Apeirostikc Logismc II

rqeire hmeisei

mm wjhmtikn nepistmio ejhnn PHIHEII

Perieqmena
I pkolouje ki sik kolouje
IFI IFP IFQ IFR IFS IFT PFI PFP pkolouje 1 terhm Bolzano-Weierstrass 2 IFP epdeixh me qrsh th rq tou kiwtismo 3 entero ki kttero rio kolouj 4 ekolouje Cauchy 8 BrrthmX suzthsh gi to xwm th plhrtht 10 esksei 12

P eir prgmtikn rijmn

PFQ

PFR PFS QFI QFP QFQ QFR QFS

gklish seir 15 eir me mh rnhtiko rou 19 PFP eir me fjnonte mh rnhtiko rou 20 PFP y rijm e 22 qenik kritri 24 PFQ epluth sgklish seir 24 PFQ uritri sgkrish 25 PFQg uritrio lgou ki kritrio rz 27 PFQd o kritrio tou Dirichlet 29 PFQe Bhekdik prstsh prgmtikn rijmn 31 hunmoseir 35 esksei 37 ymoimorfh sunqei 43 rkthrism th omoimorfh sunqei msw koloujin uneqe sunrtsei se kleist distmt 48 ustol jerhm stjero shmeou 51 esksei 52 y orism tou Darboux 55 o kritrio oloklhrwsimtht tou Riemann 58 ho klsei Riemann oloklhrsimwn sunrtsewn sdithte tou oloklhrmto Riemann 65 y orism tou RiemannB 72 esksei 75

IS

Q ymoimorfh sunqei

RQ

46

R yloklrwm Riemann
RFI RFP RFQ RFR RFS RFT

SS

63

iv erieqmen

S o jemelide jerhm tou epeirostiko vogismo

SFI SFP SFQ SFR SFS TFI

o jerhm msh tou yloklhrwtiko vogismo 81 jemelidh jewrmt tou epeirostiko vogismo 82 wjodoi oloklrwsh 86 qenikeumn oloklhrmt 88 SFR o kritrio tou oloklhrmto 91 esksei 92

VI

T eqnik oloklrwsh

TFP TFQ TFR TFS UFI UFP

yloklrwsh me ntiktstsh 95 TFI nk stoiqeiwdn oloklhrwmtwn 95 TFI pologism tou f ((x)) (x) dx 95 TFIg rigwnometrik oloklhrmt 96 TFId pologism tou f (x) dx me thn ntiktstsh x = (t) 98 yloklrwsh kt mrh 99 yloklrwsh rhtn sunrtsewn 100 upoie qrsime ntiktstsei 104 TFR ht sunrtsei twn cos x ki sin x 104 TFR yloklhrmt lgerikn sunrtsewn eidik morf 105 esksei 107

WS

U terhm Taylor

UFQ UFR VFI VFP VFQ VFR VFS

terhm Taylor 111 hunmoseir ki nptgmt Taylor 116 UFP r ekjetik sunrthsh f (x) = ex 116 UFP r sunrthsh f (x) = cos x 116 UFPg r sunrthsh f (x) = sin x 117 UFPd r sunrthsh f (x) = ln(1 + x)D x (1, 1] 118 UFPe r diwnumik sunrthsh f (x) = (1 + x)a D x > 1 UFP r sunrthsh f (x) = arctan xD |x| 1 121 unrtsei prstsime se dunmoseir 121 esksei 125 yrism 127 uurt sunrtsei orismne se noikt disthm rgwgsime kurt sunrtsei 130 enistht tou Jensen 132 esksei 134

III

119

V uurt ki kole sunrtsei

IPU

128

Keflaio 1

Upakoloujec kai basikc akoloujec

IFI pkolouje
upakolouja

yrism IFIFIF 9istw (an ) mi kolouj prgmtikn rijmnF r kolouj

(bn ) lgeti th (an ) n uprqei gnhsw xous kolouj fusikn rijmn k1 < k2 < < kn < kn+1 < ste (1.1.1) bn = akn gi kje n N.

we ll lgiD oi roi th (bn ) eni oi ak1 , ak2 , . . . , akn , . . .D pou k1 < k2 < < kn < kn+1 < F qenikD mi kolouj qei poll @sunjw peire to pljoA diforetik upkoloujeF

rdegmt IFIFPF 9istw (an ) mi kolouj prgmtikn rijmnF

@A r upkolouj (a2n ) twn {rtiwn rwn} th (an ) qei rou tou

a2 , a4 , a6 , . . . .
idD kn = 2nF @A r upkolouj (a2n1 ) twn {perittn rwn} th (an ) qei rou tou

a1 , a3 , a5 , . . . .
idD kn = 2n 1F @gA r upkolouj (an2 ) th (an ) qei rou tou

a1 , a4 , a9 , . . . .
idD kn = n2 F @dA uje telik tmm (am , am+1 , am+2 , . . .) th (an ) eni upkolouj th (an )F idD kn = m + n 1F

rtrhsh IFIFQF 9istw (kn ) mi gnhsw xous kolouj fusikn rijmnF

teD kn n gi kje n NF

P pkoloujes ki siks koloujes

F we epgwgX fo o k1 eni fusik rijmD eni fner ti k1 1F qi to epgwgik m upojtoume ti km mF efo h (kn ) eni gnhsw xousD qoume km+1 > km D r km+1 > mF efo oi km+1 ki m eni fusiko rijmoD peti ti km+1 m + 1 @jumhjete ti nmes ston m ki ston m + 1 den uprqei llo fusikAF 2
Apdeixh

r epmenh rtsh deqnei ti n mi kolouj sugklnei se prgmtik rE ijm tte le oi upkolouje th eni sugklnouse ki sugklnoun ston dio prgmtik rijmF

rtsh IFIFRF
akn a
. Apdeixh

An

an a

tte

gia

kje

upakolouja

(akn )

thc

(an )

isqei

F 9istw > 0F efo an aD uprqei n0 = n0 () N me thn ex idithtX qi kje m n0 isqei |am a| < F

ep thn rtrhsh IFIFQ gi kje n n0 qoume kn n n0 F ttont loipn m = kn sthn prohgomenh sqshD prnoumeX qi kje n n0 isqei |akn a| < F eut podeiknei ti akn aX gi to tuqn > 0 rkme n0 N ste loi oi roi akn0 , akn0 +1 , . . . th (akn ) n nkoun sto (a , a + )F 2 dexoume ti mi kolouj (an ) den sugklnei se knnn prgmtik rijmF erke n rome do upkolouje th (an ) oi opoe n qoun diforetik riF qi prdeigmD jewrsoume thn (an ) = (1)n F teD a2n = (1)2n = 1 1 ki a2n1 = (1)2n1 = 1 1F e upojsoume ti an aF yi (a2n ) ki (a2n1 ) eni upkolouje th (an )D prpei loipn n isqei a2n a ki a2n1 aF ep th mondiktht tou orou th (a2n ) prnoume a = 1 ki p th mondiktht tou orou th (a2n1 ) prnoume a = 1F hhldD 1 = 1F utlxme se topoD r h (an ) den sugklneiF

rtrhsh IFIFSF r prohgomenh rtsh eni pol qrsimh n jloume n

IFP
ton

terhm Bolzano-Weierstrass
Kje fra gmnh akolouja qei toul qispou sugklnei se pra gmatik arijm.

terhm IFPFI @Bolzano-WeierstrassAF

ma upakolouja

t dsoume do podexei uto tou tewrmtoF r prth szeti sto gegon ti kje montonh ki frgmnh kolouj sugklneiF qi n rome sugE klnous upkolouj mi frgmnh kolouj rke n rome mi montonh upkolouj thF o teleuto isqei entel genikD pw deqnei to epmeno terhmX

terhm IFPFPF
Apdeixh

Kje akolouja qei toul qiston ma

montonh upakolouja.

F t qreistome thn nnoi tou shmeou koruf mi koloujF

yrism IFPFQF 9istw (an ) mi kolouj prgmtikn rijmnF vme ti o am eni shmeo koruf th (an ) n am an gi kje n mF
qi n exoikeiwjete me ton orism elgxte t exF en h (an ) eni fjnous tte kje ro th eni shmeo koruf thF en h (an ) eni gnhsw xous tte den qei knn shmeo korufF

IFP terhm Bolzano-Weierstrass Q

9istw (an ) mi kolouj prgmtikn rijmnF hikrnoume do periptseiX @A (an ) F teD uprqoun fusiko rijmo k1 < k2 < < kn < kn+1 < ste loi oi roi ak1 , . . . , akn , . . . n eni shme koruf th (an ) @exhgste gitAF efo kn < kn+1 gi kje n ND h (akn ) eni upkolouj th (an )F ep ton orism tou shmeou koruf lpoume ti gi kje n N isqei akn akn+1 @qoume kn+1 > kn ki o akn eni shmeo koruf th (an )AF hhldD
H qei peira to pljoc shmea korufc

(1.2.1)

ak1 ak2 akn akn+1 .

9erD h upkolouj (akn ) eni fjnousF @A (an ) F teD uprqei N N me thn ex idithtX n m N tte o am den eni shmeo koruf th (an ) @prte N = k + 1 pou ak to teleuto shmeo koruf th (an ) N = 1 n den uprqoun shme korufAF we sh ton orism tou shmeou koruf ut shmnei tiX n m N tte uprqei n > m ste an > am F ifrmzoume didoqik to prpnwF ttoume k1 = N ki rskoume k2 > k1 ste ak2 > ak1 F utpin rskoume k3 > k2 ste ak3 > ak2 ki otw kjexF prqoun dhld k1 < k2 < < kn < kn+1 < ste
H qei peperasmna to pljoc shmea korufc

(1.2.2)

ak1 < ak2 < < akn < akn+1 < . 2

teD h (akn ) eni gnhsw xous upkolouj th (an )F wporome tr n podexoume to terhm Bolzano-WeierstrassF

9istw (an ) frgmnh koloujF ep to terhm IFPFP h (an ) qei montonh upkolouj (akn )F r (akn ) eni montonh ki frgmnhD sunep sugklnei se prgmtik rijmF 2
Apdeixh tou Jewrmatoc 1.2.1.

IFP

epdeixh me qrsh th rq tou kiwtismo

r deterh pdeixh tou tewrmto Bolzano-Weierstrass qrhsimopoie thn rq twn kiwtismnwn disthmtwnF 9istw (an ) mi frgmnh kolouj prgmtikn rijmnF teD uprqei kleist disthm [b1 , c1 ] sto opoo nkoun loi oi roi an F wrzoume to [b1 , c1 ] se do didoqik distmt pou qoun to dio mko c1 b1 X 2 t b1 , b1 +c1 ki b1 +c1 , c1 F upoio p ut t do distmt periqei peirou 2 2 to pljo rou th (an )F rnont sn [b2 , c2 ] ut to upodisthm tou [b1 , c1 ] qoume dexei to exF prqei kleist disthm [b2 , c2 ] [b1 , c1 ] to opoo periqei peirou rou th (an ) ki qei mko

(1.2.3)

c2 b2 =

c1 b1 . 2

uneqzoume me ton dio trpoX qwrzoume to [b2 , c2 ] se do didoqik distmt mkou c2 b2 X t b2 , b2 +c2 ki b2 +c2 , c2 F efo to [b2 , c2 ] periqei peirou rou 2 2 2 th (an )D kpoio p ut t do distmt periqei peirou to pljo rou th (an )F rnont sn [b3 , c3 ] ut to upodisthm tou [b2 , c2 ] qoume dexei to exF

R pkoloujes ki siks koloujes

prqei kleist disthm [b3 , c3 ] [b2 , c2 ] to opoo periqei peirou rou th (an ) ki qei mko

(1.2.4)

c3 b3 =

c2 b2 c1 b1 = . 2 22
mN

uneqzont me ton dio trpo orzoume kolouj [bm , cm ] sthmtwn pou iknopoie t exX @iA qi kje m N isqei [bm+1 , cm+1 ] [bm , cm ]F @iiA qi kje m N isqei cm bm = (c1 b1 )/2m1 F

kleistn diE

@iiiA qi kje m N uprqoun peiroi roi th (an ) sto [bm , cm ]F rhsimopoint thn trth sunjkhD mporome n rome upkolouj (akm ) th (an ) me thn idithtX gi kje m N isqei akm [bm , cm ]F rgmtiD uprqei k1 N ste ak1 [b1 , c1 ] gi thn kreiD loi oi roi th (an ) rskonti sto [b1 , c1 ]F rD fo to [b2 , c2 ] periqei peirou rou th (an )D kpoio p uto qei dekth megltero p k1 F hhldD uprqei k2 > k1 ste ak2 [b2 , c2 ]F we ton dio trpoD n qoun oriste k1 < < km ste aks [bs , cs ] gi kje s = 1, . . . , mD mporome n rome km+1 > km ste akm+1 [bm+1 , cm+1 ] @ditiD to [bm+1 , cm+1 ] periqei peirou rou th (an )AF 9itsiD orzeti mi upkolouj (akm ) th (an ) pou iknopoie to zhtomenoF t dexoume ti h (akm ) sugklneiF ep thn rq twn kiwtismnwn disthmtwn @ki lgw th (ii)A uprqei mondik a R o opoo nkei se l t kleist distmt [bm , cm ]F tumhjete ti
m

lim bm = a = lim cm .
m

efo bm akm cm gi kje mD to kritrio twn isosugklinousn koloujin deqnei ti akm aF 2

IFQ

entero ki kttero rio kolouj

kop m se utn thn rgrfo eni n meletsoume pio prosektik ti upE kolouje mi frgmnh koloujF tumhjete ti n h kolouj (an ) sugklnei se kpoion prgmtik rijm a tte h ktstsh eni pol plF en (akn ) eni tuqos upkolouj th (an )D tte akn aF hhldD le oi upkolouje mi sugklnous kolouj sugklnoun ki mlist sto rio th koloujF

yrism IFQFIF 9istw (an ) mi koloujF vme ti o x R eni orik shmeo @ upkoloujik rioA th (an ) n uprqei upkolouj (akn ) th (an ) ste
akn xF
orik shme mi kolouj qrkthrzonti p to epmeno vmmF

vmm IFQFPF
gia kje Apdeixh

enai

oriak

shmeo ste

mN

uprqei

nm

(an ) |an x| <

thc

an .

kai

mno

an

gia

kje

>0

kai

F pojtoume prt ti o x eni orik shmeo th (an )F prqei loipn upkolouj (akn ) th (an ) ste akn xF

IFQ entero ki kttero rio koloujs S

9istw > 0 ki m NF prqei n0 N ste |akn x| < gi kje n n0 F tewrome ton n1 = max{m, n0 }F te kn1 n1 m ki n1 n0 D r |akn1 x| < F rnoume = 1 ki m = 1F ep thn upjesh uprqei k1 1 ste 1 |ak1 x| < 1F th sunqei prnoume = 2 ki m = k1 + 1F ifrmzont thn 1 upjesh rskoume k2 k1 + 1 > k1 ste |ak2 x| < 2 F ipgwgik rskoume k1 < k2 < < kn < ste
Antstrofa:

|akn x| <

1 n 2

@knete mnoi s to epgwgik mAF ini fner ti akn xF

9istw (an ) mi frgmnh koloujF hhldD uprqei M > 0 ste |an | M gi kje n NF tewrome to snolo

(1.3.1)
To enai mh

K = {x R : x eni orik shmeo th (an )}.

ken

IF K F ep to terhm Bolzano-Weierstrass uprqei toulqiston m upkolouj (akn ) th (an ) pou sugklnei se prgmtik rijmF o rio th (akn ) eni ex orismo stoiqeo tou K F PF K F en x K D uprqei akn x ki fo M akn M gi kje nD peti ti M x M F
To enai fra gmno

ep to xwm th plhrtht prokptei ti uprqoun t sup K ki inf K F o epmeno vmm deqnei ti to K qei mgisto ki elqisto stoiqeoF

vmm IFQFQF

'Estw

(an )

fra gmnh akolouja kai

K = {x R : x
Tte,

enai oriak shmeo

thc

(an )}.

sup K K

kai

inf K K

Apdeixh

F 9istw a = sup K F tloume n dexoume ti o a eni orik shmeo th (an )D ki smfwn me to vmm IFQFP rke n dome ti gi kje > 0 ki gi kje m N uprqei n m ste |an a| < F 9istw > 0 ki m NF efo a = sup K D uprqei x K ste a 2 < x aF y x eni orik shmeo th (an )D r uprqei n m ste |an x| < 2 F teD

(1.3.2)

|an a| |an x| + |x a| <

+ = . 2 2 2

we nlogo trpo deqnoume ti inf K K F

yrism IFQFRF 9istw (an ) mi frgmnh koloujF en

K = {x R : x eni orik shmeo th (an )},
orzoume @iA lim sup an = sup K to ntero rio th (an )
, ,

@iiA lim inf an = inf K to kttero rio th (an )

mfwn me to vmm IFQFQD to lim sup an eni to mgisto stoiqeo ki to lim inf an eni to elqisto stoiqeo tou K ntstoiqX

T pkoloujes ki siks koloujes

terhm IFQFSF
To

'Estw

(an )

fra gmnh akolouja.

To

pra gmatikc arijmc

gia ton opoo uprqei upakolouja pra gmatikc . arijmc

akolouja

lim inf an (aln )

enai

mikrteroc me

lim sup an (akn ) y

gia

enai o megalteroc

thc

(an )

me

akn x

ton

opoo

uprqei

up-

thc

(an )

aln y

o ntero ki to kttero rio mi frgmnh kolouj perigrfonti msw twn perioqn tou w exX

terhm IFQFTF
xR @IA x lim sup an
. Tte, enai peiro.

'Estw

(an )
mno

fra gmnh

akolouja

pra gmatikn

arijmn

kai

stw

an

kai

an:

gia

kje

>0 >0 >0 >0

to

snolo

{n N : x < an } {n N : x + < an } {n N : an < x + } {n N : an < x }

enai

@PA x lim sup an

enai peperasmno.

an

kai

mno

an:

gia

kje

to

snolo

@QA x lim inf an

enai peiro.

an

kai

mno

an:

gia

kje

to

snolo

@RA x lim inf an

enai peperasmno.

an

kai

mno

an:

gia

kje

to

snolo

peiro

@SA x = lim sup an {n N : x + < an } @TA x = lim inf an {n N : an < x }

an kai mno peiro kai to an kai mno kai to

an:

gia

kje

>0 >0

to

{n N : x < an } {n N : an < x + }

enai peperasmno.

an:

gia

kje

to

enai

enai peperasmno.

Apdeixh

F @IXA 9istw > 0F prqei upkolouj (akn ) th (an ) me akn lim sup an D r uprqei n0 ste gi kje n n0

(1.3.3)

akn > lim sup an x .

9ipeti ti to {n : an > x } eni peiroF @PXA 9istw > 0F e upojsoume ti uprqoun k1 < k2 < < kn < me akn > x + F teD h upkolouj (akn ) th (an ) qei lou tou rou th meglterou p x + F wporome n rome sugklnous upkolouj (aksn ) th (akn ) @p to terhm Bolzano-WeierstrassA ki tte aksn y x + F 9ymw tteD h (aksn ) eni upkolouj th (an ) @exhgste gitAD opte

(1.3.4)

lim sup an y x + lim sup an + .

eut eni topoF 9erD to {n : an > x + } eni pepersmnoF @IX A 9istw ti x > lim sup an F te uprqei > 0 ste n y = x n qoume x > y > lim sup an F ep thn upjes mD to {n N : y < an } eni peiroF 9ymw y > lim sup an opte p thn @PX A to snolo {n N : y < an } eni pepersmno @gryte y = lim sup an + 1 gi kpoio 1 > 0AF yi do isqurismo rqonti se ntfshF @PXA 9ymoiD upojtoume ti x < lim sup an ki rskoume y ste x < y < lim sup an F efo y > xD sumpernoume ti to {n N : y < an } eni pepersE mno @ut eni h upjes mA ki fo y < lim sup an sumpernoume ti to {n N : y < an } eni peiro @p thn @IXAFA 9itsi ktlgoume se topoF r @SA eni mesh sunpei twn @IA ki @PAF qi ti @QAD @RA ki @TA ergzmste moiF 2 wi enllktik perigrf twn lim sup an ki lim inf an dneti p to epmeno jerhmX

IFQ entero ki kttero rio koloujs U

terhm IFQFUF
@A @A
Jtoume Jtoume

'Estw

(an )

fra gmnh akolouja.

bn = sup{ak : k n} n = inf{ak : k n}

Tte,

lim sup an = inf{bn : n N} lim inf an = sup{n : n N}

Tte,

Apdeixh

F heqnoume prt ti oi rijmo inf{bn : n N} ki sup{n : n N} orzonti klX qi kje n ND isqei n an bn @exhgste gitAF ipshD h (bn ) eni fjnousD en h (an ) eni xous @exhgste gitAF efo h (an ) eni frgmnhD peti ti h (bn ) eni fjnous ki ktw frgmnhD en h (n ) eni xous ki nw frgmnhF ep to jerhm sgklish montonwn koloujin sumpernoume ti bn inf{bn : n N} := b ki n sup{n : n N} := F t dexoume ti lim sup an = bF ep to vmm IFQFQ uprqei upkolouj (akn ) th (an ) me akn lim sup an F 9ymwD akn bkn ki bkn b @exhgste gitAF 9erD

(1.3.5)

lim sup an = lim akn lim bkn = b.

qi thn ntstrofh nistht deqnoume ti o b eni orik shmeo th (an )F 9istw > 0 ki stw m NF efo bn bD uprqei n m ste |b bn | < 2 F ellD bn = sup{ak : k n}D r uprqei k n m ste bn ak > bn 2 dhld |bn ak | < 2 F 9ipeti ti

(1.3.6)

|b ak | |b bn | + |bn ak | <

+ = . 2 2

ep to vmm IFQFP o b eni orik shmeo th (an )D ki sunepD b lim sup an F we nlogo trpo deqnoume ti lim inf an = F 2 ulenoume me nn qrkthrism th sgklish gi frgmne koloujeF

terhm IFQFVF
Apdeixh

'Estw .

(an )

fra gmnh akolouja.

(an )

sugklnei an kai mno an

lim sup an = lim inf an

F en an a tte gi kje upkolouj (akn ) th (an ) qoume akn aF ipomnwD o a eni to mondik orik shmeo th (an )F 9iqoume K = {a}D r

lim sup an = lim inf an = a.

