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Transverse Loading: Calculation of Bending Moment and Shear Force in Beams

Skeletal members that primarily carry loading applied perpendicular to their axes
(transversely or laterally) will be referred to as ‘beams’. As they carry transverse loading
they undergo bending or flexural deformations and to some extent shearing. If the cross-
sectional dimensions of a beam are small compared to their span (length of the beam
undergoing bending) it may be classified as a slender beam. In most practical situations, the
beams may be treated as slender. Slender beams undergo flexural deformations where one
side of the beam gets stretched while the other side gets shortened as shown in Figure 9.13.

shortening

elongation

Flexural deformation Shearing & Flexure

Figure 9.13.

There will also be a shearing type deformation, which is considerable in beams that are short
(cross-sectional dimensions being comparable to the span). The deformations shown in the
diagrams above are grossly exaggerated, and in practice the displacements are very small.
Beams are used in most structures and machines, and the effect of transverse loading on
beams is often the main criteria in structural design. Typical examples include bridges, roof
structural elements (purlins, rafters), floor-beams, machine elements such as levers, cranks,
manipulator arms etc. Even members that predominantly carry torsional loading such as
transmission shafts are susceptible to flexural deformations, and knowledge of their flexural
behaviour is needed in calculating the whirling speeds (the speed at which the shaft has a
tendency to whirl) of shafts. Therefore, it is important to be able to calculate the internal
actions in beams due to transverse loading.

Types of Induced Actions

Let us consider a beam that is clamped at one end and unsupported at the other end as shown
in Figure 9.11. This is called a cantilever beam. Let the beam be subject to an upward force
P (applied load) at distance ‘a’ from the clamp. A sketch of its deflected shape
(exaggerated) is also shown.

C
A B C B
A P
P a
a
Deflected Shape
Cantilever Beam (exaggerated)

Figure 9.14.

Lecture 9-10 6
The reactions at A may be calculated by considering the overall equilibrium. First let us
sketch the overall free-body diagram. RA
The free-body diagram in Figure 9.15 shows the applied MA
force P and two induced reactions at A, the transverse
A B C
force RA and the reaction moment MA. The actual sense
of the reactions will be known only after solving P
equations of equilibrium. The directions shown were
a
chosen arbitrarily. Summing the forces in transverse
direction gives: Figure 9.15.
↑ RA + P =0 Overall Free-body diagram
RA = -P.
This means that the actual sense of the reaction RA is opposite to the one shown in the free-
body diagram. Similarly summing the moments about A gives:

MA - P.a = 0 or

-MA + P.a = 0

which yields MA = P.a.

To find the internal actions in the beam, we need to apply the method of sections. Let us
make a transverse cut in the beam at distance x from A, so the cut lies between A and B and
consider one of the free-bodies shown in Figure 9.16:

MA
A B C
P
x (a-x)

Figure 9.16

Figurediagrams
Clearly the above free-body 1.2.18 are incomplete. The actions from one free-body onto
the other have to be inserted to complete these free-body diagrams. It can be seen that a
transverse force and a moment will have to be inserted at the cut, to maintain the equilibrium
of these free-bodies. The force induced acts in a direction (transverse) that is parallel to the
cut and therefore it is referred to as a shearing force. The moment is associated with the
bending of the beam and is therefore called a bending moment.

Sign Convention for Shear Force and Bending Moment

At this stage we need to choose sign conventions for the shear force and the bending
moment. If we show the shear force as acting in the downward direction on one of the free-
bodies, by Newton’s third law, the shear force on the other free-body must be shown as
acting in the upward direction. One possible convention is to show the shear force on the
right- hand side of the left segment as acting in the upward direction as shown in Figure 9.17.
To be consistent with Newton’s third law, we should then show the shear force acting on the
left- hand side of the right-hand side free-body in the downward direction. Similarly, if we

Lecture 9-10 7
show the moment on the right-hand side free-body in a clock-wise sense, the bending
moment on the left-hand-side free-body should be shown in the anti-clockwise sense.
Therefore Figure 9.17 shows one possible consistent set of sign conventions for the induced
actions. The shear force is denoted by SAB and the bending moment is denoted by MAB. As
in the case of axial force, the subscript ‘AB’ refers to the segment in which the internal
actions act.

