SUBMITTED BY
SAURABH KOLHE 0206EC071095
VATSAL TRIPATHI 0206EC071113
VIPIN PATEL 0206EC071115
VIRENDRA PATEL 006EC071117
VIVEK BHARDWAJ 0206EC071118
VIVEK
0206EC071120
NANDANWAR
In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
Of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Ms Namrata Rapartiwar
DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the project entitled “LASER BASED COMMUNICATION
LINK ‘’ Which is being submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for
award of the Degree of bachelor of engineering in ELECTRONICS
&COMMUNICATION and end Engineering to “ RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI
VISHWAVIDYALAYA, BHOPAL (M.P.)’’ is an authentic record of our own work
done under the guidance of Ms Brajlata Chourasiya & Ms Namrata
Rapartiwar, department of electronics & communication &Engineering , GYAN
GANGA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY &SCIENCES , JABALPUR…….
The matter reported in this project has not been submitted earlier for the
award of any other degree.
Dated
SAURABH KOLHE
Place VATSAL TRIPATHI
VIPIN PATEL
VIRENDRA PATEL
VIVEK BHARDWAJ
VIVEK NANDANWAR
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We sincerely express indebtedness to esteemed and revered guide “Ms
Brajlata Chourasiya & Ms Namrata Rapartiwar ‘’, Lecturer in Department
name for his invaluable guidance.
We take this opportunity to express deep sense of gratitude to our HOD (EC)
“Prof Vinod Kapse‘’, Electronics and communication’’ for his encouragement
and kind approval.
We are also thankful to our project Co-ordinator “Mr. S.N. Jarholiya”, for his
sincere supervision and encouragement.
We are also thank him in providing the computer lab facility .we would like to
express our sincere regards to him for advice and counseling from time to
time.
DATED:
Place:
ABSTRACT
Laser as a communication medium can provide a good substitute for the present day
communication systems as the problem of interference faced in case of electromagnetic
waves is not there and high deal of secrecy is available. Laser communications offers a viable
alternative to RF communications for inter satellite links and other applications where high
performance links are a necessity. High data rate, small antenna size, narrow beam
divergence, and a narrow field of view are characteristics of laser communications that offer
a number of potential advantages for system design.
The purpose of the project is to determine the feasibility of replacing microwave
communications with laser communications to remote locations. This link is unreliable and
can be disrupted in fog or rain. The current system has a slow data rate of 1.54 Mbps,
equivalent to using a dial up modem on any individual computer. When this link goes down,
all communications to and from the stationare lost, leaving the station unable to carry out its
missions. The system proposed to solve this problem utilizes a long cavity laser operating at
1550 nm. The system will also use redundancies as well as spatial diversity of seven lasers to
achieve reliability and high data rates averaging 2.4 Gbps. The transmitter and receiver will
be set up on gimbals connected to a control system that ensures alignment based off a pulse
train on the receiver plate. This pulse train also ensures that the signal is penetrating the
atmosphere over the 8 mile distance. A comparison between the microwave and laser
communications was completed and future work includes implementing a proposed three
phase test plan.
A basic communication system is made up of three main parts being the
transmitter, the medium over which the message is being sent, and the receiver. A good
example of this is two people communicating from one side of a room to the other. If the
person wants to communicate with the other person, he/she speaks words towards the
direction of the other individual who receives the voice information and determines the
message. This example is much like how any general communication system works. First, the
message is determined that needs to be sent to the receiving end. The message is then sent to
the transmitter. The transmitter, much like the person’s mouth, is sending the signal
containing the message from one person to the other. This can be compared to using an
antenna to send out a signal. The signal then must travel through some type of medium to
reach the receiver. For the two people talking, this medium would be air. But, sometimes this
medium is some type of cable or wire. The signal is then collected by the receiver, which is
comparable to the person on the receiving end hearing the sound of the person’s voice.
Sometimes the signal can be immediately understood, but other times the signal must first be
decoded in order to understand the message.
LIST OF TABLE
1 PIN SPECIFICATION OF 555 TIMER 17
6 COMPONENT LIST 63
LIST OF SYMBOLS
1 LDR 19
6 A ZENER DIODE 52
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE i
CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF TABLE v
LIST OF SYMBOLS vi
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM 2
EXPLANATION
1.1.1 CONDENSOR MICROPHONE 2
1.1.2 TRANSMITTING SECTION 2
1.1.3 LASER TORCH 2
1.1.4 RECEIVING SECTION 3
1.1.5 LOUDSPEAKER 3
2 LITERATURE RIVIEW 4
2.1 OPTICAL & MICROWAVE 4
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN FOR A
REALISTIC INTERSTELLAR
EXPLORER
2.2 OPTICAL COMMUNICATION 5
SYSTEMS FOR SMART DUST
2.3 TOWARD A WIRELESS OPTICAL 6
COMMUNICATION LINK
BETWEENTWO SMALL
UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES
2.4 FREE SPACE OPTICAL 7
COMMUNICATION LINK
3 METHODOLOGY 8
3.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION 8
3.2 THE TRANSMITTER CIRCUIT 9
3.3 THE RECIEVER CIRCUIT 11
4 DEVICES & TOOLS 14
4.1 LASER 14
4.2 555 TIMER 16
4.3 MICROPHONE 17
4.4 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR 18
4.5 LOW VOLTAGE AUDIO 19
AMPLIFIER IC LM386
4.6 DECADE COUNTER IC CD4033 20
4.7 SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY 22
4.8 PHASE LOCKED LOOP NE567 24
4.9 MELODY GENERATOR IC UM66 25
4.10 LINEAR REGULATOR 26
4.11 RESISTORS 30
4.12 VARIABLE RESISTORS 38
4.13 CAPACITOR 40
4.14 TRANSISTOR 45
4.15 ZENER DIODE 51
5 DESIGN & IMPLEMENTATION 53
5.1 PCB MANUFACTURING 53
PROCESS
5.2 BOARD TYPES 53
5.3 DESIGN SPECIFICATION 54
5.3.1 STEPS TAKEN WHILE 54
PREPARING CIRCUIT
5.3.1.1 PCB DESIGNING 54
5.3.1.2 LAYOUT DESIGN 54
5.3.1.2.1 ETCHING PROCESS 55
5.3.1.2.2 COMPONENT ASSEMBLY 56
5.3.1.2.3 SOLDERING 57
6 RESULT 58
7 CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE 59
7.1 CONCLUSION 59
7.2 FUTURE SCOPES 59
8 REFERENCES 60
9 APPENDIX 61
9.1 PCB LAYOUT 61
9.2 COMPONENT LAYOUT 62
9.3 COMPONENT LIST 63
9.4 DATASHEETS 65
9.4.1 CD4033BMS 65
9.4.2 LM 7806 68
9.4.3 LM386 70
9.4.4 NE 567 74
9.4.5 NE555 TIMER 77
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Laser as a communication medium can provide a good substitute for the present day
communication systems as the problem of interference faced in case of electromagnetic
waves is not there and high deal of secrecy is available. Laser communications offers a viable
alternative to RF communications for inter satellite links and other applications where high-
performance links are a necessity. High data rate, small antenna size, narrow beam
divergence, and a narrow field of view are characteristics of laser communications that offer
a number of potential advantages for system design. The present paper involves the study of
wireless, open channel communication system using laser a carrier for voice signals. Using
this circuit we can communicate with your own neighbors wirelessly. Instead of RF signals,
light from a laser torch is used as the carrier in the circuit. The laser torch can transmit light
up to a distance of about 500 meters. The phototransistor of the receiver must be accurately
oriented towards the laser beam from the torch. If there is any obstruction in the path of laser
beam, no sounds will be heard from the receiver.
