 cc of 20% solution of Rochelle Salt [Sodium potassium tartrate] and 800 cc of
distilled water. No. 2, containing 107 cc of a 30% solution of ferrous sulfate, 200 cc of a
20% solution of Rochelle salt and 800 cc of distilled water. The second solution (which
must be mixed immediately before using only) is poured into the first with constant
stirring. A powder, at first glittering red, then changing back to black, falls, which on the
filter has a beautiful bronze appearance. After washing it should be removed whilst in a
pasty condition and spread over watch glasses or flat basins and allowed to dry
spontaneously. It will be seen that this is a reduction of silver nitrate by ferrous sulfate...
"Although the gold-colored silver (into which the nitrate used is wholly converted) is
very permanent when dry, it is less so when wet. In washing, the filter must be kept
always full of water; this is essential. It dries into lumps exactly resembling highly
polished gold...
"If we coat a chemically clean glass plate with a film of gold-colored allotropic silver,
let it dry, first in the air, then for an hour or two in a stove at 100o C, and then heat the
middle of the plate carefully over a spirit lamp, we shall obtain with sufficient heat a
circle of whitish gray with a bright, lustrous golden ring round it, somewhat lighter and
brighter than the portion of the plate that has not been changed by heat. This ring
consists of what I propose to call the "intermediate form"...
"With sulfuric acid diluted with four times its bulk of water and allowed to cool, an
immersion of one or two seconds converts a film on glass or on pure paper wholly to the
intermediate form...
"Its properties are better seen by using a film formed on pure paper, one end of which is
heated over a spirit lamp to a temperature just below that at which paper scorches. The
change is sudden and passes over the heated portion of the surface like a flash.
Examining the changed part, we find:
1st. That it has changed from a deep gold to a bright yellow gold color.
2nd. When subjected to a shearing stress it does not whiten or change color in the
slightest degree.
4th. It no longer shows the color reaction with potassium ferricyanide and ferric
chloride, changing only by a slight deepening of color.
"Of these characteristic changes the second is the most remarkable. The gold-colored
silver in its original condition changes with singular facility to white silver; almost any
touch, any friction, effects the conversion...
The intermediate form is distinguished from normal silver almost solely by its bright
yellow color and its higher luster."
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(8) References ~
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PART 4
Part I of II-
Consider this my fellow Christian Americans: All pension funds and other institutional
'managed funds' are comprised of paper asset investments such as stocks, bonds, and
mutual funds. These certificates are technically in the name of DTC's private holding
company, CEDE and Company. The DTC is owned by the private Federal Reserve
System owners (Click for a complete list of names). Congress has attempted, on no less
than two occasions since 1995, to pass legislation allowing pension funds to be used by
the government as purported 'loans'. All the Federal Reserve System has to do is hand it
over. But, what happens to the people counting on those pension fund investments in
order to feed themselves in their retirement? Too bad for them.... they're out of luck
because for the 'good of the nation', they may be forced to share or relinquish their
lifetime of hard-earned wealth. This can be done without the consent of Congress under
an Executive Order based on the War and Emergency Powers Act and a state of National
Emergency, just like we are already under (See further Executive Orders). Since the
Federal Reserve System already holds our stocks and bonds in their fictitious DTC
"street name", CEDE, then perhaps they'll cash them in for the federal government's
failure to repay the loans that have become way overdue. Heck, some of Lincoln's gold
backed bonds from 1864 have not been repaid yet.... and for a reason. On March 6,
1933, all bullion gold and gold coins were forcibly taken from the hands of private
citizens (see New York Times). Under the War Powers Act, President Roosevelt
declared a national emergency touted as a "Banking Holiday". It was declared due to the
deliberately calculated stock market crash that preceded the Great Depression. Where
did this gold end up? Into the hands of the Federal Reserve System owners. The majority
is stored in the impervious rock vaults they own beneath New York City. Is it any
surprise that the DTC physically holds all the remaining non-book entry issued stock and
bond certificates in the same place? Technically, our entire nation is still under the
Executive Order declaration of the War Powers Act and in a continual state of national
emergency (See Clinton's 1994 Executive Order 12919). The President can enforce any
new emergency at any time under Executive Order or Presidential Directive. In 1995, we
[the former North Bridge News] published that we expected a new national "dollar"
emergency to be declared within a year or two. Just like we thought at the time, they
have now blamed it on the purported drug dealers who are allegedly destroying our
currency by money laundering schemes. Since late 1996, old U.S. $100 FRB notes
issued by the Federal Reserve Bank are being exchanged for new $100 FRS issued by
the Federal Reserve System. These new notes have scanable magnetic platinum
encryption on the plastic strips embedded inside the bills. The U.S. Treasury claims this
is for "the blind". Now, new $20 and $50 FRS's are replacing the older notes as well.
What people don't realize is that very soon, the older FRB notes will no longer be 'legal'
and there will be a penalty for hoarding them. This is what happened to those Americans
holding gold and gold coins after 1933. "We are most gratified with the successful
introduction of the new $100 and $50 notes and look forward to the same success with
the new $20s," Chairman Greenspan said. For the first time, a machine-readable
capability has been incorporated for the blind. A new feature in the $20 will facilitate the
development of convenient scanning devices that could identify the note as a $20. -U.S.
Treasury, Office of Public Affairs, RR-2449 released May 20, 1998. Why new paper
'money' and for what purpose? Because the new FRS notes in your pocket can be
scanned and whoever scans them can know exactly how much money you have on you.
The older FRB notes are not encoded to do this. This writer knows firsthand of at least
one machine, manufactured by Diebold, Inc. (a/k/a InterBold) that scans the money in
your pockets, wallet or purse no different in theory than a credit card scanner, but much
more sophisticated. I participated in a 'test' of this machine at a U.S. international airport
in 1998. To me, it looks much like the standard metal detector scanners you walk
through at all airports. I was asked (by who I believe was a U.S. Treasury Agent, as he
introduced himself and flashed his ID quickly in my face so I couldn't read it) if I had
any of the new $100 or $50 bills in my pockets. I looked in my wallet and saw I had one
new $100 FRS note. I told him "yes", then he said "Good, but don't tell me how much".
After saying he would "really appreciate it" if I would help them with a test, he asked
me to walk through what looked like a typical airport scanner. No beeps. No noise. No
sound at all. He looked at a computer screen and said "Do you have a new $100 bill?".
When I confirmed that was true, he thanked me and told me to please move on. I tried to
ask him how the machine knew that, but he ignored my question. I took a good look at
the scanning system and believe I have now spotted them at Kennedy, Atlanta, Miami
and Los Angeles airports. The odd part about this is that these machines seem to all be
located in the customs areas where you enter the U.S. from a foreign country.
Obviously, they want to know if someone is carrying more than $10,000 into the U.S.
Common sense dictates that they should be more concerned about people leaving with
more than $10,000 if they're really trying to thwart the drug dealers.... until you begin to
realize that there must be some other hidden agenda: They are apparently going to stop
money from entering the U.S. for a reason. Will the President call for the confiscation of
all gold bullion and bullion coins as Roosevelt did? Who will end up with it? The
Federal Reserve System owners, just like before. Since June 1998, international gold
supplies have been so low that some private Swiss Banks have been paying a premium
above the market wholesale value for gold bullion. This was confirmed to us by a gold
and diamond mining Chief Executive from Rex Mining in Guinea, West Africa, who
supplies raw gold to a major Swiss Banking company smelter and processor The spot
gold market has been manipulated to keep the price low so that the Federal Reserve
System owners can purchase all that is available through their various trusts and
corporations. World gold availability on the open market is now at a record low and
mining production of gold is also at a record low output. What happened to 'supply and
demand' with gold and silver? Normally, when supply is high the price decreases. When
supply is low, precious metal prices increase. Perhaps the private FED will peg the new
dollar to gold prices, as many experts have already speculated. What will stocks and
bonds purchased with old dollars be worth then? Pennies to the dollar, so to speak. Who
ends up being the only winner? The Federal Reserve System stockholders. They control
the circulation amounts of paper money in the U.S. Combine that with the new scanner
to stop large amounts from entering into the U.S., and the scenario amounts to a planned
shortage of paper FRS notes, the banning of the older FRB notes, and the soon to be
astronomical price of gold which most Americans will be forbidden to have or hoard,
once again. The facts we've presented in this report all point to this. People will be at the
mercy of the federal government for daily food and for jobs. Checks are soon to be
totally phased out. Banks issue ATM debit cards and tell you they must charge more for
your account if you use a real live human teller instead of the machine. The switch is
being turned on. This is not speculation. This is the truth of reality. It's already been
tested, and their new system works. Just ask Jim McNeff of the DTC. The day has come
when you must decide to accept or reject the beast and the New World Disorder.
Part Two
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-------------------------------------------------------------------Dear Congressman:
How the United States can easily Sink the National Debt.
10KT Gold Coins ( oreo cookie style ) and issued $100 Created "
section 412, into the US Treasury National Debt Sinking Fund as "
collateral notes " the national debt can be easily sunk, while keeping
suffering ."
Based on the following, the wealth of the United States needs to
a needless debt.)
Gold
will turn lead into golden color, see " yellow lead "
" naples yellow " ( a gold color ) and see the golden
If the Federal Reserve, US Mint and Treasury needs a Modern Alchemist please let me
know, I would like to work on this project for the US government because money ends
suffering.
" Therefore buy of me gold refined in the fire " God rev 3:18 Because Money Ends
Suffering.
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------------------------------
Note: The United States Postal Service is an independent agency of the executive branch
of the federal government. It was created by the Postal Reorganization Act of 1970 and
went into operation on July 1, 1971. Prior to that date it was named the Post Office
Department, and the postmaster general who headed it was a member of the president's
Cabinet.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The U.S. Postal Savings Bank
In 1910, by an Act of Congress, the U.S. Postal Savings Bank was born and it was one
of the best ideas in the Republic's history. By that time, most civilized countries of the
world had a Postal Savings Bank.
President Theodore Roosevelt's speech on the necessity for a Postal Savings Bank in
1908:
"I again renew my recommendation for postal savings banks, for depositing savings with
the security of the Government behind them. The object is to encourage thrift and
economy in the wage-earner and person of moderate means. In 14 States the deposits in
savings banks as reported to the Comptroller of the Currency amount to $3,590,245,402,
or 98.4 per cent of the entire deposits, while in the remaining 32 States there are only
$70,308,543, or 1.6 per cent, showing conclusively that there are many localities in the
United States where sufficient opportunity is not given to the people to deposit their
savings. The result is that money is kept in hiding and unemployed. It is believed that in
the aggregate vast sums of money would be brought into circulation through the
instrumentality of the postal savings banks. While there are only 1,453 savings banks
reporting to the Comptroller there are more than 61,000 post-offices, 40,000 of which
are money order offices. Postal savings banks are now in operation in practically all of
the great civilized countries with the exception of the United States."
The Postal Savings Bank was officially inaugurated in 1910, during the Administration
of President William Howard Taft:
"The second subject worthy of mention in the Post-Office Department is the real
necessity and entire practicability of establishing postal savings banks. The successful
party at the last election declared in favor of postal savings banks, and although the
proposition finds opponents in many parts of the country, I am convinced that the people
desire such banks, and am sure that when the banks are furnished they will be productive
of the utmost good. The postal savings banks are not constituted for the purpose of
creating competition with other banks. The rate of interest upon deposits to which they
would be limited would be so small as to prevent their drawing deposits away from other
banks.
"I believe them to be necessary in order to offer a proper inducement to thrift and saving
to a great many people of small means who do not now have banking facilities, and to
whom such a system would offer an opportunity for the accumulation of capital. They
will furnish a satisfactory substitute, based on sound principle and actual successful trial
in nearly all the countries of the world, for the system of government guaranty of
deposits now being adopted in several western States, which with deference to those
who advocate it seems to me to have in it the seeds of demoralization to conservative
banking and certain financial disaster. The question of how the money deposited in
postal savings banks shall be invested is not free from difficulty, but I believe that a
satisfactory provision for this purpose was inserted as an amendment to the bill
considered by the Senate at its last session. It has been proposed to delay the
consideration of legislation establishing a postal savings bank until after the report of the
Monetary Commission. This report is likely to be delayed, and properly so, cause of the
necessity for careful deliberation and close investigation. I do not see why the one
should be tied up with the other. It is understood that the Monetary Commission have
looked into the systems of banking which now prevail abroad, and have found that by a
control there exercised in respect to reserves and the rates of exchange by some central
authority panics are avoided. It is not apparent that a system of postal savings banks
would in any way interfere with a change to such a system here. Certainly in most of the
countries of Europe where control is thus exercised by a central authority, postal savings
banks exist and are not thought to be inconsistent with a proper financial and banking
system."
By 1913, the Postal Savings Bank was another great American success story. Here is an
article from The Commercial Tribune, Cincinnati, Feb. 6, 1913:
"The postal savings bank" [he said] "is a new department of the greatest business on
earth-the banking business. Few people realize the magnitude of the Postal Department.
In Cincinnati alone last year over $17,000,000 changed hands in handling the mails.
There are 2,650 mail carriers in the city, and the salaries of the deliverers and the
railway mail clerks with headquarters in Cincinnati amounted to over $1,000,000.
"The postal savings bank, although a new department of the Mail Service, has grown
so rapidly that it is at present one of the largest. The people put more trust in the postal
bankthan they do in the ordinary banks. It is designed merely to protect and take care of
the earnings of the working class. Under this system the money that is placed in the care
of the Government can be withdrawn at any time. At times, it is said, more than half the
money of the world is out of circulation and in the pockets of the people. At such time
the circulating money is not sufficient to carry on the business of the world, and a panic
follows. The great financiers of the world have been unable to account for these
conditions, but many think that this system, by placing cash at the disposal of the poorer
people, will greatly lessen the hardships of such panics.
"In speaking of the rapid growth of the postal savings bank and its favor with the
people, he let the figures speak for themselves. On January 11, 1912, there was in the
bank $11,000,000;now there is $30.000.000. On this money the depositors receive 2
percent interest. The Government, however, invests this money so that the department is
self-supporting and so far has paid all its own expenses
This staggering sum was reached so quickly even though the maximum deposit was 500
dollars. Most of the depositors were poor and recent immigrants who did not trust the
commercial banks and were very familiar with postal savings' banks in their home
countries. The minimum age for opening an account was 10.
The people loved their savings bank and pressure quickly grew to increase the maximum
amount. A bill was introduced in Congress in 1914 to repeal this ceiling. It was called
the Moon Act. President Wilson acting under advice of the Roman hierarchy vetoed it
because some of the banks receiving deposits were not part of the newly created Federal
Reserve System!!
President Woodrow Wilson (another tool of Rome) vetoed the legislation that would
have made the Postal Saving Bank another great American success story.
In 1913, _____ imposed slavish INCOME TAX system on the land of the FREE. . .
.This was a direct competitor to the Postal Savings Bank. The income tax was an exact
duplicate of the feudal Dark Ages Papal income tax:
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------
Editor's Notes
One dollar in 1913 was the equivalent to about 30 dollars today, so 30 million dollars
would be about 600 million dollars at today's exchange rate. This was the increase in just
2 years even though the maximum deposit was 500 dollars.
Visit the Postal Savings Bank of Hibernia - the birthplace of our great Irish-American
hero Father Crowley.
The British Post Office Savings Bank is the world's oldest, it was founded in 1861.
Japan financed their industrial revolution through her Postal Savings Bank. It is one of
the largest banks in the world right now with deposits of $10 TRILLION.
The U.S. Postal Savings Bank was discontinued in 1970 during the Presidency of
Richard Nixon.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------William H.
