A

MINI PROJECT REPORT

On

SHADOW ALARM

A MINI-PROJECT SUBMTTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY In ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING Submitted by NAME: V.KIRTHI SAGAR B.ALEKHYA C.B.SNEHA MUNEELA L.NARENDRA Under the guidance of Mrs. N.JAYAMMA, M.Tech, Asst. professor. NO: 08M65A0463 08M61A0405 08M61A0410 08M61A0434

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING SWARNA BHARATHI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY,KHAMMAM (Approved by AICTE, Govt of A.P & affiliated to JNTUH)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the mini-project entitled shadow alarm Is a bonafide record of work carried out by

NAME: V.KIRTHI SAGAR B. ALEKHYA C.B SNEHA MUNEELA L.NARENDRA

NO: 08M61A0463 08M61A0405 08M61A0410 08M61A0434

We hereby accord our approval of it as a mini project work carried out and presented in a Manner required for its acceptance in partial fulfillment for award of degree of
Bachelor of technology In Electronics & communication engineering Of Jawaharlal Nehru technological university Hyderabad
During the academic year 2011-2012

INTERNAL GUIDE Mrs. N.JAYAMMA M.Tech. Assistant professor

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT Mr. GANDHAM SRINIVASA RAO M.I.S.T.E.,M.IEEE,M.tech. Associate professor

PRINCIPAL Prof. Mr. K.RAMARAO Ms,M.sc,Ph.D.

External examiner

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We take the opportunity to express our deep sense of gratitude to my mini-project guide Mrs.Jayamma, Asst. professor, Department of Electronics & communication Engineering, Swarna Bharathi Institute of Science & Technology,Khammam, for her excellent guidance, technical information and support which helped me in successfully completing this mini-project.

We wish to express our heartful thanks to Mr. Gandham Srinivasa Rao, Head of the department, Dept. of Electronics & communication engineering, Swarana Bharathi Institute of Science & Technology, Khammam, for permitting us to pursue and complete the mini-project in the campus.

We wish to express profound thanks to Prof.K.RamaRao, Principal of Swarna Bharathi instituate of Science & technology, Khammam, for providing necessary facilities to make this mini-project a Success.

We extend our sincere and whole hearted thanks to Mr.K.Subramanyam,Lab Technician, Dept. of Electronics & communication engineering, for his great support and encouragement.

We thank all the members of Teaching and Non-Teaching staff and all those who have helped us directly or indirectly in completing my mini-project.

DECLARATION

We declare that the mini-project work entitled

shadow alarm.

Recorded in this mini-project does not form part of any other thesis on which a degree has been awarded earlier. We further declare that this report is based on our work carried out at the SWARNA BHARATHI INSTITUE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, Khammam in the first Semester of our final year B.Tech course.

Place: KHAMMAM Date: MINI-PROJECT ASSOCIATES: V.KIRTHI SAGAR B.ALEKHYA C.B.SNEHA MUNEELA L.NARENDRA 08M61A0463 08M61A0405 08M61A0410 08M61A0434

INDEX
TOPIC NAME
1. INTRODUCTION 2. COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION 3. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS a) IC NE555 1) Pin diagram,features 2) Operation and application b) IC 741 1) Pin diagram,features c) IC UM3561A 1) Features 2) Pin description 3) Playing mode 4. PASSIVE ELEMENTS a) RESISTORS 1) Resistor symbol and types 2) Resistor colourcode 3) Resistor colourcode table, Variable resistor 4) Rheostat b) CAPACITORS 1) Introduction,construction,units 2) Types a) Dielectric and Film capacitors b) Ceramic and Electrolytic capacitors 5. ACTIVE ELEMENTS a) TRANSISTORS 1) Pin configuration 2) Characterstics,advantages,limitations b) DIODES 1) Light emitting diode a) Introduction b) Colours and materials c) Advantages,disadvantages and Applications 2) Zener diode 3) Photo diode a) Principle of operations b) Features c) Applications 6. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 7. OPERATION 8. APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES 9. DISADVANTAGES 10. CONCLUSION AND FUTURESCOPE 11. REFERENCES AND BIBILOGRAPHY

PAGE NO.
1 2

3 4 5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15

16 17

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

INTRODUCTION
Shadow Alarm is opto-sensitive circuit that sounds an alarm whenever a shadow falls on it.When somebody approaches the unit, it will give a loud alarm to abort the attempt of theft . Now a days it is widely used in aspects of security systems ,where security is our main concern .So it can be used at night by shopkeepers to protect the valuables in their showrooms. It can also be used to provide security at warehouses (go-downs) where storage and protection of various types of goods is main concern, and works well for home-security too. A dim lighting in the room is necessary to detect the moving shadow. Unlike opto-interruption alarms based on light-dependent resistors (LDRs), it does not require an aligned light beam to illuminate the photo-sensor. The circuit uses the light sensing property of the Photo diode.

