Thomas Roe

13B/It1
Mr. Moore
The Systems Life Cycle
The stages of the systems life cycle are as follows:
1. Definition
2. Feasibility
3. Investigation
4. Analysis
5. Design
6. Implementation/Installation
7. Introduction/Development
8. Testing
9. Monitor/Evaluate
10.Maintenance
11.Documentation

Systems Life Cycle task

Jack Cornwall College is considering replacing it’s computer network. The present
hardware/software that the College has is - two server computers running Windows
server 2000, multiple workstations running Windows 98 and Microsoft Office 2003.
The servers do all the basic network functions (i.e.) file and print serving, e-mail,
internet connection etc.

Using this scenario show how structured system analysis and design would help the
College to bring in a new system. This is called the SYSTEMS LIFE CYCLE.

1. Definition of Problem
2. Feasibility study
3. Investigation
4. Analysis
5. Design
6. Implementation/Installation
7. Introduction and Development
8. Testing
9. Monitoring and Evaluation
10. Maintenance
11. Documentation

Write a short paragraph to describe how the College should go through each step in
the cycle to successfully bring in a new system.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
The college should firstly, define the problem (i.e. replace the
computer network) and identify the software/hardware currently in
use.
Feasibility should be included within the following considerations:
• Cost
• User friendliness
• Complexity
• Time
• Skills needed
• Hardware/Software required
• Training

It is best for the college to completely revamp their system, in my

opinion as it improves their performance by 70%.

The system should then be investigated for potential upgrades,

software purchases and software that can be kept in the future.

However, the software that needs to be bought must meet the

requirements set by the end-user and the design must reflect that
by designing interfaces that uses the newly bought hardware and
software in their plans. Key parts, such as the validation methods
and the user interfaces must be implemented and tested, still
keeping the customer requirements in mind.

After all of this, they must install the software, if everything goes to
plan with the software and hardware.
They can choose to directly install (switch on, switch off), parallel
install (run both), phase the install (install in small chunks) or pilot
the install (new system installed and tested in parts).

User documentation then needs to be developed to show potential

users and technicians how to use the system and how to repair any
faults or answer any questions that may need to be asked. This can
also be done on-screen.

When all of this is done, the evaluation must be performed. Did the
software meet the customer’s requirements? If not, this must be
checked out.

Maintenance of the software can be done in 3 ways.

Corrective maintenance involves identifying problems after the
install process.
Adaptive maintenance involves strategic or methodology changes.
Perfective maintenance involves addressing minor tweaks bought
up by customers.
 Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

Investigative Approaches
There are 4 types of approaches that can be taken to investigate a
system. These are:
1. Document Analysis
2. Questionnaires
3. Interviews
4. Participant Observation

All of these methods have their own consideration factors and their
own advantages and disadvantages. I will go through each one in
turn and state some of the advantages and disadvantages of each
method.

An analyst has been given the job of finding out the shortcomings in
the old system and producing a set of requirements for the new
system. He is unsure of the investigative methods available to him
in order to carry out this work.
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of each of the following in
a report and recommend two methods that are best suited to this
situation
1. Document Analysis
2. Questionnaire
3. Interviews
4. Participant Observation
5. Meetings
Document Analysis
This can use any paper-based document such as receipts, invoices
and reports.

Data types and formats can be examined in each document and

they can be useful for inefficient data flows.

However, they cannot capture the efficiency of the data collection

and the analyser cannot understand how the document was used.

Questionnaires
Questionnaires are useful to gather information from people.
However, there are a lot of factors that need to be taken into
consideration to ensure that the questionnaire can extract useful
information.

Open and closed questions can be used in questionnaires. Open

questions allows for expansion on answers.
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13B/It1
Mr. Moore

Consideration factors include quantity (people do not want a 20

page document), wording (they need to be able to understand the
question) and presentation (clarity is important here).

Everyone can be asked the same questions in a questionnaire, lots

of data can be collected and the questionnaire can be planned
ahead.

However questionnaires are impersonal and closed questions

cannot be expanded upon. Also, the questionnaire is only as good as
the questions in it.

Interviews
The questions in interviews are usually open and focus in on certain
factors. 3 types of interview can be performed.
1. An initial interview (to scope the problem)
2. A interview involving gathering the facts
3. A final interview, when the drafts have been completed.

With interviews, personal contacts can be achieved and extra detail

can be added. It can also be planned in advance.
However, there are time limits, practicality limits and the interview
must be well-structured in order to get a successful interview.

Participant Observation
The factors to consider when observing participants involve how
tasks are completed, how long tasks take and any delays or
problems that may be encountered when carrying out the tasks.

Observation can be direct or indirect. Direct observation involves

someone sitting next to the person and watching them do the task.
It gives the observer a chance to ask questions. Indirect observation
involves video cameras and the recording of footage of the task
being performed.

With participant observation, inefficiencies are spotted, timescales

are measured and persistent problems are identified. However, it is
not efficient at quantitative (numerical) data, people do not like
being watched and there are time constraints.

In conclusion, if I was to choose 2 methods that were best suited to this

analyst, I would probably want him/her to give questionnaires and to
interview people face to face to find out what is exactly required for the
new system and to gain a wide range of opinions.
 Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

Software Development Approaches

Investigate the following questions adding your answers to your notes.

Describe the evolutionary and throw-away prototyping methodologies in your own
words.
Describe the RAD methodology.
Investigate software systems that could be developed using the prototyping
methodology.
What is “prototyping?”
Prototyping is an “iterative” process and a system that uses
prototyping is not a fully working one.
There are 2 different types of prototyping, evolutionary prototyping
and throw-away prototyping.
Evolutionary Prototyping
Evolutionary prototyping involves feedback and comments from the
user after each stage and developing it further. The prototype is
incorporating the changes made and as a result, it evolves into the
finished product.
Advantages of this are that the delivery is quick, the user interacts a lot
with the system and it is tailored to the user’s requirements.
However, there is no knowledge of when to stop tweaking and start
finishing the prototype.
Throw-Away Prototyping
Throw-Away prototyping involves developing a small part of the
system, evaluating the small part and throwing away the old prototype.
This ensures that all of the customer requirements are met and it
reduces the risk of poorly defined requirements.
The throw-away prototype focuses the user on one part of the system,
however, developers may be forced by the user to make the final
system and all of the work of putting together a prototype will be lost.

Prototyping – Pros & Cons

Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
1. The system is of better quality
2. Money is saves
3. Training can be carried out
4. Problems are identified in the early stages
5. User requirements can be fulfilled
6. The user feels more involved

1. Development time is too long

2. The system can differ greatly from the prototype so users are
confused.
3. The development time can be greater if features are missing.
4. There is too much focus on one part of the system.
5. Constructing a prototype costs money (due to hardware and
development time).

RAD – Rapid Application Development

Systems are developed faster under this process. This can be done
by:
Workshops & Focus Groups – The user is actively involved and feels
satisfied as he/she owns the project. There are fewer last minute
changes and the requirements are much more detailed.
JAD (Joint Application Development) can be used to involve the user
as much as the development team.
Prototyping – refining the system, heavy user involvement.
Strict Timescales – Each part of the requirements is like a “mini-
project”. The requirements are divided into tasks, each with a set
time limit. If one task is late, it can be added to another task,
simplified or scrapped.
Re-using software components - This speeds up the delivery process
using RAD and enables the existing software to be used to the
maximum effect. This can be done by using software libraries,
software classes or frameworks (complete environments with built
in features).

RAD – Pros & Cons

1. The user is more involved.
2. The requirements specification evolves over time.
3. The project is sped up.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

1. Not everyone is 100% satisfied.

2. The system is not ideal for everyone.

A project that could be developed using the RAD

methodology
User Input Screens
1. Initial prototype is made, tried out by users, immediate feedback
given
2. Requirements specification developed, developer changes
interactions.
3. Adjusted prototype tried out, feedback is given.
4. The interaction is eventually accepted and signed off.
5. A new prototype is released with all graphics correct, feedback is
again given.
6. The prototype evolves toward the finished system.

