Principle of Energy Conservation

Principle of Energy Conservation
Principle of Energy
Conservation
4.1 Energy, Work and Heat
5.1 1
st
Law for Control Mass
5.2 Specific Heats for Ideal Gas
5.3 1
st
Law for Control Volume
5.4 Steady-State, Steady-Flow Process
5.5 Uniform-State, Uniform-Flow Process
Energy, Work and Heat
Two major concepts of thermodynamics are energy
and entropy. They are both abstract concepts in
classical thermodynamics, which are derived from
the 1
st
and 2
nd
law of thermodynamics.
4.1 Energy, Work and Heat
(Energy)
System
Work
Energy
Flow
Energy
Flow
Heat
Surrounding
Energy
Macroscopic view
1
st
Law :
Energy can be transferred in two different forms,
heat and work. Energy is an abstract concept given
as a thermodynamic property, defined in terms of
the 1
st
Microscopic view
Energy can be stored i n many di fferent forms;
intermolecular potential energy, molecular kinetic
energy and intermolecular energy including rotational
and vibrational energy.
dE Q W o o =
Work and Heat
There are only two forms of energy transfer, work and
heat.
Work : a form of energy transfer due to an externally
applied force and resulting displacement of the system
F c a n be a n y g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e a n d x i s t he
corresponding generalized displacement.
Conventionally work is defined as positive if energy is
transferred from the system to the surrounding.
W Fdx o
Heat : a form of energy transfer from a higher temperature
to a lower temperature. Conventionally heat is defined as
positive if energy is transferred to the system from the
surrounding.
The system contains energy, not heat. Heat is identified
at the boundary, as energy transfer occurs across the
boundary due to difference in T.
,
2
1 2
1
Q Q o =
Q
Q
dt
o
&
Units for work are same as those for energy.
1 J = 1 Nm
Power:
1 W = 1 J/s
1 hp = 550 lbf ft/s
Specific work: work per unit mass of the system
W
W
dt
o
&
W
w
m
|
Units of heat are same as those for work.
1 btu = 1.055056 kJ
1 cal = 4.1868 J
Specific heat transfer; heat transfer per unit mass of
the system
Adiabatic process;
Q=0
Q
q
Example of work crossing the boundary of a system
Example of work crossing the boundary of a system
because of a flow of an electric current across the
system boundary
System
> T
surr
T
sys
Surrounding
Heat
Schematic arrangement showing
work done on a surface film
Schematic arrangement fir magnetic cooling
Work done at the moving boundary in a quasi-
equilibrium process
Quasi-equilibrium process : internally reversible process.
Infinitesimal change to maintain equilibrium throughout
the process.
Non-equilibrium process : the intermediate states can
not be defined. The force exerted by the pressure of
gas does not equal the external force.
W PdV o =
2 2
1 2
1 1
W W d o

ext
W d o
Use of pressure-volume diagram to show work done
at the moving boundary of a system in a quasi -
equilibrium process
Work done depends not only on the two end
states but also on the path followed.
W :
path function
:
inexact differential
Var i ous quas i -equi l i br i um pr oces s es bet ween t wo
given states, indicating that work is a path function.

1 2 2 1
1 2 1 2 1 2
A B C
W W W X
W W W
=
= =
W o

2 1 2 1
1 2 1 2
2 1 2 1
1 2 1 2
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
2 2
1 1
A B A B
C B C B
A C A C
A C
Q W
Q Q W W
Q Q W W
Q Q W W
Q W Q W
o o
o o o o
o o o o
o o o o
o o o o
=
+ = +
+ = +
=
=

Q W o o
dE Q W o o

1 2 2 1 1 2
2
2
Q E E W
dE dU m dV mgdZ
d mV
Q dU d mgZ W o o
: point function
Point Functions
thermodynamic properties
e.g. V, U, H,
The change in volume depends only on the two end
states.
dV : exact differential
2
2 1
1
dV V V =

The relationship between P and V is required for
integration.
Polytropic Process
where n=1(isothermal process),
2 2
2 2 1 1
1 1
1
n
n
PV const
dV PV PV
PdV const
V n
=
= =

2
2
1 1
1
1
ln
V
PdV PV
V
=

Other Modes of Work

There is only one mode of heat, while there can be
many different modes of work.

