BUILDING & STRUCTURAL CONSTRUCTION N5

CHAPTER 1 STEEL BEAM DESIGN

1.

CALCULATION OF REACTIONS (SUPPORTS) 1.1 Symmetrically loaded beams

In symmetrically loaded beams the loads are evenly distributed and the reactions share the load equally

Example 1 15 N

3m RL = 7,5 N

3m RR = 7,5 N

In this example the reactions are calculated as follows:



Example 2

30 kN

20 kN

30 kN

2m RL = 40 kN

1m

1m

2m RR = 40 kN

In this example the reactions are calculated as follows:



1.2

Unsymmetrically loaded beams 1.2.1 Reactions at the ends Example 1

15 N

3m RL Take moments about RL

2m RR Take moments about RR





Upward forces = downward forces 9 + 6 = 15 15 = 15

Example 2
30 kN 20 kN 30 kN

2m RL

1m

1m

3m RR

Take moments about RL

Take moments about RR





Upward forces = downward forces 34,286 + 45,714 = 30 + 20 + 30 80 = 80

1.2.2 Reactions not at the ends Example 1

60 kN 40 kN 20 kN 35 kN

1m RL

1m

1m

2m RR

1m

Moments about RL
That is RL is the pivot point meaning all distance are measured from RL Since RL is at the end, ALL loads acts against RR therefore:



Moments about RR
That is RR is the pivot point meaning all distance are measured from RL Since RR is not at the end, RR has two side and the load on the same side as RL acts against RL and those not on the same side as RL assists RL. These load are subtracted from the ones acting against RL

Now check if sum of the upward force is equal to sum of the downward for ces


Example 2
100 kN 3kN/m 60kN 20kN/m 80kN 50kN

A
2,5 m

B
2,6 m

C
1,4 m

D
1,5 m

E
2m

RL

RR

Before doing any calculations redraw the beam and change the distributed loads into point loads,. The 3kN/m becomes which will be at the centre of the beam The 20kN/m becomes which will at the centre of 2,6 m

52kN 30kN
100 kN 60kN 80kN 50kN

A
2,5 m

B
1,3 m 5m 1,3 m

C
1,4 m

D
1,5 m 3m

E
2m

RL

RR

Moments about RL =



Moments about RR =



EXERCISE 1 Calculate the magnitude of the reaction of the following beams

1.1 15kN 8kN 12kN 25kN

1m RL

2m

4m

3m RR

2m

1.2

40kN 20kN/m

10kN

50kN

3m RL

5m

3m

2m RR

1.3 2kN/m

3kN

4kN

5m RL

2m

2m RR

2,4m

1.4

12kN 3kN/m

20kN

35kN 2kN/m

25kN

2,5m

1m RL

2,5m

3,5m

4m RR

2m

1m

2.

CALCULATING THE SHEAR FORCE

Points to remember 1. Each vertical line in a shear force diagram has two point, the starting point and the end point 2. Starting point (we subtract distributed loads if there is any) 3. End point (we subtract point load or add support if there is any) 4. Any force pointing down is subtract 5. Any force pointing up is added

Example 1
60 kN 40 kN 20 kN 35 kN

A 1m RL= 73 kN

B 1m

C 1m

D 2m

E 1m

RR = 82 kN

A (start point) = 0 A (End point) = 0 + 73 = 73 B (start point) = 73.................( because there is NO distributed loads between A and B) B (End point) = 73 60 = 13 C (start point) = 13..................( because there is NO distributed loads between B and C C (End point) = 13 40 = 27 D (start point) = 27 ..............( because there is NO distributed loads between C and D D (End point) = 27 20 = 47 E (start point) = 47................ ( because there is NO distributed loads between D and E E (End point) = 47 + 82 = 35 F (start point) = 35 .................( because there is NO distributed loads between E and F F (End point) = 35 35 = 0 73

35 13 A B 27 47
8

Example 2
100 kN 3kN/m 60kN 20kN/m 80kN 50kN

A
2,5 m

B
2,6 m

C
1,4 m

D
1,5 m

E
2m

RL = 182,3

RR = 189,7

     


      

.................(

There is NO point load /support there we have only one point on line C

NB: put down the calculated point on each line . and then join them as show below

A 82,3

74,8 56 50 14,8 0 45 49,2

129,2 133,7
9

The complete Shear force diagram is as shown below

A 82,3

74,8 56 50 14,8 0 45 49,2

129,2 133,7

10

3.