Testing & Test Plans

Factors Affecting Testing

There are 3 major factors that affect the quality of testing procedures.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
The first factor is the critical nature of the system. The more important a
system is, the more thorough the testing needs to be. For example, a
customer records form would need to be tested thoroughly.

The second factor is the time available. The thoroughness of the job would
be measures by the amount of time that is available to do the project. The
project will be more thorough if testers had one month to test the system
rather than one week.

There are other external constraints to deal with such as the fact that
systems could have to meet legal requirements e.g. software features
controlling systems in cars need to be tested to an industry-recognised
standard. An external audit will take place to ensure everything has been
tested properly and everything is working.

Selecting Tests

It is impractical to test everything in the system. The skill is in selecting a

practical number of tests that can be done in the time available and to be
confident the system is working.

The Testing Team

A team of testers can be chosen to test the system. BETA testers check
the system does everything exactly as planned in the specification. This
team can check if the system is ‘user-friendly’ but it is not their main role.
A separate team is appointed, which is made up of front end users.

Test Data

Any testing checking validation procedures must include:

Normal data that lies in the specified range

Extreme data on the extreme limits of the range e.g. £50 should be tested
if the rule is <=£50.

Erroneous data that should not be accepted e.g. <=£50 and entering p.

Test Plans

Test plans must be carried out and it is a detailed document which a team
of testers follow carefully.

Every test is set out, data is entered and results are obtained.

The testing procedure should cover the requirements of the system, the
performance of the system, the pathways in the system and the validation
methods of the system.

The testing process involves people following the exact plan, entering the
data, recording the observations and deciding whether the test passes or
fails. If it passes, the next test is set up. If not, the developers work on the
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
concerned area. The best people to test the system are real users as they
will do things that the designers do not expect.

Iteration & Looping

Testing is an iterative process. The problems may be with the user

requirements.

Requirements, Design and System Specification

There are 3 types of specification used in the design process.

Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
User Requirements Specification – This is done at the end of the
investigation & analysis stage and investigates the capabilities of
the system.
System Specification – This is done during the design stage and
evaluates the technical detail of the system.
Design Specification – This is done at the start of the design stage.

The user requirements spec needs to include:

• Scope
• Objectives
• Timing
• Constraints
• Inputs
• Outputs
• Processing
This is like a contract between the end user and the person
delivering the project.

The design spec needs to include:

• Purpose
• Screen Layouts/Style Templates
• Data Structures
• Input/Output/Processing Details
• Validation Rules
• Error Messages
• Modelling Diagrams (such as Entity Relationship Diagrams)
• Software/Hardware Requirements
• Test Plans

It is basically an outline of what needs to be done.

The systems spec needs to include:

• Software Applications
• Storage Requirements
• System Memory Requirements
• Input/Output Devices
• Processing/Computing Power required
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13B/It1
Mr. Moore
• Security & Backup System Requirements
• Manpower Requirements
• Building & Office Requirements
• Network Configuration Requirements
• System Feeds Required

This is basically an outline of how the system is made.

The notable differences between the 3 specs is that they deal with
different parts of the system and they are done in different stages in
the design process.

Roles & Responsibilities within an IT Team

Project Manager – Manage staff, plan project/staff training, co-
ordinate problem solving, manage budget, documenting &
processing.

Systems Analyst – meet with end user to decide on system,

requirements, problems and processes.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Systems Developer – technical duties (design, planning, selecting,
writing, producing), people duties (explaining to client, talking to
other team members)

Programmer – Write codes and technical documentation for the new

system.

Tester – Test the whole system and decide how to test it.

Project Planning
The reasons why a project fails is due to:

Poor planning
Poor time management
Over optimism/unrealistic time frames
Poor budgetary control
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Insufficient budget
Poor communication within project team or users

This wastes time, money and company resources.

However, there are tools available that can help to rectify

and prevent project failings in the future.

Gantt Charts are charts recording timescales. They record

timescales on the horizontal axis and the activities are
recorded down the side. The time taken for each task will
be clearly shown by shading relevant boxes.

As can be seen, the bars show the

amount of time each task should
take, with the times on the horizontal
axis and the activities on the vertical
axis.

The times are shown, tasks are shown individually, the

chart is set up like a calendar and the project can be
completed easily with a Gantt chart. However, the charts
can be too simplistic or huge on large projects, and there
is a lack of critical paths.

This comes with Critical Path Analysis, which identifies

each stage and the time allowed for it. Staff are employed
to ensure they are not falling behind with the project.

The activities are identified and prioritised.

The completed activities are identified.
The earliest start time (EST) and latest finish time (LFT) is
identified.
The FLOAT is identified – tasks outside the critical path.
The critical path is identified.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Efficiency is increased, time scales are enabled, tasks are
scheduled in a logical order, tasks are not held up and
waste is reduced.

However, skilled people are needed, the usefulness is

limited with complex and large project and accurate time
estimates are needed.

8 – Critical Path Analysis

 Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Tasks
Primary Research – 1 week
Investigation of the old system
Questionnaire – 2 weeks
Meetings – 1 week (dependant on the observations being completed)
Observations – 3 weeks
Create the user requirements – 2 weeks
Create the design specification – 4 weeks
Design the system
Database (Entity Relationship Diagrams/Data flow diagrams) – 2 weeks
Front end/User Interface – 3 weeks (dependant on the database being
completed)
Implement the system – 4 weeks
Test the system – 2 weeks
Meet with the user to check the system is fully operational and meets the user
requirements – 2 week

Tasks Description Order/Logic Time

Primary Research task Do first 1 week
Research
Questionnaire Investigate old After Research 2 weeks
system
Meetings Meet with After Research 1 week
client
Observations Observe what After Research 3 weeks
client does
Create user Create After 2 weeks
requirements specification Investigation
for user
Create design Create design After 4 weeks
specification template Investigation
Database Start database After Analysis 2 weeks
(Entity
Diagrams)
User Interface Start User After Analysis 3 weeks
Interface
Implementation Implement the After Design 4 weeks
system
Testing Test the After Design 2 weeks
system
Meeting with Evaluate with After 2 weeks
user user Implementation
& Testing
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Evaluation
Primary
Observation
Testing
Implementati
Design
Databas
Us
Ques
Meetings er tions
e
3Research
on
Interface
Specification
21Requirement
week
weeks
11/10/
422/2
2320/1
s431 weeks
week
18/17/
14/13/
15/4/
9/8/
2 weeks
12
19
15 D
9/21
B
C
1/23
G
A
10
I6
H
F
E

10 – Entity Relationship Diagrams

Patient Appointment
PatientID AppointmentID
Doctor Name Doctor
Name Address Line 1 DoctorID
Address Line 1 Address Line 2 Patient
Address Line 2 Town PatientID
Town Postcode Time
Postcode Doctor Date
DoctorID DoctorID Type
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Mr. Moore

One-One Relationships

One to Many Relationships

Many-Many Relationships

Diagnosis

Treatment/Prescriptio
n
PatientID
Patient
DoctorID
Doctor
Treatment required
Frequency
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13B/It1
Mr. Moore

Patient
PatientID
Name
Address Line 1
Address Line 2
Doctor Town
Name Postcode
Address Line 1 Doctor
Address Line 2 DoctorID
Town
Postcode
DoctorID
Appointment
AppointmentID
Doctor
DoctorID
Patient
PatientID
Time
Date
Type
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13B/It1
Mr. Moore

11 – Flowcharts & State Transition Diagrams

State transition diagrams represent something that occurs in

different ways, such as traffic lights. They can be on red, red &
amber, green, amber (and then back to red). Each of these modes is
called a state and the transfer from one to another is called a
transition event. The system can be transmitted as a state
transition diagram.