0
W PdV dL dA Hd V dZ o p = + M E
Non-equilibrium Process; No Work is involved.
Example of a process involving a change
of volume for which work is zero
Heat and Work
(1) Both are transient phenomena.
They cross the boundary as the system undergoes a
change in its state.
(2) Both are boundary phenomena.
They represent energy crossing the boundary of the
system.
(3) Both are path functions and inexact differentials.
Thermodynamic properties are state or point functions,
which do not depend on the previous path or history.
Identification of works involved is an important
part of many thermodynamic problems.
Example showing how
selection of the system
determines whether work
is involved in a process
An example showing the difference
between heat and work
Example 4.1
Consider as a system the gas in the cylinder. The cylinder
is fitted with a piston on which a number of small weights
are placed. The initial pressure is 200kPa, and the initial
volume of the gas is 0.4m
3
.
1. Let a Bunsen burner be placed under the cylinder,
and l et the vol ume of the gas i ncrease to 0. 1m
3
whi l e t he pr es s ur e r emai ns cons t ant . Cal cul at e
the work done by the system during this process.

2 2
1 2 2 1
1 1
12.0 W dV P dV P V V kJ ! ! ! !

2. Consider the same system and initial conditions,
but at same time the Bunsen burner is under the
cylinder and the piston is rising, let weights be
removed from the piston at such a rate that, during
the process, the temperature of the gas remains
constant.
n=1
2
2
1 2 1 1
1
1
ln 7.33
V
W PdV PV kJ
V
! ! !

3. Consider the same system, but during the heat
transfer let the weights be removed at such a rate
that the expression describes the
relation between pressure and volume during the
pr oces s . Agai n t he fi nal vol ume i s 0. 1m
3
.
Calculate the work.
1.3
2
0.04
200 60.77
0.10
P kPa

! !

1.3
PV const !
2
2 2 1 1
1 2
1
6.41
1 1.3
PV PV
W PdV kJ
! ! !

4. Consider the system and initial state in the first
three examples, but let the piston be held by a pin
so that the volume remains constant. In addition,
let heat be transferred from the system until the
pressure drops to 100kPa. Calculate the work.
The work is zero, because there is no change in
volume.
Pressure-volume diagram
Example 4.2
Consider a slightly different piston cylinder arrangement
as shown in Fig.4.8. In this example the piston is loaded
with a mass, m
p
, the outsi de atmosphere P
0
, a linear
spring and a single point force F
1
. The piston is restricted
in its motion by lower and upper stops trapping the gas
with a pressure P. A force balance on the piston in the
direction of motion yields
with a zero acceleration in a quasi-equilibrium process.
The forces, when the piston between the stops, are
0
p
m a F F
o q
!

;
with the linear spring constant, k
s
. The piston position
for a relaxed spring is x
0
, which depends on how the
spring is installed. The force balance then gives the
gas pressure by division with the area, A as
To illustrate the process in a P-V diagram, the distance
x is converted to volume by multiplication with A:

0 0 1 p s
F m g P A k x x F
q
= + + +
F PA
T
=

0 1 0
/
p s
P P m g F k x x A !

1
0 0 1 2
2
p
s
m g
k F
P P V V C C V
A A A
= + + + = +
This relation gives the pressure as a linear function of
the volume, with the line having a slope of C
2
=k
s
/A
2
.
With the stops installed, the minimum and maximum
volumes limit the possible states of the system to the
Combination of P and V as shown in Fig.4.9. Regardless
of what substance is inside, any process must proceed
along the lines in the P-V diagram. The work term in a
quasi-equilibrium process then follows as
2
1 2
1
( ) W PdV AREA under process curve ! !