Taft, Presidential Candidate, Republican Party
"Postal Savings Bank"
Hot Springs, Virginia, August 5, 1908
SPEECH TEXT
The Republican platform recommends the adoption of a postal savings bank system. The
government guarantee will bring out of hoarding places much money which may be
turned into wealth producing capital and will be a great incentive for thrift in the many
small places in the country having now no savings bank facilities which are reached by
the post office. It will bring to everyone however remote from financial centers a place
of perfect safety for deposit with the interest returned. The pending bill for such banks
provides for the investment of the money deposited in national banks and the various
places in which we’ve gathered or as near thereto as may be practicable. This answers
the criticism contained in the Democratic platform that under the system the money
gathered in the country will be deposited in Wall Street banks. The system of postal
savings bank has been tried in so many countries successfully that it cannot be regarded
longer as a new and untried experiment. The Democratic platform recommends a tax
upon the national banks and upon such state banks as may come in, in the nature of
enforced insurance, to raise the guarantee funds to pay the depositors of any bank which
fails. The proposition is to tax the honest and prudent banker to make up for the
dishonesty and imprudence of others. No one can foresee the burden which under this
system would be imposed upon the sound and the conservative bankers of the country
by this obligation to make good for the losses caused by the reckless, speculative and
dishonest men who would be unable to secure deposits under such a system on the faith
of the proposed insurance. Because in its present shape, the proposal would remove all
safeguards against recklessness in banking… and in the end, probably the only benefit
would accrue to the speculator who would be delighted to enter the banking business
when it was certain that he could enjoy any profits that would accrue, while the risk
would have to be assumed by his honest and hardworking fellow. In short, the proposal
is wholly impracticable unless it is to be accompanied by a complete revolution in our
banking system with a supervision so close as practically to create a government bank. If
the proposal were adopted exactly as the Democratic platform suggests, it will bring the
whole banking system of the country down in ruin. And this proposal is itself an
excellent illustration of the fitness for national control of a party, which will commit
itself to a scheme of this nature without the slightest sense of responsibility for the
practical operation of the law proposed. The Democratic party announces its adhesion to
this plan and only recommends the tried system of postal savings bank as an alternative
if the new experimental panacea is not available. The Republican party prefers the postal
savings bank as one tried safe and known to be effective and as reaching many more
people now, without banking facilities, than the new system proposed.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------
Our childhoods are the best time of our lives , once robotic parents are created for
tough labor our lives could be like children again, and more people would want to
be brought back from temporary death.
Reviving to life already after freezing already happens naturally. Every spring, life
that was once frozen in the winter months, suddenly blooms to life again.
Many plants and animals replace their body water with a natural sugar anti-freeze
to prevent the cell DNA from shattering when frozen.
When Human Beings die; not all of the body is dead, just the brain stem stops to
function.
Please remember that mammals start out the size of a period dot and grow into a
baby in 9 months, using just food and oxygen from the mother.
In the future stem cells can be cultured and the deceased body can be revived with
these cells, like filling a dry sponge with fresh water.
At 10:49 PM, Rev Dan Izzo said...
" Resurrection is the rising again from the dead, the resumption of life. "
Could this Bible prophesy be Cryonics ?
-------------------------------------
Concerning the Idea to ask Congress to reissue
UNITED STATES NOTES
as a Legal Tender again, dormant since 1966.
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------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
United States Patent Application 20050027316
Kind Code A1
Izzo, Daniel Robert February 3, 2005
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Resurrection burial tomb
Abstract
A Resurrection Burial Tomb includes a means to preserve and revive Human
Beings and provide power and power systems for the same, comprising of a
container of preservation means, holding the suspended dead person's body and
connected to electrical and energy apparatus systems contained in the Resurrection
tomb and robotic machine workers that help maintain and work to revive the
suspended Human Being; wherein the process provides power and security from
death to living Human Beings being useful and novel, producing a less savage
empowered child culture and machine parents.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Inventors: Izzo, Daniel Robert; (Syracuse, NY)
Correspondence Name and Address: Reverend Daniel Robert Izzo
512 Onondaga Ave
Syracuse
NY
13207
US
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Claims
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1) I the Reverend Daniel Robert Izzo, hereby claim the, "A Resurrection Burial
Tomb" that is a novel means to revive a dead person's body from the grave; and
providing a 1 little more security from an impending death; will preserve and
prevent the human body from decay and will prolong the human life and tissue and
return it into a conscious state, together with the means do do the same, and a
means to produce energy, to do the same; comprising of: an artificial womb and a
container with fluid having a crystal radio crown and antenna that connects to a
radio and energy devices; wherein the deceased person is prevented from decay
within said container and where energy is obtained from the radio crown that
oscillates into the deceased person's nerves and brain and the entire container is
within a building and tomb that is weather tight, wherein a nuclear device is used to
generate electric energy and heat energy; wherein part of the dead person's bone is
converted into a microprocessor and computer; wherein the computer and energy
sources, drive a heart lung machine that keeps the dead person's remaining cell
tissue alive, together with an artificial heart assister pump; wherein the deceased
person's bone will regain consciousness, using the material of their bone and
artificial and organic means consisting of human bone material; that is convertible
into a computer and microprocessor, organically grown body parts; artificially
grown body parts; nerves a muscles; wherein the microprocessor will oscillate of
the dead person, from the said bone material; being used will oscillated of the
person's life frequency; together with artificially grown nerves and olfactory nerves
that grow, reconstructed nerve patterns of the deceased person; together and
consisting of artificial and organically grown muscle; comprising of silicon and
compounds to cause silicon and material mean to expand and contract with energy
and force; and organic material; when a voltage of energy is applied; wherein the
deceased person's skeleton remains, will be revived to consciousness, using
collagen, a microprocessor, co version to a computer consciousness, artificial
muscle that expands and contracts with energy and force, artificial nerves that will
allow the dead person's skeleton remains; to independently communicate new
consciousness and thoughts; wherein the said microprocessor contains elements of
human bone materials that will be able to convert itself into other electric circuit
patterns, by inputing the desired pattern stored in its memory; such as imputing
radio, for radio circuit, imputing oscilloscope for oscilloscope circuit; wherein said
microprocessor will receive and transmit input data and electric pulses, and will
contain information, record data and monitor the burial tomb, comprising of a
means to receive and transmit data and electric pulses; and contain information,
record data and monitor, wherein said microprocessor comprises of: a sheet of
flexible insulating plastic paper that contains an enlargement of specially painted
and printed computer microchips; integrated electric circuits and having thousands
of field effect transistors; capacitors and resistors; that was applied and formed
with applied layers of paint, wherein the sheet of plastic paper is coated with a
complete layer of positively doped silicon substrate that is printed and painted in an
electric circuit pattern of an insulating coat of silicon dioxide paint; then an area
contain the devices negatively charged electric areas, type-N, will be painted and
printed; in a pattern for type-N areas, with a paint that contains silicon and
germanium crystals and phosphorus with in the type-N semiconductor paint;
wherein then the device's negatively charged electric areas will have extra free
electrons and produces N-type, negatively charged electric current conduction;
wherein then, another electric circuit pattern is then printed and painted that will
conduct the P-type, positively charged electric semiconductor regions with a
polysilicon paint that contains silicon, germanium, crystals and boron mixed in the
paint; wherein the results of the paint leave gaps in the germanium crystal
structure because there is not enough electrons to fill all of the spaces in the crystal
and produces a P-type semiconductor patterned region for the device's positive
electric current conduction; wherein then another layer of silicon dioxide is printed
and painted in an electric circuit insulating pattern and shall have some holes for
electric conduction and shall have a printed and painted aluminum or other electric
conducting metal paint; applied on it in a circuit pattern and shall provide electric
contacts that will receive electric data pulses of either digital inputs or analog-to-
digital converter inputs and the electric contacts will provide the device's digital
output or the device's digital-to-analog data output, wherein the microprocessor's
input of data will be able to store the data in the device's central processing unit;
the device's random access memory; and the device's read only memory and are
connected together within the device's address bus; data bus; and control bus and
the device's bus system connects to the device's input and output connection;
wherein the device can store the data for processing and the device turns data into
processed results; into actions and dip lays, wherein the enlarging of the pattern of
the computer microchip electric circuit; integrated electric circuits, 100+thousands
of field effect transistors; capacitors and resistors; and then applying the materials
to create the same electric systems; painting and printing upon plastic paper,
100+thousand transistors; capacitors and resistors; on an altered xerography
process using the aforementioned materials of plastic, silicon, silicon dioxide,
polysilicon, germanium; phosphorous; boron, crystals, metal, or painting the
electric circuit patterns of the I/C; microprocessor-microchip; 100+thousand
transistors, capacitors, resistors, circuits in and enlarged pattern; also by
lithographic printing or offset cylinders containing the material of paint and the
circuit designs; or of the layer printing methods that print the materials without
shorting the electric circuit, wherein the microprocessor can be altered and
produce electric energy, and can be a photoelectric cell on top of the
microprocessor and can be altered and have a parallel along the circuits with
arsenic, wherein a photoelectric effect takes place, producing electricity; wherein
processes in the Resurrection Burial Tomb, and Conscious Revival System; having
interactions therein wherein; prior domestic priorities of the inventor's; cosmic
radio wave crown, a Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator; a
Hydraulic Leverage Engine, a Microwave Hot Water Boiler Heating System; the
Zinc-Carbon Pill and Transistorized Plastic Paper Computer, the Artificial Heart
Assister Pump; the Artificial Muscle Robot; and the Thermionic Electron Electric
Generator and Artificial Liver Ammonia Diffuser; interact in new and improved
functions that preserve the deceased person's and offer a little more security from
our deaths. and electric energy, and power systems; are used as a means to provide
the process; wherein a small pump will circulate blood and fluid; that is attached to
the person's arteries and veins; wherein when a person's heart fails to pump
properly; the automatic device will sense this dysfunction; and will begin to pump
and circulate oxygenated blood and fluid properly throughout the person's body
tissues, if any, wherein the pumping system is powered electrically or nuclear
energy; wherein the power source to circulate and pump blood fluid is connected to
the device; wherein the device is connected to a person's blood circulatory system
and will maintain a fresh supply of oxygen to a deceased person's brain and body;
wherein; medication and process of the Zinc-Carbon Pill electrophoresis
compounds are used in the process for destroying microbes, fungi, bacteria and
viral infection and clove leaf oil topical paste for herpes virus, and protect the
deceased person's tissues infection; wherein an engine is used to provide the
Resurrection Burial Tomb; with a power source; wherein the Hydraulic Leverage
Engine is used comprising of; a gasoline combustion chamber having gas therein; a
diesel compression chamber having diesel gas fuel therein; a hydraulic pneumatic
engine having gas therein; and ION engine having gas therein; a heat source within
said housings which interacts with gas or fuel, or an energy source to provide
output, a piston connected to the output of the energy or heat source; wherein; the
piston will act upon a hydraulic jack piston pump and is connected to a lever bar
and the lever bar rests upon a fulcrum point and bar, wherein the lever bar rests
upon a fulcrum point and bar, wherein the lever bar acts upon a set of weight load
pistons that connect to a crankshaft and the crankshaft is connected to a load
bearing work wheel; and wherein the output of the energy or heat source shall
cause and move the effort pistons to apply a small pressure upon the hydraulic jack
piston pump that in turn will apply a larger force of pressure upon the lever bar,
that in turn will apply an even larger force of pressure upon the weight load pistons
that connects to the crankcase and crankshaft and work wheel; so that the
crankshaft, under applied pressure of the effort pistons acting upon the hydraulic
jack piston pump and lever bar acting upon the weight load pistons, turns a work
wheel with much more force that was initially acted upon it from the energy source
or heat source but at less distance, wherein the effort multiplied by the distance
from the fulcrum, (effort pistons-lever bar ) equal the weight multiplied by its
distance from the fulcrum (weight load pistons), wherein the Resurrection Burial
Tomb has a workable engine for the interaction process; wherein the Zinc-Carbon
Pill will prevent decay of the human person, wherein the process will electrocute
viruses and other microbes within a human host and will explode viruses, bacteria,
fungi and other microbes, like an overloaded electric light bulb, without destroying
many human cells, with the ability to increase the natural electric current and
voltage of a human being, with electro-chemical compounds and a process of
electrophoresis; and electrocution and electrostatic activity; comprising of;
elements of; zinc and its zinc oxides; zinc sulfides and zinc acetates and other zinc
elements, carbon and carbon elements and can be in the form of carbonyl and its
group, carboxyl and its group, carboxyl and its group and other carbon based
elements, magnesium and its compounds and group, wherein the combining of
these elements increases the electrical energy of a Human Being with chemical
energy and can shatter and explode viruses, bacteria, fungus and other microbes
and parasites that cause diseases and cell death of a Human Being, and can be
applied also externally to a Human Host with the same effect together with these
elements; Zinc; Carbon; Magnesium; Electrophoresis materials; adramycin;
antineoplastic; antipan; arsenic; barium and its sulfides; benzyl; benzoic acid;
benzoly peroxide; carbamazephine;carbolated campor, carbolic acid;
cerumenolytic; daunomycn; hydrogen peroxide; hydrochloride; keratolic acid;
magnesium; mithramycn; ozone; phenol red; phenylactetic acid carboxy; phenyl
carbinol; pheny ethyl alchohol; phenylactetic acid carboxy; phenyl carbinol; pheny
ethyl alcohol; phenyl meruric nitrate; piperdine; permathrin;
dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylate; pyrethrin; piperonyl butoxide; sodium; sodium
hydrogen-carbonate; sodium perborate; suger; sulfa; sulfamide; penicillin; carben
carbenicillin; radio chemicals; ultra-violet rays; electric jolts; negative ions;
positive ions and water; wherein combining these elements increases and amplify
the electrical energy of a host human inside the tomb chambers, to a safe level, but
will explode with electric energy, viruses, bacteria, funguses and other microbes
and parasites without damaging many Human cells and is obtained ny chemical
energy and other energy forms and the process and treatment with chemicals can
be in the form of liquids, solids, powders, pastes, pill gas and electric energy forms
as light radiation energy and electro-static energy absorption means to prevent
decay of the deceased person's Human cell life, and wherein the means for a
communication device is used from the Citizen Band Free Public Radio wave
Telephone System comprising an audio input, microphone, a frequency
programmer number pad to frequency crystal oscillator. a programmed radio
frequency to signal number display, transmit and receive antennas. a keyboard to
computer input. a speaker, a video monitor, TV monitor, a fax machine/printer, a
data input and computer storage data unit, electric plug input/output, telephone
line for wire service, cable input/output wire, video/audio camera that is removable,
a source of communication antennas for a radio wave receiver and transmit or and
propagated radio waves; wherein; the invention's Citizen Band Free Public Radio
wave Telephone system's; audio input with cable wires; input amplifier, radio
frequency amplifier, modulated amplifier or frequency amplifier, modulated
amplifier or Frequency amplifier master oscillator, radio frequency amplifier,
radio frequency amplifier; radio frequency amplifier, crystal oscillator that is
programmable; antenna; pre-selection circuit; a frequency changer; intermediate
frequency amplifier; frequency detector; low frequency amplifier speaker; antenna
for receiver; local oscillator, will interact and function within the Resurrection
Burial Tomb processes and radio crown; as a means for monitoring
communication, entertainment fun and data; wherein the invention uses artificial
muscles and produces electric current that is stored in the electric storage unit
being maintained/operated by the "Artificial Muscle Robot" and its artificial hands
having, artificial muscle that is connected to a frame with movable joints and the
artificial hand is covered and protected with a material that permits movement,
wherein the artificial muscle will expand and contract with force, using electric
current by way of spring wires that is within the artificial muscle that is weaved
and patterned and layered like a real human hand having sensors for input/output
signals through a central joint palm, that has a computer brain with optical sensors
and an input/output communication and receives transmits radio communication
and the robot has arms with artificial hands. wherein the robot is powered by a
Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator other electric input
means that move and perform work of Human hands tasks can perform to
maintain and work for the Resurrection Burial Tomb work functions; wherein the
Hydraulic Pneumatic Engine and the "Microwave Hot Water Boiler Heating
System with a thorium plated magnetron (2) energy systems, using steam from the
microwave hot water boiler to drive and help turn the hydraulic pneumatic engine
and electric generator wherein the Artificial Muscle Robot assists in the operation
of the tomb's hydraulic pneumatic engine and microwave hot water boiler heating
energy system. wherein the Lever Engine c covert 1 ton of torque into 4 tons
without gear/transmission for the invention's work functions and other electric
systems comprising of the Thermionic Electron Electric Generator, having a power
source, cathode, cesium, thorium, container with magnetic force inside, and a high
voltage anode chamber with argon gas inside for output, wherein the input of 10
watts of electric power is amplified to about 100 watts of electric power output, for
energy creation, and the invention's Hydraulic Pneumatic Engine used for work
functions and comprising of the Portable Nuclear Powered Engine that mitts less
radiation than 3 TV sets and is used for work functions and electric power
generation. wherein; the invention's rebuilding and preserving Human persons who
are deceased or suspended or are being revived into normal function, uses the same
means of cryogenic preservation, in the U.S. South Pole, Antarctica territory and
the invention comprises of an "Artificial Womb" converted from an oxygen
petrofusion machine, wherein the Hyman's cells are preserved/protected and can
grown into normal function, wherein a means of a Human bone being crystallized
and converted into a computer microprocessor, for an "Artificial Muscle Robot"
consciousness and for some normal function. and a means for a Human person
inside a container that is filled with a preservative medium that prevents decay and
who is wearing a Crystal radio crown to hear the living, awaiting the day of
resurrection, wherein the invention comprises of the Thermionic Electron-Electric
Generator that is used to generate the invention's electric power, that comprises of;
containment inside a sealed tube contain a source of input power that heats a
thorium tungsten nichrome wire that is inside another sealed tube that contains
cesium gas that generate electrons, wherein a thoriated platinum cathode obtains
emitted electrons and emits more electrons inside a magnetic field having cobalt
magnets, wherein an anode collects the electrons and sends them to a argon gas
ionizer chamber having argon gas therein wherein high voltage electric is present
that ionizes the radiation of the argon gas and causes electrons to rush to one
electron and positively charged ions to
the other electrode and positively charged ions to the other electrode; wherein the
electrons join other electrons emitted from the anode at the negative electrode as
the radiation and high voltage causes an electric current within the device and
sends it to the increased electric output to the invention's electric current supply
wherein the invention comprises of an electric generator having radioactive cobalt
60 magnets, and depicts radioactive cobalt 60 magnets that cause electrons to move
faster than iron magnets and produces more electric output per calorie than iron
magnets and its output is increased by high voltage argon gas ionization inside the
electric generator, wherein radioactive cobalt field structure magnets create a
magnetic field; wherein coils of wire are mounted so that they can be spun around
in a magnetic field with mechanical energy input; wherein the entire device is inside
a vacuum tube that is filled with a gas and charged to a very high voltage wherein
the radioactive cobalt 60 ionizes the gas spading the electrically neutral gas into
positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons wherein; the positive ions
rush to one electrode and the electrons rush to the other electrode wire, wherein
this triggers an electric current from one electrode to the other, while the
mechanical energy input turns the wire coil electrode and creates electrical output
between the cobalt 60 magnetic field magnets wherein magnetic force and ionized
gas of radioactive cobalt 60 magnets make electrons move in the wire coil
generating an electric current output, and a means for the invention's electric
systems connected to the invention's electric wiring that provides amplified
electricity; wherein the Thermionic Electron Electric Generator are a source of
amplified electric power to the invention's wiring wherein the invention comprises
of devices that convert heat energy into electric current wherein the invention
comprises of a Microwave Boiler, converting thorium/uranium electrons into
microwave energy said magnetron microwave device, said microwave magnetron
and a klystron thats cathodes and anodes are plated with thorium and uranium and
whose magnets are of radioactive cobalt., wherein the invention's microwave
emitting device shall be improved by plating the magnetron's electric cathode with
thorium and uranium that is radioactive, the anode is of magnetizable metal,
radioactive cobalt, nickel or iron and the anode is plated with radioactive metal;
wherein the operation of the invention's magnetron, a high D-C potential is applied
between cathode and anode, setting up a radial electric field, wherein the combined
forces cause electrons to take a spiral path and when the magnetron, the electric
oscillations of the magnetron resonators set up an A-C electric field across the
resonator gaps, wherein the thorium and uranium metal cathode, magnetic metal
anode of cobalt and plated with radioactive metal, in the magnetron sets up an
increase in spiraling reactions when an electric current is applied and causes the
magnetron output current to be many times the electric input of the invention's
magnetron, and the invention, comprises of electric devices converting thorium
uranium, cesium tungsten, nichrome, and argon gas atoms interacting and
generating electron emissions into electric energy, and using mechanical energy
input and obtain a greater energy output of electric energy, the invention's,
Thermionic Electron-Electric Generator, that coverts a smaller energy power input
into a larger electric energy output wherein; the invention's devices converting heat
energy and electro magnetic energy into a larger electric energy output, wherein
the invention's devices converting a smaller electric energy input into a larger
heating calorie output for room tomb air radiant heat, wherein the invention's
devices converting thermionic emissions into a larger radiant energy output,
wherein; the invention's devices using cobalt magnets and mechanical energy
together with high voltage ionized argon gas to provide an output of electric energy.
