INTRODUCTION
using sticks of chalk because this method has proven cheap and easy.
As found in nature, chalk has been used for drawing since prehistoric times,
cave drawings. Later, artists of different countries and styles used chalk
mainly for sketches, and some such drawings, protected with shellac or a
similar substance, have survived. Chalk was first formed into sticks for the
powder, then add water, clay as a binder, and various dry colors. The
resultant putty was then rolled into cylinders and dried. Although impurities
produce natural chalk in many colors, when artists made their own chalk
they usually added pigments to render these colors more vivid. Carbon, for
example, was used to enhance black, and ferric oxide (Fe2O3) was used to
1
Chalk did not become standard in schoolrooms until the nineteenth century,
when class sizes began to increase and teachers needed a convenient way of
instructors use large blackboards, but students also worked with individual
cleaner. These small chalkboards were used for practice, especially among
the younger students. Pens dipped in ink wells were the preferred tool for
writing final copy, but these were reserved for older students who could be
trusted not to make a mess: paper—made solely from rags at this time—was
expensive.
the twentieth century, they chose the color green, arguing that it was easier
2
Almost all chalk produced today is dustless. Earlier, softer chalk tended to
problems. Dustless chalk still produces dust; it's just that the dust settles
of each dustless chalk stick in shellac to prevent the chalk from rubbing off
now on the decline with respect to its usage due to unfavorable foreign
exchange earnings. This has given rise to the need of sourcing available raw
institutions at all levels i.e. primary, secondary and tertiary. Not only with
and the chalk production itself will boost the country’s technological
3
importance of chalk in Nigeria cannot be over emphasized, the tailors,
carpenters, road construction firms, etc, make use of chalk one way or the
other.
There are several raw materials used for the production of blackboard chalk
and these raw materials could be used separately or combined. The different
CaCO3. It is a common substance found as rock in all parts of the world, and
4
calcium supplement or as an antacid, but high consumption can be
hazardous.
• Aragonite
• Calcite
• Vaterite or (μ-CaCO3)
• Limestone
• Marble
• Travertine
Identifiers
Properties
5
Density: 2.71 g/cm³ (calcite); 2.83 g/cm³ (aragonite)
Note: Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa)
2.1.1 Preparation
marble).
6
passed through this solution to precipitate the desired calcium carbonate,
2.1.2 Uses
The main use of calcium carbonate is in the construction industry and in the
formation bridging and filtercake sealing agent and may also be used as a
downhole pressures.
7
Fine ground calcium carbonate is an essential ingredient in the microporous
film used in babies' diapers and some building films as the pores are
powdered form.
8
CHARPTER TWO
LITERATUURE REVIEW
Despite the fact that school chalk can now be produced locally, there is need
brittle, oil-free and must have the ability to give good inscription.
SCHOOL CHALK
The basic raw materials required in the manufacture of school chalk include,
sourced for. Below are areas in Nigeria where these various raw materials
could be found;
Kaolin
Kaolin is found in the following Nigerian states: Ogun, Kogi, Imo, Rivers,
Anambra, Bauchi, Kebbi, Ondo, Ekiti, Akwa Ibom, Katsina and Plateau
Gypsum
Gypsum can be found in Yobe, Adamawa, Ogun, Gombe, Sokoto and Edo
9
States.
Limestone
Limestone can be found in Cross River, Ogun, Benue, Gombe, Ebonyi,
Sokoto, Edo and Kogi States.
2.1.1 Gypsum
transparent cleavable masses called selenite. It may also occur silky and
fibrous, in which case it is commonly called satin spar. Finally it may also
various sorts. In arid areas, gypsum can occur in a flower-like form typically
opaque with embedded sand grains called desert rose. The most visually
striking variety, however, is the giant crystals from Naica Mine. Up to the
size of 11m long, these megacrystals are among the largest crystals found in
nature. A recent publication shows that these crystals are grown under
10
constant temperature such that large crystals can grow slowly but steadily
from as early as the Permian age.[9] Gypsum is deposited in lake and sea
The word gypsum is derived from the aorist form of the Greek verb
μαγειρεύω, "to cook", referring to the burnt or calcined mineral. Because the
gypsum from the quarries of the Montmartre district of Paris has long
furnished burnt gypsum used for various purposes, this material has been
called plaster of Paris. It is also used in foot creams, shampoos and many
Because gypsum dissolves over time in water, gypsum is rarely found in the
form of sand. However, the unique conditions of the White Sands National
Monument in the US state of New Mexico have created a 710 km² (275 sq
11
when president Herbert Hoover declared the gypsum dunes a protected
national monument.