Antstrofa:

stw > 0F ep to terhm IFQFT o rijm a = lim sup an = lim inf an qei thn ex idithtX snol {n N : an < a } ki {n N : an > a + } eni pepersmnF hhldD to snolo

(1.3.7)

{n N : |an a| > }

eni pepersmnoF ssodnmD uprqei n0 N me thn idithtX gi kje n n0 D

|an a| .
efo to > 0 tn tuqnD peti ti an aF

V pkoloujes ki siks koloujes

rtrhsh IFQFWF e upojsoume ti h kolouj (an ) den eni frgmnhF en h

(an ) den eni nw frgmnhD tte uprqei upkolouj (akn ) th (an ) ste akn + @skhshAF we ll lgiD o + eni {orik shmeo} th (an )F e utn thn perptwsh eni logik n orsoume lim sup an = +F intel nlogD n h (an ) den eni ktw frgmnhD tte uprqei upkolouj (akn ) th (an ) ste akn @skhshAF hhldD o eni {orik shmeo} th (an )F teD orzoume lim inf an = F

IFR

ekolouje Cauchy

y orism th kolouj Cauchy qei sn fethr thn ex prtrhshX upE ojsoume ti an aF teD oi roi th (an ) eni telik {kont} sto aD r eni telik ki {metx tou kont}F qi n ekfrsoume usthr ut thn prtrhshD jewrsoume tuqn > 0F prqei n0 = n0 () N ste gi kje n n0 n isqei |an a| < 2 F teD gi kje n, m n0 qoume

(1.4.1)

|an am | |an a| + |a am | <

+ = . 2 2

yrism IFRFIF wi kolouj (an ) lgeti kolouj Cauchy @ sik kolouE jA n gi kje > 0 uprqei n0 = n0 () N steX
(1.4.2) n0 = n0 () N ste
an

m, n n0 (),

tte

|an am | < .

rtrhsh IFRFPF en h (an ) eni kolouj CauchyD tte gi kje > 0 uprqei
(1.4.3)
n n n0 (), tte |an an+1 | < .

o ntstrofo den isqeiX nD p kpoion dekth ki prD didoqiko roi eni konE tD den peti ngkstik ti h kolouj eni CauchyF qi prdeigmD jewrste thn

(1.4.4)
teD

1 1 an = 1 + + + . n 2

(1.4.5)
tn n D mw

|an+1 an | =

1 0 n+1

(1.4.6)

1 1 n n |a2n an | = + + = + n+1 2n 2n 2

tn n D p) pou lpoume ti h (an ) den eni kolouj CauchyF rgmtiD n h (an ) tn kolouj CauchyD j prepe @efrmzont ton orism me = 1A gi megl n, m = 2n n isqei n (1.4.7) |a2n an | < 1 dhld < 1, 2 to opoo odhge se topoF

IFR ekoloujes Cauchy W

kop m eni n dexoume ti mi kolouj prgmtikn rijmn eni sugE klnous n ki mno n eni kolouj CauchyF r pdeixh gneti se tr mtF

rtsh IFRFQF
Apdeixh

Kje akolouja

Cauchy

enai fra gmnh.

F 9istw (an ) kolouj CauchyF rte = 1 > 0 ston orismX uprqei n0 N ste |an am | < 1 gi kje n, m n0 F iidikterD |an an0 | < 1 gi kje n > n0 F hhldD

(1.4.8)

|an | < 1 + |an0 | gi kje n > n0 .

ttoume M = max{|a1 |, . . . , |an0 |, 1 + |an0 |} ki ekol eplhjeoume ti

|an | M
gi kje n NF

2
An mia akolouja

rtsh IFRFRF
h

Cauchy (an )

qei sugklnousa upakolouja, tte

(an )

sugklnei.

F pojtoume ti h (an ) eni kolouj Cauchy ki ti h upkolouj (akn ) sugklnei sto a RF t dexoume ti an aF 9istw > 0F efo akn aD uprqei n1 N steX gi kje n n1 D
Apdeixh

(1.4.9)

|akn a| <

. 2

efo h (an ) eni kolouj CauchyD uprqei n2 N steX gi kje n, m n2

(1.4.10)

|an am | <

. 2

ttoume n0 = max{n1 , n2 }F 9istw n n0 F te kn n n0 n1 D r

(1.4.11)
ipsh kn , n n0 n2 D r

|akn a| <

. 2

(1.4.12)
9ipeti ti

|akn an | <

. 2 + = . 2 2 2
enai akolouja

(1.4.13)

|an a| |an akn | + |akn a| <

hhldD |an a| < gi kje n n0 F eut shmnei ti an aF

terhm IFRFSF
Cauchy
. Apdeixh

Mia

akolouja

(an )

sugklnei

an

kai

mno

an

F r m ktejunsh podeqthke sthn eisgwg ut th prgrfouX n upojsoume ti an a ki n jewrsoume tuqn > 0D uprqei n0 = n0 () N ste gi kje n n0 n isqei |an a| < 2 F teD gi kje n, m n0 qoume

(1.4.14)

|an am | |an a| + |a am | <

+ = . 2 2

IH pkoloujes ki siks koloujes

9erD h (an ) eni kolouj CauchyF qi thn ntstrofh ktejunshX stw (an ) kolouj CauchyF ep thn rtsh IFRFQD h (an ) eni frgmnhF ep to terhm Bolzano-WeierstrassD h (an ) qei sugklnous upkoloujF loD p thn rtsh IFRFR peti ti h (an ) sugklneiF 2 eut to kritrio sgklish eni pol qrsimoF oll for jloume n exE sflsoume thn prxh orou gi mi kolouj qwr n m endifrei h tim tou orouF erke n dexoume ti h kolouj eni CauchyD dhld ti oi roi th eni {kont} gi meglou dekteD kti pou den pite n mntyoume ek twn protrwn poi eni to rioF entjetD gi n doulyoume me ton orism tou orouD prpei dh n xroume poi eni to upoyfio rio @sugkrnete tou do orismoX {an a} ki {(an ) kolouj Cauchy}FA

IFS

BrrthmX suzthsh gi to xwm th plhrtht

9ylh m h doulei xekinei me thn {prdoq} ti to R eni n ditetgmno sm pou iknopoie to xwm th plhrthtX kje mh kenD nw frgmno uposnol tou qei elqisto nw frgmF rhsimopoint thn prxh supremum dexme thn erqimdei idithtX

() en a R ki > 0D uprqei n N ste n > aF

rhsimopoint ki pli to xwm th plhrthtD dexme ti kje montonh ki frgmnh kolouj sugklneiF n sunpei prme to terhm BolzanoWeierstrassX kje frgmnh kolouj qei sugklnous upkoloujF eut me th seir tou m eptreye n dexoume thn {iditht Cauchy} twn prgmtikn rijmnX

() uje kolouj Cauchy prgmtikn rijmn sugklnei se prgE mtik rijmF

e utn thn prgrfo j dexoume ti to xwm th plhrtht eni logik sunpei twn () ki ()F en dhld deqtome to R sn n ditetgmno sm pou qei thn erqimdei iditht ki thn iditht CauchyD tte mporome n podexoume to {xwm th plhrtht} sn jerhmX

terhm IFSFIF
1. An

'Estw

na

diateta gmno

sma

pou

periqei

to

Q
.

kai

qei,

epi-

plon, tic akloujec idithtec:

a R

kai

2.

Kje

akolouja

R > 0 Cauchy
,

, tte uprqei

nN

ste

n > a

stoi qewn

tou

sugklnei se

stoi qeo tou

Tte, kje mh

ken kai nw fra gmno

AR

qei el qisto nw fr gma.

9istw A mh ken ki nw frgmno uposnolo tou R F ekinme me tuqn stoiqeo a0 A @uprqei fo A = AF 9istw b nw frgm tou AF ep thn unjkh ID uprqei k N gi ton opoo a0 + k > bF hhldD uprqei fusik k me thn iditht
Apdeixh.

(1.5.1)

gi kje a A, a < a0 + k.

ep thn rq tou elqstou peti ti uprqei elqisto ttoio fusikF e ton pome k1 F teD

IFS BrrthmX suzthsh gi to xwm ths plhrthts II

qi kje a A isqei a < a0 + k1 F prqei a1 A ste a0 + (k1 1) a1 F
ipgwgik j rome a0 a1 . . . an . . . sto A ki kn N pou iknopoion t exX

qi kje a A isqei a < an1 + an1 +

Apdeixh tou

kn 2n1 F

kn 1 2n1

an F
bmatoc:

9iqoume an A ki p thn unjkh I uprqei elqisto fusik kn+1 me thn idithtX gi kje a AD
epa gw giko

(1.5.2)

a < an +

kn+1 . 2n

eut shmnei ti uprqei an+1 me

(1.5.3)

an +

kn+1 1 an+1 . 2n

ssqurism IX r (an ) eni kolouj CauchyF

rgmtiD qoume

(1.5.4)
r

an1 +

kn 1 kn an < an1 + n1 , 2n1 2 1 . 2n1

(1.5.5)

|an an1 | <

en loipn n, m N ki n < mD tte

|am an |

|am am1 | + |am1 am2 | + + |an+1 an | 1 1 1 1 + m2 + + n < n1 . < m1 2 2 2 2

en t n, m eni rket meglD ut gneti so jloume mikrF io sugkekrimnD n m dsoun > 0D uprqei n0 N tFw 1/2n0 1 < D opte gi kje n, m n0 qoume |am an | < F 2 efo to R qei thn iditht CauchyD uprqei o a = lim an F ssqurism PX y a eni to elqisto nw frgm tou AF @A y a eni nw frgm tou AX upojsoume ti uprqei a A me a > a F wporome n rome > 0 ste a > a + F 9ymwD

(1.5.6)
gi kje n NF 9erD

a < an1 +

kn 1 an + n1 2n1 2 1 2n1 1 2n1

a + < an + = =

a + lim an + a + a ,

IP pkoloujes ki siks koloujes

to opoo eni topoF @A en a eni nw frgm tou AD tte a a X qoume a an gi kje n ND r

(1.5.7)

a lim an = a . 2

ep t @A ki @A eni sf ti a = sup AF

IFT

esksei

ymd e9F irwtsei ktnhsh

ixetste n oi prktw protsei eni lhje yeude @itiologste plrw thn pnthsh sAF

IF an + n ki mno n gi kje M > 0 uprqoun peiroi roi th (an ) pou

eni meglteroi p M F

PF r (an ) den eni nw frgmnh n ki mno n uprqei upkolouj (akn ) th

(an ) ste akn +F

QF uje upkolouj mi sugklnous kolouj sugklneiF RF en mi kolouj den qei fjnous upkolouj tte qei mi gnhsw xous
upkoloujF

SF en h (an ) eni frgmnh ki an a tte uprqoun b = a ki upkolouj (akn )

th (an ) ste akn bF

TF prqei frgmnh kolouj pou den qei sugklnous upkoloujF UF en h (an ) den eni frgmnhD tte den qei frgmnh upkoloujF VF 9istw (an ) xous koloujF uje upkolouj th (an ) eni xousF WF en h (an ) eni xous ki gi kpoi upkolouj (akn ) th (an ) qoume
akn aD tte an aF

IHF en an 0 tte uprqei upkolouj (akn ) th (an ) ste n2 akn 0F ymd f9 IIF 9istw (an ) mi koloujF hexte ti an a n ki mno n oi upkolouje (a2k ) ki (a2k1 ) sugklnoun sto aF IPF 9istw (an ) mi koloujF pojtoume ti oi upkolouje (a2k )D (a2k1 ) ki
(a3k ) sugklnounF hexte tiX
k k

@A lim a2k = lim a2k1 = lim a3k F

k

@A r (an ) sugklneiF

IQF 9istw (an ) mi koloujF pojtoume ti a2n a2n+2 a2n+1 a2n1 gi kje n N ki ti lim (a2n1 a2n ) = 0F te h (an ) sugklnei se kpoion n prgmtik rijm a pou iknopoie thn a2n a a2n1 gi kje n NF

IFT eskseis IQ

IRF 9istw (an ) mi kolouj ki stw (xk ) kolouj orikn shmewn th (an )F
pojtoume oti xk xF hexte oti o x eni orik shmeo th (an )F

ISF hexte ti h kolouj (an ) den sugklnei ston prgmtik rijm aD n ki

mno n uprqoun > 0 ki upkolouj (akn ) th (an ) ste |akn a| gi kje n NF

ITF 9istw (an ) kolouj prgmtikn rijmn ki stw a RF hexte ti an a

n ki mno n kje upkolouj th (an ) qei upkolouj pou sugklnei sto aF

IUF yrzoume mi kolouj (an ) me a1 > 0 ki

an+1 = 1 + 2 . 1 + an

hexte ti oi upkolouje (a2k ) ki (a2k1 ) eni montone ki frgmneF freteD n uprqeiD to lim an F
n

IVF frete to ntero ki to kttero rio twn koloujin

an bn n = = = 1 , n n 1 cos + , 3 n+1 n2 ((1)n + 1) + 2n + 1 . n+1 (1)n+1 1 +

IWF 9istw (an )D (bn ) frgmne koloujeF hexte oti

lim inf an + lim inf bn lim inf(an + bn ) lim sup(an + bn ) lim sup an + lim sup bn .

PHF 9istw an > 0D n NF

@A hexte oti

lim inf
n+1 @A en lim aan

an+1 an+1 . lim inf n an lim sup n an lim sup an an = xD tte n an xF

PIF 9istw (an ) frgmnh koloujF hexte oti

lim sup(an ) = lim inf an ki lim inf(an ) = lim sup an .

PPF 9istw (an ) frgmnh koloujF en

X = {x R : x an gi peirou n N},
dexte ti sup X = lim sup an F

PQF rhsimopoint thn nistht

1 1 1 1 + + + , n+1 n+2 2n 2

IR pkoloujes ki siks koloujes

1 dexte ti h kolouj an = 1+ 1 + + n den eni kolouj CauchyF umpernte 2 ti an +F

PRF 9istw 0 < < 1 ki kolouj (an ) gi thn opo isqei

|an+1 an | |an an1 |,
hexte ti h (an ) eni kolouj CauchyF

n 2.

PSF yrzoume a1 = aD a2 = b ki an+1 =

kolouj CauchyF

an +an1 D 2

n 2F ixetste n h (an ) eni

ymd q9 PTF 9istw m NF frete mi kolouj (an ) h opo n qei kri m diforetik upkoloujeF PUF 9istw (an ) mi koloujF en sup{an : n N} = 1 ki an = 1 gi kje n ND
tte uprqei gnhsw xous upkolouj (akn ) th (an ) ste akn 1F

PVF 9istw (an ) kolouj jetikn rijmnF tewrome to snolo A = {an : n N}F en inf A = 0D dexte ti h (an ) qei fjnous upkolouj pou sugklnei sto HF PWF yrzoume mi kolouj w exX
a0 = 0, a2n+1 = 1 a2n1 + a2n , a2n = . 2 2
Updeixh:

frete l t orik shme th (an )F th koloujF

qryte tou dk prtou rou

QHF 9istw (xn ) kolouj me thn iditht xn+1 xn 0F en a < b eni do orik
shme th (xn )D dexte ti kje y [a, b] eni orik shmeo th (xn )F epgwg se topoF ste kje x A n eni orik shmeo th (an )F
Updeixh:

QIF @A 9istw A rijmsimo uposnolo tou RF hexte ti uprqei kolouj (an )

@A hexte ti uprqei kolouj (xn ) ste kje x R n eni orik shmeo th (xn )F

QPF 9istw (an ) mi koloujF yrzoume

bn = sup{|an+k an | : k N}.
hexte ti h (an ) sugklnei n ki mno n bn 0F

QQF 9istw a, b > 0F yrzoume kolouj (an ) me a1 = aD a2 = b ki

an+2 = 4an+1 an , 3 n = 1, 2, . . .

ixetste n h (an ) sugklnei ki n niD rete to ri thF

Keflaio 2

Seirc pragmatikn arijmn

PFI gklish seir
yrism PFIFIF 9istw (ak ) mi kolouj prgmtikn rijmnF tewrome thn
kolouj

(2.1.1)
hhldD

sn = a1 + + an .

(2.1.2)
o smolo eni to n
k=1
-ost

s1 = a1 , ak eni h
merik

s2 = a1 + a2 ,
seir

s3 = a1 + a2 + a3 ,

...
n

me k Eost ro ton ak F o jroism sn = th seir

k=1 k=1

ak
k=1
twn

jroisma

ak ki h (sn ) eni h

akolouja

merikn ajroismtwn

th seir

ak F

en h (sn ) sugklnei se kpoion prgmtik rijm sD tte grfoume

(2.1.3)

s = a1 + a2 + + an +

s=
k=1

ak
th

ki lme ti h seir seirF

h seir

sugklnei

@sto sAD to de rio s = lim sn eni to

n k=1

jroisma

en sn + n sn D tte grfoume lme ti

ak = +

k=1

ak = ki

ak
k=1

apoklnei sto

sto

ntstoiqF

h seir

en h (sn ) den sugklnei se prgmtik rijmD tte lme ti

apoklnei

ak
k=1

rthrsei PFIFPF @A oll for exetzoume th sgklish seirn th morf

ak

ak pou m 2F e utn thn perptwsh jtoume sn+1 = a0 + a1 +

k=0

k=m

IT eirs prgmtikn rijmn

+ an snm+1 = am + am+1 + + an @gi n mA ntstoiqD ki exetzoume th sgklish th kolouj (sn )F @A ep tou orismo pou dsme eni fner ti gi n exetsoume th sgklish pklish mi seirD pl exetzoume th sgklish pklish mi kolouj @th kolouj (sn ) twn merikn jroismtwn th seirAF y nEost mw ro th kolouj (sn ) eni n {jroism me olon uxnmeno mko}D to opoo duntome @sunjwA n gryoume se kleist morfF unepD h eresh tou orou s = lim sn @tn ut uprqeiA eni pol suqn nfikthF kop m eni loipn
n nptxoume kpoi kritri t opo n m epitrpoun @toulqistonA n pome n h (sn ) sugklnei se prgmtik rijm qiF rin proqwrsoume se prdegmtD j dome kpoie pl protsei pou j qrhsimopoiome elejer sth sunqeiF en qoume do seir sundusm tou
k=1 n

ak D

bk D mporome n sqhmtsoume ton grmmik

k=1

k=1

(ak + bk )D pou , RF

rtsh PFIFQF
(2.1.4)

An

ak = s
k=1

kai

bk = t
k=1

, tte

(ak + bk ) = s + t =
k=1 k=1 n k=1

ak +
k=1 n

bk .

Apdeixh

F en sn =

ak D tn =

n k=1

bk ki un =

merik jrosmt twn seirnD tte un = sn + ti idithte th prsjesh ki tou pollplsismoD fo qoume jrosmt me pepersmnou to pljo rouF 9ymwD sn s ki tn tD r un s + tF ep ton orism tou jrosmto seir peti h @PFIFRAF 2

(ak + bk ) eni t nEost k=1 tn F eut prokptei ekol p

rtsh PFIFRF @A
seirc,

An

apaleyoume

peperasmno thc.

pljoc

{arqikn}

rwn

miac

den ephrez etai h sgklish

apklis

@A

An

allxoume

peperasmnouc

to

pljoc

rouc

miac

seirc,

den

ephrez etai

sgklish apklish thc.

Apdeixh

F @A tewrome th seir

k=1

ak F we th frsh {plefoume tou rqiko

k=m

rou a1 , a2 , . . . , am1 } ennoome ti jewrome thn kinorgi seir

ak F en

sumolsoume me sn ki tn t nEost merik jrosmt twn do seirn ntistoqwD tte gi kje n m qoume

(2.1.5) sn = a1 + a2 + + am1 + am + + an = a1 + + am1 + tnm+1 .

9er h (sn ) sugklnei n ki mnon n h (tnm+1 ) sugklneiD dhld n ki mnon n h (tn ) sugklneiF ipshD n sn s ki tn tD tte s = a1 + a2 + + am1 + t. hhldD

(2.1.6)
k=1

ak = a1 + + am1 +
k=m

ak .

PFI gklish seirs IU

@A tewrome th seir
k=1

ak F ellzoume pepersmnou to pljo rou th (ak )F

k=1

tewrome dhld mi n seir

bk pou mw qei thn ex idithtX uprqei

m N ste ak = bk gi kje k mF en pleyoume tou prtou m 1 rou

twn do seirnD prokptei h di seir

ak F rD efrmzoume to @AF an 0

k=m

rtsh PFIFSF @A
@A

An h seir

An

ak = s
k=1

, tte

ak
k=1
,

sugklnei,

tte

gia

kje

>0

uprqei

N = N () N

ste:

gia kje

nN

(2.1.7)
k=n+1 n k=1

ak < .

Apdeixh

F @A en sn =

ak D tte sn s ki sn1 sF 9erD an = sn sn1 s s = 0.

(2.1.8)

thn prgmtikthtD ut pou knoume ed eni n jewrsoume mi deterh kolouE j (tn ) h opo orzeti w exX dnoume ujreth tim ston t1 gi prdeigmD t1 = 0 ki gi kje n 2 jtoume tn = sn1 F teD tn s @skhshA ki gi kje n 2 qoume an = sn tn s s = 0 @exhgste thn prth isthtAF 9in llo trpo gi n podexoume ti an 0 eni me ton orismF 9istw > 0F efo sn sD uprqei n1 N ste |sn s| < 2 gi kje n n1 F ttoume n0 = n1 + 1F teD gi kje n n0 qoume n n1 ki n 1 n1 F unepD |s sn | < 2 ki |s sn1 | < 2 D p) pou peti ti

|an | = |sn sn1 | |sn s| + |s sn1 | <

gi kje n n0 F we sh ton orismD an 0F @A en
k=1

+ = 2 2

ak = sD tte p thn @PFIFTA qoume

(2.1.9)

n :=
k=n+1

ak = s sn 0

kj to n F ep ton orism tou orou koloujD gi kje > 0 uprqei N = N () N steX gi kje n N D |n | < F 2

hmewshF o mro @A th rtsh PFIFS qrhsimopoieti sn

lishc

kritrio

apk-

X en h kolouj (ak ) den sugklnei sto 0 tte h seir

ak ngkstik

poklneiF

k=1

IV eirs prgmtikn rijmn

rdegmt
@A r
gewmetrik seir

me lgo x R eni h seir

(2.1.10)
k=0

xk .

hhld ak = xk D k = 0, 1, 2, . . .F en x = 1 tte sn = n + 1D en n x = 1 qoume

(2.1.11)

sn = 1 + x + x2 + + xn =

xn+1 1 . x1

hikrnoume do periptseiX @iA en |x| 1 tte |ak | = |x|k 1D dhld ak 0F ep thn rtsh PFIFS@A lpoume ti h seir @PFIFIHA poklneiF @iiA en |x| < 1 tte xn+1 0D opte h @PFIFIIA deqnei ti sn
1 1x F

hhldD

(2.1.12)
k=0

xk =

1 . 1x

@A

Thleskopikc seirc.

pojtoume ti h kolouj (ak ) iknopoie thn

(2.1.13)

ak = bk bk+1
k=1

gi kje k ND pou (bk ) mi llh koloujF teD h seir ki mnon n h kolouj (bk ) sugklneiF rgmtiD qoume

ak sugklnei n

(2.1.14) sn = a1 + + an = (b1 b2 ) + (b2 b3 ) + + (bn bn+1 ) = b1 bn+1 ,

opte bn b n ki mnon n sn b1 b. n prdeigm jewrome th seir
k=1 1 k(k+1) F

teD

(2.1.15)
1 pou bk = k F 9erD

ak =

1 1 1 = = bk bk+1 , k(k + 1) k k+1

sn

= a1 + + an 1 1 1 = 1 + 2 2 3 1 = 1 1. n+1

+ +

1 1 n n+1

hhldD

(2.1.16)
k=1

1 = 1. k(k + 1)

PFP eirs me mh rnhtikos rous IW

terhm PFIFT @kritrio CauchyAF

isqei to exc: gia kje

H seir

ak
k=1

sugklnei

an

kai

mno

an

>0
n

uprqei

N = N( ) N

ste:

an

N m<n

tte

(2.1.17)
k=m+1
Apdeixh

ak = |am+1 + + an | < .

F en sn = a1 + a2 + + an eni to nEost merik jroism th seirD h seir sugklnei n ki mnon n h (sn ) sugklneiF hhldD n ki mnon n h (sn ) eni kolouj CauchyF eut mw eni @p ton orism th kolouj CauchyA isodnmo me to exX gi kje > 0 uprqei N = N ( ) N ste gi kje N m < nD

(2.1.18) |am+1 + + an | = |(a1 + + an ) (a1 + + am )| = |sn sm | < . 2

rdeigmX r
9iqoume ak =
1 k

armonik seir

k=1

1 kF

gi kje k NF rthrome tiX n n > m tte

(2.1.19)

am+1 + + an =

1 1 1 nm + + + . m+1 m+2 n n

ifrmzoume to kritrio tou CauchyF en h rmonik seir sugklneiD tteD gi = 1 D prpei n uprqei N N steX n N m < n tte 4

(2.1.20)

|am+1 + + an | <

1 . 4

ipilgoume m = N ki n = 2N F teD sunduzont ti @PFIFIWA ki @PFIFPHA prnoume

(2.1.21)

1 2N N 1 > aN +1 + + a2N = , 4 2N 2

pou eni topoF 9erD h rmonik seir poklneiF

hmewshX o prdeigm th rmonik seir deqnei ti to ntstrofo th roE

tsh PFIFS@A den isqeiF en ak 0 den eni prtht swst ti h seir sugklneiF

ak
k=1

PFP

eir me mh rnhtiko rou

e ut thn prgrfo suzhtme th sgklish pklish seirn me mh rnhtiko rouF r sik prtrhsh eni ti n gi thn kolouj (ak ) qoume ak 0 gi kje k ND tte h kolouj (sn ) twn merikn jroismtwn eni xousX prgmtiD gi kje n N qoume

(2.2.1)

sn+1 sn = (a1 + + an + an+1 ) (a1 + + an ) = an+1 0.

