Solar-Powered Streetlight - Published

LAUTECH SOLAR-POWERED PROJECTS: THE DEPT.
OF
ELECTRONIC/ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION

OF AN AUTOMATIC SOLAR-
POWERED STREETLIGHT
By
Morakinyo Ayodeji, Amusan Olusola,

Sekoni Seun & Adebunmi Femi
January 12, 2011.
www.lautech.edu.ng
[In this project, a solar panel is used to convert sunlight into direct current electricity which
charges a battery during the day. At night, a dark detector employing a photoconductive cell
senses darkness and this activates the circuit. The circuit then powers the load (lamps) to
give required illumination.]
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CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this project work was carried out by the following
students: MORAKINYO, Ayodeji James (051217); AMUSAN, Olusola Samson
(050976); SEKONI, Oluwaseun Adeyemi (053652); ADEBUNMI, Oluwafemi
Solomon (050736) in the Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,
Ogbomoso.
This publication is a scholastic property of Morakinyo A.J, Amusan O.S, Sekoni, et al.
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DEDICATION
This project work is dedicated to the Almighty God, the giver of life and talent
for every academic work. Without him, this project could not have been a success.
We also dedicate this work to every great legend in the field of electrical and
electronic engineering. We have only succeeded in this work because we built on the
foundations they have laid.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly, we acknowledge our heavenly father and creator. It is by Him that we
are enabled, equipped and empowered to reach this point in our academic journey.
With great joy, true respect and deep gratitude, we appreciate our supervisor
Engr. I. A. Adeyemo, for every piece of advice, each session of counsel and every
other form of support he gave us during the project process.
Finally, we would also like to express our gratitude to our parents (Mr & Mrs
S.O Morakinyo, Mrs Amusan, Mr & Mrs Sekoni and Mr & Mrs Adebunmi) for their
financial, emotional and spiritual support. But for them, we would not be here today.
MORAKINYO A.J
AMUSAN O.S
SEKONI O.A
ADEBUNMI O.S
January, 2011.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i
CERTIFICATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
LIST OF FIGURES v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF TABLES viii
ABSTRACT ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 PREAMBLE 1
1.2 AIMS & OBJECTIVES 1
1.3 SIMILAR WORK 2
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY 2
1.5 SCOPE OF STUDY 2
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 SOLAR ENERGY 4

2.2 SOLAR PANEL 5
2.3LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR 7
2.4 RESISTORS & LIGHT EMITTING DIODES 7
2.5 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 10
2.6 CONSTANT VOLTAGE REGULATOR 12
2.7 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 12
2.8 RELAYS 13
2.9 BATTERY 14
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CHAPTER THREE: DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION
3.1 BASIC DESIGN 16

3.2 CHARGE CONTROLLER 17
3.3 CHOOSING SOLAR PANEL 19
3.4 PARAMETERS FOR CHOOSING A BATTERY 19
3.5 DARK OPERATED SENSOR AND SWITCHING CIRCUIT 20
CHAPTER FOUR: DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION &

INSTALLATION
4.1 METAL FRAMEWORK 23

4.2 WELDING 26
4.3 SCREWING 27
4.4 INSTALLATION 27
4.5 TESTING 29
4.6 OBSERVATIONS 30
4.7 PRECAUTIONS 30
4.8 BILL OF QUANTITY 31
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSION 33
5.2 RECOMMENDATION 33
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Title Page

2.1 Schematic Symbol for a Photovoltaic Cell 5
2.2 Array of Photovoltaic Cells 6
2.3 Circuit Symbol of a Photo-resistor 7

2.4 Circuit Symbols for Fixed and Variable Resistors 8
2.5 Non-inverting Amplifier 10
2.6 Schematic Diagram of LM324N OP-AMP 11
2.7 Circuit Symbol of a Relay Switch 14
3.1 Block Diagram of a Solar-powered Street Light 16
(Automatic)
3.2 Block Diagram of Charge Controller Unit 17
3.3 Circuit Diagram of a Charge Controller 18
3.4 Sensor and Switching Circuit 21
4.1 Solar-powered Street Light 24
4.2 Wiring Block Diagram of Automatic Solar-powered 29
Street Light
LIST OF TABLES
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Table Title Page

2.1 Resistor Tolerance Band Values 8
2.2 Tolerance Colour Band Values 8
2.3 LM324N Pins and their Functions 11
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ABSTRACT
This project work is concerned with the design and construction of an
automatic solar-powered street light.
In this project, a solar panel is used to convert sunlight into direct current
electricity which charges a battery during the day. At night, a dark detector employing
a photoconductive cell senses darkness and this activates the rectifier circuit. The
rectifier circuit then powers the load (lamps) to give required illumination.
This lightening system is highly suitable in Nigeria where power supply is
erratic; it thus offers the advantage of reliability compared to the lightening system
powered by electricity received from utility company. Except for the initial high cost
of installation, the system is easy to maintain since the original source of power
(sunlight) is free.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 PREAMBLE
Light is crucial in everyday activity for the continuity of normal life. From
plants to animals, from human beings to domestic insects, from technology to science,
nothing seems to maximise its existence without the availability of light. Even the
human eye requires some amount of light to function well (Blurtit, 2010). Light from
the sun is natural and it is called sunlight. This sunlight can serve as a source of solar
power which is converted to electric power for both household and industrial
utilization.
Solar power is the generation of electricity from sunlight. This can be direct as
with photovoltaic (PV) or indirect as with concentrating solar power (CSP) where the
sun’s energy is focused to boil water which is then used to provide energy. Solar
power is a predictably intermittent energy source, meaning that while solar power is
not available at all times, we can predict with a very good degree of accuracy when it
will not be available (Wikipedia, 2010). One area of application of solar energy is
found in the construction of solar-powered street lights, an equipment that is
paramount to meeting the security needs of every community in the 21st century.
Solar street lights are beneficial in that the day to day running and
maintenance costs are reduced (Solar Street Lightning, 2010). Instead of the manually
operated street lights, making use of power generated by the utility company, it is
interesting that lead-acid battery and photovoltaic cells or solar modules can be used
as the power source for the street lightning system. And with the use of a Light
Dependent Resistor (LDR), automatic control can be included in the equipment.
This vital use of light gives rise to the idea of using solar energy to power
street lights as an alternative to electricity. These solar-powered street lights can then
be used for the provision of illumination on roads at night to enhance security and
prevent accidents that may otherwise occur due to poor visibility.
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1.2 AIM & OBJECTIVES

