Name Lim Jhin Horng

IC Number 930502-04-5155
Class 6 Rendah Sains 1 (6RS1)
School Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Dang Anum
Topic Acid Rain
Teacher – in – charge Puan Adilah Adran

INDEX
Section Page Number
Introduction 3
Definition 3–4
History 4–6

1
 Source of Pollutants that Leads to Acid 7 – 21
Rain
Chemical Process 21 – 22
Acid Deposition 22
Adverse Effects 22 – 31
Affected Area 32
Prevention Method 32 – 33
Reference 34

INTRODUCTION
Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning
that it possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions, H−¿ ¿, which makes it to have low
pH. Acid rain can be harmful to plants, aquatic animals and infrastructure through the
process of wet deposition. It is caused by the emissions of sulphur dioxide, SO 2 and
nitrogen oxide, NO 2 which react with water molecules in the atmosphere to produce
acids. Governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulphur
dioxide into the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen oxides can also be

2
produced naturally by lightning strikes while sulphur dioxide is produced by volcanic
eruptions.

DEFINITION
Acid rain is a popular term referring to the deposition of wet (rain, snow, sleet, fog,
cloud water and dew) and dray (acidifying particles and gases) acidic component. A
more accurate term is supposed to be “acid deposition”. Distilled water, once carbon
dioxide is removed, has a neutral pH of 7.0. Liquids with a pH less than 7 are acidic
and those with a pH greater than 7 are alkaline (refer picture below). “Clean” or
unpolluted rain has a slightly acidic pH, which is greater than 5.7 because it contain
carbon dioxide, CO 2 and water, H2O in the air react together to form carbonic acid,
H 2 CO 3. Besides carbon dioxide, unpolluted rain also contains other chemicals too.
H 2 O ( I )+ CO2 ( g ) ⇌ H 2 CO 3 (aq)

Carbonic acid can then ionize in water to form a low concentration of hydronium and
carbonate ions

H 2 O ( I )+ H 2 CO 3 ( aq ) ⇌ HCO3 −¿
( aq ) +H 3 O+ ¿¿ ¿

Acid deposition as an environmental issue would include additional acids to H 2 CO 3.

3
HISTORY
The corrosive effect of polluted, acidic city air on limestone and marble was noted in
the 17th century by John Evelyn, who remarked upon the poor condition of the
Arundel Marbles. Since the Industrial Revolution, emissions of Sulphur Dioxide and
Nitrogen Oxides to the atmosphere have increased. In 1852, Robert Angus Smith was
the first to show the relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution in
Manchester, England. Though acidic rain was discovered in 1852, it was not until the
the late 1960s that scientists began widely observing and studying the phenomenon.
The term “acid rain” was coined in 1872 by Robert Angus Smith. Canadian Harold
Harvey was among the first to research a “dead” lake. Public awareness of acid rain in
the US increased in the 1970s after The New York Times promulgated reports from
the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire of the myriad deleterious
environmental effects demonstrated to result from it.

4
Tress killed by acid rain

Occasional pH readings in rain and fog water of well below 204 have been reported in
industrialized areas. Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in China and Russia
and areas down-wind from them. These areas at the same time burn coal (sulphur-
containing) to generate heat and electricity. The problem of acid rain not only has
increased with population and industrial growth, but has become more widespread.
The use of tall smokestacks to reduce local pollution has contributed to the spread of
acid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation. Often deposition
occurs a considerable distance downwind of the emissions with mountainous regions
tending to receive the greatest deposition (simply because of their higher rainfall). An
example of this effect is the low pH of rain (compared to the local emissions) which
falls in Scandinavia.

History of acid rain in the United States

Since 1998, Harvard University wraps some of the bronze and marble statues on its
campus, such as this “Chinese Stele” with waterproof covers every winter, in order to
protect them from erosion caused by acid rain (or, actually, acid snow).

5
In the 1980s, the US Congress passed an Acid Deposition Act. This Act established a
10-year research program under the direction of the National Acidic Precipitation
Assessment Program (NAPAP). NAPAP looked at the entire problem. It enlarged a
network of monitoring sites to determine how acidic the precipitation actually was,
and to determine long term trends and established a network for dry deposition. It
looked at the effects of acid rain and funded research on the effect of acid
precipitation on freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems, historical buildings,
monuments and building materials. It funded extensive studies on atmospheric
processes and potential control programs.

In 1991, NAPAP provided its first assessment of acid rain in the United States. It
reported that 5% of New England Lakes were acidic with sulphates being the most
common problem. They noted that 2% of the lakes could support Brook minnow.
Subsequent Reports to Congress have documented chemical changes in soil and
freshwater ecosystems, nitrogen saturation, decreases in amounts of nutrients in soil,
episodic acidification, regional haze and damage to historical monuments.

Meanwhile, in 1990, the US Congress passed a series of amendments to the Clean Air
Act. Title IV of these amendments established the Acid Rain Program, a cap and trade
system designed to control emission of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Title IV
called for a total reduction of about 10 million tons of SO 2 emissions from power
plants. It was implemented in 2 phases. Phase 1 began in 1995 and limited sulphur
dioxide emissions from 110 of the largest power plants to a combined total of 807
million tons of sulphur dioxide. One power plant in New England (Merrimack) was in
Phase I. 4 other plants (Newington, Mount Tom, Brayton Point and Salem Harbour)
were added under other provisions of the program. Phase II began in 2000 and affects
most of the power plants in the country.

During the 1990s, research continued. On March 10, 2005 issued the Clean Air
Interstate Rule (CAIR). This rule provides states with a solution to the problem of
power plant pollution that drifts from one state to another. CAIR will permanently cap
emissions of SO 2 and NO x in the eastern United States. When fully implemented,
CAIR will reduce SO 2 emissions in 28 eastern states and the District of Columbia by
over 70 percent and NO x emissions by over 60 percent from 2003 levels.