CALCULATING THE BENDING MOMENT

1. Bending moment at both ends of the beam is zero 2. Any force pointing down is negative 3. Any force pointing up is positive 4. Use one side of the pivot point and always try to use the side with less forces

Example 1
60 kN 40 kN 20 kN 35 kN

A 1m RL= 73 kN

B 1m

C 1m

D 2m

E 1m

RR = 82 kN

Bending moments at A and F = 0 Bending moments at B ( that means B is the pivot point) 1m B 73kN Therefore


Bending moments at C ( that means C is the pivot point) 60kN 1m B 73kN Therefore


1m C

Bending moments at D ( that means D is the pivot point) 35kN 2m D Therefore E 82kN 1m F

11

Bending moments at E ( that means E is the pivot point) 35kN 1m E Therefore F



PLOTTING THE BENDING MOMENTS DIAGRAM

When plotting the bending moments diagram with point loads only, the graph consists of straight lines

86 73 56

35

12

Example 2
100 kN 3kN/m 60kN 20kN/m 80kN 50kN

A
2,5 m

B
2,6 m

C
1,4 m

D
1,5 m

E
2m

RL = 182,3 kN

RR = 189,7

Bending moments at A and F = 0

Bending moments at B ( Remember that there is a UDL between A & B)

and it is halfway AB
100 kN 1,25m 7,5 kN 1,25m

B
182,3 kN

Bending moments at C (It is better to use the side C to F cause it s not complicated)
 
80kN 14,7 kN

and it is halfway CF
50kN

C
1,4m

D
1,5m 2,45

E
2m

189,7kN

13

Bending moments at D (It is better to use the side D to F cause it s not complicated)
 
10,2kN 1,75m 50kN

and it is halfway DF

D
1,5m

E
2m

189,7kN

Bending moments at E (It is better to use the s ide E to F cause it s not complicated)
 
6kN 1,m 50kN

and it is halfway EF

E
2m

PLOTTING THE BENDING MOMENTS DIAGRAM

When plotting the bending moments diagram where there is a UDL , the graph forms a curve.

B
196,375

157,115 91,175

106

14

EXERCISE 2 2.1 Calculate and draw the shear force and bending moment diagram
2.1.1 85kN 15kN/m A 1m B 2m C 1m D 1m E 2m 50kN 35kN 7kN/m F 1m RR = 74,7kN G

RL = 161,3kN

2.1.2

21kN 5kN/m A 2,5m RL = 55,3kN

17kN 7kN/m B 4,5m C 2m

15kN

RR = 107,7kN

2.2

Calculate the reactions of the following beams, do the necessary calculations and draw the Shear force and bending moment diagram 2.2.1 15kN/m A 2m RL B 1m C 4m RR 50kN 20kN/m D

2.2.2

10kN 15kN/m A 2m RL B 3m

16kN

9,5kN 3kN/m C 1m D 4m RR E 1m

8kN

15

4.

CHOOSING A SUITABLE STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTION

1. When choosing a steel section, one needs to calculate the elastic modulus ( section. ) of that

2. This can only be done if the maximum bending stress ( bending moment is known 3. The calculation can be done using the fo llowing formula

) is known and the maximum

 



 

   

This means that Elastic modulus is measured in Lets say maximum bending moment is 70,175 kN.m and the maximum bending stress is 165 MPa First step is express Bending moment max in Newtons which means and the max bending stress in pascals which means

4. Use the elastic modulus to find the serial size of the beam and mass per kilogram from the hot rolled structural steel sections table BOE 8/2

16

4.

