Skeletal members that primarily carry loading applied perpendicular to their axes
(transversely or laterally) will be referred to as ‘beams’. As they carry transverse loading
they undergo bending or flexural deformations and to some extent shearing. If the cross-
sectional dimensions of a beam are small compared to their span (length of the beam
undergoing bending) it may be classified as a slender beam. In most practical situations, the
beams may be treated as slender. Slender beams undergo flexural deformations where one
side of the beam gets stretched while the other side gets shortened as shown in Figure 9.13.
shortening
elongation
Figure 9.13.
There will also be a shearing type deformation, which is considerable in beams that are short
(cross-sectional dimensions being comparable to the span). The deformations shown in the
diagrams above are grossly exaggerated, and in practice the displacements are very small.
Beams are used in most structures and machines, and the effect of transverse loading on
beams is often the main criteria in structural design. Typical examples include bridges, roof
structural elements (purlins, rafters), floor-beams, machine elements such as levers, cranks,
manipulator arms etc. Even members that predominantly carry torsional loading such as
transmission shafts are susceptible to flexural deformations, and knowledge of their flexural
behaviour is needed in calculating the whirling speeds (the speed at which the shaft has a
tendency to whirl) of shafts. Therefore, it is important to be able to calculate the internal
actions in beams due to transverse loading.
Let us consider a beam that is clamped at one end and unsupported at the other end as shown
in Figure 9.11. This is called a cantilever beam. Let the beam be subject to an upward force
P (applied load) at distance ‘a’ from the clamp. A sketch of its deflected shape
(exaggerated) is also shown.
C
A B C B
A P
P a
a
Deflected Shape
Cantilever Beam (exaggerated)
Figure 9.14.
Lecture 9-10 6
The reactions at A may be calculated by considering the overall equilibrium. First let us
sketch the overall free-body diagram. RA
The free-body diagram in Figure 9.15 shows the applied MA
force P and two induced reactions at A, the transverse
A B C
force RA and the reaction moment MA. The actual sense
of the reactions will be known only after solving P
equations of equilibrium. The directions shown were
a
chosen arbitrarily. Summing the forces in transverse
direction gives: Figure 9.15.
↑ RA + P =0 Overall Free-body diagram
RA = -P.
This means that the actual sense of the reaction RA is opposite to the one shown in the free-
body diagram. Similarly summing the moments about A gives:
MA - P.a = 0 or
-MA + P.a = 0
To find the internal actions in the beam, we need to apply the method of sections. Let us
make a transverse cut in the beam at distance x from A, so the cut lies between A and B and
consider one of the free-bodies shown in Figure 9.16:
MA
A B C
P
x (a-x)
Figure 9.16
Figurediagrams
Clearly the above free-body 1.2.18 are incomplete. The actions from one free-body onto
the other have to be inserted to complete these free-body diagrams. It can be seen that a
transverse force and a moment will have to be inserted at the cut, to maintain the equilibrium
of these free-bodies. The force induced acts in a direction (transverse) that is parallel to the
cut and therefore it is referred to as a shearing force. The moment is associated with the
bending of the beam and is therefore called a bending moment.
At this stage we need to choose sign conventions for the shear force and the bending
moment. If we show the shear force as acting in the downward direction on one of the free-
bodies, by Newton’s third law, the shear force on the other free-body must be shown as
acting in the upward direction. One possible convention is to show the shear force on the
right- hand side of the left segment as acting in the upward direction as shown in Figure 9.17.
To be consistent with Newton’s third law, we should then show the shear force acting on the
left- hand side of the right-hand side free-body in the downward direction. Similarly, if we
Lecture 9-10 7
show the moment on the right-hand side free-body in a clock-wise sense, the bending
moment on the left-hand-side free-body should be shown in the anti-clockwise sense.
Therefore Figure 9.17 shows one possible consistent set of sign conventions for the induced
actions. The shear force is denoted by SAB and the bending moment is denoted by MAB. As
in the case of axial force, the subscript ‘AB’ refers to the segment in which the internal
actions act.
RA SAB
MAB
MAB
MA
A C
B
SAB (a-x) P
x
Figure 9.17
Completed free-body diagrams of two beam segments
Now we can apply the equations of equilibrium to determine the unknown actions. First let
us find the shear force. Summing the transverse forces acting on the right- hand side free-
body we get:
↑ - SAB + P = 0.
Therefore SAB = P.
The same result could have been obtained by summing the forces in the downward direction,
or by considering the equilibrium of the other free-body as shown below:
But we already have RA = -P. Therefore SAB = -(-P) = P. Once again we get the same result.
To find the bending moment, we can sum the moments for one of the free-bodies. Let us
consider the right-hand side free-body and take moments in the clockwise direction about a
point through the cut. We get, MAB – P(a-x) = 0 giving MAB = P(a-x).