wherein; the invention's devices using cobalt 60 magnets, wherein the invention's
devices using rare earth elements to increase the power output, wherein the
invention's devices converting electric input into mechanical output, wherein the
invention's "Artificial Liver and Ammonia Diffuser" for cirrhosis treatments with
blood clotting restorability; comprising of a container having an input tube
containing Human Blood with toxins that is filtered with a calcium filter (2) that
circulates and moves the blood/fluid with an electric pump and mixes plasma fluid
input and connects into and restores blood clotting; a settling tank that connects
into another calcium filter tank that then sends the filtered blood that has its
clottability restored; into another tank wherein the blood is again filtered (2) and
slightly heated in the unit tank where the blood is again filtered and slightly heated
in the unit tank; wherein the slight heating and calcium mixes with the Human
blood and causes ammonia toxins to diffuse into a vent and the blood is sent
through a connecting pipe into a cooling unit and filters down to remove any extra
calcium and cools the blood and fluid and sends the cleaned of toxins blood/fluid
into a storage tank and a output tube for use if a Human Being and final testing to
insure toxin material removal, before being used to the person in need, and said
processes interact within the invention for an outcome; wherein the invention
comprises of a "Portable Nuclear Powered and Electric Generator" that comprises
of a Stirling type engine; wherein the invention's engine having a doubled walled
capsule cylinder that is filled with helium gas and contains a floating piston at the
top of the floating piston is a pellet of radioactive material that heats the helium to
about 1,200 degrees F., where this very hot helium expands rapidly, then forcefully
drives down the piston to the bottom of the cylinder where the temperature is
almost 1,100 degrees F., lower and as the piston moves down it forces some of the
gas out through a valve in the cylinder floor near the spring bellow and the floating
piston acts and pushes against the upper hydraulic jack piston and the upper
hydraulic jack piston will push against the helium reservoir and will compress the
helium gas and pushes against the helium reservoir and will compress the hydraulic
fluid reservoir tat will force the hydraulic jack plumps lower hydraulic pistons that
will force and act upon a larger load than was or b acted upon it, and will push this
force against the crankcase that will turn and urn the load bearing work wheel and
the invention's oil pan is filled with oil and the work wheel will turn an electric
generator and the entire device is contained inside of a magnetic bottle that has a
coil of a magnetic field metal and the magnetic bottle is contained in a ceramic box
that is covered with lead plates an a battery is used to hold the electric current in
storage for use of the electric systems of the invention, to provide an electric source
for the invention; wherein; wherein the invention's "Portable Nuclear Powered
Engine and Electric Generator" shall also comprise of and consisting of a Tidal
regenerate engine that has a double walled capsule cylinder, contain a signal
computer that is an electromagnet (29) that is activated to attract another magnet
and the movement expands a bellows (22a) that forces a little water up a tube into a
water boiler where heat from a radioactive source and a thorium plated magnetron
maser protected by a window of quartz will vaporize water into steam and the
steam is heated further inside of a super heater tube and the steam then pushes
another bellows that, in turn, sends a pulse of hydraulic fluid through the hydraulic
jack piston pump and will compress the hydraulic piston that will force and act
upon a larger load than was originally acted upon it, and also force a lever and
together will push this force ageist the crankshaft that will turn and turn the load
bearing work wheel and the engine's oil pan is filled with oil and the work wheel
will turn an electric generator and the entire engine is contained in a ceramic box
that is covered with lead plates and barium plates and the ceramic box is located
within a cement molded building and shall contain barium radiation absorbers and
power extinguishers that shall discharge and absorb radiation when the
extinguishers sense radiation leakage, wherein electric and power is produced for
the invention; wherein; the invention's, comprises of a :cylinder housing operating
inside of a magnetic bottle that is contained in a ceramic box that is covered with
lead plates and barium plated and is located within a cement premolded building
that contains the barium radiation absorbers and powder extinguishers, wherein
the invention's "Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator"
cylindrically shaped housing having water and a source of electric power to be
amplified and converted into microwave energy and a source of generating
microwave energy having its magnetron cathode tubes plated with radioactive
nuclear materials as a source of amplifying the cathode rays that will be coveted
into microwave energy to provide an output and a computer that uses either cable
wire and or transmits data by radio waves and television KHZ-MHZ-GHZ waves
to a radio and television receiver that is connected to a computer that is connected
to a magnetic video/audio tape recorder for recording computer data inexpensively,
wherein 1 VHS magnetic tape can hold 1.5 gigabytes of computer data, wherein the
invention's "Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator",
cylindrically shaped housing and thorium plated magnetron that emits microwave
energy and a magnet receiving cosmic radio waves and converting the energy into
usable electric current by using a crystal radio set with an antenna sensitive at
collecting radio wave energy and using and storing it inside of a battery and the
cosmic radio waves shall also be received and recorded on magnetic tape and
stored for analysis of fluctuations and data pulses inside of the unit's audio-video
recorder and accessed by the computer key code
2) A Thermionic Electron Electric Generator and Artificial Ammonia Diffuser as
defined in claim 1 and in the specification, in which very low energy input creates a
higher energy output.
3) Microwave Hot Water Boiler Heating System as defined in claim 1 and in the
specification, in which low energy input creates a higher energy output.
4) A Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator as defined in claim 1
and in the specification, in which low level nuclear energy input creates a steady
means of power, for charging batteries and providing electric current.
5) A Hydraulic Leverage Engine as defined in claim 1 and the specification;
wherein 1 unit of input work is converted into 4 units of output work using a lever
and hydraulic jacks.
6) The Zinc-Carbon Pill and Transistorized Plastic Paper Computer as defined in
claim 1 and the specification, wherein microbes, viruses, bacteria and fungi are
electrocuted without much human cell destruction, and information data is stored.
7) The Artificial Muscle Robot as defined in claim 1 and the specification wherein,
the transistorized plastic paper computer is used a the CPU and the power source is
a portable nuclear powered engine and electric generator.
8) The Artificial Heart Assister Pump as defined in claim 1 and the specification
wherein a energy source is used to provide an output.
9) The Citizen's Band Free Public Radio wave Telephone as defined in claim 1 and
the specification, wherein the transistorized plastic paper computer is used for
radio propagation.
10) A Resurrection Machine and Consciousness Revival System as defined in claim
1 and the specification is incorporated with the Resurrection Burial Tomb, to
provide output.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Description
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*****
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-----------------------------------
This file was inspired by a newspaper article in the local Dallas Morning News. It was in
a column called "Texas Sketches" written by A.C. Greene. I called Mr. Green and Mr.
Langkop who both courteously sent the additional source material. Both also expressed
an interest in more Tesla information as well as Texas experimenters, we are sending
them material in return. There is also a second file with my thoughts on the Tesla power
box, that file is listed on KeelyNet as TESLAFE2.ASC.
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Not long ago, Texas Sketches told the story of Henry "Dad" Garrett and his son C.H.'s
water-fueled automobile, which was successfully demonstrated in 1935 at White Rock
Lake in Dallas.
Eugene Langkop of Dallas (a Packard lover, like so many of us) notes that the "wonder
car" of the future may be a resurrection of the electric car. It uses no gasoline, no oil -
just some grease fittings - has no radiator to fill or freeze, no carburetor problems, no
muffler to replace and gives off no pollutants.
Famous former electrics include Columbia, Rauch & Lang and Detroit Electric.
Dallas had electric delivery trucks in the 1920s and 30s. Many electric delivery vehicles
were used in big cities into the 1960s.
The problem with electrics was slow speed and short range.
Within the past decade two Richardson men, George Thiess and Jack Hooker, claimed
to have used batteries operating on magnesium from seawater to increase the range of
their electric automobile from 100 miles to 400 or 500 miles.
Supported by the Pierce-Arrow Co. and General Electric in 1931, he took the gasoline
engine from a new Pierce-Arrow and replaced it with an 80-horsepower alternating-
current electric motor with no external power source.
At a local radio shop he bought 12 vacuum tubes, some wires and assorted resistors, and
assembled them in a circuit box 24 inches long, 12 inches wide and 6 inches high, with a
pair of 3-inch rods sticking out. Getting into the car with the circuit box in the front seat
beside him, he pushed the rods in, announced, "We now have power," and proceeded to
test drive the car for a week, often at speeds of up to 90 mph.
As it was an alternating-current motor and there were no batteries involved, where did
the power come from?
Popular responses included charges of "black magic," and the sensitive genius didn't like
the skeptical comments of the press. He removed his mysterious box, returned to his
laboratory in New York - and the secret of his power source died with him.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Thomas A. Edison was the first to start to market systems (i.e. electric generators) of any
commercial value. His research and developmental skills were utilized to market a
"direct current" system of electricity. Ships were equipped with D.C. systems and
municipalities began lighting their streets with this revolutionary D.C. electric system.
(At that time) Edison was the sole source of electricity!
While in the process of commercializing electricity, Thomas Edison hired men who
knew of the new scientific gift to the world and were capable of new applications for
electricity. One such man was a foreigner named Nikola Tesla. This man, although not
known to many of us today, was without a doubt the greatest scientific mind that has
ever lived. His accomplishments dwarfed even Thomas Edison's! Whereas Mr. Edison
was a great experimenter, Mr. Tesla was a great theoretician. Nikola Tesla became
frustrated and very much annoyed at the procedures Edison followed.
Tesla would rather calculate the possibility of something working (i.e. mathematical
investigation) than the hit and miss technique of constant experimentation. So in the heat
of an argument, he quit one day and stormed out of Edison's laboratory in West Orange,
New Jersey.
Working on his own, Tesla conceived and built the first working alternating current
generator. He, and he alone, is responsible for all of the advantages we enjoy today
because of A.C. electric power.
Angered by Edison, Tesla sold his new patents to George Westinghouse for 15 million
dollars in the very early 1900's. Tesla became totally independent and proceeded to carry
on his investigative research in his laboratory on 5th Avenue in New York City.
George Westinghouse began to market this new system of electric generators and was in
competition with Edison. Westinghouse prevailed because of the greater superiority of
the A.C. generators over the less efficient D.C. power supplies of Thomas Edison.
Today, A.C. power is the only source of electricity the world uses. And, please
remember, Nikola Tesla is the man who developed it.
Now specifically dealing with automobiles in the infant days of their development,
electric propulsion was considered and used. An electric powered automobile possessed
many advantages that the noisy, cantankerous, smoke-belching gasoline cars could not
offer.
First and foremost is the absolute silence one experiences when riding in an electrically
powered vehicle. There is not even a hint of noise. One simply turns a key and steps on
the accelerator - the vehicle moves instantly! No cranking from the start, no crank to turn
(this was before electric starters), no pumping of the accelerator, no spark control to
advance and no throttle linkage to pre-set before starting. One simply turned the ignition
switch to on!
Second, is a sense of power. If one wants to increase speed, you simply depress the
accelerator further - there is never any hesitation. Releasing the accelerator causes the
vehicle to slow down immediately - you are always in complete control. It is not difficult
to understand why these vehicles were so very popular around the turn of the century
and until 1912 or so.
The big disadvantage to these cars was their range and need for re-charging every single
night. All of these electric vehicles used a series of batteries and a D.C. motor to move
itself about. The batteries require recharging every night and the range of travel was
restricted to about 100 miles. Understand that this restriction was not a serious one in the
early part of this century. Doctors began making house calls with electric cars (do you
remember doctors making house calls?) because he no longer needed to tend to the horse
at night time - just plug the car into an electric socket! No feeding, no rub-down and no
mess to clean up!
Many of the large department stores in metropolitan areas began purchasing delivery
trucks that were electrically powered. They were silent and emitted no pollutants. And,
maintenance was a minimum on electrically powered vehicles. There were few
mechanics and garages in operation in the early 1900's. So city life and travel appeared
to be willing to embrace the electric automobile. Remember, these masterfully built
vehicles all ran on D.C. current.
Two things happened to dampen the popularity of the electric automobile. One was the
subconscious craving for speed that gripped all auto enthusisasts of this era. Each
manufacturer was eager to show how far his car could travel (i.e. the transcontinental
races) and what was its top speed!
Col. Vanderbilt constructed the first all concrete race track in Long Island and racing
became the passion for the well-to-do. Newspapers constantly record new records of
speed achieved by so-in-so. And, of course, the automobile manufacturers were quick to
capitalize on the advertising effect of these new peaks of speed. Both of these events
made the electrically powered vehicles appear to only belong to the "little old lady"
down the street or the old retired gentleman who talked about the "good old days".
Electric vehicles could not reach speeds of 45 or 50 m.p.h. for this would have destroyed
the batteries in moments. Bursts of speeds of 25 to 35 m.p.h. could be maintained for a
moment or so. Normal driving speed-depending upon traffic conditions, was 15 to 20
m.p.h. by 1900 to 1910 standards, this was an acceptable speed limit to obtain from your
electric vehicle.
Please note that none of the manufacturers of electric cars ever installed a D.C.
generator. This would have put a small charge back into the batteries as the car moved
about and would have thereby increased its operating range. This was considered by
some to be approaching perpetual motion - and that, of course, was utterly impossible!