Alarm Off
activated
Senses intruder
Dependent
When burglar
on burglar
is
being
present
present

5-10 seconds
 Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

3.3.2 – Designing Computer Based Information Systems

1 – Batch, Interactive & Real Time Processing Methods
L.O. Discuss batch, interactive and real-time in terms of processing methods, response
time and user interface requirements.
Task One
1.) Give 3 examples of tasks that are not suitable for batch processing and give a
number of distinct reasons why this is the case.
2.) Thinking about the 3 examples you have chosen, what type of processing method
would be suitable? Why?
3.) Make a table with all three different types of processing methods. Make a column
to write what kind of response times each has. What are their user interface
requirements?

Batch processing is used when large quantities of data are to be collected together and
treated in a similar way. The data is collected together before processing and the job is
treated as a single unit with no human intervention. It is often run at night when there is
slack time on the computer system and so results are not immediately available but can be
scheduled to be used at an appropriate time. Typical uses include payroll, billing systems,
multiple choice exam papers, etc.
Real-time processing is used when inputs need to be dealt with very quickly i.e. in real-
time. This has to be programmed very carefully to ensure that nothing is missed off.
Examples include: traffic lights, heart rate monitoring, aircraft control, computer games
and controlling robots e.g. remote control cars.
These examples cannot be used for batch processing because the inputs need to be dealt
with instantaneously without any delays. Also, the inputs have to be done separately and
humans have to provide the input before it is dealt with.
Interactive processing is also known as transactional processing and occurs when inputs
are dealt with after a short delay (in terms of computer time, it may seem that the
processing is done straight away). It may have spent the delay doing other things, such as
booking concert tickets, ordering books online, handling bank accounts and booking a
holiday. Interactive processing occurs one at a time. A GUI is the most common type of
interface for interactive processing.
The user interface is very important with interactive processing. It must be clear, easy to
use and very responsive. Data validation should take place to ensure all data is present,
accurate and precise.

Processing Type Response Time

Real Time Instantaneous
Batch Daily
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Interactive/Transactional After short delay

2 – Operating Systems
• Learning Objectives
– Describe the difference between types of operating systems
(single-user, multi-user, multi-tasking, interactive, real time,
batch processing and distributed processing systems) by
identifying their major characteristics.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
• Operating Systems
An Operating System is a program written to make computers
useable by people other than specialist engineers. You do not need
to worry about how to write a character to the screen, how to print,
how to load or save to disc, … Most Operating Systems are very
complex – some of the most complex programs ever written
The Operating System directly interfaces with the computer’s
architecture – think of the Operating System as a layer wrapped
around the hardware. Most users interact with an application
program such as a spreadsheet. You can think of these applications
as another layer wrapped around the Operating System. The
application program translates the user input/output into commands
which the Operating System understands. The Operating System
then translates these commands via machine code routines into a
form which the hardware understands.
A large number of operating systems have been designed over the
years, and they have all been set up with one specific computer or
system in mind.
Windows/Linux – PCs
MacOS – Mac computers
Unix – Mainframe computers
Symbian, Android – Mobile phones
Common functions are: provision of a user interface, storage of
computer memory and hardware.
Single User
2 types
Single Application – deals with one user at a time, e.g. mobile phone
or iPad
Multi-tasking – deals with many applications running at the same
time, whilst still being designed with the single user in mind e.g.
Windows Vista, Windows 7, Linux, Mac OS X Leopard.
Differences – One handles a different amount of applications to the
other and because of this, the memory available is expanded,
commonly to Gigabytes.
Multi-User
Allows more than one user to log on and use the system at the
same time with the computer and resources. It also allows people to
multi-task and run many applications at one time.
The operating system has to manage the users, the allocation of
resources, security, processing time and efficiency.
Another example would be a computer running a single user, multi-
tasking operating system connected to a network, allowing it to
share peripherals and documents.
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Mr. Moore

Interactive
This allows the user to directly interact with the operating system
while one or more programs or applications are running on the
computer. This is common in most operating systems.
Real-Time
This type of operating system is designed to handle input data
within a specific time frame (“latency”). This time could vary,
depending on the type of application that needs to be run.
Batch
This operating system is set up to run “jobs” (i.e. input data files)
without any user interaction at all.
The jobs consist of inputs, processing and outputs.
Distributed
This is where single tasks are split up into smaller components and
they are worked on separate computers and gathered together at
the end of the whole task. Distributed operating systems manage
this process.

4 – Methods of Dialogue

• Learning Objectives
- Compare and contrast different methods of dialogue that allow interaction
between computer and person, person and computer, and computer and
computer
51548
•
Methods of Dialogue
There are four main features of interaction between a computer and a person:
○ prompts
○ nature of input
○ methods of input
○ feedback
The type of dialogue is responsible for selecting the most appropriate method of
dialogue to be used. The choice will depend on the investigations that have
been completed, the tasks that the users need to complete and the
requirements of the business.
Prompts
A prompt is most commonly used in a command line interface. It indicates that
the user needs to input an appropriate command. When the command has
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been input the command line interface will then complete the required action.
This type of dialogue can be difficult for 'every day' users to learn and so is
best used for technical administration of the system.
Prompts can also be used in a graphical user interface (GUI). Unlike command
line interface, a GUI uses icons to prompt the user. The icons should be
intuitive and simple to use and represent a concept that is familiar to a user,
such as a dustbin image for deleting or an X to close a window.
A menu-driven interface will, by nature of its characteristics, use menus to offer
the user a selection of possible inputs to choose from.
Question - Describe how prompts could be used in a command line
interface
Nature of Input
The nature of the input can also differ between interfaces. Interactive interfaces
decide the nature of the next user input (e.g. by asking a question or by
requiring a selection to be made) based on the response to the previous input.
Forms might be used as the basis for the dialogue with those being displayed
being decided by a pre-determined sequence of user inputs.

Method of Input
If the dialogue is being completed using a command line interface, then the usual
method of input is a keyboard. The user will have no need for other
peripherals. Form-based interfaces can also be used with only a keyboard,
however it is often simpler to also use a mouse. Touch screens have become
a popular method of input (e.g. on cash machines).
Question - Investigate other applications where the method of input is a
touch screen
Feedback
Any dialogue must provide feedback. This could be in the form of menus that
provide options for the user to select. A menu option may be a sub-menu
giving further options, for example a designer might provide a general menu
with sub-menus that provide specific areas or tasks that need to be carried
out.
The feedback given in a real-time or interactive interface is a further set of
required responses or the completion of the task providing the user with the
required results. This type of feedback will give the user very specific and
limited choices because the responses given to each set of questions of
choices will limit the response given.
• Mind Mapping Task
Read the following text and have a go at this using the text to the left
hand side. There are also some questions in there for you to answer.
Get creative!
Right now tens of thousands of students around the world are taking lecture
notes in a completely inefficient way: writing them down line by line; or, in
some languages, column by column.
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Mr. Moore
But the brain does not work that way. It does not store information in neat
lines or columns.
It stores information like branches on a tree – on branches called dendrites. It
also stores information by patterns and associations. And to store information
the way your brain does – British psychologist Tony Buzan has invented Mind
Mapping.
So don't take notes, make Mind Maps. And make them with trees, with
pictures, with colours, with symbols, with patterns and associations.

