Urban Development Theories

Modernization Thesis
Third World scholars of the 1960s and 1970s advocated that the values and institutions of the developed
Western nations are replicable templates for underdeveloped nations, especially those in Asia and Africa.
The thesis embraces the idea that all nations should gear towards the goal of universal development. This
thought of global progress arranges the societies of the world in a scale that shows the level of
development of the nations—i.e. from least to most developed. The vision of the proponents of the
modernization proposal was that through international public actions the standard of living that the more
affluent Western nations have achieved in three to four generations will be realized by the developing
countries within one generation without paying the same magnitude of social cost.

Modernization theory pioneers like Ragnar Nurske, W. Arthur Lewis, and Walter Rostow defined
development as a matter of departure from the economic, social, political and cultural backwardness of
the traditional societies. Using the prosperous and expanding urban-industrial sector of richer countries as
template the theorists proposed the structural transformation of the societies from an underemployed
rural tradition to a productive urban-industrial order. Other proponents of the idea were also positive
about the modernization scheme as it was proven successful by the precedents like the state-led
economic planning demonstrated by the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union.

Dependency Theory
Some scholars however expressed dissent over the idea of modernization. These contemporary opponents
of the modernization theorists who were mainly Marxists arrived at the formulation of the dependency
theory. The core idea of the dependency view is that Western capitalism cannot be entrusted with the
advancement and industrialization of the poor countries.

The relationship between the West and the Third World is not at all beneficial to the latter. Evidence of
this obvious asymmetry is the Third World's persisting underdevelopment and reliance on the capitalist
giants for capital, technology, and export product market. Other antagonists of the modernization
proposal like Andre Gunder Frank went even as far as rejecting capitalism in all its forms. All scholars
however agree to the fact that Third World integration to the West's market has serious consequences on
the former's urban hierarchy and function.

Migration Model
Other sets of theory investigate the workings of internal migration. Two factors are observed to affect
internal migration. The push dynamic encourages people to look for more promising areas of abode and
work. This rural-to-urban migration cause is often related to the wish to escape poverty.

The pull dynamic is generally associated with voluntary migration. People are attracted to the city's
promise of better living condition and more job opportunities. Early philosophers like Aristotle even
observed that people came to the city to live the good life.

Rural-to-urban migration also has its adverse consequences. One of the obvious effects on the urban
landscape that can be observed is over-urbanization. This phenomenon is characterized by proliferation of
slums, inadequate water supply, uncontrolled land use and problematic waste collection and disposal.
The challenge to Third World planners and government is to make policies that will reduce internal
migration to a more manageable scale.

Urban Bias Theory

Another theory related to urban development looks into poverty. Advocates of the theory argue that the
physical structure for national development favor the urban area. Developments in the urban area further
attract poor groups from the countryside. As a consequence of the distorted hierarchy this group of
people becomes the informal sector in cities.
Studies show that one of the causes of continued poverty in the developing nations is the Western
countries' excessive consumption of raw materials and natural resources of the former. This perhaps is
also true with the rural-urban relationship. Rural economy is devastated by the exploitative workings of
urban economy, thereby displacing more and more folks in the countryside.

Poverty breeds poverty. Social problems like criminality and unemployment can be attributed to the
inequitable social and spatial structures of contemporary Philippine society. Some people are driven to
exploit natural resources in an unsustainable manner. These activities have serious environmental and
economic repercussions. Others consequences of poverty are malnutrition and higher infant mortality
rates among the informal sector. This may be due to the fact that this group of people has limited access
to medical services.

Social Darwinism
Proponents of the urban ecology perspective suggest that the spatial structuring of the city is comparable
to nature's process of invasion and succession. People likewise engage in the process of competition and
adaptation. This idea perhaps sounds familiar because it resonates from Charles Darwin's idea of "survival
of the fittest."

Social Darwinists believed that people, like other organisms in nature, compete for survival. And those
who survive also succeed in life. One the one hand, individuals who become rich and powerful are the
"fittest." On the other hand, lower socio-economic classes are the least fit. Social Darwinists came to
believe that human progress depends on competition. According to the urban ecology theorists, the
advantaged—i.e. the rich and strong—tend to occupy the better locations while the poor and weak settle
themselves in disadvantageous sections of the city.

