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MatheMatics teaching in the Middle school

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Vol. 16, No. 6, February 2011
Copyright 2011 The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Inc. www.nctm.org. All rights reserved. This material may not be copied or distributed electronically or in any other format without written permission from NCTM.

Teacher candidates move beyond Just give me a formula to a deeper understanding by exploring the algebra found in geometric models.

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JOHN PULISPHER/ISTOCKPHOTO.COM

Sally K. Roberts and Carla Tayeh

Every semester, we encounter students who are attracted to the visual and spatial aspects of geometry. We have other students who consider geometry to be challenging for the very same reasons. Students are confounded not only by the fact that geometry relies on visual interpretations but also because it has a language of its own and because the rules can change depending on underlying assumptions. Some students in our teachercandidate classes testify that they are good at algebra but never did well in geometry. The good at algebra comment usually translates to being able to complete the symbol manipulation and to plug and chug numbers into an equation to return a correct answer. Deriving an equation or using algebra to generalize a solution to a problem is a very different story. Students repeatedly say, Just give me the formula, and I can solve the problem, with apparent disregard for the fact that discovering the algebraic equation to solve the problem is the true

demonstration of algebraic understanding and proficiency. To help our teacher candidates prepare to meet future classroom expectations, we begin our geometry courses by introducing a series of carefully sequenced investigations. These investigations help students begin to construct their own generalizations and formulas by generating data from patterns. They also set the tone for the course; help teacher candidates bring meaning to algebra; and serve as a review of basic geometric terms, which will allow students to reconnect with the language of geometry. Before beginning the first investigation, we revisit the basic building blocks of geometry: points, lines, and planes. This beginning discussion punctuates the differences among algebra, arithmetic, and geometry. Next, we move to a discussion of rays and negotiate a class definition. Students typically conclude that a ray starts at a point and continues forever in one direction. Given 2 points, A
Vol. 16, No. 7, March 2011

and B, it is possible to , construct 2 distinct rays, AB and BA . We are ready to begin.

geneRaliZe a PatteRn With sYMBols and WoRds This first activity asks students to investigate rays. They are to determine the maximum number of rays possible given n points, if no 3 points are collinear. We work as a class exploring the number of rays given 2 points, then 3 points. After we record our results in a chart (see g. 1), the students are off and running. Using colored pencils helps students keep track of their work, and the colors make it easier to count the rays accurately. Students work in groups to ensure that the data generated are accurate. Groups quickly note the pattern and can easily generate the next term in the sequence. For many students, finding the generalized formula for the number of rays given n points is pretty straightforward, observing that the number of rays can
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MatheMatics teaching in the Middle school

A A B

B C A B

B C

Fig. 1 Determine the maximum number of rays possible given n points, if no three points are collinear.
A B

Number of points Number of rays Diagrams

A

2 2
B A B

3 6

5 20
A B C

... ...
A C B D

n n(n 1)

12
A B D C A

B A B

B C

C Fig. 2 Determine the maximum number of lines possible given n points, if no three points are collinear.

Number of points Number of lines

2
B A 1 C A B

3 3
D C

4 6

B C

5 10
A C B D

6 15

n
n( n 1) 2

Diagrams
A A B C C A B D B A

B C

A C

B D

B D

be factored as n(n 1). For example, D given 5 points, there are 20 rays, or C A B 5 4, or 5(5 1). Other students focus on the recurC sive nature of the pattern to define the A B sequence, noting a pattern of differD ences between consecutive terms; they C can generate the next value in the sequence by adding consecutive even numbers. They are able to relate the next term in the sequence to the previous term but struggle to construct B A an expression that generalizes the D sequence based on n (in thisCcase, the number of points). At this critical junction in the teaching-learning process, we help our students progress to a global understanding of the problem by moving them beyond recursive definitions to functional closed definitions. We ask, How would you determine the number of rays if you had 1000 points and did not know how many rays are possible for 999 points? This ques410

A B

C tion helps students think about what it means to define the sequence in terms of a general term. Before going on, students describe what the forB mula A represents, and the connection D C between the geometric model and the algebraic expression. We do not simply accept it works. For example, one student wrote,

You need a starting point for a ray. There are n starting points. From each starting point, you can draw n 1 rays. (You cant draw a ray from the starting point back to itself.) You can repeat this procedure n times. So you would have n(n 1) rays altogether.