The aim is to design, construct and install a street light that charges in
daytime, and discharges in the evening, without the need for a utility power source.
OBJECTIVES
1. To design a workable solar powered street light that does not utilize an
inverter circuit
2. To eliminate the necessity for manual switching in the operation of
community street light
3. To design and construct a charge controller for the battery
4. To install the solar-powered street light with two wings providing
illumination
1.3 SIMILAR WORK

Previously, under the Department of Electronic/Electrical Engineering at the
Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, a Solar-powered Street
Lightning System was discussed by Akinola A.S & Odubola A., “Automatic Solar-
powered Street Lightning System” Unpublished B.Tech thesis, Department of
Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,
Ogbomoso, (2004). In their dissertation, they indicated that their work involved
design and construction. But, they did not specify whether or not their work included
installation of the equipment.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

The use of solar modules with Lead acid battery to serve as power source for
energy saving appliances is efficient and most reliable where there is erratic power
supply. Therefore, the renewable property of energy makes it easier to use solar as a
natural source of power through energy conversion process.
In a country such as Nigeria where the availability of uninterrupted power
supply remains a major challenge, street lights powered by electricity from utility
companies have repeatedly failed to provide consistent illumination but the proposed
project seeks to amend this inadequacy. The lightning system operates through the
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combination of a dark operated automatic switching circuit and the energy saving
lamp made from LED array to give a stress-free operation and save more energy.
1.5 SCOPE OF STUDY

This project is focused at using a Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) which
responds resistively to light for the automatic control process. This is planted on the
equipment at a position where it is exposed to light from the atmosphere. The LDR
senses light and differentiates daytime from night time, and then the sensor circuit
triggers the switching circuit.
A comparator is used in the charge controlling circuit to sense the charging
voltage of the battery so as to prevent it from overcharging.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy (energy from the sun) travels to Earth through space in discrete
packets of energy called photons (which are particles of light energy, or energy that is
generated by moving electric charges). The amount of light that reaches any particular
point on the ground depends on the time of day, the day of the year, the amount of
cloud cover, and the latitude at that point. The solar intensity varies with the time of
day, peaking at solar noon and declining to a minimum at sunset. The total radiation
power (1.4 Kilowatts per square meter, called the solar constant) varies only slightly,
about 0.2 percent every 30 years.
Energy from the sun can be directly or indirectly collected.
Approximately 30 percent of the solar power reaching the Earth is consumed by the
continuous circulation of water, a system called the water cycle or hydrologic
[Holladay, April. "Solar Energy." Microsoft® Student 2008 DVD].
The oceans also collect and store solar energy while radiant energy from the Sun is
transformed to the potential energy of water in streams and rivers. The power stored
in the water cycle can be tapped by directing the flowing waters through modern
turbines. Power produced in this way is called hydroelectric power. Earth's
atmosphere, oceans, and plant life, for example, collect solar energy that can be
extracted to power technology.
There are two main types of artificial collectors to directly capture and utilize
solar energy: flat plate collectors and concentrating collectors. Since just a little
amount of the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s surface, both types of collectors
require large surface areas exposed to the Sun. The first type which is called the
Flat plate collector is made of typically flat, thin boxes with a transparent cover that
are mounted on rooftops facing the Sun. The Sun heats a blackened metal plate inside
the box, called an absorber plate, that in turn heats fluid (air or water) running through
tubes within the collector.
For applications such as air conditioning, central power generation, and many
industrial heat requirements, flat plate collectors cannot provide carrier fluids at
temperatures high enough to be effective so, more complex and expensive
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concentrating collectors must be used (John Perlin, 1999). Concentrating collector

types reflect the Sun’s rays from a large area and focus it onto a small, blackened
receiving area. Concentrating solar energy is the least expensive way to generate
large-scale electrical power from the Sun’s energy and therefore has the potential to
make solar power available at a competitive rate. An example is the popularly known
solar panel.
2.2 SOLAR PANEL

A Solar panel or photovoltaic cell is a type of photo electric cell that uses the
photovoltaic effect to generate electrical energy using the potential difference that
arises between materials when the surface of the cell is exposed to electromagnetic
radiation. Photovoltaic effect is simply the creation of a voltage in a material upon
exposure to electromagnetic radiation. Illumination of the materials results in the
creation of an electric current as excited electrons and the remaining holes are swept
in different directions by the built-in electric field of the depletion region.
Fig 2.1 Schematic Symbol for a Photovoltaic Cell

