SIX MONTH INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

(JAN – JUNE 2011)

Submitted in the partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the 8th semester curriculum of degree of

Bachelor of Technology
in
Electronics and communication Engineering
Of

PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, JALANDHAR

Under the guidance of: Er.Sukhdev Singh(HOD)

Submitted By:
(Name of the Teachers/ Industry Instructor) Name:Jagveer Singh
Inst Roll No:8214/08-L
Uni. Regd. No:80302508013

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

GURU TEG BAHADUR INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

CHHAPIAN WALI (MALOUT)
 CERTIFICATE

Certified that this six month industrial Training (Date from Jan. To June)

done by (Jagveer Singh, Uni. Regd. No.-80302508013.) in partial fulfilment of

requirements for the 8th semester of Bachelor of Technology, Electronics &

communication Engg. Submitted to Guru Teg Bahadur Khalsa Institute of

Engineering & Technology, Chhapianwali (Malout) is a record to student’s

own work carried under.

------Er. Gaurav Nagpal-----

This has not been submitted to any other university or Institute as a part of

curriculum of any degree to

the best of my knowledge.

(Name :Jagveer Singh)

(HOD, Er. Sukhdev Singh)

GTBKIET, Chhapianwali (Malout)

1
Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................. 3

COMPANY PROFILE ........................................................................ 4

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 6
EVOLUTION OF GSM ...................................................................... 9
DESCRIPTION ................................................................................. 11
EVOLUTION OF CDMA..................................................................33
CONCLUSION ................................................................................. 43
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................. 46
ANNEXURE………………………………………………………..47

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity with much pleasure to express my sincere thanks and gratitude to Miss
Monika Mehta (Manager), Kross infotel ltd. Chandigarh. It gives me immense pleasure to extend my
gratitude towards Er. Gaurav Nagpal (Quality Engineer), Kross infotel ltd. Chandigarh and the
entire Network.

In addition, I wish to thank Kross infotel ltd. Chandigarh office to provide me the opportunity to
acquire the experience of knowing the corporate world and also providing the required facilities, well
working systems, besides complete collection of all latest technology software’s.

I am especially grateful to the professors and lecturers of our institute ‘G.T.B.K.I.E.T’, who has been
training us, since the first day, with the knowledge and support in the most lucid manner.

It was really a good experience working in a professionally managed firm and learning from such
good and knowledgeable people. I hope it will really help me in future.

(Jagveer Singh)

3
 COMPANY PROFILE

Kross infotel ltd. Chandigarh formerly known as vender of Reliance , Tata

Indicom,Videocon is an Indian company offering telecommunication services in
around country. It is the largest cellular service provider in India, single-
country mobile operator and fifth largest telecom operator in the world in terms
of subscriber base. It also offers fixed line services and broadband services. It
offers its telecom services under the Kross infotel brand and is headed by Mr.
Sandeep Dhillon, who is the Chairman & Managing Director of the Company.
The company also provides land-line telephone services, under the trade name
‘Touchtel’ and broadband Internet access (DSL) in over 96 cities in India.

Kross infotel is known for being the first vender company in the world to
outsource everything except marketing and sales and finance. Its network (base
stations, microwave links, etc.) is maintained by Ericsson and Nokia Siemens
Network, business support by IBM and transmission towers by another
company. Ericsson agreed for the first time, to be paid by the minute for
installation and maintenance of their equipment rather than being paid up front.
During the last financial year (2009-10), Kross infotel has roped in a strategic
partner Alcatel-Lucent to manage the network infrastructure for the Telemedia
Business.

The tabulated summary of various partnering companies is as under:

4
 Mobile Services Nokia Siemens, Ericsson, Huawei
Network
Equipment Telemedia & Long Distance Nokia Siemens, Juniper, Cisco, Alcatel Lucent,
Services ECI, Tellabs

Information Technology IBM

IBM Daksh, Hinduja TMT, Teleperformance,

Call Centre Operations
Mphasis, First source & Aegis

The company is structured into four strategic business units:

 Mobile,

 Telemedia,

 Enterprise, and

 Digital TV

The mobile business offers services in country across the Indian Subcontinent .
The Telemedia business provides broadband, IPTV and telephone services in 89
Indian cities. The Digital TV business provides Direct-to-Home TV services
across India. The Enterprise business provides end-to-end telecom solutions to
corporate customers and national and international long distance services to
telcos. In June 2010, Kross infotel as part of its global expansion strategy
acquired Zain Telcom of Kuwait. Kross infotel through the Zain deal .

5
 INTRODUCTION

GSM stands for ‘Global Services for Mobile communication' and is an open,
digital cellular technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data services.
GSM supports voice calls and data transfer speeds of up to 9.6 kbit/s, together
with the transmission of SMS (Short Message Service).

This technology is globally accepted and most popular among all countries. It is
started in Europe to integrate all countries with wireless communication. Earlier
each country in Europe has its own standard for wireless communication ,so due
to this a person cannot use the same mobile in two different country and cannot
even communicate with the same mobile in different countries, so due to this
fragmentation problem occurred. So to overcome this problem European Union
(EU) came with GSM technology that is accepted by whole continent and
standardized by ITU-T. It is a 2 G technology and world’s first cellular
technology and it is most popular 2G technology. Today GSM operator has
largest customer base. In India total cellular operator have more than 550
million customers and GSM has more than 400 million customer bases alone. It
is a second generation cellular standard developed to cater voice services and
data delivery using digital modulation.

6
Objectives of GSM
 To eliminate the fragmentation problem in European Union.

 To allow interaction with ISDN and PSTN.