' '
1 2 1 2 2 1
1
2
W P P V V = +
with and , subject to the
constraint
that
These limits show that only the part of the process
that follows the sloped line, when the piston moves,
contributes to the work. Any part of the process with
a pressure smaller than P
min
or larger than P
max
does
not involve work as the piston is held in fixed piston
by one of the stops. The maximum work then arises,
when the piston travels the total distance between
the two stops.
'
1 1
P P !
'
2 2
P P !
' '
min 1 2 max
, P P P P e e
The process curve showing possible P-V combination
The 1
st
Law of Thermodynamics
(Conservation of Energy)
Example of a control mass undergoing a cycle
Q W o o =

5.1 1
st
1
st
Control Mass Undergoing a Process
E :
all energy of
the system
Energy Conservation
The net change of the energy is always equal to the
net transfer of energy across the boundary as heat
and work.
dE
dE Q W
dE
Q W
dt
o o !
!
& &
(work)
System
(heat)
Q o
W o
dE
1
st
Internal Energy
E = U + KE + PE
U : internal energy
E represents all the energy of the system in the given
state.
Kinetic and potential energy(KE and PE) depend on
the coordinate frame that we choose to select. They
can be speci fied by the macroscopic properti es of
mass, velocity and elevation.
Internal energy(U) is a thermodynamic property, which
may be uniquely given from the thermodynamic state
of the system.
1
st
No information about the absolute magnitude of the
internal energy.
U : extensive property
u : intensive property

2 2
2 1
1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2
2
m V V
Q U U mg Z Z W
= + + +

2
2
d mV
Q dU d mgZ W o o = + + +
U
u
m
=
f fg
u u xu = +
1
st
Example 5.2
Consider a stone having a mass of 10kg and a bucket
containing 100kg of liquid water. Initially the stone is
10.2m above the water, and the stone and the water
are at the same temperature, state 1. The stone then
falls into the water.
Determine U, KE, PE, Q, and W for the following
changes of stat e, assumi ng standard gravi tat i onal
acceleration of 9.80665m/s
2
a. The stone is about to enter the water, state 2.
b. The stone has just come to rest in the bucket,
state 3.
1
st
c. Heat has been transferred to the surroundings
in such an amount that the stone and water
are at the temperature, , state 4.
1. The stone has fallen from to , and we assume
no heat transfer as it falls.
; ;
For the process from state 1 to state 2,
and
1
T
Q U KE PE W ! ( ( (
2
Z
1
Z
0 U ( !
1 2
0 Q =
1 2
0 W =

2 1
0
1000 1
KE PE
KE PE mg Z Z J kJ
( + ( =
( = ( = = =
1 KE kJ ( ! 1 PE kJ ( =
1
st
2. For the process from state 2 to state 3 with zero
kinetic energy
; ;
3. In final state,
; ; ;
0 PE ( =
2 3
0 Q =
2 3
0 W !
3 4
0 W =
0 PE ( =
0 KE ( = 1 U kJ ( =
0
1
U KE
U KE kJ
( + ( =
( = ( =
3 4
1 Q U kJ !( !
1
st
Example 5.3
A vessel having a volume of 5m
3
, contains 0.05m
3
of
saturated liquid water and 4.95m
3
of saturated water
vapor at 0.1MPa. Heat is transferred until the vessel is
filled with saturated vapor. Determine the heat transfer
for this process.
Control mass : All the water inside the vessel.
Initial state : Pressure, volume of liquid, volume of
vapor; State 1 is fixed.
Fi nal s t at e : Somewher e al ong t he s at ur at ed-
vapor curve; the water was
h e a t e d ,
so P
2
>P
1
.
1
st
process : constant volume and mass, therefore,
constant specific volume.
1 2 2 1
Q U U !