Neo-classical Equilibrium Theory

Among mainstream perspectives is the neo-classical equilibrium theory. The theory attempts at explaining
the structuring of the urban space in relation to market processes. The main idea behind this capitalist
perspective is that the market allocates resources, including land. Another assumption is that every
individual participates in the market with the sole objective of satisfying his own tastes and preferences.
The same drive is inhibited only by his capacity to pay for the goods and services he wants.

The urban landscape is structured as a result of individuals and firms competing for particular sites,
motivated by personal satisfaction and profitability. However, some status quo favors business firms'
higher purchasing power. It is a fact that land rent is inversely related to its distance from the city
center. Consequently, the firms pay more for the central locations in exchange for profitability. Because
of firm preemption of more favorable locations and lower purchasing power households settle for lands in
the outskirts with lower rents. This they do even it means increase in the travel distance from the work
place.

The two mainstream theories—i.e. urban ecology and equilibrium—displays some important concepts
related to urban development. However, both views failed to emphasize the importance of State in the
urban development process. Third World trends of development exhibit State as an initiator and leader.

Historical Materialism
Historical materialists like Castells view urban development parallel to the logic of capitalist economy's
need to reproduce capital and labor. Capital is reproduced by the accumulation of profits. This is done by
firms through maximum exploitation of advantageous locations that they occupy. Production space is
consequently created. Creation of the consumption space is similarly done. Increase in consumption
reproduces labor accordingly.

The third space created serves as a link to the production and consumption spaces. This is known as the
circulation or exchange space. Some theorists propose the existence of another space, which is somehow
similar to circulation or exchange space. The administrative space subsumed under circulation or
exchange space accommodates the mechanisms of the State.
Circuits Theory
Another radical theory is proposed by Harvey. In Harvey's circuits theory the built environment of the city
is a direct effect of accumulation of capital which runs through the primary circuit. Investment is then
switched to secondary circuit—i.e. housing, health, welfare, etc. Capital is then siphoned through
education, culture, technology and defense. This tertiary circulation is encouraged through expanded
policies and infrastructural development program.

Land Nexus Theory

A different theory of radical fashion is the land nexus theory. According to A. J. Scott, problems like
poverty, unemployment, criminality, etc. are not urban development problems unless they affect the
spatial structuring process. Considering the limitations of previous theories Scott conceptualized the
urban land nexus, a theoretical space which links the decisions and actions of firms, household and state
to the spatially oriented events.

The abstract phenomenon that is land nexus is further described by Scott. He said that it is a complex
dynamics that is composed of two phases: household-firm actions and State response. The theory's author
also identified the main elements in this dynamic order.

The first important constituent in the spatial structuring is the private component. The main players in
this component are the capital and the labor. Their economic actions lead to the allocation of land in
respect to their private activities.

Conversely, the public component also helps the urban development materialize. Activities of the private
sector are regulated by the State to ensure the general welfare of the former. The State develops
fundamental spatial structures from which both the firms and households could benefit. Apart from this
reactionary role of the public sector, the State also deals with the projections of the future. That is why
the State-led urban planning as a form of intervention is justified.

Urban land nexus is further shifted by the private-public interface. This third component of urban
development is what makes the process take the form of an expanding spiral. Private actions lead to
State intervention, which in turn cause another set of private actions. The process is not only cyclical but
also cumulative.

Serote's Framework
Ernesto Serote tailored a framework for analyzing urban development process in the Philippines. In
contrast to Scott's land nexus theory, however, Serote injected the informal sectors as important players
in the built environment organization. His premise is that the inclusion of the informal sectors paints a
perhaps more realistic principle of the Philippine setting.

Using Scott's outline Serote divided the firm into formal and informal sectors. Informal business firms are
commonly small-scale. Most of them have inadequate permits to operate. Moreover, many of these
businesses conceal the secret operations behind the haphazardly constructed buildings and spaces. There
are also informal businesses perceived to be benign. Examples of these "sub-markets" are sari-sari stores
and sidewalk vendors.

An equally potent sector that is a sub-sector of household is the "squatter." Unlike formal property
development this "pirate urbanization" proceeds in the reverse order—i.e. occupation first, planning
second. Their shelters in these communities are characterized by simple structures of light and temporary
materials. Utilities like water supply, sewerage and drainage are generally considered rudimentary.

The public sector is likewise subdivided by Serote. The State is divided into the national and the local
government. The former devolves its powers and resources to the latter. The local government in turn
intervenes in the private economic activities in the form of town planning and urban management. The
built environment consequentially feeds back operational issues to the local government and strategic
issues to the national government. The national and local governments then in response reprogram their
respective implicit and explicit policies.