The Goals of GSM

 Improved spectrum efficiency

 International roaming

 Low-cost mobile sets and base stations

 High-quality speech

 Compatibility with ISDN and other telephone

 Company services.

 Support for new services

Specifications and Characteristics for GSM:

 Frequency band – the frequency range specified for GSM is 1,850 to
1,990 MHz (mobile station to base station).

 Duplex distance – the duplex distance is 80 MHz. Duplex distance is the

distance between the uplink and downlink frequencies. A channel has two
frequencies, 80 MHz apart.

 Channel separation – the separation between adjacent carrier frequencies.

In GSM, this is 200 kHz.

7
 Modulation – Modulation is the process of sending a signal by changing
the characteristics of a carrier frequency. This is done in GSM via
Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK).

 Transmission rate – GSM is a digital system with an over-the-air bit rate

of 270 kbps.

 Access method – GSM utilizes the time division multiple access (TDMA)
concept. TDMA is a technique in which several different calls may share
the same carrier. Each call is assigned a particular time slot.

 Speech coder – GSM uses linear predictive coding (LPC). The purpose of
LPC is to reduce the bit rate. The LPC provides parameters for a filter
that mimics the vocal tract.

8
 EVOLUTION OF GSM

In 1982, the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications

administrations (CEPT) created the Group Special Mobile (GSM) to develop a
standard for a mobile telephone system that could be used across Europe. In
1987, a memorandum of understanding was signed by 13 countries to develop a
common cellular telephone system across Europe. Finally the system created by
SINTEF led by Torleiv Maseng was selected.

In 1989, GSM responsibility was transferred to the European

Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) and phase I of the GSM
specifications were published in 1990. The first GSM network was launched in
1991 by Radio linja in Finland with joint technical infrastructure maintenance
from Ericsson. By the end of 1993, over a million subscribers were using GSM
phone networks being operated by 70 carriers across 48 countries.

GSM around the world

9
GSM statistics in India

10
 DESCRIPTION

The basic architecture of the GSM is described in the figure below:

The abbreviations used in the figure above are described herein under:

HLR- Home Location Register:

HLR is database, which holds very important information of subscribers. It is

mostly known for storing and managing information of subscribers. It contains
subscriber service profile, status of activities, information about locations and
permanent data of all sorts. When new connections are purchased, these
subscribers are registered in HLR of mobile phone companies.

11
MS-Mobile station:

It consists of mobile equipment and SIM. At the time of manufacturing, an

international mobile equipment number (IMEI) is programmed in ME.A SIM is
required to activate the GSM services. A international mobile subscriber
identification (IMEI) number is programmed along with security parameter and
algorithm. The called number is not linked to ME but to SIM.A SIM has
following data stored in it. MSISDN (mobile subscriber isdn) IMSI
(international mobile subscriber identity) - 15 digit number. TMSI (temporary
mobile subscriber identity) – 4 octets, allocated by VLR, continuously
changed.IMEI (international mobile equipment identity) unique, permanently
assigned to MS.

AUC- Authentication Center:

AUC is small unit which handles the security end of the system. Its major task
is to authenticate and encrypt those parameters which verify user’s
identification and hence enables the confidentiality of each call made by
12
subscriber. Authentication center – AUC makes sure mobile operators are safe
from different frauds most likely to happen when hackers are looking for even
smallest loop wholes in systems.

MSC- Mobile Services Switching Center:

MSC is also important part of SS, it handles technical end of telephony. It is
build to perform switching functionality of the entire system. It’s most
important task is to control the calls to and from other telephones, which means
it controls calls from same networks and calls from other networks. Toll
ticketing, common channel signaling, network interfacing etc are other tasks
which MSC is responsible for.

VLR- Visitor Location Register:

VLR performs very dynamic tasks; it is database which stores temporary data
regarding subscribers which is needed by Mobile Services Switching Center-
MSC VLR is directly connected to MSC, when subscribe moves to different
MSC location, Visitor location register – VLR integrates to MSC of current
location and requests the data about subscriber or Mobile station (MS) from the
Home Location Register –HLR. When subscriber makes a call the Visitor
location register-VLR will have required information for making call already
and it will not required to connect to Home Register Location - HRL again.

13
BSS-The Base Station System:

The base station system have very important role in mobile communication.
BSS are basically outdoor units which consist of iron rods and are usually of
high length. BSS are responsible for connecting subscribers (MS) to mobile
networks. All the communication is made in Radio transmission. The Base
station System is further divided in two systems. These two systems, they are
BSC, and BTS.

BTS – The Base Transceiver Station:

Subscriber, MS (Mobile Station) or mobile phone connects to mobile network

through BTS; it handles communication using radio transmission with mobile
station. As name suggests, Base transceiver Station is the radio equipment
which receive and transmit voice data at the same time. BSC control group of
BTSs.

14
 BASE TRANSIEVER STATION (BTS)

BSC – The Base Station Controller:

The Base Station normally controls many cells; it registers subscribers,

responsible for MS handovers etc. It creates physical link between subscriber
(MS) and BTS, then manage and controls functions of it. It performs the
function of high quality switch by handover over the MS to next BSC when MS
goes out of the current range of BTS, it helps in connecting to next in range
BTS to keep the connection alive within the network. It also performs functions
like cell configuration data, control radio frequency in BTS.

15
SIM-Subscriber Identity Module:

One of the key features of GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module, commonly
known as a SIM card. The SIM is a detachable smart card containing the user's
subscription information and phone book. This allows the user to retain his or
her information after switching handsets. Alternatively, the user can also change
operators while retaining the handset simply by changing the SIM.