Thus we have an expression for the bending moment. We could have taken moments about
any other point, for example about B or C. There is however an advantage in taking
moments about a point on the cut- face. As the induced shear force passes through the cut, if
moments were taken about any point that does not lie on the cut- face, the contribution from
the moment due to the shear force also enters the equation. Since the shear force is also an
unknown, any error in the calculation of the shear force would also introduce an error in the
calculation of the unknown bending moment.
Having obtained the expressions for the shear force and bending moment in segment AB, we
can now move to segment BC. If we make a cut between B and C and consider the free-
body right of the cut, there will be no applied force in that segment. Therefore, the bending
moment and shear force in BC must be zero
Lecture 9-10 8
The results obtained may be sketched as shear force and bending moment diagrams.
P.a
P
A B C A B C
Shear Force Diagram Bending Moment Diagram
Figure 9.18
Shear Force Diagram
In interpreting the shear force and bending moment diagrams,
compression one needs to refer to the sign convention used. The convention
used here may be shown in a single diagram as follows:
Lecture 9-10 9
1. Sagging moment +ve 2. Sagging moment +ve
Anti-clockwise shear +ve Clockwise shear +ve
Throughout this text, the first set of sign conventions will be used.
However, some of the interactive multi- media tutorial modules are 6 kN/m
designed to work in any of the above conventions. The users may
select any one of the four conventions. The following examples
illustrate the application of method of sections for various loading A B
and support conditions. 2m
↑ = 0.
Therefore SAB = kN
=0
Lecture 9-10 10
Therefore MAB =
The shear force varies linearly with x while the bending moment varies parabolically as
shown below:
A simply supported beam of length L is subject to a distributed load of intensity w per unit
length. The bending moment and shear force distributions are required. In applying the
method of sections, whichever side of the cut we choose to consider, the reaction from one
of the supports will act on the free-body. Therefore we need to determine one of the
reactions first, using the overall equilibrium equation.
w.x
SAB
Using symmetry, RA = RB = wL/2.
For a segment of the beam having length x, MAB
For transverse equilibrium, RA
x
↑ = 0,
Figure 9.25
giving SAB = = w(x-(L/2))
= 0, which gives
MAB = = wx(L-x)/2.
Lecture 9-10 11
The shear force at x = 0 is –wL/2 and at x = L it is + wL/2.
The bending moment is zero at x=0 and at x=L, and at x=L/2, M = wL2 /8.
From the above equations we can sketch the shearing force and bending moment diagrams.
In this example, the structure and the loading are symmetrical, and the bending moment
wL/2 wL2 /8
-wL/2
Figure 9.26
diagram is also symmetrical (the shape on one side of the structure is a mirror image of the
shape on the other side). The shear force diagram is anti-symmetrical, that is symmetrical
in shape but with opposite signs.
In cases where the loading is not continuous over the length of the beam, the shear force and
bending moment in the various segments will have different expressions. To obtain these,
one can make the cut in the various segments, and obtain the equations of equilibrium for
each of the free-bodies. However, by using singularity functions such as <x-a>n it is
possible to allow for the discontinuities and obtain expressions for the induced actions that
are applicable throughout the beam.
To find the induced actions in the beam let us apply the method of sections by making a cut
at distance x from A. First let us consider the case where x < a, so that the applied load P
would not appear on the left-side free-body.
Lecture 9-10 12
↑Σ F = 0 gives
RA + SAB = 0 ⇒ SAB = - RA = - P (L-a)/L. SAB
MAB
Taking moments about the cut in the clockwise
direction, RA
x
RA.x – MAB = 0 which yields, MAB = RA.x =
P.x(L-a)/L. Figure 9.28
Note that the subscripts for the shear force and the
bending moment have now been changed to BC. <x-a >
It is possible to write down expressions for the a P M
shear force and bending moment that would be S
applicable for both segments.
RA
x
Let us sketch a new free-body diagram, and this
time label the distance between the cut and the
load P in the last free-body as <x-a>, noting the Figure 9.30
meaning of the functions in the angular bracket
that <x-a> = 0 if x ≤ a and <x−a> = (x−a) if x>a. P.a/L
In other words, the function <x-a> would be
active if and only if the term within the bracket is
positive. Let us also remove the subscripts of the
shear force S and the bending moment M, with
the object of obtaining expressions for S and M -P (L-a) /L
that are valid for the full length of the beam.
Shear Force Diagram
Using the modified free-body diagram, we may
write the transverse equilibrium equation as: RA – P.a(L-a) /L
P<x-a>0 + S = 0 where the second term wo uld be
zero if x ≤ a.
Thus S = -RA + P<x-a>0 = -P(L-a)/L + P<x-a>0 .
