Morphology

Adult

Nematodes are rather conservative in form, due in part to constraints imposed by

their hydrostatic skeleton. The high internal pressure of their bodies affects the way
they move, feed, and reproduce. Internal anatomy is often difficult to study on
prepared slides because nematodes are difficult to stain and most internal structures
are tube-like and coiled. This makes it difficult to distinguish among structures
without dissection. Nematodes are studied best as temporary mounts in glycerine,
which permits rolling the specimen to obtain the best view of particular structures.

Nematodes are typically elongate, tapered at both ends, and bilaterally symmetrical.
They vary in size from microscopic to nearly 1 m long. They are pseudocoelomates,
like acanthocephalans. However, unlike the acanthocephalans, nematodes are covered
with a tough, relatively impermeable cuticle. The cuticle may have various
longitudinal ridges, alae, or other ornamentations. Nematodes have a complete
digestive system, with an anterior mouth and a posterior anus. The mouth of parasitic
species is usually specialized and may be equipped with lips, sensory organs, and
chitinous teeth or plates. A muscular esophagus connects with the buccal capsule and
pumps food into the thin-walled, non-muscular intestine. Waste products are
forcefully excreted from the anus. The nervous system comprises lateral nerve cords,
and a prominent nerve ring surrounding the esophagus.

Most parasitic nematodes are dioecious. Males usually have a single set of

reproductive organs. A tubular testis connects to a seminal vesicle, which in turn
carries sperm to a vas deferens that terminates at a cloaca, where the anus is also
located. The walls of the cloaca may be sclerotized to form supporting structures for 1
or 2 spicules, which open the vulva of the female and allow the amoeboid sperm to
enter the uterus against the hydrostatic pressure of the female's body. The cuticle near
the cloaca may be developed to form a copulatory bursa and/or papillae.

Females may have 1-6 sets of reproductive organs. Each tubular ovary is connected to
an oviduct that in turn is connected to a uterus. Part of the oviduct may be enlarged to
serve as a spermatheca. Eggs are expelled from the uterus through a vulva, that is
located independently from the anus, and may be anywhere on the ventral surface of
the body. A muscular ovijector may be present at the junction of uterus and vulva.

Larval Stages

Egg
Some nematodes are viviparous and give birth to larvae, but most produce an egg. The
shell of the egg is multilayered. It may be thin or thick, smooth-surfaced or rough. The
zygote develops into a larva within the egg, and may emerge from the egg or await
ingestion by its next host.

Larvae

Nematodes pass through four larval stages prior to becoming adults. The larva usually
has a similar structure to the adult, although they lack the cuticular ornamentation and
the reproductive system is represented only by a few cells, the genital primordium.
The larvae molt between stages and may retain the old cuticle for a while. These are
termed ensheathed larvae. This old cuticle provides some protection against
desiccation for larvae in the external environment.

Anatomy

Nematodes are slender, worm-like animals, typically less than long. The smallest nematodes are
microscopic, while free-living species can reach as much as and some parasitic species are larger still.
The body is often ornamented with ridges, rings, warts, bristles or other distinctive structures.

The head of a nematode is relatively distinctive. Whereas the rest of the body is bilaterally
symmetrical, the head is radially symmetrical, with sensory bristles and, in many cases, solid head-
shields radiating outwards around the mouth. The mouth has either three or six lips, which often bear
a series of teeth on their inner edge. An adhesive caudal gland is often found at the tip of the tail.
Some nematodes, such asHeterorhabditis spp., undergo a process called endotokia matricida:
intrauterine birth causing maternal death. Some nematodes are hermaphroditic, and keep their self-
fertilized eggs inside the uterus until they hatch. The juvenile nematodes will then ingest the parent
nematode. This process is significantly promoted in environments with a low or reducing food supply.

Plant parasitic nematodes include several groups causing severe crop losses. The most common
genera are Aphelenchoides foliar nematodes, Ditylenchus, Globodera potato cyst
nematodes, Heterodera soybean cyst nematodes, Longidorus, Meloidogyne root-knot
nematodes, Nacobbus, Pratylenchus lesion nematodes, Trichodorus and Xiphinema dagger nematodes.
Several phytoparasitic nematode species cause histological damages to roots, including the formation
of visible galls e.g. by root-knot nematodes, which are useful characters for their diagnostic in the
field. Some nematode species transmit plant viruses through their feeding activity on roots. One of
them is Xiphinema index, vector of GFLV Grapevine Fanleaf Virus, an important disease of grapes.

Other nematodes attack bark and forest trees. The most important representative of this group
isBursaphelenchus xylophilus, the pine wood nematode, present in Asia and America and recently
discovered in Europe.

Agriculture And Horticulture

Depending on the species, a nematode may be beneficial or detrimental to plant health.

From agricultural and horticulture perspectives, there are two categories of nematode: predatory
ones, which will kill garden pests like cutworms, and pest nematodes, like the root-knot nematode,
which attack plants and those that act as vectors spreading plant viruses between crop plants.