16
OSS -The Operation and Support System:

OMC- Operations and maintenance center is designed to connect to equipment

of MSC- Mobile Switching Center and BSC-Base Station Controller. The
implementation of OMC is called OSS-The Operations and Support
System.OSS helps in mobile networks to monitor and control the complex
systems. The basic reason for developing operation and support system is to
provide customers a cost effective support and solutions. It helps in managing,
centralizing, local and regional operational activities required for GMS
networks.

Authentication & Encryption:

Authentication: - Whenever a MS requests access to a network, the network

must authenticate the MS. Authentication verifies the identity and validity of the
SIM card to the network and ensures that the subscriber is authorized access to
the network.

Encryption:- In GSM, encryption refers to the process of creating

authentication and ciphering crypto variables using a special key and an
encryption algorithm.

Ciphering:- Ciphering refers to the process of changing plaintext data into

encrypted data using a special key and a special encryption algorithm.
Transmissions between the MS and the BTS on the Um link, are enciphered.

17
Ki:- The Ki is the individual subscriber authentication key. It is a 128-bit
number that is paired with an IMSI when the SIM card is created. The Ki is
only stored on the SIM card and at the Authentication Center (AuC). The Ki
should never be transmitted across the network on any link.

RAND:- The RAND is a random 128-bit number that is generated by the Auc
when the network requests to authenticate a subscriber. The RAND is used to
generate the Signed Response (SRES) and Kc crypto variables.

Signed Response:- The SRES is a 32-bit crypto variable used in the

authentication process. The MS is challenged by being given the RAND by the
network; the SRES is the expected correct response. The SRES is never passed
on the Um (Air) interface. It is kept at the MSC/VLR, which performs the
authentication check.

A3 Algorithm:- The A3 algorithm computes a 32-bit Signed Response (SRES).

The Ki and RAND are inputted into the A3 algorithm and the result is the 32-bit
SRES. The A3 algorithm resides on the SIM card and at the AuC.

A8 Algorithm:- The A8 algorithm computes a 64-bit ciphering key (Kc). The

Ki and the RAND are inputted into the A8 algorithm and the result is the 64-bit
Kc. The A8 algorithm resides on the ISM card and at the AuC.

Kc:- The Kc is the 64-bit ciphering key that is used in the A5 encryption
algorithm to encipher and decipher the data that is being transmitted on the Um
interface.

A5:- The A5 encryption algorithm is used to encipher and decipher the data that
is being transmitted on the Um interface. The Kc and the plaintext data are
inputted into the A5 algorithm and the output is enciphered data. The A5
algorithm is a function of the Mobile Equipment (ME) and not a function of the
SIM card. The BTS also makes use of the A5 algorithm.

There are three versions of the A5 algorithm:

A5/1:- The current standard for U.S. and European networks. A5/1 is a stream
cipher.
A5/2:- The deliberately weakened version of A5/1 that is intended for export to
non-western countries. A5/2 is a stream cipher.
A5/3:- A newly developed algorithm not yet in full use. A5/3 is a block cipher.
Triplets: - The RAND, SRES, and Kc together are known as the Triplets. The

18
AuC will send these three crypto variables to the requesting MSC/VLR so it can
authenticate and encipher.

GSM Control Channels:

1. The Broadcast Channel [BCH].

2. The Common Control Channel [CCCH]

3. The Dedicated Control Channel [DCCH]

1. The Broadcast Channel [BCH]:

 It operates on the forward link of specific ARFCN within each cell, and
transmits data only in the first time slot (TS0) of certain GSM frames.

 It serves as a TDMA bacon channel for any nearby mobile to identify & lock
on to.

 It provides synchronization for all mobiles within the cell.

 It is occasionally monitored by mobiles in neighboring cell so that received

power MAHO decisions may be made by out of cell users.


The BCH is defined by three separate channels.

a. Broadcast Control Channel [BCCH].

b. Frequency Correction Channel [FCCH].
c. Synchronization Channel [SCH].

a) Broadcast Control Channel [BCCH]

 It is a forward control channel that is used to broadcast following
information.

 Cell & Network Identity.

 Operating characteristics of cell such as current control channel structure,

channel availability and congestion.

19
 List of channels that are currently in use within the cell.

 Information about BCCH is carried for the neighboring cells.

b) Frequency Correction Channel [FCCH]

 It is a special data burst which occupies TS0 for the very first GSM frame &
is repeated every 10 frames within a control channel multi frame.

 It allows each subscriber unit to synchronize its internal frequency to the

exact frequency of the BTS.

c) Synchronization Channel [SCH]:

 It is broadcast in TS0 of the frame immediately following the FCCH frame.

 It is also repeated every 10 frames within the control channel multi frame.

 It is used to identify serving the BTS that is it is GSM BTS (Mobile transmits
BSIC (Base Station Identity Code); BSIC can only be decoded by GSM BTS.

 It allows mobile to frame synchronize with BTS.

2. Common Control Channel [CCCH]

 On the Broadcast channel ARFCN, these channels occupy TS 0 of every
GSM frame that is not otherwise used by the BCH.

 The CCCH consists of three different channels,

o Paging Channel [PCH]

o Random Access Channel [RACH]

o Access Grant Channel [AGCH]

a. Paging Channel [PCH]:

It is used to broadcast the following information.

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  Paging Signals from the BTS to all mobiles in the cell, & notify a specific
mobile of an incoming call which originates from PSTN.

 The IMSI of the target subscribers, along with a request for acknowledgement
from the mobile unit on the RACH.

b. Random Access Channel [RACH]:

It is used for,

 To acknowledge a Page from the PCH.

 To originate call.