1.1BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION
1.1.1CONDENSER MICROPHONE
The transmitter section comprises condenser microphone. In transmitter the frequency is generated
which is used to match the frequency in the phase locked loop used in the receiver section. A switch S
is used to generate a tone which is transmitted by the transmitter to the receiver section so that
receiver can generate a tone so that the user near the receiver can know that any one at the
transmitting end wants to talks to him. The condenser mic used in the transmitter section is used to
convert the acoustic signals to the electrical signals which are modulated and send through a laser
beam used in the transmitter section.
Here we use the light rays coming from laser torch as the medium for transmission. Laser had
potential for the transfer of data at extremely high rates, specific advancements were needed in
component performance and systems engineering, particularly for space-qualified hardware. Free
space laser communications systems are wireless connections through the atmosphere. They work
similar to fiber optic cable systems except the beam is transmitted through open space. The laser
systems operate in the near infrared region of the spectrum. The laser light across the link is at a
wavelength of between 780 - 920 nm. Two parallel beams are used, one for transmission and one for
reception.
The receiver circuit uses an NPN phototransistor as the light sensor that is followed by a two
stage transistor preamplifier and LM386-based audio power amplifier. The receiver doesn't
need any complicated alignment. Just keep the phototransistor oriented towards the remote
transmitter's laser point and adjust the volume control for a clear sound.
2.1 Optical and microwave communications system conceptual design for a realistic
interstellar explorer
B.G. Boone, R.S. Bokulic, G.B. Andrews, R.L. McNutt, Jr and N. Dagalakisb
ABSTRACT
The concept of a realistic interstellar explorer has been addressed by the Johns Hopkins
University Applied Physics Laboratory (JHU/APL) with support from the NASA Institute for
Advanced Concepts (NIAC). This paper discusses the requirements, conceptual design and
technology issues associated with the optical and RF communications systems envisioned for
this mission, in which the spacecraft has a projected range of 1000 AU. Well before a range
of 100 AU interactive control of the spacecraft becomes nearly impossible, necessitating a
highly autonomous craft and one-way communications to Earth. An approach is taken in
which the role of the optical downlink is emphasized for data transfer and that of the
microwave uplink emphasized for commands. The communication system is strongly
influenced by the large distances involved, the high velocities (20 AU/year or ~ 95 km/s) as
well as the requirements for low-mass (~ 10 kg), low prime power (~ 15 W), reliability, and
spacecraft autonomy. An optical terminal concept is described that has low mass and prime
power in a highly integrated and novel architecture, but new technologies are needed to meet
the range, mass, and power requirements. These include high-power, “wall-plug” efficient
diode-pumped fiber lasers; compact, lightweight, and low-power micro-electromechanical
(MEM) beam steering elements; and lightweight diffractive quasi-membrane optics. In
addition, a very accurate star tracking mechanism must be fully integrated with the laser
downlink to achieve unprecedented pointing accuracy (~ 400 nrad RMS). The essential
optical, structural, mechanical, and electronic subsystems are described that meet the mission
requirements, and the key features of advanced technologies that need to be developed are
discussed. The conclusion from this preliminary effort is that an optical communications
downlink out to 1000 astronomical units (AU) is within the realm of technical feasibility in
the next 5-10 years if the identified technical risks for the new technologies can be retired.
2.2. Optical Communication Systems for Smart Dust
Yunbin Song
ABSTRACT
In this thesis, the optical communication systems for millimeter-scale sensing and communication
devises known as “Smart Dust” are described and analyzed. A smart dust element is a self-
contained sensing and communication system that can be combined into roughly a cubic-
millimeter mote to perform integrated, massively distributed sensor networks. The suitable
passive optical and fiber-optic communication systems will be selected for the further
performance design and analysis based on the requirements for implementing these systems.
Based on the communication link designs of the free-space passive optical and fiber-optic
communication systems, the simulations for link performance will be performed.
2.3 Toward a Wireless Optical Communication Link between Two Small Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles
M. Last, B.S. Leibowitz, B. Cagdaser, A. Jog, L. Zhou, B. Boser, K.S.J. Pister
ABSTRACT
A communication system between two autonomous micro air vehicles is proposed. Laser
communication offers advantages in range, power, and bandwidth when line of sight is
available. Beam steering is accomplished using gyro-stabilized MEMS micro mirrors. A
custom CMOS smart-pixel imager implements a 1Mbps receiver, including analog front-end
and variable-gain amplifier at each pixel. Algorithms are presented for initial link
establishment and maintenance.