The circuit uses the light sensing property of the PIN Photodiode. The p-n junction of the photo diode gives light current when it is forward biased. IC1 is designed as a voltage comparator. Its non inverting input is connected to a potential divider R1 and VR. By adjusting VR, input current to pin3 can be set to a reference level. The inverting input of IC1 is connected to a photo diode. IC CA3130 is a 15 MHz BiMOS Operational amplifier with MOSFET inputs and bipolar output. The inputs contain MOSFET transistors to provide very high input impedance and very low input current as low as 10pA. It has high speed of performance and suitable for low input current applications. CA3130A and CA3130 are op amps that combine the advantage of both CMOS and bipolar transistors. Gate-protected P-Channel MOSFET transistors are used in the input circuit to provide very-high-input impedance, very-low-input current and exceptional speed performance. The use of PMOS transistors in the input stage results in common-mode input-voltage capability down to 0.5V below the negative-supply terminal, an important attribute in single-supply applications. A CMOS transistor-pair, capable of swinging the output voltage to within 10mV of either supply-voltage terminal, is employed as the output circuit.The CA3130 Series circuits operate at supply voltages ranging from 5V to 16V, They can be phase compensated with a single external capacitor, and have terminals for adjustment of offset voltage for application requiring offset-null capability. Terminal provisions are also made to permit strobing of the output stage. The CA3130A offers superior input characteristics over those of the CA3130. Normally in the light Photodiode gives voltage to pin2 of IC1.Since this voltage is higher than the voltage set by VR at pin3 ,output of IC1 remains low keeping LED and buzzer off. When a person approaches the photodiode, the shadow causes a reduction in current through the photodiode so that voltage at pin2 decreases below that of pin3. Output of IC1 then goes high and Buzzer sounds.

COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION: COMPONENTSLIST:

1. ICs 1. IC1 741 2. IC2 NE555 3. IC3 UM3561 2. TRANSISTORS 1. T1 L14F1 2. T2 BC548 3. RESISTORS 1. 10 2. 100K 3. 4.7K 4. 100 Ohm 5. 680 Ohm 6. 47 Ohm 7. 1 Mega ohms 8. 220 K 9.1K 4. CAPACITORS 1. 10UF 2. 0.01UF 3. 47UF 5. PRESET 47K 6. LED 7. ZENER DIODE 3.1V 8. SPEAKER 8Ohms/0.5w

1No 1No 1No

1No 1No

2 Nos 1No 1No 1No 1No 1No 1No 1No 1No

1No 1No 1No

2NoS 1No 1No

ICM7555 PIN DESCRIPTION:

The ICM7555 is a CMOS timer providing significantly improved performance over the Standard NE/SE555 timer, while at the same time being a direct replacement for those devices in most applications. The ICM7555 is a stable controller capable of producing accurate time delays or frequencies.

PIN DIAGRAM :

FEATURES:
Exact equivalent in most applications for NE/SE555 Low supply current: 80mA (typ) Extremely low trigger, threshold, and reset currents: 20pA (typ) High-speed operation: 500kHz guaranteed Wide operating supply voltage range guaranteed 3 to 16V over full automotive temperatures Normal reset function; no crowbar ring of supply during output transition Can be used with higher-impedance timing elements than the bipolar 555 for longer time constants Timing from microseconds through hours Operates in both astable and monostable modes Adjustable duty cycle High output source/sink driver can drive TTL/CMOS Typical temperature stability of 0.005%/oC at 25C Rail-to-rail outputs

OPERATION :
In this mode of operation, the timer functions as a one-shot. See Figure 3. Initially the external capacitor (C) is held discharged by a transistor inside the timer. Upon application of a negative TRIGGER pulse to pin 2, the internal flip-flop is set which releases the short circuit across the external capacitor and drives the OUTPUT high. The voltage across the capacitor increases exponentially with a time constant t = RAC.When the voltage across the capacitor equals 2/3 V+, the comparator resets the flip-flop, which in turn discharges the capacitor rapidly and also drives the OUTPUT to its low state.TRIGGER must return to a high state before the OUTPUT can return to a low state.