'Estw

terhm PFPFIF
sugklnei an kai fra gmnh. An h

(ak )
an h

akolouja

me

ak 0
twn

gia

kje

kN

seir

ak
k=1
nw

mnon

akolouja

(sn )

merikn

ajroismtwn

enai

(sn )

den enai

nw

fra gmnh, tte

ak = +
k=1

PH eirs prgmtikn rijmn

F r (sn ) eni xous koloujF en eni nw frgmnh tte sugklnei se prgmtik rijmD r h seir sugklneiF en h (sn ) den eni nw frgmnh tteD fo eni xousD qoume sn +F 2
Apdeixh Shmewsh

F idme ti mi seir me mh rnhtiko rou sugklnei poklnei sto

k=1 1 kD

+F ipistrfont sto prdeigm th rmonik seir

den sugklneiD poklnei sto +X

lpoume tiD fo

(2.2.2)
k=1

1 = +. k
1 2

t dsoume mi peuje pdeixh gi to gegon ti h kolouj sn = 1 + 1 + n tenei sto +F io sugkekrimnD j dexoume me epgwg ti

()

s2n 1 +

n 2

gi kje n N.

qi n = 1 h nistht isqei w isthtX s2 = 1 + 1 F pojtoume ti h () isqei 2 gi kpoion fusik nF teD

s2n+1 = s2n +

2n

1 1 1 + n + + n+1 . +1 2 +2 2

rthrste ti o s2n+1 s2n eni n jroism 2n to pljo rijmn ki ti o 1 mikrtero p uto eni o 2n+1 F unepD

s2n+1 s2n + 2n

1 1 n 1 n+1 . = s2n + 1 + + = 1 + 2n+1 2 2 2 2

9erD h () isqei gi ton fusik n + 1F 9ipeti ti s2n +F efo h (sn ) eni xous ki qei upkolouj pou tenei sto +D sumpernoume ti sn +F

PFP

eir me fjnonte mh rnhtiko rou

oll for sunntme seir

ak twn opown oi roi ak

kritrio sumpknwshc

fjnoun

pro to HX

ak+1 ak gi kje k N ki 0F 9in kritrio sgklish pou efrmzeti suqn se ttoie periptsei eni to F

k=1 ak

rtsh PFPFP @uritrio sumpknwsh E CauchyAF

akolouja me

'Estw

(ak )

mia

fjnousa

ak > 0

kai

ak 0

seir

ak
k=1

sugklnei

an

kai

mno

an

seir

k=0

2k a2k

sugklnei.

Apdeixh

F pojtoume prt ti h

k=0

2k a2k sugklneiF teD h kolouj twn

merikn jroismtwn

(2.2.3)

tn = a1 + 2a2 + 4a4 + + 2n a2n

eni nw frgmnhF 9istw M n nw frgm th (tn )F t dexoume ti o M eni nw frgm gi t merik jrosmt th

ak F 9istw sm = a1 + + am F y

k=1

PFP eirs me mh rnhtikos rous PI

rijm m rsketi nmes se do didoqik dunmei tou 2X prqei n N ste 2n m < 2n+1 F teD qrhsimopoint thn upjesh ti h (ak ) eni fjnousD qoume

sm

= a1 + (a2 + a3 ) + (a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 ) + + (a2n1 + + a2n 1 ) +(a2n + + am ) = a1 + (a2 + a3 ) + (a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 ) + + (a2n1 + + a2n 1 ) +(a2n + + am + + a2n+1 1 ) a1 + 2a2 + 4a4 + + 2n1 a2n1 + 2n a2n M.
k=1

efo h

ak qei mh rnhtiko rou ki h kolouj twn merikn jroismtwn

k=1

th eni nw frgmnhD to terhm PFPFI deqnei ti h entstrofX upojtoume ti h frgmnhX uprqei M R merik jroism (tn ) th seir

ak sugklneiF

ak sugklneiD dhld ti h (sm ) eni nw M gi kje m NF teD gi to tuqn

k=1 ste sm k k=1

2 a2k qoume

tn

= a1 + 2a2 + 4a4 + + 2n a2n 2a1 + 2a2 + 2(a3 + a4 ) + + 2(a2n1 +1 + + a2n ) = 2s2n 2M.
k=0

efo h (tn ) eni nw frgmnhD to terhm PFPFI deqnei ti h

2k a2k sugklneiF

rdegmt
@A
k=1 1 kp D

pou p > 0F 9iqoume ak =

1 kp F

efo p > 0D h (ak ) fjnei pro to HF

tewrome thn

(2.2.4)
k=0

2k a2k =
k=0

2k

1 1 p = 2p1 (2k ) k=0

1 r teleut seir eni gewmetrik seir me lgo xp = 2p1 idme ti sugklnei n 1 1 xp = 2p1 < 1D dhld n p > 1 ki poklnei n xp = 2p1 1, dhld n p 1F

ep to kritrio sumpknwshD h seir sto + n 0 < p 1F @A

k=2 1 k(log k)p D

k=1

1 kp

sugklnei n p > 1 ki poklnei efo p > 0D h (ak ) fjnei pro

pou p > 0F 9iqoume ak =

1 k(log k)p F

to HF tewrome thn

(2.2.5)
k=1

2k a2k =
k=1

2k

1 1 = p k (log(2k ))p (log 2) 2

k=1

1 . kp

PP eirs prgmtikn rijmn

ep to prohgomeno prdeigmD ut sugklnei n p > 1 ki poklnei n p 1F ep to kritrio sumpknwshD h seir sto + n 0 < p 1F
k=2 1 k(log k)p

sugklnei n p > 1 ki poklnei

PFP

y rijm e

9iqoume orsei ton rijm e w to rio th gnhsw xous ki nw frgmnh 1 n kolouj n := 1 + n kj to n F

rtsh PFPFQF
(2.2.6)

O arijmc

ikanopoie thn

e=
k=0

1 . k!

F tumhjete ti 0! = 1F qrfoume sn gi to nEost merik jroism th seir sto dexi mloX

Apdeixh

(2.2.7)

sn = 1 +

1 1 1 + + + . 1! 2! n!

ep to diwnumik nptugmD qoume

1+

1 n

n 1 n 1 n 1 + + + 1 n 2 n2 n nn n1 n(n 1) 1 n(n 1) (n k + 1) 1 + + + = 1+ 1! n 2! n2 k! nk n(n 1) 2 1 1 + + n! nn 1 1 1 1 1 n1 = 1+ + 1 + + 1 1 1! 2! n n! n n 1 1 1 1 + + + + , 1! 2! n! = 1+

dhldD

(2.2.8)

n sn .

9istw n NF y prohgomeno upologism deqnei ti n k > n tte

1+

1 k

1 1 1 1 + 1 + + 1 1! 2! k n! 1 1 k1 + + 1 1 k! k k 1 1 1 1 1 + + 1 1+ + 1! 2! k n! 1+

1 k

n1 k

1 k

n1 k

urtnt to n stjer ki fnont to k D lpoume ti

(2.2.9)

e = lim

1+

1 k

1+

1 1 1 + + + = sn . 1! 2! n!

PFP eirs me mh rnhtikos rous PQ

efo h xous kolouj (sn ) eni nw frgmnh p ton eD peti ti h (sn ) sugklnei ki lim sn eF ep thn llh pleurD h @PFPFVA deqnei ti e = lim n n n lim sn F 9erD
n

(2.2.10)
pw isqurzeti h rtshF

e = lim sn =
n k=0

1 , k! 2

rhsimopoint utn thn nprstsh tou eD j dexoume ti eni rrhto rijmF

rtsh PFPFRF
Apdeixh

enai rrhtoc.

F pojtoume ti o e eni rhtF teD uprqoun m, n N ste

(2.2.11)
hhldD

e=

m = n

k=0

1 . k!

(2.2.12)

m = n

1+

1 1 + + 1! n!

1 1 + + + (n + 1)! (n + s)!

ollplsizont t do mlh th @PFPFIPA me n!D mporome n gryoume

0 < A = n! =

1 1 m 1 + + + n 1! n! 1 1 1 + + + + . n + 1 (n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 1) (n + s)

rthrste tiD p ton trpo orismo touD o

(2.2.13)

A = n!

m 1 1 1 + + + n 1! n!

eni fusik rijmF 9ymwD gi kje s N qoume

1 1 1 + + + n + 1 (n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 1) (n + s)

< =

1 1 1 1 + + + + s 2 6 23 2 2 1 + 3 8

k=0

1 2k

2 1 11 + = . 3 4 12

9erD

(2.2.14)

1 1 1 11 + + + + . n + 1 (n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 1) (n + s) 12

9ipeti ti o fusik rijm A iknopoie thn

(2.2.15)
ki qoume ktlxei se topoF

0<A

11 12 2

PR eirs prgmtikn rijmn

PFQ
PFQ

qenik kritri
epluth sgklish seir

Lme ti h seir

yrism PFQFIF
sugklnei. Lme

ak
k=1

sugklnei

apoltwc

an

seir

|ak |
k=1
den

ti h seir

ak
k=1

sugklnei

up

sunjkh

an

sugklnei

all

sugklnei apoltwc.

r epmenh prtsh deqnei ti h pluth sgklish eni isqurterh p thn @plA sgklishF

rtsh PFQFPF
lnei.

An h seir

ak
k=1

sugklnei

apoltwc,

tte

seir

ak
k=1

sugk-

Apdeixh

F t dexoume ti iknopoieti to kritrio Cauchy @terhm PFIFTAF 9istw

> 0F efo h seir

|ak | sugklneiD uprqei N N steX gi kje N m < nD

n

k=1

(2.3.1)
k=m+1

|ak | < .

teD gi kje N m < n qoume

n n

(2.3.2)
k=m+1 k=1

ak
k=m+1

|ak | < .

9er h seir

ak iknopoie to kritrio CauchyF ep to terhm PFIFTD sugklneiF

rdegmt
@A r seir qoume
k=1 (1)k1 k2

sugklneiF wporome n elgxoume ti sugklnei poltwX

(2.3.3)
k=1

(1) k2

k1

=
k=1

1 k2
1 kp

ki h teleut seir sugklnei @eni th morf @A r seir

k=1 (1)k1 k

me p = 2 > 1AF

k=1

den sugklnei poltwD fo

(2.3.4)
k=1

(1) k

k1

=
k=1

1 k

PFQ qenik kritri PS

@rmonik seirAF wporome mw n dexoume ti h seir sugklnei up sunjkhF tewrome prt to merik jroism
2m

s2m

=
k=1

(1) k

k1

= =
9ipeti ti

1 1 1 1 1 + + + 2 3 4 2m 1 2m 1 1 1 1 + + + + . 12 34 56 (2m 1)2m

(2.3.5)

s2m+2 = s2m +

1 > s2m , (2m + 1)(2m + 2)

dhldD h upkolouj (s2m ) eni gnhsw xousF rthrome epsh ti h (s2m ) eni nw frgmnhD fo

(2.3.6)

s2m <

1 1 1 1 + 2 + 2 + + 2, 12 3 5 (2m 1)

ki to dexi mlo th @PFQFTA frsseti p to (2m 1)Eost merik jroism th seir

prgmtik rijm sF teD

k=1

1 k2

h opo sugklneiF 9er h upkolouj (s2m ) sugklnei se kpoion

(2.3.7)

s2m1 = s2m +

1 s + 0 = s. 2m

efo oi upkolouje (s2m ) ki (s2m1 ) twn rtiwn ki twn perittn rwn th (sm ) sugklnoun ston sD sumpernoume ti sn sF

PFQ

uritri sgkrish

Jewrome tic seirc

terhm PFQFQ @kritrio sgkrishAF

pou

ak
k=1

kai

bk
k=1

bk > 0

gia kje

kN

Upojtoume ti

uprqei

M >0

ste

(2.3.8)
gia kje

|ak | M bk

k N

kai

ti

seir

bk
k=1

sugklnei.

Tte,

seir

ak
k=1

sugklnei

apoltwc.

Apdeixh

F ttoume sn =

n k=1

|ak | ki tn =

n k=1

bk F ep thn @PFQFVA peti ti

(2.3.9)
gi kje n NF efo h seir
k=1

sn M tn bk sugklneiD h kolouj (tn ) eni nw frgmnhF

ep thn @PFQFWA sumpernoume ti ki h (sn ) eni nw frgmnhF 9erD h sugklneiF

|ak |
k=1

PT eirs prgmtikn rijmn

terhm PFQFR @orik kritrio sgkrishAF

Jewrome tic seirc

ak
k=1

kai

bk
k=1

, pou

bk > 0

gia kje

kN

Upojtoume ti

(2.3.10)

kai ti h seir

lim

ak = R bk

h seir

bk
k=1

sugklnei.

Tte,

ak
k=1

sugklnei apoltwc.

Apdeixh

F r kolouj M > 0 ste

ak bk

sugklneiD r eni frgmnhF hhldD uprqei

(2.3.11)

ak M bk

gi kje k NF teD iknopoieti h @PFQFVA ki mporome n efrmsoume to terhm PFQFQF 2

terhm PFQFS @isodnmh sumperiforAF

pou

Jewrome tic seirc

ak
k=1

kai

bk
k=1

ak , bk > 0

gia kje

kN

Upojtoume

ti

(2.3.10)

Tte, h seir

ak = > 0. k bk lim

bk
k=1

sugklnei an kai mno an h seir

ak
k=1

sugklnei.

Apdeixh

F en h k=1 bk sugklneiD tte h k=1 ak sugklnei p to terhm PFQFRF k entstrofD upojsoume ti h k=1 ak sugklneiF efo ak > 0D qoume b bk 1 k=1 bk ak F inllssont tou rlou twn (ak ) ki (bk )D lpoume ti h sugklneiD qrhsimopoint xn to terhm PFQFRF 2

rdegmt
@A ixetzoume th sgklish th seir
k=1 sin(kx) k2 D

pou x RF rthrome ti

(2.3.12)
efo h
k=1 k=1 sin(kx) k2 1 k2

sin(kx) 1 2. k2 k
sugklneiD sumpernoume @p to kritrio sgkrishA ti h seir

sugklnei poltwF
k=1 k+1 k4 +k2 +3 F

@A ixetzoume th sgklish th seir

k+1 k4 +k2 +3

rthrome ti n ak =

ki bk =

1 k3 D

tte

(2.3.13)

ak k4 + k3 = 4 1. bk k + k2 + 3

PFQ qenik kritri PU

efo h
k=1 k=1 k+1 k4 +k2 +3 1 k3

sugklneiD sumpernoume @p to orik kritrio sgkrishA ti h

sugklneiF
k+1 k2 +2 F 9ypw sto prohgomeno k=1 k+1 1 bk = k2 +2 ki ak = k D tte

@gA loD exetzoume th sgklish th seir prdeigmD n jewrsoume ti kolouje

(2.3.14)

k2 + 2 ak = 2 1 > 0. bk k +k
k=1 k+1 k2 +2

ep to terhm PFQFS peti ti h dhld poklneiF

qei thn di sumperifor me thn

k=1

1 kD

PFQg

uritrio lgou ki kritrio rz

'Estw

terhm PFQFT @uritrio lgou E D AlembertAF

mh mhdenikoc rouc.

ak
k=1

mia

seir

me

@A @A

An

ak+1 k ak

lim

<1 >1

, tte h

ak
k=1

sugklnei apoltwc.

An

lim

ak+1 ak

, tte h

ak
k=1

apoklnei.

Apdeixh

F @A pojtoume ti lim
k+1 | aak |

teD uprqei N N steX

ak+1 ak

< 1. 9istw x > 0 me

< x < 1F

x gi kje k N F hhldD |aN +2 | x|aN +1 | x2 |aN | klp.

(2.3.15)

|aN +1 | x|aN |,

ipgwgik deqnoume ti

(2.3.16)
gi kje k N F ugkrnoume ti seir

|ak | xkN |aN | =

k=N k=N

|aN | k x xN

|ak | ki

xk F ep thn @PFQFITA lpoume ti

(2.3.17)
gi kje k N D pou M = thn gewmetrik seir 9erD h
k=N k=0 |aN | xN

|ak | M xk
F r seir
k=N

xk sugklneiD diti prorqeti p

xk @me ploif twn prtwn rwn thA ki 0 < x < 1F

k=1

|ak | sugklneiF 9ipeti ti h

ak+1 ak

|ak | sugklnei ki utF

ak+1 ak

@A efo lim

> 1D uprqei N N ste

1 gi kje k N F hhldD

(2.3.18)

|ak | |ak1 | |aN | > 0

PV eirs prgmtikn rijmn

gi kje k N F teD ak 0 kiD p thn rtsh PFIFS@AD h
k=1

ak poklneiF

2
Shmewsh

F en lim

th

k=1

ak+1 ak

= 1D prpei n exetsoume lli th sgklish pklish

k=1 1 k

ak F rthrste ti h
ak+1 ak

poklnei ki

ak+1 ak

k k+1

1D en h

k=1

1 k2

sugklnei ki

k2 (k+1)2

1F

rdeigm
ixetzoume th sgklish th seir
k=0 1 k! F

9iqoume

(2.3.19)
9erD h seir sugklneiF

ak+1 k! 1 = = 0 < 1. ak (k + 1)! k+1

rtrhshF r pdeixh tou tewrmto PFQFTD qwr ousistik mettropD dnei

to ex isqurtero potlesmX 9istw @A en lim sup
k ak+1 ak

ak mi seir me mhdeniko rouF ak sugklnei poltwF rgmtiD n

< 1D tte h seir

k=1 k=1

jewrsoume x > 0 me

N N ste
@A en lim inf
k

ak+1 ak ak+1 ak

< x < 1D tte p ton qrkthrism tou lim supD uprqei x gi kje k N F uneqzoume thn pdeixh pw prinF > 1D tte h seir
k=1

ak poklneiF rgmtiD n jewrsoume

x > 0 me > x > 1D tte p ton qrkthrism tou lim inf D uprqei N N ste ak+1 x > 1 gi kje k N F uneqzoume thn pdeixh pw prinF ak

terhm PFQFU @kritrio rz E CauchyAF

arijmn.

'Estw

ak
k=1

mia seir pra gmatikn

@A @A

An

k
An

lim

|ak | < 1 |ak | > 1

, tte h

seir sugklnei apoltwc.

lim

, tte h

seir apoklnei.

Apdeixh

@A ipilgoume x > 0 me thn iditht lim

k

|ak | < x < 1F teD uprqei

N N ste (2.3.21)

|ak | x gi kje k N F ssodnmD |ak | xk

k=N

gi kje k nF ugkrnoume ti seir seir sugklneiF 9er h @A efo lim

k

|ak | ki

k=N

xk F efo x < 1D h deterh

k=1

k=N

|ak | sugklneiF 9ipeti ti h

k

ak sugklnei poltwF

|ak | > 1D uprqei N N ste

k=1

|ak | 1 gi kje k N F 2

hhldD |ak | 1 telikF 9er ak 0 ki h

ak poklneiF

PFQ qenik kritri PW

F en lim
k

Shmewsh

th

k=1

|ak | = 1D prpei n exetsoume lli th sgklish pklish

1 kD k=1 1 k2

ak F qi ti

k=1

qoume

|ak | 1F r prth poklnei en h

deterh sugklneiF

rdegmt
@A ixetzoume th sgklish th seir
|x| k k k=1 xk k D

pou x RF 9iqoume

|ak | =

|x|F en |x| < 1D tte lim

k

|ak | = |x| < 1 ki h seir sugklnei poltwF

k=1 (1)k k

en |x| > 1D tote lim

|ak | = |x| > 1 ki h seir poklneiF en |x| = 1D to

1 k

kritrio rz den dnei sumprsmF qi x = 1 prnoume thn rmonik seir h opo poklneiF qi x = 1 prnoume thn {enllssous seir} opo sugklneiF 9erD h seir sugklnei n ki mno n 1 x < 1F @A ixetzoume th sgklish th seir
x2 2 k k k=1 x2k k2 D k=1

pou x RF 9iqoume

|ak | =

x2 F 9erD lim

seir sugklnei poltwF en |x| = 1 to kritrio rz den dnei sumprsmF thn perptwsh x = 1 h seir prnei th morf sugklnei poltw tn |x| 1F
k=1 1 k2 D

|ak | = x2 F en |x| > 1 h seir poklneiF en |x| < 1 h

dhld sugklneiF 9erD h seir

rtrhshF r pdeixh tou tewrmto PFQFUD qwr ousistik mettropD dnei

to ex isqurtero potlesmX 9istw @A en lim sup
k
k

ak mi seir me mhdeniko rouF ak sugklnei poltwF rgmtiD n

|ak | < 1D tte h seir

k=1 k=1

jewrsoume x > 0 me < x < 1D tte p ton qrkthrism tou lim supD uprqei N N ste |ak | xk gi kje k N F uneqzoume thn pdeixh pw prinF @A en lim sup
k
k

|ak | > 1D tte h seir

k=1

ak poklneiF rgmtiD n jewrsoume

x > 0 me > x > 1D tte p ton qrkthrism tou lim supD uprqoun peiroi dekte k1 < k2 < < kn < kn+1 < ste |akn | xkn > 1 gi kje n NF 9erD an 0 ki efrmzeti to kritrio pklishF

PFQd

o kritrio tou Dirichlet

o kritrio tou Dirichlet exsflzei @merik forA th sgklish mi seir h opo den sugklnei poltw @sugklnei up sunjkhAF

vmm PFQFV @jroish kt mrh E AbelAF

Orz oume

sn = a1 + + an s0 = 0
,

Gia

kje

(ak ) 1m<n
'Estw

kai

(bk )

do akoloujec.

, isqei

h isthta

n1

(2.3.22)
k=m

ak bk =
k=m

sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn sm1 bm .

QH eirs prgmtikn rijmn

F qrfoume
n n

Apdeixh

ak bk
k=m

= =

(sk sk1 )bk

k=m n n

sk bk
k=m n k=m

sk1 bk
n1

=
k=m n1

sk bk
k=m1

sk bk+1

=
k=m

sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn sm1 bm , 2

'Estw

pou eni to zhtomenoF

terhm PFQFW @kritrio DirichletAF

exc idithtec:

(ak )
.

kai

(bk )

do

akoloujec

me

tic

@A @A

(bk )

qei jetikoc rouc kai fjnei proc to

H akolouja twn merikn ajroismtwn

0 sn = a1 + +an

thc

(ak )

enai fra gmnh:

uprqei

M >0

ste

(2.3.23)

gia kje

|sn | M nN
. Tte, h seir

ak bk
k=1

sugklnei.