General
Category: Mineral
Chemical formula: Calcium Sulfate CaSO4·2H2O
Identification
Color: White to grey, pinkish-red
Crystal habit: Massive, flat. Elongated and generally prismatic
crystals
Crystal system: Monoclinic 2/m
Twinning: common {110}
Cleavage: good (66° and 114°)
Fracture: Conchoidal, sometimes fibrous
Mohs Scale hardness: 1.5-2
Luster: Vitreous to silky, pearly, or waxy
Refractive index: α=1.520, β=1.523, γ=1.530
Optical Properties: 2V = 58° +
Pleochroism: None
Streak White
Specific gravity: 2.31 - 2.33
Fusibility: 3
Solubility: hot, dilute HCl
Diaphaneity: transparent to translucent
Major varieties
12
Satin Spar: Pearly, fibrous masses
Selenite: Transparent and bladed crystals
Alabaster: Fine-grained, slightly colored
There are a large number of uses for gypsum throughout prehistory and
• Drywall
• Plaster ingredient.
was a highly sought fertilizer for wheat fields in the United States.
previously used.[11]
13
• A tofu (soy bean curd) coagulant, making it ultimately a major source
• Blackboard chalk.
concrete.
Calcinations of gypsum can take place either in kettle or rotary kilns. If the
Heat
CaSO4.2H2O CaSO4.H2O + H2O
14
2000C
CaSO4.2H2O Heat CaSO4.H2O + H2O
MOULD
CaSO4 CaO + SO2 + 1/2O2
Heat
For the rotary kiln process, the gypsum is crushed to pieces through a 40mm
screen.
pottery mould, orthopedic and dental plaster, art and casting plasters,
2.1.3 Kaolinite
15
oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina octahedra (Deer and
others., 1992). Rocks that are rich in kaolinite are known as china clay or
kaolin.
16
Kaolinite clay occurs in abundance in soils that have formed from the
in clay mineral content are often used to infer changes in climates in the
geological past, where ancient soils have been buried and preserved. In
General
Category: Mineral
Chemical formula: Al2Si2O5(OH)4
Identification
Color: White, sometimes red, blue or brown tints from
impurities
Crystal habit: Earthy
Crystal system: triclinic
Cleavage: perfect on {001}
Fracture: Perfect
Mohs Scale hardness: 2 - 2.5
Luster: dull and earthy
Refractive index: α 1.553 - 1.565, β 1.559 - 1.569, γ 1.569 - 1.570
Streak: white
Specific gravity: 2.16 - 2.68
17
(From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)
2.1.3.1 Uses
incandescent light bulbs, and in cosmetics. It is also used in most paints and
inks. The largest use is in the production of paper, including ensuring the
parrots (and later, humans) in South America originally used it.[16] Until the
Kaopectate.
18
Kaolinite can contain very small traces of uranium and thorium, and is
and dyes during the manufacturing process. True pigments are widespread in
plant and animal kindom, some have wide distribution while others are
when light falls upon them in such a way as to split the spectrums. In other
visible light. Pigments are used in the paint industries where they act as
19
Dyes are intensely coloured substances used for the colouration of various
substances including chalk, paper, leather, fur, lair, fabrics, etc. they are
formation of covalent chemical bons. The methods used for the application
of dyes to the substrate differ, depending upon the substrate and class of dye.
are differentiated from pigments. During the application process, dyes lose
may in some cases be regained during a later stage of the dying process.
Pigments on the other hand retain crystal or particulate form throughout the
chalk. This this quality is determined by the particle size distribution of the
chalk.