1. Imagine your brain cells are like trees, with each one storing related
information on its branches.
2. Now try arranging the key points of any topic on a sheet of white paper
in the same treelike format.
3. Start with the central topic – preferably with a symbol – in the centre of
the page, then draw branches spreading out from it.
4. Generally record only one word and/or symbol for each point you want
to recall – one main theme for each branch.
5. Put related points on the same main branches, each one shooting off
like a new sub-branch.
6. Use different coloured pencils or markets for related topics.
7. Draw as many pictures and symbols as you can.
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Mr. Moore

• Human Computer Interface

• A term used to describe the interaction between the user and
a computer. The method by which the user tells the computer
what to do and the responses which the computer makes
• Importance of good interface design
• A good interface design ensures that users carry out their
tasks
• Safely – think of a pilot flying a jumbo jet
• Effectively – operating a video recorder successfully to record
the correct program
• Efficiently – users can obtain money from a cash machine,
inserting card and pin, obtaining cash and removing their card
• Enjoyably – can use a computer program to learn tables, for
example
• Interface Styles
• There are a number of interface styles including:
• Command line interface
• Menus
• Natural Language
• Forms and dialogue boxes
• WIMP
• Command Line Interface
• Provides a means of expressing instructions to the computer
directly using single characters, whole word commands or
abbreviations.
• Very little help is given.
• Commands enable a user to quickly and concisely instruct the
computer what to do
• User requires the knowledge of the commands available and
the syntax for using them
• Operates via DOS
• Menu interface
• Full screen menu – front end application use. Stays on screen
until the user makes a choice. Eg A switchboard on a database
• Pull down menu – displayed along the top of a screen. When
the user clicks on an item, a submenu appears. Always
present at the top of the screen whatever screen the user is
looking at in the application.
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Mr. Moore
• Pop-up menu – menu pops up due to a response, say, a click
of the right mouse button on a particular area of the screen.
• Natural Language – “plain English”
Advantages
• No need for training in a specialised command language
• Extremely flexible and powerful
• User is free to construct her own commands, frame her own
questions, etc.
Disadvantages
• People find it difficult to stick to grammatical correct English
• A well designed artificial language can say the same thing
more concisely than natural language
• A natural language can mislead a user into believing the
computer is more intelligent than it actually is
• Forms & Dialogue Boxes
• A form is used to enter data, such as customers names.
• A dialogue box is a special type of form, usually in the
Windows environment, for example, a form appears when a
print job is set up to the printer.
Points to consider when designing a form:-
• Should have a title to identify it
• Not be too cluttered – space and blanks are important
• Corrections should be allowed before the data is accepted
• Items should appear in a logical sequence to assist the user
• Default values should be set up whenever possible so a
minimum of data entry is required
• Full help and exit facilities should be provided
• WIMP Interface
Windows, Icons, Mouse and pull down menus.
• Window – area on screen through which a particular piece of
software or data file may be viewed.
• The window can be the whole screen or several windows can
be set up, each one being moved or resized, as necessary.
• An icon is a small picture representing an item such as a piece
of software. Selected by using the mouse.
• Mouse moves a cursor, positioning it were required and then
selecting the item.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

6 – Perception, Attention, Memory and

Learning
Learning Objectives
Explain how a potential user’s perception, attention,
memory and learning can be taken into account when
designing an interface.

A user interface needs to be designed with the typical perception

traits in mind or else it will be confusing for them.
The colour and sound of the interface can also be important.

Red means a mistake has been made.

Green means everything is OK.

If the wrong colour is put with the wrong outcome (i.e. it shows
green for something wrong) then it can seem confusing.

Also sounds can be used to illustrate errors, such as high pitched

sounds for something good or low pitched, staccato sounds for
something bad. It does not need to be too loud, but it does need to
be correct.

Shapes can mean different things, for example starry shapes can
indicate a headline or a big offer. Tick shapes can indicate
correctness, crosses can indicate being incorrect.

Advertising and movement can be a good method to illustrate

points, but it should be used only occasionally as well as with
colours and pictures, so as not to distract the user.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
When a user interface is being designed, only information relevant
at that second should be displayed and no distraction should be
caused.

Common ways to distract other people include using constant

background sound tracks, bad colour combinations and inconsistent
design. Animation, colours and pictures should only be used
occasionally and the interface should be clear and easy to navigate
through for everyone.

People have short-term memory, i.e. not remembering a lot of

things for a long period of time. Due to this, the user interface
should have common features, such as a navigation bar, so that the
user will be familiar with these and will be able to navigate through
the site with ease, without having any unnecessary shocks along the
way. The background, text and pictures should be consistent in
order to ease this process.

A user interface should be mostly like typical interfaces. This means

that the user will find it much easier to navigate through than if a
really complicated interface was used and because of this, the
learning curve would be much shallower for the user. There needs
to be a lot of instructions present in order to guide the user through
the interface if there are any problems that could crop up during
design.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

7 – Mental Models
• Learning Objectives

Describe mental models and how they can be applied to the design
of a user interface.
Discuss the importance of designing a system model that matches
closely the user’s mental model.
• Task One
Answer these questions about mental models:
1.) What is a mental model?
2.) What might go wrong with a system which did not match a
user’s mental model? Use everyday examples such as traffic lights
or screws (clockwise to screw in anti to unscrew etc or on/off
switches) in your answer.
A mental model is a constant stream of information that is
processed by the brain to help it achieve specific tasks. For
example, when the brake pedal is pressed in a car, the car should
stop.

A mental model is formed of the expected event so if the system did

not match the personal mental model, accidents could happen. For
example, if the brake pedal in the car was pressed and the car did
not brake or it accelerated, the mental model will be perceived to be
incorrect and the car will probably need to be taken to a mechanic
to have it checked.

• Task Two

1.) Using a pen and paper or using design software on the

computer, design a user interface for a mobile phone or anything
else similar that the user will find intuitive and easy to use.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
2.) On your design annotate the features that conform to a user's
mental model and their expectations about how things should work.
3.) What will the user expect from each of these features and why is
having this in place important?
4.) What kind of effect will following mental models have on the
user's experience of the system? What would it be like if you didn't
follow mental models?

Benefits of conforming to a mental model

• Predictability
• Easy to learn
• Easy to use
• Simple to find controls
Problems with a non-conforming interface
• Difficult to learn quickly
• Harder for guessing where things are
• Mistakes more likely to happen
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

8 – Model Human Processor

• Learning Objectives
- Describe the user interface design tool known as the Model Human
Processor
- Explain how its principles can be applied in terms of computer based
interactive systems.

The model begins with the fact that our ears and eyes are input sensors. Each of these
inputs is provided as separate channels as they store different types of information.

This information can only be stored for a few seconds and it will disappear after a
period of time as this is short term memory.

As this happens, this information has to be processed so as much of the information as

possible is kept for a longer period of time without being forgotten again.

The outputs from the audio and visual sources are stored in a cognitive source (i.e.
stored together). Multiple interface streams are being combined in one go, so this is
why there should not be any confusion between the information (also known as
“cognitive dissonance”). Only a limited amount of information can be stored at any
one time, typically 7 elements. A good example of this would be a 7 digit telephone
number.

However, the information will only be remembered for a short time unless the user is
reminded of the action at a later stage in the processing.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
This information is then fed into the cognitive processor. This information is
combined with information stored in long-term memory to try to ascertain a complete
understanding of the instantaneous occurrences. If the effort is worthwhile, then the
new information is put into the long-term memory store.

If something needs to be released from long-term memory, then recognition is much

faster than recall because there is nothing in recall that is easily recognisable. An
instantaneous answer is much harder to find in recall than in recognition.

The last thing involved in the model human processor is the physical part where
things have to be done. There is a muscle memory able to do these things without
even thinking about doing them, they will become “second nature” to people.

Although the model human processor works well in some cases, it does present a few
problems.

The processor assumes that the person concerned is doing one thing at a time.

The processor does not consider the effects of other people.

There is no consideration for the environmental conditions.

Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

OCR A2 ICT – Theory, Chapter 2

Mid Chapter Mini Quiz

1. Define batch processing. 3

marks

2. Define interactive processing. 3

marks

3. What is an operating system? 2

marks

4. Give an e.g. of when a single user OS might be used. 1

mark

5. What is a multi tasking OS? 3

marks

6. List the 6 factors that you must consider when designing a

HCI.
6 marks

7. List the 4 main features of interaction between a computer

and a person.

4 marks

8. What 2 types of prompts are most commonly used in a GUI?

2 marks
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
9. How does a batch processing system differ to an interactive
OS?
3 marks

10. Explain what you think a ‘natural language’ HCI might be.

3 marks
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

OCR A2 ICT – Theory, Chapter 2

Mid Chapter Mini Quiz - Answers

11. Define batch processing. 3

marks
Where large amounts of the same or similar data is processed in batches. Usually done in the evening’s or at
weekends when the system is not being used. An example of this could be printing utility bills such as gas bills.

12. Define interactive processing. 3

marks
Where data is processed one transaction at a time, often used in booking systems for e.g. booking tickets. This
is so that seats can’t be sold more than once.

13. What is an operating system? 2

marks
The ‘brain’ of the computer. It is the core software that allows the computer to be used as a useful device.

14. Give an e.g. of when a single user OS might be used. 1

mark
On a personal computer or a smart phone.

15. What is a multi tasking OS? 3

marks
An operating system that allows you to work within several different applications at the same time e.g. using
both the Internet and word processing software at the same time.

16. List the 6 factors that you must consider when designing a
HCI.
6 marks
Use of colour, layout, quantity of information, font size, complexity of language and type of controls

17.List the 4 main features of interaction between a computer

and a person.

4 marks
Prompts, nature of input, methods of input and feedback

18. What 2 types of prompts are most commonly used in a GUI?

2 marks
Menus and icons

19. How does a batch OS differ to an interactive OS?

3 marks
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Batch OS is given a set of tasks to run without any user intervention whereas an interactive OS is one in which
there is durect user interaction while a program is running

20. Explain what you think a ‘natural language’ HCI might be.

3 marks
For e.g. a satnav which allows the user to select by speaking into the device.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Networks & Communication
1 – Bandwidth and Transmitting Data

Bandwidth is a measure of the capacity of a communications

channel. It is measured in bits per second. It is common to use
kilobits per second and megabits per second to describe the
bandwidth of modern links, such as the Internet. Bandwidth
determines the overall connection speed of a network. The lowest
bandwidth determines the maximum speed.

Early modems have a speed of 300-9600 bits per second.

Modern modems have a speed of 56 kilobits per second.

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Networks) have a speed of 64-128

kilobits per second.

Most ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) links have a speed

of 512 kilobits per second to 2 megabits (2000 kilobits) per second.

High-end networks in Korea, Sweden and Japan have a connection

speed from 2 megabits per second to 1000 megabits per second.

There are 3 different types of cable that can be used for

connections.

Copper Cabling consists of a copper core surrounded by insulation.

UTP (Unshielded twisted pair) cabling is used to reduce signal loss.

However, twisted pair cabling can be used to prevent interference
between the signals.

Fibre optic cabling uses light to transmit information rather than

electrical signals.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

• LANs and Extranets

• Thomas Roe
• 13B/It1
• Mr. Moore
• LANs
• Also known as Local Area Networks.
• Small area (e.g. schools, offices)
• One computer is the file server, rest are workstations.
• Cables are used to connect the computers together.
• Advantages of Local Area Networks
• Fast data transfer.
• Low cost for set up.
• Secure network.
• All software loaded on 1 computer.
• Share resources.
• E-mail can be accessed.
• Disadvantages of Local Area Networks
• Expensive installation
• Expertise for administration.
• File server may fail, whole system halts.
• Cable can break, whole network stops.
• Extranets
• Private networks - use technology from Internet and
telecommunications devices - share information with others.
• Similar to an intranet - extended to an outside company.
• Requires security and privacy. Firewalls and encryption
techniques.
• Uses of Extranets
• Large amounts of data can be exchanged using EDI, many
data segments involving singular facts from many data
elements can be transferred.
• Catalogues exclusively shared.
• Software programmes can be developed and used by the
business.
• Services for other companies can be accessed and used.
• News of common interest between the employees can be
shared.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

Network Topologies
There are 3 types of network topology; bus, ring and star. They all have their
advantages and disadvantages.

A bus network consists of a single cable which connects all of the hardware and
computers together.

It is the best choice for temporary networks, it is easy to install, it uses little cabling
and it is simple to add extra workstations.

However, there is limited security, a maximum number of workstations, a termination

in the connection if the central cable fails and data collisions for large amounts of
data, which can travel slowly.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

4 – Networks – Client & Peer to Peer

Quiz

Round 1 – Networks

1. Name 3 advantages of networks. [3]

2. Name 3 disadvantages of networks. [3]

Round 2 – Client Server

3. What is a client server network? [3]

4. Name 3 advantages of client server networks. [3]

5. Name 3 disadvantages of client server networks. [3]

Round 3 – Peer to Peer

6. What is a peer to peer network? [2]

7. Name 3 advantages of peer to peer networks. [3]

8. Name 3 disadvantages of peer to peer networks. [3]

Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

Round 4 – True or False

9. A peer-peer network is complex to set up. [1]

10.A client server only needs basic skills? [1]

11.A peer to peer has a server? [1]

12.A client server has all the applications loaded onto every
computer? [1]

13.A client server uses a better operating system? [1]

14.A peer to peer has the lowest level of security? [1]

15.A peer to peer has basic login settings? [1]

16.Are devices managed centrally in a client server network? [1]

17.In which network can users roam from machine to machine? [1]

4 – Networks – Client & Peer to Peer

Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Answers

18. Name 3 advantages of networks.

3 from:

• Accessibility of data, internet connection, software, files.

• Share Hardware/Software
• Security Issues
• Central Backup

1. Name 3 disadvantages of networks.

3 from:

• Network Failure
• Data Transfer/slowing down network
• Viruses
• Expensive equipment
• Expert Support

1. What is a client server network?

A client-server network is a network where clients are connected

to a central hub, which is then connected to a central server
on the system. If the server goes down, the client’s
connection goes down.

2. Name 3 advantages of client server networks.

3 from:
• All files are stored in a central location
• Network peripherals are controlled centrally
• Backups and network security are controlled centrally
• Users can access shared data which is centrally controlled.

1. Name 3 disadvantages of client server networks.

3 from:
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
• A specialist operating system is needed
• The server is expensive to purchase
• Specialist staff such as a network manager is needed
• If any part of the network fails, a lot of disruption can occur.

1. What is a peer to peer network?

A peer to peer network is one where no central server is needed

to access the network. This is as simple as two people using a
hub to connect to each other’s computer. However, the
permission rights do have to be set so no-one can see each
other’s work. For example Peer 1 cannot see Peer 2’s work unless
Peer 2 gives Peer 1 permission to do so.

2. Name 3 advantages of peer to peer networks.

3 from:
• There is no need for a network operating system
• It does not need an expensive server
• There is no need for network technicians
• It does not need specialist knowledge to set up
• If one computer fails, no other computers are affected (it just
means no-one can access their work).

1. Name 3 disadvantages of peer to peer networks.

3 from:
• The performance may be slowed because each computer is
accessed
• Files and folders cannot be centrally backed up
• Files and resources are not centrally organised
• Individual users need to ensure viruses are controlled
• There is little security beside the permissions.