Solar cells are often electrically connected and encumbered as a module.
Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of glass on the front facing the sun, allowing
the light from the sun to pass while protecting the semiconductor wafers from the
elements, rain, hail, etc (Timothy J. Maloney, 1996). Solar cells are usually connected
in series in modules, creating an additional voltage of 12Volts. When cells are
connected in parallel, they yield an additional current. Power output is measured in
watts or kilowatts. In order to calculate the typical energy needs of the application, a
measurement in Watt-hours, Kilowatt-hours or Kilowatt-hours per day is often used.
Average power according to the rule of thumb is that average power equals 20% of
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peak power, so that each peak kilowatt of solar array output power yields energy of
4.8KWh per day (24hours x 1kw x 20% = 4.8KWh).
Fig 2.2 Array of Photovoltaic Cells
A solar cell’s energy conversion efficiency is the percentage of power converted from
absorbed light to electrical energy and collected when a solar cell is connected to an
electric circuit.
There are three types of solar cells.
Monocrystalline silicon cells
Multicrystalline silicon cells
Amorphous silicon cells
Monocrystalline silicon cells are the most efficient, with a very high cost of
production.
Multicrystalline silicon cells are less efficient, compared to the Monocrystalline
silicon cells. They have a relatively less cost of production compared to the
Monocrystalline silicon cells.
Amorphous silicon cells are also very efficient, but the Monocrystalline silicon cells
have been found to be the most efficient of the three.
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2.3 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR)

This is a special type of resistor whose resistance value depends on the
brightness of light which is falling on it. It is also called a photo-resistor (from the
Greek word, “photo”) because to operate as desired, it requires the presence or
absence of light.
Fig 2.3 Circuit Symbol of a Photo-resistor (LDR)
The LDR needs an external voltage source to produce current which is

controlled by the variable resistance of a photosensitive material that it is made of
(Cadmium compounds as Cadmium sulphide and Cadmium Selenide). In the dark, the
resistance of the LDR is very high, typically around 1M ohm. In bright light it is low,
typically 1K ohm. The continuous power dissipation is 80mW and the maximum
voltage which can be applied to it is 100V. The snake like track on the face of the
LDR is a Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) film. On each side is a metal film which is
connected to the terminal leads (A.K. Theraja & B.L. Theraja, 2005). LDRs are very
useful especially in light/dark activated circuits when coupled with a variable resistor
such that the LDR’s sensitiveness can be adjusted by this variable resistance. For
instance, when the light dependent resistor and a variable resistor are used to form a
voltage divider with bias applied to a transistor, a connected relay can be
automatically activated.
2.4 RESISTORS & LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LEDs)

RESISTORS: are passive circuit components which are bilateral in function. They
can also be referred to as electronic components that offer resistance to the flow of
electric current in a circuit. They are always applied in circuits for the following
reasons:
1. To limit current
2. To cause a voltage drop or voltage divider
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3. To dissipate heat
Types of Resistors
(i) Fixed resistors which have fixed values
(ii) Variable resistors whose values can be varied.
Fig. 2.4 Circuit Symbols for Fixed and Variable Resistors.
Resistor values: the resistance values of a resistor is either stamped on it or

determined by colour codes. The last of the four colour bands indicates the tolerance
values of the resistor.
Colour Tolerance Value
Gold ±5%
Silver ±10%
No colour ±20%
Table 2.1 Resistor Tolerance Band Values
Note that the third band colour indicates the value of the multiplier. For
example, resistor value = AB x 10c. Where A is the first band value, B is the second
band value and C, the third band value.
Band Colour Code
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
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Green 5
Blue 6
Violet/purple 7
Grey 8
White 9
Table 2.2 Resistor Colour Band Values

LAMPS: are lamps made from semiconductor materials in the similitude of light
emitting diodes such that several light emitting diodes are combined to yield an LED
lamp. Since the output of an individual unit in terms of power is small compared to
incandescent and compact fluorescent lamps, the most recent of these lamps possess
internal circuits that make them operate from standard AC voltage. However, for the
sake of this project, DC lamps are to be used. LED lamps offer long life and high
efficiency, but with initial high costs compared to fluorescent tubes or lamps. LED
units naturally emit light in a very small band of wavelengths, thereby producing
strongly coloured lights. The colour is characteristic of the energy band gap of the
semiconductor material used in manufacturing it. Creating white light from LED units
require the use of a phosphor to convert some of the light to other colours. The only
major shortcoming with LED bulb is the high cost of manufacture. The following are
the characteristics of LED lamps:
Long life expectancy.
Relatively low energy consumption, since they are energy-saving bulbs.
Good reflection of lights with small reflectors or lenses.
They do not have glass tubes that can break, while internal parts are rigidly
supported, making them resistant to impact, vibration, and all other forms of
mechanical stress.
They are dimmable over a wide range of voltage for AC transmission 85V
and 240V. However, the brand of bulbs to be used, 12V, 5watts rated DC
bulbs is the specification for the project.
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One of the major advantages of LED bulbs is that it is good for spotlighting or
floodlighting because it tends to be directional. Also, LED screw-in bulbs offer either
low levels of light at a moderate cost or moderate levels of light at a high cost.
2.5 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (LM324N)

Operational amplifiers are popularly known as OP-AMP. They are also called
differential voltage amplifiers due to their ability to amplify the difference in the
voltage between the two inputs. The output voltage is simply the difference between
the inverting and non-inverting inputs multiplied by the gain.
If the non-inverting input (+) is more positive than the inverting input voltage
(-), the output will be positive. If it is more negative in value than the inverting input,
then output becomes more negative (Jones L, 1996).The output voltage changes in
phase as that of the non-inverting input.
Where, RA and RB are Resistances.