20
to retain its new shape when deformation force is reduced below certain
characteristics and setting rate, which is interdependent and all depends upon
the particle size distribution in the chalk and determines the nature of the
cast to be formed. The smaller the size of the particles, the easier to form
their colloidal suspension and hence, the slower their rate of setting. As a
result, a more uniform and stronger cast is obtained when compared with
Removal of impurities from the raw materials is also necessary so that they
21
To make chalk, limestone is first quarried, generally by an open pit quarry
smaller chunks into pebbles. The limestone is then wet-milled with water in
a ball mill—a rotating steel drum with steel balls inside to further pulverize
the chalk. This step washes away impurities and leaves a fine powder.
Quarrying limestone
22
• Approximately 95 percent of the limestone produced is quarried. After
been prospected, the land that covers the deposit is removed with
shelf quarry method can be used; however, this is very rare. Usually
an open pit quarry method is used instead. In this method, holes are
drilled into the rock, explosives are placed inside, and the rock is
pulverized to meet the demands of the chalk industry. The first step is
primary crushing. Various crushers exist, but the principle is the same:
work at higher speeds, producing pebbles which are then ground and
pulverized.
23
• The next phase, wet grinding, washes away impurities. It is used to
make the fine grade of limestone necessary to make chalk suitable for
steel drums with steel balls inside that pulverize the chalk until it is
very fine.
After grinding, the chalk particles are sifted over vibrating screens to
separate the finer particles. The particles are then mixed with water,
extruded through a die of the proper size, and cut to the proper length.
2.3.2 Gypsum
Dehydrating gypsum
24
• Gypsum, like limestone, is also quarried and pulverized. The major
percent, at which point its water content will have been reduced from
vibrating screens that sift out the finer material. The ensuing fine
factory usually grinds the materials again to render them smooth and
uniformly fine.
25
2.3.3 Making white classroom chalk
a thick slurry with the consistency of clay. The slurry is then placed
into and extruded from a die—an orifice of the desired long, thin
centimeters), the sticks are next placed on a sheet that contains places
for five such sticks. The sheet is then placed in an oven, where the
chalk cures for four days at 188 degrees Fahrenheit (85 degrees
Celsius). After it has cured, the sticks are cut into 80 millimeters
lengths.
cake recipe). Water is then added to the mixture, which is then baked
26
• Placed in small boxes, the completed chalk sticks are stacked in large
Chalk that is intended for the classroom must undergo stringent tests in order
to perform well and be labeled nontoxic. All incoming materials are tested
for purity before being used. After the chalk has been made into sticks, one
stick from each batch is selected for tests. The density and break strength of
the sample stick are determined. The sample is then used to write with, and
the quality of the mark is studied. Erasability is also studied. First, the chalk
mark is erased using a dry eraser, and the quality of erasure is examined.
Then, the chalkboard is washed, and again the amount of chalk left on the
board is examined. Furthermore, a sample from each batch is kept for five
length of the chalk stick, as well as how many sticks should go in a box. On
November 18, 1990, a Federal Act (Public Law 100-695) went into effect,
mandating that all art materials sold in the United States must be evaluated
27
by a qualified toxicologist who must then issue a label explaining their
toxicity. Toxicologists are concerned not with cost but with safety, and they
must consider many factors before granting approval. Each ingredient, the
quantity in which it is used, and its possible adverse reactions with other
ingredients are studied. The product's size and packaging, its potential harm
considered. Toxicologists also take into account the products use and
potential mis-use, as well as all federal and state regulations. Formulas for
association. This label certifies that art materials for children are nontoxic
and meet voluntary standards of quality and performance, and that the
toxicity of art materials for adults has been correctly labeled. The CP seal
working qualities, and color developed by the Art and Craft Materials
Institute and others such as the American National Standards Institute and
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). To ensure honesty,
28
toxicologist, who checks to see that they are meeting nontoxic standards.
knowledgeable schools will not purchase chalk that is not properly labeled.