DETERMINING THE AVERAGE SHEAR STRESS

In order to determine the average shear stress 1. The maximum shear force 2. The elastic modulus


, the following must be known

which is used to find in steel table in the steel table

2.1 The total height of the section unde r stress 2.2 The Thickness of the section under stress 3. The area which is found from

4. The formula is


5. Average stress is measured in Pascal

17

EXERCISE 3
3.1 Use the calculations in EXERCISE 2.1.1 to do the following 3.1.1 Choose from the table a suitable I-section with tapered flange , if the bending stress may not exceed 165 MPa 3.1.2 Determine the average shear stress. The maximum allowable stress is 100 MPa

3.2

Use the calculations in EXERCISE 2.1.2 to do the following 3.2.1 Choose from the table a suitable I-section with parallel flange, if the bending stress may not exceed 155 MPa 3.2.2 Determine the average shear stress. The maximum allowable stress is 100 MPa

3.3

The maximum bending moment and maximum shear force of a loaded simply supported beam, is 48 KN and 12 kN respectively. Select from the BOE 8/2 table, a suitable I -section with tapered flange if the following maximum values may not be exceeded: Bending stress Shear stress = 75 MPa = 60 MPA

3.4

The diagram below shows a simply loaded beam, with Supports RL =16,5 KN and RR = 25,5 kN

8 kN 1,2m 9 kN/m A 3m RL = 16,5 kN B 1m RR = 25,5 kN 3 kN/m C

3.4.1

Make the necessary calculations and draw to suitable scales a shear force and Bending moment diagrams Select from the table the smallest suitable I section steel beam with tapered flange for the loaded beam investigate with regard to bending ONLY. The maximum bending stress of grade 43 steel is 155 MPa

3.4.2

18

CHAPTER 2 CENTRIODS AND MOMENT OF INERTIA

19

1.

CENTROIDS
In geometry, the centroid, geometric centre of a plane figure or two-dimensional shape is the intersection of all straight lines that divide the shape into two parts of equal moment about the line.

1.1

Rectangle

H
Distance of centre of gravity from AB

A
      

B
  

1.2

Combination of figures
FIG 1

FIG 2
Distance of centre of gravity of FIG 1 from AB H Distance of centre of gravity of FIG 2 from AB

    

 

  

 



20

How to calculate the position of the neutral axis of complex figures

Neutral axis is the line that cut the neutral plane of a beam where the is no stress or strain It cut through the centroid of the profile of the beam 15 mm

60 mm

26 mm A

2
B 65 mm

Solution 1
  

 

  

This means that the Neutral axis and position of the centroid is 28,7mm from AB

Solution 2. Table method

1 2 Total

56 13

50400 21970

21

EXERCISE 4 4.1
55 mm

16mm

12mm

80mm

10mm A 80mm B

4.2

80

30

30

70

20

4.3

20

50

18 15 85

22

2.

MOMENT OF INERTIA
The moment of inertia or second moment of area of a shape is the property which measures the efficiency of that shape as regards its resistance to bending. The bigger the I value the bigger the resistance against bending Most beams have a higher resistance about one axis th an the other, and the axis with the most resistance is the xx-axis regardless whether it is horizontally or vertically positioned. The weaker axis is called the yy-axis regardless whether it is horizontal or vertical. Only round and square sections have axes of the same magnitude Standard practice is that the XX axis is always perpendicular to the longest dimension of the section as shown below The intersection of the two axes is the centroid of the section

X
23

2.1

Standard sections

Page in book

24

2.2

Non standard sections

A built-up beam is a beam consisting of two stand ard sections which are put together to form a section. Normally one of the axes is unknown and the position of the other one must be determined or the position of both could be unknown. To determine the moment of inertia the Neutral axis ( xx-axis or yy-axis) must be determined. The bending of the beam is about the main axis of the section ( xx-axis or yy-axis) and the moment of inertia should be determined for the axis about which it will bend. The formula that is used is called the parallel axis theorem Y Parallel axis of
Flange

Neutral axis

Parallel axis of

Web

The moment of inertia of the built-up which can be

     



Is the moment of inertia of the area concerned (in this case web or flange) are the areas of the web and flange are the distance between the parallel axis of each area and the axis of the built-up beam

When using table method the formula to calculate

can be used as follows:

25

Example 1
The figure below shows a built-up beam. Calculate: 1.1 the moment of inertia of the profile about the neutral axis 1.2 and the profile modulus (z) about the neutral axis 10

30

15 50

Solution 1 : Table method 1.1

Area 1 2 750 300 1 050 Y-distance 7,5 30 Area Y 14 062,5 22 500 36 562,5 6,5 16 31 687,5 76 800,0 108 487,5

5 625 9 000 14 625

calculate the moments of inertia as follows:

   



1.2



( from

Calculate the position of the neutral axis as it will be needed to calculate the profile modulus



 

( from 10360,715

) 26

Solution 2 : Straight forward calculation 1.1

    