Applying Equilibrium Equations :

RA SAB
MAB
MAB
MA
A C
B
SAB (a-x) P
x

Figure 9.17
Completed free-body diagrams of two beam segments
Now we can apply the equations of equilibrium to determine the unknown actions. First let
us find the shear force. Summing the transverse forces acting on the right- hand side free-
body we get:
↑ - SAB + P = 0.
Therefore SAB = P.
The same result could have been obtained by summing the forces in the downward direction,
or by considering the equilibrium of the other free-body as shown below:

Summing the forces in the downward direction gives


↓SAB - P = 0 which also gives the same result for the shear force.
Alternatively, taking the left- hand side free-body gives ↑ SAB + RA =0 giving SAB = -RA;

But we already have RA = -P. Therefore SAB = -(-P) = P. Once again we get the same result.

To find the bending moment, we can sum the moments for one of the free-bodies. Let us
consider the right-hand side free-body and take moments in the clockwise direction about a
point through the cut. We get, MAB – P(a-x) = 0 giving MAB = P(a-x).

Thus we have an expression for the bending moment. We could have taken moments about
any other point, for example about B or C. There is however an advantage in taking
moments about a point on the cut- face. As the induced shear force passes through the cut, if
moments were taken about any point that does not lie on the cut- face, the contribution from
the moment due to the shear force also enters the equation. Since the shear force is also an
unknown, any error in the calculation of the shear force would also introduce an error in the
calculation of the unknown bending moment.

Having obtained the expressions for the shear force and bending moment in segment AB, we
can now move to segment BC. If we make a cut between B and C and consider the free-
body right of the cut, there will be no applied force in that segment. Therefore, the bending
moment and shear force in BC must be zero

Lecture 9-10 8
The results obtained may be sketched as shear force and bending moment diagrams.

P.a
P

A B C A B C
Shear Force Diagram Bending Moment Diagram
Figure 9.18
Shear Force Diagram
In interpreting the shear force and bending moment diagrams,
compression one needs to refer to the sign convention used. The convention
used here may be shown in a single diagram as follows:

Shear Force acts in the upward direction (positive y-direction)


Tension
on the right- hand side face (positive face) and downward on the
left- hand side face (negative face) of a beam segment. The pair
Figure 9.19
of shear forces would form a couple in
the anti-clockwise sense, and for this reason this convention for
shear force may be referred to as ‘anti-clockwise shear positive’
convention.

Bending Moment acts in the clockwise direction on the left-hand


side face and anti-clockwise on the right- hand side face. This
bending moment causes compression at the top and tension at the Figure 9.20
bottom corresponding to a sagging type curva ture. This shape may
be associated with the mouth of a happy face, and those using this
sign convention may want to remember that a happy face type bending is positive. There are
four consistent sets of sign convention for shear force and bending moment. They are shown
in Figure 9.21.

Lecture 9-10 9
1. Sagging moment +ve 2. Sagging moment +ve
Anti-clockwise shear +ve Clockwise shear +ve

4. Hogging moment +ve


3. Hogging moment +ve Clockwise shear +ve
Anti-Clockwise shear +ve
Figure 9.21

Throughout this text, the first set of sign conventions will be used.
However, some of the interactive multi- media tutorial modules are 6 kN/m
designed to work in any of the above conventions. The users may
select any one of the four conventions. The following examples
illustrate the application of method of sections for various loading A B
and support conditions. 2m

Case 1: A cantilever subject to a uniformly distributed load MAB 6 kN/m


(UDL)
A 2m long cantilever beam is subject to a uniformly distributed
load of 6 kN/m as shown in Figure 9.22. The bending moment
and shear force distributions in the beam are required. Let us SAB (2-x) m
make an imaginary cut at distance x from the clamp, and consider
the equilibrium of one of the free-bodies. In this case, it is (2-x)/2 m
convenient to choose the free-body that is right of the cut because
there will be only two unknown actions on it. In the free-body left 6(2-x) kN
MAB
of the cut, the reactions at the clamp (a force and a moment) will
be required. Although they can be obtained from overall
equilibrium equations, if we only need the shear force and bending (2-x) m
moment, it is simpler to apply equations of equilibrium to the SAB
right-side free-body which is shown here. The length of the free-
Figure 9.22
body is (2-x) m. The induced actions MAB and SAB are shown
according to the sign convention chosen (Set 1). Since the loading
on the segment is uniformly distributed, it is equivalent to a net force of 6(2- x) kN acting at a
distance of (2-x)/2 m from the cut, as shown in the equivalent free-body diagram.
Summing the forces in the transverse direction gives:

↑ = 0.
Therefore SAB = kN

Taking moments about the cut gives:

=0

Lecture 9-10 10
Therefore MAB =

At x = 0, SAB = -6(2-0) = -12 kN; MAB =-6(2-0)2 /2 = -12 kNm.