Characteristics of Op-Amp
It has a very high open loop voltage gain.
A very high input impedance
A large common mode reflection ratio
A low output impedance
The typical LM324N OP-AMP used in this project is a quad comparator of two
inputs with an output each. They are always incorporated in circuits meant for
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sequential switching or voltage comparison. They can be used for amplifying signals
in different modes. The general arrangement is to fix or reference one of the input
voltages, either by using a zener diode, a regulator or a potential divider network.
Fig 2.6 Schematic Diagram of the LM324N OP-AMP
PINs Function
1, 8, 14 Output
2, 6, 9, 13 Inverting Input
3, 5, 10, 12 Non-inverting Input
4 Vcc+
11 GND
Table 2.3 LM324N Pins and their Functions
2.6 CONSTANT VOLTAGE REGULATOR (LM 7808)

The linear LM7808 is an integrated circuit linear positive regulator with three
terminals. It offers a fixed output despite the amount of voltage supplied to its input.
However, care must be taken not to supply excessive voltage to its input terminals
otherwise, the IC would be damaged. The minimum input voltage must be 3Volts
higher than the regulated output voltage. The 7800 series (i.e. 05, 06, 08, 10, 12, 15,
18, or 24) provides up to 1A load current and has on-chip circuitry to shut down the
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regulator if any attempt is made to operate it outside its safe operating area. But if this
happens, the solution is to let the chip cool down and then attach the heat sink.
Its features include:
Output current of 1.5A
Output voltage tolerance of 5%
Internal thermal overload protection
Operating voltage range: 10.5 volts – 23 volts
No external component
Output voltage of 8Volts
Also offered in plastic package of TO – 220
Its applications are found in post regulator for switching DC/DC converter and in
bias supply for analog circuits.
2.7 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)
This is a three layered, three terminal semiconductor device which is used in

electronic circuits either as a switch or for amplification purpose. It was invented by
Schockley, Bardeen and Brattain at Bell Labs in 1947 and today, it has revolutionised
the way we live. A BJT works based on the principle that certain materials, such as
Silicon, can be made to perform as “solid state" devices. Any material is only
conductive in proportion to the number of "free" electrons that are available. Silicon
has very few free electrons but if "impurities" such as Arsenic are introduced in a
controlled manner then the free electrons or conductivity is increased.
By adding other impurities such as Gallium, an electron deficiency or hole is

created. As with free electrons, the holes encourage conductivity and the material is
called a semi-conductor. Semiconductor material which conducts by free electrons is
called n-type material while material which conducts by virtue of electron deficiency
is called p-type material.
There are two types of BJTs: the more common NPN type and the PNP type.
In PNP type, the emitter is made positive with respect to both the collector and base
and the collector is made negative with respect to both the emitter and base in normal
operation. The reverse is the case for the NPN type.
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The bipolar junction transistor can also function in 3 different configurations:
a) The common emitter (CE) circuit uses emitter as its common electrode. The input
signal is applied to the base and the amplified output is taken from the collector. This
is the one generally use because it has the best combination of current gain and
voltage gain.
b) The common base (CB) circuit uses base as its common electrode. The input signal
is applied to the emitter and the amplified output is taken from the collector. The
relatively high emitter current compared to the base current results in very low input
impedance value. For this reason, the CB circuit is seldom used.
c) The common collector (CC) circuit uses collector as its common electrode. The
input signal is applied to the base and the amplified output is taken from the emitter.
This circuit is also called an emitter follower. This name means that the output signal
voltage at the emitter follows the input signal at the base with the same phase but less
amplitude. The voltage gain is less than 1 and is usually used for impedance
matching. It has high input at the base as a load for the preceding circuit and low
output impedance at the emitter as a signal source for the next circuit.
2.8 RELAYS
They are electromechanical switches which operate based on electromagnetic
principles. They could also be used as electromagnetic switches that are triggered by
an electronic switch, such as transistors which switch from one point to another.
Relay Terminologies:
Nominal Coil Voltage (Rated Coil Voltage): the voltage intended by design to be
applied to the coil to operate it.
Pick-Up Voltage: the voltage on an un-operated device is increased, the value at or
above which all contacts must function.
Drop-Out Voltage: the voltage on an operated device is decreased, the value at or
below which all contacts must revert to their un-operated position.
Maximum Continuous Voltage: the maximum voltage that can be applied
continuously to the coil.
Nominal Operating Current: the current flow in the coil when nominal voltage is
impressed on the coil.
Nominal Operating Power: the power used by the coil at nominal voltage. DC coils
(watts); AC coils (VA).
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Relays usually consist of three contacts of connection. Namely;

Common contact ( C )
Normally open contact ( NO )
Normally closed contact ( NC )
There are various ranges of relay ratings. They range from 5Amps, 10Amps,
15Amps, 20Amps, 30Amps, etc.
Fig. 2.7 Circuit Symbol of a Relay Switch
2.9 BATTERY
A Battery is an electric cell or a device that converts chemical energy into

electricity. It consists of two or more cells connected in series or parallel, but the term
is also used for single cells. All cells consist of a liquid, paste, or solid electrolyte and
a positive electrode, and a negative electrode. The electrolyte is an ionic conductor;
one of the electrodes will react, producing electrons, while the other will accept
electrons. When the electrodes are connected to a device to be powered, called a load,
an electrical current flows.
Batteries in which the chemicals cannot be reconstituted into their original