 

  

1.2

 

27

EXERCISE 5
Calculate the moment of inertia and the profile modulus of the following FIGURES

5.1

50

15

70 10

12 A 85 B

5.2
18

30

15 10 65

28

20

40 Y

20

5.3

40

80

20

40

Y 150

29

CHAPTER 3 FRAMED STRUCTURES

30

FRAMED STRUCTURES
Three structural members, pin- jointed at their ends to form a triangle, provides a rigid framework. This is of fundamental importance in constructional work of many types. This triangulation of members can be put together to build up large frameworks, consisting of a network of structural members, the most obvious example of this is a roof truss When a structural is loaded the applied forces are transmitted through the various members of the framework so that some are subjected to tensile stress, and others to compressive stress. From the loaded framework the magnitude of the force acting in each member, whether it is tensile or compressive can be found. From the size of a cross-section each member must have to take the load concerned, can be determined. The forces can be determined by calculation or graphical methods Frameworks are normally assumed to be pin-jointed, each joint fixed only at one point where the centre line of the members meet. The total load on the framework is discharge at a number of joints as point loads. With roof trusses the load may be discharged at the joint by means of purlins and ridge members. The whole roof truss is simply a rigid framework in equilibrium under the action of a number of external forces.

Nature of forces in reinforcing members

A reinforcing member that is in equilibrium, can either push or pull on the pin positioning the frame. The nature of the force (pull or push) in the reinforcing member is indicated with arrows near the ends of the members, as shown below Connecting pin

Tie bar as the force pulls away from the pin

Strut as the force pushes towards the pin

If a member is subjected to a tensile force the member is called a tie bar, if the member is subjected to a compressive force the member is called a strut. The force in the member can either pull or push on the pin and cannot be subjected to a combination of the two forces . Members which are not necessary for maintaining equilibrium configuration are called redundant. These are members which are neither tie nor strut.

31

Graphical method
EXAMPLE 1 The structure shown is pivoted at one end placed on at the other end . Determine the magnitude and direction of the structure if it is loaded as shown. Also determine the forces in the members and show whether the forces are under compression or tension

7,5 kN 15 kN

B A 7,5 kN G


I J


C D
Hinge RR

Rollers



3m RL

E 3m

3m

The following rules apply when solving a truss graphically

FOR THE SPACE DIAGRAM 1. 2. 3. Draw the truss accurately and to a suitable scale, the larger the better Insert all given information Insert Bow s notation

FOR THE VECTOR DIAGRAM 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Draw the vector diagram to a suitable scale Start by drawing the lines representing loads Then at a node (joint) with not more than two unknown Annotate each vector corresponding to that of the space diagram Complete one node, then insert the arrows in the space diagram, to distinguish between Tension and compression. Now proceed to the next node, remember not more than two unknown Draw up a table to tabulate your findings

32

This is how it is done

Step 1: Draw the space diagram to scale with all the information
7,5 kN 15 kN SPACE DIAGRAM Scale 15 mm = 1m

B A 7,5 kN G


I J


C D
Hinge RR

Rollers



3m RL

E 3m

3m

Step 2: Draw the vectors representing the loads

VECTOR DIAGRM Scale 10 mm = 3 kN

33

Step 3: Extended the force line as shown in the space diagram

SPACE DIAGRAM Scale 15 mm = 1m 7,5 kN 15 kN

B A 7,5 kN G


I J


C D
Hinge RR

Rollers



3m RL

E 3m

3m

Step 4: Establish point o at any distance the farther the better

Joint o to a, b, c and d as shown below VECTOR DIAGRM Scale 10 mm = 3 kN

b o

34

Step 5: Transfer the line ao, bo, co and do to the space diagram
Starting at the hinge side SPACE DIAGRAM Scale 15 mm = 1m 7,5 kN 15 kN

B A 7,5 kN G


I J


C D
Hinge RR

Rollers



3m RL

E 3m

3m

VECTOR DIAGRM Scale 10 mm = 3 kN

b o

35

Step 6: Draw a dotted line to joint the two point where the line meet with reaction line
SPACE DIAGRAM Scale 15 mm = 1m 7,5 kN 15 kN