2.4 Free Space Optical Laser Communication Link
Andrew W. Rebeiro and Rodney Tan
ABSTRACT
A Free Space Optical (FSO) LASER Communication Link is presented. This project deals
with the development of a full-duplex FSO analogue / digital transceiver. In this information
age, the demand for high speed, high bandwidth communications channel, is ever increasing.
FSO is presented as a solution to these demands in that it is free to implement, easy to install
and of very high bandwidth. The reader is introduced to the FSO system of communication
and the development of a small scale communicator using laser as the carrier signal for
information transfer. Experimental results explain the performance of the completed system
and offer methods of maximizing efficiency of such FSO-based communication systems.
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Fig shows the block diagram of laser based system for one way speech communication. It
comprises transmitter receiver and a common DC power supply section. The power supply
section at one end of the link provides regulated 6V to the receiver transmitter circuit. For
two way communication, you need to use an identical system with the positions of the
receiver and the transmitter reversed with this system.
In the transmitter the intensity of the laser beam is modulated by the output of an always on
code oscillator (operating at 10-15 kHz).Using a push to on switch the tone
oscillator(operating at 1-2khz) is momomentarily activated to alert the person at the receiver
end before starting a voice communication using the microphone.
The receiver receives the intensity modulated light signals through a light sensor and outputs
the code and 1 kHz tone/voice.
The circuit for detecting the code signals is built around a phase locked loop(PLL-1 ).The
absence of code signal indicates interception of the laser beam and activates an audio visual
warning at the remote receiver. For detecting the 1kHz call/tone signal, another phase locked
loop (PLL-2)is used. The call detection is indicated by a buzzer sound and an LED.
The transmitter circuit consists of a code oscillator, condenser microphone and an AF mixer
stage.
The code oscillator comprising IC NE555 (IC2) is wired as an astable multivibrator operating
at 10-15 kHz frequency. The actual oscillation frequency is decided by the timing
components including resistors R2 and R3, preset VR1and capacitor C4.We can adjust VR1
to vary the oscillation frequency to match with the centre frequency to match with the center
frequency of PLL-1 at the remote receiver end. The output of IC is fed to the base of the
mixer transistor T1 via diode D1 and level control pot meter VR3 and resistor R6.
The output of IC3 is also coupled to the base of the mixer transistor via capacitor C7,
resistor R7, preset VR4 and capacitor C9.Preset VR 4 is connected across the condenser
microphone to adjust the audio signals when someone speaks into the microphone. Preset
VR4 is used to vary the biasing signals.
The outputs of IC2 and IC3 and voice signals are mixed by transistor T1 to drive the laser
pointer LED. The mixer output modulates the intensity of light signals emitted by the laser
diode module in accordance with the level of the code oscillator and tone and audio signals
available at the bade of the mixer transistor.
Laser:
The laser diodes can be constructed using a variety of different materials to produce
distinctive wavelengths. Semiconductor laser diodes produce a much higher output power
and highly directional beams compared to the LEDs. The laser must be operated with a large
drive current to get a high density of ready to combine electrons at the pn junction. The
transmitter circuit shows the output power vs. forward current characteristics of a laser diode.
We can divide it into spontaneous emission A and laser oscillation region B. The current
required for starting oscillations is called threshold current (Ith)while the forward (excitation)
current necessary for maintaining the diodes specified optical output is called its operating
current(Iop)
For the 5mW laser shown in the transmitter circuit the typical values of threshold and
operating currents are 30mA and 45 mA, respectively. Keychain laser pointers available in
the market have a power output of 5mW with forward current limited to 20 to 5mA.Thus a
laser diode module of keychain type visible laser pointer may be used for this transmitter
circuit.
3.3 THE RECIEVER CIRCUIT
The receiver consists of a light sensor, a signal preamplifier, audio amplifier code detector
(with audio/visual alarm) and call/tone detector with buzzer indication. It uses a light
dependent resistor (LDR) as the light sensor. The resistance of LDR varies depending on the
incident light intensity, which in turn is a function of its modulation by the mixed output of
code and tone or audio signals at the transmitter mixer stage. The output of the LDR sensor is
amplified by a two stage transistor preamplifier.
The preamplifier output is coupled via following capacitor into:
1. The audio power amplifier built around IC LM386
2. Phase locked loop (PLL-1) IC5.
3. Phase locked loop (PLL-2) IC6.
The preamplifier output is fed into input pin 3 of audio power amplifier LM386 (IC4)
through volume control potmeter VR7.Capacitor C28 bypasses the noise signal and higher
order frequencies representing the code signal. The audio output (comprising voice and tone
channels) from pin 5 of IC4 is coupled to loudspeaker LS1 through capacitor C30.
A snubber network comprising capacitors and resistors is used for output stability.IC LM386
is a low voltage audio amplifier. Its gain is internally set to 20 to keep external part count
low.
The preamplifier output, as stated earlier, is also connected to phase locked loopIC5 and
IC6.(each NE567) through capacitors C25 and C26,respectively.IC NE567 is a highly stable
phase locked loop with synchronous AM lock detection and power output circuitary.It is
primarily used as a frequency decoder, which drives load whenever a sustained frequency
falling within its its detection band is present with its self biased input. The center frequency
of the band and output delay is independently determined by external components.
LINK CONTINUITY AND DISCONTUINITY INDICATION:
IC5 is used to detect the 10-15 kHzsignal.In the absence of any input signal, the center
frequency of its internal free running, current controlled oscillator is determined by resistor
R19 and capacitor C9.Preset VR5 is used for tuning IC5 to the desired center frequency in the
10-15kHz range, which should match the frequency of the code generator in the transmitter.
The output at pin 8 of IC5 remains low as long as the transmitted code is detected by IC5.As
a result, LED1 lights up to indicate continuity of the optical link/path for communications.