 All mobiles must access or respond to PCH alert within TS 0 of a GSM

frame.

c. Access Grant Channel [AGCH]:

It is used for:

 To respond RACH sent by a mobile in the previous CCCH frame.

 To carry data this instructs the mobile to operate in a particular physical

channel with a particular dedicated control channel.

3. Dedicated Control Channels [DCCH]:

 These channels are bi directional & have the same format & function on both
forward & reverse link.

 They may exist in any time slot & on any ARFCN except TS 0.

a) Stand Alone Dedicated Control Channel [SDCCH].

b) Slow Associated Control Channel [SACCH].

c) Fast Associated Control Channel [FACCH].

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a) Stand Alone Dedicated Control Channel [SDCCH]:

 It is used to send authentication and alert messages as the mobile

synchronizes itself with the frame structure and waits for TCH.

 It is used for location updating.

b) Slow associated Control Channel [SACCH]:

 It is always associated with a TCH or a SDCCH & maps onto the same
physical channel.

 On the forward link it is used to send changing control information to the

mobile, such as transmit power level instructions.

 The reverse SACCH carries information about the received signal

strengths, quality of TCH & BCH measurement results from neighboring
cells.c) Fast Associated Control Channel [FACCH]:

 It is assigned whenever a SDCCH has not been dedicated for a particular

user and there is a urgent message to be conveyed.

 It is assigned only to a traffic channel & relies on frame stealing to gain

access to the traffic channel.

Value added services

Call waiting:

With Call Waiting on a Hutch phone, you can receive and hold an incoming call
when you are already talking to another person. When this service is activated,
the network notifies you of a new incoming call while you have a call in
progress, which means that if another person tries calling you midway through a
conversation, he/she will hear a message informing him/her that your line is
busy, while you will hear beeps at intervals.

Call Divert:

22
In case you are busy in a meeting, or if your cell phone is switched off, you can
forward incoming calls to a landline or another mobile phone - where someone
can receive messages on your behalf. You can also forward an incoming call
while speaking to someone.

Voice response services:

By using these services one can access information, download ringtones and
logos, and more. For this one has to just dial and speak on a no. for the desired
service. With Hutch World, one can enjoy a host of GPRS-based services
exclusively on Hutch GPRS phone. From astrology to photo messaging,
gaming, chat, news and even internet access.

Mail:

One can now send an SMS - without even using a mobile phone, from wherever
they are. All they need to do is type in their message and send it as e-mail.

Roaming:

Roaming is defined as the ability for a cellular customer to automatically make

& receive voice calls, send & receive data, or access other services when
traveling outside the geographical coverage area of the home network, by means
of using a visited network.

If the visited network is in the same country as the home network, this is known
as National Roaming. If the visited network is outside the home country, this is
known as International Roaming (the term Global Roaming has also been used).

If the visited network operates on a different technical standard than the home
network, this is known as Inter-standard roaming.

GSM Roaming, which involves roaming between GSM networks, offers the
convenience of a single number, a single bill and a single phone with worldwide
access to over 205 countries. The convenience of GSM Roaming has been a key
driver behind the global success of the GSM Platform.

23
Mobile subscriber identities in GSM

International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI):

An IMSI is assigned to each authorized GSM user. It consists of a mobile

country code (MCC), mobile network code (MNC) (to identify the PLMN), and
a PLMN unique mobile subscriber identification number (MSIN). The IMSI is
the only absolute identity that a subscriber has within the GSM system. The
IMSI consists of the MCC followed by the MNC and MSIN and shall not
exceed 15 digits.

Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)

A TMSI is a MSC-VLR specific alias that is designed to maintain user

confidentiality. It is assigned only after successful subscriber authentication.
The correlation of a TMSI to an IMSI only occurs during a mobile subscriber’s
initial transaction with an MSC (for example, location updating). Under certain
condition (such as traffic system disruption and malfunctioning of the system),
the MSC can direct individual TMSIs to provide the MSC with their IMSI.

Mobile Station ISDN Number:

The MS international number must be dialed after the international prefix in

order to obtain a mobile subscriber in another country. The MSISDN numbers
is composed of the country code (CC) followed by the National Destination
Code (NDC), Subscriber Number (SN), which shall not exceed 15 digits. Here
too the first two digits of the SN identify the HLR where the mobile subscriber
is administrated.

The Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN):

The MSRN is allocated on temporary basis when the MS roams into another
numbering area. The MSRN number is used by the HLR for rerouting calls to
the MS. It is assigned upon demand by the HLR on a per-call basis. The MSRN
for PSTN/ISDN routing shall have the same structure as international ISDN
numbers in the area in which the MSRN is allocated. The HLR knows in what
MSC/VLR service area the subscriber is located. At the reception of the MSRN,

24
HLR sends it to the GMSC, which can now route the call to the MSC/VLR
exchange where the called subscriber is currently registered.

International Mobile Equipment Identity:

The IMEI is the unique identity of the equipment used by a subscriber by each
PLMN and is used to determine authorized (white), unauthorized (black), and
malfunctioning (gray) GSM hardware. In conjunction with the IMSI, it is used
to ensure that only authorized users are granted access to the system.

Subscriber Authentication Key (Ki):

It is used to authenticate the SIM card.

Pin Unblocking Key (PUK)

In case of PIN, the PUK is needed for unlocking the SIM again. PUK is
numeric only, with eight digits. If a correct PUK is entered, an indication is
given to the user. After 10 consecutive incorrect entries the SIM is blocked.
Either the IMSI or the MSISDN Number may access the subscriber data. Some
of the parameters like IAI will be continuously updated to reflect the current
location of the subscriber. The SIM is capable of storing additional information
such as accumulated call charges. This information will be accessible to the
customer via handset key entry.