Apdeixh

F t qrhsimopoisoume to kritrio tou CauchyF 9istw > 0F rhsiE mopoint thn upjesh @AD rskoume N N ste

(2.3.24)
9en N m < nD tte
n

> bN bN +1 bN +2 > 0. 2M

n1

ak bk
k=m

=
k=m n1

sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn sm1 bm |sk ||bk bk+1 | + |sn ||bn | + |sm1 ||bm |
k=m n1

M =

(bk bk+1 ) + M bn + M bm
k=m

2M bm < 2M
k=1

= .
ep to kritrio tou CauchyD h seir

2M 2

ak bk sugklneiF

PFQ qenik kritri QI

rdeigm @kritrio LeibnizA

Seirc me enallassmena prshma

(1)
k=1 k1

k1

bk D pou

{bk }

fjnei

proc

to

merik jrosmt th ((1) ) eni frgmnD fo sn = 0 n o n eE ni rtio ki sn = 1 n o n eni perittF 9erD kje ttoi seir sugklneiF rdeigmD h seir
k=1 (1)k1 F k

PFQe

Bhekdik prstsh prgmtikn rijmn

kop m se utn thn prgrfo eni n dexoume ti kje prgmtik rijm qei dekdik prstshX eni dhld jroism seir th morf

(2.3.25)
k=0

ak a1 a2 + , = a0 + + 10k 10 102

pou a0 Z ki ak {0, 1, . . . , 9} gi kje k 1F rthrste ti kje seir ut th morf sugklnei ki orzei nn prgE mtik rijm x = epeid 0
ak 10k k=0 ak . 10k

rgmtiD h gewmetrik seir

k=0 ak 10k

k=0

1 10k

sugklnei ki

9 10k

gi kje k 1D h seir

sugklnei smfwn me to

kritrio sgkrish seirnF

vmm PFQFIHF
(2.3.26)

An

N 1

kai

ak {0, 1, . . . , 9}

gia kje

kN

, tte

0
k=N

1 ak N 1 . k 10 10
an kai mnon an

arister

anisthta anisthta

isqei

san

isthta

en h dexi

isqei san

isthta an kai mnon an

ak = 0 ak = 9

gia

kje

gia kje

kN kN
.

Apdeixh

F 9iqoume

(2.3.27)
k=N

ak 10k
k=N

k=N

0 = 0. 10k

en ak = 0 gi kje k N D tte

ak 10k

= 0F entstrofD n am 1 gi kpoion

m N D tte

k=N

ak 10k

am + 10m 1 + 10m

k=N k=m

ak 10k 0 10k

k=N k=m

1 > 0. 10m

QP eirs prgmtikn rijmn

ep thn llh pleurD

(2.3.28)
k=N

ak 10k

k=N

9 9 = N 10k 10

1+

1 1 + + 10 102

1 . 10N 1

en ak = 9 gi kje k N D tte

(2.3.29)
k=N

ak = 10k

k=N

9 1 = N 1 . 10k 10

entstrofD n am 8 gi kpoion m N D tte

k=N

ak 10k

am + 10m 8 + 10m

k=N k=m

ak 10k 9 9 1 = m m+ 10k 10 10 9 10k

k=N k=m

k=N k=m

9 10k

1 + 10m

k=N

1 1 = m + N 1 10 10 1 < , 10N 1
ki ut sumplhrnei thn pdeixh tou vmmtoF

2 N 0 0 k N 1 pN 0
kai stw . Tte , uprqoun kai

vmm PFQFIIF
akraioi

'Estw

mh

arnhtikc

akraioc gia

p0 , p1 , . . . pn

ste:

pk {0, 1, . . . , 9}

(2.3.30)
Apdeixh

n = 10N pN + 10N 1 pN 1 + + 10p1 + p0 .

F hiirnt didoqik me 10 prnoume

n = 10q1 + p0 , pou 0 p0 9 ki q1 0 q1 = 10q2 + p1 , pou 0 p1 9 ki q2 0 q2 = 10q3 + p2 , pou 0 p2 9 ki q3 0 F F F F F F qN 1 = 10pN + pN 1 , pou 0 pN 1 9 ki qN 0.

ipgwgikD qoumeX

= =

10q1 + p0 = 102 q2 + 10p1 + p0 = 103 q3 + 102 p2 + 10p1 + p0 = 10N qN + 10N 1 pN 1 + 10p1 + p0 . 2

ttont pN = qN qoume to zhtomenoF

rhsimopoint t vmmt PFQFIH ki PFQFII j dexoume ti kje prgmtik rijm qei dekdik prstshF

PFQ qenik kritri QQ

terhm PFQFIPF @A
{dekadikc seirc}:

Kje

pra gmatikc

arijmc

x 0

grfetai

san

jroisma

(2.3.31) a0 N {0}
arijmo thc

x=
k=0

ak a1 a2 = a0 + + + , 10k 10 102
gia kje

pou

kai

dekadik parstash

@A

Oi

morfc

ak {0, 1, . . . , 9} x = a0 .a1 a2 a3 m x = 10N

.

k1
kai

Tte, lme ti o

qei th

pou

m N

N 0

qoun

akribc

do

dekadikc parastseic:

(2.3.32)

x = a0 .a1 a2 aN 9999 = a0 .a1 a2 aN 1 (aN + 1)000

'Oloi oi lloi mh arnhtiko pra gmatiko arijmo qoun monadik dekadik parstash.

Apdeixh

F @A 9istw x 0F prqei mh rnhtik krio a0 D to krio mro tou xD steX

(2.3.33)

a0 x < a0 + 1.
1 10 F

wrzoume to disthm [a0 , a0 + 1) se 10 s upodistmt mkou se n p utF 9erD uprqei a1 {0, 1, . . . , 9} ste

y x nkei

(2.3.34)

a0 +

a1 a1 + 1 x < a0 + . 10 10

1 wrzoume to no ut disthm @pou qei mko 10 A se IH s upodistmt mkou 1 102 F y x nkei se n p utD r uprqei a2 {0, 1, . . . , 9} ste

(2.3.35)

a0 +

a1 a1 a2 a2 + 1 + x < a0 + + . 10 102 10 102

uneqzont epgwgikD gi kje k 1 rskoume ak {0, 1, . . . , 9} ste

(2.3.36)

a0 +

a1 ak a1 ak + 1 + + k x < a0 + + + . 10 10 10 10k
k=0 ak 10k

ep thn ktskeuD t merik jrosmt sn th seir tiD iknopoion thn sn x < sn +

1 10n F

h opo dhmiourgeE

9erD

(2.3.37)
9ipeti ti sn xD dhld

0 x sn <

1 . 10n

(2.3.38)

x=
k=0

ak . 10k

@A e upojsoume ti kpoio x 0 qei toulqiston do diforetik dekdik prstseiF hhldD

(2.3.39)

x = a0 .a1 a2 = b0 .b1 b2 ,

QR eirs prgmtikn rijmn

pou a0 , b0 N {0}D ak , bk {0, 1, . . . , 9} gi kje k 1D ki uprqei m 0 me thn iditht am = bm F 9istw N 0 o elqisto m gi ton opoo am = bm F hhldD

(2.3.40)

a0 = b0 , a1 = b1 , . . . , aN 1 = bN 1 , aN = bN .

wr periorism th geniktht upojtoume ti aN < bN F ep thn

(2.3.41)
k=N

ak = 10k

k=N

bk 10k

ki p to vmm PFQFIH peti ti

1 10N

= =

k=N +1

bN aN 10N ak 10k 1 0 10N 1 . 10N

k=N +1

bk 10k

9erD le oi nisthte eni isthteF hhldD

(2.3.42)
ki

bN aN = 1

(2.3.43)
k=N +1

ak 1 = N, 10k 10

k=N +1

bk = 0. 10k

ep to vmm PFQFIHD

bN ak bk

= aN + 1, = 9, n k N + 1, = 0, n k N + 1.

9erD n o x qei perisstere p m dekdik prstseiD tte qei kri do prstseiD ti kloujeX

(2.3.44)

x = a0 .a1 a2 aN 999 = a0 .a1 a2 aN 1 (aN + 1) 00

teD o x isoti me

x = a0 + = =

a1 a2 aN 1 aN + 1 + + + N 1 + 10 102 10 10N N N 1 10 a0 + 10 a1 + + 10aN 1 + aN + 1 10N m 10N

gi kpoiou m N ki N 0F

PFR hunmoseirs QS
entstrofD stw ti x = mporome n gryoume
m 10N

D pou m N ki N 0F ep to vmm PFQFII

(2.3.45)

m = 10N pN + 10N 1 pN 1 + + 10p1 + p0 ,

pou pN N {0} ki pk {0, 1, . . . , 9} gi 0 k N 1F en pm eni o prto mh mhdenik ro th kolouj p0 , p1 , . . . , pN 1 , pN D tte

x =

10N pN + + 10m pm 10N pN 1 pm = pN + + + N m 10 10 = pN .pN 1 pm 000 = pN .pN 1 (pm 1) 99 . 2

eut oloklhrnei thn pdeixh tou @AF

PFR

hunmoseir

yrism PFRFIF 9istw (ak ) mi kolouj prgmtikn rijmnF r seir

(2.4.1)
k=0

ak xk
me suntelest ak

lgeti

dunamoseir

y x eni mi prmetro p to RF o prlhm pou j suzhtsoume ed eniX gi dojes kolouj suntelestn (ak ) n rejon oi tim tou x gi ti opoe h ntstoiqh dunmoseir sugklneiF qi kje ttoio x lme ti xF
h dunamoseir sugklnei sto

rtsh PFRFPF
@A @A
sto An h

'Estw

ak xk

mia dunamoseir

me suntelestc

ak

k=0
dunamoseir sugklnei sto

y = 0
kai an

kai

an

|x| < |y|

, tte h

tte

dunamoseir

sugklnei apoltwc sto

An

dunamoseir

apoklnei

sto

|x| > |y|

dunamoseir

apoklnei

Apdeixh

F @A efo h

k=0

ak y k sugklneiD qoume ak y k 0F 9erD uprqei N N

ste

(2.4.2)

|ak y k | 1 gi kje k N.

9istw x R me |x| < |y|F qi kje k N qoume

(2.4.3)
r gewmetrik seir
k=N

|ak xk | = |ak y k |
x y k

x y

x y

x y

sugklneiD diti

< 1F ep to kritrio sgkrish

peti to sumprsmF

QT eirs prgmtikn rijmn

@A en h dunmoseir sunkline sto xD p to @A j sunkline poltw sto y D topoF 2 9istw
k=0

ak xk mi dunmoseir me suntelest ak F we sh thn rtsh PFRFP

mporome n dexoume ti to snolo twn shmewn st opo sugklnei h dunmoseir eni {ousistik} n disthm summetrik w pro to 0 @D endeqomnwD to {0} to RAF eut fneti w exX orzoume

(2.4.4)

R := sup{|x| : h dunmoseir sugklnei sto x}.

o snolo sto dexi mlo eni mh kenD fo h dunmoseir sugklnei sto 0F r rtsh PFRFP deqnei ti n |x| < R tte h dunmoseir sugklnei poltw sto xF rgmtiD p ton orism tou R uprqei y me R |y| > |x| ste h dunmoseir n sugklnei sto y D opte efrmzeti h rtsh PFRFP@A sto xF ep ton orism tou R eni fner ti n |x| > R tte h dunmoseir poklnei sto xF 9erD h dunmoseir sugklnei se kje x (R, R) ki poklnei se kje x me |x| > RF o disthm (R, R) onomzeti th dunmoseirF r suzthsh pou knme deqnei ti to th dunmoseirD dhld to snolo lwn twn shmewn st opo sugklneiD prokptei p to (R, R) me thn prosjkh @swA tou R tou R twn RF thn perptwsh pou R = +D h dunmoseir sugklnei se kje x RF thn perptwsh pou R = 0D h dunmoseir sugklnei mno sto shmeo x = 0F
disthma sgklishc snolo sgklishc

o prlhm eni loipn tr to exX p mporome n prosdiorsoume thn mi dunmoseir sunrtsei twn suntelestn thF wi pnthsh m dnei to kritrio th rz gi th sgklish seirnF
tna sgklishc

ak-

terhm PFRFQF
ti uprqei to

'Estw

ak xk
kai

mia

dunamoseir

me

suntelestc

ak
ti

Upojtoume

k=0 k

lim

|ak | = a

jtoume

R=

1 a

me

th

smbash

1 0

= +

kai

=0 @A x (R, R) @A x [R, R] /
. An An Apdeixh

1 +

h dunamoseir sugklnei

apoltwc sto

h dunamoseir apoklnei sto

F ifrmzoume to kritrio th rz gi th sgklish seirnF ixetzoume mno thn perptwsh 0 < a < + @oi periptsei a = 0 ki a = + fnonti sn skhshAF @A en |x| < R tte

(2.4.5)

lim

|ak xk | = |x| lim

k=0

|ak | = |x|a =

|x| < 1. R

ep to kritrio th rzD h @A en |x| > R tte

ak xk sugklnei poltwF

(2.4.6)
ep to kritrio th rzD h

k k=0

lim

|ak xk | =

|x| > 1. R 2

ak xk poklneiF

PFS eskseis QU

rtrhsh PFRFRF o terhm PFRFQ den m epitrpei n sumpernoume msw

ti sumnei st {kr R tou distmto sgklish}F 9ypw deqnoun t epmen prdegmtD mpore h dunmoseir n sugklnei se nD se knn ki st do krF IF qi thn
k=0

xk elgqoume ti R = 1F qi x = 1 qoume ti seir 1k

k=0

ki
k=0

(1)k

oi opoe poklnounF PF qi thn

k=0 xk (k+1)2

elgqoume ti R = 1F qi x = 1 qoume ti seir

k=0

1 (k + 1)2

ki
k=0

(1)k (k + 1)2

oi opoe sugklnounF QF qi thn

k=0 xk k+1

elgqoume ti R = 1F qi x = 1 qoume ti seir

k=0

1 k+1

ki
k=0

(1)k . k+1

r prth poklneiD en h deterh sugklneiF entstoiqo potlesm prokptei n qrhsimopoisoume to kritrio tou lgou sth jsh tou krithrou th rzF

terhm PFRFSF
@A @A

'Estw

toume ti uprqei to

ak xk mia dunamoseir me suntelestc k=0 1 lim ak+1 = a kai jtoume R = a . k ak x

. sto

ak = 0

Upoj-

An

An

x (R, R) x [R, R] /

h dunamoseir sugklnei apoltwc sto

h dunamoseir apoklnei

Apdeixh

F ifrmste to kritrio tou lgou gi th sgklish seirnF

PFS

esksei

e9 ymdF irwtsei ktnhsh

9istw (ak ) mi kolouj prgmtikn rijmnF ixetste n oi prktw protsei eni lhje yeude @itiologste plrw thn pnthsh sAF

IF en ak 0 tte h kolouj sn = a1 + + an eni frgmnhF PF en h kolouj sn = a1 + + an eni frgmnh tte h seir

k=1

ak sugklneiF

QV eirs prgmtikn rijmn

QF en |ak | 0D tte h seir RF en h seir

k=1

k=1

ak sugklnei poltwF
k=1 ak+1 ak

|ak | sugklneiD tte h seir

ak sugklneiF

SF en ak > 0 gi kje k N ki n 0 <

k=1

< 1 gi kje k ND tte h seir

ak sugklneiF
ak+1 k ak

TF en ak > 0 gi kje k N ki n lim UF en ak > 0 gi kje k N ki n VF en ak 0D tte h seir

k=1

= 1D tte h seir

k=1 k=1

ak poklneiF ak poklneiF

ak+1 ak

+D tte h h seir

(1)k ak sugklneiF
k=1

WF en ak > 0 gi kje k N ki n h seir

sugklneiF

ak sugklneiD tte h seir

k=1

ak

IHF en h seir IIF en h seir

seir
k=1

k=1 k=1

ak sugklneiD tte h seir

k=1

a2 sugklneiF k

ak sugklnei ki n (akn ) eni mi upkolouj th (an )D tte h

akn sugklneiF
k=1

IPF en ak > 0 gi kje k N ki n h seir

sugklneiF

ak sugklneiD tte h seir

k=1

a2 k

IQF r seir IRF r seir f9 ymd

k=1

246(2k) k!

sugklneiF

k=1

k(1 + k 2 )p sugklnei n ki mno n p < 1F

ISF hexte ti n lim bk = b tte

k

k=1

(bk bk+1 ) = b1 bF

ITF hexte ti
@A
k=1 1 (2k1)(2k+1)

1 2

@A

k=1

2k +3k 6k

3 2

@gA

k+1 k 2 +k k k=1

= 1F

PFS eskseis QW

IUF pologste to jroism th seir

k=1

1 k(k+1)(k+2) F k=1

IVF ixetste gi poi tim tou prgmtiko rijmo x sugklnei h seir IWF ifrmste t kritri lgou ki rz sti klouje seirX
@A @eA
k=1 k=0 2k k k! x

1 F 1+xk

k k xk

@A @stA

k=0

xk k! 2k xk k2

@gA

k=1

xk k2 k3 k x 3k

@dA

k=0

k 3 xk
k=1 k10 xk k! F

@zA

@hA

k=1

k=0

en gi kpoie tim tou x R knn p ut t do kritri den dnei pnthshD exetste th sgklish pklish th seir me llo trpoF

PHF ixetste n sugklnoun poklnoun oi seir

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + 2 + 2 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 4 + 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
ki

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + . +1+ + + + + 2 8 4 32 16 128 64

PIF x reje ikn ki ngk sunjkh gi thn kolouj (an ) ste n sugklnei h seir a1 a1 + a2 a2 + a3 a3 + . PPF ixetste n sugklnei poklnei h seir
@A ak = @gA ak =
n=1

ak sti prktw periptseiX

k+1

k+1 k k

@A ak = 1 + k 2 k @dA ak = ( k k 1)k F

PQF ixetste n sugklnoun poklnoun oi seir

k=1

k+ k , 2k 3 1

k ( k 1),

k=1

k=1

cos2 k , k2

k=1

k! . kk

PRF ixetste w pro th sgklish ti prktw seirF 9ypou emfnzonti oi

k=1 k=1 1 pk q k k=2

prmetroi p, q, x R n rejon oi tim tou gi ti opoe oi ntstoiqe seir sugklnounF @A @dA @zA

1+
k=1 k=1 k=1 1
1 k1+ k

2 1 k k

@A

pk k p (0 < p) (0 < q < p)

k=1

@gA @stA

1 kp kq

(0 < q < p)

@eA

k=1

2+(1)k 2k

kp

1 k

1 k+1

@hA

kp

k+12 k+

k1 F

RH eirs prgmtikn rijmn

PSF 9istw ti ak 0 gi kje k NF hexte ti h seir

k=1

ak 1+k2 ak

sugklneiF

PTF yrzoume mi kolouj (ak ) w exX n o k eni tetrgwno fusiko rijmo 1 1 jtoume ak = k ki n o k den eni tetrgwno fusiko rijmo jtoume ak = k2 F
ixetste n sugklnei h seir

ak F
k=1

k=1

PUF ixetste n sugklnei poklnei h seir

(1)k k1p D pou p RF

PVF 9istw {ak } fjnous kolouj pou sugklnei sto 0F yrzoume

s=
k=1

(1)k1 ak .

hexte ti 0 (1)n (s sn ) an+1 F

PWF 9istw (ak ) fjnous kolouj jetikn rijmnF hexte tiX n h

sugklnei tte kak 0F
k=1

ak
k=1

QHF 9istw ti ak > 0 gi kje k NF en h

a2 , k
k=1 k=1

ak sugklneiD dexte ti oi

ak , 1 + ak

k=1

a2 k 1 + a2 k

sugklnoun epshF

QIF pojtoume ti ak 0 gi kje k N ki ti h seir

ti h seir
k=1

k=1

ak sugklneiF hexte

ak ak+1 sugklneiF hexte tiD n h {ak } eni fjnousD tte isqei

ki to ntstrofoF

QPF pojtoume ti ak 0 gi kje k N ki ti h seir

ti h seir
k=1 ak k

k=1

ak sugklneiF hexte

sugklneiF
k=1

QQF pojtoume ti ak 0 gi kje k N ki ti h seir

ti

ak poklneiF hexte

k=1

ak = 1. (1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) (1 + ak )

PFS eskseis RI

q9 ymd QRF 9istw (ak ) fjnous kolouj jetikn rijmn me ak 0F hexte tiX n h

ak poklnei tte

k=1

min ak ,
k=1

1 k

= +.

QSF pojtoume ti ak > 0 gi kje k N ki ti h

sn = a1 + a2 + + an F
@A hexte ti h
k=1 ak 1+ak

k=1

ak poklneiF ttoume

poklneiF

@A hexte tiX gi 1 m < nD

am+1 an sm + + 1 sm+1 sn sn
ki sumpernte ti h @gA hexte ti
an s2 n k=1 ak sk

poklneiF
k=1 k=1 ak s2 k

1 sn1

1 sn

ki sumpernte ti h

sugklneiF

QTF pojtoume ti ak > 0 gi kje k N ki ti h

ak sugklneiF ttoume

rn =
k=n

ak F

@A hexte tiX gi 1 m < nD

am an rn+1 + + 1 rm rn rm
ki sumpernte ti h @A hexte ti
a n rn k=1 ak rk

poklneiF

<2

rn

rn+1 ki sumpernte ti h

k=1

a k rk

sugklneiF

QUF 9istw (ak ) kolouj prgmtikn rijmnF hexte ti n h seir

poklnei tte ki h seir
k=1

ak
k=1

kak poklneiF

QVF 9istw (ak ) kolouj jetikn prgmtikn rijmnF hexte ti n h seir

ak sugklneiD tte ki h

k=1

k=1

k+1 ak sugklneiF

RP eirs prgmtikn rijmn

QWF 9istw (ak ) h kolouj pou orzeti p ti

a2k1 =
ixetste n h seir
k=1

1 k

ki a2k =

1 . 2k

(1)k1 ak sugklneiF

RHF pojtoume ti ak 0 gi kje k NF yrzoume

bk =
k=1

1 k

2k

am .
m=k+1 k=1

hexte ti h

ak sugklnei n ki mno n h

bk sugklneiF

Updeixh:

en sn

ki tn eni t merik jrosmt twn do seirnD dokimste n sugkrnete t s2n ki tn F

RIF 9istw (ak ) kolouj jetikn prgmtikn rijmnF tewrome thn kolouj
bk =
hexte tiX n h
k=1

a1 + 2a2 + + kak . k(k + 1)

k=1

ak sugklneiD tte h seir

bk sugklnei ki t jrosmt

twn do seirn eni sF

RPF 9istw (ak ) kolouj jetikn rijmn ste

n

k=1

ak = + ki ak 0F hexte

ti n 0 < tte uprqoun fusiko m n ste

<
k=m

ak < .