2. The initial moisture content of produced chalk should not exceed 16%
3. The capillarity rate along a 10cm column of 15.2g mass should not be
breakage of chalk into bits when in use. This could be as a result of using
29
2. Non-porous: Porosity in chalk could be as a result of the diatortion for
3. Oil free: good quality chalk must be oil free. The presence of oil in chalk
affects the inscription and also difficulty in wiping out from the board as
4. Non-Toxic: good quality chalk must be safe for teachers and children
who make use of it. Toxic chalk is injurious to health thus should be
avoided.
rise to interruptions encountered during the use of chalk and also its
30
Raw materials often occur in sizes that are too large to be used and,
solid or a liquid. If it is solid, the operations are called grinding and cutting,
Grinding and cutting reduce the size of solid materials by mechanical action,
dividing them into smaller particles. Cutting is used to break down large
pieces of materials into smaller pieces suitable for further processing, such
In the grinding process, materials are reduced in size by fracturing them. The
strain energy. When the local strain energy exceeds a critical level, which is
a function of the material, fracture occurs along lines of weakness and the
31
new surface, but the greater part of it is dissipated as heat. Time also plays a
part in the fracturing process and it appears that material will fracture at
and the energy required depends upon the hardness of the material and also
The force applied may be compression, impact, or shear, and both the
magnitude of the force and the time of application affect the extent of
grinding achieved. For efficient grinding, the energy applied to the material
needed to rupture the material. Excess energy is lost as heat and this loss
The important factors to be studied in the grinding process are the amount of
Grinding equipment can be divided into two classes - crushers and grinders.
In the first class the major action is compressive, whereas grinders combine
32
shear and impact with compressive forces. Examples are Crushers, Hammer
2.6.1.2 SCREENING
SIEVING
particles classified into size ranges. The fluid, usually air, can effectively be
agitated above a mesh or cloth screen; particles of smaller size than the mesh
33
methods used to prevent sticking or bridging of particles in the
aperture down to about 0.6 mm aperture. The mesh was originally the
number of apertures per inch. A logical base for a sieve series would be that
each sieve size have some fixed relation to the next larger and to the next
smaller. A convenient ratio is 2:1 and this has been chosen for the standard
series of sieves in use in the United States, the Tyler sieve series. The mesh
2.54 cm
By suitable choice of sizes for the wire from which the sieves are woven, the
ratio of opening sizes has been kept approximately constant in moving from
one sieve to the next. Actually, the ratio of 2:1 is rather large so that the
normal series progresses in the ratio of √2:1 and if still closer ratios are
required intermediate sieves are available to make the ratio between adjacent
sieves in the complete set 4√2:1. The standard British series of sieves has
been based on the available standard wire sizes, so that, although apertures
34
are generally of the same order as the Tyler series, aperture ratios are not
constant.
In the SI system, apertures are measured in mm. A table of sieve sizes has
2.6.1.3 MIXING
one of the least understood. There are, however, some aspects of mixing
which can be measured and which can be of help in the planning and
some container, but still separate as pure components. Thus, if small samples
are taken throughout the container, almost all samples will consist of one
35
As mixing then proceeds, samples will increasingly contain more of the
as that state in which all samples are found to contain the components in the
Another approach can then be made, defining the perfect mixture as one in
of the original components. Such dispersion represents the best that random
Many forms of mixers have been produced from time to time but over the
36
mix liquids, dry powders, or thick pastes. examples are Liquid Mixers,
2.6.1.4 MOULDING
liquid substance is poured to set or cool into that shape. This process is
moulds immediately after mixing and allowing some time for the material to
set.
2.6.1.5 DRYING
Drying implies the removal of water from the material. In most cases, drying
and to do this the latent heat of vaporization must be supplied. There are,
thus, two important process-controlling factors that enter into the unit
operation of drying:
(b) movement of water or water vapour through the material and then away
37
Drying processes fall into three categories:
Air and contact drying under atmospheric pressure. In air and contact
drying, heat is transferred through the material either from heated air or from
by radiation.
Freeze drying. In freeze drying, the water vapour is sublimed off frozen
sublimation occurs.