Actually, D.C. generators would have worked and helped the electric car cause.
As mentioned earlier, Mr. Westinghouse's A.C. current generating equipment was being
sold and installed about the country. The earlier D.C. equipment was being retired and
disregarded. As a side note, Consolidated Edison Power Company of New York City
still has one of Thomas Edison's D.C. generators installed in its 14th St. powerhouse - it
still works! About this time, another giant corporation was formed and entered the A.C.
generating equipment field - General Electric. This spelled the absolute end for Edison's
D.C. power supply systems as a commercial means of generating and distributing
electric power.
The electric automobile could not be adapted to accomodate and utilize a polyphase
motor (i.e. A.C. power). Since they used batteries as a source of power, their extinction
was sealed. No battery can put out an A.C. signal. True, a converter could be utilized
(i.e. convert the D.C. signal from the battery to an A.C. signal), but the size of the
equipment at this time was too large to fit in an automobile - even one with the generous
dimensions of this era.
So, somewhere around 1915 or so, the electric automobile became a memory. True,
United Parcel Service still utilizes several electric trucks in New York City today but the
bulk of their fleet of vehicles utilizes gasoline or diesel fuel. For all intensive purposes,
the electrically powered automobile is dead - they are considered dinosaurs of the past.
But, let us stop a moment and consider the advantages of utilizing electric power as a
means of propelling vehicles. Maintenance is absolutely minimal for the only oil
required is for the two bearings in the motor and the necessary grease fittings. There is
no oil to change, no radiator to clean and fill, no transmission to foul up, no fuel pump,
no water pump, no carburetion problems, no muffler to rot out or replace and no
pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. It appears as though it might be the answer we
have been searching for!
Therefore, the two problems facing us become top speed and range of driving -
providing, of course, the A.C. and D.C. problems could be worked out. With today's
technology this does not seem to be insurmountable. In fact, the entire problem has
already been solved - in the past, the distant past and the not so distant! Stop! Re-read
the last sentence again. Ponder it for a few moments before going on.
Several times earlier in this article, I mentioned the man, Nikola Tesla and stated that he
was the greatest mind that ever lived. The U.S. Patent Office has 1,200 patents
registered in the name of Nikola Tesla and it is estimated that he could have patented an
additional 1,000 or so from memory!
But, back to our electric automobiles - in 1931, under the financing of Pierce-Arrow and
George Westinghouse, a 1931 Pierce-Arrow was selected to be tested at the factory
grounds in Buffalo, N.Y. The standard internal combustion engine was removed and an
80-H.P. 1800 r.p.m electric motor installed to the clutch and transmission. The A.C.
motor measured 40 inches long and 30 inches in diameter and the power leads were left
standing in the air - no external power source!
At the appointed time, Nikola Tesla arrived from New York City and inspected the
Pierce-Arrow automobile. He then went to a local radio store and purchased a handful of
tubes (12), wires and assorted resistors. A box measuring 24 inches long, 12 inches wide
and 6 inches high was assembled housing the circuit. The box was placed on the front
seat and had its wires connected to the air-cooled, brushless motor. Two rods 1/4" in
diameter stuck out of the box about 3" in length.
Mr. Tesla got into the driver's seat, pushed the two rods in and stated, "We now have
power". He put the car into gear and it moved forward! This vehicle, powered by an
A.C. motor, was driven to speeds of 90 m.p.h. and performed better than any internal
combustion engine of its day! One week was spent testing the vehicle. Several
newspapers in Buffalo reported this test. When asked where the power came from, Tesla
replied, "From the ethers all around us". Several people suggested that Tesla was mad
and somehow in league with sinister forces of the universe. He became incensed,
removed his mysterious box from the vehicle and returned to his laboratory in New York
City. His secret died with him!
It is speculated that Nikola Tesla was able to somehow harness the earth's magnetic field
that encompasses our planet. And, he somehow was able to draw tremendous amounts
of power by cutting these lines of force or causing them to be multiplied together. The
exact nature of his device remains a mystery but it did actually function by powering the
80 h.p. A.C. motor in the Pierce-Arrow at speeds up to 90 m.p.h. and no recharging was
ever necessary!
In 1969, Joseph R. Zubris took his 1961 Mercury and pulled out the Detroit internal
combustion engine. He then installed an electric motor as a source of power. His unique
wiring system cuts the energy drain at starting to 75% of normal and doubles the
electrical efficiency of the electric motor when it is operating! The U.S. Patent Office
issued him a patent No. 3,809,978. Although he approached many concerns for
marketing, no one really seemed to be interested. And, his unique system is still not on
the market.
In the 1970's, an inventor used an Ev-Gray generator, which intensified battery current,
the voltage being induced to the field coils by a simple programmer (sequencer). By
allowing the motor to charge separate batteries as the device ran, phenomenally tiny
currents were needed. The device was tested at the Crosby Research Institute of Beverly
Hills, Ca., a 10-horepower EMA motor ran for over a week (9 days) on four standard
automobile batteries.
The inventors estimated that a 50-horsepower electric motor could traverse 300 miles at
50 m.p.h. before needing a re-charge. Dr. Keith E. Kenyon, the inventor of Van Nuys,
California discovered a discrepancy in the normal and long accepted laws relating to
electric motor magnets. Dr. Kenyon demonstrated his invention for many scientists and
engineers in 1976 but their reaction was astounding. Although admitting Dr. Kenyon's
device worked, they saw little or no practical application for it!
So the ultimate source for our electrically powered automobile would be to have an
electric motor that required no outside source of power. Sounds impossible because it
violates all scientific thought! But it has been invented and H.R. Johnson has been
issued a patent No. 4,151,431 on April 24, 1979 on such a device!
This new design although originally suggested by Nikola Tesla in 1905, is a permanent
magnet motor. Mr. Johnson has arranged a series of permanent magnets on the rotor and
a corresponding series - with different spacing - on the stator. One simply has to move
the stator into position and rotation of the rotor begins immediately.
"The invention is directed to the method of utilizing the unpaired electron spins in ferro
magnetic and other materials as a source of magnetic fields for producing power without
any electron flow as occurs in normal conductors and to permanent magnet motors for
utilization of this method to produce a power source.
In the practice of this invention, the unpaired electron spins occurring within permanent
magnets are utilized to produce a motive power source solely through the super-
conducting characteristics of a permanent magnet and the magnetic flux created by the
magnets are controlled and concentrated to orient the magnetic forces generated in such
a manner to do useful continuous work such as the displacement of a rotor with respect
to a stator.
The timing and orientation of magnetic forces at the rotor and stator components
produced by permanent magnets to produce a motor is accomplished with the proper
geometrical relationship of these components".
Now before you dismiss the idea of a magnetically run motor - a free energy source,
consider the following :
Engineers of Hitachi Magnetics Corp. of California have stated that a motor run solely
by magnets is feasible and logical but the politics of the matter make it impossible for
them to pursue developing a magnet motor or any device that would compete with the
energy cartels.
In a book entitled, "Keely and His Discoveries" by Clara B. Moore published in 1893,
we find the following statemtents,
"The magnet that lifts a pound today if the load is gradually increased day by day will
lift double that amount in time. Whence comes this energy? Keely teaches that it comes
from sympathetic association with one of the currents of the polar stream and that its
energy increases as long as the sympathetic flow lasts, which is through eternity".
1) Two permanent magnets can either attract or repel depending on the arrangement of
the magnetic poles.
2) Two magnets repel further than they attract because of friction and inertia forces.
3) Most of our energy comes directly or indirectly from electromagnetic energy of the
sun, e.g. photosynthesis and watercycle of ocean to water vapor to rain or snow to
ocean.
4) Magnetic energy "travels" between poles at the speed of light.
5) Permanent magnets on both sides of an iron shield are attracted to the shield and only
weakly to each other at close proximity to the shield.
6) Permanent magnets are ferrous metals and are attractive only. Attraction is an inverse
square force.
7) Magnetic energy can be shielded.
8) The sliding or perpendicular force of a keeper is much less than the force in the
direction of the field to remove the keeper.
9) Most of the magnetic energy is concentrated at the poles of the magnet.
10) A permanent magnet loses little strength unless dropped or heated. Heating
misaligns the magnetic elements within the magnet.
11) If a weight lifted by a permanet magnet is slowly increased, the lifting power of the
magnet can be increased until all the magnetic domains in the magnet are aligned in the
same direction. This becomes the limit.
12) Using magnets to repel tends to weaken them as it causes more misalignment of the
domains.
13) A magnetic material placed between two magnets will always be attracted to the
stronger magnet.
So, our ultimate motor becomes a permanent magnet motor of proper size with speed
being controlled through the automobiles transmission. And, here is the biggest plus,
permanent magnets keep their strength for a minimum of 95 years! So here we have a
fuel-less automobile that would last us our lifetime.
Now the only question left to be answered is, "Where do you buy one?" or perhaps,
"When will we be able to buy one?" At present there are several companies offering
interim solutions. Some offer electric powered designs - but this is strictly batteries,
while others offer a hybrid combination of batteries and small gasoline engines. All of
these so-called "modern alternatives" suffer from the same lack of accessories we've
become accustomed to.
They do not, or cannot offer power steering, brakes or windows or air- conditioning, etc.
Since they are small aerodynamically shaped packages holding only two people, their
appeal is distinctly limited.
In Richardson, Texas last year, two men - George Thiess and Jack Hooker have
advanced the storage battery to a new level. Their new batteries will operate on
magnesium made from seawater.
The magnesium is used to charge the battery while in an electrolene solution and the
range of their auto is increased by replacing the magnesium rods every 400 to 500 miles.
Their studies are being officially watched by the Department of Energy. Perhaps an all
new era of electrically powered automobiles may be on its way to reality.
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This subject is intensely interesting to many researchers so if you have any suggestions
or comments, we here at KeelyNet would greatly appreciate your sharing with us.
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TESLAFE2.HTM - commentary
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(1) The expansion of the universe is a result of the " heat ' contained therein;
(2) The source of the " heat " is the cosmic microwave radiation backround at 3 kelvin,
wherein;
(3) The microwave electro magnetic-nuclear energy was formed as a result of the
interaction of two different static gravitational vacuum fields, causing gravitational
instability and the motion, void of matter, at this time,
Therefore; only (2) static gravitational vacuum fields alone, being void of E=MC^2
Science knows the formation of matter in our universe was caused by the forces of the
universe.
Theory by
Subj: The Steady State Theory verses The Big Bang Theory / Cosmological
alternatives
by R.Rufus Young
galaxy@nbnet.nb.ca
Last revised Dec 30,1996
An Alternative To
Introduction
Basic Operation of Galaxies
Mass and Energy
Shape of Galaxies
Red Shift
Microwave Background Radiation
Entropy
Hydrogen-Helium Ratio
Quasars
Summary Introduction
The purpose of this Web Page is to show that the Steady State Galaxy Theory can
provide an alternative to the Big Bang Theory in explaining the universe around us. It
covers the operation of Galaxies and shows that they recycle both Matter and Energy
and are able to carry on indefinitely. It also explains the Shape of Galaxies, Red
Shift, Microwave Background Radiation, Entropy and the Hydrogen-Helium Ratio.
If the reader takes an open-minded approach and looks at all aspects of the material
presented here before reaching any conclusions, it will, at least, provide them with
some food for thought.
At the center of each galaxy is a neutroid which acts to constantly recycle all the
matter and energy in the galaxy. This neutroid is similar to a neutron star but is very
much larger and has reached a size where the pressure and temperature at its surface
are great enough to generate a nuclear fusion process. In the areas of the neutroid's
magnetic poles, the products of fusion are trapped by the magnetic field and are
pushed out along the magnetic field by the pressure of the nuclear fusion process
going on below. This results in a column of material composed of hydrogen, helium
and other light elements being ejected at each of the neutroid's two magnetic poles.
This material moves out from the neutroid at essentially constant velocity until it
reaches a point where the magnetic field is no longer strong enough to control it.
Once free of the magnetic field the material then continues under it's own momentum
to travel to the outer edge of the galaxy before starting to fall back toward the
neutroid.
This process enables the neutroid to eject matter from itself and results in jets of
hydrogen and helium ions being produced at each of the neutroid's two magnetic
poles. The larger the neutroid becomes, the greater the size and velocity of its jets.
This becomes a stable and self-limiting process where the amount of material
attracted to the neutroid will be equal to the amount of material expelled at its
magnetic poles. Eventually if too much material is added to the system, the velocity
of the material being ejected from the magnetic poles will be sufficient for it to
escape from the system altogether, thus limiting the total mass the system can
accumulate. This process forms the basis of operation of all galaxies. The size and
shape of galaxies are determined by the size of the neutroid at their center and its rate
and plane of rotation. In the case of our own galaxy (The Milky Way) these jets have
sufficient momentum to carry the material out to 100,000 light years distance from
the center.
As the jets of gas stream out from the Neutroid, large clouds of it condense and form
the stars which are predominately located in the spiral arms of the Galaxies. These
stars eventually burn up their Hydrogen fuel and in the process create the other
heavier elements we find in the universe, all the while continuing to travel to the
outer edge of the galaxy. It has probably been at least 10 Billion years since the
material of which our solar system is composed was initially ejected from the
neutroid. It is now located about 2/3rds the distance to the edge of the galaxy, but
since it is constantly decelerating it will take it another 20 billion years to reach its
maximun distance from the neutroid. The total transit time from when material is
ejected from the neutroid at the center of the Milky Way to when it returns to the
neutroid will be about 60 Billion years.
Although the material ejected by the neutroid appears to travel in a spiral arc, in
actual fact it is travelling in a straight radial line out from the neutroid and will
eventually travel back along the same radial path to the neutroid. To help visualize
this process, imagine setting up two super cannons, each on opposite sides of the
earth at the equator and each pointing straight up and each capable of firing a
projectile with sufficient velocity that it will take 12 hours to reach the top of its
projectory. Now, fire a projectile from each cannon every hour for 12 hours and plot
the position of each projectile at the end of the 12 hours. The result, as shown in
figure 1, will be two spiral arms much like the Galactic arms are shaped.
IF we continue the experiment for another 3 hours and draw a new plot, figure 2, we
find that the first projectiles that were fired have now passed the peak of their altitude
and have started to fall back to earth and the whole spiral pattern appears to have
rotated counterclockwise 45 degrees. However, the only changes in the positions of
projectiles No.1 have been to move slightly closer to the earth along a radial line and
they will continue falling back to earth along the same radial path and will impact the
earth 24 hours after being fired. They do not themselves travel in a spiral path around
the earth although the loci of their instantaneous positions forms a spiral which
appears to be rotating.
Figure 3 represents a typical small galaxy which is composed of 3 parts, (a) a Central
Core (Area 1), (b) 2 Jets of material being ejected from the core (Areas 1 to 2), and
(c) Spiral Arms (Areas 2 to 3). The Central Core consists of a neutroid at the center
and an obscuring mass of material trapped in the Neutroid's magnetic field. The areas
from 1 to 2 are gigantic jets of gas which are being ejected by the Neutroid and are
contained within its magnetic field. Star formation occurs in these areas. At point 2
the magnetic field of the Neutroid weakens to the extent that it no longer constrains
the material within it and as the material continues to move outward it will now trace
a spiral arc as per the previous illustrations in Figs. 1 & 2. At point 3 the hydrogen
fuel has been consumed and although the remains of the burned out stars are still
there they become invisible dark matter as they continue to travel to the top of their
projectory and then fall back to the Neutroid.
Thus, the galaxies form huge recycling systems which will carry on indefinitely.
Hydrogen, helium and other light elements are ejected ejected from the Neutroid.
Clouds of this material condense to forms stars which emit energy and in the process
form heavier elements.
These stars eventually exhaust their fuel and die. In the process many of these stars
will explode as supernovas. The heavier elements which we find in our solar system
are the remnants from these dead stars.
All this material will travel to the outer edge of the galaxy and will then start falling
back in toward the neutroid.
Upon hitting the neutroid, the force of the impact will be great enough that the atoms
of heavier elements will be split apart and the temperature and pressure will be great
enough that this incoming matter will be converted to neutrons.
In the areas of the neutroid's magnetic poles, a nuclear fusion reaction will take place
that forces a streams of material to be expelled thus completing the cycle.
(return to index)
Einstein showed that mass and energy are related by the formula E=MC^2. What this
famous formula says is that what we call the mass of a particle is really nothing more
than a measure of the sum total of all forms of energy associated with that particle.
The various forms of energy include potential energy, kinetic energy, chemical
energy, nuclear binding energy, etc. Of these various forms of energy, potential
energy is the most important and accounts for the largest part of the mass of particles
which constitute our immediate enviroment.