RQF hexte ti n 0 < tte uprqoun fusiko m n ste

< 1 1 1 + + + < . m m+1 n

Keflaio 3

Omoimorfh sunqeia
QFI ymoimorfh sunqei
rin dsoume ton orism th omoimorfh sunqeiD j exetsoume pio prosE ektik do pl prdegmt suneqn sunrtsewnF @A tewrome th sunrthsh f (x) = xD x RF qnwrzoume ti h f eni suneq sto RD kti pou ekol epieinoume usthr qrhsimopoint ton orism th sunqeiX 9istw x0 R ki stw > 0F htme > 0 ste

(3.1.1)

|x x0 | < = |f (x) f (x0 )| < , dhld |x x0 | < .

r epilog tou eni profnX rke n proume = F rthrste ti to pou rkme exrtti mno p to pou djhke ki qi p to sugkekrimno shmeo x0 F r sunrthsh f metlleti me ton {dio rujm} se olklhro to pedo orismo thX n x, y R ki |x y| < D tte |f (x) f (y)| < F @A tewrome tr th sunrthsh g(x) = x2 D x RF ini pli gnwst ti h g eni suneq sto R @fo g = f f AF en jelsoume n to epieisoume me ton eyilontik orismD jewrome x0 R ki > 0D ki zhtme > 0 me thn iditht

(3.1.2)

|x x0 | < = |x2 x2 | < . 0

9in trpo gi n epilxoume ktllhlo eni o exF umfwnome p thn rq ti j proume 0 < 1D opte

|x2 x2 | = |x x0 | |x + x0 | (|x| + |x0 |) |x x0 | 0 (2|x0 | + 1)|x x0 |.

en loipn epilxoume

(3.1.3)
tte

= min 1,

2|x0 | + 1

(3.1.4)

|x x0 | < = |x2 x2 | < (2|x0 | + 1) . 0

RR ymoimorfh sunqei
9erD h g eni suneq sto x0 F rthrste mw ti to pou epilxme den exrtti mno p to pou m djhkeD ll ki p to shmeo x0 sto opoo elgqoume thn sunqei th g F r epilog pou knme sthn @QFIFQA deqnei ti so pio mkri rsketi to x0 p to HD tso pio mikr prpei n epilxoume to F t mporose i n pei kne ti sw uprqei kltero trpo epilog tou D km ki nexrthto p to shmeo x0 F e dome to dio prlhm me nn detero trpoF tewrome x0 > 0 ki > 0F wporome n upojsoume ti < x2 D fo t mikr eni ut pou prousizoun endifronF wporome 0 epsh n koitme mno x > 0D fo m endifrei ti gneti kont sto x0 to opoo qei upoteje jetikF r nistht |x2 x2 | < iknopoieti n ki mno n 0 x2 < x2 < x2 + D dhld n ki mno n 0 0

(3.1.5)
ssodnmD n

x2 < x < 0

x2 + . 0

(3.1.6)

x0

x2 0

< x x0 <

x2 + x0 . 0

eut sumnei n ki mno n

|x x0 | < min x0 = =
pojsme ti x2 > F 9erD 0

x2 , 0 ,

x2 + x0 0 x2 0 + + x0

min

x2 0

+ x0 .

x2 + + x0 0

(3.1.7)

x2 + + x0 0

<

x2 0 x2 + + x0 0

<

x2 0 = x0 . x0

en loipn |x x0 | <

upologism deqnei ti epilog tou sto shmeo x0 eni

D tte |x x0 | < x2 ++x0 0 |x2 x2 | < F hhldD 0

x0 x > 0 ki o prohgomeno
n 0 < < x2 tte h klterh 0

(3.1.8)

= (, x0 ) =

x2 0 + + x0

hen mporome n exsflsoume thn @QFIFPA n epilxoume megltero F en t prohgomen do epiqeirmt den eni poltw peistikD dnoume ki n trtoF

ssqurismF tewrome thn g(x) = x2 D x RF 9istw > 0F hen uprqei > 0 me

thn idithtX n x, y R ki |y x| < tte |g(y) g(x)| < F
omoimorfh epilog

rthrste ti o isqurism eni isodnmo me to exX gi dojn > 0 den uprqei kpoi tou pou n m epitrpei n elgqoume thn @QFIFPA se x0 RF
kje

QFI ymoimorfh sunqei RS

F e upojsoume ti uprqei > 0 steX n x, y R ki |y x| < tte |g(y)g(x)| < F efo gi kje x R qoume x + 2 x = 2 < D prpeiD gi kje x R n isqei h
Apdeixh tou isqurismo

(3.1.9)

x+

x2 < .

iidikterD gi kje x > 0 prpei n isqei h

(3.1.10)

x < x +

2 = 4

x+

x2 < .

9ymw tteD gi kje x > 0 j eqme

(3.1.11)

x<

. 2

eut eni topoX to R j tn nw frgmnoF

prdegmt pou dsme deqnoun mi {prleiy} m ston orism th sunqeiF 9in pio prosektik orism j tn o exX r f : A R eni suneq sto x0 A n gi kje > 0 uprqei (, x0 ) > 0 steX n x A ki |x x0 | < D tte |f (x) f (x0 )| < F y sumolism (, x0 ) j deiqne ti to exrtti tso p to so ki p to shmeo x0 F yi sunrtsei @pw h f (x) = xA pou m epitrpoun n epilgoume to nexrtht p to x0 lgonti X
omoimorfa suneqec

yrism QFIFIF 9istw f : A R mi sunrthshF vme ti h f eni omoimorf suneq sto A n gi kje > 0 mporome n rome = () > 0 ste
(3.1.12)
an

x, y A

kai

|x y| <

tte

|f (x) f (y)| < .

rdegmt
@A r f (x) = x eni omoimorf suneq sto RF @A r g(x) = x2 den eni omoimorf suneq sto RF @gA tewrome th sunrthsh g(x) = x2 tou @AD periorismnh mw sto kleist disthm [M, M ]D pou M > 0F teD gi kje x, y [M, M ] qoume

(3.1.13)

|g(y) g(x)| = |y 2 x2 | = |x + y| |y x| 2M |y x|.

2M

hneti > 0F en epilxoume () = [M, M ] ki |x y| < qoume

tte h @QFIFIQA deqnei ti n x, y

(3.1.14)

|g(y) g(x)| 2M |y x| < 2M = .

hhldD h g eni omoimorf suneq sto [M, M ]F o prdeigm @gA odhge ston ex orismF

yrism QFIFPF 9istw f : A R mi sunrthshF vme ti h f eni Lipschitz

suneqc

n uprqei M > 0 steX gi kje x, y A

(3.1.15)

|f (x) f (y)| M |x y|.

RT ymoimorfh sunqei

rtsh QFIFQF
Apdeixh

Kje

Lipschitz

suneqc sunrthsh

enai omoimorfa

suneqc.

F 9istw f : A R ki M > 0 ste |f (x) f (y)| M |x y| gi kje x, y AF en m dsoun > 0D epilgoume = M F teD gi kje x, y A me |x y| < qoume

(3.1.16)

|f (x) f (y)| M |x y| < M = . 2

9ipeti ti h f eni omoimorf suneq sto AF

r epmenh rtsh m dnei n qrsimo kritrio gi n exsflzoume ti mi sunrthsh eni Lipschitz suneq @rD omoimorf suneqAF

rtsh QFIFRF
Upojtoume ti h

'Estw

na disthma kai stw

enai fra gmnh:

uprqei stajer h

kje eswterik shmeo

tou

Tte,

enai

f :IR M >0 Lipschitz

para gw gsimh sunrthsh. ste:

suneqc me stajer

|f (x)| M M

gia .

Apdeixh

F 9istw x < y sto I F ep to jerhm msh tim uprqei (x, y) ste

(3.1.17)
teD

f (y) f (x) = f ()(y x).

(3.1.18)

|f (y) f (x)| = |f ()| |y x| M |y x|. 2

mfwn me ton yrism QFIFPD h f eni Lipschitz suneq me stjer M F

ep th suzthsh pou prohgjhke tou orismo th omoimorfh sunqeiD eni logik n perimnoume ti oi omoimorf suneqe sunrtsei eni suneqeF eut podeikneti me pl sgkrish twn do orismnX

rtsh QFIFSF
Apdeixh

An h

f :AR

enai omoimorfa suneqc, tte enai suneqc.

F rgmtiX stw x0 A ki > 0F ep ton orism th omoimorfh sunqeiD uprqei > 0 ste n x, y A ki |x y| < tte |f (x) f (y)| < F ipilgoume ut to F en x A ki |x x0 | < D tte |f (x) f (x0 )| < @prte y = x0 AF efo to > 0 tn tuqnD h f eni suneq sto x0 F 2

QFP

rkthrism th omoimorfh sunqei msw kolouE jin

tumhjete ton qrkthrism th sunqei msw koloujinX n f : A RD tte h f eni suneq sto x0 A n ki mno n gi kje kolouj (xn ) me xn A ki xn x0 D isqei f (xn ) f (x0 )F y ntstoiqo qrkthrism th omoimorfh sunqei qei w exX

terhm QFPFIF
sto

'Estw

f :AR

mia

sunrthsh.

an kai mno an gia kje z eugri akoloujin

f (xn ) (yn )
H ,

enai

omoimorfa

suneqc

sto

me

xn yn 0

isqei

(3.2.1)

f (xn ) f (yn ) 0.

QFP rkthrisms ths omoimorfhs sunqeis msw koloujin RU

F pojtoume prt ti h f eni omoimorf suneq sto AF 9istw (xn )D (yn ) do kolouje sto A me xn yn 0F t dexoume ti f (xn ) f (yn ) 0X 9istw > 0F ep ton orism th omoimorfh sunqeiD uprqei > 0 ste

Apdeixh

(3.2.2)

n x, y A ki |x y| <

tte |f (x) f (y)| < .

efo xn yn 0D uprqei n0 () N steX n n n0 tte |xn yn | < F 9istw n n0 F teD |xn yn | < ki xn , yn AD opte h (3.2.2) dnei

(3.2.3)

|f (xn ) f (yn )| < .

efo to > 0 tn tuqnD sumpernoume ti f (xn ) f (yn ) 0F entstrofX upojsoume ti

(3.2.4)

n xn , yn A ki xn yn 0 tte f (xn ) f (yn ) 0.

t dexoume ti h f eni omoimorf suneq sto AF 9istw ti den eniF teD uprqei > 0 me thn ex idithtX qi kje > 0 uprqoun x , y A me |x y | < ll |f (x ) f (y )| F
1 ipilgont didoqik = 1, 1 , . . . , n , . . .D rskoume zeugri xn , yn A ste 2

(3.2.5)

|xn yn | <

1 n

ll |f (xn ) f (yn )| .

tewrome ti kolouje (xn )D (yn )F ep thn ktskeu qoume xn yn 0D ll p thn |f (xn ) f (yn )| gi kje n N lpoume ti den mpore n isqei h f (xn ) f (yn ) 0 @exhgste gitAF eut eni topoD r h f eni omoimorf suneq sto AF 2

rdegmt
1 @A tewrome th sunrthsh f (x) = x sto (0, 1]F r f eni suneq ll eni omoimorf suneqF qi n to domeD rke n rome do kolouje (xn )D (yn ) sto (0, 1] pou n iknopoion thn xn yn 0 ll n mhn iknopoion thn x1 y1 0F n n 1 1 rnoume xn = n ki yn = 2n F teD xn , yn (0, 1] ki
den

(3.2.6)
ll

xn yn =

1 1 1 = 0 n 2n 2n

(3.2.7)

f (xn ) f (yn ) =

1 1 = n 2n = n . xn yn
1 n

@A tewrome th sunrthsh g(x) = x2 sto RF yrzoume xn = n + teD

ki yn = nF

(3.2.8)
ll

xn yn =

1 0 n

(3.2.9)

g(xn ) g(yn ) =

n+

1 n

n2 = 2 +

1 2 = 0. n2

RV ymoimorfh sunqei
9erD h g den eni omoimorf suneq sto RF @gA yrzoume f (x) = cos(x2 )D x RF r f eni suneq sto R ki |f (x)| 1 gi kje x RF hhldD h f eni epiplon frgmnhF 9ymw h f eni omoimorf suneqX gi n to deteD jewrste ti kolouje (3.2.10) xn = (n + 1) ki yn = n.
den

teD (3.2.11)

xn yn =
ll

(n + 1)

n =

(n + 1) n = (n + 1) + n

(n + 1) +

0,

(3.2.12)

|f (xn ) f (yn )| = | cos((n + 1)) cos(n)| = 2

gi kje n NF ep to terhm QFPFI peti to sumprsmF prqoun loipn frgmne suneqe sunrtsei pou den eni omoimorf suneqe @sqediste th grfik prstsh th cos(x2 ) gi n dete to lgoX gi megl xD h f nenei p thn tim 1 sthn tim 1 ki ktenei p thn tim 1 sthn tim 1 lo ki pio grgor E o rujm metol th gneti pol megloAF

QFQ

uneqe sunrtsei se kleist distmt

thn prgrfo QFI edme ti h sunrthsh g(x) = x2 den eni omoimorf suneq sto I = R ll eni omoimorf suneq se kje disthm th morf I = [M, M ]D M > 0 @osodpote meglo ki n eni to M AF eut pou isqei genik eni ti kje suneq sunrthsh f : [a, b] R eni omoimorf suneqX

terhm QFQFIF
Apdeixh

'Estw

f : [a, b] R

suneqc

sunrthsh.

Tte,

enai

omoi-

morfa suneqc sto

[a, b]

F e upojsoume ti h f den eni omoimorf suneqF teD pw sthn pdeixh tou tewrmto QFPFID mporome n rome > 0 ki do kolouje (xn )D (yn ) sto [a, b] me xn yn 0 ki |f (xn ) f (yn )| gi kje n NF efo a xn , yn b gi kje n ND oi (xn ) ki (yn ) eni frgmne kolouE jeF ep to terhm Bolzano-WeierstrassD uprqei upkolouj (xkn ) th (xn ) h opo sugklnei se kpoio x RF efo a xkn b gi kje nD sumpernoume ti a x bF hhldD

(3.3.1)

xkn x [a, b].

rthrste ti xkn ykn 0D r

(3.3.2)

ykn = xkn (xkn ykn ) x 0 = x.

ep th sunqei th f sto x peti ti

(3.3.3)
hhldD

f (xkn ) f (x)

ki

f (ykn ) f (x).

(3.3.4)

f (xkn ) f (ykn ) x x = 0.

QFQ uneqes sunrtseis se kleist distmt RW

eut eni topoD fo |f (xkn ) f (ykn )| gi kje n NF 9erD h f eni omoimorf suneq sto [a, b]F 2
Paratrhsh

F o gegon ti h f tn orismnh sto kleist disthm [a, b] qrhsimopoijhke me do trpouF rtonD mporsme n rome sugklnouse upE kolouje twn (xn )D (yn ) @jerhm Bolzano-WeierstrassAF heteronD mporosme n pome ti to koin rio x utn twn upkoloujin exkolouje n rsketi sto pedo orismo [a, b] th f F rhsimopoisme dhld to exX

(3.3.5)

n a zn b ki zn z, tte a z b.

o epmeno jerhm podeiknei ti oi omoimorf suneqe sunrtsei qoun thn ex {kl iditht}X peikonzoun kolouje Cauchy se kolouje CauchyF eut 1 den isqei gi le ti suneqe sunrtseiX jewrste thn f (x) = x sto (0, 1]F r 1 xn = n eni kolouj Cauchy sto (0, 1]D mw h f (xn ) = n den eni kolouj CauchyF

terhm QFQFPF
akolouja

'Estw sto

Cauchy

f :AR (f (xn ))
Tte, h

omoimorfa

suneqc

sunrthsh

kai

stw

(xn )

enai akolouja

Cauchy

9istw > 0F prqei > 0 steX n x, y A ki |x y| < tte |f (x) f (y)| < F r (xn ) eni kolouj CauchyD r uprqei n0 () ste
Apdeixh.

(3.3.6)
9ymw tteD

n m, n n0 (),

tte |xn xm | < .

(3.3.7)

|f (xn ) f (xm )| < .

frkme n0 N me thn iditht

(3.3.8)

n m, n n0 () tte |f (xn ) f (xm )| < .

efo to > 0 tn tuqnD h (f (xn )) eni kolouj CauchyF

idme ti kje suneq sunrthsh f orismnh se kleist disthm eni omoiE morf suneqF t exetsoume to ex erthmX 9istw f : (a, b) R suneq sunrthshF mporome n elgxoume n h f eni omoimorf suneq sto (a, b)c

terhm QFQFQF
suneqc sto

'Estw

f : (a, b) R

suneqc ta

sunrthsh. kai

(a, b)

an kai mno an

uprqoun

xa
Apdeixh

lim+ f (x)

xb

f lim f (x)
enai

omoimorfa

F pojtoume prt ti uprqoun t lim f (x) ki lim f (x)F yrzoume

xa+ xb xa+ xb

mi {epktsh} g th f sto [a, b]D jtontX g(a) = lim f (x)D g(b) = lim f (x) ki g(x) = f (x) n x (a, b)F r g eni suneq sto kleist disthm [a, b] @exhgste gitAD r omoimorf suneqF t dexoume ti h f eni ki ut omoimorf suneq sto (a, b)F 9istw > 0F efo h g eni omoimorf suneqD uprqei > 0 steX n x, y [a, b] ki |x y| < tte |g(x) g(y)| < F tewrome x, y (a, b) me |x y| < F teD p ton orism th g qoume

(3.3.9)

|f (x) f (y)| = |g(x) g(y)| < .

SH ymoimorfh sunqei
entstrofD upojtoume ti h f eni omoimorf suneq sto (a, b) ki deqnoume ti uprqei to limxa+ f (x) @h prxh tou llou pleuriko orou podeikneti me ton dio trpoAF t dexoume ti n (xn ) eni kolouj sto (a, b) me xn aD tte h (f (xn )) sugklneiF eut eni meso p to terhm QFQFPX h (xn ) sugklneiD r h (xn ) eni kolouj CauchyD r h (f (xn )) eni kolouj CauchyD r h (f (xn )) sugklnei se kpoion prgmtik rijm F ipshD to rio th (f (xn )) eni nexrthto p thn epilog th (xn )X stw (yn ) mi llh kolouj sto (a, b) me yn aF teD xn yn 0F ep to terhm QFPFID

(3.3.10)
n

f (xn ) f (yn ) 0.

roume dh ti lim f (xn ) = D r

(3.3.11)

f (yn ) = f (xn ) (f (xn ) f (yn )) + 0 = .

xa+

ep thn rq th metfor @gi to rio sunrthshA peti ti lim f (x) = F 2

@A tewrome th sunrthsh f (x) = x sto [0, 1]F r f eni suneq sto [0, 1]D epomnw eni omoimorf suneqF 9ymwD h f den eni Lipschitz suneq sto [0, 1]F en tnD j uprqe M > 0 ste (3.3.12) |f (x) f (y)| M |x y|

rdegmt

gi kje x, y [0, 1]F iidikterD gi kje n N j eqme

(3.3.13)

1 n2

f (0) =

1 1 1 =n 2 0 M 2 0 . n n n

hhldD n M gi kje n NF eut eni topoX to N j tn nw frgmnoF @A r sunrthsh f (x) = x eni Lipschitz suneq sto [1, +)D r omoimorf suneqF rgmtiD n x 1 tte

(3.3.14)

1 1 |f (x)| = , 2 2 x

dhld h f qei frgmnh prgwgo sto [1, +)F ep thn rtsh QFIFR eni Lipschitz suneq me stjer 1/2F @gA e dome tr thn di sunrthsh f (x) = x sto [0, +)F r f den eni Lipschitz suneq sto [0, +) ote mporome n efrmsoume to terhm QFQFIF idme mw ti h f eni omoimorf suneq sto [0, 1] ki omoimorf suneq sto [1, +)F eut ftnei gi n dexoume ti eni omoimorf suneq sto [0, +)X 9istw > 0F prqei 1 > 0 steX n x, y [0, 1] ki |x y| < 1 tte |f (x) f (y)| < 2 @p thn omoimorfh sunqei th f sto [0, 1]AF ipshD uprqei 2 > 0 steX n x, y [1, +) ki |x y| < 2 tte |f (x) f (y)| < 2 @p thn omoimorfh sunqei th f sto [1, +)AF ttoume = min{1 , 2 } > 0F 9istw x < y [0, +) me |x y| < F hikrE noume tre periptseiX

QFR ustols jerhm stjero shmeou SI

@iA en 0 x < y 1 ki |x y| < D tte |x y| < 1 r |f (x) f (y)| < @iiA en 1 x < y ki |x y| < D tte |x y| < 2 r |f (x) f (y)| <
2 2

< F

< F

@iiiA en x < 1 < y ki |x y| < D prthrome ti |x 1| < ki |1 y| < F 9ymwD x, 1 [0, 1] ki 1, y [1, +)F wporome loipn n gryoume |f (x) f (y)| |f (x) f (1)| + |f (1) f (y)| < + = . 2 2

QFR

ustol jerhm stjero shmeou

sustol

yrism QFRFIF wi sunrthsh f : A R lgeti

steX gi kje x, y A

n uprqei 0 < M < 1

(3.4.1)

|f (x) f (y)| M |x y|.

rofnD kje sustol eni Lipschitz suneqF

terhm QFRFP @jerhm stjero shmeouAF

Uprqei monadik

'Estw

f : R R

sustol.

yR

me thn

idithta

(3.4.2)
Apdeixh

f (y) = y.

F ep thn upjesh uprqei 0 < M < 1 ste |f (x) f (y)| M |x y| gi kje x, y RF r f eni Lipschitz suneqD r omoimorf suneqF ipilgoume tuqn x1 RF yrzoume mi kolouj (xn ) msw th

(3.4.3)
teD

xn+1 = f (xn ),

n N.