Overall, the Program’s cap and trade program has been successful in achieving its
goals. Since the 1990s, So2 emissions have dropped 40% and according to the Pacific
Research Institute, acid rain levels have dropped 65% since 1976. However, this was
significantly less successful than conventional regulation in the European Union,
which saw a decrease of over 70% in SO 2 emissions during the same time period.

In 2007, total SO 2 emissions were 8.9 million tons, achieving the program’s long term
goal ahead of the 2010 statutory deadline.

The EPA estimates that by 2010, the overall costs of complying with the program for
businesses and consumers will be $1 billion to $2 billion a year, only one fourth of
what was originally predicted.

6
Source of Pollutants That Leads to
Acid Rain
The most important gas which leads to acidification is sulphur dioxide. Emission of
nitrogen oxides which are oxidized to form nitric acid are of increasing importance
due to the stricter controls on emissions of sulphur containing compounds. 70Tg (S)
per year in the form of SO 2 comes from fossil fuels combustion and industry, 2.8Tg
(S) from wildfires and 7 – 8Tg (S) per year from volcanoes.

 Carbon dioxide, CO 2

Fossil Fuel Combustion

When fossil fuels are burned to produce energy the carbon stored in them is emitted
almost entirely asCO 2. The main fossil fuels burned by humans are petroleum (oil),
natural gas and coal. CO 2 is emitted by the burning of fossil fuels for electricity
generation, industrial uses, transportation, as well as in homes and commercial
buildings. In 2006, petroleum supplied the largest share of domestic energy demands,
accounting for an average of 47 percent of total fossil-fuel-based energy consumption

7
in 2006. Coal and natural gas followed in order of importance, accounting for 27 and
26 percent of total fossil fuel consumption, respectively. The figure below displays
emissions for each of these sectors, by fuel type in 2006.

Electricity Generation

The process of generating electricity is the single largest source of CO 2 emissions in

the United States, representing 41 percent of all CO 2 emissions. The electric power
industry includes all power producers - both regulated utilities and other entities (e.g.,
independent power producers, co-generators, etc.). Total national emissions in the
U.S. depend upon the amount of electricity generated and the mix of fuels used to
produce the electricity. For example, increases and decreases in the share of electricity
generated by burning coal can affect total national emissions. Emissions from
electricity generation can be reduced by:

 Increasing the share of electricity generated from low carbon fuel or renewable
sources. EPA’s Clean Energy Programs are designed to help consumers improve their
knowledge about their Clean Energy options by providing objective information,
creating networks between the public and private sector and providing technical
assistance.
 Lowering total electricity consumption by consumers through improvements in
energy efficiency.

8
Industry

The industrial sector engages in activities such as manufacturing, construction and

mining. Within manufacturing, six industries – petroleum refining, chemical
production, primary metal production, paper, food, and mineral production – represent
the majority of energy use. Industry consumes significant amounts of electricity, but
in the national inventory, only direct onsite CO 2 emissions are allocated to this sector.
Since 1990, industrial output in the United States has grown significantly, but CO 2
emissions experienced only a modest increase.

 A number of industrial companies have joined EPA's Climate Leaders program and
taken on voluntary commitments to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases.

Residential and Commercial

The residential and commercial sectors are heavily reliant on electricity for meeting
their energy needs, particularly for lighting, heating, air conditioning and appliances.
The main source of direct CO 2 emissions is the burning of natural gas and oil for
heating and cooling of buildings.

Transportation

The transportation sector is the second largest source of CO 2 emissions in the U.S.
Almost all of the energy consumed in the transportation sector is petroleum based,
including gasoline, diesel and jet fuel. Automobiles and light-duty trucks account for
almost two-thirds of emissions from the transportation sector and emissions have
steadily grown since 1990. Other sources of transportation emissions are freight
trucks, aircraft, trains and boats.

Emissions from transportation depend on the number of trips or miles travelled by

each type of vehicle each year, which are in turn influenced by larger economic trends
and consumer behaviour. Over the long term, changes in the fuel efficiency of
vehicles (e.g., mileage), and in the type of fuel used can also influence the level of
emissions.

EPA has developed a number of programs designed to lower the impact of automobile
emissions on the environment:

 The Smart Way Transport Partnership is a collaborative voluntary program between

EPA and the freight industry that will increase the energy efficiency and energy
security of our country while significantly reducing air pollution and greenhouse gas
emissions.
 The Green Vehicle Guide helps consumers choose the cleanest and most efficient
vehicles that meet their needs. The Guide rates cars and trucks according to their
emissions and fuel economy performance and provides consumers with information
on how to make environmentally-informed choices when purchasing vehicles.

The U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen Program works in partnership with

industry, academia, national laboratories, federal and international agencies to

9
overcome technical barriers, address safety concerns and demonstrate fuel cell
technologies in various applications, including the transportation sector.

Carbon Sequestration

Carbon sequestration is the process through which plant life removes CO 2 from the
atmosphere and stores it in biomass. Over the course of a year, plants remove and
release CO2 and net sequestration results if the rate of removal is higher than the rate
of release. Young, fast-growing trees in particular will remove more carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere than they will release. Agricultural and forestry practices can
enhance the rate of carbon sequestration, or cause net emissions, depending on the
overall balance. The term “sink” is a broader term used to describe agricultural and
forestry lands or other processes that absorb or sequesterCO 2, and other chemical
processes that remove other greenhouse gases from the atmosphere (e.g., methane).