Requiring students to explain why their formula works shifts their focus from obtaining a correct answer to the meaning behind the algebraic symbols. Students are generalizing a pattern with both symbols and words.

connect algeBRa to solVe PRoBleMs The next activity investigates lines. First, we recall what we know about lines and bring meaning to the statement, 2 points determine a line. Given 2 points, it is possible to construct exactly one line that goes through those points. We can name that line AB or BA. Then we ask the class to determine the maximum number of lines possible given n points, if no 3 points are collinear (see g. 2). Although many students are able to easily connect these two investigations, build on what they discovered investigating rays, and apply their discovery to lines, a few students struggle to make the connection. If they reach a roadblock, we encourage them to compare their results for each set of points in the ray investigation with the line investigation. This is often all the prompting that students need to connect the two.

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Vol. 16, No. 7, March 2011

C Fig. 3 Determine the number of diagonals in a polygon with n sides.

Number of sides Number of diagonals

A B A B C A C B D

3 0

4 2

5 5

6 9

n
n( n 3) 2

Diagrams

B C

A C

A student once asked if it was fair to use what was learned in previous investigations. Reecting on this question, we were gratied to B A note that our purposefully structured D C sequence of investigations indeed had helped our students build generalizations in a systematic manner. However, it also made us wonder about the prior experiences the student had encountered that led to this question. We are reminded that we need to be B more explicit about helping students D understand that this is how learning takes place. Building on what we already know is not cheating. One student wrote,
The number of lines that go through n points is n(n 1) . 2 I used the formula for the number of rays that go through n points and divided by 2 because one line would replace 2 rays.

In each case, students communicated the meaning behind the algebraic expression, which connected to the way the students visualized the problem.

Another student, who had an alternate view, found that the number of diagonals in a polygon is
n(n 3) , 2

DIFFERENT EXPRESSIONS, SAME RESULTS Last, we ask students to determine the number of diagonals in a polygon with n sides (see g. 3). We look at a triangle and agree that triangles have no diagonals. Looking at a quadrilateral, we draw the two diagonals and agree that diagonals are segments in a polygon whose endpoints are two nonconsecutive vertices. Students usually determine one of two expressions for the number of diagonals in a polygon with n sides. One student explained,
The number of diagonals in a polygon is n(n 1) ) n. 2 It reminds me of the problem with the number of lines going through n points. For each vertex, I can draw (n 1) segments to the other vertices. So, I have n(n 1) segments that go through n points. But I knew that I had double counted the segments so I divided by two. The other problem is that I was counting the sides of the polygon (these are not diagonals). There are n sides so I subtracted n.
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and wrote:
From each vertex I can draw n 3 diagonals, because I cannot draw a diagonal to the vertex itself or the two adjacent vertices (these would be sides). I can repeat this procedure from each vertex, so I have n(n 3), but I knew that I double counted so I divided by 2.

It is important to note that although

n(n 1) n(n 3) n and 2 2

Another student wrote,

There are n 1 lines at each point. You cant draw a line to itself; that is why it is n 1. Since there are n lines, I multiplied n(n 1). I gured out that I was double counting the lines, so I divided by 2. My formula is n(n 1) . 2

are equivalent expressions, each expression is very much tied to the geometric model that each student used. If groups do not discover both expressions, we will suggest the alternative expression, explaining that in another class students suggested a different solution. Our teacher candidates, much like their younger counterparts in elementary school or middle school, want their solution to look like the teachers solution and do not have the condence to manipulate the expressions to certify that they are indeed equivalent. At this point, we
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4 WaYs

