Porphyry-type orebodies are low-grade, high-tonnage accumulations of mineralized rock

associated with intrusive magmatic bodies. They are most commonly mined by open-pit
methods, and because of their great size have led to the creation of some of the largest man-made
excavations on Earth. Porphyry-type deposits are by far the biggest single orebodies exploited at
present; they can range from hundreds to thousands of millions of tonnes of ore. An example is
the giant Chuquicamata deposit in Chile, which originally comprised over 9000 million tonnes of
mined ore and reserves. The igneous rocks that are intimately associated with these deposits are
normally porphyritic (that is, they contain large crystals). They range from intermediate to felsic
in composition, and include diorites, monzonites, granodiorites, granites, and tonalites. The most
common commodity of interest is copper (hence the name ‘porphyry copper deposit’) but they
are also important sources of molybdenum and gold. Smaller quantities of other metals,
including silver, tin, tungsten, and palladium, can also be refined from porphyry copper ores.
Mineralization in porphyry deposits in widely disseminated throughout the host rocks and ore
grades are very low, but because of their large size, the orebodies can be mined profitably.

Although closely associated with plutonic igneous rocks, porphyry mineralization commonly
encompasses large volumes of the surrounding host rocks to the intrusion. These can include
igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks ranging in age from Precambrian to Phanerozoic.
The emplacement of porphyry bodies is usually controlled by regional fault structures and zones
of fractured rock. The intrusive bodies themselves may be composed of a single intrusion or of
multiple intrusions. The intrusions are passively emplaced into the surrounding host by stoping
and assimilation. (Stoping is a process in which pieces of country rock are wedged off by magma
sink, and are assimilated.) Geological evidence shows that the igneous bodies that generated
porphyry ores were emplaced at relatively shallow levels in the crust (less than 4 km) and that
they may have provided the magma source for the generation of large volcanoes on the surface
which have since been eroded away. Where several intrusions of magma are present, it is
common for mineralization to be related to the latest intrusions, which tend to be most
differentiated. The presence of phenocryts in the intrusions indicates that their magmas were
partially crystalline when emplaced and that crystallization of the remaining melt occurred
rapidly.

The worldwide distribution of porphyry deposits is controlled by orogenic belts, where

deformation of the crust is caused by the collision of two of the Earth's tectonic plates. Two
types of orogenic belts host porphyry deposits: those created by the subduction of oceanic crust
beneath continental crust along a continental margin and those found along island arcs where two
oceanic plates are colliding. The numerous deposits located along the west coast of South
America are perhaps the best example of a group of porphyry deposits formed by subduction
along a continental margin. Those in the Philippines and Papua New Guinea are examples of
deposits generated in island arcs formed by colliding oceanic plates. Most deposits are of
Mesozoic or Cenozoic age, but some Palaeozoic examples are known, such as those in the
Appalachian orogen of Canada and the United States. Older Precambrian deposits are difficult to
recognize because of later deformation and erosion, but some rare examples have been found.

The magmas that form porphyry copper deposits are thought to be generated by the melting of
subducted oceanic crust. This crust contains a high concentration of water because of the
presence of minerals, such as chlorite, that contain water in their structures. When oceanic crust
is heated, it dehydrates and then melts to produce magma into which the water can dissolve. The
magma is less dense than the surrounding mantle rocks; it rises and penetrates the lower crust,
where further melting and assimilation of crustal rocks can occur. These modified magmas can
rise up to high levels in the crust. During their ascent, the pressure drops, causing the water
dissolved in the magmas to separate—a process referred to as ‘first boiling’. The rising magma
may also begin to crystallize as it ascends, generating crystals of minerals such as plagioclase.
These crystals eventually form the phenocrysts found in porphyritic rocks. The exsolution of
water cools the remaining magma and induces more rapid crystallization before it can reach the
surface. Further crystallization results in more water being expelled in a process called ‘second
boiling’. The outer surface of the intrusive body cools more rapidly, forming a carapace of
essentially solid rock at temperatures much lower than its centre. This confines the remaining
partially molten interior and any water exsolving from it, resulting in a large increase of pressure
(Fig. 1a). When the internal pressure builds up to a high enough level, the carapace fractures and
the high-temperature fluids are released upwards into the solidified porphyry and its surrounding
host rocks (Fig. 1b). The release of these fluids and the concomitant drop in pressure induces
crystallization deeper in the intrusive mass, and the cycle begins anew. This cyclic process
continues and the carapace and the fractures generated within it migrate downward to greater
depths (Fig. 1c). Eventually, confining pressures, caused by the overlying rocks, rise to the point
where fracturing cannot occur, and the process ceases.