form once the energy has been converted (that is, batteries that have been discharged)
are called primary cells or voltaic cells. Batteries in which the chemicals can be
reconstituted by passing an electric current through them in the direction opposite that
of normal cell operation are called secondary cells, rechargeable cells, storage cells,
or accumulators. The storage battery, or secondary cell, which can be recharged by
reversing the chemical reaction, was invented in 1859 by the French physicist Gaston
Planté.
The lead-acid battery, which consists of three or six cells connected in series,
is used in automobiles, trucks, aircraft, and other vehicles. Its chief advantage is that it
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can deliver a strong current of electricity for starting an engine; however, it runs down
quickly. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulphuric acid; the negative electrode
consists of lead, and the positive electrode of lead dioxide. In operation, the negative
lead electrode dissociates into free electrons and positive lead ions. The electrons
travel through the external electric circuit, and the positive lead ions combine with the
sulphate ions in the electrolyte to form lead sulphate. When the electrons re-enter the
cell at the positive lead-dioxide electrode, another chemical reaction occurs. The lead
dioxide combines with the hydrogen ions in the electrolyte and with the returning
electrons to form water, releasing lead ions in the electrolyte to form additional lead
sulphate.
A lead-acid storage cell runs down as the sulphuric acid gradually is converted
into water and the electrodes are converted into lead sulphate. When the cell is being
recharged, the chemical reactions described above are reversed until the chemicals
have been restored to their original condition. A lead-acid battery has a useful life of
about four years. But, it is a good practice to utilize along with the battery, a suitable
charge controller, as this will help the battery perform better and last longer.
According to H.P. Garg and J. Prakash, overcharging of some batteries results in loss
of electrolyte, corrosion, plate growth and loss of active material from the plates,
causing reduction in battery life. Also, repeated failure to reach full charge leads to
stratification of electrolyte. Thus, there is a need of charge regulators/controllers to
optimize the battery life.
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CHAPTER THREE
DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION
3.1 BASIC DESIGN
The design is such that the solar panel will be installed on the galvanized pole
considering some specifications like angle of tilt and direction of sunlight. The
fabricated pole will be bolted on a flat slab and its uprightness will be checked using a
plum. The 12V dc battery that will power the LED bulbs will be connected to the
solar panel via the charge controller for charging purpose. The pole will be
constructed such that it will have two wings with each wing carrying one LED bulb or
lamp. The automatic switching of the lamp (ON or OFF) will be performed by the
light sensor circuit which consists of the light dependent resistor (LDR), relay, op-
amp, transistor and some other electronic components.
Fig. 3.1 Block Diagram of a Solar-powered Street Light (Automatic)
The solar panel is tilted at an angle in the range of 15°≤x≤30° facing the
geographical south. This is because Nigeria (wherein this project is being executed) is
situated in the geographical north of the globe. The sun rises at the east and sets at the
west and illumination is directed towards the geographical north. After erections have
been made on the erected pole of about 18ft, the panel would be tightened up using
bolts and nuts. The photovoltaic cells on the solar panel would generate voltage when
it is well illuminated by light.
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3.2 CHARGE CONTROLLER
The charge controller serves as an interface between the current

generated by the module and the battery charging during the day. The battery is
prevented from over-current or over-charging by the charge controller. The charge
controller is an electronic circuit comprising an operational amplifier (connected in
comparator mode), an electronic switch (transistor) and an electromechanical switch
(relay). The block diagram of a charge controller is shown on figure below:
Fig 3.2 Block Diagram of Charge Controller Unit
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Fig 3.3 Circuit Diagram of a Charge Controller
When
When VCC = 14V, VP = 7V (which is less than the reference voltage). Hence, a
variable resistor will be ideal for R2.
Choosing VP = 9V for us to have a high output.
R1 = 1KΩ, VCC = 14V, But R2 must be obtained:
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14R2 = 9 + 9R2
5R2 = 9
Preferred value, R2 = 5KΩ variable.
The comparator (LM 324) IC compares the non-inverting input voltage VP and
the non-inverting input voltage VN. There is usually a high output from the OP-AMP
if VP>VN which will switch on the transistor that will trigger the relay once the +VCC
on the battery rises to 14V in order to cut off the battery from charging throughout the
photovoltaic supply. A freewheeling diode is connected across the coil terminals of
the relay to protect the components from back emf from the inductive coil.
3.3 CHOOSING SOLAR PANEL (RATINGS)
Using four of the 5W LED bulbs amounts to 20W of electrical power being
dissipated at 12V rating, PSH = 5hrs (time of maximum illumination)
Current consumption of the 20W load = Power/Voltage = 20/12. Hence, IL = 1.67A.
Ampere hour needed per day (i.e. from 7p.m till 7a.m (12hours)) becomes:
(1.67 x 12) this yields approximately 20Ah. While current needed from the solar
panel is:
Hence, a panel that could supply a current of 4A is needed. Preferred value is

4.2A per 50W panel.
3.4 PARAMETERS FOR CHOOSING A BATTERY
Ampere-hour of the battery needed = Amp-hr needed per day x number of days of
autonomy /Depth of discharge.
Autonomy number is the number of days that could be cloudy that you want the
system to work effectively. (e.g. 2days)
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Depth of discharge (D.O.D.) of a battery is a measure of how much energy has been
taken away from a battery. With the lead-acid dry cell battery in use for this project, a
discharge of 50% or 0.5 is allowed for it without damage caused to it. Therefore,
Preferred value for battery is 60Ah to allow for losses.
3.5 DARK OPERATED SENSOR AND SWITCHING CIRCUIT
The light dependent resistor (LDR) senses the dark and daytime and responds
correspondingly to changes in the weather by causing the resistance of the resistor to
vary from about 1KΩ to 100KΩ and vice versa. The incorporated sensor and
switching circuit is shown in the next page:
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© Amusan Olusola 2011

.
T
V 4
3
N
2
1
V 11
© Amusan Olusola 2011
Fig. 3.4 Sensor and Switching Circuit
This change in resistance causes a change in the voltage levels or the value of
the non-inverting input (VP). Assuming that VN is being regulated constantly by the
voltage divider between R1 and R2, we assume that R1 = R2, which in turn equals
10KΩ,
Then,
When LDR is at 1KΩ, (daytime);
Here, it is seen that VP < VN, implying that there is low output.
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When the LDR (Rλ) is at 100KΩ, (Dark time),