All land areas such as farms, grasslands and forests can be sources or sinks of CO 2,
depending on the particular agricultural and forestry practices on these lands. In the
U.S., forests and other types of lands have been significant sinks since 1990, due in
large part to forest and soil management practices. Nationally, carbon sequestration
offset or removed 13 percent of total greenhouse gas emissions in 2006. The largest
share came from forest growth, increasing forest area and an increase in the amount of
carbon stored in durable wood products. The rate of carbon sequestration has
decreased since 1990, particularly in forests.

Deforestation

Permanent removal of standing forests leads to CO 2 emissions because the carbon

sequestered in trees is emitted to the atmosphere and not counter-balanced by re-
growth of new trees. Typically, CO 2 is either emitted quickly through burning or
slowly through decomposition over time. Deforestation is a significant source of
carbon dioxide emissions globally, but a minor source in the U.S.

Geologic Sequestration

Geologic sequestration refers to a chain of activities that result in collection and

transport of concentrated CO2 gas from large emission sources, such as power plants,
and subsequent injection into deep underground reservoirs. Currently, carbon storage
takes place mainly at oil and gas production facilities, but storage in other types of
reservoirs may increase in the future as technologies continue to develop.

10
 Sulphur Dioxide, SO 2

11
 Figure 1: Source of Sulphur Dioxide 2005

Figure 2: Source of Sulphur Dioxide 2006

 Carbon Monoxide, CO

12
Unvented kerosene and gas space heaters; leaking chimneys and furnaces; back-
drafting from furnaces, gas water heaters, wood stoves, and fireplaces; gas stoves;
generators and other gasoline powered equipment; automobile exhaust from attached
garages; and tobacco smoke. Incomplete oxidation during combustion in gas ranges
and unvented gas or kerosene heaters may cause high concentrations of CO in indoor
air. Worn or poorly adjusted and maintained combustion devices (e.g., boilers,
furnaces) can be significant sources, or if the flue is improperly sized, blocked,
disconnected, or is leaking. Auto, truck, or bus exhaust from attached garages, nearby
roads, or parking areas can also be a source.

Propane-powered Forklift

Gasoline Concrete Cutter

Gasoline Pressure Washer

Propane Space Heater

13
 Propane-powered Floor Polisher

Figure 3: Carbon Monoxide On Road Mobile Sources

14
 Figure 4: Carbon Monoxide Non road Mobile Sources 1

 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
The primary source of release to the environment is from air emissions from their use
in aerosols and leakage from refrigeration equipment with a smaller proportion from
surface water discharges. There are no natural sources of release to the environment.

 Lead, Pb
Paint

Lead was used in paint to add colour, improve the ability of the paint to hide the
surface it covers, and to make it last longer. In 1978 the federal government banned
lead paint for use in homes. Homes built before 1978 probably contain lead-based
paint. Painted toys and furniture made before 1978 may also contain lead-based paint.

15
Lead-based paint becomes a concern when it chips, turns into dust, or gets into the
soil.

Dust

Lead dust is the most common way that people are exposed to lead. Inside the home,
most lead dust comes from chipping and flaking paint or when paint is scraped,
sanded, or disturbed during home remodelling. Chipping and peeling paint is found
mostly on surfaces that rub or bump up against another surface. These surfaces
include doors and windows. Young children usually get exposed to lead when they
put something with lead dust on it into their mouths. Lead dust may not be visible to
the naked eye.

Soil

Starting in 1973, the federal government started a gradual phase-down of lead content
in gasoline, and by 1996, banned the sale completely. However, lead from car
exhausts mixed with soil near roads and is still there today. Homes near busy streets
may have higher levels of lead in the soil. Today, lead still comes from metal
smelting, battery manufacturing, and other factories that use lead. This lead gets into
the air and then mixes with the soil near homes, especially if the home is near one of
these sources. Flaking lead-based paint on the outside of buildings can also mix with
the soil close to buildings. Lead-based paint mixing with soil is a problem during
home remodelling if workers are not careful. Once the soil has lead in it, wind can stir
up lead dust, and blow it into homes and yards.

Drinking Water

Lead seldom occurs naturally in water supplies like rivers and lakes. Lead enters
drinking water primarily as a result of the corrosion, or wearing away, of materials
containing lead in the water distribution system and household or building plumbing.
These materials include lead-based solder used to join copper pipe, brass and chrome
plated brass faucets, and in some cases, pipes made of lead that connect houses and
buildings to water mains. In 1986, Congress banned the use of lead solder containing
greater than 0.2% lead, and restricted the lead content of faucets, pipes and other
plumbing materials to 8.0%. Older construction may still have plumbing that has the
potential to contribute lead to drinking water.

Air

Lead can be present in outdoor and indoor air. Lead in outdoor air comes mainly from
industrial sources (e.g., smelters, waste incinerators, utilities, and lead-acid battery
manufacturers). Wind-blown soil and road dust also may contain naturally occurring
lead as well as lead from industrial sources, deteriorated paint, and the combustion of
leaded gasoline and aviation fuel. Sources of lead in indoor air include outdoor air,
suspended dust, and some hobbies (e.g., making stained glass objects using lead
solder, shooting using lead bullets at indoor firing ranges).

16
Folk medicines, ayurvedics and cosmetics

Some folk medicines contain lead. They often are imported from the Middle East,
Southeast Asia, India, the Dominican Republic, or Mexico. Two examples are Greta
and Azarcon. Azarcon is a bright orange powder also known as Maria Luisa, Rueda,
Alarcon, and Coral. Greta is a yellow powder. They are used to treat an upset
stomach. Pay-loo-ah also contains lead. It is a red powder used to treat a rash or a
fever. Other folk medicines that contain lead include Bala (or Bala Goli), Golf,
Ghasard, and Kandu. Some cosmetics such as Kohl (Alkohl) and Surma also contain
lead.

Ayurveda is a traditional form of medicine practiced in India and other eastern Asian
countries. Ayurvedic medications may contain herbs, minerals, metals, or animal
products. These medicines may come in both standardized and non-standardized
formulations. Ayurvedic medications are typically imported into the United States by
both practitioners and followers of Ayurvedic medicine.