B A 7,5 kN G


I J


C D
Hinge RR

Rollers



3m RL

E 3m

3m

Step 7: Transfer the dotted line from the space diagram to the vector diagram,
also draw line ae, when the two line meet that is point e Joint point e to d VECTOR DIAGRM Scale 10 mm = 3 kN

b e o

36

Step 9: Starting at the pin with A,F and E

using the information from the vector diagram insert the arrows as follows: According to the vector diagram af goes down thus AF in the space diagram pushes the pin and FE pulls the pin, as shown in the space diagram SPACE DIAGRAM Scale 15 mm = 1m 7,5 kN 15 kN

B A 7,5 kN G


I J


C D
Hinge RR

Rollers



3m RL

E 3m

3m

Step 8: Now draw line af to joint line ef where the two line meet that is point f
To get direction according to the space diagram ea is a force going up therefore following the sequence in the vector diagram af goes down and fe goes to the right

VECTOR DIAGRM Scale 10 mm = 3 kN a

b f e o

37

Step 10: Pin with A,F and G

According to the vector diagram FA pushes the pin and AG pushes the pin FG is a stud SPACE DIAGRAM Scale 15 mm = 1m 7,5 kN 15 kN

B A 7,5 kN G


I J


C D
Hinge RR

Rollers



3m RL

E 3m

3m

Step 9 : ag and af are the same line thus g and f are on the same point
Clockwise f to a goes up therefore a to g goes down f and g are on the same point and thus not under stress VECTOR DIAGRM Scale 10 mm = 3 kN a

b fg e o

38

Step 12: Pin with A,B,I,H, and G

AB is known therefore according tp the vector diagram BI pushes the pin and IH pulls the pin, HG is a and GA pushes the pin SPACE DIAGRAM Scale 15 mm = 1m 7,5 kN 15 kN

B A 7,5 kN G


I J


C D
Hinge RR

Rollers



3m RL

E 3m

3m

Step 11 : Draw line ab, bi and hi where bi and hi meet that is point i
For the direction ab goes down, bi goes up, ih goes down, g and h are on the same point, therfore fg is not under stress i VECTOR DIAGRM Scale 10 mm = 3 kN a

b fgh e o

39

Step 12: Pin with B, C, J and I

BC is known, therefore according to the vector diagram CJ pushes the pin, JI pushes the pin and IB pushes the pin
SPACE DIAGRAM Scale 15 mm = 1m 7,5 kN 15 kN

B A 7,5 kN G


I J


C D
Hinge RR

Rollers



3m RL

E 3m

3m

Step 11 : Line bc already exists now draw cj, ji and ib already exists
For the direction bc goes down, cj goes up, ji goes up, g and ib goes down point, therfore fg is not under stress i VECTOR DIAGRM Scale 10 mm = 3 kN a

b j fgh e o

40

Step 14: Pin with C, D, E and J

CD is known, therefore according to the vector diagram DE pushes the pin, EJ pulls the pin and JC pushes the pin
SPACE DIAGRAM Scale 15 mm = 1m 7,5 kN 15 kN

B A 7,5 kN G


I J


C D
Hinge RR

Rollers



3m RL

E 3m

3m

Step 13 : For the direction cd goes down, de goes up, ej goes to the left and jc goes down
point, therfore fg is not under stress i VECTOR DIAGRM Scale 10 mm = 3 kN a

b j fgh e o

41

NOW MEASURE THE MAGNITUDES OF THE MEMBERS FROM THE VECTOR DIAGRAM MEMBER AF AG BI CJ EF FG GH HI IJ HE JE DE EA 23 kN 9 kN MAGNITUDE 18 kN 18 kN 21 kN 21 kN 16 kN 0 0 15 kN 15 kN 16 kN 29 kN Reaction RR at Reaction RL NATURE Strut Strut Strut Strut Tie Redundant Redundant Tie Strut Tie Tie

42

HOW GET THE RESULTANT OF ALL THE FORCES

7,5 kN 15 kN

B A 7,5 kN G


I J


C D
Hinge RR

Rollers



3m RL

E 3m

3m

Resultant of all the forces

Reaction at hinge (DE)

43

EXAMPLE 2

44

EXERCISE 6
Determine the magnitude and direction of the reaction (Where required) Also determine the magnitude and nature of each member ( Tabulate the a nswer)