APPLICATIONS :
Precision timing Pulse generation Sequential timing Time delay generation Pulse width modulation Pulse position modulation Missing pulse detector

IC 741 DESCRIPTIONS:

The Operational Amplifier is probably the most versatile Integrated Circuit available. It is very cheap especially keeping in mind the fact that it contains several hundred components. The most common Op-Amp is the 741 and it is used in many circuits. The OP AMP is a Linear Amplifier with an amazing variety of uses. Its main purpose is to amplify (increase) a weak signal - a little like a Darlington Pair.The OP-AMP has two inputs, INVERTING ( - ) and NON-INVERTING (+), and one output at pin 6. The 741 is used in two ways. 1. An inverting amplifier. Leg two is the input and the output is always reversed.In an inverting amplifier the voltage enters the 741 chip through leg two and comes out of the 741 chip at leg six. If the polarity is positive going into the chip, it negative by the time it comes out through leg six. The polarity has been inverted. 2. A non-inverting amplifier. Leg three is the input and the output is not reversed.In a noninverting amplifier the voltage enters the 741 chip through leg three and leaves the 741 chip through leg six. This time if it is positive going into the 741 then it is still positive coming out. Polarity remains the same.

FEATURES:
Short Circuit Protection Excellent Temperature Stability Internal Frequency Compensation High Input Voltage Range Null of Offset

IC UM3561A DESCRIPTION:

UM3561 is a low-cost, low-power CMOS LSI designed for use in alarm and toy applications.Since the integrated circuit includes oscillator and selector circuits, a compact sound module can be constructed with only a few additional components. The M3561 contains a programmed mask ROM to simulate siren sound

FEATURES:
Four sounds can be selected

Power on reset

Typical 3V operating voltage

A magnetic speaker can be driven by connecting 8-pin DIP package from an NPN transistor

PLAYING MODES:

PASSIVE ELEMENTS RESISTORS

Resistors (R), are the most commonly used of all electronic components, to the point where they are almost taken for granted. They are "Passive Devices", that is they contain no source of power or amplification but only attenuate or reduce the voltage signal passing through them. When used in DC circuits the voltage drop produced is measured across their terminals as the circuit current flows through them while in AC circuits the voltage and current are bothin-phase producing0o phase shift. In all Electrical and Electronic circuit diagrams and schematics, the most commonly used resistor symbol is that of a "zig-zag" type line with the value of its resistance given in Ohms, .

RESISTOR SYMBOL

The symbol used in schematic and electrical drawings for a Resistor can either be a "zig- zag" type line or a rectangular box.

RESISTOR TYPES
All modern resistors can be classified into four broad groups; Carbon Composition Resistor - Made of carbon dust or graphite paste, low wattage values Film or Cermet Resistor - Made from conductive metal oxide paste, very low wattage values Wire-Wound Resistors. - Metallic bodies for heat sink mounting, very high wattage ratings Semiconductor Resistors - High frequency/precision surface mount thin film technology

RESISTOR COLOUR CODE

The resistance value, tolerance, and watt rating of the resistor are generally printed onto the body of the resistor as numbers or letters when the resistor is big enough to read the print, such as large power resistors. When resistors are small such as 1/4W Carbon and Film types, these specifications must be shown in some other manner as the print would be too small to read. So to overcome this, small resistors use coloured painted bands to indicate both their resistive value and their tolerance with the physical size of the resistor indicating its wattage rating. These coloured painted bands are generally known as a Resistors Colour Code.

STANDARD RESISTOR COLOUR CODE CHART

THE RESISTOR COLOUR CODE TABLE:

VARIABLE RESISTOR:
Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both ends and a wiper which moves along the track as you turn the spindle. The track may be made from carbon, cermet (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low resistances). The track is usually rotary but straight track versions, usually called sliders, are also available.

Variable are often called potentiometers in books and catalogues. They are specified by their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic track, and their physical size. The standard spindle diameter is 6mm resistors may be used as a rheostat with two connections (the wiper and just one end of the track) or as a potentiometer with all three connections in use. Miniature versions called presets are made for setting up circuits which will not require further adjustment.

RHEOSTAT:

This is the simplest way of using a variable resistor. Two terminals are used: one connected to an end of the track, the other to the movable wiper. Tuning the spindle changes the rheostat resistance between the two terminals from zero up to the maximum resistance.