2 2
2 1
1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2
2
V V
Q U U m mg Z Z W
= + + +
1
1
0.05
47.94
0.001043
4.95
2.92
1.6940
liq
liq
f
vap
vap
g
V
m kg
v
V
m kg
v
! ! !
! ! !
1 1 1 1 1
27326
liq liq vap vap
U m u m u kJ ! !
1
st
Then
1 1
50.86
liq vap
m m m kg ! !
3
2
0.09831 /
V
V m kg
m
= =
2
2 2
1 2 2 1
2600.5 /
132261
104935
u kJ kg
U mu kJ
Q U U kJ
!
! !
! !
1
st
Problem Analysis
(1) Define the system. Control mass or control volume?
(2) Find out the initial and final states.
(3) Description of the process.
(4) Diagram of the process helps.
(5) How to obtain thermodynamic properties.
(6) Analysis of the problem.
1
st
or 2
nd
laws? Relevant work modes?
(7) Solution technique.
Numerical solution? Trial-and-error?
1
st
Enthalpy
H = U + PV
h = u + Pv (h=H/m)
Enthalpy is also a thermodynamic property, which may
be defi ned as ei ther an extensi ve or an i ntensi ve
property. (H or h)
In a constant pressure process;
1 2 2 1 1 2
Q U U W = +

1 2 2 1
W P V V =
1
st
therefore
The combination, U+PV, appears often in control
volume analysis of the 1
st

1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1
Q U PV U PV H H = + + =
1
st
Example 5.4
A cylinder fitted with a piston has a volume of 0.1m
3
and cont ai ns 0. 5kg of s t eam at 0. 4MPa. Heat i s
transferred to the steam until the temperature is 300rC,
while the pressure remains constant.
Determine the heat transfer and the work for this process.
Control mass: Water inside cylinder.
Initial state: P
1
, V
1
, m; therefore v
1
is known, state 1 is
fixed(at P
1
, v
1
, check steam table - two-phase region).
Final state: P
2
, T
2
; therefore state 2 is fixed(superheated).
Process: Constant pressure.
Model: Steam tables.
1
st
Principle of Energy Conservation 1
st
No change in kinetic energy, no change in potential
energy. Work is done by movement at the boundary.
Assume the process to be quasi-equilibrium. Since the
pressure is constant,
Therefore , the first law is

2 2
1 2 2 1 2 2 1 1
1 1
W PdV P dV P V V m Pv Pv ! ! ! !

1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 1
Q m u u W m u u m Pv Pv m h h ! ! !
1
st

1
1 1
1
1 1
2
1 2
1 2 2 1
2 1 1 2 1 2
0.2 0.001084 0.4614
0.4311
1524.7
3066.8
0.5 3066.8 1524.7 771.1
91.0
680.1
f fg
V
v x
m
x
h h x h
h
Q kJ
W mP v v kJ
U U Q W kJ
! ! !
!
! !
!
! !
! !
! !
1
st
Specific Heats
Specific heat at constant volume :
Specific heat at constant pressure :
The specific heats are thermodynamic properties.
(A function in terms of thermodynamic properties is
itself a thermodynamic property.)
For solid and liquid,
v
v
u
C
T
x

=

x

p
p
h
C
T
x

=

x

2 1 2 1 2 1
p v
dh du CdT C C C
h h u u C T T
} } } }
} }
Specific Heats for Ideal Gas
5.2 Specific Heats for Ideal Gas
Internal Energy, Enthalpy and Specific Heats of
Ideal Gas
For ideal gas the internal energy and enthalpy are the
functions of temperature only.
I deal gas s peci fi c heat s ar e al so cal l ed as zero-
pressure specific heats, , .
from
0 0 p v
C C R =

0 v
C T
0 p
C T

v
p
du
C f T
dT
dh
C f T
dT
! !
! !

u u T !