When the laser beam is interrupted due to any reason, the output at pin 8 of IC5 goes high
to drive transistor T4 and its collector voltage falls to trigger monostable circuits built around
IC7 and IC9(each NE555),respectively. As a result, the output at pin 3 of these ICs goes high
for the predetermined time period. The time periods of timers IC7 and IC8 depends on the
values of resistor capacitor combinations R26-31 and R25-C34,respectively.Since output pin
3 of IC7 is connected to pin1 of decade counterCD4033 (IC9),it provides a clock pulse to
counter IC9 to increment its count, indicating interruption of the laser light beam. The current
count is shown on a 7 segment display (D1S1) connected to a 7 segment decoded outputs of
counter IC9.Resistor R30 is used as a current limiting resistor in the common cathode path of
D1S1.
For frequent interruptions of light beam, the output of decade counter IC9 keeps
incrementing the count. After the count reaches 9 the next interruption resets the counter and
it starts a fresh .The counter/display can also be reset manually by momentarily depressing
press to on switch S2.
As stated earlier, IC7 and IC8 are triggered simultaneously. Thus with each interruption of
the light beam, the output of IC8 is pulsed high for a predetermined time to provide around
3V(determined by the output of zener diode ZD1) to melody IC UM66(IC10).Thus IC10
generates a melodious tune whenever the light beam is interrupted. The output of IC10 is
amplified by transistor T5 to drive loudspeaker LS2.
For initiating a call, the person at the transmitter end depresses switch S1 to alert the
remote end person of an impending voice communication. Thus the modulated light output
from the transmitter contains 1-2 kHz tone component in addition to the 10-15 kHz code
oscillator output. After detection and preamplification,1-2khz tone is decoded by PLL-2
circuit build around IC6,whose center frequency is adjusted to match the frequency of
tone/call oscillator in the transmitter.
IC6 is thus used as the call detector.Reisitor R20 and capacitor C22 decide the center
frequency of its inbuilt oscillator in the absence of an input signal. Capacitors C23 and C24
serve as low pass filter and output filters respectively. Preset VR6 is used for tuning the
inbuilt oscillator.
Thus when the 1-2khz tone component is detected by IC6,its output pin 8 goes low to light
up LED3 as also sound piezobuzzer PZ1 to alert the receiver end person. Since the 1-2khz
tone component at the output of the preamplifier also passed through LM386 power
amplifier, the tone is heard from loudspeaker LS-1 as well.
VOICE COMMUNICATION:
For voice communication, the person at the transmitter end speaks into the mic while call
switch S1 is open. The modulated light beam contains the 10-15 kHz code frequency and
voice components. After demodulation at the receiver, the 10-15 kHz code frequency and
voice components. After demodulation at the receiver, the 10-15 kHz code component is
largely bypassed by capacitor C28 at the input of LM386, while the voice component (up to
3400Hz) is attenuated insignificantly. Thus speech is reproduced at the output of LM386 via
loud speaker LS1.The code component (10-15 kHz) is detected by PLL IC5 signifying
uninterrupted light path which is indicated by LED2 as explained earlier.
CHAPTER 4
DEVICES & TOOLS
4.1LASER
LASER is also known as Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. A laser is
a device that emits light (electromagnetic radiation) through a process of optical amplification
based on the stimulated emission of photons. Light emitters are a key element in any fiber
optic system. This component converts the electrical signal into a corresponding light signal
that can be injected into the fiber. The light emitter is an important element because it is often
the most costly element in the system, and its characteristics often strongly influence the final
performance limits of a given link. Laser Diodes are complex semiconductors that convert an
electrical current into light. The conversion process is fairly efficient in that it generates little
heat compared to incandescent lights. Five inherent properties make lasers attractive for use
in fiber optics.
Type
Gas lasers
Chemical lasers
Excimer lasers
Solid-state lasers
Fiber lasers
Photonic crystal lasers
Semiconductor lasers
Dye lasers
Free electron lasers
Exotic laser
WORKING OF A LASER:
The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse generation
and oscillator applications. Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package
includes over 20 transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin
mini dual-in-line package. The 555 has three operating modes.
Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator.
Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch
switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation
(PWM) and so on.
Astable - free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED
and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms,
pulse position modulation and so on.
Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is
not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce free latched switches.
555 TIMER
1 GND
2 Trigger
3 Output
4 Reset
5 Control Voltage
6 Threshold
7 Discharge
8 Vcc
4.3 MICROPHONE
Sound is an amazing thing. All of the different sounds that we hear are caused by minute
pressure differences in the air around us. What's amazing about it is that the air transmits
those pressure changes so well, and so accurately, over relatively long distances. It was a
metal diaphragm attached to a needle, and this needle scratched a pattern onto a piece of
metal foil. The pressure differences in the air that occurred when you spoke toward the
diaphragm moved the diaphragm, which moved the needle, which was recorded on the foil.
When you later ran the needle back over the foil, the vibrations scratched on the foil would
then move the diaphragm and recreate the sound. The fact that this purely mechanical system
works shows how much energy the vibrations in the air can have! All modern microphones
are trying to accomplish the same thing as the original, but do it electronically rather than
mechanically. A microphone wants to take varying pressure waves in the air and convert
them into varying electrical signals. There are five different technologies commonly used to
accomplish this conversion. We use condenser mic in our project.
CONDENSER MICROPHONES
A condenser microphone is essentially a capacitor, with one plate of the capacitor moving in
response to soundwaves. A microphone is an acoustic-to-electric transducer or sensor that
onverts sound into an electrical signal. Microphones are used in many applications such as
tape recorders, karaoke systems, hearing aids, motion picture production, live and recorded
audio engineering, FRS radios, megaphones, in radio and television broadcasting and in
computers for recording voice, speech recognition, VoIP, and for non-acoustic purposes such
as ultrasonic checking or knock sensors. Most microphones today use electromagnetic
induction (dynamic microphone), capacitance change (condenser microphone), piezoelectric
generation, or light modulation to produce an electrical voltage signal from mechanical
vibration.
4.4 LDR (LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR):
A photo resistor or light dependent resistor (LDR) is a resistor whose resistance decreases
with increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referred to as a photoconductor.A
photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device is of
high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough
energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron (and its hole partner)
conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic
or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient
semiconductor, e.g. silicon. In intrinsic devices the only available electrons are in the valence
band, and hence the photon must have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire
bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also called dopants, added whose ground state
energy is closer to the conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to jump, lower
energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the
device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms
(impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction. This is an example of an
extrinsic semiconductor.