(3.4.4)

|xn+1 xn | = |f (xn ) f (xn1 )| M |xn xn1 |

gi kje n 2F ipgwgik podeiknoume ti

(3.4.5)

|xn+1 xn | M n1 |x2 x1 |

gi kje n 2F 9ipeti ti n n > m sto ND tte

|xn xm |

|xn xn1 | + + |xm+1 xm | (M n2 + + M m1 )|x2 x1 | 1 M nm m1 = M |x2 x1 | 1M M m1 |x2 x1 |. 1M

efo 0 < M < 1D qoume M m 0F 9erD gi dojn > 0 mporome n rome m1 n0 () steX n n > m n0 tte M 1M |x2 x1 | < D ki sunepD |xn xm | < F ipomnwD h (xn ) eni kolouj Cauchy ki ut shmnei ti sugklneiX uprE qei y R ste xn y F t dexoume ti f (y) = y X p thn xn y ki th sunqei th f sto y lpoume ti f (xn ) f (y)F 9ymw xn+1 = f (xn ) ki xn+1 y D r f (xn ) y F ep th mondiktht tou orou kolouj prokptei h f (y) = y F o y eni to mondik stjer shmeo th f F 9istw z = y me f (z) = z F teD

(3.4.6)

0 < |z y| = |f (z) f (y)| M |z y|, 2

dhld 1 M D to opoo eni topoF

SP ymoimorfh sunqei

QFS

esksei

ymd e9 IF hexte to jerhm mgisth ki elqisth tim gi mi suneq sunrthsh f : [a, b] R qrhsimopoint to jerhm BolzanoWeiertstrassX @A hexte prt ti uprqei M > 0 ste |f (x)| M gi kje x [a, b]D me pgE wg se topoF en ut den isqeiD mporome n rome xn [a, b] ste |f (xn )| > nD n = 1, 2, . . .F r (xn ) qei upkolouj (xkn ) ste xkn x0 [a, b]F rhsimopoiE ste thn rq th metfor @h f eni suneq sto x0 A gi n ktlxete se topoF @A ep to @A qoume M := sup{f (x) : x [a, b]} < F teD mporome n rome xn [a, b] ste f (xn ) M @exhgste gitAF r (xn ) qei upkolouj (xkn ) ste xkn x0 [a, b]F rhsimopoiste thn rq th metfor @h f eni suneq sto x0 A gi n sumpernete ti f (x0 ) = M F eut podeiknei ti h f prnei mgisth tim @sto x0 AF @gA irgzmenoi moiD dexte ti h f prnei elqisth timF PF 9istw X RF vme ti mi sunrthsh f : X R iknopoie sunjkh Lipschitz
n uprqei M 0 steX gi kje x, y X D

|f (x) f (y)| M |x y|.

hexte ti n h f : X R iknopoie sunjkh Lipschitz tte eni omoimorf suneqF ssqei to ntstrofoc

QF 9istw f : [a, b] R suneqD prgwgsimh sto (a, b)F hexte ti h f iknopoie

sunjkh Lipschitz n ki mno n h f eni frgmnhF

RF 9istw n ND n 2 ki f (x) = x1/n D x [0, 1]F hexte ti h sunrthsh f den

iknopoie sunjkh LipschitzF ini omoimorf suneqc

SF ixetste n oi prktw sunrtsei iknopoion sunjkh LipschitzX

1 @A f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = x sin x n x = 0 ki f (0) = 0F 1 2 @A g : [0, 1] R me g(x) = x sin x n x = 0 ki g(0) = 0F

TF 9istw f : [a, b] [m, M ] ki g : [m, M ] R omoimorf suneqe sunrtseiF

hexte ti h g f eni omoimorf suneqF

UF 9istw f, g : I R omoimorf suneqe sunrtseiF hexte ti

@A h f + g eni omoimorf suneq sto I F @A h f g den eni ngkstik omoimorf suneq sto I D n mw oi f, g upotejon ki frgmne tte h f g eni omoimorf suneq sto I F

VF 9istw f : R R suneq sunrthsh me thn ex idithtX gi kje > 0 uprqei M = M () > 0 ste n |x| M tte |f (x)| < F hexte ti h f eni omoimorf suneqF WF 9istw a R ki f : [a, +) R suneq sunrthsh me thn ex idithtX
suneqF
x+

uprqei to lim f (x) ki eni prgmtik rijmF hexte ti h f eni omoimorf

QFS eskseis SQ

IHF 9istw f : R R omoimorf suneq sunrthshF hexte ti uprqoun A, B >

0 ste |f (x)| A|x| + B gi kje x RF

IIF 9istw n ND n > 1F rhsimopoint thn prohgomenh 9eskhsh dexte ti h

sunrthsh f (x) = xn D x R den eni omoimorf suneqF

IPF @A 9istw f : [0, +) R suneq sunrthshF pojtoume ti uprqei a > 0

ste h f n eni omoimorf suneq sto [a, +)F hexte ti h f eni omoimorf suneq sto [0, +)F @A hexte ti h f (x) = x eni omoimorf suneq sto [0, +)F

IQF 9istw f : (a, b) R omoimorf suneq sunrthshF hexte ti uprqei

suneq sunrthsh f : [a, b] R ste f (x) = f (x) gi kje x (a, b)F

IRF ixetste n oi prktw sunrtsei eni omoimorf suneqeF

@iA f : R R me f (x) = 3x + 1F
1 @iiA f : [2, +) R me f (x) = x F

@iiiA f : (0, ] R me f (x) =

1 x

sin2 xF

1 @ivA f : (0, ) R me f (x) = sin x F 1 @vA f : (0, ) R me f (x) = x sin x F

@viA f : (0, ) R me f (x) = @viiA f : (1, ) R me f (x) = @viiiA f : R R me f (x) = @ixA f : R R me f (x) =

sin x x F cos(x3 ) F x

1 x2 +4 F x 1+|x| F x x2 +1 F

@xA f : [2, 0] R me f (x) =

@xiA f : R R me f (x) = x sin xF @xiiA f : [0, +) R me f (x) =

cos(x2 ) x+1 F

ymd f9F irwtsei ktnhsh

ixetste n oi prktw protsei eni lhje yeude @itiologste plrw thn pnths sAF
1 ISF r sunrthsh f (x) = x2 + x eni omoimorf suneq sto (0, 1)F

ITF r sunrthsh f (x) =

suneq sto (0, 1)F

1 x1

eni omoimorf suneq sto (0, 1)F

IUF en h sunrthsh f den eni frgmnh sto (0, 1)D tte h f den eni omoimorf IVF en h (xn ) eni kolouj Cauchy ki h f eni omoimorf suneq sto RD
tte h (f (xn )) eni kolouj CauchyF

SR ymoimorfh sunqei

IWF en h f eni omoimorf suneq sto (0, 1)D tte to lim f

n

1 n

uprqeiF

PHF tewrome ti f (x) = x ki g(x) = sin xF yi f ki g eni omoimorf suneqe

sto RD mw h f g den eni omoimorf suneq sto RF omoimorf suneq sto RF

PIF r sunrthsh f : R R me f (x) = x n x > 0 ki f (x) = 2x n x 0D eni PPF uje frgmnh ki suneq sunrthsh f : R R eni omoimorf suneqF ymd q9 PQF hexte ti h sunrthsh f : (0, 1) (1, 2) R me f (x) = 0 n x (0, 1) ki f (x) = 1 n x (1, 2) eni suneq ll den eni omoimorf suneqF PRF 9istw f : [a, b] R suneq sunrthsh ki stw > 0F hexte ti mporome
n qwrsoume to [a, b] se pepersmn to pljo didoqik upodistmt tou idou mkou tsi steX n t x, y nkoun sto dio upodisthmD tte |f (x) f (y)| < F

PSF 9istw f : R R suneqD frgmnh ki montonh sunrthshF hexte ti h f eni omoimorf suneqF PTF 9istw f : R R suneq ki periodik sunrthshF hhldD uprqei T > 0
ste f (x + T ) = f (x) gi kje x RF hexte ti h f eni omoimorf suneqF

PUF 9istw X R frgmno snolo ki f : X R omoimorf suneq sunrthshF

hexte ti h f eni frgmnhX uprqei M > 0 ste |f (x)| M gi kje x X F

PVF 9istw A mh ken uposnolo tou RF yrzoume f : R R me

f (x) = inf{|x a| : a A}
@f (x) eni h {pstsh} tou x p to AAF hexte ti @A |f (x) f (y)| |x y| gi kje x, y RF @A h f eni omoimorf suneqF

Keflaio 4

Oloklrwma Riemann
RFI y orism tou Darboux
e utn thn prgrfo dnoume ton orism tou oloklhrmto Riemann gi frgE mne sunrtsei pou orzonti se n kleist disthmF qi mi frgmnh sunrthsh f : [a, b] R me mh rnhtik timD j jlme to oloklrwm n dnei to emdn tou qwrou pou perikleeti nmes sto grfhm th sunrthshD ton orizntio xon y = 0 ki ti ktkrufe eujee x = a ki x = bF

yrism RFIFIF @A 9istw [a, b] n kleist disthmF himrish tou [a, b] j

lme kje pepersmno uposnolo

(4.1.1)

P = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn }

tou [a, b] me x0 = a ki xn = bF t upojtoume pnt ti t xk P eni ditetgE mn w exX

(4.1.2)
t grfoume

a = x0 < x1 < < xk < xk+1 < < xn = b.

(4.1.3)

P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b}

gi n tonsoume utn kri th ditxhF rthrste ti p ton orismD kje dimrish P tou [a, b] periqei toulqiston do shmeX to a ki to b @t kr tou [a, b]AF @A uje dimrish P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} qwrzei to [a, b] se n upodistmt [xk , xk+1 ]D k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1F ynomzoume plto th dimrish P to megltero p t mkh utn twn upodisthmtwnF hhldD to plto th dimrish isoti me

(4.1.4)

P := max{x1 x0 , x2 x1 , . . . , xn xn1 }.

rthrste ti den pitome n ispqoun t xk @t n upodistmt den qoun prtht to dio mkoAF @gA r dimrish P1 lgeti eklptunsh th P n P P1 D dhld n h P1 prokptei p thn P me thn prosjkh kpoiwn @pepersmnwn to pljoA shmewnF e utn thn perptwsh lme epsh ti h P1 eni p thn P F
leptterh

ST yloklrwm Riemann
@dA 9istw P1 , P2 do dimersei tou [a, b]F r koin eklptunsh twn P1 , P2 eni h dimrish P = P1 P2 F ikol lpoume ti h P eni dimrish tou [a, b] ki ti n P eni mi dimrish leptterh tso p thn P1 so ki p thn P2 tte P P @dhldD h P = P1 P2 eni h mikrterh dunt dimrish tou [a, b] pou ekleptnei tutqron thn P1 ki thn P2 AF tewrome tr mi frgmnh sunrthsh f : [a, b] R ki mi dimrish P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} tou [a, b]F r P dimerzei to [a, b] st upodistmt [x0 , x1 ]D [x1 , x2 ], . . . , [xk , xk+1 ], . . . , [xn1 , xn ]F qi kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 orzoume tou prgmtiko rijmo

(4.1.5)
ki

mk (f, P ) = mk = inf{f (x) : xk x xk+1 }

(4.1.6)

Mk (f, P ) = Mk = sup{f (x) : xk x xk+1 }.

9yloi uto oi rijmo orzonti klX h f eni frgmnh sto [a, b]D r eni frgE mnh se kje upodisthm [xk , xk+1 ]F qi kje k D to snolo {f (x) : xk x xk+1 } eni mh ken ki frgmno uposnolo tou RD r qei supremum ki inmumF qi kje dimrish P tou [a, b] orzoume tr to nw ki to ktw jroism th f w pro thn P me ton ex trpoX
n1

(4.1.7)

U (f, P ) =
k=0

Mk (xk+1 xk )

eni to nw jroism th f w pro P D ki

n1

(4.1.8)

L(f, P ) =
k=0

mk (xk+1 xk )

eni to ktw jroism th f w pro P F ep ti @RFIFUA ki @RFIFVA lpoume ti gi kje dimrish P isqei

(4.1.9)

L(f, P ) U (f, P )

fo mk Mk ki xk+1 xk > 0D k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1F e sqsh me to {emdn} pou prospjome n orsoumeD prpei n skeftmste to ktw jroism L(f, P ) sn mi ki to nw jroism U (f, P ) sn mi F
prosggish ap ktw prosggish ap pnw

t dexoume ti isqei mi pol pio isqur nistht p thn (4.1.9)X

rtsh RFIFPF
diamerseic tou

'Estw .

f : [a, b] R

fra gmnh

sunrthsh

kai

stw

P1 , P2

do

[a, b]

Tte,

(4.1.10)

L(f, P1 ) U (f, P2 ).

rthrste ti h (4.1.9) eni eidik perptwsh th (4.1.10)X rke n proume P = P1 = P2 sthn rtsh RFIFPF r pdeixh th rtsh RFIFP j siste sto ex vmmF

RFI y orisms tou Darboux SU

vmm RFIFQF P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xk < xk+1 < < xn = b} xk < y < xk+1 k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 P1 = P {y} = {a = x0 < x1 < < xk < y < xk+1 < < xn = b}
'Estw kai gia kpoio . An , tte

(4.1.11)

L(f, P ) L(f, P1 ) U (f, P1 ) U (f, P ).

hhldD me thn prosjkh en shmeou y sthn dimrish P D to nw jroism th f {mikrnei} en to ktw jroism th f {meglnei}F
Apdeixh tou Lmmatoc 4.1.3

F ttoume

(4.1.12)
ki

mk = inf{f (x) : xk x y}

(1)

(4.1.13)
(1)

mk = inf{f (x) : y x xk+1 }.

(2)

(2)

teD mk mk ki mk mk @skhshX n A B tte inf B inf AAF qrfoume

L(f, P1 )

[m0 (x1 x0 ) + + mk (y xk ) + mk (xk+1 y) + +mn1 (xn xn1 )] [m0 (x1 x0 ) + + mk (y xk ) + mk (xk+1 y) + +mn1 (xn xn1 )] = [m0 (x1 x0 ) + + mk (xk+1 xk ) + + mn1 (xn xn1 )] = L(f, P ). = 2

(1)

(2)

9ymoi deqnoume ti U (f, P1 ) U (f, P )F

Apdeixh thc Prtashc 4.1.2

F qi n podexoume thn (4.1.10) jewrome thn koin eklptunsh P = P1 P2 twn P1 ki P2 F r P prokptei p thn P1 me didoE qik prosjkh pepersmnwn to pljo shmewnF en efrmsoume to vmm RFIFQ pepersmne to pljo forD prnoume L(f, P1 ) L(f, P )F 9ymoi lpoume ti U (f, P ) U (f, P2 )F ep thn llh pleurD L(f, P ) U (f, P )F unduzont t prpnwD qoume

(4.1.14)

L(f, P1 ) L(f, P ) U (f, P ) U (f, P2 ).

tewrome tr t uposnol tou R

(4.1.15)
ki

A(f ) =

L(f, P ) : P dimrish tou [a, b]

(4.1.16)

B(f ) =

U (f, Q) : Q dimrish tou [a, b] .

ep thn rtsh RFIFP qoumeX gi kje a A(f ) ki kje b B(f ) isqei a b @exhgste gitAF 9erD sup A(f ) inf B(f ) @skhshAF en loipn orsoume sn ktw oloklrwm th f sto [a, b] to
b

(4.1.17)
a

f (x)dx = sup L(f, P ) : P dimrish tou [a, b]

SV yloklrwm Riemann
ki sn nw oloklrwm th f sto [a, b] to
b

(4.1.18)
a

f (x)dx = inf U (f, Q) : Q dimrish tou [a, b] ,

qoume
b b

(4.1.19)
a

f (x)dx
a

f (x)dx.

yrism RFIFRF wi frgmnh sunrthsh f : [a, b] R lgeti Riemann oloklhrsimh

b b

(4.1.20)
a

f (x)dx = I =
a

f (x)dx.

y rijm I @h koin tim tou ktw ki tou nw oloklhrmto th f sto [a, b]A lgeti oloklrwm Riemann th f sto [a, b] ki sumolzeti me
b b

(4.1.21)
a

f (x)dx

f.
a

RFP

o kritrio oloklhrwsimtht tou Riemann

y orism tou oloklhrmto pou dsme sthn prohgomenh prgrfo eni dsqrhstoX den eni ekolo n ton qrhsimopoisei kne gi n dei n mi frgmnh sunrthsh eni oloklhrsimh qiF unjwD qrhsimopoiome to kloujo kritrio oloklhrwsimthE tF

terhm RFPFI @kritrio tou RiemannAF

sunrthsh. mporome na H

'Estw an

f : [a, b] R
mno an gia

fra gmnh

enai

brome diamrish

Riemann P

oloklhrsimh tou

kai

kje

> 0

[a, b]

ste

(4.2.1)
Apdeixh

U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < .

F pojtoume prt ti h f eni Riemann oloklhrsimhF hhldD
b b b

(4.2.2)
a

f (x)dx =
a

f (x)dx =
a

f (x)dx.

9istw > 0F ep ton orism tou ktw oloklhrmto w supremum tou A(f ) ki p ton Eqrkthrism tou supremumD uprqei dimrish P1 = P1 () tou [a, b] ste
b

(4.2.3)
a

f (x)dx < L(f, P1 ) + . 2

ymowD p ton orism tou nw oloklhrmtoD uprqei dimrish P2 = P2 () tou [a, b] ste
b

(4.2.4)
a

f (x)dx > U (f, P2 ) . 2

RFP o kritrio oloklhrwsimthts tou Riemann SW

tewrome thn koin eklptunsh P = P1 P2 F teD p thn rtsh RFIFP qoume

U (f, P )

U (f, P2 )
b

2
b

<
a

f (x)dx =
a

f (x)dx

<
p) pou peti ti

L(f, P1 ) +

L(f, P ) + , 2 2

(4.2.5)

0 U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < .

entstrofX upojtoume ti gi kje > 0 uprqei dimrish P tou [a, b] ste

(4.2.6)
teD gi kje > 0 qoume
b

U (f, P ) < L(f, P ) + .

f (x)dx U (f, P ) < L(f, P ) +

a a

f (x)dx + .

ipeid to > 0 tn tuqnD peti ti

b b

(4.2.7)
a

f (x)dx
a

f (x)dx,

ki fo h ntstrofh nistht isqei pntD h f eni Riemann oloklhrsimhF 2 o kritrio tou Riemann ditupneti isodnm w ex @exhgste gitAF

terhm RFPFP @kritrio tou RiemannAF

sunrthsh. H

'Estw an kai

f : [a, b] R
mno an uprqei

fra gmnh akolouja

enai

{Pn : n N} (4.2.8)

diamersewn tou

Riemann [a, b]
n

oloklhrsimh ste

lim

U (f, Pn ) L(f, Pn ) = 0.

rdegmtF t qrhsimopoisoume to kritrio tou Riemann gi n exetsoume

n oi prktw sunrtsei eni Riemann oloklhrsimeX @A r sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = x2 F qi kje n N jewrome th dimrish Pn tou [0, 1] se n s upodistmt mkou 1/nX

(4.2.9)

Pn =

0<

2 n1 n 1 < < < < =1 . n n n n

r sunrthsh f (x) = x2 eni xous sto [0, 1]D epomnw

L(f, Pn )

= f (0) = = =

1 1 1 n1 1 +f + + f n n n n n 1 12 22 (n 1)2 0 + 2 + 2 + + n n n n2 2 2 2 1 + 2 + + (n 1) (n 1)n(2n 1) = 3 n 6n3 2 2n 3n + 1 1 1 1 = + 6n2 3 2n 6n2

TH yloklrwm Riemann
ki

U (f, Pn )

= f = = =

n 1 1 1 2 1 +f + + f n n n n n n 2 2 2 1 1 2 n + 2 + + 2 n n2 n n 2 2 2 1 + 2 + + n n(n + 1)(2n + 1) = 3 n 6n3 2 2n + 3n + 1 1 1 1 = + + . 6n2 3 2n 6n2 1 0. n

9ipeti ti

(4.2.10)

U (f, Pn ) L(f, Pn ) =

ep to terhm RFPFP sumpernoume ti h f eni Riemann oloklhrsimhF wE porome mlist n rome thn tim tou oloklhrmtoF qi kje n ND

1 1 1 + 3 2n 6n2

= L(f, Pn )
1 1 1

x2 dx =
0

x2 dx =
0

x2 dx

U (f, Pn ) 1 1 1 = + + 2. 3 2n 6n
efo

(4.2.11)
peti ti

1 1 1 1 + 3 2n 6n2 3 1 3

ki

1 1 1 1 + + , 3 2n 6n2 3 1 . 3

(4.2.12)
hhldD

x2 dx
0

(4.2.13)
0

x2 dx =

1 . 3

@A r sunrthsh u : [0, 1] R me u(x) = xF wporete n qrhsimopoisete thn kolouj dimersewn tou prohgomenou prdegmto gi n dexete ti iknopoieE ti to kritrio tou RiemannF to dio sumprsm ktlgoume n qrhsimopoisoume mi diforetik kolouE j dimersewnF qi kje n N jewrome th dimrish (4.2.14) Pn = 0< 1 22 (n 1)2 n2 < 2 < < < 2 =1 . 2 2 n n n n

r u eni xous sto [0, 1]D epomnw

n1

(4.2.15)

L(u, Pn ) =
k=0

k n

(k + 1)2 k2 2 n2 n

RFP o kritrio oloklhrwsimthts tou Riemann TI

ki
n1

(4.2.16)
9ipeti ti

U (u, Pn ) =
k=0

k+1 n

(k + 1)2 k2 2 2 n n

n1

U (u, Pn ) L(u, Pn )

=
k=0

k+1 k n n

(k + 1)2 k2 2 n2 n

= =

1 n

n1

k=0

(k + 1)2 k2 2 n2 n

1 0. n

ep to terhm RFPFP sumpernoume ti h u eni Riemann oloklhrsimhF efE noume sn skhsh n dexete ti

(4.2.17)

lim L(u, Pn ) = lim U (u, Pn ) =

n

2 . 3

r sugkekrimnh epilog dimersewn pou knme qei to pleonkthm ti mporete ekol n gryete t L(u, Pn ) ki U (u, Pn ) se kleist morfF ep thn @RFPFIUA peti ti
1

(4.2.18)
0

x dx =

2 . 3

@gA r sunrthsh tou Dirichlet g : [0, 1] R me

g(x) =

1 n x rht 0 n x rrhto

den eni Riemann oloklhrsimhF 9istw P = {0 = x0 < x1 < < xk < xk+1 <
< xn = 1} tuqos dimrish tou [0, 1]F pologzoume to ktw ki to nw jroism th g w pro thn P F qi kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 uprqoun rht qk ki rrhto k sto (xk , xk+1 )F efo g(qk ) = 1D g(k ) = 0 ki 0 g(x) 1 sto [xk , xk+1 ]D sumpernoume ti mk = 0 ki Mk = 1F unepD
n1 n1

(4.2.19)
ki

L(g, P ) =
k=0

mk (xk+1 xk ) =
k=0

0 (xk+1 xk ) = 0

n1

n1

(4.2.20)

U (g, P ) =
k=0

Mk (xk+1 xk ) =
k=0

1 (xk+1 xk ) = 1.

efo h P tn tuqos dimrish tou [0, 1]D prnoume

1 1

(4.2.21)
0

g(x)dx = 0

ki
0

g(x)dx = 1.

TP yloklrwm Riemann
9erD h g den eni Riemann oloklhrsimhF @dA r sunrthsh h : [0, 1] R me

h(x) =

x n x rht 0 n x rrhto

< xn = 1} tuqos dimrish tou [0, 1]F qi kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 uprqei rrhto k sto (xk , xk+1 )F efo h(k ) = 0 ki 0 h(x) 1 sto [xk , xk+1 ]D sumpernoume ti mk = 0F unepD (4.2.22) L(h, P ) = 0.

den eni Riemann oloklhrsimhF 9istw P = {0 = x0 < x1 < < xk < xk+1 <

ipshD uprqei rht qk > (xk + xk+1 )/2 sto (xk , xk+1 )D r Mk h(qk ) > (xk + xk+1 )/2F 9ipeti ti
n1

U (h, P ) > =
efo

k=0 x2 n

xk + xk+1 1 (xk+1 xk ) = 2 2 x2 0 = 1 . 2

n1

(x2 x2 ) k+1 k
k=0

(4.2.23)

U (h, P ) L(h, P ) >

1 2

gi kje dimrish P tou [0, 1]D to kritrio tou Riemann den iknopoieti @prte = 1/3AF 9erD h h den eni Riemann oloklhrsimhF @eA r sunrthsh w : [0, 1] R me

w(x) =

0
1 q

n x Q x = 0 / n x = p , p, q ND wuh(p, q) = 1 q

eni Riemann oloklhrsimhF ikol elgqoume ti L(w, P ) = 0 gi kje dimrish P tou [0, 1]F 9istw > 0F rthrome ti to snolo A = {x [0, 1] : w(x) } eni pepersmnoF rgmtiD n w(x) tte x = p/q ki w(x) = 1/q dhld q 1/F yi rhto tou [0, 1] pou grfonti sn ngwg klsmt me pronomst to pol so me [1/] eni pepersmnoi to pljo @n nw frgm gi to pljo tou eni o rijm 1 + 2 + + [1/] exhgste gitAF 9istw z1 < z2 < < zN m rjmhsh twn stoiqewn tou AF wporome n rome xn upodistmt [ai , bi ] tou [0, 1] pou qoun mkh bi ai < /N ki iknopoion t exX a1 > 0D ai < zi < bi n i < N ki aN < zN bN @prthrste ti n 1 tte zN = 1 opte prpei n epilxoume bN = 1AF en jewrsoume th dimrish

(4.2.24)

P = {0 < a1 < b1 < a2 < b2 < < aN < bN 1},

RFQ ho klseis Riemann oloklhrsimwn sunrtsewn TQ

qoume

U (w, P ) (a1 0) + 1 (b1 a1 ) + (a2 b1 ) + + 1 (bN 1 aN 1 ) + (aN bN 1 ) + 1 (bN aN ) + (1 bN ) a1 + (a2 b1 ) + + (aN bN 1 ) + (1 bN )

N

+
i=1

(bi ai )

< 2.
qi to tuqn > 0 rkme dimrish P tou [0, 1] me thn iditht

(4.2.25)

U (w, P ) L(w, P ) < 2.

ep to terhm RFPFID h w eni Riemann oloklhrsimhF

RFQ

ho klsei Riemann oloklhrsimwn sunrtsewn

rhsimopoint to kritrio tou Riemann @terhm RFPFIA j dexoume ti oi monE tone ki oi suneqe sunrtsei f : [a, b] R eni Riemann oloklhrsimeF

terhm RFQFIF
Apdeixh

Kje montonh sunrthsh

f : [a, b] R

enai

Riemann

oloklhrsimh.

F wr periorism th geniktht upojtoume ti h f eni xousF r f eni profn frgmnhX gi kje x [a, b] qoume

(4.3.1)

f (a) f (x) f (b).

9erD qei nhm n exetsoume thn prxh oloklhrmto gi thn f F 9istw > 0F t rome n N rket meglo ste gi th dimrish

(4.3.2)

Pn =

a, a +

2(b a) n(b a) ba ,a + ,...,a + =b n n n

tou [a, b] se n s upodistmt n isqei

(4.3.3)
ttoume

U (f, Pn ) L(f, Pn ) < .