h h T !
h u RT ! +
The energy in a molecule may be stored in several
forms. Translational and rotational energies increase
l i nearl y wi th temperature. Vi brati onal energy i s
temperature dependent.
monoatomic : Ar, Ne, He (f=3)
diatomic : Air, O
2
, H
2
(f=6)
polyatomic : CO
2
, H
2
O (f=9)
Specific Heats
C o n s t a n t - p r e s s u r e
s p e c i f i c h e a t s f o r a
n u m b e r o f g a s e s a t
zero
pressure
Enthalpy from Specific Heats of Ideal Gas
- constant
less accurate except for monatomic gases
- as an analytical function of T
close empirical approximation
- Gas Table
most accurate
0 p
C
0 p
C
Example 5.6
Calculate the change of enthalpy as 1kg of oxygen is
heated from 300 to 1500K. Assume ideal-gas behavior.
Our most accurate answer for the ideal-gas enthalpy
change for oxygen between 300 and 1500K would be
from the ideal-gas tables, Table A.13.
1500 300
2 1
1267.0 /
h h
h h kJ kg
M
! !
The empirical equation from Table A.11 should give
a good approximation to this result.

2 2
1 1
2
1
2 1 0 0
15
2.5 0.5 1
1500 300
3
1500 300
2 1
100
0.020102 178.57
100 37.432 236.88
2.5 0.5
40525 /
1266.4 /
T
p p
T
h h C dT C d
h h
kJ kmol
h h
h h kJ kg
M
U
U
U
U
U U
U U U U
!

!
! ! v

!

!
! !

I f we as s ume cons t ant s peci fi c heat , we mus t be
concerned about what value we are going to use. If
we use the value at 300K from Table A.10,
On the other hand, suppose we assume that the specific
heat i s constant at i t s val ue at 900K, t he average
temperature. Substituting 900K into the equation for
specific heat from Table A.11,

2 1 0 2 1
1105.9 /
p
h h C T T kJ kg ! !
0
2 1
1.0714 /
1285.7 /
p
C kJ kgK
h h kJ kg
!
!
Example 5.7
A cylinder fitted with a piston has an initial volume of
0. 1m3 and contains ni trogen at 150kPa, 25rC. The
piston is moved, compressing the nitrogen until the
pressure is 1MPa and the temperature is 150rC. During
this compression process heat is transferred from the
nitrogen, and the work done on the nitrogen is 20kJ.
Determine the amount of this heat transfer.
First law:
1 2 2 1 1 2
Q m u u W !

1 2 0 2 1 1 2
150 0.1
0.1695
0.2968 298.15
4.2
v
PV
m kg
RT
Q mC T T W kJ
v
! ! !
v
! !
Control mass: Nitrogen.
Initial state: P
1
, T
1
, V
1
; state 1 fixed.
Final state: P
2
, T
2
; state 2 fixed.
Process: work input known.
Model: Ideal gas, constant specific heat at 300K,
Table A.10
Example 5.8
During the charging of a storage battery, the current
is 20A and the voltage is 12.8V. The rate of heat
transfer from the battery is 10W. At what rate is the
internal energy increasing?
256
246 /
dU
Q W
dt
W Ei W
dU
Q W J s
dt
= +
= =
= =
& &
&
& &
Control Volume Formulation : Mass
5.3 1
st
1
st
Control Volume Formulation : Energy
1
st
Control Volume Formulation
()
1
st
Steady State, Steady Flow(SSSF) Process
1. CV at rest.
2. SS everywhere in the CV.
3. SS for flows across the CS.
SS for heat and work.
where ,
i e
m m m ! !
& & &
2 2
2 2
i e
i i e e
V V
q h gZ h gZ + + + = + + +
. . c v
Q
q
m
!
&
&
. . c v
W
m
=
&
&
Steady-State, Steady-Flow Process
5.4 Steady-State, Steady-Flow Process
Example 5.10
The mass rate of flow into a steam turbine is 1.5kg/s,
and the heat transfer from the turbine is 8.5kW. The
following data are known for the steam entering and
leaving the turbine.
Determine the power output of the turbine.
Control volume: Turbine.
Inlet state: Fixed.
Exit state: Fixed.
Process: SSSF.
First law
with
. .
8.5
c v
Q kW !
&
2 2
. . . .
2 2
i e
c v i i e e c v
V V
Q m h gZ m h gZ W

!