We have been discussing the heat energy requirements for the drying
process. The rates of drying are generally determined by the rates at which
heat energy can be transferred to the water or to the ice in order to provide
the latent heats, though under some circumstances the rate of mass transfer
38
which heat is transferred - conduction, radiation and convection - may enter
into drying. The relative importance of the mechanisms varies from one
drying process to another and very often one mode of heat transfer
coefficient J m-2 s-1 °C-1, A is the area through which heat flow is taking
place, m2, Ta is the air temperature and Ts is the temperature of the surface
over the surface of a heated drum, heat transfer occurs by conduction from
q = UA(Ti– Ts )
(usually very close to that of the steam), Ts is the surface temperature of the
39
material (boiling point of water or slightly above) and A is the area of drying
The value of U can be estimated from the conductivity of the drum material
and of the layer of material. Values of U have been quoted as high as 1800 J
m-2 s-1 °C-1 under very good conditions and down to about 60 J m-2 s-1 °C-1
In heat transfer, heat energy is transferred under the driving force provided
40
dw/dt = k'g A ∆ Y
(2.16)
where w is the mass being transferred kg s-1, A is the area through which the
number of different types of dryer would be in use. This is the case and the
drying may be applied to any type of dryer. Examples are Tray Dryers,
Tunnel Dryers, Roller or Drum Dryers, Fluidized Bed Dryers, Spray Dryers,
Pneumatic Dryers, Rotary Dryers, Trough Dryers, Bin Dryers, Belt Dryers,
41
CHAPTER THREE
different proportion. The various raw materials used in chalk production are,
calcium carbonate, kaolin calcined gypsum and water. Pigments or dyes are
with water in the volume proportion of 4:5 in the mixer or homogenizer. The
slurry is then passed through an extruder where a setting time of ten (10)
minutes is allowed. The set chalk is sent to the dryer where ten percent
(10%) of its water content is retained and the chalk is ready for use.
TANK
SOURCE
(CaCO3) CRUSHER
The raw material after crushing is sent to the mixer through a conveying belt
where it is mixed with water from a tank. The slurry produced is then sent to
adequate compatibility. The set chalk drops into a tray and is taken to the
specification.
The objective of this design project is to design a plant that will produce
43
Expected production days (x3) = x1 – x2
x3 = 365 - 40 = 325days
= 6,000,000Kg
= 18,461.53Kg/day
= 769.231Kg/hr
Chalk Composition
CaCO3.6H2O - 70%
H2O - 30%
44
Note: the mass of school chalk is not related to its volume. This is because
of a lot of pore spaces found in chalk which brings about its compatibility
property.
mixture
45
Total volume = 1.581 + 1.2 = 2.781cm3
= 1 x 3.3.509 = 3.509g
design. The quantities or raw materials required and product produced can
The process stream flow and composition are obtained by balances over
individual process units. The study of plant operation and trouble shooting
Material balances can also serve to check sources of loss of material and
46
boundary is created around the system. This boundary separates the system
Material balances obey the law of conservation of mass which states that,
matter can neither be created nor destroyed but the total quantity of matter
In cases where no chemical reaction takes place, the steady state balance
reduces to:
47
3.3.1 Mixer Material Balance Calculation
674.8079Kg/hr 2
H3O: 100%
538.4617Kg/hr 1
CaCO3.6H2O: 100%
48
Component 1 (Kg/hr) 2 (Kg/hr) 3 (Kg/hr)
CaCO3 538.4617 0 538.4617
H2O 0 674.8079 674.8079
Total 538.4617 674.8079 1213.2696
About twenty five percent (25%) by mass of the mixture is lost to the
compression.
CaCO3.6H2O: 44.38%
H3O: 55.62%
49
Mass flow rate of mixture from Out stream
MASS FRACTION
= 538.4617 x 100
909.9522 1 = 59.17%
= 3714905 x 100
909.9522 1 = 40.83%
303.3174Kg/hr 4
H2O: 100%
1213.2696Kg/hr 3
CaCO3.6H2O: 44.38%
H3O: 55.62%
909.9522Kg /hr 5
CaCO3.6H2O: 59.17%
MOULD H2O: 40.83%
50
Total 1213.2696 303.3174 909.9522
The end product after drying is suppose to leave with a product mass flow
CaCO3.6H2O and 30% H2O. Note that CaCO3.6H2O and impurities are
assumed together.
= 538.4617Kg/hr
140.7212Kg /hr 6
H2O: 100%
909.9522Kg /hr 5
CaCO3.6H2O: 59.17% 7. 769.231Kg /hr
H2O: 40.83% CaCO3: 80%
H3O: 20%
DRYER51
Table 3.3 Dryer Material Balance Summary
CHAPTER FOUR
ENERGY BALANCE
In process design, energy balances are carried out to evaluate the energy
plant operation, an energy balance on the plant will show the pattern of
52
The cost of energy required for a process often represents a substantial
to conserve energy, certain laws are obeyed. Most important of them all is
Heat is the energy transfer that occurs between a system and its surroundings
process.
integral balance written for the whole system. The various terms deserve
53
discussion. The enthalpies are relative to some reference temperature, Tref.