Personal Identity Number (PIN)

It is used to unlock the MS. If one enters the wrong PIN three times it will lock
the SIM. The SIM can be protected by use of PIN password.

25
GSM Frequency Bands

There are a total of fourteen different recognized GSM frequency

bands. These are defined in 3GPP TS 45.005.

Uplink Downlink
Band Comments
(MHz) (MHz)

380 380.2 - 389.8 390.2 - 399.8

410 410.2 - 419.8 420.2 - 429.8

450 450.4 - 457.6 460.4 - 467.6

480 478.8 - 486.0 488.8 - 496.0

710 698.0 - 716.0 728.0 - 746.0

750 747.0 - 762.0 777.0 - 792.0

810 806.0 - 821.0 851.0 - 866.0

850 824.0 - 849.0 869.0 - 894.0

P-GSM, i.e. Primary

900 890.0 - 915.0 935.0 - 960.0 or standard GSM
allocation

26
 Uplink Downlink
Band Comments
(MHz) (MHz)

E-GSM, i.e.
900 880.0 - 915.0 925.0 - 960.0 Extended GSM
allocation

R-GSM, i.e. Railway

900 876.0 - 915 921.0 - 960.0
GSM allocation

900 870.4 - 876.0 915.4 - 921.0 T-GSM

1710.0 - 1805.0 -
1800
1785.0 1880.0

1850.0 - 1930.0 -
1900
1910.0 1990.0

There are three different frequency bands on which mobile phones are usually
operates and these are Dual Band, Tri-Band and Quad Band.

Dual Band : Dual frequency band operates on 900MHz and 1800 MHz,
that means mobile phone that supports dual band can be operated
anywhere in the world where 900 MHz and 1800 MHz frequencies are
used. Dual Band GSM networks usually found in all continents Europe,
Asia, Africa, Australia and South America.
27
 Tri-Band: three frequencies are supported in Tri Band, these frequencies
are 900 MHz, 1800MHz and 1900 MHz Tri band is also supported all
around the world these days.

Quad-Band: Quad Band supports four frequencies which are 850 MHz,
900 MHz, 1800 MHz , 1900 MHz Quad band also enables GSM phones
to road almost anywhere in the world. All countries support GSM
networks hence make communication possible.

Handover:

Handover, or handoff as it is called in North America, is the switching of an on-

going call to a different channel or cell. There are four different types of
handover in the GSM system, which involve transferring a call between

 Channels (time slots) in the same cell,

 Cells (Base Transceiver Stations) under the control of the same Base
Station Controller (BSC),
 Cells under the control of different BSCs, but belonging to the same
Mobile services Switching Center (MSC), and
 Cells under the control of different MSCs.

The first two types of handover, called internal handovers, involve only one
Base Station Controller (BSC). To save signaling bandwidth, they are managed
by the BSC without involving the Mobile service Switching Center (MSC),
except to notify it at the completion of the handover. The last two types of
handover, called external handovers, are handled by the MSCs involved. Note
that call control, such as provision of supplementary services and requests for
further handoffs, is handled by the original MSC.

Handovers can be initiated by either the mobile or the MSC (as a means of
traffic load balancing). During its idle time slots, the mobile scans the
Broadcast Control Channel of up to 16 neighboring cells, and forms a list of the
six best candidates for possible handover, based on the received signal strength.

28
This information is passed to the BSC and MSC, and is used by the handover
algorithm.

The algorithm for when a handover decision should be taken is not specified in
the GSM recommendations. There are two basic algorithms used, both closely
tied in with power control. This is because the BSC usually does not know
whether the poor signal quality is due to multipath fading or to the mobile
having moved to another cell. This is especially true in small urban cells.

The 'minimum acceptable performance' algorithm [Bal91] gives precedence to

power control over handover, so that when the signal degrades beyond a certain
point, the power level of the mobile is increased. If further power increases do
not improve the signal, then a handover is considered. This is the simpler and
more common method, but it creates 'smeared' cell boundaries when a mobile
transmitting at peak power goes some distance beyond its original cell
boundaries into another cell.

29
Key Features

SIM (Subscriber Identity Module)

It is a memory device which is used to store the information of user such as user
privacy number, 4 digit PIN number, subscriber identification number and user
information. Called number is not associated with mobile station but to SIM.

Increased Capacity

It provides better channel capacity than analog system. It provides 25KHZ per
user, that means eight conversation per 200KHZ channel pair(a channel pair
consists of a forward channel and a reverse channel). Channel coding and
modulation provided to enhance the channel capacity and from this 12 DB is
achieved as a channel to interference ratio(C/I ration), as compare to 18db of
analog system.

Frequency Hopping

It is a feature of GSM system in which frequency in a single channel

continuously hops and resultant provides a better coverage to a specific area.

Mobile Assisted Handover (MAHO)

GSM uses Mobile assisted handover technique. The mobile itself carries out
the signal strength and quality measurement of its server and signal strength
measurement of its neighbors. This data is passed on the Network which then
uses sophisticated algorithms to determine the need of handover.

Discontinuous Transmission

In this GSM has a advantage of preventing system from interference and noise
by offsetting the silent time between the conversation and by blocking the
undesired signals.

Support of Short Service Message (SMS)

GSM has a advantage of short service messages assisted by paging channel of

system.