1. A peer-peer network is complex to set up.

FALSE

2. A client server only needs basic skills.

Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
FALSE

3. A peer to peer has a server.

FALSE

4. A client server has all the applications loaded onto every

computer.
FALSE

5. A client server uses a better operating system.

TRUE

6. A peer to peer has the lowest level of security.

TRUE

7. A peer-peer has basic login settings.

TRUE

8. Are devices managed centrally in a client-server network?

YES

9. In which network can users roam from machine to machine?

CLIENT-SERVER

Optical Communication Methods

Learning Objectives
Understand the different optical communication methods.
Discuss their advantages and disadvantages.
Discuss typical applications of optical communication.
Infra-red is the earliest type of communication and is in use today. Their uses are in
TV, DVD and entertainment remotes. The speed of this communication is about 115.2
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
kbps. It has a range of 10 metres. It is cheap, it has a moderate bandwidth and it does
well on short distances. However, it can only be used in line of sight, it has a short
range and it has a low bandwidth compared to other communication types.
Fibre Optic communication has the widest bandwidth and is made from glass fibre. A
transmitter converts the input into light and a detector converts the light into output. A
repeater is needed every 70 kilometres. Data is transferred at 40 GB per second. 1%
of fibre optics is lit for paying customers. Fibre optic is immune to interference.
Signals can be sent over a longer distance, it has a large data capacity, it is immune to
electric interference and corrosion, many services can be on the same line, it is used in
hazardous environments, the security is good, one cable is used for many fibres and
each fibre is used for a different service. However, fibre optic is expensive, the
connection is difficult, expertise is required, it cannot carry power and failure of this
is worse than copper.
Laser communication can also be used for communication between campuses,
emergency data links, back-up networks and outdoor events. It has a wide bandwidth
compared to infra-red and is quick to set up. However, it is affected by the weather
and needs line-of-sight to be able to work. LASER stands for Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

7 – Communication ApplicationsTop of Form

/w EPDw UJNDU1O

E-mail
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Date
Sort by

Electronic mail is a method of exchanging digital messages across the Internet or other computer
networks.
Electronic mail, commonly called e-mail, is a method of exchanging digital messages across the
Internet or other computer networks.
You can attach files to accompany your message
e.g. pictures, links, or files.
These attachments can also be viruses however.

Uses

Business
Friends & Family
Broadcast info
sending & receiving documents

Confidentiality important

Pros & Cons

Little training
Free to send
Quick response
Not present
Any time
Attachments
Multiple copies
Carbon copy
Request proof
Prepared in advance
Encryption
Electronic signatures

Must have e-mail address

No message if no e-mail address known
Change e-mail address
SPAM
Wastes working time
Inboxes can be full (for example, when going on holiday)
Waiting a long time for messages
VIRUSES
Some companies don't allow attachments
EMAIL SCAMS
No guarantee from legitimate sender. E-mails can be SPOOFED.

Thomas ROE wrote:

Business
Friends & Family
Broadcast info
sending & receiving documents

Confidentiality important
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

I should clarify that Thomas means that this can be used in between business employees and
other businesses and between everyone and anyone else on the planet.

It’s also used to make sales and to send people viruses.

The original email systems allowed communication only between users who logged into the same
host or "mainframe". This could be hundreds or even thousands of users within an organization.

Bottom of Form

Tele/Video Conferencing
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Date
Sort by

A videoconference is a set of interactive telecommunication technologies which allow two or more

locations to interact via two-way video and audio transmissions simultaneously.

Audio & Video Conferencing

This allows people in different locations to communicate with each other.

Uses: Business meetings, training, education, family and friends (webcam is cheap), gaming,
virtual tourism, remote medical care.

Pros: No need for time and money travelling, seeing people as well as hearing them, no need for
others to travel to one location, everyone views something, ideas and knowledge communicated
between people, one trainer can provide lectures to hundreds of people at the same time.

Cons: Access to hardware and software required, fast data link needed, slight delay between
responses (even with a fast connection), hardware breakdown means everyone suffers, different
time zones, no substitute for face to face meeting.

Issue: Eye contact plays a large role in conversational turn-taking, perceived attention and intent,
and other aspects of group communication. Some systems have cameras located in the screens
that reduce this. The issue of eye-contact may be solved with advancing technology.

Can't you still see people's eyes when you are on camera??

The point here is if you look at your webcam on your laptop, it is not where you will be looking on
the screen aka you will not be looking directly into the camera which means that you will not be
making 'eye contact' which in some cultures is perceived as being rude. (Issues with using video
conferencing internationally here!)
You will be losing out on body language that is important in the business world especially when
trying to convince somebody or sell something to them. This would be a disadvantage of video
conferencing as the application would not be suitable to this situation.
Alan sugar makes the most of it on apprentice

video conferencing is used in law where individuals cannot attend the physical legal setting

It may also be used for witness protection where the witness is too distressed or scared to be in
the same room/building as the accused.

Can also be used in the court rooms where the defendant is too young to stand and give
evidence.
With high speed internet video conferencing has become easier and more available

/w EWBQKp96Hx

Bulletin Boards

Date
Sort by

A bulletin board is a place where people can leave public messages, for example, to advertise
things to buy or sell, announce events, or provide information.
Message boards and even internet forums are interchangeable
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Bulletin boards are particularly prevalent at universities. There are hundreds of thousands of
public bulletin boards, used for everything from advertisements by extracurricular groups and local
shops to official notices.

Internet forums are becoming a global replacement for traditional bulletins. Online bulletin boards
are sometimes referred to as message boards. The terms bulletin board, message boards and
even internet forums are interchangeable, although often one bulletin board or message board
can contain a number of internet forums or discussion groups. An online board can serve the
same purpose as a physical bulletin board.

Bulletin Boards

Internet based

Often called a "forum"

This is a bulletin board.

Forums set up for everything, can be used by anyone (informal or formal)

Un-moderated (posts loaded as soon as they are sent) or moderated (someone looks at it before
it is sent), this is an un-moderated one.

Excellent knowledge base.

Terms: "Forum" or "Board" ( topic area), "Thread" (related messages), "Post" (single message),
"Troll" (deliberate offender), "Lurker" (reads messages, not replying)

Uses: Hobbies, sharing knowledge, discussing real-time events, professional

I may be a "lurker" as I have only sent one message in each category.

Is this an un-moderated board Thomas? ;)

WHAT IS UNMODERATED?

This is a moderated board

Moderated means that the forum has someone checking over the board for offensive posts and is
checking what people write. Thomas said that this forum was un-moderated which I disagree with.
If you post anything offensive, is it likely to be on here in 5 minutes time?
Internet forums are becoming a global replacement for traditional bulletins. They are also used for
business purposes, where individuals/creators make money through advertising. So, can be a
source of finance.

Fax

Date
Sort by

A fax (short for facsimile) is a document sent over a telephone line :)

Fax machines are normally used in a business environment rather than personal use, as it can
send a lot of information at once. Personal users don't use them as there are quicker ways of
communicating such as e-mail.
The main alternatives are e-mail and Internet fax. Internet fax uses the Internet to receive and
send faxes.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Fax is also paper based and used for sending documents, scanning the paper document at one
end and printing it out at the other. For email you would need to scan the document to send as
an attachment

FAX

Transmits image copy of graphical info

only deals with A4

Optical scanner able to do this

Converts into digital file

Used in business offices for:

Invoices
Orders
Drawings/Sketches
Contracts

There are A3 fax machines!!!

I've seen an A3 FAX machine.

Internet Relay Chat

Date
Sort by
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

Richard Moore Internet Relay Chat

Research Internet Relay Chat and store the information here. There
are some useful links under 7. Communication Applications

David CLARKE
IRC is an internet protocol.

Thomas ROE IRC

What is it?

Text based real time messaging system; uses are chatting to friends using text, webcam services
and business colleague messages.

Features

View messages
"Buddy" lists
Block people
Use graphical images
Status available
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Sending attachments
Archive messages
Inviting people for a chat

Joshua COOPER
IRC is mainly designed for group communication in things called
'channels'

Josh WEATHERBY
Because IRC connections are usually unencrypted and typically
span long time periods, they are an attractive target for crackers. Because of this, careful security
policy is necessary to ensure that an IRC network is not susceptible to an attack such as an IRC
takeover war. IRC networks may also K-line or G-line users or networks that have a harming
effect.