(4.3.4)

xk = a +

k(b a) , n

k = 0, 1, . . . , n.

teD fo h f eni xous qoume

n1 n1

U (f, Pn )

=
k=0

Mk (xk+1 xk ) =
k=0

f (xk+1 )

ba n

ba (f (x1 ) + + f (xn )) , n

TR yloklrwm Riemann
en
n1 n1

L(f, Pn )

=
k=0

mk (xk+1 xk ) =
k=0

f (xk )

ba n

=
9erD

ba (f (x0 ) + + f (xn1 )) . n

(4.3.5)

U (f, Pn ) L(f, Pn ) =

[f (b) f (a)](b a) [f (xn ) f (x0 )](b a) = , n n

to opoo gneti mikrtero p to > 0 pou m djhkeD rke to n n eni rket megloF ep to terhm RFPFID h f eni Riemann oloklhrsimhF 2

terhm RFQFPF
Apdeixh

Kje suneqc sunrthsh

f : [a, b] R

enai

Riemann

oloklhrsimh.

F 9istw > 0F r f eni suneq sto kleist disthm [a, b]D r eni omoimorf suneqF wporome loipn n rome > 0 me thn ex idithtX en x, y [a, b] ki |x y| < D tte |f (x) f (y)| <
ba F

wporome epsh n rome n N ste

(4.3.6)

ba < . n
ba n F

wrzoume to [a, b] se n upodistmt tou idou mkou dimrish

tewrome dhld th

(4.3.7)
yrzoume

Pn =

a, a +

ba 2(b a) n(b a) ,a + ,...,a + =b . n n n

(4.3.8)

xk = a +

k(b a) , n

k = 0, 1, . . . , n.

9istw k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1F r f eni suneq sto kleist disthm [xk , xk+1 ]D r prnei mgisth ki elqisth tim se utF prqoun dhld yk , yk [xk , xk+1 ] ste

(4.3.9)

Mk = f (yk )

ki

mk = f (yk ).
ba n

ipiplonD to mko tou [xk , xk+1 ] eni so me

< D r

(4.3.10)
ep thn epilog tou prnoume

|yk yk | < .

(4.3.11)

Mk mk = f (yk ) f (yk ) = |f (yk ) f (yk )| <

. ba

RFR sdithtes tou oloklhrmtos Riemann TS

9ipeti ti
n1

U (f, Pn ) L(f, Pn )

=
k=0 n1

(Mk mk )(xk+1 xk ) (xk+1 xk ) ba

<
k=0

(b a) = . ba ep to terhm RFPFID h f eni Riemann oloklhrsimhF =

RFR

sdithte tou oloklhrmto Riemann

e utn thn prgrfo podeiknoume usthr merik p ti pio sik idithte tou oloklhrmto RiemannF yi podexei twn upolopwn eni mi kl skhsh pou j s ohjsei n exoikeiwjete me ti dimerseiD t nw ki ktw jrosmt klpF

terhm RFRFIF
(4.4.1)

An

f (x) = c

gia kje

x [a, b]

, tte

f (x)dx = c(b a).

a

epdeixhX 9istw P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} mi dimrish tou [a, b]F qi kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 qoume mk = Mk = cF 9erD
n1

(4.4.2)
9ipeti ti

L(f, P ) = U (f, P ) =
k=0

c(xk+1 xk ) = c(b a).

(4.4.3)
a

f (x)dx = c(b a) =
a

f (x)dx.

9erD
b

(4.4.4)
a

f (x)dx = c(b a).

'Estw kai

2
Tte, h

terhm RFRFPF
(4.4.5)

f, g : [a, b] R

oloklhrsimec sunartseic.

f +g

enai oloklhrsimh

[f (x) + g(x)]dx =
a a

f (x)dx +
a

g(x)dx.

Apdeixh

F 9istw P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} dimrish tou [a, b]F qi kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 orzoume

mk Mk mk Mk mk Mk

= = = = = =

inf{(f + g)(x) : xk x xk+1 } sup{(f + g)(x) : xk x xk+1 } inf{f (x) : xk x xk+1 } sup{f (x) : xk x xk+1 } inf{g(x) : xk x xk+1 } sup{g(x) : xk x xk+1 }.

TT yloklrwm Riemann
qi kje x [xk , xk+1 ] qoume mk + mk f (x) + g(x)F 9erD

(4.4.6)

mk + mk mk .

ymowD gi kje x [xk , xk+1 ] qoume Mk + Mk f (x) + g(x)F 9erD

(4.4.7)
9ipeti ti

Mk + Mk Mk .

(4.4.8)

L(f, P ) + L(g, P ) L(f + g, P ) U (f + g, P ) U (f, P ) + U (g, P ).

9istw > 0F prqoun dimersei P1 , P2 tou [a, b] ste

(4.4.9)
ki

U (f, P1 )

< 2

f (x)dx < L(f, P1 ) +

a

(4.4.10)

U (g, P2 )

< 2

b a

g(x)dx < L(g, P2 ) + . 2

en jewrsoume thn koin tou eklptunsh P = P1 P2 qoume

U (f, P ) + U (g, P )

U (f, P1 ) + U (g, P2 )
b b

<
a

f (x)dx +
a

g(x)dx

< L(f, P1 ) + L(g, P2 ) + L(f, P ) + L(g, P ) + .

unduzont me thn @RFRFVA lpoume ti
b b b

(f + g)(x)dx
a

U (f + g, P )
a b

f (x)dx +
a

g(x)dx

L(f + g, P ) +
a

(f + g)(x)dx + .

efo to > 0 tn tuqnD

b b b b

(4.4.11)
a

(f + g)(x)dx
a

f (x)dx +
a

g(x)dx
a

(f + g)(x)dx.

9ymwD
b b

(4.4.12)
a

(f + g)(x)dx
a

(f + g)(x)dx.

9erD
b b b b

(4.4.13)
a

(f + g)(x)dx =
a

f (x)dx +
a

g(x)dx =
a

(f + g)(x)dx. 2

9ipeti to terhmF

RFR sdithtes tou oloklhrmtos Riemann TU

terhm RFRFQF

'Estw sto

enai oloklhrsimh

f : [a, b] R [a, b]
kai

oloklhrsimh

kai

stw

tR

Tte,

tf

(4.4.14)
a
Apdeixh

(tf )(x)dx = t
a

f (x)dx.

F e upojsoume prt ti t > 0F 9istw P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} dimrish tou [a, b]F en gi k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 orsoume

(4.4.15) mk = inf{(tf )(x) : xk x xk+1 }, Mk = sup{(tf )(x) : xk x xk+1 }

ki

(4.4.16)

mk = inf{f (x) : xk x xk+1 }, Mk = sup{f (x) : xk x xk+1 },

eni fner ti

(4.4.17)
9erD

mk = tmk ki Mk = tMk .

(4.4.18)
9ipeti ti
b

L(tf, P ) = tL(f, P ) ki U (tf, P ) = tU (f, P ).

(4.4.19)
a

(tf )(x)dx = t
a

f (x)dx ki
a

(tf )(x)dx = t
a

f (x)dx.

efo h f eni oloklhrsimhD qoume

b b

(4.4.20)
a

f (x)dx =
a

f (x)dx.

9ipeti ti h tf eni Riemann oloklhrsimhD ki

b b

(4.4.21)
a

(tf )(x)dx = t
a

f (x)dx.

en t < 0D h mnh llg sto prohgomeno epiqerhm eni ti tr mk = tMk ki Mk = tmk F umplhrste thn pdeixh mnoi sF loD n t = 0 qoume tf 0F 9erD
b b

(4.4.22)
a

tf = 0 = 0
a

f.

ep t tewrmt RFRFP ki RFRFQ prokptei mes h {grmmiktht tou oloklhrE mto}F

terhm RFRFR @grmmiktht tou oloklhrmtoAF

do oloklhrsimec sunartseic kai

An

f, g : [a, b] R

enai

t, s R

, tte h

tf + sg
b

enai oloklhrsimh sto

[a, b]

kai

(4.4.23)
a

(tf + sg)(x)dx = t
a

f (x)dx + s
a

g(x)dx.

TV yloklrwm Riemann

terhm RFRFSF
f [c, b]
H enai . Tte, isqei

'Estw

oloklhrsimh

sto

f : [a, b] R [a, b]
an

fra gmnh mno an

sunrthsh

kai

stw

kai

enai

oloklhrsimh

sta

c (a, b) [a, c]

kai

(4.4.24)
a
Apdeixh

f (x)dx =
a

f (x)dx +
c

f (x)dx.

F pojtoume prt ti h f eni oloklhrsimh st [a, c] ki [c, b]F 9istw > 0F prqoun dimersei P1 tou [a, c] ki P2 tou [c, b] ste
c

(4.4.25)
ki

L(f, P1 )
a

f (x)dx U (f, P1 ) ki U (f, P1 ) L(f, P1 ) <

(4.4.26)

L(f, P2 )
c

f (x)dx U (f, P2 ) ki U (f, P2 ) L(f, P2 ) <

. 2

o snolo P = P1 P2 eni dimrish tou [a, b] ki isqoun oi

(4.4.27)

L(f, P ) = L(f, P1 ) + L(f, P2 ) ki U (f, P ) = U (f, P1 ) + U (f, P2 ).

ep ti prpnw sqsei prnoume

U (f, P ) L(f, P )

= <

(U (f, P1 ) L(f, P1 )) + (U (f, P2 ) L(f, P2 )) + = . 2 2

efo to > 0 tn tuqnD h f eni oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] @kritrio tou RiemannAF ipiplonD gi thn P qoume
b

(4.4.28)

L(f, P )
a

f (x)dx U (f, P )

kiD p ti @RFRFPSAD @RFRFPTA ki @RFRFPUAD

c b

(4.4.29)
ipomnwD
b

L(f, P )
a

f (x)dx +
c

f (x)dx U (f, P ).

(4.4.30)
a

f (x)dx
a

f (x)dx +
c

f (x)dx

U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < ,

ki fo to > 0 tn tuqnD
b c b

(4.4.31)
a

f (x)dx =
a

f (x)dx +
c

f (x)dx.

entstrofX upojtoume ti h f eni oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] ki jewrome > 0F prqei dimrish P tou [a, b] ste

(4.4.32)

U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < .

RFR sdithtes tou oloklhrmtos Riemann TW

en c P jtoume P = P {c}D opte pli qoume /

(4.4.33)

U (f, P ) L(f, P ) U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < .

wporome loipn n upojsoume ti c P F yrzoume P1 = P [a, c] ki P2 = P [c, b]F yi P1 , P2 eni dimersei twn [a, c] ki [c, b] ntstoiqD ki

(4.4.34)
efo

L(f, P ) = L(f, P1 ) + L(f, P2 ) , U (f, P ) = U (f, P1 ) + U (f, P2 ).

(4.4.35) (U (f, P1 ) L(f, P1 )) + (U (f, P2 ) L(f, P2 )) = U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < ,

peti ti

(4.4.36)

U (f, P1 ) L(f, P1 ) < ki U (f, P2 ) L(f, P2 ) < .

efo to > 0 tn tuqnD to kritrio tou Riemann deqnei ti h f eni oloklhrsimh st [a, c] ki [c, b]F rD p to prto mro th pdeixh prnoume thn istht
b c b

(4.4.37)
a

f (x)dx =
a
'Estw

f (x)dx +
c

f (x)dx. 2
sunrthsh. Upojtoume ti

terhm RFRFTF
m f (x) M (4.4.38)
Shmewsh

gia kje

f : [a, b] R x [a, b]
.

oloklhrsimh

Tte,

m(b a)
a

f (x)dx M (b a).

F y rijm

(4.4.39)

1 ba

f (x)dx
a

eni h msh tim th f sto [a, b]F

Apdeixh

F erke n dipistsete ti gi kje dimrish P tou [a, b] isqei

(4.4.40)

m(b a) L(f, P ) U (f, P ) M (b a) 2

oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Upojtoume

@to opoo eni pol ekoloAF

rism RFRFUF @A
ti

'Estw

f (x) 0

gia kje

f : [a, b] R x [a, b]
. Tte,

(4.4.41)
a

f (x)dx 0. f, g : [a, b] R x [a, b]

. Tte, oloklhrsimec sunartseic. Upojtoume ti

@A

'Estw

f (x) g(x)

gia kje

(4.4.42)
a

f (x)dx
a

g(x)dx.

UH yloklrwm Riemann
F @A ifrmzoume to terhm RFRFTX mporome n proume m = 0F

Apdeixh

@A r f g eni oloklhrsimh sunrthsh ki (f g)(x) 0 gi kje x [a, b]F ifrmzoume to @A gi thn f g ki qrhsimopoiome th grmmiktht tou oloklhrE mtoF 2

terhm RFRFVF
: [m, M ] R
Apdeixh

'Estw

suneqc sunrthsh.

f : [a, b] [m, M ] f : [a, b] R

oloklhrsimh Tte, h

sunrthsh

kai

stw

enai oloklhrsimh.

F 9istw > 0F t rome dimrish P tou [a, b] me thn iditht U ( f, P ) L( f, P ) < F o zhtomeno peti p to kritrio tou RiemannF r eni suneq sto [m, M ]D r eni frgmnhX uprqei A > 0 ste |()| A gi kje [m, M ]F ipshD h eni omoimorf suneqX n jsoume 1 = /(2A + b a) > 0D uprqei 0 < < 1 steD gi kje , [m, M ] me | | < isqei |() ()| < 1 F ifrmzont to kritrio tou Riemann gi thn oloklhrsimh sunrthsh f D rskoume dimerish P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xk < xk+1 < < xn = b} ste
n1

(4.4.43)
yrzoume

U (f, P ) L(f, P ) =
k=0

(Mk (f ) mk (f ))(xk+1 xk ) < 2 .

I J
rthrome t exX

= {0 k n 1 : Mk (f ) mk (f ) < } = {0 k n 1 : Mk (f ) mk (f ) }.

(i) en k I D tte gi kje x, x [xk , xk+1 ] qoume |f (x) f (x )| Mk (f ) mk (f ) < F rnont = f (x) ki = f (x )D qoume , [m, M ] ki | | < F 9erD |( f )(x) ( f )(x )| = |() ()| < 1 .
efo t x, x tn tuqnt sto [xk , xk+1 ]D sumpernoume ti Mk (f )mk (f ) 1 @exhgste gitAF 9ipeti ti

(4.4.44)
kI

(Mk ( f ) mk ( f ))(xk+1 xk )
kI

(xk+1 xk ) (b a)1 .

(ii) qi to J qoumeD p thn @RFRFRQAD (4.4.45)

r

kJ

(xk+1 xk )
kJ

(Mk (f ) mk (f ))(xk+1 xk ) < 2 ,

(4.4.46)
kJ

(xk+1 xk ) < < 1 .

ipshD

(4.4.47)

|( f )(x) ( f )(x )| |( f )(x)| + |( f )(x )| 2A

RFR sdithtes tou oloklhrmtos Riemann UI

gi kje x, x [xk , xk+1 ]D r Mk ( f ) mk ( f ) 2A gi kje k J F 9ipeti ti

(4.4.48)
kJ

(Mk ( f ) mk ( f ))(xk+1 xk ) 2A
kJ

(xk+1 xk ) < 2A1 .

ep ti @RFRFRRA ki @RFRFRVA sumpernoume ti

n1

U ( f, P ) L( f, P ) =
k=0

(Mk ( f ) mk ( f ))(xk+1 xk ) (Mk ( f ) mk ( f ))(xk+1 xk )

kI

= +

(Mk ( f ) mk ( f ))(xk+1 xk )
kJ

< (b a)1 + 2A1 = .

eut oloklhrnei thn pdeixhF

rhsimopoint to terhm RFRFV mporome n elgxoume ekol thn oloklhrwsimthE t difrwn sunrtsewn pou prokptoun p thn snjesh mi oloklhrsimh sunrthsh f me ktllhle suneqe sunrtseiF

terhm RFRFWF
@A
h

'Estw

f, g : [a, b] R
kai

oloklhrsimec

sunartseic.

Tte,

|f |

enai oloklhrsimh

(4.4.49)
a

f (x)dx
a

|f (x)|dx.

@A @gA

f2 fg

enai oloklhrsimh.

enai oloklhrsimh.

Apdeixh

gryte

F @A ki @A eni mese sunpeie tou tewrmto RFRFVF qi to @gA

(4.4.50)

fg =

(f + g)2 (f g)2 4

ki qrhsimopoiste to @A se sundusm me to gegon ti oi f + g, f g eni oloklhrsimeF 2

wi smshF tr orsme to
@A n a = bD jtoume
a a

f (x)dx mno sthn perptwsh a < b @douleme sto kleist disthm [a, b]AF qi prktiko lgou epektenoume ton orism ki sthn perptwsh a b w exX f = 0 @gi kje f AF
@A n a > b ki h f : [b, a] R eni oloklhrsimhD orzoume
b a

b a

(4.4.51)
a

f (x)dx =
b

f (x)dx.

UP yloklrwm Riemann

RFS

y orism tou RiemannB

y orism pou dsme gi thn oloklhrwsimtht mi frgmnh sunrthsh f : [a, b] R ofeleti ston DarbouxF y prto usthr orism th oloklhrwsimthE t djhke p ton Riemann ki eni o exX

yrism RFSFIF 9istw f : [a, b] R frgmnh sunrthshF vme ti h f eni oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] n uprqei n prgmtik rijm I(f ) me thn ex
idithtX qi kje > 0 mporome n rome > 0 steX n P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} eni dimrish tou [a, b] me plto P < ki n k [xk , xk+1 ]D k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 eni tuqos epilog shmewn p t upodistmt pou orzei h P D tte
n1

f (k )(xk+1 xk ) I(f ) < .

k=0

e ut thn perptwsh lme ti o I(f ) eni to (R)Eoloklrwm th f sto [a, b]F

Sumbolismc

F unjw grfoume gi thn epilog shmewn {0 , 1 , . . . , n1 } ki (f, P, ) gi to jroism

n1

(4.5.1)
k=0

f (k )(xk+1 xk ).

rthrste ti tr to {upeisrqeti} sto sumolism (f, P, ) fo giE thn di dimrish P mporome n qoume poll diforetik epilog = {0 , 1 , . . . , n1 } me k [xk , xk+1 ]F r sik id psw p ton orism eni ti
b

(4.5.2)
a

f (x)dx = lim

(f, P, )

tn to plto th P tenei sto mhdn ki t k epilgonti ujret st upodiE stmt pou orzei h P F ipeid den qoume sunntsei ttoiou edou {ri} w trD ktfegoume ston {eyilontik orism}F kop ut th prgrfou eni h pdeixh th isodunm twn do orismn oloklhrwsimthtX

terhm RFSFPF
kat

'Estw

f : [a, b] R

fra gmnh sunrthsh.

Darboux

an kai mno an

enai oloklhrsimh kat

f Riemann
H

enai oloklhrsimh

F pojtoume prt ti h f eni oloklhrsimh kt RiemannF qrfoume I(f ) gi to oloklrwm th f me ton orism tou RiemannF 9istw > 0F wporome n rome mi dimrish P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} @me rket mikr pltoA ste gi kje epilog shmewn = {0 , 1 , . . . , n1 } me k [xk , xk+1 ] n isqei
Apdeixh

n1

(4.5.3)
k=0

f (k )(xk+1 xk ) I(f ) <

. 4

RFS y orisms tou RiemannB UQ

qi kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 mporome n rome k , k [xk , xk+1 ] ste

(4.5.4)
9erD

mk > f (k )

4(b a)

ki Mk < f (k ) +

. 4(b a)

n1

(4.5.5)
ki

L(f, P ) >
k=0

f (k )(xk+1 xk )

> I(f ) 4 2

n1

(4.5.6)
9ipeti ti

U (f, P ) <
k=0

f (k )(xk+1 xk ) +

< I(f ) + . 4 2

(4.5.7)

U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < ,

dhld h f eni oloklhrsimh kt DarbouxF ipshD

(4.5.8)

I(f )

< 2

f (x)dx
a a

f (x)dx < I(f ) + , 2

ki fo to > 0 tn tuqnD
b b

(4.5.9)
a

f (x)dx =
a

f (x)dx = I(f ).

hhldD
b

(4.5.10)
a

f (x)dx = I(f ).

entstrofX upojtoume ti h f eni oloklhrsimh me ton orism tou DarbouxF 9istw > 0F prqei dimrish P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} tou [a, b] ste

(4.5.11)

U (f, P ) L(f, P ) <

. 4

r f eni frgmnhD dhld uprqei M > 0 ste |f (x)| M gi kje x [a, b]F ipilgoume

(4.5.12)

> 0. 6nM

9istw P dimrish tou [a, b] me plto P < D h opo eni ki eklptunsh th P F teD gi kje epilog shmewn p t upodistmt pou orzei h P qoume
b

f (x)dx
a

<

L(f, P ) L(f, P )

(f, P , )
b

U (f, P ) U (f, P ) <

a

f (x)dx + . 4

UR yloklrwm Riemann
hhldD
b

(4.5.13)

(f, P , )
a

f (x)dx <

. 2

htme n dexoume to dio prgm gi tuqos dimrish P1 me plto mikrtero p @h duskol eni ti mi ttoi dimrish den qei knn lgo n eni eklpE tunsh th P AF 9istw P1 = {a = y0 < y1 < < ym = b} mi ttoi dimrish tou [a, b]F t {prosjsoume} sthn P1 nEn l t shme xk th P t opo den nkoun sthn P1 @ut eni to pol n 1AF e pome ti n ttoio xk rsketi nmes st didoqik shme yl < yl+1 th P1 F tewrome thn P2 = P1 {xk } ki tuqos epilog (1) = {0 , 1 , . . . , m1 } me l [yl , yl+1 ]D l = 0, 1, . . . , m 1F ipilgoume do shme l [yl , xk ] ki l [xk , yl+1 ] ki jewrome thn epilog shmewn (2) = {0 , 1 , . . . , l1 , l , l , . . . , m1 } pou ntistoiqe sthn P2 F 9iqoume

(f, P1 , (1) )

(f, P2 , (2) )

= |f (l )(yl+1 yl ) f (l )(xk yl ) f (l )(yl+1 xk )| 3M max |yl+1 yl | < 3M

l

. 2n

entikjistnt th dosmnh (P1 , (1) ) me lo ki lepttere dimersei (Pk , (k) ) pou prokptoun me thn prosjkh shmewn th P D met p n to pol mt ftnoume se mi dimrish P0 ki mi epilog shmewn (0) me ti ex idithteX @A h P0 eni koin eklptunsh twn P ki P1 D ki qei plto mikrtero p F @A fo h P0 eni eklptunsh th P D pw sthn @RFSFIQA qoume
b

(4.5.14)

(f, P0 , (0) )
a

f (x)dx <

. 2

@gA fo knme to pol n mt gi n ftsoume sthn P0 ki fo se kje m t jrosmt peqn to pol 2n D qoume

(f, P1 , (1) )

(f, P0 , (0) ) < n

= . 2n 2

hhldD gi thn tuqos dimrish P1 pltou < ki gi thn tuqos epilog (1) shmewn p t upodistmt th P1 D qoume
b

(f, P1 , (1) )
a

f (x)dx

< + <

(f, P1 , (1) ) (f, P0 , (0) )

(f, P0 , (0) )
b

f (x)dx
a

+ = . 2 2

9ipeti ti h f eni oloklhrsimh me ton orism tou RiemannD kj ki ti oi b I(f ) ki a f (x)dx eni soiF 2

RFT eskseis US

RFT

esksei

ymd e9F irwtsei ktnhsh

9istw f : [a, b] RF ixetste n oi prktw protsei eni lhje yeude @itiologste plrw thn pnths sAF

IF en h f eni Riemann oloklhrsimhD tte h f eni frgmnhF PF en h f eni Riemann oloklhrsimhD tte prnei mgisth timF QF en h f eni frgmnhD tte eni Riemann oloklhrsimhF RF en h |f | eni Riemann oloklhrsimhD tte h f eni Riemann oloklhrsimhF SF en h f eni Riemann oloklhrsimhD tte uprqei c [a, b] ste f (c)(b a) =
b a

f (x) dxF

TF en h f eni frgmnh ki n L(f, P ) = U (f, P ) gi kje dimrish P tou [a, b]D

tte h f eni stjerF

UF en h f eni frgmnh ki n uprqei dimrish P ste L(f, P ) = U (f, P )D tte

h f eni Riemann oloklhrsimhF

VF en h f eni Riemann oloklhrsimh ki n f (x) = 0 gi kje x [a, b] QD tte

b

f (x)dx = 0.
a

ymd f9 WF 9istw f : [0, 1] R frgmnh sunrthsh me thn idithtX gi kje 0 < b 1 h f eni oloklhrsimh sto disthm [b, 1]F hexte ti h f eni oloklhrsimh sto [0, 1]F
1 IHF epodexte ti h sunrthsh f : [1, 1] R me f (x) = sin x n x = 0 ki

f (0) = 2 eni oloklhrsimhF

IIF 9istw g : [a, b] R frgmnh sunrthshF pojtoume ti h g eni suneq

pntoD ekt p n shmeo x0 (a, b)F hexte ti h g eni oloklhrsimhF sei eni oloklhrsimeX @A f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = xF @A f : [0, /2] R me f (x) = sin xF

IPF rhsimopoint to kritrio tou Riemann podexte ti oi prktw sunrtE

IQF ixetste n oi prktw sunrtsei eni oloklhrsime sto [0, 2] ki upE

ologste to oloklrwm tou @n uprqeiAX @A f (x) = x + [x]F

UT yloklrwm Riemann
@A f (x) = 1 n x = ti
1 k

gi kpoion k ND ki f (x) = 0 lliF

IRF 9istw f : [a, b] R suneq sunrthsh me f (x) 0 gi kje x [a, b]F hexte
b

f (x)dx = 0
a

n ki mno n f (x) = 0 gi kje x [a, b]F

ISF 9istw f, g : [a, b] R suneqe sunrtsei ste

b b

f (x)dx =
a a

g(x)dx.

hexte ti uprqei x0 [a, b] ste f (x0 ) = g(x0 )F

ITF 9istw f : [a, b] R suneq sunrthsh me thn idithtX gi kje suneq

sunrthsh g : [a, b] R isqei
b

f (x)g(x)dx = 0.
a

hexte ti f (x) = 0 gi kje x [a, b]F

IUF 9istw f : [a, b] R suneq sunrthsh me thn idithtX gi kje suneq

sunrthsh g : [a, b] R pou iknopoie thn g(a) = g(b) = 0D isqei
b

f (x)g(x)dx = 0.
a

hexte ti f (x) = 0 gi kje x [a, b]F

IVF 9istw f, g : [a, b] R oloklhrsime sunrtseiF hexte thn nistht

Cauchy-SchwarzX
b 2 b b

f (x)g(x)dx
a

f 2 (x)dx

g 2 (x)dx .