When a particle is in a deep gravational well, such as in the case of particles that
make up the neutroid at the center of galaxies, they have very little potential
energy,and hence, very little rest mass. As they are pushed out from the neutroid their
potential energy and hence their rest mass is increased dramatically. When these
particles eventually fall back into the neutroid, this potential energy is converted to
kinetic energy and results in the particles making up the neutroid having very little
rest mass but a tremendous amount of kinetic energy.
This combination of low rest mass and high kinetic energy prevent the neutroid from
collapsing into a black hole as has been speculated by many scientists. This
combination also makes it relatively easy for a nuclear fussion process to push
material out from the neutroid in the area of the neutroid's magnetic poles.
(return to index)
Shape of Galaxies
The Concept of the Steady State Galaxy as put forth above can account for the shape
of all galaxies we see in the universe. As explained above, the spiral is the basic
shape of galaxies. The exact shape will be determined by the size of the neutroid, the
tilt of its magnetic axis with respect to its axis of rotation and its rate of rotation .
Our Milky-Way is typical of large mature galaxies in which it takes many billions of
years for the magnetic poles to make one revolution. As well, the hydrogen ejected at
the magnetic poles has sufficient velocity to reach a distance of 100,000 light-years
from the Neutroid and it takes it tens of billions of years to reach that distance. If the
rate of rotation of the magnetic poles of the Neutroid were much greater in relation to
the velocity of the hydrogen jets, the spiral arms would overlap and become
nondistinct thus forming an ELIPICAL Galaxy. If the magnetic axis were slightly
less than 90 degrees with respect to the axis of rotation, a thicker galaxy would result.
BAR Galaxies are small galaxies in which the hydrogen fueling the Stars is all
consumed before the Stars can escape the magnetic field of the Neutroid's magnetic
poles.
Many galaxies such as M104(NGC4594) exhibit a very prominent dust lane about
their edge. This is a feature that is difficult to explain using presently accepted
theories but is to be expected in some types of galaxies under the steady state galaxy
theory.
(return to index)
Red Shift
The Big Bang Theory was originally proposed in order to explain the 'RED Shift' of
light received by us from distant galaxies. Light received from distant stars can be
broken down and analyzed as to its spectral content. It has been found that stars of a
similar size and age produce identical spectral patterns which are related to their
atomic composition. However, it was also found that the wavelength of the light from
distant galaxies was increased in proportion to their distance from us. Scientists have
interpreted the cause of this effect to be due to a doppler shift, meaning that it is
caused by the distant galaxies moving away from us,-i.e. the expanding universe.
This doppler shift is the same as one gets standing near a railway track when a train
passes blowing its whistle, as the train passes by, the sound of its whistle appears to
drop in frequency.
In reality the universe we live in is not expanding and is in a steady state where its
matter and energy are being constantly recycled. The so called Red Shift is caused by
other factors. We know from a branch of Physics known as Quantum Mechanics that
the Energy of a photon of light is defined by the equation E=hv where E is the energy
of the photon, h is plancks' constant and v is its frequency. If for any reason energy is
lost from a photon, its frequency will decrease in accordance with this equation.
The mechanism for the lose of energy by photons over time is still unclear. It could
be by interaction of the photon with the stray atoms of hydrogen which are dispersed
throughout intergalactic space. It is well known that photons do exert 'radiation
pressure' on particles they encounter and if pressure is exerted, then energy must be
transferred. Another possibility is that there is indeed an aether which absorbs some
energy over time and reradiates it as a black body radiator having a temperature of
2.8 degrees K. One thing that is clear is that the radiation density of the starlight
photons which leave own galaxy is equal to the radiation density of the Microwave
Background radiation which is received by our galaxy. This fact is probably more
than a coincidence and is an indication that the starlight radiation is being converted
by some unknown process to the Microwave Background radiation. It is every bit as
reasonable to assume that the Red Shift is caused by loss of energy of the photon
over time as it is to assume that it is caused by a doppler effect.
Because of the downshifting in the frequency of light for whatever reason, there is a
limit to how far it is possible to image distant galaxies. The actual universe will be
far larger than we can imagine or detect and will probably be infinite in size.
(return to index)
A second argument which has been made to support the Big Bang Theory is the
microwave background radiation. COBE has shown that the spectrum of the
Microwave Background Radiation (MBR) is that of an ideal Black Body Radiator
having a temperature of about 2.8 degrees K. It has also shown that this radiation has
a Redshift/Blueshift to it, indicating that the earth is moving about 300Km/s relative
to the shell of matter that emitted the radiation. Since this speed is too great for the
earth's movement within the milky-way galaxy, it indicates that the source is outside
our galaxy and that our galaxy is moving in relation to that source.
As indicated in the previous section dealing with redshift, the starlight photons
radiated by galaxies gradually lose energy through some unknown process which
then reradiates this energy as the Microwave Background Radiation. The wavelength
of the photons of the MBR, at the peak of the spectrum radiation curve, will be about
1mm. Since the rate of loss of energy by photons will be inversely proportional to the
wavelength of those photons, and since the MBR photons have a wavelength of more
than a thousand times that of visible light, the percentage loss of energy by the MBR
photons will be at a rate of over one thousand times less than that of a visible photon.
(If it takes a visible photon 15 billion years to lose 3/4's of it's energy, then it would
take a MBR photon 15,000 billion years to lose 3/4's of it's energy). It follows that
since MBR photons have a range of travel of more than one thousand times that of
visible light photons, they are also a thousand times more likely to encounter a
galaxy and be absorbed by the matter of that galaxy then a visible light photon
would.
Thus, energy is radiated by galaxies in the form of starlight photons. Energy from
these photons is gradually converted to MBR photons. These MBR photons are
eventually absorbed by some other galaxy.
Since the intensity of the microwave background radiation will be relatively constant
throughout the universe (assuming an infinite steady state universe), the amount of
energy a galaxy will absorb from it will be proportional to the size of that galaxy. The
amount of energy a galaxy radiates is also proportional to it's size, thus an
equilibrium will be reached where a galaxy will receive as much energy in the form
of MBR photons as it itself radiates in the form of starlight photons.
(return to index)
Entropy
A third argument that has been put forward in support of the Big Bang Theory is
entropy, in that, it is argued that the universe must eventually run down into a state of
thermal equilibrium. Energy exists in various forms such as atomic binding energies,
thermal energy, potential and kinetic energy, etc., all of which are associated with
matter, or it exists in photons which have been radiated by matter and will eventually
be reabsorbed by matter. Under the Steady State Galaxy Theory as put forth above,
since all matter in a Galaxy is recycled through the Neutroid on a regular basis, all
energy contained by that matter is also recycled at the same time and, thus, the
universe does not run down into a state of thermal equilibrium.
There is a perception that energy only flows from hot bodies to cooler ones. This is
not true for radiant energy. The MBR photons which exhibit the characteristics of a
2.8 degree black body radiator do get absorbed by the much hotter material which
makes up the galaxies. The critical factor which determines the direction of net flow
of radiant energy is not the relative temperatures of the bodies but the energy
densities they produce. In the case of our universe, the MBR radiation has an energy
density equal to the starlight radiation energy density emitted by the galaxies. Thus,
there is an equilibrium condition where galaxies receive as much energy in the form
of MBR Radiation as they radiate in the form of Starlight Radiation and there will be
no net flow of energy from the galaxies to the material in intergalactic space.
(return to index)
Hydrogen-Helium
A fourth arguement which has been used to support the Big Bang theory is that it
would account for the abundance of helium we find in the universe. The amount of
helium present (24%) cannot be accounted for by star production and according to
Gamow it was generated by the Big Bang.
Under the Steady State Galaxy theory, the nuclear fusion process which is expelling
the material from the neutroid would generate large amounts of helium as well as
other light elements and is the source of the excess helium found in the universe.
(return to index)
Quasars
The latest Hubble pictures of quasars show that they are associated with galaxies and
in most cases there is evidence that these galaxies have recently collided with other
galaxies.
(return to index)
Summary
The Steady State Galaxy Theory as put forth above can provide the basis for the
operation of the Universe as it is seen to exist. It can not only account for the shape
of all galaxies we see in the universe which is something no other theory as proposed
so far can accomplish but it can also explain the existence of quasars.
As more data is gathered by the Hubble Space Telescope and other sources, it is
becoming increasingly clear that the Big Bang theory cannot account for the universe
around us. I believe the the Steady State Galaxy Theory as presented here can
provide the basis of an alternative to the Big Bang Theory.
For a historical perspective of the Big Bang Theory see Keith Stein's Essay "The Big
Bang Myth"
"Dark Matter" and "Hubble's Constant in Terms of the Compton Effect" by John
Kierein
galaxy@nbnet.nb.ca
Last revised Dec 30,1996. reprinted
Copyright R.Rufus Young 1996 all rights reserved.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
VORTEX
In plain terms; while the orthogonal vector of static pressure from the surrounding
volume acts on the column along the "surface" area of the whole column, it
accelerates the spin of the column with total force equal to the static pressure drop
per unit of area at the particular depth and at all these units. There are many more
units (lets say mm^2) of the surface of the water column then in the cross section of
the discharge hole.
In the most simple terms, the area across the static pressure acting on a vortex
accelerating its liquid (or fluid) into spin is substantially greater than the cross
sectional area of the discharge hole. The acceleration on the falling column comes
from vertical acceleration of the column. In other words; the "horizontal" rotational
component of gravitational acceleration of the liquid surrounding the vortex speeds
up the circular component of water flow around the vortex. The vertical gravitational
acceleration (drop) of water within the column is caused by vertical attraction on that
column only. The vertical component of static pressure within the vortex is not
lessened by all that much, as can be seen from the depth and size of the depression of
the vortex at the surface.
As the column progresses in its vertical motion down, the energy of vortex circular
speed is also progressively translated into the energy of vertical speed of the column.
If the circular component of the vortex speed at the bottom of a discharge were used
for energy production along with the falling column kinetic energy, these two
components combined would supply greater total energy output than needed for
lifting of the same liquid volume (per unit of time) to the original height.
Vortex phenomenon is the proof that field “static potential” can be utilized for energy
extraction. Vortex phenomenon also proves that the so-called "static potential"
energy of fields is caused by dynamic energy flows. This does not violate any laws of
physics, it is a law of physics.
VORTICES
The circumferential speed of liquid molecules within a vortex increases as the
molecules approach the central axis of the vortex. Therefore, it is clear that the
farther a molecule is from this axis, the lesser is its orbital speed.
Any object within such vortex, including the liquid molecules, spin themselves
counter to the spin of the vortex, as their outer orbital speed is slower than their inner
speed relative to the axis of the vortex. (Planetary gear or a bearing ball in a bearing
represents such a counter spin)
Unless other forces are present, any small vortice within a major vortex counter
spins.
Some claim that such a phenomenon has never been observed in nature. Crap. It is
readily observable phenomenon on rivers. Any larger vortex in a cove of a river bend
has these counter spinning satellite vortices present. They are usually transient, but
are readily observable in nature.
This principle has a severe impact on the coalescing theory of planetary systems as
well as galactic systems. It is obvious that planets should spin counter to planetary
system. Since not all of them do, actually the majority does not, it is obvious that the
spin of planets and stars has its casualty in the behavior of magnetic and electric
fields, rather than being a remainder of gas cloud vortice motion within the solar
system general vortex.
Any and every energy flow through a restriction under an orthogonal pressure of a
field tends to develop a vortex structure. It does not matter whether that flow is
liquid, gaseous or what we consider to be a field. The acceleration gain in a vortex is
a utilizable phenomenon. It is one of the phenomena, which counteracts thermal
entropy in the universe. It concentrates the rate of flow through a restriction utilizing
a dispersed energy of a general field.
Any and every so-called massive particle contains a few geometries of vortexes
(Nucleon). The main, dense flows can be considered to be magnetic field compounds
of the dispersed electric field components. Electric field components qualify for a
sort of aether, but not a chaotic aether of the past and not exactly liquid like in a
sense of water in the sea. It’s liquid is comparable to water flow in rivers.
INDEXFIELD FORCES
The primary (snake propagation) has been described in my original Tour the Force
The secondary attractive force acts between two reciprocating counter flows of
positive and negative components of primary as well as secondary gravitational field.
The two flows, passing each other, vortex on their common side. Their mutual
propagation along the long axis is caused by the primary principle, but the friction
between these two flows creates vortexes between them slowing their common side
fringe down as opposed to their far sides fringe.
If you care for a graphic description, look up some photos of Jupiter atmosphere. Its
atmosphere moves in strips of counter flowing gas streams and these photos will do
better than anything I can draw.
It is this slowing down of the near side fringe, which attracts parallel paths together.
Once we have fringes on two or more sides of a single thread of a path, created by
the proximity of other paths, we get a general field strength gradient toward the
mother body wherever a mother body is present in space, a star, a planet, a wire.
Why wire? Look through a fly screen at some really colorful background. Autumn
leaves on maple trees will do rather well. You will find out what I am talking about
when you realize that the blurry effect you can see is caused by the “curvature of
space” around the wires. That curvature is discriminate and it may resonate, although
you would not see it. Such a resonance is behind the effect of Young double slit
experiment. Yes, light is a sort of wave, but the explanation of Young double slit
experiment is not a proof of it. It was a partly lucky and partly unlucky mistake.
Why the strings rubbing against each other by their fringes do not stop like any other
frictional system? The energy of the path has nowhere to dissipate, so it does not
dissipate anywhere. That energy can and is used once a gravitational field accelerates
a solid body relative to the wavy pattern of the universe. It is used, or better said
converted, while accelerating a fluid vortex spin and free fall. It gets transformed into
higher orders of energy, be it thermal or kinetic, of what we call particulate, but other
than that, it has nowhere to go. Its soliton turbulences are stable in that sense, that
they pass energy one to another. The universal gravitational field is the ultimate
storehouse of energy, from which all higher forms of energy arise and to which all
higher forms of energy return.
We have learned how to convert thermal energy to mechanical energy and to electric
dipole energy and back to some degree. Now we should learn how to convert
gravitational energy to thermal, mechanical or electric dipole energy.
FIELDS 6
MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE
The first one is the size of the iron shaving particulate. The finer is the size of the
particulate, the finer is the line of force structure.
The second one is the intensity of the magnetic field. As pointed out in TTF, when
we steadily increase the amp value in a DC conductor, the lined of force around the
conductor contract and new lines are being added from the iron dust at the margin
around the conductor. On the other hand, when we steadily decrease the Amp value
in a DC conductor, the lines of force spread and the margin around the conductor
collects the iron dust.
When are in the process of placing a steel object between two magnets, which are in
attractive orientation and lets say 3” apart, the original lines of force between the two
magnets distort so that they concentrate on the steel object. When we line up magnets
in attractive orientation with spaces in between or steel objects between two magnets
in attractive orientation, the lines of force join all the poles of the magnets or all the
steel pieces between the magnets.
The above (and much more) points out that iron, as well as magnets are able to attract
and concentrate and lead magnetic field along any steel or iron or any ferromagnetic
structure or permanent magnet structure. The lines of force are created by iron
particulate of any size, but the size of the particulate decides how far apart the lines
can be before the space between the lines begins to fill with magnetic field again.
When we stick two parallel rows of steel posts into the ground in even an
approximate NS orientation, we create at least a partial gap in the magnetic field of
earth within the isle between the rows of steel posts. The post distance in the row
should be less than the distance of posts across the isle.
The same working arrangement can be created with help of electromagnets, again
arranged into a double row, with all their poles oriented in one general geographic
orientation and complying with geomagnetic field polarity orientation, because the
electromagnets will again tie geomagnetic lines of force (actually create them) and
concentrate the geomagnetic field into lines of force.
RELEVANCY
The relevancy of this comes out when we dig into the stone levitation story form
Middle East which states:
“First, a 'magic papyrus' (paper) was placed under the stone to be moved. Then the
stone was struck with a metal rod that caused the stone to levitate and move along a
path paved with stones and fenced on either side by metal poles. The stone would
travel along the path, wrote Al-Masudi, for a distance of about 50 meters and then
settle to the ground. The process would then be repeated until the builders had the
stone where they wanted it."
The same relevancy comes up when we dig into stories about Edward Leedskalnin
and the artifacts left by him on his death at Coral Castle. Ed was the only man in the
West who had been able to handle monoliths without the use of heavy machinery in
modern times.
It appears that steel or magnet or electromagnet induced geomagnetic field gap is not
exactly necessary in order to achieve stone levitation, because other modern time
report from Tibet does not include any steel or electric apparatus, never the less, there
are possibly other ways in which magnetic field gaps can be created. Sound, on the
other hand, is always reported as a factor.