At x = 2m, SAB = -6(2-2) = 0; MAB =-6(2-2)2 /2 = 0.

The shear force varies linearly with x while the bending moment varies parabolically as
shown below:

-12 KN -12 KNm


Shear Force Diagram Bending Moment Diagram
Figure 9.23

Case 2: A simply supported beam subject to a uniformly distributed load (UDL)

A simply supported beam of length L is subject to a distributed load of intensity w per unit
length. The bending moment and shear force distributions are required. In applying the
method of sections, whichever side of the cut we choose to consider, the reaction from one
of the supports will act on the free-body. Therefore we need to determine one of the
reactions first, using the overall equilibrium equation.

The only reactions w w


at the supports are A B
A B
lateral forces, as RA RB
there are no
horizontal forces
and the supports L Figure 9.24
cannot sustain
moments. By taking moments about one of the support points, the reaction at the other
support may be found. However, in this case, it is simpler to take half the net applied force
as the reaction at either end, since the structure is symmetrical. The fact that there is a roller
support at one end and a rocker at the other end does not alter lateral symmetry, as the
difference between the horizontal support conditions will only affect horizontal forces.

w.x
SAB
Using symmetry, RA = RB = wL/2.
For a segment of the beam having length x, MAB
For transverse equilibrium, RA
x
↑ = 0,
Figure 9.25
giving SAB = = w(x-(L/2))

Taking moments about the cut,

= 0, which gives

MAB = = wx(L-x)/2.

Lecture 9-10 11
The shear force at x = 0 is –wL/2 and at x = L it is + wL/2.
The bending moment is zero at x=0 and at x=L, and at x=L/2, M = wL2 /8.

From the above equations we can sketch the shearing force and bending moment diagrams.
In this example, the structure and the loading are symmetrical, and the bending moment

wL/2 wL2 /8

-wL/2

Shear Force Diagram Bending Moment Diagram

Figure 9.26
diagram is also symmetrical (the shape on one side of the structure is a mirror image of the
shape on the other side). The shear force diagram is anti-symmetrical, that is symmetrical
in shape but with opposite signs.

Use of singularity functions for beams subject to discontinuo us loading

In cases where the loading is not continuous over the length of the beam, the shear force and
bending moment in the various segments will have different expressions. To obtain these,
one can make the cut in the various segments, and obtain the equations of equilibrium for
each of the free-bodies. However, by using singularity functions such as <x-a>n it is
possible to allow for the discontinuities and obtain expressions for the induced actions that
are applicable throughout the beam.

Case 3: A simply supported beam subject to a concentrated (point) load


a a
Let us now consider
a simply supported P P
beam of length L, C
A A
subject to a point C
load P applied at a RA RC
distance ‘a’ from the L
left support as L
shown in the
diagram. For Simply supported beam Overall free-body diagram
overall equilibrium, under a point load
taking moments Figure 9.27
about the left
support in anti-clockwise sense gives:
RC L – P. a = 0 which yields RC = P a/L
Similarly by taking moments about C it can be shown that RA = P (L-a)/L
Alternatively, substituting RC = P a/L into the lateral equation of equilibrium RA+RC-P=0
also gives the same expression for RA.

To find the induced actions in the beam let us apply the method of sections by making a cut
at distance x from A. First let us consider the case where x < a, so that the applied load P
would not appear on the left-side free-body.

Lecture 9-10 12
↑Σ F = 0 gives
RA + SAB = 0 ⇒ SAB = - RA = - P (L-a)/L. SAB
MAB
Taking moments about the cut in the clockwise
direction, RA
x
RA.x – MAB = 0 which yields, MAB = RA.x =
P.x(L-a)/L. Figure 9.28

At x = 0, MAB = 0 and just left of B,


MAB = P.a(L-a)/L a
The above derivations are applicable for x < a, and for P
SBC
x>a we need to sketch another free-body diagram, this MBC
time including the applied load too.
RA
x
For this freebody, transverse equilibrium equation is:
RA – P + SBC = 0
Figure 9.29
i.e. SBC = -RA + P =-P(L-a)/L + P = P.a/L

For rotational equilibrium, by taking moments about the cut, we have:


= 0 giving
MBC = = Pa(L-x)/L

Note that the subscripts for the shear force and the
bending moment have now been changed to BC. <x-a >
It is possible to write down expressions for the a P M
shear force and bending moment that would be S
applicable for both segments.
RA
x
Let us sketch a new free-body diagram, and this
time label the distance between the cut and the
load P in the last free-body as <x-a>, noting the Figure 9.30
meaning of the functions in the angular bracket
that <x-a> = 0 if x ≤ a and <x−a> = (x−a) if x>a. P.a/L
In other words, the function <x-a> would be
active if and only if the term within the bracket is
positive. Let us also remove the subscripts of the
shear force S and the bending moment M, with
the object of obtaining expressions for S and M -P (L-a) /L
that are valid for the full length of the beam.
Shear Force Diagram
Using the modified free-body diagram, we may
write the transverse equilibrium equation as: RA – P.a(L-a) /L
P<x-a>0 + S = 0 where the second term wo uld be
zero if x ≤ a.
Thus S = -RA + P<x-a>0 = -P(L-a)/L + P<x-a>0 .

By comparing this with the expression for SAB Bending Moment Diagram
and SBC it may be seen that this expression for the
shear force is valid for 0 ≤ x ≤ L. Figure 9.31

Similarly an expression for the bending moment would be obtained as:

Lecture 9-10 13
M = P.x(L-a)/L – P<x-a>, once again the significance of the angle bracket being the second
term in the equation would vanish if x ≤ a. This would agree with the expressions for MAB
and MBC obtained previously.

Summarising the results for this case, the expressions for the bending shear force and
bending moment are:
S = -P(L-a)/L + P<x-a>0 ;
M = P.x(L-a)/L – P<x-a>.

These internal actions can be evaluated at various points.


For 0<x<a, S = -P(L-a)/L and
for a<x<L, S = +P.a/L.
Also, at x = 0, M = 0;
at x = a, M =P.a(L-a)/L; and
at x = L, M = P(L-a) – P(L-a) =0
See Figure 9.31 for the sfd and the bmd.

Note at x = a, there is a discontinuity in the shear force. The change in shear force at this
point is equal to the concentrated load P and such sudden changes are represented
mathematically by the function <x-a>0 .

From this exercise, we see that by using discontinuity functions of the type <x-a>n we can
allow for the discontinuity in loading to be incorporated into two single mathematical
formulae for the shear force and bending moment. This procedure is particularly useful in
the calculation of beam deflection, where integration of the bending moment expression will
be required.

In this example, the singularity term <x-a>0 with zero power merely acts as a switching
function to include/exclude the effect of point load on the shearing force. The singularity
function with a power of unity <x-a> on the other hand acts both as a switch and a multiplier
(lever arm for the force, in the case of bending moment).

Case 4: A simply supported beam subject to a concentrated moment

For overall equilibrium, taking moments about A in the


anti-clockwise direction gives: =0 A B
C
RC = M0 /L M0

For vertical equilibrium, RA = -RC = - M0 /L a L-a

A negative reaction implies a downward force (a


holding down force). It is worth noting here that simple Figure 9.32
supports (rockers and/or rollers) shown with triangular B
A C
knife edges can exert force in either direction. RC
RA M0
i.e.
a L-a
is equivalent to

Figure 9.33

Lecture 9-10 14
For the segment shown, S
For vertical equilibrium, = 0 giving M0
S = - RA = M0 /L M
Taking moments about the cut gives: RA
a <x-a>
M - M0 - RA(x) = 0
M = M0 + RA(x) = M0 - M0 (x/L) x
This means for, x<a, M = - M0 (x/L) and A B C
for x>a, M = M0 (1-(x/L))
RA M0
At x = 0, M = 0 RC
a L-a
At x = a-δ (just left of B), M =
At x = a+δ (just right of B), M =
At x = L, M = 0.
M0 /L
There is a jump in bending moment diagram at B
where there is a concentrated moment loading.
However the slope of the bending moment diagram Shear Force Diagram
on either side of B are the same. -M0 (1-(a/L))
The shear force diagram does not have any change
at B.

The singularity function that appears in the -M0 a/L


bending moment expression has a power of zero,
because it only acts as a switch. This is similar to Bending Moment Diagram
the use of <x-a>0 in Case 3 to include/exclude the
Figure 9.34
effect of a point load on the shearing force.
Bending Moment
Case 5: A simply supported beam with A B Diagram
C
a load on an overhanging portion
9 kN
Σ MA= 0 gives:
3m 1m

Therefore, RB = 12 kN. RA RB 9 kN
M
Σ Fy = 0 gives: RA + RB - 9 = 0

S RB 9 kN
Therefore RA = - 3 kN. <3-x>

For the segment shown, x 4-x


Σ Fy = 0 gives: 3 kN
-S+RB -9 = 0 gives
S = RB -9 = 12 -9 9 kN
Taking moments about the cut gives:
Shear Force Diagram
- RB + 9 =0
i.e. M = RB + 9

