RANKINES THEORY FOR FAILURE OF COLUMNS OF ANY LENGTH

Empirical or semi-empirical methods are generally used to predict the failure of a column of any length: these then form the basis for safe load or safe stress tables given in Codes of Practice. One such method which gives good agreement with experiment is that due to Rankine. RANKINE THEORY Suppose that P is the failure load of a column of a given material and of any length. Suppose also that PS is the failure load in compression of a short column of the same material and that PCR is the buckling load of a long slender column, again of the same material. The Rankine theory proposes that
(21.26)

Equation (21.26) is valid for a very short column since 1/PCR 0 and P then PS; the equation is also valid for a long slender column since 1/PS is small compared with 1/PCR; thus P PCR. Therefore, Eq. (21.26) is seen to hold for extremes in column length. Now let S be the yield stress in compression of the material of the column and A its crosssectional area. Then PS = SA Also from Eq.

Substituting for PS and PCR in Eq. (21.26) we have

Thus

So that

Dividing top and bottom of the right-hand side of this equation by we have

But I =Ar2 so that

whi h may be written

(21.27)
in whi h k i a constant that depends upon the material of the column. The failurestress in compression, C, of a column of any length is then, from Eq. (21.27)
(21.28)

Note that for a column of a gi en material C is a function of the slenderness ratio, Le/r.

E E TED W T P T L7 Following are the main concepts and theories which are associated with this practical         Column Strut Ideal and real column Classification of columns Conditions of equilibrium Buckling of column Difference between collapse and stability Eulers theory of buckling for long columns

1. COL

A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a vertical structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. For the purpose of wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be designed to resist lateral forces.

Columns

2. ST

T:

A strut is a structural component designed to resist longitudinal compression. Struts provide outwards-facing support in their lengthwise direction, which can be

used to keep two other components separate, performing the oppos function of a ite tie. They are commonly used in architecture and engineering

Strut

3. IDE L AND REAL COL

N:

A column which does not show any deflection H at the critical load for that column i.e. Pcr is known as an ideal column. In our real life no column is an ideal column. And a column which shows some deflection even a minor one when critical load is applied to it is called a real column.

4. CLASSIFICATION OF COL

NS

When it comes to the classification of columns, we have 3 different standards on the basis of which we can classify and distinguish the columns. a. Based on Le/D In this ratio Le represents the effective length of the column and D represents the least dimension of the pillar. On the basis of this ratio columns are to be divided in three categories. p Short columns (Le/D ratio is less than 4) p Intermediate columns (Le/D ratio is in between 4 & 30) p Long columns (Le/D ratio is greater than 30) b. Based on slenderness ratio Slenderness ratio is the ratio between effective length and radius of gyration of the column. Usually least radius of gyration is used for this equation as the column buckle along the axis where there is least value of r and maximum value of slenderness ratio. This ratio can be mathematically expressed as: Slenderness ratio= On the basis of this ratio columns are divided in three categories which are given as under. p Short column (slenderness ratio is less than 30) p Long column (slenderness ratio is greater than Cc) p Intermediate column (slenderness ratio may vary from 30-100 or Cc) Where the general formulae for Cc = c. Based on eccentricity On the basis of this standard columns are to be divided in 2 categories p Column with concentric loading p Column with eccentric loading

In the columns with concentric loading load acts at the centroid of the column and hence only normal stress is produced in the column. While in columns with eccentric loading load acts at any other point rather than the centroid of the column and hence not only causes normal stress but also causes moment due to eccentricity.

5. CODITIONS OF EQ LIBRIUM:
  The first condition for equilibrium: F = 0 The second condition for equilibrium: =0 When both of these conditions are satisfied in static systems all forces and torques sum to zero When applying the second condition we are free to choose any axis about which to compute torques. It is best to choose an axis that eliminates one or more forces that have lines of force that pass through it.

6. BUCKLING OF A COLUMN
When a perfect column is subjected to a compressive axial force as shown in Figure 1, the only deformation that takes place is a shortening of the column. For low values of F, if the column were to be deflected laterally by a force perpendicularto the column, and the lateral force thereafter removed, the column would return to its straight position, even with the force F remaining in place. This indicates a condition of stability. If the load F were increased, there is a value of F for which, when the lateral load is removed, the column would remain in the deformed shape. This condition is referred to as buckling and the column is said to have failed from a structural standpoint. An example is given in Figure 1, where the column failure was due to an earthquake. Buckling can also be described in simple terms as bending or bowing of a column due to a compressive load. This is illustrated in Figure 2.

7. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COLLAPSE AND STABILIT :

To collapse means break down suddenly in strength and thereby cease to function. For a structure following may be the reasons of collapse of a structure.
y y y y y y

Bad Design Faulty Construction Foundation Failure Extraordinary Loads Unexpected Failure Modes Combination of Causes

But before defining stability we have to define instability which can be described as: Change in geometry of a structure or structural component under compression resulting in loss of ability to resist loading is defined as instability. Instability can lead to catastrophic failure that must be accounted in design. Instability is a strength-related limit state. And so now we can define stability as: Stability deals directly with forces that act on a structure and how they push or pull that structure. It is important to know about the factors that affect the buildings we live and work in, the bridges we cross, and the vehicles we travel in. Our safety is at stake. Stability is difficult to define as:
y y y y y

Every structure is in equilibrium static or dynamic. If it is not in equilibrium, the body will be in motion or a mechanism. Stability qualifies the state of equilibrium of a structure. Whether it is in stable or unstable equilibrium. Structure is in stable equilibrium when small perturbations do not cause large movements like a mechanism. Structure vibrates about it equilibrium position. Structure is in unstable equilibrium when small perturbations produce large movements and the structure never returns to its original equilibrium position. Structure is in neutral equilibrium when we cant decide whether it is in stable or unstable equilibrium. Small perturbation cause large movements but the structure can be brought back to its original equilibrium position with no work. Thus, stability talks about the equilibrium state of the structure.

8. EULERS THEORY OF BUCKLING FOR LONG COLUMN The first rational attempt, to study the stability of long columns, was made by Mr. Euler. He derived an equation, for the buckling load of long columns based on the bending stress. While deriving this equation, the effect of direct stress is neglected. This may be justified with the statement, that the direct stress induced in a long column is negligible as compared to the bending stress. It may be noted that Eulers formula cannot be used in the case of short columns, because the direct stress is considerable, and hence cannot be neglected. a. Assumpti s i Eule s Column T eory The following simplifying assumptions are made in Eulers column theory: p Initially the column is perfectly straight, and the load applied is truly axial. p The cross-section of the column is uniform throughout its length. p The column material is perfectly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic, and thus obeys Hookes law. p The length of column is very large as compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. p The shortening of column, due to direct compression (being very small) is neglected. p The failure of column occurs due to buckling alone.

p The weight of the column itself is neglected.

DERIVATION OF EULERS FORMULAE

Consider an elastic column of length L, pin-ended so free to rotate at its ends, subjected to an axial load P, Fig. 6.1.1. Assume that it undergoes a lateral deflection denoted by v. Moment equilibrium of a section of the deflected column cut at a typical point x, and using the moment-curvature results in

Hence the deflection v satisfies the differential equation

Where

The ordinary differential equation 6.1.2 is linear, homogeneous and with constant coefficients. Its solution can be found in any standard text on differential equations and is given by

Where A and B are as yet unknown constants. The boundary conditions for pinned ends are

The first condition requires A to be zero and the second leads to

(a) B = 0 , in which case v(x) = 0 for all x and the column is not deflected or (b) Sin(kL) = 0 , which holds when kL is an integer number of s, i.e.

As mentioned, the solution (a) is governed by the axial deformation theory discussed Concentrating on (b), the corresponding solution for the deflection is.