6.1
1 kN 2kN C 1 kN B A
Rollers


3 kN D 1 kN I J


K L 
4m

E F
Hinge RR

4m RL

G 4m

6.2
10 kN 8 kN 5 kN B A


12 kN
D

5 kN C E

J H G 8m

K L

F


RL

RR

6.3
A

70 kN

4m

E F G

B 70 kN

D 70 kN 4m

C 4m

45

6.4
A F E


120 kN B G


80 kN

70 kN 5,5m

6.5
90 kN

B 45 kN G H

C 45 kN

90 kN 9,5 m

90 kN

46

Analytical method
Example 2
A B

3m

D 40 kN 3m 3m

C 40 kN

Step 1: Determine the angle of inclination of all inclined members. In this case,
 

Step 2: Look for a joint at which there are only two unknowns. If such joint is not available, determine the reactions at the supports, and then at the supports the unknown may reduces to only two. (with cantilever type frame its usually not needed to find re actions) At joint C, there are only two unknown, forces in members CB and CD (see figure below) Let us call the forces   . The direction of the forces are assumed and when calculating if the answer is negative , that means the direction assumed is incorrect and should be changed.

Step 3: Resolve all force into vertical and horizontal components as shown in the figure below.

47

Remember this: Also that:

up-Forces = Down-forces Forces to left = Forces to the right

Let up force be + , down be , forces right be + and forces left

At joint C
  

   The answer is positive that means the direction assumed is correct.







  







The answer is positive that means the direction assumed is correct.

Step 4: On the diagram of the truss, mark arrow on the member near the joint analysed to indicate the force on the joint. At the other end mark arrow in opposite direction. In this case, near joint C, the arrows are marked on CB and CD to indicate forces   Directions as ff joint Cound in the analysis. The opposite direction are marked in the members CB and CD near joint B and D respectively (as shown below)

3m

D 40 kN

C 40 kN

48

Step 5: look for the next joint where there are only two u nknown forces and analyse that joint

At joint D

40 kN
  









 

Step 6: repeat Steps 4 and 5 till forces in all members are found. In this case:

At joint B
B


40 kN 56,569 kN




 







 



49

The direction of these forces are marked on the diagram. Now the analysis is complete since the forces in all the members are determined (see figure below)

D 40 kN

C 40 kN

Step 7: Determine the nature of forces in each member and tabulate the results Note: if the arrow marks on each member are towards the joint then the member is a strut If the arrow marks are pointing away from joint the member is a tie

Strut = is a member under compression force Tie = is a member under tension force

Member AB BC CD DE BE BD

magnitude 96,569 kN 56,569 kN 40 kN 40 kN 80 kN 40 kN

Nature Tie Tie Strut Strut Strut Tie

50

Example 2
20 kN 24 kN B

A 4m RL Figure above shows a loaded roof truss, with TWO forces at the apex and a pitch of The roof truss is supported on a hinge at RL and rests by means of rollers at RR 1.1 1.2 Calculate the magnitude and direction of the reactions of the truss,

C RR at both sides

calculate the forces in each member and distinguish between tension and compressive forces in members

Solution
20N 20cos 30 Distance = 2tan 30 20 sin30 +24kN =34 kN

A
2m 2m

C RR

RL

1.1

Calculate the magnitude and direction of the reactions of the truss

anti-clockwise = clockwise RR(4) = 34(2) + 20cos30(2tan30) RR(4) = 34(2) +17,32(1,15) RR(4) = 87,92 RR = 21,98 kN

Moments about RL:

Moments about RR:

clockwise = anti-clockwise RL(4) + 17,32(1,15) = 34(2) RL(4) = 34(2) 17,32(1,15) RL(4) = 48,08 RL = 12,02 kN

Test : upward forces = downward forces

21,98 + 12,02 = 34 kN 51

RR is on rollers therefore the force act vertically upwards But RL Is not, thus 12,02 is the vertical compenent of RL and thus :


Hc = 17,32 kN
We need 17,32 kN to the left to balance it 17,32 kN 12,02 kN

RL

Direction:

North of the horizontal

1.2

Calculating the forces in each member and their nature (strut or tie)

At joint C
Finding the magnitude of BC

Assume the direction of the members
BC BC cos30 AC BC sin30





 

RR = 21,98 kN BC sin30 (Vc of BC) acting in direction opposite RR BC cos30 (HC 0f BC) acting in same directions as AC NB: Forces going up are + and down Force to the right

+ and to the left

Finding the magnitude of AC

 

If the answer is negative change the direction assumed



The answer is negative, it means that the direction chosen member is incorrect.   