Then VP is
Here, VP>VN which in turn fulfills the condition for high output of the
comparator. The high output of the comparator would switch on the transistor and it
conducts to trigger the relay which will switch on the LED bulbs at the dark time. A
freewheeling diode is connected across the coil terminals of the relay for protection
against back e.m.f.
The variable 10KΩ resistor is used to tune up the sensitivity of the dark
operated sensor. The 1KΩ resistor connected in series with the LED indicator for the
output serves as a current limiter for the light emitting diode. The maximum current
of the LED is 10mA which is IF. The output voltage VCC is also known as the LED
operating voltage (VLED). This has a value of 12V.
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CHAPTER FOUR
DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION & INSTALLATION
4.1 METAL FRAMEWORK

The metal framework upon which the circuitry, battery and luminaries
will be installed requires a suitable mechanical engineering design. Mechanical
design means the design of things and systems of a mechanical nature. For the
most part, mechanical design utilizes mathematics, the material science and the
engineering mechanics science (Charles R. Mischke, 2002). This comprises a
galvanized steel column, mild steel solar tray guide, base plate, light brace
support, battery and circuit container as well as a variety of suitable fasteners.
The two main types of metallic materials utilized are discussed in the following
paragraphs.
Galvanized Steel
According to William F. Hosford (2005), galvanized means zinc plated.
Because zinc is anodic to iron, galvanizing protects the steel from corrosion.
Galvanized steel is a form of steel that has gone through a chemical process to
keep it from corroding. During the process, the steel gets coated in layers of
zinc to prevent rust, since zinc is resistant to rust. Galvanized steel is an
essential fabrication component for outdoor applications as well as industrial
marine use. The major method of preventing steel from corrosion is by alloying
it with another metal such as zinc. The chemical reactions between the two
metals cause a bonding to occur. This action does not make zinc a paint or coat.
Instead, it becomes part of it on a permanent basis. Zinc protects the steel by
acting as a sacrificial layer. As such, if rust occurs on the surface of galvanized
steel, the zinc part of it gets corroded first, and this prevents the rust from
getting to the pure steel.
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Galvanization process is termed hot dip galvanization. It is the process of

coating iron, steel or aluminium with a thin layer of zinc, by passing the metal
through a molten bath of zinc at a temperature of around 460˚C. The galvanic
process was discovered by Luigi Galvani in the 1700s when he invented the
galvanic cell. Galvanization is the name given to the electrochemical processes
in his honour. This however should not be confused with galvanizing steel,
because it is not an electrochemical process, though the result remains the
same.
Steel in galvanized form can be found everywhere as it has wide
applications. An advantage of this form of steel is its effectiveness. And above
all, it can be recycled and re-used multiple times. Galvanized steel is very
practicable in applications where this is high proximity to rust, and rust
resistance is required. Galvanized steel is also suitable for high temperature
applications of up to 200˚C. The use of galvanized steel at temperatures above
this will result in peeling of the zinc at inter-metallic layer. Hot dip galvanized
steel can be referred to as galvanized iron. It is used in heating and cooling duct
systems in building.
Mild Steel
Also referred to as low carbon steel, mild steel is weldable and hard. It is
malleable when heated, and as such can be forged. These properties are due to
the presence of minute quantity of carbon content for hardening. It has a low
content of carbon, up to (0.3%), and is neither extremely brittle nor ductile. It is
used where large amount of steel has to be formed such as structural steel.
Other advantages of using mild steel include relative cheapness, availability of
wide variety with different properties, high degree of stiffness and magnetic
property.
Mild steel also has wide applications, as it is the most common form of
steel. It has got a relatively low price while it has properties that are acceptable
for many useful applications. Carbon steels that have about 0.3% require
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special precautions. Relative to stainless steel, there are fewer problems

associated when welding mild steel. It has poor corrosion resistance, implying
that it rusts easily. Hence, it should not be used in corrosive environment unless
a provision for protective coating is made.
4.2 WELDING
It is a process of permanently joining two or more metal parts by
melting both materials. Welding may be considered to be a fabrication
technique. In welding, two or more parts are joined to form a single piece when
one-part fabrication is expensive or inconvenient (William D. Callister, 1997).
The molten materials cool quickly and the two metals are permanently bonded.
Higher content or alloy steels tend to form hard welds that are brittle and could
crack. This unsuitable tendency can be reduced by tempering. When low
carbon steel is used, the surface-cleaning process which is becomes necessary
when aluminium is used can be easily avoided, preventing further cost.
Materials that are similar in composition cannot be welded by spot welding
method due to different melting properties and terminal conductivities. Steel
that is plated can be assumed to take the characteristics of its coating. Nickel
and chrome plate steels are relatively easy to weld by spot welding, whereas
aluminium, zinc and tin need special preparation to be able to weld them.
Arc welding
This is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an
electric arc between an electrode and the base material, thereby melting the
metal at the welding point. They use either direct current or alternating current
consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is sometimes
protected by some type of inert gas known as a shielding gas. This method of
welding is widely used because of its low capital and running cost.
Welding of Galvanized Steel
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The welding of galvanized steel is done in the same way as the welding
of base steel of the same composition. The difference between welding
galvanized steel and uncoated steel is a result of low vaporization temperature
of the zinc coating. The successful welding of galvanized steel is so widely
accepted that there is little mechanical property that compares uncoated and
galvanized weld. Weld toughness, porosity control, corrosion resistance, etc are
much more complex that the strength of the weld.
4.3 SCREWING
Screwing is another method of joining metals. It consists of proper
cleaning of the parts to be joined, and then using the appropriate joining pieces.
They are made of iron, brass, bronze or steel and have heads of various shapes,
half-round heads, counter sunk heads, cheese heads, half round and counter
sunk combined. All screws used for metals are known as tapped screws or
metal thread screws, which distinguishes them from screws used for wood.
Screws are made in various pitches. The pitch of screw is the distance it will
move in the direction of its axis in one revolution through a fixed nut. Also,
screws can be identified by their diameter standard, shape of head metal and
length under head. In screwing work together, the part that takes the head of the
screw has a clearing hole in it, while the other part has to have a tapping hole,
and this is known as the core diameter. This enables the work to be drawn
tightly together.
4.4 INSTALLATION
The automatic solar-powered street light is installed with a twin arm
lighting kit to operate in a dusk-to-dawn operation mode using an automatic
ON/OFF feature. The lighting kit does not utilize an inverter circuit but instead,
four 15Watt D.C. bulbs powered by D.C. supply from the battery are
employed.
©2011
37
Installation of Solar Panel
Attach the solar panel tray guide or carrier upon the pole and slightly fasten its
bolts and nuts. Fix the solar panel into the tray guide and tighten the
appropriate screws effectively. Connect the 6mm cables from the panel
terminals to the battery and also, from the battery to the electronic circuit unit.
Ensure that the standard polarities are observed i.e. black for negative (labelled
–ve) and red for positive (labelled +ve). Adjust the solar panel’s direction and
angle to obtain optimal performance, and fasten the bolts and nuts tightly.
Installation/Erection of Pole
An anti-skid unloaded metal pole having a square base is erected on a

