An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics

and Pressure Drop Calculations

■ ■ ■
 Conservation of Energy

Recap: the complete conservation of energy equation is,

v in2 pin 2
v out pout
+ + zin + Hpumps = + + z out + Hturbine + Hloss
2g ρg 2g ρg
Notes:
■ This applies to a steady state scenario with one inlet and one exit.
■ All terms have units of length and are called ‘heads’.
■ Hloss is a term describing energy losses and must usually be
supplied by an empirical formula.
■ This is not Bernoulli’s equation – it has been derived from
completely different principals – but Bernoulli can be reduced to
this equation
■ The power associated with an energy head is given by,

Power = m
 gH = ρgQH
 Energy Losses
So the complete conservation of energy equation is,

H in + Hpumps = H out + Hturbine + Hloss

v in2 pin 2
v out pout
Hin = + + zin ; Hout = + + z out
2g ρg 2g ρg
The energy loss term, Hloss can basically come from two sources
which we call:
(a) Major losses - - losses due to pipe friction, i.e. the
‘roughness’ of the pipes. This is usually
the largest energy loss in a pipeline
system.
(b) Minor losses - - energy lost at local points on the pipe
system such as pipe bends, pipe
connections, valves, etc.
 Major Loss

The form of the major loss term is given by the Darcy-Weisbach equation
2
2f v L
Hf =
D g
2f LQ2 2
Hf = 2
= kQ
D gA
v is the pipe flow velocity (=Q/A)
f is called the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor and is usually
calculated from an empirical formula.
L is the length of the pipe
D is the pipe diameter
A is the pipe area of flow = (π/4)D2
 v in2 p in 2
v out p out
H in = + + z in H out = + + z out
2g ρ 2g ρ

v2
2g Hf
p
ρ

z
Datum
2 2
2fL v H f 2f v H f H in − H out
Hf = = =
D g L D g L L
 If pipe is of constant diameter

p in p out
PZ
H in = + z in PZ
H out = + z out
ρ ρ
v2
2g Hf
p
ρ

z
Datum
2 2
2fL v H f 2f v Hf H PZ − H PZ
Hf = = = in out

D g L D g L L
Piezometric gradient
 Minor Loss

The form of the minor loss term varies according to the type of structure
causing the loss (e.g. valve, pipe bend etc.) but it usually takes a form like,

v2
H min or = K Loss
2g

Tables are available that show values for Kloss depending on the type of
structure.
 Pipe flow characteristics

Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912): observed that the flow characteristics of fluids

in pipes varied with the flow velocity.

At low velocities a dye injected at the pipe center flowed in a thin straight line.
Reynolds observed that the water flowed in thin laminae (sheets).

This he termed laminar flow.

 Pipe flow characteristics

As Reynolds increased the flow velocity the flow characteristics changed.

At higher velocities the dye began to “wobble” and oscillate.

This was termed transition flow.

 Pipe flow characteristics

Finally as the pipe flow velocity was increased beyond a critical value the dye’s
structure completely broke down.

This is called turbulent flow.

In this state the velocity is fluctuating and randomly moving in small

varied sized vortices.
 Turbulent flow characteristics

The structure of turbulence is extremely complex (some people have argued it

is chaotic).

However this fluctuating, erratic velocity pattern may be thought of

as being superimposed upon a mean velocity field. So if we plotted
the instantaneous velocity at A versus time: Velocity

v average

Time
 Pipe flow characteristics

Reynolds demonstrated that the type of flow that occurred depended on the
interrelationship between four flow parameters:
1. Average flow velocity (V)
2. Fluid density (ρ)
3. Pipe diameter (D)
4. Fluid viscosity (µ )

In fact he showed that the following non-dimensional number was very crucial; it
was thereafter known as the Reynolds Number,

VDρ VD
Re = alternatively Re =
µ ν
where ν is called the kinematic viscosity and is equal to µ
ρ
 Laminar or turbulent flow

R e < 2000 Laminar flow

2000 < R e < 4000 Transitional flow

R e > 4000 Turbulent flow

Notes: (1) laminar flow rarely occurs in the oil industry, except by design.
Examples include pipelines operating below design capacity, in small
scale lab experiments and very close to solid boundaries; (2) these
numbers are guidelines only; (3) usually we would choose a design to be
fully turbulent or fully laminar since then we can analyze it.
 Friction factor for pipe flow

Laminar flow is amenable to mathematical analysis by assuming that the

instantaneous shear stress within the fluid can be related to the velocity
gradient (or mean strain rate) by the Newtonian relationship,

dv
τ =μ
dy
By employing this relationship we can show that

16
ff =
Re
 Friction factor for pipe flow

Turbulent flow cannot be analyzed theoretically and so we must take recourse

to experimentally derived correlation equations.

Blasius (~1913) was an early researcher on pipe friction. He

showed that for smooth pipes (glass).

0.079
f = 0.25
Re
We will define what we mean by smooth shortly.

Aside: For pipe calculations f is usually O(10-2) i.e. 0.01.