Matthew SCHOFIELD
An IRC Server can connect to several other IRC Servers which
expands the network.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

Joshua COOPER
IRC is easily archived.

IRC is accessed through programs called 'clients'

a popular example of a client would be mIRC or XChat

Francesca SPARHAM IRC QUIT

You can end a session by entering the command: "QUIT"
Parameters: []

David CLARKE
A user may be part of several channels at once.
However, the use of 10 channels is recommended as a limit for all standards of users.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

Jodi LEWIS K line and G line

When a user is k-lined, it bans the user from a certain server, either
for a certain amount of time or permanently.

G-line or global kill line (also written G:line) is a global network ban applied to a user

Joshua COOPER
IRC uses 'bots' to help protect channels and act as points of contact
for information and protection. Bots are always being developed for more complex tasks - such as
a 'trivia' bot which starts up a trivia game.

Josh WEATHERBY
K-Line - Internet Relay Chat term, applied to a specific user. When a
user is k-lined, it bans the user from a certain server, either for a certain amount of time or
permanently. Once the user is banned, they are not allowed back onto that server; they have to
join a different server to get onto IRC.

G-Line - is a global network ban applied to a user. Whenever a G-lined person attempts to
connect to the IRC network, the services will automatically disconnect the client
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

Martin WILCOX
Users can create file servers that allow them to share files with each
other by using customised IRC bots or scripts for their IRC client

Jodi LEWIS A lot of use...

As of May 2009, the top 100 IRC networks served more than half a
million users at a time, with hundreds of thousands of channels

Joshua COOPER
IRC Bouncers are 'ghost' users or a persistent proxy. The main
purpose is to maintain a connection to an IRC server - if the client loses connection to a certain
IRC server - the bouncer will remain connected and archive the chat. This will allow the user to
reconnect and resume his IRC session.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

David CLARKE
First programmes created for the initial time-sharing computers in
early 1960's were designed to be able to support real-time chat

Joshua COOPER
'Quakenet' www.quakenet.org - is the largest IRC network in the
world.
posted 26/11/2010 09:04

Josh WEATHERBY
Most modern servers support detection of users attempting to
connect through an insecure (exploited) proxy server, which can then be denied a connection.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore

Francesca SPARHAM Host masks

A host mask is a unique identifier of an IRC client connected to an
IRC server. IRC services and bots can use it to identify the client. The host mask looks similar to,
but should not be confused with, an e-mail address. It is a combination of the nickname, identity,
and hostname. If identity is not available, then the username is used after being prefixed with a
tilde sign. If the IP address cannot be resolved to a valid hostname, then the IP address is used
instead.

Jodi LEWIS Modes

Users and channels may have modes which are represented by
single case-sensitive letters and are set using the mode command.
User modes and channel modes are separate and can use the same letter to mean different
things

e.g.
Letter
I
Description
Invisible? Cannot be seen without a common channel or knowing the exact name
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Matthew SCHOFIELD
Automated clients are called bots.
Most modern IRC services typically implement bot-like interfaces, through which users can
communicate with and control the functionality. Bots have also been created for malevolent uses,
such as flooding or taking over channels, ousting their rightful owners.

Jodi LEWIS PROBLEMS

Issues in the original design of IRC were the amount of shared state
data being a limitation on its scalability, the absence of unique user identifications leading to the
nickname collision problem....

Matthew SCHOFIELD
Flooding or scrolling on an IRC network is a method of disconnecting
users from an IRC server. It will exhaust bandwidth, thereby causing network latency ('lag'), or
just annoying users. Floods can either be done by scripts (written for a given client) or by external
programs. It is possible to flood a user off simply by sending those data faster than they can
receive it.
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Mr. Moore

8 – Comparing Broadband Connections

In order to consolidate what we have learnt so far, look back over

sections 3-6 and create a table that looks like this:
Example Connection Justification
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Type
Situation
Suggested
This would be most
appropriate so the users
Homes ADSL can get a quick
connection with minimal
cable usage.
This would be most
appropriate as shopping
centres would not want
Small businesses Wireless cables as it would present
a tripping hazard for other
people inside the small
business.
This would be most
appropriate as schools
Schools Wireless would not want cables as
it would present a tripping
hazard to other students.
This would be most
appropriate as banks
Banks Leased Line would not want cables as
it would present a tripping
hazard.
This would be most
Global appropriate as they are
Positioning Satellite situated in the sky so it
Systems in cars would be easy to track the
position of the vehicle.
This would be most
appropriate as shopping
centres want people to be
Shopping centres Wireless
able to connect quickly
without having the hassle
of cables.
When people are abroad,
they want fast
Abroad on
Wireless connections to be able to
holiday
keep up with news back at
home.

Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL, generic broadband

connection)

Cable

Wireless

Leased Line

Satellite
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System
The Switching system (SS) is very operative system in which many crucial operations are conducted,
SS holds five databases with in it which performs different functions. If we talk about major tasks of SS
system it performs call processing and subscriber related functions. These five databases from SS
systems are HLR, MSC, VLR, AUC and EIR. Let’s study each database in detail and learn what
functions this little systems performs.

HLR- Home Location Register:

HLR is database, which holds very important information of subscribers. It is mostly known for storing
and managing information of subscribers. It contains subscriber service profile, status of activities,
information about locations and permanent data of all sorts. When new connections are purchased,
these subscribers are registered in HLR of mobile phone companies.

MSC- Mobile Services Switching Centre:

MSC is also important part of SS, it handles technical end of telephony. It is built to perform switching
functionality of the entire system. It’s most important task is to control the calls to and from other
telephones, which means it controls calls from same networks and calls from other networks. Toll
ticketing, common channel signalling, network interfacing etc. are other tasks which MSC is responsible
for.

VLR- Visitor Location Register:

VLR performs very dynamic tasks; it is database which stores temporary data regarding subscribers
which is needed by Mobile Services Switching Centre-MSC VLR is directly connected to MSC, when
subscribe moves to different MSC location, Visitor location register – VLR integrates to MSC of current
location and requests the data about subscriber or Mobile station (MS) from the Home Location Register
–HLR. When subscriber makes a call the Visitor location register-VLR will have required information for
making call already and it will not be required to connect to Home Register Location - HRL again.

AUC- Authentication Centres:

AUC is small unit which handles the security end of the system. Its major task is to authenticate and
encrypt those parameters which verify user’s identification and hence enables the confidentiality of each
call made by subscriber. Authentication centre – AUC makes sure mobile operators are safe from
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different frauds most likely to happen when hackers are looking for even smallest loop wholes in
systems.

EIR – Equipment Identity Register:

EIR is another important database which holds crucial information regarding mobile equipments. EIR
helps in restricting for calls been stolen, mal functioning of any MS, or unauthorized access. AUC –
Authentication centre and EIR- Equipment Identity registers are either Stand-alone nodes or sometimes
work together as combined AUC/EIR nodes for optimum performance.

The Base Station System (BSS)

The base station system have very important role in mobile communication. BSS are basically out door
units which consist of iron rods and are usually of high length. BSS are responsible for connecting
subscribers (MS) to mobile networks. All the communication is made in Radio transmission. The Base
station System is further divided in two systems. These two systems, they are BSC, and BTS. Let’s
study these two systems in detail.

BTS – The Base Transceiver Station:

Subscriber, MS (Mobile Station) or mobile phone connects to mobile network through BTS; it handles
communication using radio transmission with mobile station. As name suggests, Base transceiver
Station is the radio equipment which receive and transmit voice data at the same time. BSC control
group of BTSs.