An LDR
The LM386 is an integrated circuit consisting of a low voltage audio power amplifier. It is
suitable for battery-powered devices such as radios, guitar amplifiers, and hobbyist projects.
The IC consists of an 8 pin dual in-line package (DIP-8) and can output 0.5 watts power
using a 9-volt power supply.
LM 3869 IC
1 Gain
2 -Input
3 +Input
4 GND
5 Vout
6 Vs
7 Bypass
8 Gain
CD4033 consists of a 5 stage Johnson decade counter and an output decoder which converts
the Johnson code to a 7 segment decoded output for driving one stage in a numerical display.
This device is particularly advantageous in display applications
where low power dissipation and/or low package count is important. A high RESET signal
clears the decade counter to its zero count. The counter is advanced one count at the positive
clock signal transition if the CLOCK INHIBIT signal is low. Counter advancement via the
clock line is inhibited when the CLOCK INHIBIT signal is high. The CLOCK INHIBIT
signal can be used as a negative-edge clock if the clock line is held high. Antilock gating is
provided on the JOHNSON counter, thus assuring proper counting sequence. The CARRY-
OUT (Cout) signal completes one cycle every ten CLOCK INPUT cycles and is used to clock
the succeeding decade directly in a multi-decade counting chain. The seven decoded outputs
(a, b, c, d, e, f, g) illuminate the proper segments in a seven segment display device used for
representing the decimal numbers 0 to 9. The 7 segment outputs go high on selection.
CD 4033 Diagram
1 Clock
2 Clock Inhibit
3 Ripple Blanking In
5 Carry Out
6 F
7 G
8 Vss
9 D
10 A
11 E
12 B
13 C
14 Lamp Test
15 Reset
16 Vdd
A phase-locked loop or phase lock loop (PLL) is a control system that tries to generate an
output signal whose phase is related to the phase of the input "reference" signal. It is an
electronic circuit consisting of a variable frequency oscillator and a phase detector. This
circuit compares the phase of the input signal with the phase of the signal derived from its
output oscillator and adjusts the frequency of its oscillator to keep the phases matched. The
signal from the phase detector is used to control the oscillator in a feedback loop.Frequency is
the derivative of phase. Keeping the input and output phase in lock step implies keeping the
input and output frequencies in lock step. Consequently, a phase-locked loop can track an
input frequency, or it can generate a frequency that is a multiple of the input frequency. The
former property is used for demodulation, and the latter property is used for indirect
frequency synthesis.Phase-locked loops are widely used in radio, telecommunications,
computers and other electronic applications. They may generate stable frequencies, recover a
signal from a noisy communication channel, or distribute clock timing pulses in digital logic
designs such as microprocessors. Since a single integrated circuit can provide a complete
phase-locked-loop building block, the technique is widely used in modern electronic devices,
with output frequencies from a fraction of a hertz up to many gigahertz.
1 Output Filter
2 LoopFilter
3 Input
4 V+
5 Timing resistor
6 Timing capacitor
7 GND
8 Output
UM66T is a melody integrated circuit. It is designed for use in bells, telephones, toys etc. It
has an inbuilt tone and a beat generator. The tone generator is a programmed divider which
produces certain frequencies. These frequencies are a factor of the oscillator frequency. The
beat generator is also a programmed divider which contains 15 available beats. Four beats of
these can be selected. There is an inbuilt oscillator circuit that serves as a time base for beat
and tone generator. It has a 62 notes ROM to play music. A set of 4 bits controls the scale
code while 2 bits control the rhythm code. When power is turned on, the melody generator is
reset and melody begins from the first note. The speaker can be driven by an external npn
transistor connected to the output of UM66.
The transistor (or other device) is used as one half of a potential divider to control the output
voltage, and a feedback circuit compares the output voltage to a reference voltage in order to
adjust the input to the transistor, thus keeping the output voltage reasonably constant. This is
inefficient: since the transistor is acting like a resistor, it will waste electrical energy by
converting it to heat. In fact, the power loss due to heating in the transistor is the current
times the voltage dropped across the transistor. The same function can be performed more
efficiently by a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), but it is more complex and the
switching currents in it tend to produce electromagnetic interference. A SMPS can easily
provide more than 30A of current at voltages as low as 3V, while for the same voltage and
current, a linear regulator would be very bulky and heavy.
Series regulators
Shunt regulators
o The series regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage to the load
through a variable resistance (the main transistor is in the "top half" of the voltage
divider). The power dissipated by the regulating device is equal to the power supply
output current times the voltage drops in the regulating device.
o The shunt regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage to ground
through a variable resistance (the main transistor is in the "bottom half" of the voltage
divider). The current through the shunt regulator is diverted away from the load and
flows uselessly to ground, making this form even less efficient than the series
regulator. It is, however, simpler, sometimes consisting of just a voltage-reference
diode, and is used in very low-powered circuits where the wasted current is too small
to be of concern. This form is very common for voltage reference circuits.
LM7806:
Common solid-state series voltage regulators are the LM78xx (for positive voltages) and
LM79xx (for negative voltages), and common fixed voltages are 6 V (for transistor-transistor
logic circuits) and 12 V (for communications circuits and peripheral devices such as disk
drives). In fixed voltage regulators the reference pin is tied to ground, whereas in variable
regulators the reference pin is connected to the centre point of a fixed or variable voltage
divider fed by the regulator's output. A variable voltage divider (such as a potentiometer)
allows the user to adjust the regulated voltage.
Figure: 1
FIXED REGULATORS:
"Fixed" three-terminal linear regulators are commonly available to generate fixed voltages of
plus 3 V, and plus or minus 5 V, 6V, 9 V, 12 V, or 15 V when the load is less than 1.5
amperes.
The "78xx" series (7805, 7812, etc.) regulate positive voltages while the "79xx" series (7905,
7912, etc.) regulate negative voltages. Often, the last two digits of the device number are the
output voltage; e.g., a 7805 is a +5 V regulator, while a 7915 is a -15 V regulator. There are
variants on the 78xx series ICs, such as 78L and 78S, some of which can supply up to 1.5
Amps.