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Frequency Reuse

GSM has a advantage of frequency reuse pattern from which same frequency
can be used in different cells. Normally 124 carriers are provided by the GSM
system and if we multiply it with the 7 time slots used for traffic than we get
868 numbers of calls can be made and that is very less in number. so to
overcome this problem same RF carrier is used for several conversation in
different cells and for this there is regular pattern is defined. The pattern to be
used depends on the traffic requirement and spectrum availability. Some typical
patter are 4/12 , 7/21 etc.

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Future Opportunities for GSM:
 2nd Generation
 GSM -9.6 Kbps (data rate)
 2.5 Generation ( Future of GSM)
 HSCSD (High Speed ckt Switched data)
 Data rate : 76.8 Kbps (9.6 x 8 kbps)
 GPRS (General Packet Radio service)
 Data rate: 14.4 - 115.2 Kbps
 EDGE (Enhanced data rate for GSM Evolution)
 Data rate: 547.2 Kbps (max)
 3 Generation
 WCDMA(Wide band CDMA)
 Data rate : 0.348 – 2.0 Mbps

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CDMA TECHNOLOGY

CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

What is CDMA?

One of the most important concepts to any cellular telephone system is

that of "multiple access", meaning that multiple, simultaneous users can be
supported. In other words, a large number of users share a common pool of
radio channels and any user can gain access to any channel (each user is not
always assigned to the same channel). A channel can be thought of as merely a
portion of the limited radio resource which is temporary allocated for a specific
purpose, such as someone's phone call. A multiple access method is a definition
of how the radio spectrum is divided into channels and how channels are
allocated to the many users of the system.

CDMA is a "spread spectrum" technique in which each phone in a cell

uses a distinct code known to the base station to communicate with the base
station. All frequencies in one cell can be used in other cells.

The CDMA Cellular Standard

With CDMA, unique digital codes, rather than separate RF frequencies or

channels, are used to differentiate subscribers. The codes are shared by both the
mobile station (cellular phone) and the base station, and are called "pseudo-
Random Code Sequences." All users share the same range of radio spectrum.

For cellular telephony, CDMA is a digital multiple access technique

specified by the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) as "IS-95".

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 In March 1992, the TIA established the TR-45.5 subcommittee with the
charter of developing a spread-spectrum digital cellular standard. In July of
1993, the TIA gave its approval of the CDMA IS-95 standard.

IS-95 systems divide the radio spectrum into carriers which are
1,250 kHz (1.25 MHz) wide. One of the unique aspects of CDMA
is that while there are certainly limits to the number of phone
calls that can be handled by a carrier, this is not a fixed number.
Rather, the capacity of the system will be dependent on a number
of different factors.

Current Cellular Standard

Different types of cellular systems employ various methods of multiple

access. The traditional analog cellular systems, such as those based on the
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) and Total Access Communications
System (TACS) standards, use Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA).
FDMA channels are defined by a range of radio frequencies, usually expressed
in a number of kilohertz (kHz), out of the radio spectrum.

For example, AMPS systems use 30 kHz "slices" of spectrum for each
channel. Narrowband AMPS (NAMPS) requires only 10 kHz per channel.
TACS channels are 25 kHz wide. With FDMA, only one subscriber at a time is
assigned to a channel. No other conversations can access this channel until the
subscriber's call is finished, or until that original call is handed off to a different
channel by the system.

A common multiple access method employed in new digital cellular

systems is Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA). TDMA digital standards
include North American Digital Cellular (known by its standard number IS-54),

34
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), and Personal Digital
Cellular (PDC).

TDMA systems commonly start with a slice of spectrum, referred to as

one "carrier". Each carrier is then divided into time slots. Only one subscriber at
a time is assigned to each time slot, or channel. No other conversations can
access this channel until the subscriber's call is finished, or until that original
call is handed off to a different channel by the system.

For example, IS-54 systems, designed to coexist with AMPS systems,

divide 30 kHz of spectrum into three channels. PDC divides 25 kHz slices of
spectrum into three channels. GSM systems create 8 time-division channels in
200 kHz wide carriers.

Multiple Access Comparison

It is easier to understand CDMA if it is compared with other multiple

access technologies. The following sections describe the fundamental
differences between a Frequency Division Multiple Access Analog technology
(FDMA), a Time Division Multiple Access Digital technology (TDMA) and a
Code Division Multiple Access Digital technology (CDMA).

FDMA - Frequency Division Multiple Access

FDMA is used for standard analog cellular. Each user is assigned a

discrete slice of the RF spectrum. FDMA permits only one user per channel
since it allows the user to use the channel 100% of the time. Therefore, only the
frequency "dimension" is used to define channels.

35
TDMA - Time Division Multiple Access

The key point to make about TDMA is that users are still assigned a
discrete slice of RF spectrum, but multiple users now share that RF carrier on a
time slot basis. Each of the users alternate their use of the RF channel.
Frequency division is still employed, but these carriers are now further sub-
divided into some number of time slots per carrier.

A user is assigned a particular time slot in a carrier and can only send or
receive information at those times. This is true whether or not the other time
slots are being used. Information flow is not continuous for any user, but rather
is sent and received in "bursts." The bursts are re-assembled at the receiving
end, and appear to provide continuous sound because the process is very fast.

CDMA - Code Division Multiple Access

IS-95 uses a multiple access spectrum spreading technique called Direct

Sequence (DS) CDMA.

Each user is assigned a binary, Direct Sequence code during a call. The
DS code is a signal generated by linear modulation with wideband
Pseudorandom Noise (PN) sequences. As a result, DS CDMA uses much wider
signals than those used in other technologies. Wideband signals reduce
interference and allow one-cell frequency reuse.

There is no time division, and all users use the entire carrier, all of the
time.