For 0 < x < 3 m, S = - 9 kNm


Bending Moment Diagram

Lecture 9-10 15 Figure 9.35


For 3 < x < 4 m, S =
At x = 0 and at x = 4 m, M =
At x = 3m, M =

Notes:
There is a jump in shearing force at B where there is a point force due to the support.
Correspondingly the slope of the bending moment diagram also has a sudden change at this
point.
In this example, the bending moment at the simple support at B is not zero. While a simple
support implies that the support cannot provide any moment resistance, this example shows
that the bending moment in a beam at a simple support is not necessarily zero. In cases
where the beam continues over a simple support or at a simple support where an external
moment loading is applied the beam may have some bending moment.
The use of singularity function in this problem is similar to that for Case 3. In both cases the
singularity occurs at a point where there is a concentrated force (which is a load in Case 3,
where as it is a reaction in the present case). In both cases, the effect of a point force on
shear force is taken into account by using a switching function with a power of zero <f(x)>0 ,
and its effect on bending moment is represented by a term with a power of unity <f(x)>.
7 kN/m
Case 6: A cantilever beam subject to uniformly A B
C
distributed loading for part of its span

Since this is a cantilever, the bending moment and


shearing force distribution may be found by 1m 1.2 m
considering the equilibrium of a carefully selected
segment, without having to apply overall statics. M
7 kN/m

By inspection we can see that one needs to make a cut


and consider the free-body that is right of the cut, to S
1-x
avoid having to calculate support reactions at A. 2.2 - x
M
If we want to obtain expressions for bending moment 7 kN/m
and shearing force that are applicable throughout the
beam, we need to include all points of discontinuity in
S
the free-body diagram. This means the only logical 1-x
choice is to make a cut between A and B, and consider 2.2 - x
the free-body to the right of the cut.

However, obtaining expressions for bending moment


and shear force from this simple segmental free-body
diagram is not easy. For example Σ Fy = 0 gives: -8.4 kN
Shear Force Diagram
-S - 7(2.2-x)<x-1>0 -7(1.2)<1-x>0 = 0
S = -7(2.2-x)<x-1>0 -7(1.2)<1-x>0
This implies for x<1 m, S = -7(1.2) = - 8.4 kN, and
for x> 1 m, S = -7(2.2-x) = 7x-15.4 kN.
-5.04 kNm
A more convenient formulation is obtained by
applying two equal and opposite uniformly distributed -13.44 kNm

Bending Moment Diagram

Lecture 9-10 Figure 9.36


16
loading on the unloaded segment, and writing the equation of equilibrium. Now,
Σ Fy = 0 gives:

-S – 7<2.2-x> + 7<1-x> = 0
This yields: S = – 7<2.2-x> + 7<1-x>
Once again, for x < 1 m, S = -7(2.2-x) + 7 (1- x) = -7 (1.2) = -8.4 kN and
for x > 1 m, S = -7(2.2-x) = 7x-15.4 kN

Σ Mcut = 0 gives:
M+ 7<2.2-x> <2.2-x> /2 - 7<1-x><1-x> /2

i.e. M = -(7/2)(<2.2-x>2 -<1-x>2 )

For x < 1 m, M = -(7/2) ((2.2-x)2 -(1-x)2 ) = -7 (1.2)(x) - (7/2)(3.84)


For x > 1m, M = - (7/2) (2.2-x)2
Evaluation:
At x = 0, S = – 7<2.2-0> + 7<1-0> = -8.4 kN; M = (7/2)(<2.2-0>2 -<1-0>2 ) = -13.44 kNm.
At x = 1 m, S = – 7<2.2-1> + 7<1-1> = -8.4 kN; M = (7/2)(<2.2-1>2 -<1-1>2 ) = -5.04 kNm.
At x = 2.2 m, S = – 7<2.2-2.2> + 7<1-2.2> = 0; M = (7/2)(<2.2-2.2>2 -<1-2.2>2 ) = 0
The bending moment varies linearly between A 7 kN/m
and B and parabolically between B and C. A B
C
The shear force diagram varies linearly, with a
break in slope at B.

Alternative Approach: 1m 1.2 m

The above problem could have also been solved MA 7 kN/m


by making a cut between B and C and
considering the equilibrium of the segment that
is left of the cut (see Figure 9.37). This would
RA x
have necessitated calculation of reactions at A
using overall equilibrium, but the use of positive MA
and negative loading between A and B could 7 kN/m
M
have been avoided.
S
Consider the overall equilibrium of the beam. RA <x-1>
Summing the forces vertically gives:
RA – 7(1.2) = 0
i.e. RA = 8.4 kN. Figure 9.37

Taking moments about A gives:


MA + 7(1.2)((1+0.6) = 0
i.e. MA = -13.44 kNm.