Children's jewellery and toys

Lead has been found in inexpensive children's jewellery sold in vending machines and
large volume discount stores across the country. It also has been found in inexpensive
metal amulets worn for good luck or protection. Some costume jewellery designed for
adults has also been found to contain lead. It is important to make sure that children
don't handle or mouth any jewellery.

The workplace and hobbies

People exposed to lead at work may bring lead home on their clothes, shoes, hair, or
skin. Some jobs that expose people to lead include: home improvement; painting and
refinishing; car or radiator repair; plumbing; construction; welding and cutting;
electronics; municipal waste incineration; lead compound manufacturing;
manufacturing of rubber products, batteries, and plastics; lead smelting and refining;
working in brass or bronze foundries; demolition; and working with scrap metal.

Some hobbies also use lead. These hobbies include making pottery, stained glass, or
refinishing furniture. Hunters who make their own bullets or anglers who make their
own fishing sinkers can be exposed to lead fumes if they don't follow good practices
(see www.nyhealth.gov/environmental/outdoors/fish/fish.htm). Fishing tackle
(especially sinkers and jig heads) often contains lead. It is important to keep all lead
objects away from children. Wash hands with soap and water after holding or using
lead sinkers and jig heads or reloading lead bullets or shot. Never bite down on lead
sinkers.

Lead-glazed ceramics, china, leaded crystal, pewter

Lead may get into foods or liquids that have been stored in ceramics, pottery, china,
or crystal with lead in it. Lead-glazed dishes usually come from other countries.

17
Imported candies or foods, especially from Mexico, containing
chilli or tamarind

Lead can be found in candy, wrappers, pottery containers, and in certain ethnic foods,
such as chap lines (dried grasshoppers).

Imported food in cans that are sealed with lead solder

In 1995 the United States banned the use of lead solder on cans. But lead solder can
still be found on cans made in other countries. These cans usually have wide seams,
and the silver-gray solder along the seams contains the lead. Cans containing lead
may be brought to the United States and sold. Over time the lead gets into the food.
This happens faster after the can has been opened. Foods that are acidic cause lead to
get into the food faster.

Firearms with lead bullets

People can also be exposed to lead by eating venison and small game harvested with
lead shot and lead bullets. Recent research indicates that small lead fragments are
often present in venison from deer harvested with lead bullets. Some bullets shatter
into small pieces that can be too small to detect by sight, feel, or when chewing the
meat. People can also be exposed to lead when it is released into the air when a gun is
fired particularly in indoor shooting ranges. Lead particles are also formed as the lead
bullet spirals through the barrel. These particles of lead can get into your body when
you breathe or swallow, and lead dust can get on your food, cigarettes, or other items
that you eat, drink, or put in your mouth.

Mini-blinds

Some non-glossy, vinyl mini-blinds from foreign countries contain lead.

Consumer Products

Batteries, radiators for cars and trucks, and some colours of ink also contain lead.

 Nitrogen Oxides, NO x

18
19
Direct Sources

A major direct source of nitrous oxide from agricultural soils is that of synthetic
fertilizer use. Widespread increase in the use of such nitrogen based fertilizers has
been driven by the need for greater crop yields, and by more intensive farming
practices.

Where large applications of fertilizer are combined with soil conditions favourable to
denitrification, large amounts of nitrous oxide can be produced and emitted to the
atmosphere.

Similarly, the widespread and often poorly controlled use of animal waste as fertilizer
can lead to substantial emissions of nitrous oxide from agricultural soils. Some
additional nitrous oxide is thought to arise in agricultural soils through the process of
nitrogen fixation, though the true importance of this source remains poorly defined.

 Human Impact

 Man's need for more food, as a result of an expanding global population,

has inevitably led to an increase in the use of both synthetic fertilizer and
the wider application of animal waste on agricultural soils. However, the
application of such nitrogen based fertilizers in many areas has been
excessive, with large proportions of the added fertilizer providing no
benefit to crop yield, but inducing elevated nitrous oxide emissions.

 Potential for control

 The better targeting of fertilizer applications, both in space and time, can
significantly reduce nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural soils. Land-
management strategies which accurately take account of the optimum
amounts of fertilizer addition necessary for maximum crop yield and
minimum waste are crucial both environmentally and economically.
Similarly, the exact form of nitrogen based fertilizer and the best time of
year at which to use them is key information on which to base fertilization
campaigns

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Indirect Sources

Indirect agricultural sources of nitrous oxide remain poorly defined in most cases.
There are several ways in which such indirect emissions occur. The most important of
these is nitrous oxide emission arising from nitrogen leaching and run-off from
agricultural soils.

After fertilizer application or heavy rain, large amounts of nitrogen may leach from
the soil into drainage ditches, streams, rivers and eventually estuaries. Some of the
nitrous oxide produced in agricultural soils is lost in exactly this way, being emitted to
the atmosphere as soon as the drainage water is exposed to the air.

Still more nitrous oxide is produced from such drainage waters when the leached
nitrogen fertilizer they contain undergoes the processes of nitrification or
denitrification in aquatic and estuarine sediments. Other important indirect nitrous
oxide sources from agricultural soils include the volatilization and subsequent
deposition of ammonia from fertilizer application, and the consumption of crops
followed by sewage treatment.

 Human Impact

 As with direct nitrous oxide emission from agricultural soils, man takes full
responsibility for indirect emission. Not only do large quantities of leached
nitrogen based fertilizer have a significant impact on indirect nitrous oxide
emissions, they have also led to dangerously high nitrate concentrations in
drinking water and to eutrophication in rivers and estuaries around the world.
Increased food consumption and consequent increases in municipal sewage
treatment have also inevitably led to increased indirect nitrous oxide emissions
from this source.