By comparing this with the expression for SAB Bending Moment Diagram
and SBC it may be seen that this expression for the
shear force is valid for 0 ≤ x ≤ L. Figure 9.31
Lecture 9-10 13
M = P.x(L-a)/L – P<x-a>, once again the significance of the angle bracket being the second
term in the equation would vanish if x ≤ a. This would agree with the expressions for MAB
and MBC obtained previously.
Summarising the results for this case, the expressions for the bending shear force and
bending moment are:
S = -P(L-a)/L + P<x-a>0 ;
M = P.x(L-a)/L – P<x-a>.
Note at x = a, there is a discontinuity in the shear force. The change in shear force at this
point is equal to the concentrated load P and such sudden changes are represented
mathematically by the function <x-a>0 .
From this exercise, we see that by using discontinuity functions of the type <x-a>n we can
allow for the discontinuity in loading to be incorporated into two single mathematical
formulae for the shear force and bending moment. This procedure is particularly useful in
the calculation of beam deflection, where integration of the bending moment expression will
be required.
In this example, the singularity term <x-a>0 with zero power merely acts as a switching
function to include/exclude the effect of point load on the shearing force. The singularity
function with a power of unity <x-a> on the other hand acts both as a switch and a multiplier
(lever arm for the force, in the case of bending moment).
Figure 9.33
Lecture 9-10 14
For the segment shown, S
For vertical equilibrium, = 0 giving M0
S = - RA = M0 /L M
Taking moments about the cut gives: RA
a <x-a>
M - M0 - RA(x) = 0
M = M0 + RA(x) = M0 - M0 (x/L) x
This means for, x<a, M = - M0 (x/L) and A B C
for x>a, M = M0 (1-(x/L))
RA M0
At x = 0, M = 0 RC
a L-a
At x = a-δ (just left of B), M =
At x = a+δ (just right of B), M =
At x = L, M = 0.
M0 /L
There is a jump in bending moment diagram at B
where there is a concentrated moment loading.
However the slope of the bending moment diagram Shear Force Diagram
on either side of B are the same. -M0 (1-(a/L))
The shear force diagram does not have any change
at B.
Therefore, RB = 12 kN. RA RB 9 kN
M
Σ Fy = 0 gives: RA + RB - 9 = 0
S RB 9 kN
Therefore RA = - 3 kN. <3-x>
Notes:
There is a jump in shearing force at B where there is a point force due to the support.
Correspondingly the slope of the bending moment diagram also has a sudden change at this
point.
In this example, the bending moment at the simple support at B is not zero. While a simple
support implies that the support cannot provide any moment resistance, this example shows
that the bending moment in a beam at a simple support is not necessarily zero. In cases
where the beam continues over a simple support or at a simple support where an external
moment loading is applied the beam may have some bending moment.
The use of singularity function in this problem is similar to that for Case 3. In both cases the
singularity occurs at a point where there is a concentrated force (which is a load in Case 3,
where as it is a reaction in the present case). In both cases, the effect of a point force on
shear force is taken into account by using a switching function with a power of zero <f(x)>0 ,
and its effect on bending moment is represented by a term with a power of unity <f(x)>.
7 kN/m
Case 6: A cantilever beam subject to uniformly A B
C
distributed loading for part of its span
-S – 7<2.2-x> + 7<1-x> = 0
This yields: S = – 7<2.2-x> + 7<1-x>
Once again, for x < 1 m, S = -7(2.2-x) + 7 (1- x) = -7 (1.2) = -8.4 kN and
for x > 1 m, S = -7(2.2-x) = 7x-15.4 kN
Σ Mcut = 0 gives:
M+ 7<2.2-x> <2.2-x> /2 - 7<1-x><1-x> /2
RA + S –7<x-1> = 0
S = -RA + 7 <x-1> = -8.4 + 7<x-1>
For rotational equilibrium,
M – MA - RA (x) + 7 <x-1><x-1>/2 = 0
Lecture 9-10 17
i.e. M = MA + RA (x) - 7 <x-1>2 /2
= -13.44 + 8.4 x - 7 <x-1>2 /2
Although these expressions are different from those obtained previously using the alternative
free-body, they are equivalent, and the resulting bending moment and shear force
distribution are the same. A question often arises when choosing the most convenient free-
body when a beam is subject to discontinuous distributed loading, and that is when should
one apply equal and opposite loading. A simple answer to this is that all distributed loading
should end at the cut. For example in the first approach to the present case where the cut was
made between B and A, where there is no distributed loading, positive and negative loading
were added to the system up to the cut. However in the alternative approach the distributed
loading continues up to the point of cut, and therefore there was no need to add positive and
negative loading. This point will be illustrated again using another example later on.