PRESET:
These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistors. They are designed to be mounted directly on to the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust the presets. Presets are much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are sometimes used in projects where a standard variable resistor would normally be used. Multiturn presets are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The screw must be turned many times(10+) to move the slider from one end of the track to the other, giving very fine control.

Open style

multiturn

closed style

CAPACITORS INTRODUCTION
Just like the Resistor, the Capacitor or sometimes referred to as a Condenser is a passive device, and one which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field which produces a potential (Static Voltage) across its plates. When a voltage is applied to these plates, a current flows charging up the plates with electrons giving one plate a positive charge and the other plate an equal and opposite negative charge. This flow of electrons to the plates is known as the Charging Current and continues to flow until the voltage across the plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vc. At this point the capacitor is said to be fully charged and this is illustrated below.

Capacitor Construction

Q = CxV

UNITS OF CAPACITANCE y Microfarad ( F) 1 F = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F

y y

Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F Picofarad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-12 F

TYPES OF CAPACITORS

There are a very large variety of different types of Capacitors available in the market place and each one has its own set of characteristics and applications from small delicate trimming capacitors up to large power metal can type capacitors used in high voltage power correction and smoothing circuits.

1.DIELECTRIC : Dielectric Capacitors are usually of the variable type such as used for tuning transmitters, receivers and transistor radios. They have a set of fixed plates and a set of moving plates that mesh with the fixed plates and the position of the moving plates with respect to the fixed plates determines the overall capacitance. The capacitance is generally at maximum when the plates are fully meshed. Variable Capacitor Symbols

As well as the continuously variable types, preset types are also available calledTrimmers. These are generally small devices that can be adjusted or "pre-set" to a particular capacitance with the aid of a screwdriver and are available in very small capacitances of 100pF or less and are non-polarized. 2. FILM CAPACITORS:

Film Capacitors are the most commonly available of all types of capacitors, consisting of a relatively large family of capacitors with the difference being in their dielectric properties. These include polyester (Mylar), polystyrene, polypropylene, polycarbonate, metallized paper, teflon etc. Film type capacitors are available in capacitance ranges from 5pF to 100uF depending upon the actual type of capacitor and its voltage rating. Film capacitors also come in an assortment of shapes and case styles which include:

Wrap & Fill (Oval & Round) Epoxy Case (Rectangular & Round) Metal Hermetically Sealed (Rectangular & Round) 3. CERAMIC CAPACITORS

Ceramic Capacitorsor Disc Capacitors as they are generally called, are made by coating two sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver and are then stacked together to make a capacitor. For very low capacitance values a single ceramic disc of about 3-6mm is used. Ceramic capacitors have a high dielectric constant (High-K) and are available so that relatively high capacitances can be obtained in a small physical size. They exhibit large non- linear changes in capacitance against temperature and as a result are used as decoupling or by-pass capacitors as they are also non-polarized devices. Ceramic capacitors have values ranging from a few picofarads to one or two microfarads but their voltage ratings are generally quite low. Ceramic types of capacitors generally have a 3-digit code printed onto their body to identify their capacitance value. For example, 103 would indicate 10 x 103 PF

4. ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS

Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used when very large capacitance values are required.Here instead of using a very thin metallic film layer for one of the electrodes, a semi-liquid electrolyte solution in the form of a jelly or paste is used which serves as the second electrode (usually the cathode). The dielectric is a very thin layer of oxide which is grown electro- chemically in production with the thickness of the film being less than ten microns. This insulating layer is so thin that it is possible to make large value capacitors of a small size. The majority of electrolytic types of capacitors arePolarized, that is the voltage applied to the capacitor terminals must be of the correct polarity as an incorrect polarization will break down the insulating oxide layer and permanent damage may result. Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used in DC power supply circuits to help reduce the ripple voltage or for coupling and decoupling applications. Electrolytic's generally come in two basic forms; Aluminum Electrolytic and Tantalum Electrolytic capacitors.

TRANSISTOR
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. Some transistors are packaged individually but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.

PIN CONFIGURATION:

TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS:

ADVANTAGES
The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube predecessors in Most applications are Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized electronic Devices. Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit cost. Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for small, battery- Powered applications. Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency. Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness. Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in service for more than 30 years.

LIMITATIONS:
y Silicon transistors do not operate at voltages higher than about 1,000 volts. In contrast electron tubes have been developed that can be operated at tens of thousands of volts.

y .

High power, high frequency operation, such as that can be used in over-the-air television broadcasting, is better achieved in electron tubes due to improved electron mobility in vacuum.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES:

A light emitting diode(LED) is a semi conductor light source. The LED is based on semi conductor diode. When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor.