Predatory nematodes can be bred by soaking a specific recipe of leaves and other detritus in water, in
a dark, cool place, and can even be purchased as an organic form of pest control.

Rotations of plants with nematode resistant species or varieties is one means of managing parasitic
nematode infestations. For example, marigolds, grown over one or more seasons the effect is
cumulative, can be used to control nematodes. Another is treatment with natural antagonists such as
the fungusgliocladium roseum. Chitosan is a natural biocontrol that elicits plant defense responses to
destroy parasitic cyst nematodes on roots of sobyean, corn, sugar beets, potatoes and tomatoes
without harming beneficial nematodes in the soil. Furthermore soil steaming is an efficient method to
kill nematodes before planting crop.

CSIRO has found that there was 13- to 14-fold reduction of nematode population densities in plots
having Indian mustard Brassica juncea green manure or seed meal in the soil.

Hundreds of Caenorhabditis elegans were featured in a research project on NASA's STS-107 space

mission which ended in the Space Shuttle Columbia Disaster.

Nematodes are metazoan worms, which parasitize the skin, muscle,

and viscera of fish. Fish are intermediary or final hosts of this
parasite. Nematodes commonly cause cysts in fish tissue.

About nematodes
Nematodes are natural organisms, already present in our soil. They are
not pests, but prey on garden pests giving us natural garden pest
controls, that are environmentally friendly, safe for children, pets and
wildlife.. All the nematodes in Nemaslug and the Nemasys range are
naturally found in UK soil. Research scientists have isolated the
nematode that kills a specific garden pest, whether slugs, vine weevils,
chafer grubs, leatherjackets, caterpillars or codling moth. Millions of
nematodes are bred to be easily applied by gardeners. When
nematodes can no longer find prey they will die back to their original
numbers.

 Benefits of using nematodes

 Interesting facts about nematodes
 How they work
 Storing your nematodes
 Using your nematodes
 Top tips to get the best from your nematodes

Benefits of using nematodes:

 Easy to apply
 Effective.
 Harmless to children, pets, birds and wildlife.
  Unlike many chemicals, can assist wildlife in combating pests without posing a risk to wildlife itself.
 Perfectly safe to use on food crops.
 They come to you - just order from our nominated suppliers.
 You get the same benefits as commercial growers who have been using nematode products from Becker
Underwood for two decades to control many pests and not just those most commonly found in the garden.

[top]

Interesting facts about nematodes:

 There are more species of nematodes than insects.

 At 500 microns long by 20 microns wide, they are invisible to the human eye.

[top]

How they work:

 These aggressive organisms attack the pest by entering

natural body openings or by penetrating the insect cuticle
directly.
 Once inside, they release bacteria that stops the pest from
feeding, quickly killing the pest.
 They do not stop there. The nematodes reproduce inside the
dead pest and release a new generation of hungry nematodes,
which disperse to hunt down further prey.
 Once they have killed the pest for which they have been bred
they die back to their natural numbers.

[top]

Storing your nematodes:

 Keep the sealed pack in the fridge so they remain inactive, ensuring their good health until you need them.
 Nematodes will keep up to the expiry date, clearly marked on each sealed pack, when kept refrigerated.
 They are perishable so you should not open the pack before you intend to use it.
 It is always best to use living products as soon as possible after receipt.

[top]

Using your nematodes:

 Use entire packet at one time and do not store part used
packs or made up solution.
 Nematodes are easy to apply simply as a drench. All you need
is a watering can with a coarse rose or a recommended hose
end feeder. A standard pack takes approximately 20 minutes
to apply.
 Once mixed with water, apply immediately, making sure they
are applied to the soil. Wash any nematodes off the leaves
using more water.
  It is important to water the lawn thoroughly immediately after applying Nemasys Chafer Grub Killer and Nemasys
Leatherjacket Killer. This is to ensure the nematodes reach the soil where the target pest is located. Make sure the
lawn does not dry out after applying nematodes.
 Watering can method.
o Open, take a portion of the pack and put in a watering can.
o Add water and stir.
o Water on soil/lawn and then water in with hose/watering can.
 Garden hose end feeder method - instructions.

Cacing gelang (Nematoda)

Gambar 86-5 menunjukkan struktur nematoda. Berbeda dengan platyhelminths, nematoda adalah
silinder daripada rata, maka cacing gelang nama umum. Dinding tubuh terdiri dari kutikula luar
yang memiliki kimia, struktur kompleks noncellular, sebuah hipodermis tipis, dan otot. Kutikula
pada beberapa jenis memiliki tonjolan memanjang yang disebut alae. Bursa, perpanjangan
flaplike dari kutikula di ujung belakang beberapa spesies nematoda laki-laki, digunakan untuk
menangkap betina selama kopulasi.