 Friction factor for pipe flow

Nikuradse (~1930) took smooth pipes (glass) and artificially

roughed them by sticking small sand grains of size (ks) onto the
pipe wall. He performed a series of tests with pipes roughened by
the addition of different sized particles.
He found that if ks was “very small” then the following friction factor
equation worked. He called these pipes smooth pipes.

1 Re f 
= 2log 
f  2.51 

This is an implicit equation and must be solved by iteration (trial an

error).
 Friction factor for pipe flow

Nikuradse found that if ks was “very large” then the following friction
factor equation worked. He called these rough pipes.

1  3.7D 
= 2log 
f  ks 

Note that there is no dependence on Reynolds number and this is

an explicit equation for f.
 Rough or smooth pipes?

In fact when flow occurs in a pipe, even it it is turbulent flow, there

is a very small region close to the pipe wall where turbulent
fluctuations are damped out and laminar flow prevails.
This is called the laminar sub-layer. If the pipe roughness elements
are contained within this layer then their effect is not felt by the
gross flow field and hence the pipe flow “thinks” it is a smooth pipe.
If the roughness elements protrude through the sub-layer into the
flow field then they affect the gross flow as a roughness.

Smooth Rough
 Colebrook and White (1937)

These researchers conducted experiments on commercially

available steel pipes. They found that the following equation
described the friction factor and covered all types of pipes (rough
smooth and intermediate).

1 1.256 ε 
= -4log + 
f  Re f 3.7D 
Notes: (1) This is really just a generalization of Nikuradse’s results
into a equation for all pipe roughness; (2) for large Re the first term
in brackets may tend to zero; (3) for small ks the second term
vanishes; (4) in general this equation is implicit.
 Problems and solutions for the implicit equation

The Colebrook-White relationship is used extensively in pipe

friction calculations and design.

1 1.256 ε 
= -4log + 
f  Re f 3.7D 
But the fact that it is an implicit equation has led researchers to
suggest easier ways to solve it (at least in pre-computer times).
 Moody Diagram
Moody plotted f versus Re for values of ks/D to produce the Moody diagram. We use Moody’s
diagram as an alterative to solving the Colebrook and White equation.
 Calculating Friction Pressure Loss

Procedure

1. Calculate Renolds Number

2. Determine Flow Regime

3. Determine friction factor

4. Calculate pressure drop

 Calculating Friction Pressure Loss

Example 1

Given Data

Oil properties: Density 847 kg/m3, Viscosity 34.3 cP, flow velecity
2 m/s

Pipeline properties: 510 mm ID, 20 km long, roughness 0.4

mm
 Calculating Friction Pressure Loss

Example 1

1. Calculate Reynolds Number

Reynolds number = diameter * velocity * density / viscosity

= 0.51 * 2 * 847 / 0.0343

= 25188
 Calculating Friction Pressure Loss

Example 1

2. Determine Flow Regime

Reynolds number = 25188

Relative roughness = 0.4 / 510

= 0.0008

Therefore, from Moody diagram flow regime is transitional

 Calculating Friction Pressure Loss

Example 1

3. Determine Friction Factor

From Moody diagram, friction factor is:

Moody Friction Factor (fm) = 0.0270

 Calculating Friction Pressure Loss

Example 1

4. Calculate Pressure Drop

Pressure Drop (kPa) = 0.5 * density * fm * length * velocity2 /

diamter

Pressure Drop (kPa) = 0.5 * 847 * 0.0270 * 20000 * 22 / 510

Pressure Drop (kPa) = 1794

 Calculating Friction Pressure Loss

Example 2

Given Data

Oil properties: Density 847 kg/m3, Viscosity 34.3 cP, flow velecity
0.1 m/s

Pipeline properties: 510 mm ID, 20 km long, roughness 0.4

mm
 Calculating Friction Pressure Loss

Example 1

1. Calculate Reynolds Number

Reynolds number = diameter * velocity * density / viscosity

= 0.51 * 0.1 * 847 / 0.0343

= 1259
 Calculating Friction Pressure Loss

Example 1

2. Determine Flow Regime

Reynolds number = 1259

Relative roughness = 0.4 / 510

= 0.0008

Therefore, from Moody diagram flow regime is laminar

 Calculating Friction Pressure Loss

Example 1

3. Determine Friction Factor

From Moody diagram, friction factor is:

fm = 64 / Re

= 64 / 1259

= 0. 0508
 Calculating Friction Pressure Loss

Example 1

4. Calculate Pressure Drop

Pressure Drop (kPa) = 32000 * viscosity * length * velocity /

diamter2

Pressure Drop (kPa) = 32000 * 0.0343 * 20000 * 0.1 / 5102

Pressure Drop (kPa) = 8.43

 Calculating Friction Pressure Loss

HYSYS Calculation

Pressure Drop (kPa) vs Flow Rate (m3/h)

7000

6000
Pressure Drop (kPa)

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
-1000
Flow Rate (m3/h)

HYSYS Calc Moody Diagram