& &
& &
h
i
=3137.0kJ/kg
h
e
=2675.5kJ/kg
2
1.25 /
2
0.059 /
i
i
V
kJ kg
gZ kJ kg
!
!
2
20.0 /
2
0.029 /
e
e
V
kJ kg
gZ kJ kg
=
=
. .
655.7
437.11 /
5.667 /
c v
W kW
kJ kg
q kJ kg
=
=
=
&
Example 5.11
Steam at 0.6MPa, 200rC enters an insulated nozzle
with a velocity of 50m/s. It leaves at a pressure of
0.15MPa and a velocity of 600m/s. Determine the
final temperature if the steam is superheated in the
final state, and the quality if it is saturated.
Control volume: Nozzle.
Inlet state: Fixed.
Exit state: P
e
known.
Process: SSSF.
. .
. .
2 2
0
0
2 2
2671.4 /
2671.4 467.1 2226.5
0.99
c v
c v
i e
i e
i e
e
f fg
e
e
Q
W
PE PE
V V
h h
h kJ kg
h h xh
x
x
}
=
=
+ = +
=
= +
= +
=
&
&
Example 5.12
I n a r efr i ger at i on s ys t em, i n whi ch R-134a i s t he
refrigerant, the R-134a enters the compressor at 200kPa
, -10rC and leaves at 1.0MPa, 70rC. The mass rate of
flow is 0.015kg/s, and the power input to the compressor
is 1kW.
On leaving the compressor the refrigerant enter a water-
cooled condenser at 1.0MPa, 60rC and leaves as a liquid
at 0.95MPa, 35rC. Water enters the condenser at 10rC
and leaves at 20rC. Determine:
1. The heat transfer rate from the compressor.
2. The rate at which cooling water flows through the
condenser.
First control volume: Compressor.
Inlet state: P
i
, T
i
; state fixed.
Exit state: P
e
, T
e
; state fixed.
Process: SSSF.
Model: R-134a tables.
. .
66.67 /
392.34 /
452.35 /
6.66 /
0.10
i e
i
e
c v
q h h w
w kJ kg
h kJ kg
h kJ kg
q kJ kg
Q kW
!
!
!
!
!
!
&
Second control volume: Condenser.
Inlet states: R-134a-fixed; water-fixed.
Exit states: R-134a-fixed; water-fixed.
Process: SSSF.
Model: R-134a tables; steam tables.

441.89 / 42.00 /
249.10 / 83.95 /
i i e e
r i w i r e w e
r w r w
i i
r w
e e
r w
mh m h
m h m h m h m h
h kJ kg h kJ kg
h kJ kg h kJ kg
=
+ = +
= =
= =

& &
& & & &

. .
. .
0.0689 /
2.892
0.0689 /
w
c v r e i
r
c v w e i
w
w
m kg s
Q m h h kW
Q m h h
m kg s
=
= =
=
=
&
&
&
&
&
&
Example 5.13
Consider the simple steam power plant. The following
data are for such a power plant.
Simple steam power plant
Determine the following quantities per kilogram flowing
through the unit.
1. Heat transfer in line between boiler and turbine.
2. Turbine work.
3. Heat transfer in condenser.
4. Heat transfer in boiler.
All processes: SSSF.
From the steam tables:
1. Control volume: Pipe line between the boiler and the
turbine.
1
2
3
4
3023.5 /
3002.5 /
2361.8 /
188.5 /
h kJ kg
h kJ kg
h kJ kg
h kJ kg
=
=
=
=
1 2 1 2
1 2
21.0 /
q h h
q kJ kg
+ =
=
2. Control volume: Turbine.
3. Control volume: Condenser.
4. Control volume: Boiler.
2 3 2 3
2 3
640.7 /
h h w
w kJ kg
!
!
3 4 3 4
3 4
2173.3 /
q h h
q kJ kg
!
!
5 1 5 1
4 5 4 5
5
5 1
192.5 /
2831 /
q h h
h h w
h kJ kg
q kJ kg
!
!
!
!
Example 5.14
The centrifugal air compressor of a gas turbine receives
air from the ambient atmosphere where the pressure is
1bar and the temperature 300K. At the discharge of the
compressor the pressure is 4bar, the temperature is 480
K, and the velocity is 100m/s. The mass rate of flow
into the compressor is 15 kg/s. Determine the power
required to drive the compressor.
We consider a control volume around the compressor,
and locate the control volume at some distance from
the compressor so that the ai r crossi ng the control
surface has a very low velocity and is essentially at
ambient conditions.
If we located our control volume directly across the
inlet section, i t would be necessary to know the
temperature and velocity at the compressor inlet.
Inlet and exit states: Both states fixed.
Process: SSSF.
Model: Ideal gas with constant specific heat, value
from Table A.10(300K)
Principle of Energy Conservation Steady-State, Steady-Flow Process
A more accurate model for the behavior of the air in
this process would be the ideal gas and air tables,
A.12.