52

Assume the direction of the members

At joint A
Finding the magnitude of AB

AC

AB sin 30

AB AB cos 30 17,32 Kn Resultant

12,02 kN

 

  

AB sin30 is Vc of AB AB cos30 is HC of AB 17,32kN is HC of Resultant RL is the Vc of Resultant NB: Forces going up are + and down Force to the right

+ and to the left

If the answer is negative change the direction assumed Finding the magnitude of AB
     



Member AB BC AC

Magnitude 24,04 kN 43,96 kN 38,14 kN

Nature Strut (Compression) Strut (Compression) Tie (Tension)

Complete diagram looks as follows

20N 24 kN

A RL

C RR

53

EXERCISE 7
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the reactions and the magnitude in each member, and also determine the nature of each member

7.1
25kN 30 kN

35 kN

6m RL

2m RR

7.2
18 kN 22 kN 16 kN B 25 kN

A E RL 2m 3m 3m

D RR

54

CHAPTER 4 BOLTS AND RIVETS

55

Terms Used in Riveted or bolted Joints

Pitch It is the distance from the centre of one rivet to the centre of the next rivet measured parallel to the seam as shown. It is usually denoted by p.(see diagram below) Minimum pitch (SABS 0162-1984) Minimum pitch between bolts shall not be less than 2,5 times the nominal diameter of the fastener Maximum pitch (SABS 0162-1984) Maximum pitch shall not exceed either 32t or 300 mm ( t = thickness of thinner plate) Margin or marginal pitch (m) It is the distance between the centre of rivet hole to the nearest edge of the plate . It is usually denoted by m (see diagram below) Back pitch. It is the perpendicular distance between the centre lines of the successive rows ( pb) Diagonal pitch. It is the distance between the centers of the rivets in adjacent rows of zig -zag riveted joint (pd) Diameter of the hole diameter of the bolt + 2mm 1,75  diameter of the hole 2,5 diameter of the hole

Edge distance of the centre of the bolt to the edge of the plate The pitch distance of each hole drilled in a simple row of holes Diameter of the rivet ( given the thickness (t) of the thinner plate)

One row of rivets

Two rows of bolts (Chain riveting)

Two rows with diagonal rivets (Zig-zag riveting)

56

TYPES OF RIVETED OR BOLTED JOINTS

1. LAP- JOINT
In a lap joint the bolts/rivets are in single shear and also subjected to bearing. Therefore when designing a bolted/riveted joint that is subjected to single shear, the lowest of the single shear or bearing value is used 1.1 Single bolted/riveted lap joint This joint has one row of bolts/rivets

1.2

Double bolted/riveted lap joint This joint has two row of bolts/rivets

2.

BUTT-JOINT
2.1 Single covered butt-joint In a single covered butt-joint, the bolts/rivets are in single shear and again for the strengthof the bolt/rivet, use the least strength value between single shear and bearing

2.2

Double covered butt-joint In a double covered butt-joint, the bolts/rivets are in double shear and again for the strength of the bolt/rivet, use the least strength value between single shear and bearing

57

FAILURES OF A RIVET OR BOLT JOINT

1. TENSILE FAILURE
1.1 Tearing of the plate at an edge. A joint may fail due to tearing of the plate at an edge. This can be avoided by keeping the margin 1,5 times the diameter of the rivet hole

1.2 Tearing of the plate across a row of rivets. Due to the tensile stresses in the main plates, the main plate or cover plates may tear off across a row of rivets as shown. The resistance offered by the plate against tearing is known as tearing resistance or tearing strength or tearing value of the plate

d W

FORMULA
           

= Resistance of the tie-bar to tearing = Maximum tensile stress of the tie-bar = Width of the tie-bar (plate) n = number of rivets in a row (in this case there are two) d = Diameter of the holes t = Thickness of the tie-bar
58

2.