to implement geometry and algebra investigations

1. Modeling and Recording Model how to generate the values as a whole group. Show students how they can use colored pencils to help distinguish elements that must be counted. Swafford and Langrall (2000) found that giving students a teacher-made table helped some students but distracted others and caused them to focus on the recursive relationship between consecutive values in the table. Modeling or sharing different recording methods that students can use helps to address individual learning styles. For example, some students nd that an organized list is easier to see than a diagram, for example, and so on. For other students, this is tedious. Adding additional rows to the table may also help students. In the diagonal investigation on page 411, adding a row and recording the number of diagonals generated from each point lead to the n 3 expression and the notion that from each point you cannot use the point itself or the two adjacent points. 2. checking Your data Bring the class together as a whole to check the accuracy of the values they have recorded in their tables. This check ensures that groups are working with data and patterns that can lead to a generalization. 3. exploring students thinking Encourage students to explain their observations, which provide valuable insights into student thinking. Asking other students to restate what they heard and asking questions that help students clarify their thinking are important steps in the transition from verbal explanations to algebraic symbols. Accepting verbal, symbolic, or a combination of verbal and symbolic representations builds on students understanding and is a natural transition to more formal structures. 4. asking Questions Ask guiding questions to move students forward as you listen to what they have discovered. Questions that can help students bridge the gap between thinking recursively and thinking of the data functionally are particularly important for developing algebraic habits of mind (Driscoll 1999). See, for example: What do you know about the denition of a diagonal (or ray or line) that might help you understand your data? What do you notice about the data (or values) in the lines investigation compared with the rays? What operation can you use to avoid double counting? These research-based questions will help you get started in your middle school classroom. 412
MatheMatics teaching in the Middle school

ask students to use their algebra skills to demonstrate that the expressions are indeed equivalent. This teachable moment reinforces algebraic understanding. We are reminded that even though knowing how many diagonals are in a polygon is important, the process of using a geometric model to make sense of an algebraic expression is an equally valuable lesson. During these first investigations, many of our students focus on recalling formulas that they have used in the past. As the semester progresses, they become more confident in generating algebraic solutions for geometric situations. They soon learn that they need to justify their formulas by providing explanations for why their equations make sense. Students are empowered by their ability not only to apply formulas but also to discover them on their own. We are rewarded by our students increased confidence to rely on their own abilities to build meaningful algebraic solutions, not just recall a formula and plug in values.

iMPleMent it in the classRooM Our observations of our teacher candidates are similar to what Swafford and Langrall (2000) found in their research with sixth-grade students. The researchers focused on the students use of equations to describe and represent problem situations prior to formal instruction in algebra. The researchers found that by investigating problem situations, students can build on their intuitive knowledge of algebra and move from recursive thinking to thinking functionally. The prior knowledge our teacher candidates bring to this sequence of investigations allows us to push the fast-forward button and investigate the concepts of rays, lines, and diagonals during a single class. For middle

Vol. 16, No. 7, March 2011

school students, the same sequence of investigations will clearly take more time. However, many of the lessons we have learned working with teacher candidates mirror the research findings of similar activities with middle school students (Driscoll 1999; Swafford and Langrall 2000). See the sidebar at left for our suggestions for classroom implementation.

conclusion Making more explicit connections between algebra and geometry will help students build a richer conceptual understanding of algebra. They will also give students mathematical language and symbols to describe patterns and observations while investigating geometric concepts. One former teacher candidate recently shared with us that when her students encounter a problem in her algebra class that involves

geometry, their geometry phobia kicks in, and they immediately shut down. This serves as a reminder that connections between geometry and algebra should not be limited to geometry lessons. Students can become more adept at developing algebraic equations as they investigate geometric concepts during both algebra and geometry courses. Integrating geometry and algebra helps students view mathematics as a connected whole, bringing meaning to algebra through geometry.

Swafford, Jane O., and Cynthia W. Langrall. Grade 6 Students Preinstructional Use of Equations to Describe and Represent Problem Situations. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 31 ( January 2000): 89112.
sally K. Roberts, s.k.roberts@wayne .edu, teaches mathematics content and methods courses to elementary and middle school mathematics teachers at Wayne State University in Detroit, Michigan. Her research interests include teacher candidates understanding of representations and models. carla tayeh, carla.tayeh@ emich.edu, teaches mathematics content and methods courses for elementary school and middle school mathematics teachers at Eastern Michigan University in Ypsilanti. Tayehs interests include the use of writing and alternative assessments in the mathematics classroom.

BiBliogRaPhY
Driscoll, Mark. Fostering Algebraic Thinking: A Guide for Teachers, Grades 610. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Publishers, 1999. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM, 2000.

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