Fixed voltage Positive and Negative regulator ICs are used in circuits to give precise
regulated voltage. 78 XX series regulator IC can handle maximum 1 ampere current. The
Regulator ICs require minimum 1.5 higher input voltages than their voltage rating. For
example 7805 IC requires minimum 6.5 volts to give 5 volt output.
Here are some circuit designs of IC 7805 to monitor the output voltage.
1. This is the manipulation of the Regulator IC 7805 to give 9 volt regulated output.
Normally the pin2 of the regulator IC is connected to the ground. Here it is connected to a
3.9 volt Zener diode. So the output from the Regulator IC will be 9 volts.
Figure : 3
2. This circuit can tell whether the IC 7805 is giving output or not. IC 7805 requires
minimum 6.5 volt input to give 5 volt regulated output. When the input voltage is above
6.5 volts, Zener conducts and LED turns on indicating sufficient input voltage. Diffuse
type Red LED requires 1.8 volts and Zener 4.7 volts .So to activate both these, input
voltage should be minimum 6.5 volts. If the input voltage drops below 6.5 volts, Zener
cutoff and LED turns off. This indicates the zero output from the regulator IC.
Figure: 4
3. This is a simple LED monitor to tell the output voltage from 7805. If the input voltage is
above 6.5 volts, LED shows full brightness. When the input voltage reduces below 6.5
volts, brightness of LED decreases.
Figure : 5
4.11 RESISTORS:
The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to depart from ohms law; this
specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for smaller values of
resistance. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be
an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly
dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally
specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular
technology.[1] A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor,
that is, the size of the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the
practical manufacturing of circuits using them.
UNITS
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilo Ohm
(1 kΩ = 103 Ω), and mega Ohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens (SI
unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S = Ω − 1.
Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are
always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.
THEORY OF OPREATION:
Ohm's law
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I)
passing through it, where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is present across a resistance
(R), a current (I) will flow through the resistance. This is directly used in practical
computations. For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt
battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes (or 40 mill amperes) will flow through that
resistor.
In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage
across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage)
seen across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as
the sum of those resistances:
As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same resistance
R is given by NR.
Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference
(voltage), however the currents through them add. The conductance of the resistors then adds
to determine the conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Req) of the
network can be computed:
The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as
in geometry) as a simplified notation. For the case of two resistors in parallel, this can be
calculated using:
As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in parallel, each of the same
resistance R, is given by R/N.
A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up
into smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,
However, some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner, requiring
more sophisticated circuit analysis. For instance, consider a cube, each edge of which has
been replaced by a resistor. What then is the resistance that would be measured between two
opposite vertices? In the case of 12 equivalent resistors, it can be shown that the corner-to-
corner resistance is 5⁄6 of the individual resistance.
One practical application of these relationships is that a non-standard value of resistance can
generally be synthesized by connecting a number of standard values in series and/or parallel.
This can also be used to obtain a resistance with a higher power rating than that of the
individual resistors used. In the special case of N identical resistors all connected in series or
all connected in parallel, the power rating of the individual resistors is thereby multiplied by
N.
Power Dissipation
The power P dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network) is
calculated as:
The total amount of heat energy released over a period of time can be determined from the
integral of the power over that period of time:
If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage to the
resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the reversible
change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms. Excessive power
dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit
board or adjacent components, or even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail
(open circuit) before they overheat dangerously. Note that the nominal power rating of a
resistor is not the same as the power that it can safely dissipate in practical use. Air
circulation and proximity to a circuit board, ambient temperature, and other factors can
reduce acceptable dissipation significantly. Rated power dissipation may be given for an
ambient temperature of 25 °C in free air. Inside an equipment case at 60 °C, rated dissipation
will be significantly less; a resistor dissipating a bit less than the maximum figure given by
the manufacturer may still be outside the safe operating area and may prematurely fail.
Resistor Marking
Most axial resistors use a pattern of colored stripes to indicate resistance. Surface-mount
resistors are marked numerically, if they are big enough to permit marking; more-recent small
sizes are impractical to mark. Cases are usually tan, brown, blue, or green, though other
colors are occasionally found such as dark red or dark gray.
Early 20th century resistors, essentially uninsulated, were dipped in paint to cover their entire
body for color coding. A second color of paint was applied to one end of the element, and a
color dot (or band) in the middle provided the third digit. The rule was "body, tip, dot",
providing two significant digits for value and the decimal multiplier, in that sequence.
Default tolerance was ±20%. Closer-tolerance resistors had silver (±10%) or gold-colored
(±5%) paint on the other end.
Four-band resistors
However the "excess noise" of a practical resistor is an additional source of noise observed
only when a current flows through it. This is specified in unit of μV/V/decade - μV of noise
per volt applied across the resistor per decade of frequency. The μV/V/decade value is
frequently given in dB so that a resistor with a noise index of 0 dB will exhibit 1 μV (rms) of
excess noise for each volt across the resistor in each frequency decade. Excess noise is thus
an example of 1/f noise. Thick-film and carbon composition resistors generate more excess
noise than other types at low frequencies; wire-wound and thin-film resistors, though much
more expensive, are often utilized for their better noise characteristics. Carbon composition
resistors can exhibit a noise index of 0 dB while bulk metal foil resistors may have a noise
index of -40 dB, usually making the excess noise of metal foil resistors insignificant. Thin
film surface mount resistors typically have lower noise and better thermal stability than thick
film surface mount resistors. However, the design engineer must read the data sheets for the
family of devices to weigh the various device tradeoffs.
While not an example of "noise" per se, a resistor may act as a thermocouple, producing a
small DC voltage differential across it due to the thermoelectric effect if its ends are at
somewhat different temperatures. This induced DC voltage can degrade the precision of
instrumentation amplifiers in particular. Such voltages appear in the junctions of the resistor
leads with the circuit board and with the resistor body. Common metal film resistors show
such an effect at a magnitude of about 20µV/°C. Some carbon composition resistors can
exhibit thermoelectric offsets as high as 400 µV/°C, whereas specially constructed resistors
can reduce this number to 0.05µV/°C. In applications where the thermoelectric effect may
become important, care has to be taken (for example) to mount the resistors horizontally to
avoid temperature gradients and to mind the air flow over the board.