Tref = 298K, but choices of Tref 0K or Tref = 0oC are also common. The
H = Cp (T- Tref)
HG = CS(tG-t0) + Hƒ0
CS = 1.005 + 1.88H
H = humidity of air
54
ƒ0 = latent heat of water
t = temperature
t0 = ref temperature
Q = heat transferred
X2, tS2
S, X1, tS1
ASSUMPTIONS
project.
55
Dryer
= 171455.0386KJ/Kg
H solid out = [538.4617 x 9.848 x (100 – 0)] + [230.7693 x 4.187 x (100 – 0)]
= 626900.1881KJ/Kg
H vap.water = Mƒ0
Q = 807,388.8707KJ/Kg
Input Output
56
(KJ/Kg) (KJ/Kg)
H5 171455.0386
Q 807,388.870
7
H6 351943.7212
H7 626900.1881
Total 978843.9093 978843.9093
CHAPTER FIVE
EQUIPMENT DESIGN
57
The equipment used in the chemical industries includes proprietary and non-
In this project, the equipments to design are a mixer, extruder, and a dryer.
2. diameter of equipment
3. length/height of equipment
pH, humidity, dew point, liquid level, flow rate, chemical composition and
58
moisture content. By use of necessary instruments, the values these variables
Automatic control can also be adopted. This in turn will save labour cost and
optimum output
VOLUME 3.1416m3
HEIGHT 4m
DIAMETER 1m
59
OPERATING TEMPERATURE 250C
PRESSURE 1atm
60
5.6 SPECIFICATION SHEET OF DRYER
VOLUME 2.2m3
HEIGHT 1m
LENGTH 2.2m
WIDTH 1M
PRESSURE 1atm
NO OF DRYER TRAY 20
MIXER
61
From the production data:
= 0.304 m3/hr
= 0.771 m3/hr
= 0.9788 m3/hr
= 5 x 0.9788
60
= 0.08157 m3
= 0.11419m3
62
Taking height to diameter ratio of 3/2
22 x D2 x 3D = 0.11419
7 4 2
D = 0.11419 x 7 x 4 x 2
3 22 x 3
D = 0.459m aprox to 1m
H = 3 x 0.459m
2
H = 0.689m approx to 4m
= 2 x 22 x 1 x 4
7 2
= 12.5664m2
Auxiliary equipment needed for the mixer are motor and blades.
63
Type of equipment is a Horizontal trough mixer, with ribbon blades, paddles
The power requirement is 1.5 – 2.0 KW/m3 because it is suitable for slurry
suspension.
EXTRUDER
Chalk/hole specification
= 22 x 0.0092 x 0.08
7 4
= 5.0894 x 10-6cm3
64
Density of CaCO3 + impurities = 1.771g/cm3 = 1771Kg/m3
= 0.304 m3/hr
= 0.6748 m3/hr
= 0.9788 m3/hr
= 0.9788
5.0894 x 10-6cm3
65
Volume flow rate = 0.9788 x 5 = 0.08156667m3 = 81566.6667cm3
60
Vol = πD2L
4
152.6928 = π x 0.92 x L
4
L = 152.6928 x 4
π x 0.92
L = 240.0179cm = 2.4m
Surface area = 2 π D L
2
= 2 π x 0.9 x 240..0179
2
= 678.6346cm2
mass of water goes off. This is because the volume will still be the volume
of the chalk even after the water has gone off. This effect rather leaves pore
66
spaces within the structure of the chalk which ensures its compatibility
specification.