Note, just about all the references needed can be found on KeelyNet. (See Links)
FIELDS 7
The “free” space of the universe is interwoven with uncountable paths of electric
communication among the celestial bodies of the primary field. Polarity of each path
of the primary field is steady and looped on the quark, nucleon, atom, molecule,
planetary, galactic and eventually universal scale. Each quark and antiquark along a
single path is strung on this path like a bead on a string. The permanent induction of
such a path may join countless quarks of alternate electric polarity in countless
bodies and the path is an integral part of those quarks. This two-way communication
of flows with the quark knots on them can be compared to beads strung on a double
thread string. I will assign red color to the positive “charge” quark and blue color to
the negative “charge” quark. Figure one shows only one quark of a pair for
simplicity.
Fig 1
The paths polarity directions between more than two bodies are not unidirectional
even for a single circle path. The curvature of the path is not caused by inertia. It is
caused by the directionality of the quark orientation at the point of exit and entry. See
TTF2/FIELDS 5 for the cause of mutual adherence of the two directions of a single
path of electric force exchange. The whole loop can be perceived as separate strings
as well as a single string.
I have to create a term for the intersection related to the wave function of a path. The
term is null axis point.
Fig 2
The paths of electric communication intersect in free space either actively at null axis
points or passively at any other points on the paths. Figure three shows idealized
planar arrangement. The sinusoids themselves will be distorted as paths standing
waves compound at some places to some degree.
Fig 3
Once we understand that the path is a flow of something and that the wave of this
flow is static or standing, like the riverbed of Mississippi river, we do not have to
count in any frequencies of the paths when crossing each other as yet. The important
condition is that any orthogonal paths intersect at their null axis points tying
orthogonal paths together into network. Every two-path null point intersection
generates turbulence between their four flows, somewhat similar to the cloverleaf
intersection on a freeway. Stability of this turbulence is conditioned by the spatial
frequency of the wave components of the paths. If the intersecting paths have
harmonic relationship, which fits into the curved length of the turbulence (cloverleaf
loop), the turbulence will be stable. If the two intersecting paths have disharmonic
spatial frequencies, the turbulence will oscillate at best, and alternately fall apart and
reestablish at the worst.
There are stable and unstable turbulences around the null axis point intersections of
the field network holding the network together, some in a transient manner and some
in a stable manner. The same is valid for the structure of nucleon, but it is not valid
for the structure of emitted electron thermal phase.
When the primary gravitational field network gets disturbed at any point, it behaves
as a three dimensional net. It does not mean that its structure follows three axes in
Euclidian cubic axis arrangement. It only means that the space is filled through out
with this network. The geometry of the network structure itself is multidirectional and
constantly shifting. The directions of the paths within the network are just about as
numerous as the paths themselves.
When we consider the field of a single charged spherical body, its geometry seems
purely radial, i.e. scalar. When we consider geometry of the field of two reciprocating
(opposite polarity) bodies, it changes quite drastically. The cause of the scalar field of
a single charged body lies in the induction taking place between the body and air
molecules and water vapor molecules and earth molecules and whatever molecules,
or better said their component quarks all around the so called charged body. In
practice, there is no scalar field. Scalar field is a theoretical idealization of crooked
natural geometry. Perfect scalar field would require a perfect charged sphere within
another perfect sphere (including perfect material), within which the charged sphere
would be placed in dead center. The outer sphere would have to be perfectly isolated
from the rest of the universe, otherwise it would induce its induced polarity toward
the outside becoming a charged body to the outside and the ideal theoretical scalar
field would become the practical crooked field. In reality, the inner charged body
actually becomes electrically neutral. (Courtesy Joe Hiding)
Anyway, the network can be obviously shaped and disturbed and induced and
manipulated as long as we know what we are dealing with and what we are doing
with it. The notion that light is an electromagnetic phenomenon equivalent to radio
waves and microwaves is incorrect. The experimentation of Nicola Tesla in Colorado
has clearly shown that repeated manipulation of the geometry of the general field
causes a general wave disturbance through out the network of gravitational field. This
disturbance is a real longitudinal wave generated within the gravitational network. On
the other hand, light is progressive unification of electric paths flows into a local
magnetic flow.
The speed of light and the speed of gravitation and the speed of radio wave are
interdependent because the wavelengths are interdependent. When you look back to
the volleyball net analogy, you can realize that the transverse wave of single net
string and the longitudinal wave of the whole net depend on each other in some ratio,
whatever that ratio may be. It is a bit confusing to recognize what is a longitudinal
wave within the whole network and what is a transverse wave in it. A disturbance,
which propagates in one direction as a longitudinal wave, causes transverse wave in
orthogonal directions and vice versa. Our concept of the transverse and longitudinal
is derived from our string and spring experimenting, which limits our perception to
the behavior of the string or the spring. We tear phenomena out of their context and
study them out of their context. Then we grossly err applying the newly derived
(experimentally as well as mentally confirmed within artificially imposed limits)
concepts to the general behavior of the limitless universe.
FIELDS 5
INDEX
FORCES This site is dedicated to ideas. Some are mine, some belong to others.
Any and all of the information on this site is as is. If you dissagree with anything
here, be aware that I also disagree with a lot of things.
BY S.D.K.
Is a series of closely interrelated documents outlining the problems with the currently
established interpretations of behavior of the most fundamental physical phenomena
like heat, light, el. current etc. It does not argue with the established mathematical
processes (so called mathematical theories), as most are reasonably valid
generalizations of functions of particular natural forces. It argues with the concepts of
why things behave the way they do and with their causality and geometrical as well
as functional relationships, not with how much they behave.
Tour the Force contains a somewhat outdated line of deduction of what force
phenomena really are all about and what are their mutual relations. The particulate
causality of gravitational force and other force fields as such had to give way to
simpler concept of wave relationship of energy flows along waves. Yet, this original
Tour the Force has its relevancy in paving the road to understanding of Tour the
Force 2
GISMOS
Contains updates to the original Tour the Force. This part is in development and I am
uploading new documents as I manage to solve the different parts of the over all
puzzle and put its documents into a reasonable form. My original Tour the Force is a
prerequisite to understanding of Tour the Force 2.
EXPERIMENTS
Contains assorted bits and pieces of little known knowledge about anomalous
experiments done by "less" learned folks. Some may have my explanations and all of
them stress the need of humanity as such to resist the dogma of the established
authority on truth.
IDEAS
Contains assorted ideas and experiences. Some of the ideas have the potential to
eventually move to experiments once conclusively performed.
LINKS
VICTOR S. GREBENNIKOV
PATENTS
My second patent experience concerns a very simple and very effective air (gas)
dryer so far applied only on compressed air systems. I have applied for a patent
registration and filed an application (Canadian) according to Canada Patent Office
instructions myself. The application has been accepted and had cost C$150.00 plus
registered mail. I have not quite revealed the whole patent here, but you can find its
general description and experience with its performance here.
INDEX
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
In the recently developed theory by Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam, that unifies
the electromagnetic and weak forces, the vacuum is not empty. This peculiar
situation comes about because of the existence of a new type of field, called the
Higgs field. The Higgs field has an important physical consequence since its
interaction with the W, W and Z particles (the carriers of the weak force) causes them
to gain mass at energies below 100 billion electron volts (100 Gev). Above this
energy they are quite massless just like the photon and it is this characteristic that
makes the weak and electromagnetic forces so similar at high energy.
On a somewhat more abstract level, consider Figures 1 and 2 representing the
average energy of the vacuum state. If the universe were based on the vacuum state
in Figure 1, it is predicted that the symmetry between the electromagnetic and weak
interactions would be quite obvious. The particles mediating the forces would all be
massless and behave in the same way. The corresponding forces would be
indistinguishable. This would be the situation if the universe had an average
temperature of 1 trillion degrees so that the existing particles collided at energies of
100 Gev. In Figure 2, representing the vacuum state energy for collision energies
below 100 Gev, the vacuum state now contains the Higgs field and the symmetry
between the forces is suddenly lost or 'broken'. Although at low energy the way in
which the forces behave is asymmetric, the fundamental laws governing the
electromagnetic and weak interactions remain inherently symmetric. This is a very
remarkable and profound prediction since it implies that certain symmetries in Nature
can be hidden from us but are there nonetheless.
During the last 10 years physicists have developed even more powerful theories that
attempt to unify not only the electromagnetic and weak forces but the strong nuclear
force as well. These are called the Grand Unification Theories (GUTs) and the
simplist one known was developed by Howard Georgi, Helen Quinn,and Steven
Weinberg and is called SU(5), (pronounced 'ess you five'). This theory predicts that
the nuclear and 'electroweak' forces will eventually have the same strength but only
when particles collide at energies above 1 thousand trillion GeV corresponding to the
unimaginable temperature of 10 thousand trillion trillion degrees! SU(5) requires
exactly 24 particles to mediate forces of which the 8 massless gluons of the nuclear
force, the 3 massless intermediate vector bosons of the weak force and the single
massless photon of the electromagnetic force are 12. The remaining 12 represent a
totally new class of particles called Leptoquark bosons that have the remarkable
property that they can transform quarks into electrons. SU(5) therefore predicts the
existence of a 'hyperweak' interaction; a new fifth force in the universe! Currently,
this force is 10 thousand trillion trillion times weaker than the weak force but is
nevertheless 100 million times stronger than gravity. What would this new force do?
Since protons are constructed from 3 quarks and since quarks can now decay into
electrons, through the Hyperweak interaction, SU(5) predicts that protons are no
longer the stable particles we have always imagined them to be. Crude calculations
suggest that they may have half-lives between 10(29) to 10(33) years. An immediate
consequence of this is that even if the universe were destined to expand for all
eternity, after 'only' 10(32) years or so, all of the matter present would
catastrophically decay into electrons, neutrinos and photons. The Era of Matter, with
its living organisms, stars and galaxies, would be swept away forever, having
represented but a fleeting episode in the history of the universe. In addition to proton
decay, SU(5) predicts that at the energy characteristic of the GUT transition, we will
see the affects of a new family of particles called supermassive Higgs bosons whose
masses are expected to be approximately 1 thousand trillion GeV! These particles
interact with the 12 Leptoquarks and make them massive just as the Higgs bosons at
100 GeV made the W, W and Z particles heavy. Armed with this knowledge, let's
explore some of the remarkable cosmological consequences of these exciting
theories.
To see how these theories relate to the history of the universe, imagine if you can a
time when the average temperature of the universe was not the frigid 3 K that it is
today but an incredable 10 thousand trillion trillion degrees (10(15) GeV). The
'Standard Model' of the Big Bang, tells us this happened about 10(-37) seconds after
Creation. The protons and neutrons that we are familiar with today hadn't yet formed
since their constituent quarks interacted much too weakly to permit them to bind
together into 'packages' like neutrons and protons. The remaining constituents of
matter, electrons, muons and tau leptons, were also massless and traveled about at
essentially light-speed; They were literally a new form of radiation, much like light is
today! The 12 supermassive Leptoquarks as well as the supermassivs Higgs bosons
existed side-by-side with their anti-particles. Every particle-anti particle pair that was
annihilated was balanced by the resurrection of a new pair somewhere else in the
universe. During this period, the particles that mediated the strong, weak and
electromagnetic forces were completely massless so that these forces were no longer
distinguishable. An inhabitant of that age would not have had to theorize about the
existence of a symmetry between the strong, weak and electromagnetic interactions,
this symmetry would have been directly observable and furthermore, fewer types of
particles would exist for the inhabitants to keep track of. The universe would actually
have beed much simpler then!
Exactly what happened to the universe as it underwent the transitions at 10(15) and
100 GeV when the forces of Nature suddenly became distinguishable is still under
investigation, but certain tantalizing descriptions have recently been offered by
various groups of theoriticians working on this problem. According to studies by
Alan Guth, Steven Weinberg and Frank Wilczyk between 1979 and 1981, when the
GUT transition occured, it occured in a way not unlike the formation of vapor
bubbles in a pot of boiling water. In this analogy, the interior of the bubbles represent
the vacuum state in the new phase, where the forces are distinguishable, embedded in
the old symmetric phase where the nuclear, weak and electromagnetic forces are
indistinguishable. Inside these bubbles, the vacuum energy is of the type illustrated
by Figure 2 while outside it is represented by Figure 1. Since we are living within the
new phase with its four distinguishable forces, this has been called the 'true' vacuum
state. In the false vacuum state, the forces remain indistinguishable which is certainly
not the situation that we find ourselves in today!
Cosmic Inflation
An exciting prediction of Guth's model is that the universe may have gone through at
least one period in its history when the expansion was far more rapid than predicted
by the 'standard' Big Bang model. The reason for this is that the vacuum itself also
contributes to the energy content of the universe just as matter and radiation do
however, the contribution is in the opposite sense. Although gravity is an attractive
force, the vacuum of space produces a force that is repulsive. As Figures 1 and 2
show, the minimum energy state of the false vacuum at 'A' before the GUT transition
is at a higher energy than in the true vacuum state in 'B' after the transition. This
energy difference is what contributes to the vacuum energy. During the GUT
transition period, the positive pressure due to the vacuum energy would have been
enormously greater than the restraining pressure produced by the gravitational
influence of matter and radiation. The universe would have inflated at a tremendous
rate, the inflation driven by the pressure of the vacuum! In this picture of the
universe, Einstein's cosmological constant takes on a whole new meaning since it
now represents a definite physical concept ; It is simply a measure of the energy
difference between the true and false vacuum states ('B' and 'A' in Figures 1 and 2.) at
a particular time in the history of the universe. It also tells us that, just as in de Sitter's
model, a universe where the vacuum contributes in this way must expand
exponentially in time and not linearly as predicted by the Big Bang model. Guth's
scenario for the expansion of the universe is generally called the 'inflationary
universe' due to the rapidity of the expansion and represents a phase that will end
only after the true vacuum has supplanted the false vacuum of the old, symmetric
phase.
A major problem with Guth's original model was that the inflationary phase would
have lasted for a very long time because the false vacuum state is such a stable one.
The universe becomes trapped in the cul-de-sac of the false vacuum state and the
exponential expansion never ceases. This would be somewhat analogous to water
refusing to freeze even though its temperature has dropped well below 0 Centigrade.
Recent modifications to the original 'inflationary universe' model have resulted in
what is now called the 'new' inflationary universe model. In this model, the universe
does manage to escape from the false vacuum state and evolves in a short time to the
familiar true vacuum state.
We don't really know how exactly long the inflationary phase may have lasted but the
time required for the universe to double its size may have been only 10(-34) seconds.
Conceivably, this inflationary period could have continued for as 'long' as 10(-24)
seconds during which time the universe would have undergone 10 billion doublings
of its size! This is a number that is truely beyond comprehension. As a comparison,
only 120 doublings are required to inflate a hydrogen atom to the size of the entire
visible universe! According to the inflationary model, the bubbles of the true vacuum
phase expanded at the speed of light. Many of these had to collide when the universe
was very young in order that the visible universe appear so uniform today. A single
bubble would not have grown large enough to encompass our entire visible universe
at this time; A radius of some 15-20 billion light years. On the other hand, the new
inflationary model states that even the bubbles expanded in size exponentially just as
their separations did. The bubbles themselves grew to enormous sizes much greater
than the size of our observable universe. According to Albrecht and Steinhardt of the
University of Pennsylvania, each bubble may now be 10(3000) cm in size. We
should not be too concerned about these bubbles expanding at many times the speed
of light since their boundaries do not represent a physical entity. There are no
electrons or quarks riding some expandind shock wave. Instead, it is the non-material
vacuum of space that is expanding. The expansion velocity of the bubbles is not
limited by any physical speed limit like the velocity of light.
GUMs in GUTs
A potential problem for cosmologies that have phase transitions during the GUT Era
is that a curious zoo of objects could be spawned if frequent bubble mergers occured
as required by Guth's inflationary model. First of all, each bubble of the true vacuum
phase contains its own Higgs field having a unique orientation in space. It seems
likely that no two bubbles will have their Higgs fields oriented in quite the same way
so that when bubbles merge, knots will form. According to Gerhard t'Hooft and
Alexander Polyakov, these knots in the Higgs field are the magnetic monopoles
originally proposed 40 years ago by Paul Dirac and there ought to be about as many
of these as there were bubble mergers during the transition period. Upper limits to
their abundance can be set by requiring that they do not contribute to 'closing' the
universe which means that for particles of their predicted mass (about 10(16) GeV),
they must be 1 trillion trillion times less abundant than the photons in the 3 K cosmic
background. Calculations based on the old inflationary model suggest that the these
GUMs (Grand Unification Monopoles) may easily have been as much as 100 trillion
times more abundant than the upper limit! Such a universe would definitly be 'closed'
and moreover would have run through its entire history between expansion and
recollapse within a few thousand years. The new inflationary universe model solves
this 'GUM' overproduction problem since we are living within only one of these
bubbles, now almost infinitly larger than our visible universe. Since bubble collisions
are no longer required to homogenize the matter and radiation in the universe, very
few, if any, monopoles would exist within our visible universe.