GAMBAR 86-5 Struktur nematoda. (A) Wanita. (B) Male. Melintang bagian melalui

midregion dari worm perempuan (C) dan melalui daerah esofagus (D). (Modifikasi dari Lee DL:
The Fisiologi Nematoda izin. Oliver dan Boyd, Edinburgh, 1965, dengan.)
Tonjolan hipodermis selular ke dalam rongga tubuh atau pseudocoelom membentuk empat
punggung cordsa longitudinal, perut, dan dua cordswhich lateral dapat dilihat di permukaan
sebagai garis lateral. Inti dari hipodermis terletak di wilayah tali. Otot-otot somatik hipodermis
berbaring di bawah adalah lapisan tunggal dari sel-sel otot polos. Bila dilihat dalam penampang,
lapisan ini dapat dilihat untuk dipisahkan menjadi empat zona oleh pita hypodermal. otot-otot ini
diinervasi dengan ekstensi sel otot batang saraf anterior dan posterior berjalan dari sel-sel
ganglion bahwa cincin midportion dari esophagus.
Ruang antara lapisan otot dan jeroan adalah pseudocoelom, yang tidak memiliki lapisan
mesothelium. rongga ini berisi cairan dan 2-6 sel tetap (celomocytes) yang biasanya dikaitkan
dengan tali memanjang. Fungsi sel ini tidak diketahui.
Saluran pencernaan cacing gelang selesai, dengan kedua mulut dan anus. Mulut dikelilingi oleh
bibir bantalan sensor papillae (bulu). Kerongkongan, fitur mencolok dari nematoda, adalah
struktur berotot yang pompa makanan ke dalam usus, melainkan berbeda bentuk dalam spesies
yang berbeda.
usus adalah struktur tubular terdiri dari satu lapisan sel kolumnar memiliki mikrovili menonjol di
permukaan luminal mereka.
Sistem ekskretoris beberapa nematoda terdiri dari kelenjar ekskretoris dan pori-pori yang terletak
bagian perut di daerah-esofagus pertengahan. Dalam nematoda lain struktur ini ditarik ke dalam
ekstensi yang menimbulkan kompleks sistem tubular ekskretoris lebih, yang biasanya H-
berbentuk, dengan dua kaki dan dua kaki anterior posterior terletak di pita lateral. Sel Kelenjar
tersebut dan tabung diperkirakan berfungsi sebagai badan serap, pengumpulan limbah dari
pseudocoelom, dan untuk fungsi osmoregulasi.
Nematoda biasanya biseksual. Pria biasanya lebih kecil dari betina, memiliki ujung posterior
melengkung, dan memiliki (dalam beberapa jenis) struktur copulatory, seperti spikula (biasanya
dua), bursa, atau keduanya. Laki-laki memiliki satu atau (dalam beberapa kasus) dua testis, yang
terletak di ujung bebas atau bengkok berbelit-belit tabung menuju sebuah vesikula seminalis dan
akhirnya ke kloaka.
Sistem wanita tubular juga, dan biasanya terdiri dari ovarium reflexed. Setiap ovarium terus
menerus, dengan saluran telur dan rahim tubular. uteri ini bergabung untuk membentuk vagina,
yang pada gilirannya membuka ke bagian luar melalui vulva.
Kopulasi antara perempuan dan laki-laki nematoda diperlukan untuk pembuahan kecuali dalam
genus Strongyloides, dimana pembangunan partenogenesis terjadi (yaitu, pengembangan telur
dibuahi menjadi individu baru).Beberapa bukti menunjukkan bahwa atraktan seks (feromon)
memainkan peran dalam perkawinan heteroseksual. Selama persetubuhan, sperma ditransfer ke
dalam vulva wanita. sperma memasuki sel telur dan membran pembuahan disekresikan oleh
zigot. membran ini secara bertahap mengental untuk membentuk shell chitinous. Sebuah
membran kedua, di bawah shell, membuat telur tahan terhadap dasarnya semua zat kecuali
karbon dioksida dan oksigen. Pada beberapa spesies, membran protein ketiga dikeluarkan
sebagai telur melewati bawah rahim oleh dinding rahim dan disimpan di luar shell. nematoda
Kebanyakan yang parasit pada manusia bertelur itu, ketika voided, mengandung baik sebagai
zigot uncleaved, sekelompok blastomer, atau terbentuk larva sepenuhnya. Beberapa nematoda,
seperti filariae dan Trichinella spiralis, menghasilkan larva yang disimpan dalam jaringan inang.
Proses perkembangan pada nematoda melibatkan telur, larva, dan tahap dewasa. Masing-masing
dari empat tahapan larva diikuti oleh meranggas di mana kutikula adalah gudang. Larva disebut
tahap kedua larva setelah meranggas pertama, dan seterusnya (Gbr. 86-6). The nematoda
terbentuk pada tahap kelima adalah orang dewasa. Gambar 86-7 ikhtisar siklus hidup dari
beberapa nematoda usus.
GAMBAR 86-6 Tahapan dalam pengembangan nematoda. (Diadaptasi dari Lee DL: The
Fisiologi Nemotodes izin. Oliver dan Boyd, Edinburgh, 1965, dengan.)