BSC – The Base Station Controller:

The Base Station normally controls many cells, it registers subscribers, responsible for MS handovers
etc. It creates physical link between subscriber (MS) and BTS, then manage and controls functions of it.
It performs the function of high quality switch by handover over the MS to next BSC when MS goes out
of the current range of BTS, it helps in connecting to next in range BTS to keep the connection alive
within the network. It also performs functions like cell configuration data, control radio frequency in BTS.
Data moves to MSC-Mobile switching centre after BSC done processing it. MSC is switching centre
which acts as bridge between different mobile networks.

 Making a Phone Call via Satellite

1. A subscriber in Russia is calling her friend in San Francisco

on her satellite phone. Her signal is handled by a passing
satellite.
2. The satellite relays the call to a Gateway in its footprint.
3. The Gateway converts the signal to work with the local
public service telephone network (PSTN) and passes on the
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call. Depending on the distance between the callers, a
satellite call might pass through several Gateways and PSTNs
before locating the receiving phone. The PSTN uses the call's
routing information to connect to another Gateway that knows
where the receiving phone is located.
4. The Gateway located closest to the receiving phone
converts the signal to the correct format and uplinks it to a
satellite (5). This Gateway knows that the receiving phone is
in its contact area because an earlier satellite relayed that
phone's power-on registration message to the Gateway. This
information was stored in the Gateway's Visitor Location
Register (VLR).
6. The call is relayed to the receiving phone and the call
linkage is complete!

SATELLITE Television
Television could not exist in its contemporary form without satellites. Since 10 July 1962,
when NASA technicians in Maine transmitted fuzzy images of themselves to engineers at a
receiving station in England using the Telstar satellite, orbiting communications satellites have
been routinely used to deliver television news and programming between companies and to
broadcasters and cable operators. And since the mid-1980s they have been increasingly
used to broadcast programming directly to viewers, to distribute advertising, and to provide
live news coverage.
Arthur C. Clarke, a British engineer turned author, is credited with envisioning the key
elements of satellite communications long before the technical skill or political will to
implement his ideas existed. In 1945 he published a plan to put electronic relay stations--a
radio receiver and re-transmitter--into space at 23,000 miles above the earth's equator. At this
altitude, the satellite must complete a full rotation around the earth every 24 hours in order to
sustain orbit (countering the pull of the earth's gravity). Given the rotation of the earth itself,
that keeps the satellite at the same relative position. This "geosynchronous orbit" is where
several hundred communications satellites sit today providing telephone and data
communications, but mostly, relaying television signals. Television is currently the largest
user of satellite bandwidth.
An "uplink" transmitter on earth, using a "dish" antenna pointed toward the satellite, sends a
signal to one of the satellite's "transponders." The transponder amplifies that signal and shifts
it to another frequency (so as not to interfere with the incoming signal) to be transmitted back
to earth. A "downlink" antenna and receiver on earth then captures that signal and sends it on
its way. The essential advantage of the satellite is that the uplink and downlink may be 8000
miles apart. In practice, satellite communications is more efficient over a shorter distances
than that, but the advantages over terrestrial transmissions--cable, fiber optics, and
microwave--are profound, particularly across oceans. As with Direct Broadcast Satellites
(DBS), satellites can transmit to an unlimited number of ground receivers simultaneously, and
costs do not increase with distance.
Each satellite has a distinct "footprint," or coverage area, which is meticulously shaped and
plotted. In 1971, the first communications satellites carrying "spot beam" antennas were
launched. A spot beam antenna can be steered to focus the satellite's reception and
transmission capabilities on a small portion of the earth, instead of the 40% of the earth's
surface a wider antenna beam could cover. Spot coverage is crucial in international
broadcasting, when neighboring countries may object to signal "spillover" into their territory.
Communications satellites since the 1960's have received uplink signals in a range of
frequencies (or "bandwidth") near six GHz (gigahertz, or a billion cycles per second) and
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downlinked signals near four GHz. This range of frequencies is known as "C-band." Each
range of frequencies is subdivided into specific channels, which, in the case of C-band, are
each from 36 to 72 MHz wide. A single analog television transmission may occupy enough
bandwidth to fully utilize a single 36 Mhz channel. Hundreds or thousands of voice or data
signals requiring far less bandwidth would fit on the same channel. In the 1980s a new
generation of satellites using bandwidths of 11 to 12 GHz (uplink) and 14 GHz (downlink)
came into use. The "Ku-band" does not require as much power to be transmitted clearly,
thereby permitting the use of small (and less expensive) earth stations for uplink and
downlink. With the introduction of the Ku-band, television entered the era of live news--
satellite news gathering (SNG)--as "Ku-band" satellites made it easy to uplink television
signals with a portable dish from the scene of a breaking news story. Television news has
also made some use of another satellite technology, remote sensing, using pictures taken by
satellites to illustrate or verify news stories.
In the late 1970s, with the satellite distribution of Home Box Office, home satellite dishes, or
"television receive only" (TVRO), became popular for people out of reach of cable television.
Later, direct satellite broadcasting (DBS) to small home dishes became possible through the
use of these higher frequencies. Since 1988 DBS has been heavily used in Europe, and it is
rapidly gaining popularity in the United States. Overuse of the C and Ku bandwidths and the
desire for even greater signal strength is leading to new satellites that use other areas of the
radio spectrum. A typical communications satellite launched in the early 1990s has a mix of C
and Ku-band transponders, and is capable of relaying over 30,000 voice or data circuits and
four or more television transmissions. Telephony and television use roughly equivalent
portions of available satellite capacity, but the demand for DBS has led to a number of
satellites dedicated to TV transmission.
Like other communications technologies, the satellite industry has embraced digitalization and
signal compression as a means of maximizing the use of limited bandwidth. By converting
analog signals to digital signals, less bandwidth is required, and digital signals can be broken
into smaller pieces for transmission through bits of available bandwidth, and reassembled at
the point of reception. Compression eliminates otherwise redundant portions of a television
transmission, allowing for a signal to be sent using far less bandwidth. Encryption, or
scrambling, of satellite television signals is now becoming common to ensure that only
customers who have bought or rented a decoder can receive transmissions. Even inter-
company television feeds via satellite, such as daily feeds to broadcasters from television
news agencies, are being encrypted to prevent unauthorized use. Typical television
transmissions via satellite in the 1990s are digital, and are often compressed and encrypted.
Compression technology is expected to considerably increase the number of DBS services
available.
Some developing countries have demonstrated success in using satellite delivered television
to provide useful information to portions of their populations out of reach of terrestrial
broadcasting. In 1975, an experimental satellite communications project called SITE (Satellite
Instructional Television Experiment) was used to bring informational television programs to
rural India. The project led to Indian development of its own satellite network. China has also
embarked on a ambitious program of satellite use for development, claiming substantial
success in rural education.
STAR-TV, controlled by media mogul Rupert Murdoch, transmits television programming over
much of Asia and has forced governments worldwide to reevaluate their stance on issues of
national sovereignty and control of incoming information. STAR-TV reaches over 50 countries
and potentially half of the world's population--far more than any other satellite television
service (though it is technically not DBS, still requiring larger dishes). A slew of contentious
political and cultural issues have resulted. Murdoch dropped BBC World Service Television
from his STAR-TV program lineup as a concession to the Chinese government. Other
governments have complained about the unrestricted importation of news presented from an
Anglo-American viewpoint, though their concerns about political consequences are often
couched in terms of protecting local culture. Reports of disruptions to local cultures stemming
from international satellite broadcasting are widespread.
In all these instances satellite technology has called into question conventional notions of the
nation state. Geographic borders may be insufficient definitions of culture and nationality in an
era of electronic information, beamed from multiple sources into the sky, and down again into
almost any location.
Thomas Roe
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Mr. Moore
-Chris Paterson