The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements for incandescent and neon indicator lamps, and in seven-segment displays,[19] first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as TVs, radios, telephones, calculators, and even watches (see list of signal uses). These red LEDs were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate an area. Readouts in calculators were so small that plastic lenses were built over each digit to make them legible. Later, other colors grew widely available and also appeared in appliances and equipment. As LED materials technology grew more advanced, light output rose, while maintaining efficiency and reliability at acceptable levels. The invention and development of the high power white light LED led to use for illumination, which is fast replacing incandescent and fluorescent lighting.. Most LEDs were made in the very common 5 mm T1 and 3 mm T1 packages, but with rising power output, it has grown increasingly necessary to shed excess heat to maintain

reliability,[22] so more complex packages have been adapted for efficient heat dissipation. Packages for state-of-the-art high power LEDs bear little resemblance to early LEDs.

Colors and materials:

Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials, the following table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material: Color Infrared Wavelength [nm] > 760 Voltage [V] V < 1.9 Semiconductor material

Red

610 < < 760

Orange

590 < < 610

Yellow

570 < < 590

Green

500 < < 570

Blue

450 < < 500

Gallium arsenide (GaAs) Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) 1.63 < V < Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) 2.03 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) 2.03 < V < Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) 2.10 Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) 2.10 < V < Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) 2.18 Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride (GaN) [47] 1.9 < V < Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) 4.0 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP) Zinc selenide (ZnSe) 2.48 < V < Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) 3.7 Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate

Silicon (Si) as substrate (under development) Violet Purple 400 < < 450 multiple types 2.76 < V < 4.0 2.48 < V < 3.7 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) Dual blue/red LEDs, blue with red phosphor, or white with purple plastic Diamond (235 nm)[48] Boron nitride (215 nm)[49][50] Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[51] Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) (down to 210 nm)[52] Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor

Ultraviolet < 400

3.1 < V < 4.4

White

Broad spectrum

V = 3.5

ADVANTAGES:
y y y y y y y y Size On/Off time Dimming Cycling Efficiency Cool light Slow failure Lifetime

DISADVANTAGES:
y y y y y y High initial price Temperature dependence Voltage sensitivity Light quality. Area light source Blue pollution

APPLICATIONS :
y y Application of LEDs falls into four major categories: Visual signal application where the light goes more or less directly from the LED to the human eye, to convey a message or meaning. Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give visual response of these objects.

Generate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do not involve the human visual system Narrow band light sensors where the LED is operated in a reverse-bias mode and is responsive to incident light instead of emitting light.

ZENER DIODES: Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward
direction like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". A conventional solid-state diode will not allow significant current if it is reverse-biased below its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a conventional diode is subject to high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is limited by circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged. In case of large forward bias (current in the direction of the arrow), the diode exhibits a voltage drop due to its junction built-in voltage and internal resistance. The amount of the voltage drop depends on the semiconductor material and the doping concentrations. A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. By contrast with the conventional device, a reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode at the Zener voltage. The Zener diode is therefore ideal for applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifier stage), or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications.

he Zener diode's operation depends on the heavy doping of its p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material. In the atomic scale, this tunneling corresponds to the transport of valence band electrons into the empty conduction band states; as a result of the reduced barrier between these bands and high electric fields that are induced due to the relatively high levels of dopings on both sides. The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite accurately in the doping process.

PHOTO DIODE:
A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either current or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation. [1] The common, traditional solar cell used to generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode. Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for use specifically as a photodiode will also use a PIN junction rather than the typical PN junction.

Principle of operation
A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a free electron (and a positively charged electron hole). This mechanism is also known as the photoelectric effect. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced. This photocurrent is the sum of both the dark current (without light) and the light current, so the dark current must be minimized to enhance the sensitivity of the device.

FEATURES

Critical performance parameters of a photodiode include:

Responsivity The ratio of generated photocurrent to incident light power, typically expressed in A/W when used in photoconductive mode. The responsivity may also be expressed as a Quantum efficiency, or the ratio of the number of photogenerated carriers to incident photons and thus a unitless quantity.

Dark current The current through the photodiode in the absence of light, when it is operated in photoconductive mode. The dark current includes photocurrent generated by background radiation and the saturation current of the semiconductor junction. Dark current must be accounted for by calibration if a photodiode is used to make an accurate optical power measurement, and it is also a source of noise when a photodiode is used in an optical communication system.