36
CDMA Technology

Though CDMA's application in cellular telephony is relatively new, it is

not a new technology. CDMA has been used in many military applications, such
as anti-jamming (because of the spread signal, it is difficult to jam or interfere
with a CDMA signal), ranging (measuring the distance of the transmission to
know when it will be received), and secure communications (the spread
spectrum signal is very hard to detect).

Spread Spectrum

CDMA is a "spread spectrum" technology, which means that it spreads

the information contained in a particular signal of interest over a much greater
bandwidth than the original signal.

The standard data rate of a CDMA call is 9600 bits per second (9.6
kilobits per second). This initial data is "spread," including the application of
digital codes to the data bits, up to the transmitted rate of about 1.23 megabits
per second. The data bits of each call are then transmitted in combination with
the data bits of all of the calls in the cell. At the receiving end, the digital codes
are separated out, leaving only the original information which was to be
communicated. At that point, each call is once again a unique data stream with a
rate of 9600 bits per second.

Traditional uses of spread spectrum are in military operations. Because of

the wide bandwidth of a spread spectrum signal, it is very difficult to jam,
difficult to interfere with, and difficult to identify. This is in contrast to
technologies using a narrower bandwidth of frequencies. Since a wideband
spread spectrum signal is very hard to detect, it appears as nothing more than a
slight rise in the "noise floor" or interference level. With other technologies, the

37
power of the signal is concentrated in a narrower band, which makes it easier to
detect.

Increased privacy is inherent in CDMA technology. CDMA phone calls

will be secure from the casual eavesdropper since, unlike an analog
conversation, a simple radio receiver will not be able to pick individual digital
conversations out of the overall RF radiation in a frequency band.

Synchronization

In the final stages of the encoding of the radio link from the base station
to the mobile, CDMA adds a special "pseudo-random code" to the signal that
repeats itself after a finite amount of time. Base stations in the system
distinguish themselves from each other by transmitting different portions of the
code at a given time. In other words, the base stations transmit time offset
versions of the same pseudo-random code. In order to assure that the time
offsets used remain unique from each other, CDMA stations must remain
synchronized to a common time reference.

The primary source of the very precise synchronization signals required

by CDMA systems is the Global Positioning System (GPS). GPS is a radio
navigation system based on a constellation of orbiting satellites. Since the GPS
system covers the entire surface of the earth, it provides a readily available
method for determining position and time to as many receivers as are required.

"The Balancing Act"

CDMA cell coverage is dependent upon the way the system is designed.
In fact, three primary system characteristics - Coverage, Quality and Capacity -
must be balanced off of each other to arrive at the desired level of system
performance.

38
 In a CDMA system these three characteristics are tightly inter-related.
Even higher capacity might be achieved through some degree of degradation in
coverage and/or quality. Since these parameters are all intertwined, operators
can not have the best of all worlds: three times wider coverage, 40 times
capacity, and "CD" quality sound. For example, the 13 kbps vocoder provides
better sound quality, but reduces system capacity as compared to an 8 kbps
vocoder.

Operators will have the opportunity to balance these parameters to best

serve a particular area. The best balance point may change from cell site to cell
site. Sites in dense downtown areas may trade off coverage for increased
capacity. Conversely, at the outer edges of a system, capacity could be
sacrificed for coverage area.

CDMA Benefits

When implemented in a cellular telephone system, CDMA technology offers

numerous benefits to the cellular operators and their subscribers. The following
is an overview of the benefits of CDMA.

1. Capacity increases of 8 to 10 times that of an AMPS analog system and

4 to 5 times that of a GSM system.

2. Improved call quality, with better and more consistent sound as

compared to AMPS systems

3. Simplified system planning through the use of the same frequency in

every sector of every cell

4. Enhanced privacy

39
 5. Improved coverage characteristics, allowing for the possibility of fewer
cell sites

6. Increased talk time for portables

7. Bandwidth on demand

CDMA for Cellular

When implemented in a cellular telephone system, CDMA technology offers

numerous benefits to the cellular operator and their subscribers. These can be
summarized as follows:

 Capacity increases: 8 to 10 times that of an AMPS analog system, and 4

to 5 times that of a GSM system.
 Improved call quality: CDMA will provide better and more consistent
sound as compared to AMPS. Cellular telephone systems using CDMA
should be able to provide higher quality sound and phone calls than
systems based on other technologies.
 Simplified system planning: Engineers will no longer have to perform the
detailed frequency planning which is necessary in analog and TDMA
systems.
 Enhanced privacy: Increased privacy over other cellular systems, both
analog and digital, is inherent in CDMA technology.
 Increased talk time and standby time for portables: Because of precise
power control and other system characteristics, CDMA subscriber units
normally transmit at only a fraction of the power of analog and TDMA
phones
 Advanced Features: These include Multiple/High Quality Vocoders,
Short Messaging Services, Over-the-Air-Activation, Sleep Mode, and
Data/Fax.
40
CDMA for Personal Communications Services (PCS)

Personal Communications Services (PCS) is anticipated to be the

"omnipresent" wireless communication system of the future - a vehicle through
which people can communicate to whomever they want, whenever they want,
wherever they want.

CDMA is a strong solution for PCS because it offers higher capacity and
increased range of coverage. By requiring fewer cell sites than traditional
analog and other digital systems, CDMA is viewed as the most cost effective
technology for PCS.