Horizons
A prolonged period of inflation would have had an important influence on the cosmic
fireball radiation. One long-standing problem in modern cosmology has been that all
directions in the sky have the same temperature to an astonishing 1 part in 10,000.
When we consider that regions separated by only a few degrees in the sky have only
recently been in communication with one another, it is hard to understand how
regions farther apart than this could be so similar in temperature. The radiation from
one of these regions, traveling at the velocity of light, has not yet made it across the
intervening distance to the other, even though the radiation may have started on its
way since the universe first came into existence. This 'communication gap' would
prevent these regions from ironing-out their temperature differences.
With the standard, Big Bang model, as we look back to earlier epochs from the
present time, the separations between particles decrease more slowly than their
horizons are shrinking. Neighboring regions of space at the present time, become
disconnected so temperature differences are free to develope. Eventually, as we look
back to very ancient times, the horizons are so small that every particle existing then
literally fills the entire volume of its own, observable universe. Imagine a universe
where you occupy all of the available space! Prior to the development of the
inflationary models, cosmologists were forced to imagine an incredably well-ordered
initial state where each of these disconnected domains (some 10(86) in number) had
nearly identical properties such as temperature. Any departure from this situation at
that time would have grown to sizable temperature differences in widely separated
parts of the sky at the present time. Unfortunately, some agency would have to set-up
these finely-tuned initial conditions by violating causality. The contradiction is that
no force may operate by transmitting its influence faster than the speed of light. In
the inflationary models, this contradiction is eliminated because the separation
between widely scattered points in space becomes almost infinitly small compared to
the size of the horizons as we look back to the epoc of inflation. Since these points
are now within each others light horizons, any temperature difference would have
been eliminated immediatly since hotter regions would now be in radiative contact
with colder ones. With this exponentially-growing, de Sitter phase in the universe's
early history we now have a means for resolving the horizon problem.
Because of the exponential growth of the universe during the GUT Era, its size may
well be essentially infinite for all 'practical' purposes . Estimates by Albrecht and
Steinhardt suggest that each bubble region may have grown to a size of 10(3000) cm
by the end of the inflationary period. Consequently, the new inflationary model
predicts that the content of the universe must be almost exactly the 'critical mass'
since the sizes of each of these bubble regions are almost infinite in extent. The
universe is, for all conceivable observations, exactly Euclidean (infinite and flat in
geometry) and destined to expand for all eternity to come. Since we have only
detected at most 10 percent of the critical mass in the form of luminous matter, this
suggests that 10 times as much matter exists in our universe than is currently
detectable. Of course, if the universe is essentially infinite this raises the ghastly
spectre of the eventual annihilation of all organic and inorganic matter some 10(32)
years from now because of proton decay.
In spite of its many apparent successes, even the new inflationary universe model is
not without its problems. Although it does seem to provide explainations for several
cosmological enigmas, it does not provide a convincing way to create galaxies. Those
fluctuations in the density of matter that do survive the inflationary period are so
dense that they eventually collapse into galaxy-sized blackholes! Neither the precise
way in which the transition to ordinary Hubbel expansion occurs nor the duration of
the inflationary period are well determined.
Finally, what of the period before Grand Unification? We may surmise that at higher
temperatures than the GUT Era, even the supermassive Higgs and Leptoquark bosons
become massless and at long last we arrive at a time when the gravitational
interaction is united with the weak, electromagnetic and strong forces. Yet, our quest
for an understanding of the origins of the universe remains incomplete since gravity
has yet to be brought into unity with the remaining forces on a theoretical basis. This
last step promises to be not only the most difficult one to take on the long road to
unification but also appears to hold the greatest promise for shedding light on some
of the most profound mysteries of the physical world. Even now, a handful of
theorists around the world are hard at work on a theory called Supergravity which
unites the force carriers (photons, gluons, gravitons and the weak interaction bosons)
with the particles that they act on (quarks, electrons etc). Supergravity theory also
predicts the existence of new particles called photinos and gravitinos. There is even
some speculation that the photinos may fill the entire universe and account for the
unseen 'missing' matter that is necessary to give the universe the critical mass
required to make it exactly Euclidean. The gravitinos, on the other hand, prevent
calculations involving the exchange of gravitons from giving infinite answers for
problems where the answers are known to be perfectly finite. Hitherto, these
calculations did not include the affects of the gravitinos.
Perhaps during the next decade, more of the details of the last stage of Unification
will be hammered out at which time the entire story of the birth of our universe can
be told. This is, indeed, an exciting time to be living through in human history. Will
future generations forever envy us our good fortune, to have witnessed in our
lifetimes the unfolding of the first comprehensive theory of Existence?
MANDELBROT SET
As mentioned earlier, no matter what the value of the complex parameter c is, in the
iteration of the complex quadratic map there is a unique trapping set Tc and a
corresponding escape set Ec. The Julia set (Jc) is the boundary between the set Tc
and the set Ec. The Mandelbrot set is an answer to the following kind of enquiry. Of
the infinite number of possible Julia sets that exists, is there any organizing principle
that classifies these Julia sets.
The key results for this classification of Julia sets were already there in the works of
Julia and Fatou who knew about the topological dichotomy in the Julia set. The result
states that for any choice of the complex parameter c the associated Julia set Jc and
the trapping set Tc are either topologically connected (severely deformed circles) or
totally disconnected (generalized Cantor dust like).
This was indeed the key result that clued Mandelbrot, in 1979, to visualize a set in
the complex parameter space c which is called the Mandelbrot set. The Mandelbrot
set consists of all values of c that have connected Julia sets. Picking value of c that is
outside the Mandelbrot set, and iterating the equation to obtain the Jc for this
particular choice of c gives a disconnected Julia set.
Note important , as it is, the classification of Julia set in terms of disconnected sets,
this still doesn't allow one to visualize the shape of the set of points, in the parameter
space, for which the Julia set is connected. The genius is in the realization of the
interrelation between the above mentioned dichotomy and in the long term behavior
of the critical point.
The figure shown below is the Mandelbrot set (in black). It extends from the cusp of
the cardoid at Re c = 0.25 to the tip of the tail at Re c = -2 along the real axis and
from Im c = -1.25 to Im c = 1.25 along the imaginary axis.
The basic algorithm to generate the Mandelbrot set is as follows. For each pixel c,
start with Z = 0. Iterate the above equation up to N times, exiting if |Z| gets large. If
you finish the loop, the point is probably inside the Mandelbrot set. If you exit, the
point is outside and can be colored according to how many iterations were
completed. You can exit if |Z| > 2, since if Z gets this big it will go to infinity. The
maximum number of iterations, N, can be selected as desired, for instance 200.
Larger values of N will give sharper detail but take longer.
A note about why we start from Z0 = 0. Zero is the critical point of Mandelbrot
equation given by 2. That is, a point where d/dz (Z2 + c) = 0. Critical points are
important because by a result of Fatou: every attracting cycle (Tc) for a polynomial
or rational function attracts at least one critical point. Thus, testing the critical point
shows if there is any stable attractive cycle. For the case of equation with multiple
critical points, all the critical points must be tested.
DETAILS
For the sake of clarity the largest cardoid (heart) shaped central region of the
Mandelbrot set will be referred to as the main body of the Mandelbrot set (M1 -- the
region labeled 1 in the figure(3) below). All other pieces that are attached to the main
body will be referred to as the buds. The largest bud that is attached to the main body
(along the real axis) will be called the M2 bud (bud labeled 2 in figure(3) below). The
main body of the Mandelbrot set intersects the real axis at Âc = 0.25 and Âc = -0.75.
Extending the stability analysis criteria discussed for the case logistic equation, it is
easy to see that the fixed point of the complex quadratic iterator is stable along the
real axis for precisely the interval mentioned above.
The determination of the boundary of the main body of the Mandelbrot set relies on
the realization that any value of the complex parameter picked from within the main
body of the Mandelbrot set the corresponding Julia set is a boundary between the
Escape set and the trapping set of the stable fixed point of the quadratic map. The
boundary of the main body defines the locus of points (in the parameter space) for
which the fixed point is indifferent, that is, the modulus of the derivative of the map
about the fixed point is exactly equal to 1. Using this fact one can determine the
explicit expression for the outline of the M-set's main body.
If z is the fixed point of complex quadratic map, it follows that z satisfies the
equation z2 - z + c = 0. The derivative of the map about the fixed point z is given by
2z which in polar coordinates can be expressed as 2z = reif. Combining these two
equations, and solving for c, we obtain
c=1
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
r eif - 1
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4
r2 e2if
(1)
Note, for the value of r < 1 the above equation determines the points inside the main
body of the Mandelbrot set and r = 1 gives the bondary of M1. The above equation is
the parametrization of the curve in the complex plane for 0 £ f < 2p. Thus, is
explicitly seen as an equation of cardoid when expressed as
Âc = cos(f)/2 - cos(2f)/4
Ác = sin(f)/2 - sin(2f)/4
(2)
It turns out, that at the parameter values, f = 2p/k, where k = 2, 3, 4, 5 ¼, one of the
main buds of the Mandelbrot set is attached to M1 set. Moreover, the period of the
attractive cycles that belong to these buds is given by the number k in 2p/k. Also,
there is another amazing fact about the arrangement of the buds. Two given buds of
periods p and q at the cardoid detemine the period of the largest bud in between them
as p+q. (This is illustrated for the case of p = 2 and q = 3 in figure(3) below). Similar
rules are true for buds on buds.
Figure 3: The buds of the Mandelbrot set corresponding to Julia sets that bound the
basins of attraction (trapping sets) of periodic orbits. The numbers in the figure
indicate the periods of these orbits.
Figure 4: The plot of equation (2) which defines the boundary of the main body (M1)
of the Mandelbrot set and the numbers indicate the periodicity of the buds that attach
to the main body of the Mandelbrot set and the point where they attach to the main
body of the Mandelbrot set.
The above two remarkable property corresponding to the periodicity of the bud was
the reason for indexing the buds attached to the main body of the M-set as Mn. Thus,
from the above argument the period 2 bud is attached at an angle p (setting k = 2 in f
= 2p/k), similarly period 3 is the attached at f = 120 and so on. Figure(4) above
shows the buds of the Mandelbrot set corresponding to Julia sets that bound basins of
attraction of periodic orbits. The numbers in the figure indicate the periods of these
orbits.
MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF CHOLESTEROL BIOSYNTHESIS
REGULATION IN THE CELL
e-mail:ratushny@bionet.nsc.ru
*Corresponding author,
Resume
Motivation:
Results:
Introduction
Acetyl-CoA is the source of all the carbon atoms composing the cholesterol
molecule. The main stages of cholesterol biosynthesis are described in the GeneNet
database.
Cholesterol regulates its own synthesis and the synthesis of LDL receptors at the
level of transcription through a negative feedback mechanism [Wang et al., 1994]. A
decrease in the cell cholesterol content stimulates SRP (sterol regulated protease)-
catalyzed proteolysis of the N-terminal fragment of SREBP (sterol regulatory
element- binding protein), bound to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane. On
leaving the ER membrane, SREBP migrates to the cell nucleus to bind the so-called
sterol regulatory element (SRE), residing in the promoter of the receptor gene,
thereby switching on the receptor synthesis. In addition, SREBP activates the gene of
synthase of hydroxymethyl glutaryl (HMG)-CoA reductase [Klimov & Nikul’cheva,
1999] as well as farnesyl diphosphate synthase and squalene synthase syntheses.
Several studies have demonstrated rather fast effect of cholesterol on the reductase
activity, unexplainable by the mere effect on the rate of enzyme synthesis. HMG-
CoA reductase may be either active or inactive. Phosphorylation- dephosphorylation
reactions provide for the transitions from one state into the other [Marry R. et al.,
1993].
The main factors affecting the cholesterol balance at the cell level [Marry R. et al.,
1993] are shown in Fig. 1.
Figure 1. Factors affecting the cholesterol balance at the cell level: C, cholesterol;
CE, cholesterol esters; ACAT, acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase; LCAT,
lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase; A1, apoprotein A1; LDL, low density
lipoproteins; VLDL, very low density lipoproteins, HDL, high density lipoproteins; (-
), inhibition of cholesterol synthesis; and (+) ACAT activation [Marry R. et al.,
1993].
Cell cholesterol content increases if (1) specific LDL receptors bind cholesterol-
containing lipoproteins; (2) cholesterol-containing lipoproteins are bound without
receptors; (3) free cholesterol, contained in cholesterol-rich lipoproteins is bound by
cell membranes; (4) cholesterol is synthesized; and (5) cholesterol ester hydrolase-
catalyzed hydrolysis of cholesterol esters takes place.
Cell cholesterol content decreases if (1) cholesterol passes from membranes into
cholesterol-poor lipoproteins, in particular LDL3 or LDL synthesized de novo
(lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase promotes this transition); (2) ACAT-catalyzed
cholesterol esterification takes place; and (3) cholesterol is used for synthesizing
other steroids, in particular, hormones or bile acids in the liver [Marry R. et al.,
1993].
A generalized chemical kinetic approach [Bazhan et al., 1995] was used for the
simulation. A blockwise formalization was used, that is, each process is separated in
an individual block and described independently of the other processes. A block is a
simulation quantum, and its formal structure is completely described with the
following three vector components: (1) X, the list of dynamic variables; (2) P, the list
of constants; and (3) F, type of the right part of the system dX/dt = F(X, P)
determining the rule these dynamic variables change with time. Four types of blocks
are used to describe the processes in the model, namely:
Results
Mathematical model
Enzyme
Substrate
Organism
Organ
Kc, sec- 1 Km, mM
HMG-CoA reductase HMG-CoA Rattus norvegicus [Gil et al., 1981] Liver 980
(-)
HMG-CoA reductase HMG-CoA Rattus norvegicus [Kleinsek & Porter, 1979] Liver
(-)
0.0169
(-)
0.1? 0.7
<0.005
HMG-CoA synthase Acetyl-CoA Homo sapiens [Rokosz et al., 1994] Adrenal (-)
0.029
(-)
0.01
0.025
0.056
Geranyltransferase Geranyl PP
Isopentyl PP
Homo sapiens [Barnard & Popjak 1981] Liver 40.7
40.7
4.4e-4
9.4e-4
ACAT-1 Oleoyl-CoA
Cholesterol
Homo sapiens (Cricetulus griseus)[Chang et al., 1998] Ovary (-)
7.4?-3
Bile acid hydrolase Taurocholate Lactobacillus sp. (bacteria) [Lundeen & Savage,
1990] 1900
0.76
Other published data were used for evaluating parameters of the model, in particular
[Klimov & Nikul’cheva, 1999]:
Fasting LDL concentration in adult human blood serum CLDL = 200- 300 mg/dl.
The average number of unesterified and esterified cholesterol molecules per one LDL
particle QUEC = 475 and QEC = 1310.
LDL half-life in blood of healthy humans t 1/2 = 2.5 days; therefore, kLDLutil. =
ln(2)/t 1/2 =3.21*10-6 sec-1.
Total number of LDL receptors per one cell at 37° C QLDLR = 15,000- 70,000.
The values of the rest parameters of the model were determined through numerical
experiments.
Results of calculations
The results obtained while simulating the cell response to a twofold increase in LDL
particle content in blood serum (Fig. 2, b) illustrate the model performance. The
number of receptors bound to LDL increases (d); unbound, decreases (e).
Intracellular concentrations of free cholesterol (a) and its esters (c) increase. Free
cholesterol binds the protease (SRP), preventing SREBP-1 formation (f). Productions
of enzymes involved in the internal cellular cholesterol synthesis (HMG-CoA
reductase; g), LDL receptors, and intermediate low-molecular-weight components
(mevalonic acid, h; squalene, i) are stopped. Cholesterol concentration in the cell is
decreasing. No further influence on the system provided, it returns to the initial state.
A complete recovering requires about 15 h.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Galina Chirikova for translation of the manuscript into
English and to N.A. Kolchanov for fruitful discussions. The work was supported by
National Russian Program "Human Genome" (No 106), Integrational Science Project
of SB RAS "Modelling of basic genetical processes and systems".
References
G.F. Barnard and G. Popjak, "Human liver prenyltransferase and its characterization"
Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 661, No. 1, 87 (1981).UI: 82046705
G. Balliano, F. Viola, M. Ceruti, L. Cattel, "Characterization and partial purification
of squalene-2,3-oxide cyclase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae" Arch. Biochem.