Some variable resistors are designed to be mounted directly on the circuit board, but most are
for mounting through a hole drilled in the case containing the circuit with stranded wire
connecting their terminals to the circuit board.
Variable resistors
4.13 CAPACITOR:
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The
forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by
a non-conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal
foils separated by a layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in
the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of
construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while
the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
THEORY OF OPREATION:
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An
ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of
charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:
C=Q/V
Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to
vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:
Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a
capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the
electric field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its
equilibrium position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount
of energy stored, is given by:
Current-voltage relation
The current i (t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of
a charge q (t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the
dielectric layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each
one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive
charge on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the
other. Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as
proportional to the voltage as discussed above. As with any anti derivative, a constant of
integration is added to represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the
capacitor equation,
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than
the electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in
the capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.
DC Circuits:
A simple resistor-capacitor circuit demonstrates charging of a capacitor.
Capacitor markings
Most capacitors have numbers printed on their bodies to indicate their electrical
characteristics. Larger capacitors like electrolytic usually display the actual capacitance
together with the unit (for example, 220 μF). Smaller capacitors like ceramics, however, use
a shorthand consisting of three numbers and a letter, where the numbers show the capacitance
in pF (calculated as XY x 10Z for the numbers XYZ) and the letter indicates the tolerance (J,
K or M for ±5%, ±10% and ±20% respectively).
Additionally, the capacitor may show its working voltage, temperature and other relevant
characteristics.
Example
A capacitor with the text 473K 330V on its body has a capacitance of 47 x 10 3 pF = 47 nF
(±10%) with a working voltage of 330 V.
Applications
Capacitors have many uses in electronic and electrical systems. They are so common that it is
a rare electrical product that does not include at least one for some purpose.
Energy storage
A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be
used like a temporary battery. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices to
maintain power supply while batteries are being changed. (This prevents loss of information
in volatile memory.)
Conventional capacitors provide less than 360 joules per kilogram of energy density, while
capacitors using developing technologies could provide more than 2.52 kilojoules per
kilogram
In car audio systems, large capacitors store energy for the amplifier to use on demand. Also
for a flash tube a capacitor is used to hold the high voltage.
Pulsed power and weapons
Large capacitor banks (reservoir) are used as energy sources for the exploding-bridge wire
detonators or slapper detonators in nuclear weapons and other specialty weapons.
Experimental work is under way using banks of capacitors as power sources for
electromagnetic armour and electromagnetic railguns and coilguns.
Power conditioning
A 10,000 microfarad capacitor in a TRM-800 amplifier
In electric power distribution, capacitors are used for power factor correction. Such capacitors
often come as three capacitors connected as a three phase load. Usually, the values of these
capacitors are given not in farads but rather as a reactive power in volt-amperes reactive
(VAr). The purpose is to counteract inductive loading from devices like electric motors and
transmission lines to make the load appear to be mostly resistive. Individual motor or lamp
loads may have capacitors for power factor correction, or larger sets of capacitors (usually
with automatic switching devices) may be installed at a load center within a building or in a
large utility substation.
Signal coupling
Because capacitors pass AC but block DC signals (when charged up to the applied dc
voltage), they are often used to separate the AC and DC components of a signal. This method
is known as AC coupling or "capacitive coupling". Here, a large value of capacitance, whose
value need not be accurately controlled, but whose reactance is small at the signal frequency,
is employed.
4.14 TRANSISTOR:
To minimize the percentage of carriers that recombine before reaching the collector–base
junction, the transistor's base region must be
thin enough that carriers can diffuse across
it in much less time than the
semiconductor's minority carrier lifetime. In
particular, the thickness of the base must be
much less than the diffusion length of the
electrons. The collector–base junction is reverse-biased, and so little electron injection occurs
from the collector to the base, but electrons that diffuse through the base towards the collector
are swept into the collector by the electric field in the depletion region of the collector–base
junction. The thin shared base and asymmetric collector–emitter doping is what differentiates
a bipolar transistor from two separate and oppositely biased diodes connected in series.
The collector–emitter current can be viewed as being controlled by the base–emitter current
(current control), or by the base–emitter voltage (voltage control). These views are related by
the current–voltage relation of the base–emitter junction, which is just the usual exponential
current–voltage curve of a p-n junction (diode).
The physical explanation for collector current is the amount of minority-carrier charge in the
base region. Detailed models of transistor action, such as the Gummel–Poon model, account
for the distribution of this charge explicitly to explain transistor behavior more exactly. The
charge-control view easily handles phototransistors, where minority carriers in the base
region are created by the absorption of photons, and handles the dynamics of turn-off, or
recovery time, which depends on charge in the base region recombining. However, because
base charge is not a signal that is visible at the terminals, the current- and voltage-control
views are generally used in circuit design and analysis.
The Bipolar transistor exhibits a few delay characteristics when turning on and off. Most
transistors, and especially power transistors, exhibit long base storage time that limits
maximum frequency of operation in switching applications. One method for reducing this
storage time is by using a Baker clamp.
The proportion of electrons able to cross the base and reach the collector is a measure of the
BJT efficiency. The heavy doping of the emitter region and light doping of the base region
cause many more electrons to be injected from the emitter into the base than holes to be
injected from the base into the emitter. The common-emitter current gain is represented by βF
or hfe; it is approximately the ratio of the DC collector current to the DC base current in
forward-active region. It is typically greater than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be
smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications. Another important parameter is
the common-base current gain, αF. The common-base current gain is approximately the gain
of current from emitter to collector in the forward-active region. This ratio usually has a value
close to unity; between 0.98 and 0.998. Alpha and beta are more precisely related by the
following identities (NPN transistor):
Structure:
Die of a KSY34 high-frequency NPN transistor, base and emitter connected via bonded wires
A BJT consists of three differently doped semiconductor regions, the emitter region, the base
region and the collector region. These regions are, respectively, p type, n type and p type in a
PNP, and n type, p type and n type in a NPN transistor. Each semiconductor region is
connected to a terminal, appropriately labeled: emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C).