The parameter k is defined by Eqn. 1.6.3, so that, using 1.6.7,

Has hence been shown that buckling, i.e. v 0 , can only occur at a discreet set of applied loads - the buckling loads - given by 6.1.9. In practice the most important buckling load is the first, corresponding to n = 1, since this will be the first of the loads reached as the applied load P is increased from zero; this is called the critical buckling load:

ENERGY METHOD FOR THE CALCULATION OF BUCKLING LOADS IN COLUMNS (RAYLEIGHRITZ METHOD)
The fact that the total potential energy of an elastic body possesses a stationary value in an equilibrium state may be used to investigate the neutral equilibrium of a buckled column. In particular the energy method is extremely useful when the deflected form of the buckled column is unknown and has to be guessed

Fig(a) [Shortening of column due buckling] First we shall consider the pin-ended column shown in its buckled position in Fig. (a) The internal or strain energy, U, of the column is assumed to be produced by bending action alone and is given by Eq. i.e (a) Or alternatively, since EId2 v/dx2 =M

(b) The potential energy, V, of the buckling load, PCR, referred to the straight position of the column as datum, is then

where is the axial movement of PCR caused by the bending of the column from its initially straight position. From Fig.(a) the length L in the buckled column is

and since dv/dx is small then

Hence

Giving

Therefore

Since

Only differs from

By a term of negligible order, we write

Giving

(c) The total potential energy of the column in the neutral equilibrium of its buckled state is therefore

(d) Or, using the alternative form of U from Eq. (b)

(e) We shall now assume a deflected shape having the equation (f)

This satisfies the boundary conditions of

and is capable, within the limits for which it is valid and if suitable values for the constant coefficients, An, are chosen, of representing any continuous curve. We are therefore in a position to find PCR exactly. Substituting Eq. (f) into Eq. (e) gives

(g) The product terms in both integrals of Eq. (g) disappear on integration leaving only integrated values of the squared terms. Thus

(h) Assigning a stationary value to the total potential energy of Eq. (h) with respect to each coefficient, An, in turn, then taking An as being typical, we have

From which

as before. We see that each term in Eq. (f) represents a particular deflected shape with a corresponding critical load. Hence the first term represents the deflection of the column shown in Fig.(a) with PCR = 2EI/L2. Clearly the column must be constrained to buckle into these more complex forms. In other words, the column is being forced into an unnatural shape, is consequently stiffer and offers greater resistance to buckling, as we observe from the higher values of critical load. If the deflected shape of the column is known, it is immaterial which of Eqs. (d) or (e) is used for the total potential energy. However, when only an approximate solution is possible, Eq. (d) is preferable since the integral involving bending moment depends upon the accuracy of the assumed form of v, whereas the corresponding term in Eq. (e) depends upon the accuracy of d2v/dx2. Generally, for an assumed deflection curve v is obtained much more accurately than d2v/dx2. Suppose that the deflection curve of a particular column is unknown or extremely complicated. We then assume a reasonable shape which satisfies as far as possible the end conditions of the column and the pattern of the deflected shape (Rayleigh Ritz

method).Generally the assumed shape is in the form of a finite series involving a series of unknown constants and assumed functions of x. Let us suppose that v is given by

Substitution in Eq. (e) results in an expression for total potential energy in terms of the critical load and the coefficients A1,A2 and A3 as the unknowns. Assigning stationary values to the total potential energy with respect to A1,A2 and A3 in turn produces three simultaneous equations from which the ratios A1/A2,A1/A3 and the critical load are determined. Absolute values of the coefficients are unobtainable since the displacements of the column in its buckled state of neutral equilibrium are indeterminate. As a simple illustration consider the column shown in its buckled state in Fig.(d) An approximate shape may be deduced from the deflected shape of a cantilever loaded at its free end. Therefore

This expression satisfies the end conditions of deflection, viz. v =0 at x=0 and v =v0 at x=L. In addition, it satisfies the conditions that the slope of the column is zero at the built-in end and that the bending moment, i.e. d2 v/dx2, is zero at the free end. The bending moment at any section is M =PCR(v0 v) so that substitution for M and v in

Fig(d) Buckling load for Built in column by the energy method

Integrating and substituting the limits we have

Hence

From which

This value of critical load compares with the exact value is 2EI/4L2 =2.467 EI/L2; the error, in this case, is seen to be extremely small. Approximate values of critical load obtained by the energy method are always greater than the correct values. The explanation lies in the fact that an assumed deflected shape implies the application of constraints in order to force the column to take up an artificial shape. This, as we have seen, has the effect of stiffening the column with a consequent increase in critical load. It will be observed that the solution for the above example may be obtained by simply equating the increase in internal energy (U) to the work done by the external critical load (V). This is always the case when the assumed deflected shape contains a single unknown coefficient, such as v0, in the above example.