Considering the segment from A to the cut,


For vertical equilibrium,

RA + S –7<x-1> = 0
S = -RA + 7 <x-1> = -8.4 + 7<x-1>
For rotational equilibrium,
M – MA - RA (x) + 7 <x-1><x-1>/2 = 0

Lecture 9-10 17
i.e. M = MA + RA (x) - 7 <x-1>2 /2
= -13.44 + 8.4 x - 7 <x-1>2 /2

Although these expressions are different from those obtained previously using the alternative
free-body, they are equivalent, and the resulting bending moment and shear force
distribution are the same. A question often arises when choosing the most convenient free-
body when a beam is subject to discontinuous distributed loading, and that is when should
one apply equal and opposite loading. A simple answer to this is that all distributed loading
should end at the cut. For example in the first approach to the present case where the cut was
made between B and A, where there is no distributed loading, positive and negative loading
were added to the system up to the cut. However in the alternative approach the distributed
loading continues up to the point of cut, and therefore there was no need to add positive and
negative loading. This point will be illustrated again using another example later on.

Relationship between load, shearing force and bending moment

By inspecting the bending moment and shear force diagrams for the various cases treated so
far, one can deduce a relationship between these induced actions. That is, the slope of the
bending moment diagram is equal to and opposite of the shearing force. This may be shown
analytically, by considering the equilibrium of an infinitesimal element of a beam as follows.

w(x)
w(dx)
S+δS
M
M+δM

x δx S

Figure 9.38 δx

Considering the equilibrium of element δx,


Σ Fy = 0 gives:S + (S + δS) – w(δx) = 0

This gives: δS = w(δx)


i.e δS/ δx = w
Taking the limit, as δx→ 0, δS/ δx →dS/dx

Therefore, dS/dx= w
That is, the slope of the shearing force diagram is equal to the intensity of the applied
loading.

Special Case: If a prescribed force is applied over a very small length of the beam, w → ∞
Then, dS/dx → ∞
This means at a point where a concentrated (point load) is applied, the shear force diagram
will have an abrupt jump. This can be seen in some of the examples considered earlier.

For rotational equilibrium, summing moments in the clockwise direction about the right side
cut gives:
M- S (δx) - (M +δM) – w(δx) (δx)/2 = 0

Lecture 9-10 18
This gives: δM = - S (δx)– w(δx) (δx)/2
Dividing both sides by δx, δM/ δx = -S - w(δx)/2

As δx → 0, w(δx)/2 is negligible compared to S.


Therefore, δM/ δx → dM/dx = - S
That is, the rate of change of bending moment with respect to the axial co-ordinate, which is
represented by the slope of the bending moment diagram is equal in magnitude to the
shearing force, but with opposite sign.

This can also be observed in the bending moment and shear force diagrams for the examples
that have been considered so far. This result is also useful to find the maximum bending
moment in a structure, since the shear force will be zero when the bending moment is
maximum or minimum. In the case of a point load, the bending moment will be maximum
or minimum if the shear force abruptly changes through zero.

From the above relationships between shear force, bending moment and the load intensity
the following conclusions may be drawn:
In shear force diagrams,
There will be a sudden discontinuity (jump) in the value of the shearing force at a section
where a concentrated load is applied, but the slope of the SFD does not undergo any change.
There will be no sudden change in the value of the shearing force, but there will be an abrupt
change in the slope of the curve at a section beyond which a distributed load is applied.
There will be no change in the value of the shearing force, nor a change in the slope of the
curve at a section where a concentrated moment is applied.

In the case of bending moment diagrams,


There will be no sudden change in the value of the bending moment, but there will be an
abrupt change in the slope of the curve at a section where a concentrated load is applied.
There will be no change in the value of the bending moment, nor a change in the slope of the
curve at a section beyond which a distributed load is applied.
There will be a sudden discontinuity (jump) in the value of the bending moment at a section
where a concentrated moment is applied, but the slope of the BMD does not undergo any
change. This observation is not obvious from the analysis presented earlier, but it is easy to
see that including a concentrated moment in an infinitesimal segment will alter δM by the
magnitude of the applied moment.