 Potential for control

 Again, it is through properly informed land-management practice and

fertilization campaigns that nitrous oxide emissions can primarily be reduced.
Much of the impetus for control of nitrogen based fertilizers has come from
concern over high nitrate levels in drinking water supplies and the threat of

21
 eutrophication in estuaries and coastal waters. Individual governments have
enacted changes in policy to bring about reductions in such nitrogen leaching,
with the creation of 'Nitrate Sensitive Zones' (NSZs) requiring particular
attention in the UK.

Chemical processes
Combustion of fuels creates sulphur dioxide and nitric oxides. They are converted
into sulphuric acid and nitric acid.

Gas phase chemistry

In the gas phase sulphur dioxide is oxidized by reaction with the hydroxyl radical via
an intermolecular reaction.

SO2 + OH· → HOSO2·

Then, it is followed by:

HOSO2· + O2 → HO2· + SO3

In the presence of water, sulphur trioxide (SO3) is converted rapidly to sulphuric acid:

SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (l)

Nitrogen dioxide reacts with OH to form nitric acid:

NO2 + OH· → HNO3

Chemistry in cloud droplets

When clouds are present, the loss rate of SO2 is faster than can be explained by gas
phase chemistry alone. This is due to reactions in the liquid water droplets.

Hydrolysis

Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water and then, like carbon dioxide, hydrolyses in a
series of equilibrium reactions:

SO2 (g) + H2O SO2·H2O

SO2·H2O H+ + HSO3−

HSO3− H+ + SO32−

22
Oxidation

There are a large number of aqueous reactions that oxidize sulphur from S(IV) to
S(VI), leading to the formation of sulphuric acid. The most important oxidation
reactions are with ozone, hydrogen peroxide and oxygen (reactions with oxygen are
catalyzed by iron and manganese in the cloud droplets).

Acid deposition
Wet deposition
Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of precipitation (rain, snow, and so
on.) removes acids from the atmosphere and delivers it to the Earth's surface. This can
result from the deposition of acids produced in the raindrops (see aqueous phase
chemistry above) or by the precipitation removing the acids either in clouds or below
clouds. Wet removal of both gases and aerosols are both of importance for wet
deposition.

Dry deposition
Acid deposition also occurs via dry deposition in the absence of precipitation. This
can be responsible for as much as 20 to 60% of total acid deposition. This occurs
when particles and gases stick to the ground, plants or other surfaces.

Adverse Effects
Effect on Lakes and Streams

Many lakes and streams examined in a National Surface Water Survey (NSWS) suffer
from chronic acidity, a condition in which water has a constant low pH level. The
survey investigated the effects of acidic deposition in over 1,000 lakes larger than 10
acres and in thousands of miles of streams believed to be sensitive to acidification. Of
the lakes and streams surveyed, acid rain caused acidity in 75 percent of the acidic
lakes and about 50 percent of the acidic streams. Several regions in the U.S. were
identified as containing many of the surface waters sensitive to acidification. They
include the Adirondacks and Catskill Mountains in New York State, the mid-
Appalachian highlands along the east coast, the upper Midwest, and mountainous
areas of the Western United States. In areas like the North-eastern United States,

23
where soil-buffering capacity is poor, some lakes now have a pH value of less than 5.
One of the most acidic lakes reported is Little Echo Pond in Franklin, New York.
Little Echo Pond has a pH of 4.2.

Acidification is also a problem in lakes that were not surveyed in federal research
projects. For example, although lakes smaller than 10 acres were not included in the
NSWS, there are from one to four times as many of these small lakes as there are
larger lakes. In the Adirondacks, the percentage of acidic lakes is significantly higher
when it includes smaller lakes.

Streams flowing over soil with low buffering capacity are as susceptible to damage
from acid rain as lakes. Approximately 580 of the streams in the Mid-Atlantic Coastal
Plain are acidic primarily due to acidic deposition. In the New Jersey Pine Barrens,
for example, over 90 percent of the streams are acidic, which is the highest rate of
acidic streams in the nation. Over 1,350 of the streams in the Mid-Atlantic Highlands
(mid-Appalachia) are acidic, primarily due to acidic deposition.

The acidification problem in both the U.S. and Canada grows in magnitude if
“episodic acidification” is taken into account. Episodic acidification refers to brief
periods during which pH levels decrease due to runoff from melting snow or heavy
downpours. Lakes and streams in many areas throughout the U.S. are sensitive to
episodic acidification. In the Mid-Appalachians, the Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain, and
the Adirondack Mountains, many additional lakes and streams become temporarily
acidic during storms and spring snowmelt. For example, approximately 70 percent of
sensitive lakes in the Adirondacks are at risk of episodic acidification. This amount is
over three times the amount of chronically acidic lakes. In the mid-Appalachians,
approximately 30 percent of sensitive streams are likely to become acidic during an
episode. This level is seven times the number of chronically acidic streams in that
area. Episodic acidification can cause “fish kills.”

Emissions from U.S. sources also contribute to acidic deposition in eastern Canada,
where the soil is very similar to the soil of the Adirondack Mountains, and the lakes
are consequently extremely vulnerable to chronic acidification problems. The
Canadian government has estimated that 14,000 lakes in eastern Canada are acidic.

Effects on Fish and Other Aquatic Organisms

24
Acid rain causes a cascade of effects that harm or kill individual fish, reduce fish
population numbers, completely eliminate fish species from a water body, and
decrease biodiversity. As acid rain flows through soils in a watershed, aluminium is
released from soils into the lakes and streams located in that watershed. So, as pH in a
lake or stream decreases, aluminium levels increase. Both low pH and increased
aluminium levels are directly toxic to fish. In addition, low pH and increased
aluminium levels cause chronic stress that may not kill individual fish, but leads to
lower body weight and smaller size and makes fish less able to compete for food and
habitat.