SHEAR FAILURE
The plates which are connected by the rivets /bolts exert tensile stress on the rivets, and if the Rivets/bolts are unable to resist the stress, they are sheared off . The resistance offered by a rivet/bolts to be sheared off is known as shearing resistance or shearing strength or shearing value of the rive

F W

F F

FORMULAE 2.1 to calculate resistance force of the bolt/rivet to shearing

         

= Resistant force of the bolts = Maximum shear stress of the bolts = Diameter of the bolts/rivet = Total number of bolts/rivets

2.2 If the screw threads of the bolts are outside the shearing plane
           

2.3

If the screw threads of the bolts are inside the shearing plane



59

3.

BEARING/ CRUSHING FAILURE

Due to crushing failure, the rivet hole becomes of an oval shape and hence the joint becomes loose. The failure of rivets in such a manner is also known as bearing failure. The resistance offered by a rivet to be crushed is known as crushing/compression resistance or crushing/compression strength or bearing value of the rivet

F F

Formula to calculate resistance force

= Resistant force of the bolts to crushing = Maximum compressive stress of the bolts D = Diameter of the hole t = Thickness of the tie-bar n = number of bolts /rivets in a row

60

EXAMPLE 1
10 mm 10 mm

100 KN

80 mm

in 

The figure above shows a double-riveted lap joint connection with four bar. The tensile load in the tie bar is 100 kN Calculate the following 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Shear stress Tensile stress Compressive stress the maximum safe stress the connection joint can withhold

16 mm rivets in a tie

SOLUTION 1.1

or

 

1.2

  
 

1.3


1.4

maximum safe stress = 124,273 MPa 61

EXAMPLE 2
7 mm 7 mm

80 mm

The figure above shows a single riveted lap joint connection of two 6 mm thick plates and 80 mm wide Calculate : 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 The diameter of the hole to be drilled for the bolt Resistant force of the bolts to shearing. Resistant force of the tie-bar to tearing. Resistant force of the bolts to crushing.

Make use of the following allowable stresses Tensile stress in plat e = 150 MPa Shearing stress in rivets = 95 MPa Compression stress in rivets = 210MPa

SOLUTION
2.1
  

Say 16 mm diameter Diameter of the hole 2.2

 

2.3


2.4


62

EXERCISE 8
10 mm 10 mm

120 KN

80 mm

QUESTION 1

in 

The figure above shows a double-riveted lap joint connection with four The tensile load in the tie bar is 120 kN Calculate the following 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Shear stress Tensile stress Compressive stress the maximum safe stress the connection joint can withhold

16 mm rivets in a tie bar

QUESTION 2 Calculate the safe load that the connection in the figure below can withstand in shear if the ultimate shear stress is 100 MPa
M 16 mm bolt

M 20 mm bolt F kN

QUESTION 3

The diameter of a bolt is 20 mm. Calculate and state: 3.1 3.2 3.3 The diameter of the hole to be drilled for the bolt The edge distance of the centre of the bolt to the edge of the plate The pitch distance of each hole which is drilled in a single row of holes

63

QUESTION 4

The figure above show a bolted connection between two tie -bars by means of three grade 4,6 bolts Calculate the resistance (force) against shearing of the bolted connection if : 4.1 4.2 The screw threads of the bolts are outside the shearing plane. The screw threads of the bolts are inside the shearing plane. Use the following specifications Bolt Maximum shear stress Screw- thread pitch = M12 = 100 MPa = 1,75 mm

QUESTION 5

80 kN

50 mm

The figure above shows a bolted connection with four bolts securing the tie-bar to the gusset plate. Calculate the following: 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 The diameter of the bolts to withstand the load of 80 kN in the joint The edge distance of the centre of the bolt to the edge of the plate The pitch distance of each hole which is drilled in a single row of holes The resistance of the tie-bar to tearing using the calculated bolt diameter in question 5.1 The resistance of the bolts to crushing using t he calculated bolt diameter in question 5.1 The maximum force the connection can withstand safely

Use the following specifications Tie bar Gusset Maximum shear stress of bolts Maximum shear stress of tie Maximum compressive stress of the bolt = 50 8 mm thick = 10 mm = 100 MPa = 155 MPa = 240 MPa

64

ISOMETRIC VIEW OF BOLT/RIVET JOINTS

65

DRAWING EXPLAINING JOINT FAILURE

66

CHAPTER 5 CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS

67

FOUNDATIONS

68

FLOOR FINISHES

69

BRICK WALLS AND SLABS

70

BEAMS

71

PILING

72

STEEL COLUMNS

73

STAIRS

74