Finding the shear force and bending boment using integration

Integrating the differential relationship between bending moment, shear force and load
gives:


x2
S2 -S1 = wdx which means the change in shear force between two points is equal to the
x1

area of the loading diagram between those points.


M2 -M1 = ∫ − Sdx which means the change in bending moment between two points is equal
x2

x1

to the area of the shear force diagram between those points. It should be noted that these
equations do not apply at points where there are point loads or moments. Where there is a
point force the shear force diagram will have a jump and where there is a point moment the
bmd will have a jump.
Exercise: Solve the examples in this section, usi ng this method.

Lecture 9-10 19
Case 7: Beams connected by a
hinge Hinge 4 kN/m
A
C
If two beams are joined by a hinge
(i.e. they are free to rotate relative to B
each other), then the bending moment 1m 2m
at the hinge will be zero, unless there
is an externally applied moment, or
Figure 9.39
one of the beams were to continue
beyond the joint.
In such cases, the structures may be considered as two (or more, if there are two or more
joints) substructures.

In the example shown in the figure, a cantilever beam AB is hinged to a beam BC which is
simply supported at C. Both beams end at B, and are not subject to any applied moment at
the hinge. Therefore the bending moment in both beams at B is zero. The hinge only
provides a transverse reaction. Taking the reaction at the hinge as RB, the free-body
diagrams for the two beams may be sketched. To sketch the free-body diagrams, one does
not need to know the actual direction of the reaction at B. Any direction may be chosen, but
care must be taken to ensure that the directions marked satisfy Newton's third law. The
directions of the reactions force must be opposite as shown below.
4 kN/m B 4 kN/m C
MA A
B

RA RB RB RC
2m
1m
Equal & opposite Reactions
(Newton's Third Law) (b) Simply Supported Beam
(a) Cantilever
For equilibrium of (b), taking moments Figure 9.40
Summing the forces transversely gives:
about B gives:
- RB + RC - 8 = 0
RC (2) - 4(2)(1) = 0
giving RC = 4 kN. Therefore RB = - 4 kN.

Now this problem may be solved


either individually, or by writing M 4 kN/m
the equations of equilibrium for C
the following free-body: A
S B RC
For equilibrium, x (3-x)
↓ S - RC + 4(3-x) = 0 gives
S = 4x-8
Also, Figure 9.41

M - RC(3-x) + 4(3-x)2 /2 = 0 gives

M = RC(3- x) - 4(3-x)2 /2 =- 6+8x-2x2


At x = 0, S = - 8 kN; M = -6 kNm.
At x = 1m (at the hinge), S = -4 kN; M = 0 (as expected)

Lecture 9-10 20
At x = 3m, S = 4 kN; M = 0 (as expected)
The shear force varies linearly and the bending moment varies parabolically. To find the
maximum/minimum bending moment, we first need to locate the point at which it occurs.

a=2m
4 kN
A

-4 kN Shear Force Diagram


-8 kN

2 kNm

Hinge

-6 kNm Bending Moment Diagram


Figure 9.42
Let x = a for M to be maximum/minimum.
Since S = - dM/dx, S(a) = 0
i.e. 4a-8=0
a = 2 m.
M (a) = -6 + 8 (a) - 2 (a)2 = -6 + 16 - 8 = 2 kNm.
Note that there is no discontinuity in loading at B, and there are no singularity functions in S
and M.

Case 8: Simply Supported Beam Subject to Distributed Loading in a Middle segment

This example illustrates how A 6 kN/m


singularity functions may be used D
to include the effect of distributed
loading acting only for some B C
parts of a beam.
For overall equilibrium, 1m 2m 2m
Σ M @ A gives:
6 kN/m
RD (5) - 6(2)(2.5) = 0
RA RD
RD = 4.8 kN
Σ Fy = 0 gives:
↑ RA + RD - 6(2) =0 6 kN/m S
Therefore RA =7.2 kN. A B
M
RA C
To use singularity functions, a
<x-3>
section of the beam including all
points of discontinuity should be <x-1>
selected. Let us make a cut
between C and D and consider x
the free-body left of the cut. In
Figure 9.43

Lecture 9-10 21
this case, as in the first approach to Case 7, we do need to apply equal and opposite
distributed loading between C and the cut.
Σ Fy = 0 gives: ↑ RA + S - 6<x-1> + 6 <x-3> = 0
S = - RA + 6<x-1> - 6 <x-3> = -7.2 + 6<x-1> - 6 <x-3>
Σ M @ the cut in a clock wise sense gives:

RD (x) - 6<x-1><x-1>/2 + 6 <x-3> <x-3>/2 - M = 0

Therefore M = RD (x) - 3<x-1>2 + 3 <x-3>2 = 7.2 x - 3<x-1>2 + 3 <x-3>2


Evaluation:
Between A and B,
as x< 1, <x-1> = <x-3> =0, and S = -7.2 + 6<x-1> - 6 <x-3> = -7.2 kN
M = 7.2 x - 3<x-1>2 + 3 <x-3>2 = 7.2 x. At A, M = 0 and at B, M = 7.2 kNm.
Shear force is constant, and the bending moment will vary linearly.
Between B and C,
1<x<3, <x-1> = (x-1) and <x-3> = 0.
S = -7.2 + 6(x-1) - 6 (0) = 6x -13.2 kN. Linear variation.
At x = 1m, S = -7.2 kN and at x = 3 m, S = 18-13.2 = 4.8 kN.
M = 7.2 x - 3(x-1)2 + 3 (0) = -3 x2 + 13.2 x - 3. A parabolic variation.
At x = 1 m, M = -3 + 13.2 -3 = 7.2 kNm.
At x = 3 m, M = -3 (3)2 + 13.2 (3) - 3 = 9.6 kNm.
The shear force has changed sign between B and C, and that means the maximum bending
moment occurs between these points. Let x = a, for M to be a maximum.
Since S (a) = 0, 6 a = 13.2 = 0. i.e. a = 2.2 m.

Maximum bending moment is obtained


by substituting x = 2.2 into the 4.8 kN
expression for M. This gives: M = -3
(2.2)2 + 13.2 (2.2) - 3 = 11.52 kNm.
Shear Force Diagram
Between C and D, -7.2 kN
3<x<5, <x-1> = (x-1) and <x-3> = (x-
3).

S= -7.2 + 6(x-1) - 6 (x-3) = 4.8 kN 11.52 kNm


(constant). 7.2 kNm 9.6 kNm
M = 7.2 x - 3(x-1)2 + 3 (x-3)2 = - 4.8 x
+ 24 (linear).

At x = 3 m, M = 9.6 kNm.
At x = 5 m, M = 0 (as expected). Bending Moment Diagram

Note: In evaluating the bending Figure 9.44


moment and shearing forces, it is not
necessary to go through the algebraic manipulations to change the form of the equation
between various sections of the beam. However, in this example this has been done to
illustrate the shapes of the diagrams. All evaluations can be done using following equations:
S = -7.2 + 6<x-1> - 6 <x-3>
M = 7.2 x - 3<x-1>2 + 3 <x-3>2

Lecture 9-10 22
It may be noted that the shear force remains constant when the intensity of loading is zero,
and the bending moment has a constant slope. In segments subject to a uniformly distributed
loading, the shear force varies linearly, and the bending moment diagram is parabolic.

This problem can also be


solved by considering a free- 10 kN 10 kN
6 kN/m
body right of a cut made B C
A D
between A and B. Although
the expressions for bending
moment and shearing force
may be of different forms, their 1m 2m 1m
values will be the same.
10 kN 10 kN
Case 9: Symmetrical and
Anti-symmetrical Loading on
Symmetrical Structure RB RC
When a symmetrical structure
is subject to symmetrical load 10 kN
the resulting bending moment S M
diagram will be symmetrical
and the shear force diagram RB RC
will be anti-symmetrical. If on
the other hand the loading is <x-3>
<x-1>
anti-symmetrical, the bending
moment diagram will be anti- 10 kN x
symmetrical and the shear force
diagram will be symmetrical.
For overall equilibrium, -10 kN
Σ M @ B gives: RC (2) - 10(3)
+ 10(1) = 0 Shear Force Diagram
RC = 10 kN
Σ Fy = 0 gives:
RB + RC - 20 =0
Therefore RB = 10 kN.
These results could have been -10 kNm
obtained by applying
symmetry. Bending Moment Diagram
i.e. Since RB = RC and Figure 9.45
RB + RC - 20 =0,
RB = RC = 10 kN.
Σ Fy = 0 gives:
RB<x-1>0 +RC<x-3>0 +S-10 = 0
S = -RB<x-1>0 -RC<x-3>0 +10
Σ M @ the cut gives:
M-RC<x-3>-RB<x-1>+10(x)=0
M=RC<x-3>+RB<x-1>-10(x)
Exercise: Change the direction of one of the 10 kN loads, which would make the loading
anti-symmetrical (symmetrical but on one side of centre- line it is opposite in sign). This
would result in symmetrical shear force diagram and anti-symmetrical bending moment
diagram.

Lecture 9-10 23

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