2
2 2
0
. .
2
185.6 /
2 2
2784
e
i e
e e
e i p e i
c v
V
h h w
V V
w h h C T T kJ kg
W kW
!
! ! !
!
&
2
. .
300.19 /
482.48 /
187.3 /
2
2810
i
e
e
e i
c v
h kJ kg
h kJ kg
V
w h h kJ kg
W kW
!
!
! !
!
&
Uniform State, Uniform Flow(USUF) Process
1. CVat rest.
2. Uniform state in CV. May change with time.
3. SS for the state of mass across the CS.
Mass flow rates may change with time.

2 1
. .
0
e i
c v
m m m m + =

2 2
. .
2 2
2 1
2 2 2 1 1 1 . .
. .
2 2
2 2
i e
c v i i i e e e
c v
c v
V V
Q m h gz m h gz
V V
m u gz m u gz W

+ + + = + + +

+ + + + +

5.4 Uniform-State, Uniform-Flow Process
Uniform-State, Uniform-Flow Process
Example 5.15
Steam at 800kPa, 300rC is throttled to 200kPa. Changes
i n ki net i c ener gy ar e negl i gi bl e for t hi s pr oces s .
Determine the final temperature of the steam, and the
average Joule-Thomson coefficient.
Control volume: Throttle valve.
Inlet state: P
i
, T
i
known; state fixed.
Exit state: P
e
known.
Process: SSSF.

3056.5 /
200
292.4
0.0127 /
i e
e
o
e
J av
h
h h kJ kg
P kPa
T C
T
K kPa
P
p
= =
=
=
(

= =

(

Example 5.16
Consider the throttling process across the expansion valve
or through the capi l l ary tube i n a vapor-compressi on
refrigeration cycle. In this process the pressure of the
refrigerant drops from the high pressure in the condenser
to the low pressure in the evaporator, and during this
process some of t he l i qui d fl ashes i nto vapor. I f we
consider this process to be adiabatic, the quality of the
refri gerant enteri ng the evaporator can be cal cul ated.
Consider the following process, in which ammonia is the
refrigerant. The ammonia enters the expansion valve at a
pressure of 1. 50MPa and a temperature of 32rC. I t s
pr es s ur e on l eavi ng t he expans i on val ve i s 268kPa.
Cal cul ate the qual i ty of the ammoni a l eavi ng the
expansion valve.
Control volume: Expansion valve or capillary tube.
Inlet state: P
i
, T
i
known; state fixed.
Exit state: P
e
known.
Process: SSSF.
Model: Ammonia tables.
332.6 /
0.1585 15.85%
i e
e
h h kJ kg
x
! !
! !
Example 5.17
Steam at a pressure of 1.4MPa, 300rC is flowing in a pipe
. Connected to this pipe through a valve is an evacuated
tank. The valve is opened and the tank fills with steam
until the pressure is 1.4MPa, and then the valve is closed.
The process takes place adiabatically and kinetic energies
and potential energies are negligible. Determine the final
temperature of the steam.
Control volume: Tank.
Initial state(in tank): Evacuated, mass m
1
=0.
Final state: P
2
known.
Inlet state: P
i
, T
i
(in tank) known.
Process: USUF.
Flow into an evacuated vessel-control volume analysis
The t emper at ur e corr es pondi ng t o a pr es sure of
1.4MPa and an internal energy of 3040.4kJ/kg is found
to be 452rC.
2 2
2
2
3040.4 /
i i
i
i
mh m u
m m
h u kJ kg
=
=
= =
Example 5.18
Let the tank of the previous example have a volume 0.4
m
3
and initially contain saturated vapor at 350kPa. The
valve is then opened and steam from the line at 1.4MPa,
300rC flows into the tank until the pressure is 1.4MPa.
Calculate the mass of steam that flows into the tank.
Initial state: P
1
, saturated vapor; state fixed.
Final state: P
2
.
Inlet state: P
i
, T
i
; state fixed.
Process: USUF.