Fig. 1. Idealized model for the generation of porphyry copper deposits. (a) Early-stage
crystallization of the outer regions of the intrusion confines partially crystallized magma and its
exsolved brine. This causes a build-up of pressure in the intrusion, which is released by
fracturing of the carapace and its surrounding host rocks. (b) High-temperature brines are
released into the fractured rocks, resulting in potassic alteration and low-grade copper
mineralization. The release of pressure and loss of fluid cause further crystallization deeper into
the intrusion. (c) As the influx of magmatic fluids wanes, meteroic waters invade the solidified
intrusion, become heated, and react with the rock, causing phyllic alteration. These circulating
fluids can also generate argillic alteration of the periphery of the phyllic zone as well as
propylitic alteration further from the intrusion.
Although water is an important component released from the magma as it crystallizes, other
components can also be expelled from the melt. In particular, chloride salts such as sodium
chloride, potassium chloride, and iron chloride also partition between the magma and the
aqueous fluid forming brines, which can contain salt concentrations of up to 70 per cent by
weight. Trace metals in the magmas may also partition into the brines, causing enrichment of
valuable metals in these high-temperature fluids. When the brines are expelled during fracturing,
they pass through rock with which they are no longer in chemical equilibrium. This results in an
exchange of chemical components between rock and fluid, a process known as ‘hydrothermal
alteration’. This exchange causes changes to the fluid as well as to the wall rock. At the same
time, cooling of the fluid can occur. Taken together, these two processes induce gradual changes
in the physical and chemical properties of the fluid. These changes bring about the precipitation
of ore minerals in the fractures, together with other gangue minerals such as quartz and
potassium feldspar.

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The hydrothermal alteration generated during the formation of porphyry deposits is one of their
distinctive features. Its study has led to great advances in the understanding of hydrothermal ore
deposits of many types. In 1970, Lowell and Guilbert published a study of the alteration zones of
the San Manuel–Kalamazoo porphyry deposit and compared these with the alteration found at 27
other porphyry deposits. This led to the Lowell–Guilbert model for the alteration zonation of
porphyry deposits. In this idealized model, alteration zones are centred on the porphyry intrusion
and consist of the potassic, phyllic, argillic, and propylitic zones. The central potassic zone is
characterized by the presence of potassium-bearing minerals such as orthoclase (a potassium
feldspar) and biotite. Other minerals that may be present include anhydrite, chlorite, and sericite.
Veins in the potassic zone are filled with minerals similar to those found in the altered wall rock.
Fluid inclusion and isotopic evidence shows that potassic alteration is caused by brines which are
composed of a high proportion of magmatic fluid and have very high temperatures (400–700
°C). It appears that in the early stages of development these magmatic fluids are expelled
upwards and outwards into fractured rock which, at the same time, prevents the incursion of
more dilute fluids at lower temperatures from the surrounding wall rock (Fig. 1b).

Phyllic alteration surrounds the potassic core and is distinguished by the mineral assemblage
quartz–sericite–pyrite. During its formation, most of the original silicate minerals in the rock are
broken down by the hydrothermal fluids and replaced by sericite or clay minerals, or both. These
reactions generate large amounts of excess silica, which goes to form quartz. Iron released from
the alteration of iron-bearing minerals, as well as iron and sulphur added by the fluid, form
pyrite. Fluid inclusion and isotopic evidence show that the fluids responsible for the formation of
phyllic alteration were less saline (less than 15 per cent salt), lower in temperature (250–450 °C),
and had only a small magmatic component. Phyllic alteration is considered to be the result of the
incursion of cooler meteoric water into the porphyry environment. This water becomes heated
and rises, reacting at the same time with the host rocks (Fig. 1c). A continuous supply of
meteoric water causes convection around the periphery of the intrusion, allowing large volumes
of fluid to pass through the rock. As the porphyry cools, less magmatic water is expelled and the
convecting fluids can penetrate deeper into the intrusion, overprinting the pre-existing potassic
assemblage.

Argillic alteration is normally found on the periphery of the phyllic zone, and is characterized by
the presence of clay minerals such as kaolinite and montmorillonite. These minerals typically
form when hydrothermal alteration is caused by acidic heated fluids. Most minerals are unstable
when in contact with such fluids and break down, releasing most of the metals in their structures.
During this process, the rock acts as a neutralizer of the acidic fluid, and metals are exchanged
for hydrogen ions. Metals such as silicon and aluminum are less soluble in these fluids and
remain as quartz and clay minerals. Isotopic evidence shows that argillic alteration is caused by
hydrothermal fluids composed mainly of meteoric water.

The propylitic alteration zone extends outward from the intrusion into less altered host rocks. It
is identified by the common occurrence of chlorite and calcite as alteration products of biotite
and hornblende in the host. Other minerals that are present in this zone include pyrite and
epidote. Propylitic alteration represents the weakest alteration found in porphyry coppers. It is
caused by heated convecting meteoric water. The Lowell–Guilbert model represents an idealized
porphyry deposit; many variations exist, mainly because of differences in the composition of the
host intrusion and its wall rocks.

Ore minerals in porphyry deposits are commonly found in concentric zones around the intrusion,
much like the alteration zones. This is not unexpected considering that the ore minerals
themselves are alteration minerals and are formed by the same chemical processes that resulted
in the hydrothermal alteration. The central potassic core normally contains low-grade
mineralization consisting of minor chalcopyrite, molybdenite, and pyrite. These minerals occur
in dense microfractures in the altered host intrusion. Along the contact between the potassic and
phyllic alteration zones, higher-grade ore is found; this consists of chalcopyrite, molybdenite,
and pyrite hosted in microfractures and larger fracture networks. The total sulphide mineral
content may be as high as 10–15 per cent; copper concentrations vary from 5 to 10 kg per tonne
of ore. Mineralization in the argillic and propylitic alteration zones is typically of low grade and
uneconomic.
Bruce W. Mountain

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Read more: porphyry copper deposits - Fig. 1 - Alteration, Minerals, Rocks, Water, Intrusion,
and Rock http://science.jrank.org/pages/48023/porphyry-copper-deposits.html#ixzz0xnaXugSU