Noise-equivalent power (NEP) The minimum input optical power to generate photocurrent, equal to the rms noise current in a 1 hertz bandwidth. The related characteristic detectivity (D) is the inverse of NEP, 1/NEP; and the specific detectivity is the detectivity normalized to the area (A) of the photodetector,. The NEP is roughly the minimum detectable input power of a photodiode.

Applications

P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes.

Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions.

In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones that dim the display when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often used rather than photodiodes, although in principle either could be used.

Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and industry. They generally have a better, more linear response than photoconductors.

They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for computed tomography (coupled with scintillators) or instruments to analyze samples (immunoassay). They are also used in pulse oximeters.

PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction diodes, and hence are often used for optical communications and in lighting regulation.

P-N photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead, if high sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment and laser rangefinding.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OPERATION:
The circuit is powered by a 9V PP3 battery and uses the most sensitive photo-sensor L14F1 to detect shadows. It is portable and can be used at any place that is to be monitored. Op-amp A741 (IC1) is used as a voltage comparator. Its inverting in- put is biased by the voltage obtained from the junction of 100k resistor R1 and the collector of phototransistor T1. The non-inverting input of IC1 gets a controlled voltage from potential di- vider R2 and VR1. In the presence of ambient light, the phototransistor conducts and the inverting input (pin 2) of IC1 gets a lower voltage than its non-inverting input (pin 3). This makes the output of IC1 high, which is indicated by the glowing of LED1. When a shadow falls on the photo- sensor, the output of IC1 goes low. This low pulse triggers the monostable(IC2) designed for a delay of 51 sec- onds using R6 and C3. The output of IC2 is used to light up LED2 and acti- vate the alarm. Slide switch S2 is used to select ei- ther the buzzer or siren. When it is towards left the buzzer beeps, and when it is towards right IC UM3561 (IC3) activates to give a loud alarm simulating a police siren. Resistor R8 and zener diode ZD1 provide 3.1V DC to IC UM3561. The circuit is easy to assemble as it requires only a few low-cost com- ponents. Enclose it in a cabinet with the photo-sensor inside. Drill a 5mm hole on the front panel of the cabinet to let ambient light fall on the photo- sensor. Adjust potmeter VR1 (47k) until LED2 stops glowing and the buzzer stops beeping while LED1 glows. This is the position of VR1 to be maintained for that particular intensity of light. LED1 will continue to glow even when a shadow is detected. The circuit is now ready to use. To test it, move a paper in front of the unit. If LED2 glows along with the beep of the buzzer, it means that the photo-sensor has detected a shadow.

APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES:

The main application of this shadow alarm circuit is in the security system. y It is easy to understand that a security alarm system provides peace of mind when youre away from your place of business, and is there to meet insurance requirements while minimizing burglary loss. y However, it is also a tool to protect your livelihood and that of your employees. y Even if you have insurance to cover interruption of business, that wont help you if your clients get comfortable using your competitor while you are closed due to a robbery or arson. Our security systems can help reduce inventory shrinkage and theft, prevent break-ins, and when you consider what could happen to you or your staff if you stumble into a crime scene you can understand one of the ways it helps ensure employee safety. y It can be used at night by shopkeepers to protect the valuables in their showrooms. y It can also be used to provide security at warehouses where storage and protection of various types of goods is main concern. y This circuit can also be used for home securities too. y The main advantage of this circuit is that unlike opto-interruption alarm based on light-dependent resistors (LDRs), it does not require an aligned beam to illuminate the photo-sensor. y This circuit is easy to implement and all the components used in this circuit are available in the market.

DISADVANTAGES:
y y y Even though you may set your alarms when you leave, there is always that one chance that you may forget. Most professional burglars are very familiar with home intruder alarms and know exactly how to deal with them. If the alarm is set and the burglar happens to trip it, he will immediately flee from the area and move on to a different home.

CONCLUSION:

The circuit has to found to have greater applicationin security reliable and lessexpensive and is guaranteed to perform the best of the duration of their life time. Our team effort and guidance of lecturers have helped us in completion of our project. This project is accessible to anyone with an average expense and a bit of dedicated work, as we have realized in materializing it. The project has been an enriching experience for us. We conclude that this project will be useful to everyone.

FUTURE SCOPE:

In future we can develop more security systems with more reliability.

we can also reduce man work.

We can make it more economical.

REFERENCES:
. y y y y y www.electronicsforyou.com www.howstuffworks.com www.wikipedia.org www.circuits-today.com www.freedatasheets.com