Some types of plants and animals are able to tolerate acidic waters. Others, however,
are acid-sensitive and will be lost as the pH declines. Generally, the young of most
species are more sensitive to environmental conditions than adults. At pH 5, most fish
eggs cannot hatch. At lower pH levels, some adult fish die. Some acid lakes have no
fish. The chart below shows that not all fish, shellfish, or the insects that they eat can
tolerate the same amount of acid; for example, frogs can tolerate water that is more
acidic (i.e., has a lower pH) than trout.

Effects on Ecosystems

Together, biological organisms and the environment in which they live are called an
ecosystem. The plants and animals living within an ecosystem are highly
interdependent. For example, frogs may tolerate relatively high levels of acidity, but if
they eat insects like the mayfly, they may be affected because part of their food
supply may disappear. Because of the connections between the many fish, plants, and
other organisms living in an aquatic ecosystem, changes in pH or aluminium levels
affect biodiversity as well. Thus, as lakes and streams become more acidic, the
numbers and types of fish and other aquatic plants and animals that live in these
waters decrease.

Effects on Soils
Increasing amounts of acids can "mobilize" aluminium ions which are normally
present in an insoluble nontoxic form of aluminium hydroxide. It appears that when
the soil pH dips to 5 or lower, aluminium ions are dissolved into the water and
become toxic to plants. Aluminium ions cause a stunting of the root growth and
prevent the roots from taking up calcium. The result may be the overall slowing of the
growth of the entire tree.

Lower soil pH and aluminium mobilization can reduce populations of soil

microorganisms. Soil bacteria have the job of breaking down the dead and decaying
leaves and other debris on the forest floor. The effect of this action is to release
nutrients such as calcium, magnesium, phosphate, nitrate, and others. Low pH and
high aluminium ion concentrations inhibit this process.

Higher amounts of acids can mobilize other toxic metals from the insoluble to the
soluble ion forms in the same fashion as aluminium.
The toxic metals include lead, mercury, zinc, copper, cadmium, chromium,
manganese, and vanadium.

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These may all contribute to slow the growth of a tree. In addition, this combination of
toxic metals may also adversely affect the growth of soil bacteria, mosses, algae,
fungi, and earthworms.

Effects on the Forest Floor

A spring shower in the forest washes leaves and falls through the trees to the forest
floor below. Some trickles over the ground and runs into streams, rivers, or lakes, and
some of the water soaks into the soil. That soil may neutralize some or all of the
acidity of the acid rainwater. This ability is called buffering capacity, and without it,
soils become more acidic. Differences in soil buffering capacity are an important
reason why some areas that receive acid rain show a lot of damage, while other areas
that receive about the same amount of acid rain do not appear to be harmed at all. The
ability of forest soils to resist, or buffer, acidity depends on the thickness and
composition of the soil, as well as the type of bedrock beneath the forest floor.
Midwestern states like Nebraska and Indiana have soils that are well buffered. Places
in the mountainous northeast, like New York's Adirondack and Catskill Mountains,
have thin soils with low buffering capacity.

Effects on Harms Trees

Acid rain does not usually kill trees directly. Instead, it is more likely to weaken trees
by damaging their leaves, limiting the nutrients available to them, or exposing them to
toxic substances slowly released from the soil. Quite often, injury or death of trees is a
result of these effects of acid rain in combination with one or more additional threats.

Scientists know that acidic water dissolves the nutrients and helpful minerals in the
soil and then washes them away before trees and other plants can use them to grow.
At the same time, acid rain causes the release of substances that are toxic to trees and
plants, such as aluminium, into the soil. Scientists believe that this combination of
loss of soil nutrients and increase of toxic aluminium may be one way that acid rain
harms trees. Such substances also wash away in the runoff and are carried into
streams, rivers, and lakes. More of these substances are released from the soil when
the rainfall is more acidic.

However, trees can be damaged by acid rain even if the soil is well buffered. Forests
in high mountain regions often are exposed to greater amounts of acid than other
forests because they tend to be surrounded by acidic clouds and fog that are more
acidic than rainfall. Scientists believe that when leaves are frequently bathed in this
acid fog, essential nutrients in their leaves and needles are stripped away. This loss of
nutrients in their foliage makes trees more susceptible to damage by other
environmental factors, particularly cold winter weather.

Effects on Other Plants

Acid rain can harm other plants in the same way it harms trees. Although damaged by
other air pollutants such as ground level ozone, food crops are not usually seriously
affected because farmers frequently add fertilizers to the soil to replace nutrients that

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have washed away. They may also add crushed limestone to the soil. Limestone is an
alkaline material and increases the ability of the soil to act as a buffer against acidity.

Effects on Human Health

Acid rain looks, feels, and tastes just like clean rain. The harm to people from acid
rain is not direct. Walking in acid rain, or even swimming in an acid lake, is no more
dangerous than walking or swimming in clean water. However, the pollutants that
cause acid rain—sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides ( NO x )—do damage
human health. These gases interact in the atmosphere to form fine sulphate and nitrate
particles that can be transported long distances by winds and inhaled deep into
people's lungs. Fine particles can also penetrate indoors. Many scientific studies have
identified a relationship between elevated levels of fine particles and increased illness
and premature death from heart and lung disorders, such as asthma and bronchitis.

Based on health concerns, SO2 and NO x have historically been regulated under the
Clean Air Act, including the Acid Rain Program. In the eastern U.S., sulphate
aerosols make up about 25 percent of fine particles. By lowering SO2 and NO x
emissions from power generation, the Acid Rain Program will reduce the levels of
fine sulphate and nitrate particles and so reduce the incidence and the severity of these
health problems. When fully implemented by the year 2010, the public health benefits
of the Acid Rain Program are estimated to be valued at $50 billion annually, due to
decreased mortality, hospital admissions, and emergency room visits.