Biophys., 293, No. 1, 122 (1992).UI: 92117685
C.C.Y. Chang, C.-Y.G. Lee, E.T. Chang, C.J. C.ruz, M.C. Levesque, T.-Y. Chang
"Recombinant acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase-1 (ACAT-1) purified to essential
homogeneity utilizes cholesterol in mixed micelles or in vesicles in a highly
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This term acts like a vacuum energy density, an idea which has become quite
fashionable in high energy particle physics models since a vacuum energy density of
a specific kind is used in the Higgs mechanism for spontaneous symmetry breaking.
Indeed, the inflationary scenario for the first picosecond after the Big Bang proposes
that a fairly large vacuum energy density existed during the inflationary epoch. The
vacuum energy density must be associated with a negative pressure because:
The vacuum energy density must be constant because there is nothing for it to depend
on.
If a piston capping a cylinder of vacuum is pulled out, producing more vacuum, the
vacuum within the cylinder then has more energy which must have been supplied by
a force pulling on the piston.
If the vacuum is trying to pull the piston back into the cylinder, it must have a
negative pressure, since a positive pressure would tend to push the piston out.
The magnitude of the negative pressure needed for energy conservation is easily
found to be P = -u = -rho*c2 where P is the pressure, u is the vacuum energy density,
and rho is the equivalent mass density using E = m*c2.
But in General Relativity, pressure has weight, which means that the gravitational
acceleration at the edge of a uniform density sphere is not given by
g = GM/R2 = (4*pi/3)*G*rho*R
Now Einstein wanted a static model, which means that g = 0, but he also wanted to
have some matter, so rho > 0, and thus he needed P < 0. In fact, by setting
rho(vacuum) = 0.5*rho(matter)
In addition to this flaw of instability, the static model's premise of a static Universe
was shown by Hubble to be incorrect. This led Einstein to refer to the cosmological
constant as his greatest blunder, and to drop it from his equations. But it still exists as
a possibility -- a coefficient that should be determined from observations or
fundamental theory.
For the highest reasonable elementary particle mass, the Planck mass of 20
micrograms, this density is more than 1091 gm/cc. So there must be a suppression
mechanism at work now that reduces the vacuum energy density by at least 120
orders of magnitude.
A Bayesian Argument
We don't know what this mechanism is, but it seems reasonable that suppression by
122 orders of magnitude, which would make the effect of the vacuum energy density
on the Universe negligible, is just as probable as suppression by 120 orders of
magnitude. And 124, 126, 128 etc. orders of magnitude should all be just as probable
as well, and all give a negligible effect on the Universe. On the other hand
suppressions by 118, 116, 114, etc. orders of magnitude are ruled out by the data.
Unless there are data to rule out suppression factors of 122, 124, etc. orders of
magnitude then the most probable value of the vacuum energy density is zero.
Observational Limits
Solar System
One way to look for a vacuum energy density is to study the orbits of particles
moving in the gravitational field of known masses. Since we are looking for a
constant density, its effect will be greater in a large volume system. The Solar System
is the largest system where we really know what the masses are, and we can check
for the presence of a vacuum energy density by a careful test of Kepler's Third Law:
that the period squared is proportional to the distance from the Sun cubed. The
centripetal acceleration of a particle moving around a circle of radius R with period P
is
a = R*(2*pi/P)2
which is Kepler's Third Law. But if the vacuum density is not zero, then one gets a
fractional change in period of
dP/P = (4*pi/3)*R3*rho(vacuum)/M(sun) = rho(vacuum)/rho(bar)
where the average density inside radius R is rho(bar) = M/((4*pi/3)*R3). This can
only be checked for planets where we have an independent measurement of the
distance from the Sun. The Voyager spacecraft allowed very precise distances to
Uranus and Neptune to be determined, and Anderson et al. (1995, ApJ, 448, 885)
found that dP/P = (1+/-1) parts per million at Neptune's distance from the Sun. This
gives us a Solar System limit of
rho(vacuum) = (5+/-5)*10-18 < 2*10-17 gm/cc
The cosmological constant will also cause a precession of the perihelion of a planet.
Cardona and Tejeiro (1998, ApJ, 493, 52) claimed that this effect could set limits on
the vacuum density only ten or so times higher than the critical density, but their
calculation appears to be off by a factor of 3 trillion. The correct advance of the
perihelion is 3*rho(vacuum)/rho(bar) cycles per orbit. Because the ranging data to the
Viking landers on Mars is so precise, a very good limit on the vacuum density is
obtained:
The recent supernova results suggest that the vacuum energy density is close to this
limit: rho(vacuum) = 0.75*rho(critical) = 6*10-30 gm/cc. The ratio of rho(vacuum) to
rho(critical) is called lambda. This expresses the vacuum energy density on the same
scale used by the density parameter Omega. Thus the supernova data suggest that
lambda = 0.75. If we use OmegaM to denote the ratio of ordinary matter density to
critical density, then the Universe is open if OmegaM + lambda is less than one,
closed if it is greater than one, and flat if it is exactly one. If lambda is greater than
zero, then the Universe will expand forever unless the matter density OmegaM is
much larger than current observations suggest. For lambda greater than zero, even a
closed Universe can expand forever.
The figure above shows the regions in the (OmegaM, lambda) plane that are
suggested by the current data. The green region in the upper left is ruled out because
there would not be a Big Bang in this region, leaving the CMB spectrum
unexplained. The red and green ellipses with yellow overlap region show the LBL
team's allowed parameters (red) and the Hi-Z SN Team's allowed parameters (green).
The blue wedge shows the parameter space region that gives the observed Doppler
peak position in the angular power spectrum of the CMB. The purple region is
consistent with the CMB Doppler peak position and the supernova data. The big pink
ellipse shows the possible systematic errors in the supernova data.
The figure above shows the scale factor as a function of time for several different
models. The colors of the curves are keyed to the colors of the circular dots in the
(OmegaM, lambda) plane Figure. The purple curve is for the favored OmegaM =
0.25, lambda = 0.75 model. The blue curve is the Steady State model, which has
lambda = 1 but no Big Bang.
Because the time to reach a given redshift is larger in the OmegaM = 0.25, lambda =
0.75 model than in the OmegaM = 1 model, the angular size distance and luminosity
distance are larger in the lambda model, as shown in the space-time diagram below:
The OmegaM = 1 model is on the left, the OmegaM = 0.25, lambda = 0.75 model is
on the right. The green line across each space-time diagram shows the time when the
redshift was z = 1, which corresponds to approximately to the most distant of the
supernovae observed to date. Using a ruler you can see that the angular size distance
to z = 1 is 1.36 times larger in the right hand diagram, which makes the observed
supernovae 1.84 times fainter (0.66 magnitudes fainter).
Conclusion
In the past, we have had only upper limits on the vacuum density and philosophical
arguments based on the Dicke coincidence problem and Bayesian statistics that
suggested that the most likely value of the vacuum density was zero. Now we have
the supernova data that suggests that the vacuum energy density is greater than zero.
This result is very important if true. We need to confirm it using other techniques,
such as the MAP satellite which will observe the anisotropy of the cosmic microwave
background with angular resolution and sensitivity that are sufficient to measure the
vacuum energy density.
The Gum Nebula : giant plasma blob headed to Earth by the year 5500 AD ?
The gum nebula may have melted the last ice age about 12,000-15,000 years ago,
causes earth quakes, volcanos and the ozone lay hole, 12,000-15,000 years ago it was
1 million times, brighter than the moon, is only 300-1000 light years away and now
covers 40-60% of the Earth's southern sky.
Gum Nebula exploded star may have melted last ice age @12,000 to 15,000 years
ago
It currently covers 40-60% of the Earth's southern sky
if the gum nebula's plasma and engery travels about 1.5 million miles per hour the
matter will be on Earth by 5500 AD
Blame it on the Gum Nebula: the Giant Blob headed to Earth by 5500 AD ?
Giant Blob headed to Earth by 5500 AD ? Blame it on the Gum Nebula star
explosion @15,000 years ago, it may have melted last ice age, caused ozon hole,
volcanos and earth quakes, (Supernova Remnant in Puppis & Vela)Covering 40-60%
of the Southern Sky
Only 1 message in topic - view as tree
" noWrap width="1%" bgColor=#b71c0c>Br Dan Izzo
May 28, 7:16 pm show options
From: "Br Dan Izzo" - Find messages by this author
Date: Sat, 28 May 2005 16:16:03 -0700
Local: Sat,May 28 2005 7:16 pm
Subject: Giant Blob headed to Earth by 5500 AD ? Blame it on the Gum Nebula star
explosion @15,000 years ago, it may have melted last ice age, caused ozon hole,
volcanos and earth quakes, (Supernova Remnant in Puppis & Vela)Covering 40-60%
of the Southern Sky
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Blame it on the Gum Nebula: Giant Blob headed to Earth ?
Gum Nebula (Supernova Remnant in Puppis & Vela) Covering 40-60% of the
Southern Sky and Heading this Way
BLAME THE GUM NEBULA FOR
THEORY THAT THE GUM NEBULA:
(1) CAUSED THE MELTING OF THE LAST ICE AGE
(2) CAUSED THE HOLE IN THE OZONE LAYER
(3) CAUSES THE INCREASE IN EARTH'S TEMPERATURE INPART
(4) CAUSES INCREASE IN EARTH QUAKES, AND STORMS, LIKE THE
RECENT EARTH QUAKES, TSUNAMIS, AND VOLCANO ERPUPTION
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DEAR MEMBERS OF CONGRESS
THE GUM NEBULA COVERS 40-60% OF THE EARTH'S SOUTHERN SKY
AND IF ITS PLASMA TRAVELS AT @1.5 MILLION MILES PER HOUR IT
WILL REACH THE EARTH @ 5,500 AD
ITS GAMMA RAY/COSMIC RAY EMF ENERGY ALREADY PASTED BY THE
EARTH 300-1000 YEARS AFTER THE STAR EXPLODED @15,000-11,000 BC
BLAME IT ON THE GUM NEBULA, SUPER NOVA EXPLOSION :
ITS RADIATION PULSE WAS SEVERAL TIMES MILLION STRONGER THAN
THE SUN
THE GUM NEBULA REVIVALED THE MOON IN BRIGHTNESS IN THE
SOUTHERN SKY
BLAME THE GUM NEBULA FOR
THEORY THAT THE GUM NEBULA:
(1) CAUSED THE MELTING OF THE LAST ICE AGE
(2) CAUSED THE HOLE IN THE OZONE LAYER
(3) CAUSES THE INCREASE IN EARTH'S TEMPERATURE INPART
(4) CAUSES INCREASE IN EARTH QUAKES, AND STORMS, LIKE THE
RECENT EARTH QUAKES, TSUNAMIS, AND VOLCANO ERPUPTION
IT IS VERY POSSIBLE THAT THE EARTH IS RECIEVING A LOT MORE
THAN THE GUM NEBULA'S LIGHT ENERGY PHOTONS AT THIS TIME
MORE THOUGHT AND RESEARCH NEEDED
THE GUM NEBULA IS NOT AN ACT OF GOD AND IT'S PLASMA IF IT
REALLY DOES MAKE IT TO EARTH WOULD BE VERY WEAK IONS AND
HELP FEED OUR SUN
COSMIC MAGNETIC FORCE AND GOD BLESS YOU
CRYONIC LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY DEPT OF GENERAL
RESURRECTION BR DAN IZZO 512 ONONDAGA AVE SYRACUSE, NY 13207
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Top left is NE. Image width is about 2 degrees minImage and text © 1978-2002,
Anglo-Australian Observatory/Royal Obs. Edinburgh.Photograph from UK Schmidt
plates by David Malin. About ( 12,000 to 15,000 years ago ) 120 centuries ago an
inconspicuous star in what is now the constellation of Vela brightened by about 100
million times to rival the Moon as the brightest object in the night sky. This
photograph shows a portion of the north-western quadrant of an expanding nebulous
shell, which now surrounds the site of the explosion. Near the centre of the nebula
(and not seen here) is the Vela pulsar, a rapidly-spinning neutron star only a few
kilometres in diameter, the remnant of the star that exploded. This tiny object spins
about 11 times a second and until recently was among the faintest stars ever studied
at optical wavelengths, a far cry from its brief glory as one of the brightest stars ever
seen.
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Date & Time: Dec 29 2002, 26:08 JST(+0900), 25min. Exp. Optical: SMC PENTAX
f=165mm F2.8, Aperture: F2.8 with IDAS LPS-P1 light-pollution supression filter
Auto-guided with TAKAHASHI JP Equatorial Camera: PENTAX 67 Film:
Ektachrome E200 (+1EV pushed) Location: Ooizumi vil., Yamanashi pref.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Fum Nebula / Supernova Remnant R.A. 08h 34m (around center) Dec. -45° 00'
(around center) Apparent Size 40 x 90° Real Size N/A Magnitude - Distance 1500
light yrs.(center) 300 light yrs.(closest region) In lower southern sky in winter night,
an extraordinary vast but dimmed ?gGum Nebula?h is spreading out with a size of 40
x 90 degrees. The nebula is positioned in the Milky Way of Puppis to Vela. The
nebula with name of an astronomer, who investigated about the nebula, is considered
a supernova remnant exploded about from 10 to 30 thousand years ago. In Japan, I
can capture images of only northern part of Gum Nebula, but its low altitude of
meridian transit make difficult to take pictures of the nebula clearly. This image
shows you a limited area of Gum Nebula around the border of Puppis and Vela,
equivalent a part of northeast region. A circular nebulosity in center has an ID of
Gum17. The Gum Nebula has been grouped into some regions and assigned ID
numbers because it's too large to regard as single celestial object. Its whole figure has
ring structure, looks like a swollen Veil Nebula in Cygnus.
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Cosmic Radio Signals can be polarized at 91mhz (fm); 160mhz (vhf); 610
mhz ( on channel 78uhf-tv) by keying a cb microphone over a radio receiver set on
these radio channels with your home equipment. These are known cosmic radio
sources from outerspace from Annual Review of Astrophysics and Astronomy 1966
editor Leo Goldberg. Facts : A lot of the static snow that you recieve is your non
cable uhf tv; is cosmic radio signals......many elements naturally emitt radio pulses
whern excited; You can polarize these signals with CB radio Microphone buy keying
the transmitting CB microphone over the speaker of a recieving radio set at 91 mhz..
(91fm)..160 mhz..(160 vhf radio)..and transmit the spacey sound you hear to a
recieving TV set at channel 78 UHF tv.....then you will see a ATT type of
symbol..and see the oscillations and fluctutations of the cosmic radio signal that has
been just polarized.....personally I think 160 vhf radio.....is artifically
generated.....since it oscillates odd.....if intelligent life has learned to genrate radio
signals within our galaxy....the odds are in our favor.we are recieving them.as they
recieve our signals from 50+ years ago.......that energy is bouncing off our heads
now. I have recieved a strange CBS eye symbol on my TV after I did this, It wasn't
CBS's thought..it was gold on the edge, with a green center eye and purple round
about the eye..but for this happened a circular rainbow image formed.then out of the
cloud the CBS eye appeared.the eye looked like a lizards eye.....real spooky.I called
CBS in NY, and they don't know why they pick that symbol..(~) after some
research.there was a " CBS" electron gun.made for TV picture tubes in the 1950's..so
maybe back in the early days of television..tv engineers must have recieved this same
signal.
Cosmic Mangetic Force and God Bless You
Br Dan Izzo
512 Onondaga Ave
Syracuse, NY 13207
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(1) Lead metal has 82 protons & electrons and contains Gold in it already.
Lead is the ONLY METAL that can be the STANDARD WEIGHT as 10kt Gold ( that
is semi safe to use )
(2) Lead metal will transmutate into Gold when bombarded with a source of neutrons.
(3) It is alleged that Lead naturally transmutes into Gold over millions of years within a
vein of quartz chrystals and the piezo electric effect interaction,
like coal into diamonds.
(4) Certain compounds when added to lead metal , will turn lead into golden color, see "
yellow lead "
" naples yellow " ( a gold color ) and see the golden lead chrystal, " Vanadinite ."
(5) Being the only metal suitable as the Standard Weight as 10kt gold, lead can be easily
transmuted into $100 US Created Gold Coins for the US Mint and its $100 Created Gold
certificates and if a layer of real 10kt gold covers the created gold coin, it will be safe for
people to handle.
If the Federal Reserve, US Mint and Treasury needs a Modern Alchemist please let me
know, I would like to work on this project for the US government because money ends
suffering.
" Therefore buy of me gold refined in the fire " God rev 3:18 Because Money Ends
Suffering.