From enhanced spectral efficiency to improved call quality and feature

flexibility, CDMA offers a host of key benefits to wireless PCS operators.
Specifically, benefits which are especially relevant to PCS operators include:

 Increased Capacity: In the long run, carriers who provide greater capacity
from the same spectrum will experience lower operating expenses than
operators who choose less spectrum-efficient technologies.
 Audio Quality: CDMA has a number of unique features which provide a
superior, robust RF communications path to digital communications. The
qualities that allow CDMA to provide high quality voice performance
also ensure superior dropped call performance over existing cellular
systems.
 Vocoder Flexibility: Different Vocoders can be used for product and
service differentiation.
 Decreased Blocking: System capacity in CDMA is flexible and has a
"soft" limit. As a result, blocking is decreased since capacity can grow in
response to user demand.

41
  Enhanced Coverage: CDMA reduces the number of cells needed for
coverage compared to other air interfaces, while preserving robust audio
quality.
 Low Deployment Cost: With a large advantage in link margin
(approximately 5 dB), a CDMA system requires approximately half the
number of cell sites for the same coverage area and system loading. This
efficiency lowers equipment and site acquisition costs, and is especially
cost-effective for new system deployment.

Motorola's SC™ hardware and software platform makes CDMA even more
attractive for PCS, considering its ability to grow with the needs of the market.
For example, MCC cards, which contain the traffic channels on the system, are
added to networks as customers' market penetration increases and more
subscribers are supported. In addition, the digital strategies Motorola employs in
its designs will ensure that in the future, the SC™ products have excellent
potential to decrease in size and in cost.

CDMA for Wireless Local Loop (WiLL™)

In many developing countries, there is tremendous demand for new business

and residential telephone service. More and more operators are looking to
wireless technologies to rapidly provide thousands of new subscribers with high
quality telephone service at a reasonable price. Motorola has introduced a set of
Wireless Local Loop (WiLL™) systems which can meet the telephony
requirements of many communities.

 Existing landline operators can extend their network with WiLL™.

 Cellular operators can capitalize on their current network to deliver
residential service with WiLL™.

42
  New service providers can quickly deploy non-traditional WiLL™
solutions to rapidly meet a community's telephony needs.

The unique features and benefits of CDMA make it an excellent technology

choice for fixed wireless telephone systems.

In a fixed telephony environment, CDMA is estimated to provide up to

15-20 times the capacity of an AMPS cellular system, resulting in the highest
capacity cellular-based offering for wireless local loop applications. The key to
this increased WiLL™ capacity is that, in a fixed environment, CDMA power
control is able to very accurately track required power, thereby resulting in
reduced overall transmission power and increased capacity. Subscribers in a
fixed environment require less RF power to achieve quality communications,
therefore more subscribers can be placed on a CDMA channel.

In addition, CDMA optimizes use of the radio spectrum, which is an

increasingly scarce resource worldwide. CDMA's single cell frequency re-use
capability and non-contiguous bandwidth requirement, along with its extended
coverage range, simplifies RF planning and implementation. This allows an
operator to invest in fewer cell sites with faster deployment, ultimately giving
the service provider increased and quicker access to revenues.

CONCLUSION

During the period of Evolution of mobile communication technologies various

systems were introduced and deployed to achieve standardization in mobile
industry, but all the efforts were failed. Multiple issues were sustained like
incompatibility of systems, development of digital radio frequency. That is,
when GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) Technology was
43
introduced and problems like standardization, incompatibility etc were
overcame. TDMA solution was chosen in 1987, it is narrowband system and
TDMA standards for Time Division Multiple access.

In 1991 in Finland. GSM based mobile phones are operated on TDMA Systems,
in TDMA single radio frequency is offered to users with any interference. After
all these years, GSM is now the largest mobile communication technology
worldwide, all manufacturers of Mobile phones develop their products based on
GSM, and all mobile companies provide their subscribers GSM networks.

GSM technology facilitates with high speed integrated data, voice data, fax,
mail, voice mail and mostly used SMS feature. GSM also make sure that all the
communication made between networks are secured and protected from
intruders and frauds.

.SM actually brought the concept of being Mobile way beyond the limits. It
enabled us to communicate across the continents.

GSM supports multiple frequency levels like 900 MHz, 1800 MHz, 1900 MHz
1900MHz frequency is used in North America where as 1800MHz is used in
other parts of the world. Different frequency bands are used by different mobile
phone operators.

Moreover, there are over 700 GSM networks available in the world operating in
their respective countries and providing international roaming services courtesy
GSM technology. There are over 2 billion GSM subscribers in the world.
Countries which are using GSM networks on larger scales are Russia, china
Pakistan, United States, India.

Giver the above facts and very good voice quality, support useful services and
standards, delivered by GSM, it is expected that GSM shall remain the
prominent technology for offering the mobile telephony.

The CDMA digital interface also allows for a number of complex and
unique features such as variable rate vocoders; robust error correction;

44
frequency, space and time diversity; and multipath immunity. These features all
contribute to improved system and call quality.

45
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM
2. http://www.gsmworld.com/ourwork/mobile_broadband/service_mar
k/index.htm
3. http://www.gsmworld.com/technology/index.htm
4. http://searchmobilecomputing.techtarget.com/definition/GSM
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_division_multiple_access
6. http://www.webopedia.com/welcomead/
7. www.search.com

46
 Annexure

GSM: Global System for Mobile Communication

CEPT: Conference of European Posts and Telecommunications

ISDN: Integrated Services Digital Network

SIM: Subscriber Identity Module

VAS: Value Aided Services

BSS: The Base Station Subsystem

NSS: The Network and Switching Subsystem

OSS: The Operation and Support Subsystem

FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access

TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access

HLR: Home Location Register

MS: Mobile station

VLR: Visitor Location Register

AUC: Authentication Center

MSC: Mobile Services Switching Center

BTS : The Base Transceiver Station

47