DRYER
Width of dryer = 1m
Length of dryer = 1m + 1m = 2m
Height of dryer = 1m
67
The wall thickness e is given by the expression
e = PiDi
2f-Pi
Di = internal diameter, m
e = minimum thickness, m
MIXER
Pi = 1atm = 0.1N/m2
F = 145N/m
Di = 0.48 x 103mm
e = 0.1656mm
EXTRUDER
Pi = 1atm = 0.1N/m2
F = 145N/m
Di = 0.09968 x 103mm
68
e = 0.00307mm
CHAPTER SIX
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
69
When a chemical plant is built, profit output is expected from it therefore an
estimation of the investment required and the cost of production are needed
income and expenses that should be applicable for such venture to lead to a
available, the cost data available and the time spent on preparing the
Fixed capital is the total cost of the plant ready for start up (Coulson &
70
(e) Auxiliary facility is the additional investment needed, over
and above the fixed capital to start the plant up and operate
capital.
Ce = CSn
MIXER
C = 15000
S = 0.130
n = 0.4
Ce = 15000 x 0.1300.4
= $6,632.37
EXTRUDER
71
C = 960
S = 2.3
n = 1.0
Ce = 960 x 2.31
= $2208
DRYER
C = 7700
S = 1.9
n = 0.55
Ce = 7700 x 1.90.55
= $10,959.87
72
ƒ2 Piping 0.20
ƒ3 Instrumentation 0.10
ƒ4 Electrical 0.10
ƒ5 Buildings ----
ƒ6 Utilities ----
ƒ7 Storages 0.25
Total physical plant cost (PPC) = PCE(1+ƒ2 +ƒ3+ƒ4+ƒ5 +ƒ6 +ƒ7 +ƒ8 )
= $42,570/ N5,023,260.00
73
Operating time = 325days
Variable Costs:
Fixed Costs:
Maintenance = 5% of FC = N326,511.90
Labour(two shifts with 0ne extra per shift ) 2 at mixer and 3 at dryer plus 1
= N 42,817, 535.70
Also assume that the first 12 years is best year for profit making.
74
EQUIPMENTS AMOUNT(N)
MIXER 782,619.66
EXTRUDER 260,544.00
DRYER 1,293,264.66
PURCHASE COST OF EQUIPMENTS 2,336,428.32
PHYSICAL PLANT COST 5,023,260.00
FIXED CAPITAL 6,530,238.00
TOTAL INVESTMENT COST 6,856,749.90
VARIABLE COST 30,318,000.00
FIXED COST 12, 499,535.70
ANNUAL OPERATING COST 42,817, 535.70
I2 = 750000
500000
75
= 1.5
RATE OF RETURN
ROR = F - C x 100
C x G
76
C = investment
G = life of project
= 19.01%
PAYBACK TIME
Payback time = 1
ROR
= 100
19.01
= 5.26years
BREAK-EVEN POINT
Capacity in 12 years
= 6000 x 12 = 72000tons
77
Break even point = capacity at 4.36 years
capacity at 12 years
= 31560
72000
= 0.4383 = 43.83%
CHAPTER SEVEN
PROCESS SAFETY
Concern for accidents dates back to the industrial revolution of the 18th
century. This is when machines were invented and factories were built and
78
Several accidents occurred in the factories resulting in injuries, maiming,
incapacitation, and death. All these are due to poor safety management.
- unsafe clothing
- unkempt environment
- public hazard
In other to tackle hazards associated with work place, process called HEMP
Practicable)
79
The is achieved by
1. identify
2. access
3. control
4. recover
REFERENCE
80
2. Kirk and Othimer (1982). Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology.
80580-7
330. Doi:10.1130/G23393A.1.
81
Geohazards: Engineering And Environmental Problems In Karst
(2007)
648-5.
0-582-30094-0.
ISBN 0-471-80580-7.
16. Bellotto, M., Gualtieri, A., Artioli, G., And Clark, S.M. (1995)
82
Kaolinite Dehydroxylation', Phys. Chem. Minerals, Vol 22, 207-
214.
1981.
24. Authors: R.L. Earle With M.D. Earle., Unit Operations In Food
83
26. Bird, R. B., Stewart, W. E. And Lightfoot, E. N. (1960) Transport
27. Bond, F. C. (1952) Min. Engng. 4, 484; Chem. Engng. 59, 169.
Oxford.
605.
36. Moody, L. F. (1944) Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs. 66, 671.
84
37. Perry, J. H.And Others (1997) Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 7th
38. Plank, R. (1913) Z. Ges. Kalteind., 20, S. 109; (1941) Ibid., Beih.
Reihe 3, H.10.
New York.
A.73.
85