The base is physically located between the emitter and the collector and is made from lightly
doped, high resistivity material. The collector surrounds the emitter region, making it almost
impossible for the electrons injected into the base region to escape being collected, thus
making the resulting value of α very close to unity, and so, giving the transistor a large β. A
cross section view of a BJT indicates that the collector–base junction has a much larger area
than the emitter–base junction.
The bipolar junction transistor, unlike other transistors, is usually not a symmetrical device.
This means that interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the transistor leave the
forward active mode and start to operate in reverse mode. Because the transistor's internal
structure is usually optimized for forward-mode operation, interchanging the collector and the
emitter makes the values of α and β in reverse operation much smaller than those in forward
operation; often the α of the reverse mode is lower than 0.5. The lack of symmetry is
primarily due to the doping ratios of the emitter and the collector. The emitter is heavily
doped, while the collector is lightly doped, allowing a large reverse bias voltage to be applied
before the collector–base junction breaks down. The collector–base junction is reverse biased
in normal operation. The reason the emitter is heavily doped is to increase the emitter
injection efficiency: the ratio of carriers injected by the emitter to those injected by the base.
For high current gain, most of the carriers injected into the emitter–base junction must come
from the emitter. The low-performance "lateral" bipolar transistors sometimes used in CMOS
processes are sometimes designed symmetrically, that is, with no difference between forward
and backward operation.
Small changes in the voltage applied across the base–emitter terminals causes the current that
flows between the emitter and the collector to change significantly. This effect can be used to
amplify the input voltage or current. BJTs can be thought of as voltage-controlled current
sources, but are more simply characterized as current-controlled current sources, or current
amplifiers, due to the low impedance at the base.
Early transistors were made from germanium but most modern BJTs are made from silicon.
A significant minority are also now made from gallium arsenide, especially for very high
speed applications
Most of the NPN current is carried by electrons, moving from emitter to collector as minority
carriers in the P-type base region. Most bipolar transistors used today are NPN, because
electron mobility is higher than Hole mobility in semiconductors, allowing greater currents
and faster operation.
The other type of BJT is the PNP, consisting of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between
two layers of P-doped material. A small current leaving the base is amplified in the collector
output. That is, a PNP transistor is "on" when its base is pulled low relative to the emitter.
The arrows in the NPN and PNP transistor symbols are on the emitter legs and point in the
direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode. A
mnemonic device for the NPN / PNP distinction, based on the arrows in their symbols and
the letters in their names, is not pointing in for NPN and pointing in for PNP.
The BC548 is a general purpose silicon NPN BJT transistor found commonly in
European electronic equipment.
Vcbo = 30 V
Ic = 100 mA
Ptotal = 50 mW
ft = 300 MHz
The BC548 is a member of a larger group of similarly numbered transistors. Other part
numbers have different characteristics and ratings. Its complement is the BC558.
A family of older "BC" transistors predates the TO-92 BC54x series, the BC107, BC108 and
BC109, (with complements BC177, BC178 and BC179). These are generally housed in the
TO-18 metal package, the same as what the North American 2N2222 uses. These older
transistors have similar characteristics as the TO-92 BC5xx devices and are electrically
interchangeable.
There are many other devices based on the BC54x family, such as the surface-mount versions
of the BC547, 548 and 549; the BC847, BC848 and BC849.
A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward direction like a
normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown
voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The device was named after
Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property. A conventional solid-state diode will
not allow significant current if it is reverse-biased below its reverse breakdown voltage.
When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a conventional diode is subject to high
current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is limited by circuitry, the diode will
be permanently damaged due to overheating. In case of large forward bias (current in the
direction of the arrow), the diode exhibits a voltage drop due to its junction built-in voltage
and internal resistance. The amount of the voltage drop depends on the semiconductor
material and the doping concentrations.
A ZENER DIODE
CHARACTERISTIC GRAPH
CHAPTER 5
DESIGN & IMPLEMENTATION
The fabrication process to the printed circuit board will determine to a large extent the price
and reliability of the equipment. A common target aimed is the fabrication of small series of
highly reliable professional quality PCBs with low investment. The target becomes especially
important for customer tailored equipment’s in the area of industrial electronics.
The layout of a PCB has to incorporate all the information of the board before one can go on
the artwork preparation. This means that a concept which clearly defines all the details of the
circuit and partly defines the final equipment, is prerequisite before the actual lay out can
start. The detailed circuit diagram is very important for the layout designer but he must also
be familiar with the design concept and with the philosophy behind the equipment.
The result we got is the successful working of the project and a communication is established
between the two transceivers.
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE
7.1CONCLUSION
After the successful working of the project, it can be concluded that this project is
suitable for communication. There can be further up gradations in the project
which could lead to a much better system for communication. Some of the possible
ways are as follows:
o Instead of the short range laser, high range lasers can be used which range a few
hundred kilometers.
Resistors
Capacitors
C1 2200µF, 5V electrolytic
C2, C12, C13, C40 100µF, 16V electrolytic
C3, C5, C6, C9, C19, C22,
C32, C35 0.01µF ceramic disk
C4 3.3nF ceramic
C7, C10, C11, C14, C15, C17,
C20, C26, C29 0.1µF ceramic disk
C8,C16,C38 470µF,16V electrolytic
C16 56µF ceramic disk
C18, C27, C33, C39 10µF, 16V electrolytic
C21, C24 2.2µF,16 V electrolytic
C25 1nF ceramic disk
C23, C28 0.22µF ceramic disk
C30 47µF, 16V electrolytic
C31 1µF, 16V electrolytic
C34 6.8µF,16V electrolytic
C37 3.3µF, 16 V electrolytic
Miscellaneous
9.4 DATASHEETS
9.4.1 CD4033BMS
9.4.2 LM 7806
9.4.3 LM386
9.4.4 NE 567
9.4.5 NE555 TIMER