concreted square-shaped foundation. This base of the pole then fastened to the
foundation by means of rag bolts. Consequently, the pole is made to stand
uprightly.
Installation of the Lighting Kits & the Battery
Carefully secure the lighting kits into the lamp holders and fix the
luminaries. Then connect the wires to the controller as shown in the associated
wiring diagram of this project. Also, put the battery in the box attached to the
erected pole, ensuring appropriate connection of cables unto it with battery
clips.
Installation of the Charge Controller of the Automatic Switch

Since circuitry of this design incorporates both a charge controller unit
and a dark-operated sensor switch together as a kit, both units are installed on
the same electronic board and planted in the same enclosure together with the
battery. The battery, lighting lamps and the solar panel are connected
©2011
38
appropriately to the charge controller/automatic switch as shown in the block

wiring diagram as shown below.
L
NE
PA
R
LA
SO
4.2 Wiring Block Diagram of Automatic Solar-powered Street Light
4.5 TESTING
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39
After the installation process has been completed, an act of testing and if
necessary, a troubleshooting session must be executed. Testing is the act of
examining of the normal working operation, seeking to know the
characteristics of the equipment and noting where appropriate changes can be
made. On the other hand, troubleshooting is the art of isolating problem areas
and using a variety of techniques and experience to solve it. These are done to
ensure that the fabricated lightning equipment is in optimal working condition.
If any performance deviation is observed, the operation of the equipment must
be troubleshooted in order to isolate the problem and fix the fault.
At night, the streetlight operated by itself, switching on the luminaries

and by dusk, it switched off the lamps by itself. Therefore, the characteristics of
the equipment were normal and there is no need for further changes. This
project has been tested ok.
4.6 OBSERVATIONS
The following observations were made:
• To enhance the sensitivity of the LDR and hence, improve the

performance of the streetlight, the potentiometer was removed from
inside the circuitry’s container and be put on the outside the casing.
• Measured charging current and optimal or average output voltage of PV

cell were respectively.
At the testing stage, the proper charging of the battery from the solar
panel was checked and noticed to be appropriate. Also, since this street light is
meant to work without the need for manual switching, it was observed to have
worked from dusk to the early hours of the morning.
Lastly, it was noticed that the charging current increases with

illumination received by the panel from the sun. In other words, the charging
rate is directly proportional to the illumination received from the sun.
©2011
40
4.7 PRECAUTIONS
Considering the socio-economic and quality control factors involved in
this project work, certain cautions must be taken at the fabrication stage.
Factors such as cost and quality of materials, environmental condition of
installation location and affordability of finished product must be checked
when planning, fabricating and criticizing the work done. The following should
be considered when executing this project work:
• The materials used for the project must be carefully selected to ensure a
balance between cost and quality thereby making finished product
affordable and reproducible. High quality galvanized steel (expensive)
was coupled with moderate quality mild steel (relatively inexpensive) in
fabricating this project work. Also, D.C. bulbs were utilized instead of
the more common LED array lamps to ensure that high cost of
production does not hinder the successful completion of the project.
When implementing this kind of project on a commercial scale, cost and
quality must be well balanced to ensure that finished equipment does not
become too expensive or be of poor quality.
• The battery should be connected first to the circuit unit to prevent
unwanted oscillation of the relay.
• The LDR must be well exposed to an atmosphere where light intensity
can be properly sensed.
4.8 BILL OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS & EVALUATION