Decreases in NO x emissions are also expected to have a beneficial impact on human

health by reducing the nitrogen oxides available to react with volatile organic
compounds and form ozone. Ozone impacts on human health include a number of
morbidity and mortality risks associated with lung inflammation, including asthma
and emphysema.

Acid rain is also believed to contribute to human respiratory diseases such as

bronchitis and asthma. The affect of acidic pollution causes an increase in the
frequencies of colds, allergies, and coughs in children. It is also the possibility that
acid rain plays a role in Alzheimer's disease because toxic metals such as mercury and
aluminium are released into the soil by acid rain. These toxic metals then become a
part of the food supply of humans and have this horrible affect. Not only does acid
rain contribute to damaging the environment but also to our lives as humans.

Effects on Buildings
Acids have a corrosive effect on limestone or marble buildings or sculptures. It is well
established that either wet or dry deposition of sulphur dioxide significantly increases
the rate of corrosion on limestone, sandstone, and marble.

Sulphur dioxide plus water makes sulphurous acid

SO2 + H2O --> H2SO3

Sulphur trioxide plus water makes sulphuric acid

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SO3 + H2O --> H2SO4

The sulphuric acid then further reacts with the limestone in a neutralization reaction.

Limestone: CaCO3 + H2SO4 --> CaSO4 + H2CO3

H2CO3 --> CO2 gas + H2O

The calcium sulphate is soluble in water and hence the limestone dissolves and
crumbles.

Effects on Sculptures
There are many examples in both the U. S. and Europe of the corrosive effects of acid
rain on sculptures. Many sculptures have been destroyed; a few have been preserved
by bringing them inside.

The following are examples of endangered heritage sculptures:-

LESHAN GIANT BUDDHA, MOUNT EMEI (China, Buddhist)

Towering above the sheer river gorges of China’s Sichuan province, Mount Emei, one
of the “Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains of China”, represents the main seat of
Chinese Buddhism. It is home to the country's first Buddhist temple, built in the 1st
century C.E., and contains numerous other temples, monasteries and religious shrines,
including the 8th century Leshan Giant Buddha. This Tang Dynasty-era masterpiece
is the world's largest Buddhist statue, reaching an awe-inspiring 71 meters in height
and is 28 meters in width. Carved out of a face of a sandstone cliff facing Mount
Emei, the Leshan Giant Buddha is surrounded by spectacularly lush and breathtaking
subtropical and subalpine forests, and rests atop the confluence of three major rivers,
the Minjiang, Dadu, and Qingyi. This site is a place of invaluable religious, artistic
and natural significance.

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 Leshan Buddha in China, 2005, sandstone has blackened and corroding due to the acid rain.

The Leshan Buddha has fallen victim to pollution emanating from unbridled
development in the region. In this case, the culprit has been determined to be the
growing number of coal fired power plants located near the Giant Buddha,
specifically, the toxic gases that their smokestacks spew into the air; these eventually
return to the earth as acid rain. Over time, the Buddha's nose has turned black and the
curls of his hair have begun to fall from his head. The local government has shut
down several factories and power plants in close proximity to the Leshan Giant
Buddha, which has stopped the blackening of his face from soot; however, acid rain
continues to compromise the structural integrity of this masterpiece. The Leshan
Giant Buddha, which was designed carefully to survive millennia of floods and
earthquakes, is now at high risk of rapid deterioration from the unbridled pace of
industrial development in western China.

ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS (Greece, Ancient Greek)

While there are many Acropolises in Greece, it is the Acropolis of Athens that is,
without question, the most quintessentially important monument that carries the
name; indeed, when historians refer to simply “the Acropolis”, it is the one in Athens
that is being referenced. Located atop a flat rock rising 150 meters above the city of
Athens, its three hectares of standing monuments from the Classic Periclean period
(460-430 BCE) include the Parthenon, the Propylea, and the Erechtheum, as well as a
few earlier Mycenean edifices such as the Cyclopean Circuit Wall that helped to
defend the Acropolis from numerous invasions over the centuries. As the foundational
center for Golden Age Athens and its way of thought, the Parthenon is widely
considered to be the crucible of democracy and Western culture as we know it.

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Hadrian's Arch at the Acropolis, Athens, 2005, marble has blackened and corroding due to the
formation of acid rain.

In recent decades, as Greece has experienced substantial economic expansion and

development, pollutants and heavy vehicle emissions from the booming modern city
of Athens have contributed to acid rain in the region. The monumental and sculptural
stone of choice for the ancient Greeks, marble, is highly susceptible to heavy surface
degradation from even low levels of acid rain. The Parthenon’s magnificent marble
relief frieze panels, for instance, have been chemically transformed by acid rain into
soft gypsum. As details are lost and the chemical transformation soaks deeper into the
marble on these vital monuments, pieces of them have begun to crack and fall off,
with structural collapse a possibility in the not-so-distant future. Further complicating
the situation is the seismically-active nature of the region, as earthquakes would have
a far greater effect on marble constructions that have slowly transformed into gypsum
than with unaltered marble.

TAJ MAHAL (India, Mughal Islam)

Located in Agra, India, the Taj Majal is a huge mausoleum built between 1631 and
1648 in the Mughal architectural style, combining elements of Turkish, Indian,
Persian, and Islamic design. Considered to be the penultimate masterpiece of Islamic
architectural art in India, it was built by Shah Jahan for his wife Mumtaz Mahal, and
both are interred in it in a simple crypt.

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 Taj Mahal, India, 2004, enveloped in smog.