By inspecting the bending moment and shear force diagrams for the various cases treated so
far, one can deduce a relationship between these induced actions. That is, the slope of the
bending moment diagram is equal to and opposite of the shearing force. This may be shown
analytically, by considering the equilibrium of an infinitesimal element of a beam as follows.
w(x)
w(dx)
S+δS
M
M+δM
x δx S
Figure 9.38 δx
Therefore, dS/dx= w
That is, the slope of the shearing force diagram is equal to the intensity of the applied
loading.
Special Case: If a prescribed force is applied over a very small length of the beam, w → ∞
Then, dS/dx → ∞
This means at a point where a concentrated (point load) is applied, the shear force diagram
will have an abrupt jump. This can be seen in some of the examples considered earlier.
For rotational equilibrium, summing moments in the clockwise direction about the right side
cut gives:
M- S (δx) - (M +δM) – w(δx) (δx)/2 = 0
Lecture 9-10 18
This gives: δM = - S (δx)– w(δx) (δx)/2
Dividing both sides by δx, δM/ δx = -S - w(δx)/2
This can also be observed in the bending moment and shear force diagrams for the examples
that have been considered so far. This result is also useful to find the maximum bending
moment in a structure, since the shear force will be zero when the bending moment is
maximum or minimum. In the case of a point load, the bending moment will be maximum
or minimum if the shear force abruptly changes through zero.
From the above relationships between shear force, bending moment and the load intensity
the following conclusions may be drawn:
In shear force diagrams,
There will be a sudden discontinuity (jump) in the value of the shearing force at a section
where a concentrated load is applied, but the slope of the SFD does not undergo any change.
There will be no sudden change in the value of the shearing force, but there will be an abrupt
change in the slope of the curve at a section beyond which a distributed load is applied.
There will be no change in the value of the shearing force, nor a change in the slope of the
curve at a section where a concentrated moment is applied.
Integrating the differential relationship between bending moment, shear force and load
gives:
∫
x2
S2 -S1 = wdx which means the change in shear force between two points is equal to the
x1
x1
to the area of the shear force diagram between those points. It should be noted that these
equations do not apply at points where there are point loads or moments. Where there is a
point force the shear force diagram will have a jump and where there is a point moment the
bmd will have a jump.
Exercise: Solve the examples in this section, usi ng this method.
Lecture 9-10 19
Case 7: Beams connected by a
hinge Hinge 4 kN/m
A
C
If two beams are joined by a hinge
(i.e. they are free to rotate relative to B
each other), then the bending moment 1m 2m
at the hinge will be zero, unless there
is an externally applied moment, or
Figure 9.39
one of the beams were to continue
beyond the joint.
In such cases, the structures may be considered as two (or more, if there are two or more
joints) substructures.
In the example shown in the figure, a cantilever beam AB is hinged to a beam BC which is
simply supported at C. Both beams end at B, and are not subject to any applied moment at
the hinge. Therefore the bending moment in both beams at B is zero. The hinge only
provides a transverse reaction. Taking the reaction at the hinge as RB, the free-body
diagrams for the two beams may be sketched. To sketch the free-body diagrams, one does
not need to know the actual direction of the reaction at B. Any direction may be chosen, but
care must be taken to ensure that the directions marked satisfy Newton's third law. The
directions of the reactions force must be opposite as shown below.
4 kN/m B 4 kN/m C
MA A
B
RA RB RB RC
2m
1m
Equal & opposite Reactions
(Newton's Third Law) (b) Simply Supported Beam
(a) Cantilever
For equilibrium of (b), taking moments Figure 9.40
Summing the forces transversely gives:
about B gives:
- RB + RC - 8 = 0
RC (2) - 4(2)(1) = 0
giving RC = 4 kN. Therefore RB = - 4 kN.
Lecture 9-10 20
At x = 3m, S = 4 kN; M = 0 (as expected)
The shear force varies linearly and the bending moment varies parabolically. To find the
maximum/minimum bending moment, we first need to locate the point at which it occurs.
a=2m
4 kN
A
2 kNm
Hinge
Lecture 9-10 21
this case, as in the first approach to Case 7, we do need to apply equal and opposite
distributed loading between C and the cut.
Σ Fy = 0 gives: ↑ RA + S - 6<x-1> + 6 <x-3> = 0
S = - RA + 6<x-1> - 6 <x-3> = -7.2 + 6<x-1> - 6 <x-3>
Σ M @ the cut in a clock wise sense gives:
At x = 3 m, M = 9.6 kNm.
At x = 5 m, M = 0 (as expected). Bending Moment Diagram
Lecture 9-10 22
It may be noted that the shear force remains constant when the intensity of loading is zero,
and the bending moment has a constant slope. In segments subject to a uniformly distributed
loading, the shear force varies linearly, and the bending moment diagram is parabolic.
Lecture 9-10 23