2 2 1 1
2 1
2 1 2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1
3
2 2
2 1 1
2
0.4
0
i i
i
i
i i
i i
mh m u mu
m m m
m m h m u mu
m h u m h u
m v V m
V
h u m h u
v
=
=
=
=
= =
=
3
1
1
1
0.5243 /
0.763
3040.4 /
2548.9 /
i
v m kg
m kg
h kJ kg
u kJ kg
=
=
=
=
2
3
2
2
2
2 1
342
0.1974 /
2855.8 /
2.026
1.263
o
i
T C
v m kg
u kJ kg
m kg
m m m kg
=
=
=
=
= =
Example 5.19
A tank of 2m
3
volume contains saturated ammonia at a
temperature of 40rC. Initially the tank contains 50% liquid
and 50% vapor by volume. Vapor is withdrawn from the
top of the tank until the temperature is 10rC. Assuming
that only vapor(i.e., no liquid) leaves and that the process
i s adi abat i c, cal cul at e t he mass of ammoni a t hat i s
withdrawn.
Initial state: T
1
, V
liq
, V
vap
; state fixed.
Final state: T
2
.
Exit state: Saturated vapor(temperature changing).
Process: USUF.
Model: Ammonia tables.

2 2 1 1
2 1
. .
2 2 1 1 1
1462.8 /
0
0
e
av
e e
e
c v
e e
h kJ kg
m h m u mu
m m m
m h u mh mu
=
+ =
+ =
=
3
1
3
1
3
2
3
2
1
1
2
2
2
0.001726 /
0.0833 /
0.001601 /
0.2040 /
369.0 /
1342.7 /
226.6 /
1326.9 /
1100.3 /
f
g
f
fg
f
g
f
g
fg
v m kg
v m kg
v m kg
v m kg
u kJ kg
u kJ kg
u kJ kg
u kJ kg
u kJ kg
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

1
1
1
1
1 1
1 1
2 2 1 1 1
2
2 2
2 2
2
3
2
1 2
579.4
12.0
591.4
865100
229910
635190
2.0
0.001601 0.2040
226.6 1100.3
0.01104
0.003854 /
72.5
f
g
e
f g
e e
e
m kg
m kg
m kg
mh kJ
mu mu mu kJ
m h u mh mu kJ
V
m
v x
u x
x
v m kg
m m m kg
!
!
!
!
! !
! !
! !
!
!
!
! !
For ideal gas the internal energy is a function of the
temperature only.

0
T T
v
v
T
P
du T P dv
T
Pv RT
P R P
T v T
du
u f T

x

=

x

=
x

= =

x

@ =
@ =
from specific heats.

0
2 1
2 1 0 2 1
0
2 1
p
T
T p
T
T T
h h C T T
h C dT
h h h h
=
=
=

Throttling Process
SS, no work, no heat transfer, no change in PE and KE.
Joule-Thomson coefficient
T drops during throttling.
T drops during throttling.
J
h
T
P
Q
x

|

x

i e
h h =
0
J
Q
0
J
p >

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