The Taj Mahal is India’s preeminent tourist destination, attracting between two and
four million visitors annually. In an effort to control the deleterious effects of
pollution, tourist traffic is not allowed near the site, with most visitors riding in by
electric bus from nearby car parks. This has not, however, slowed down the
degradation of the Taj Mahal’s marble facades from acid rain generated from local
foundries and an oil refinery. The once brilliant-white Taj has been losing its luster,
dulling into a sickly pale shade.

DAMPIER ROCK ART COMPLEX (Australia, Australian Aboriginal)

The Dampier Archipelago, located in north-western Australia and stretching into the
Indian Ocean from the Burrup Peninsula, is home to a magnificent collection of
Aboriginal petro glyphs carved in rock faces and outcroppings. With around a million
carvings across 400 square kilometres, these engravings constitute the largest corpus
of rock art in the world. Some of the most ancient carvings date to tens of thousands
of years into the past, when people first settled Australia, and depict sacred spirits,
rituals, and animals – including several that are extinct (Tasmanian Tigers) or are no
longer found in the region (Emus).

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 Iron Mining, Dampier, 2003. This mine directly abuts important rock art sites, and
produces emissions that contribute heavily to acid rain that is degrading them.

The Burrup Peninsula’s rock art sites have been listed as endangered by the National
Trust of Australia, but industrial expansion since 1963 across more than 25% of the
rock art area has posed severe threats to the site. Much of the heaviest (mining and
petrochemical) industry is located immediately adjacent to some of the most sensitive
collections of artwork. Acid rain from this has begun to erase many of the carefully,
but often shallowly, engraved rock surfaces, and studies by archaeologists and
geologists have postulated that most of the rock art will disappear completely by the
middle of the 21st century.

LONGMEN GROTTOES (China, Buddhist)

The Longmen Grottoes are arguably the most famous ancient sculptural site in China.
Located in Henan Province and positioned on two opposing bluffs above the Yi River,
most of the artwork is Buddhist in nature and dates to the late Northern Wei and Tang
Dynasties (316-907 AD). 2345 niches were carved from the rock, densely worked
over the space of approximately a kilometre to the north and south, and they house
more than 100,000 statues (also carved from the rock). Accompanying inscriptions
bear more than 300,000 Chinese characters and are a treasure trove of historical and
linguistic data. The Longmen Grottoes are a masterpiece of Buddhist art and are
considered one of the world`s most important sculptural sites.

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Affected areas
Places with significant impact by acid rain around the globe include most of Eastern
Europe from Poland northward into Scandinavia, the eastern third of the United
States, and south-eastern Canada. Other affected areas include the south-eastern coast
of China and Taiwan.

Prevention methods
Technical solutions
Many coal-burning power plants use Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) to remove
sulphur-containing gases from their stack gases. For a typical coal-fired power station,
FGD will remove 95 percent or more of the SO2 in the flue gases. An example of
FGD is the wet scrubber which is commonly used. A wet scrubber is basically a
reaction tower equipped with a fan that extracts hot smoke stack gases from a power
plant into the tower. Lime or limestone in slurry form is also injected into the tower to
mix with the stack gases and combine with the sulphur dioxide present. The calcium
carbonate of the limestone produces pH-neutral calcium sulphate that is physically
removed from the scrubber. That is, the scrubber turns sulphur pollution into
industrial sulphates.

In some areas the sulphates are sold to chemical companies as gypsum when the
purity of calcium sulphate is high. In others, they are placed in landfill. However, the
effects of acid rain can last for generations, as the effects of pH level change can
stimulate the continued leaching of undesirable chemicals into otherwise pristine
water sources, killing off vulnerable insect and fish species and blocking efforts to
restore native life.

Vehicle emissions control reduces emissions of nitrogen oxides from motor vehicles.

International treaties
A number of international treaties on the long range transport of atmospheric
pollutants have been agreed for example, Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol
under the Convention on Long-Range Tran boundary Air Pollution. Canada and the
US signed the Air Quality Agreement in 1991. Most European countries and Canada
have signed the treaties.

Emissions trading
In this regulatory scheme, every current polluting facility is given or may purchase on
an open market an emissions allowance for each unit of a designated pollutant it
emits. Operators can then install pollution control equipment, and sell portions of their
emissions allowances they no longer need for their own operations, thereby

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recovering some of the capital cost of their investment in such equipment. The
intention is to give operators economic incentives to install pollution controls.

The first emissions trading market was established in the United States by enactment
of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. The overall goal of the Acid Rain
Program established by the Act is to achieve significant environmental and public
health benefits through reductions in emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
oxides ( NO x ), the primary causes of acid rain. To achieve this goal at the lowest cost
to society, the program employs both regulatory and market based approaches for
controlling air pollution.

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Reference
 Acid Rain Effects on Buildings
 http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/196buildings.html
 Top 5 Endangered Heritage Site
 http://archive.cyark.org/top-5-endangered-heritage-sites-acid-rain-blog
 Effect of Acid Rain – Human Health
 http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/effects/health.html
 Acid Rain – Soil Interactions
 http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/196soil.html
 Effects of Acid Rain – Forests
 http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/effects/forests.html
 Nitrous Oxides Sources
 http://www.ghgonline.org/nitrousagri.htm#direct
 Acid Rain and Human Health
 http://hey-ralph911.tripod.com/id4.html
 Carbon Monoxide
 http://www.epa.gov/oms/invntory/overview/pollutants/carbonmon.htm#onroa
d
 Sources of Lead
 http://www.health.state.ny.us/environmental/lead/sources.htm
 Environmental Facts – CFCs
 http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/business/topics/pollution/304.aspx
 All About Pollutants
 http://www.epa.gov/
 Ontario – Sulphur dioxide
 http://www.airqualityontario.com/science/pollutants/sulphur.cfmAll
 About Acid Rain
 http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/acid-
rain-overview/
 http://library.thinkquest.org/CR0215471/acid_rain.htm
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain

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