(BEME)
It is the bill of materials identifying and listing the components of a
finished engineering product. It itemizes the raw materials, subassemblies, and
even the intangibles that contribute to the costs of manufacturing a product. See
next page for the associated BEME.
©2011
BILL OF ENGINEERING MATERIAL AND EVALUATION 41
UNIT AMOUNT
S/N DESCRIPTION MAKE/BUY QUANTITY
PRICE (Naira)
1 Base Plate Make 1
2 Stud & Rag Bolt Buy 4
3 Steel Column Buy 1
4 Positioner Locknut Buy 2
5 Split Positioner Make 1
6 Bulb Holder Buy 2
7 Light Brace Suppport Make 2
8 Battery & Circuit Container Make 1
9 Solar Panel Tray Guide Make 1
10 Weldering Cost N/A N/A
11 Battery Buy 1
12 Bulbs Buy 4
13 Solar Panel Buy 1
14 Logistics & Transport N/A N/A
15 10KΩ Resistor Buy 3
16 470µF Capacitor Buy 2
17 C945 Transistor Buy 6
18 1KΩ Resistor Buy 6
19 10KΩ Variable Resistor Buy 2
20 5KΩ Variable Resistor Buy 2
21 92XX Series Diode Buy 3
22 Red LED Buy 2
23 Green LED Buy 2
24 LM 324N Buy 2
2 30A, 12V Relay Buy 2
26 Soldering Lead Buy 3
27 Veroboard Buy 1
28 Jumper Wire Buy 2
29 LDR Buy 1
30 LM 7808 Buy 2
31 Battery Clip Buy 2
32 IC Socket Buy 1
33 10mm Copper Wire Buy 6
34 5mm Copper Wire Buy 6
35 Casing Buy 1
36 Cement Buy 1
37 Bricklayer's Labour Cost N/A N/A
Overall Cost
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42
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSION
The solar-powered streetlight was designed and constructed such that
the conventional need for inverter or utility power source is eliminated. Also, the
equipment was fabricated along with a switching circuit and charge controller unit
that prevents the battery from overcharging. The main improvement of this project
has been the elimination of a dc to ac inverter unit.
5.2 RECOMMENDATION
It is recommended that LED array lamps be utilized instead of DC bulbs in
order to achieve greater efficiency and luminosity. It should however be noted that the
use of such lamps implies a higher cost of production for the project implementers.
Also, the services of skilled and seasoned labourers should be employed for
the mechanical and civil aspects of this project. This is to ensure proper balance
between the cost, quality and durability of the metal framework and the concrete slab.
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43
REFERENCES
Array of Photovoltaic Cells. Microsoft Student 2008 Edition, USA, Microsoft
Corporation.
Callister, W. (1997) Materials Science and Engineering: an Introduction, Canada,
John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Garg, H.P. & Prakash J. (2000), Solar Energy: Fundamentals and Applications.
New Delhi, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd.
Holladay, A. (2008) "Solar Energy", Microsoft Encarta 2008 Edition, USA,
Microsoft Corporation.
Hosford, W. (2005) Physical Metallurgy. Florida, CRC Press.
Maloney, T (1996) Modern Industrial electronics, 3rd Edition, USA, Prentice-Hall
Inc.
Mischke C. R. & Shigley J. E. (2002) Mechanical Engineering Design, USA,
McGraw-Hill Inc.
Perlin, J. (1999) From Space to Earth: The Story of Solar Electricity, USA, Aatec
Publishers.
http://www.blurtit.com/q856738.html
http://www.solar-street-lighting.com
http://www.ciras.iastate.edu/publications/CIRASNews/fall97/bom.html
http://www.wikipedia.com
©2011

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LAUTECH SOLAR-POWERED PROJECTS: THE DEPT.

DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION

Morakinyo Ayodeji, Amusan Olusola,

January 12, 2011.

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 SOLAR ENERGY 4

CHAPTER THREE: DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION

3.1 BASIC DESIGN 16

CHAPTER FOUR: DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION &

4.1 METAL FRAMEWORK 23

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION

Figure Title Page

2.2 Array of Photovoltaic Cells 6

2.3 Circuit Symbol of a Photo-resistor 7

Table Title Page

1.2 AIM & OBJECTIVES

1.3 SIMILAR WORK

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

1.5 SCOPE OF STUDY

2.1 SOLAR ENERGY

concentrating collectors must be used (John Perlin, 1999). Concentrating collector

2.2 SOLAR PANEL

Fig 2.1 Schematic Symbol for a Photovoltaic Cell

Fig 2.2 Array of Photovoltaic Cells

2.3 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR)

Fig 2.3 Circuit Symbol of a Photo-resistor (LDR)

The LDR needs an external voltage source to produce current which is

2.4 RESISTORS & LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LEDs)

Fig. 2.4 Circuit Symbols for Fixed and Variable Resistors.

Resistor values: the resistance values of a resistor is either stamped on it or

Colour Tolerance Value

Table 2.1 Resistor Tolerance Band Values

Band Colour Code

Table 2.2 Resistor Colour Band Values

2.5 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (LM324N)

Where, RA and RB are Resistances.

Fig 2.6 Schematic Diagram of the LM324N OP-AMP

3, 5, 10, 12 Non-inverting Input

Table 2.3 LM324N Pins and their Functions

2.6 CONSTANT VOLTAGE REGULATOR (LM 7808)

2.7 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

This is a three layered, three terminal semiconductor device which is used in

By adding other impurities such as Gallium, an electron deficiency or hole is

The bipolar junction transistor can also function in 3 different configurations:

Relays usually consist of three contacts of connection. Namely;

Fig. 2.7 Circuit Symbol of a Relay Switch

A Battery is an electric cell or a device that converts chemical energy into

Batteries in which the chemicals cannot be reconstituted into their original

3.1 BASIC DESIGN

Fig. 3.1 Block Diagram of a Solar-powered Street Light (Automatic)

3.2 CHARGE CONTROLLER

The charge controller serves as an interface between the current

Fig 3.2 Block Diagram of Charge Controller Unit

Fig 3.3 Circuit Diagram of a Charge Controller

Choosing VP = 9V for us to have a high output.

R1 = 1KΩ, VCC = 14V, But R2 must be obtained:

Preferred value, R2 = 5KΩ variable.

3.3 CHOOSING SOLAR PANEL (RATINGS)

Hence, a panel that could supply a current of 4A is needed. Preferred value is

3.4 PARAMETERS FOR CHOOSING A BATTERY

Preferred value for battery is 60Ah to allow for losses.