IWF 9istw f : [0, 1] R oloklhrsimh sunrthshF hexte ti

1 2 1

f (x)dx
0

f 2 (x)dx.

ssqei to dio n ntiktstsoume to [0, 1] me tuqn disthm [a, b]c

PHF 9istw f : [0, +) R suneq sunrthshF hexte ti

x0+

lim

1 x

f (t)dt = f (0).
0

RFT eskseis UU

PIF 9istw f : [0, 1] R oloklhrsimh sunrthshF hexte ti h kolouj

an =
sugklnei sto
1 0

1 n

f
k=1

k n

f (x)dxF

Updeixh:

rhsimopoiste ton orism tou RiemannF

PPF hexte ti
n

lim

1+

2 + + n n

2 . 3

PQF 9istw f : [0, 1] R suneq sunrthshF yrzoume mi kolouj (an ) jtont 1 an = 0 f (xn )dxF hexte ti an f (0)F
1 PRF hexte ti h kolouj n = 1 + 1 + 1 + + n 2 3 n 1 dx 1 x

sugklneiF

PSF 9istw f : [0, 1] R Lipschitz suneq sunrthsh ste

|f (x) f (y)| M |x y|
gi kje x, y [0, 1]F hexte ti
1

f (x)dx
0

1 n

f
k=1

k n

M 2n

gi kje n NF

ymd q9 PTF 9istw f : [a, b] R gnhsw xous ki suneq sunrthshF hexte ti

b f (b)

f (x)dx = bf (b) af (a)

a f (a)

f 1 (x)dx.

PUF 9istw f : [0, +) [0, +) gnhsw xousD suneq ki ep sunrthsh me f (0) = 0F hexte ti gi kje a, b > 0
a b

ab
0

f (x)dx +
0

f 1 (x)dx

me istht n ki mno n f (a) = bF

PVF 9istw f : [a, b] R suneq sunrthsh me thn ex idithtX uprqei M > 0

ste
x

|f (x)| M
a

|f (t)|dt

gi kje x [a, b]F hexte ti f (x) = 0 gi kje x [a, b]F

UV yloklrwm Riemann

PWF 9istw a RF hexte ti den uprqei jetik suneq sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R

ste
1 1 1

f (x)dx = 1,
0 0

xf (x)dx = a ki
0

x2 f (x)dx = a2 .

QHF 9istw f : [a, b] R suneqD mh rnhtik sunrthshF ttoume M = max{f (x) :

x [a, b]}F hexte oti h kolouj n =
a b 1/n

[f (x)] dx

sugklneiD ki limn n = M F n dexoume ti h f qei poll shme sunqeiF @A prqei dimrish P tou [a, b] ste U (f, P ) L(f, P ) < b a @exhgste gitAF hexte ti uprqoun a1 < b1 sto [a, b] ste b1 a1 < 1 ki

QIF 9istw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh sunrthshF kop ut th skhsh eni

sup{f (x) : a1 x b1 } inf{f (x) : a1 x b1 } < 1.

@A ipgwgik orste kiwtismn distmt [an , bn ] (an1 , bn1 ) me mko mikrtero p 1/n ste

sup{f (x) : an x bn } inf{f (x) : an x bn } <

1 . n

@gA r tom utn twn kiwtismnwn disthmtwn periqei kri n shmeoF hexte ti h f eni suneq se utF @dA r dexte ti h f qei peir shme sunqei sto [a, b] @den qreizeti perisE sterh doulei3AF

QPF 9istw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh @qi ngkstik suneqA sunrthsh me

f (x) > 0 gi kje x [a, b]F hexte ti
b

f (x)dx > 0.
a

ymd h9F umplhrmt th tewr

epodexte ti prktw protseiF

QQF 9istw f, g, h : [a, b] R tre sunrtsei pou iknopoion thn f (x) g(x)
h(x) gi kje x [a, b]F pojtoume ti oi f, h eni oloklhrsime ki
b b

f (x)dx =
a a

h(x)dx = I.

hexte ti h g eni oloklhrsimh ki

b

g(x)dx = I.
a

RFT eskseis UW

QRF 9istw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh sunrthshF hexte ti h |f | eni oloklhrsimhF

ymowD ti h f 2 eni oloklhrsimhF oloklhrsimhF

QSF 9istw f, g : [a, b] R oloklhrsime sunrtseiF hexte ti h f g eni QTF 9istw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimhF hexte ti
b b

f (x)dx
a a

|f (x)|dx.

QUF 9istw f : R R sunrthsh oloklhrsimh se kje kleist disthm th morf [a, b]F hexte tiX
a a f (x)dx = 0 f (a x)dxF 0 b b @A a f (x)dx = a f (a + b x)dxF b b+c @gA a f (x)dx = a+c f (x c)dxF b cb @dA ca f (t)dt = c a f (ct)dtF a @eA a f (x)dx = 0 n h f eni perittF a a @stA a f (x)dx = 2 0 f (x)dx n h f eni

@A

rtiF

QVF 9istw f : [a, b] R frgmnh sunrthshF

@A hexte ti h f eni oloklhrsimh n ki mno n gi kje > 0 mporome n rome klimkwt sunrtsei g , h : [a, b] R me g f h ki
b b

h (x)dx
a a

g (x)dx < .

@A hexte ti h f eni oloklhrsimh n ki mno n gi kje > 0 mporome n rome suneqe sunrtsei g , h : [a, b] R me g f h ki
b b

h (x)dx
a a

g (x)dx < .

Keflaio 5

To jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo

e ut to ueflio j lme ti mi sunrthsh f : [a, b] R eni [a, b] n h prgwgo f (x) uprqei gi kje x (a, b) kiD epiplonD uprqoun oi pleurik prgwgoi
sto para gw gsimh

f+ (a) = lim+
xa

f (x) f (a) xa

ki f (b) = lim

xb

f (x) f (b) . xb

umfwnome n grfoume f (a) = f+ (a) ki f (b) = f (b)F

SFI

o jerhm msh tou yloklhrwtiko vogismo

msh tim

9istw f : [a, b] R mi Riemann oloklhrsimh sunrthshF to prohgomeno ueflio orsme th

(5.1.1)

1 ba

f (x)dx
a

th f sto [a, b]F en h f upoteje suneqD tte uprqei [a, b] me thn iditht

(5.1.2)

f () =

1 ba

f (x)dx.
a

y isqurism ut eni mesh sunpei tou ex genikterou jewrmtoF

terhm SFIFI @jerhm msh tim tou oloklhrwtiko logismoAF

w

'Est-

f : [a, b] R

suneqc

sunrthsh

kai

sunrthsh me

mh arnhtikc timc.

Uprqei

g : [a, b] R [a, b]
stw ste

oloklhrsimh

(5.1.3)
a

f (x)g(x)dx = f ()
a

g(x)dx.

VP o jemelides jerhm tou epeirostiko vogismo

F yi f ki g eni oloklhrsimeD r h f g eni oloklhrsimh sto [a, b]F r f eni suneq sto [a, b]D r prnei elqisth ki mgisth timF 9istw
Apdeixh

(5.1.4)

m = min{f (x) : a x b} ki M = max{f (x) : a x b}.

efo h g prnei mh rnhtik timD qoume

(5.1.5)

mg(x) f (x)g(x) M g(x)

gi kje x [a, b]F unepD

b b b

(5.1.6)

m
a

g(x)dx
a b a

f (x)g(x)dx M
a

g(x)dx.

g(x)dx 0F hikrnoume do periptseiX n b g(x)dx = 0D tte p thn @SFIFTA lpoume ti a f (x)g(x)dx = 0F 9erD h @SFIFQA isqei [a, b]F b pojtoume loipn ti a g(x)dx > 0F teD p thn @SFIFTA sumpernoume ti
b a
gia kje

efo g 0 sto [a, b]D qoume

(5.1.7)

b a

f (x)g(x)dx
b a

M.

g(x)dx

efo h f eni suneqD to terhm indimesh im deqnei ti uprqei [a, b] ste

(5.1.8)
9ipeti to sumprsmF

f () =

b a

f (x)g(x)dx
b a

. 2

g(x)dx

rism SFIFPF
(5.1.9)

'Estw

f : [a, b] R
b

suneqc sunrthsh.

Uprqei

[a, b]

ste

f (x)dx = f ()(b a).

a

Apdeixh

F 9emesh sunpei tou tewrmto SFIFID n jewrsoume thn g : [a, b] R me g(x) = 1 gi kje x [a, b]F 2

thn epmenh prgrfo j dexoume @xnA to rism SFIFPD ut th for sn mesh sunpei tou prtou jemelidou jewrmto tou epeirostiko vogismoF

SFP

jemelidh jewrmt tou epeirostiko vogismo

aristo

yrism SFPFI @risto oloklrwmAF 9istw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh sunrthshF idme ti h f eni oloklhrsimh sto [a, x] gi kje x [a, b]F o f eni h sunrthsh F : [a, b] R pou orzeti p thn
oloklrwma thc

(5.2.1)

F (x) =
a

f (t)dt.

rhsimopoint to gegon ti kje Riemann oloklhrsimh sunrthsh eni frgmnhD j dexoume ti to risto oloklrwm mi oloklhrsimh sunrthsh eni pntote suneq sunrthshF

SFP jemelidh jewrmt tou epeirostiko vogismo VQ

terhm SFPFPF
oloklrwma

'Estw

f : [a, b] R

oloklhrsimh

sunrthsh.

To

aristo

thc

enai suneqc sunrthsh sto

[a, b]

Apdeixh

F efo h f eni oloklhrsimhD eni ex orismo frgmnhF hhldD uprqei M > 0 ste |f (x)| M gi kje x [a, b]F 9istw x < y sto [a, b]F teD
y x y

|F (x) F (y)| =
a y

f (t)dt
a

f (t)dt =
x

f (t)dt

|f (t)|dt M |x y|. 2

9erD h F eni Lipschitz suneq @me stjer M AF

wporome n dexoume kti isqurteroX st shme sunqei th f D h F eni prgwgsimhF

terhm SFPFQF
suneqc sto

'Estw

x0 [a, b]

, tte h

f : [a, b] R F

oloklhrsimh

sunrthsh.

An

enai

enai para gw gsimh sto

x0

kai

(5.2.2)
Apdeixh

F (x0 ) = f (x0 ).

F pojtoume ti a < x0 < b @oi do periptsei x0 = a x0 = b elgqonti moiD me th smsh pou knme sthn rq tou ueflouAF ttoume 1 = min{x0 a, b x0 }F en |h| < 1 D tte

F (x0 + h) F (x) f (x0 ) h

1 h 1 h 1 h

x0 +h

x0

f (t)dt
a x0 +h a

f (t)dt
x0 +h

f (x0 )

= =

f (t)dt
x0 x0 +h x0

f (x0 )dt

[f (t) f (x0 )]dt.

x0

9istw > 0F r f eni suneq sto x0 D r uprqei 0 < < 1 ste n |x x0 | < tte |f (x) f (x0 )| < F 9istw 0 < |h| < F @A en 0 < h < D tte

F (x0 + h) F (x) f (x0 ) h

1 h 1 h 1 h

x0 +h

[f (t) f (x0 )]dt

x0 x0 +h

|f (t) f (x0 )|dt

x0 x0 +h

dt =
x0

1 h = . h

VR o jemelides jerhm tou epeirostiko vogismo

@A en < h < 0D tte

F (x0 + h) F (x) f (x0 ) h

1 |h| 1 |h| 1 |h|

x0

[f (t) f (x0 )]dt

x0 +h x0

|f (t) f (x0 )|dt

x0 +h x0

dt =
x0 +h

1 (h) = . |h|

9ipeti ti
h0

lim

F (x0 + h) F (x0 ) = f (x0 ), h 2

F

dhld F (x0 ) = f (x0 )F 9emesh sunpei eni to

An h prto jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo

terhm SFPFR @prto jemelide jerhm tou epeirostiko vogismoAF

f : [a, b] R
enai suneqc, tte to aristo oloklrwma

thc

enai

para gw gsimh sunrthsh

kai

(5.2.3)
gia kje

F (x) = f (x) x [a, b]

.

2 f : [a, b] R
b
suneqc sunrthsh. Uprqei

rism SFPFSF
(5.2.4)

'Estw

[a, b]

ste

f (x)dx = f ()(b a).

a

F ifrmzoume to jerhm msh tim tou diforiko logismo gi th x 2 sunrthsh F (x) = a f (t) dt sto [a, b]F
Apdeixh

e upojsoume tr ti f : [a, b] R eni mi suneq sunrthshF wi prgE wgsimh sunrthsh G : [a, b] R lgeti prgous th f @ ntiprgwgo th f A n G (x) = f (x) gi kje x [a, b]F mfwn me to terhm SFPFRD h sunrthsh
x

F (x) =
a

f (t)dt

eni prgous th f F en G eni mi llh prgous th f D tte G (x) F (x) = f (x) f (x) = 0 gi kje x [a, b]D r h G F eni stjer sto [a, b] @pl sunpei tou jewrmto msh timAF hhldD uprqei c R ste

(5.2.5)

G(x) F (x) = c

gi kje x [a, b]F efo F (a) = 0D prnoume c = G(a)F hhldD

x

(5.2.6)
a

f (t)dt = G(x) G(a)

lli
x

(5.2.7)

G(x) = G(a) +
a

f (t)dt

gi kje x [a, b]F 9iqoume loipn dexei to exX

SFP jemelidh jewrmt tou epeirostiko vogismo VS

terhm SFPFTF
x a
thc

'Estw

f (t)dt f

to

aristo

oloklrwma

f : [a, b] R f
thc .

suneqc An

sunrthsh

kai

stw mia

F (x) =

G : [a, b] R
x

enai

par gousa

, tte

(5.2.8)
gia kje

G(x) = F (x) + G(a) =

a

f (t)dt + G(a)

x [a, b]

Eidiktera,

f (x)dx = G(b) G(a).

a
Shmewsh:

hen eni swst ti gi kje prgwgsimh sunrthsh G : [a, b] R isqei h istht

b

(5.2.9)

G(b) G(a) =
a

G (x)dx.

qi prdeigmD n jewrsoume th sunrthsh G : [0, 1] R me G(0) = 0 ki 1 G(x) = x2 sin x2 n 0 < x 1D tte h G eni prgwgsimh sto [0, 1] ll h G den eni frgmnh sunrthsh @elgxte toA opte den mporome n milme gi to b oloklrwm a G F en mw h G : [a, b] R eni prgwgsimh ki h G eni oloklhrsimh sto [a, b]D tte h @SFPFWA isqeiF eut eni to F
detero jemelidec jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo

terhm SFPFU @detero jemelide jerhm tou epeirostiko vogisE moAF G : [a, b] R G
'Estw para gw gsimh sunrthsh. An h enai oloklhrsimh sto

[a, b]

tte

(5.2.10)
a
Apdeixh

G (x)dx = G(b) G(a).

F 9istw P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} mi dimrish tou [a, b]F ifrE mzont to terhm wsh im sto [xk , xk+1 ]D k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1D rskoume k (xk , xk+1 ) me thn iditht

(5.2.11)

G(xk+1 ) G(xk ) = G (k )(xk+1 xk ).

enD gi kje 0 k n 1D orsoume (5.2.12) mk = inf{G (x) : xk x xk+1 } ki Mk = sup{G (x) : xk x xk+1 }, tte

(5.2.13)
r

mk G (k ) Mk ,

n1

(5.2.14)

L(G , P )
k=0

G (k )(xk+1 xk ) U (G , P ).

VT o jemelides jerhm tou epeirostiko vogismo

hhldD
n1

(5.2.15)

L(G , P )
k=0

(G(xk+1 ) G(xk )) = G(b) G(a) U (G , P ).

efo h P tn tuqos ki h G eni oloklhrsimh sto [a, b]D prnont supremum w pro P sthn rister nistht ki inmum w pro P sthn dexi nistht th @SFPFISAD sumpernoume ti
b b

(5.2.16)
a

G (x)dx G(b) G(a)

a

G (x)dx, 2

pou eni to zhtomenoF

SFQ

wjodoi oloklrwsh

jewrmt ut th prgrfou {perigrfoun} do qrsime mejdou olokE lrwshX thn oloklrwsh kt mrh ki thn oloklrwsh me ntiktstshF

umolismF en F : [a, b] RD tte sumfwnome n grfoume

(5.3.1) f [F (x)]b = F (x) a
An oi kai

b a

:= F (b) F (a).
'Estw

terhm SFQFI @oloklrwsh kt mrhAF

sunartseic.

f, g : [a, b] R
x

para gw gsimec

enai oloklhrsimec, tte

(5.3.2)
a
Eidiktera,

f g = (f g)(x) (f g)(a)
a

f g.

(5.3.3)
a
Apdeixh

f (x)g (x)dx = [f (x)g(x)]b a

a

f (x)g(x)dx.

F r f g eni prgwgsimh ki

(5.3.4)

(f g) (x) = f (x)g (x) + f (x)g(x)

sto [a, b]F ep thn upjeshD oi sunrtsei f g D f g eni oloklhrsimeD r ki h (f g) eni oloklhrsimhF ep to detero jemelide jerhm tou epeirostiko vogismoD gi kje x [a, b] qoume
x x x

(5.3.5)
a

fg +
a

fg=
a

(f g) = (f g)(x) (f g)(a). 2

y detero isqurism prokptei n jsoume x = bF

wi efrmog eni to {detero jerhm msh tim tou oloklhrwtiko logisE mo}F

rism SFQFPF
kai h ste

'Estw

f, g : [a, b] R

Upojtoume ti h

enai montonh kai suneqc para gw gsimh sto

f [a, b]
.

enai suneqc sto Tte, uprqei

[a, b] [a, b]

(5.3.6)
a

f (x)g(x)dx = g(a)
a

f (x)dx + g(b)

f (x)dx.

SFQ wjodoi oloklrwshs VU

F tewrome to risto oloklrwm F (x) = a f (t)dt th f sto [a, b]F teD to zhtomeno prnei thn ex morfX uprqei [a, b] ste
Apdeixh

(5.3.7)
a

F (x)g(x)dx = g(a)F () + g(b)(F (b) F ()).

r g eni suneq prgwgsimhD r mporome n efrmsoume oloklrwsh kt mrh sto rister mloF 9iqoume
b b

(5.3.8)
a

F (x)g(x)dx = F (b)g(b) F (a)g(a)

a b

F (x)g (x)dx

= F (b)g(b)
a

F (x)g (x)dx,

fo F (a) = 0F ifrmzoume to jerhm msh tim tou yloklhrwtiko vogisE moX h g eni montonhD r h g dithre prshmo sto [a, b]F r F eni suneq ki h g oloklhrsimhD r uprqei [a, b] ste
b b

(5.3.9)
a

F (x)g (x)dx = F ()
a

g (x)dx = F ()(g(b) g(a)).

entikjistnt sthn @SFQFVA prnoume (5.3.10)

b

F (x)g(x) = F (b)g(b) F ()(g(b) g(a)) = g(a)F () + g(b)(F (b) F ()),

a

dhld thn @SFQFUAF

2
'Estw

terhm SFQFQ @prto jerhm ntiktstshAF

para gw gsimh sunrthsh. kai Upojtoume ti h

enai oloklhrsimh.

: [a, b] R I = ([a, b])

An

f :IR

enai mia

suneqc

sunrthsh, tte

(b)

(5.3.11)
a
Apdeixh

f ((t)) (t) dt =
(a)

f (s) ds.

F r eni suneqD r to I = ([a, b]) eni kleist disthmF r f eni suneq sto I D r eni oloklhrsimh sto I F yrzoume F : I R me
x

(5.3.12)

F (x) =
(a)

f (s) ds

@prthrste ti to (a) den eni prtht kro tou I D dhld h F den eni prtht to risto oloklrwm th f sto I AF efo h f eni suneq sto I D to prto jemelide jerhm tou epeirostiko vogismo deqnei ti h F eni prgwgsimh sto I ki F = f F 9ipeti ti
b b

(5.3.13)
a

f ((t)) (t) dt =
a

F ((t)) (t) dt.

rthrome ti

(5.3.14)

(F ) = (F ) .

VV o jemelides jerhm tou epeirostiko vogismo

r (F ) eni oloklhrsimh sto [a, b]D r h (F ) eni oloklhrsimh sto [a, b]F ep to detero jemelide jerhm tou epeirostiko vogismo prnoume
b b b

(5.3.15)
a

(f ) =
a

(F ) =
a

(F ) = (F )(b) (F )(a).

efo
(b) (a) (b)

(5.3.16)

(F )(b) (F )(a) =
(a)

f
(a)

f=
(a)

f, 2

prnoume thn @SFQFIIAF

terhm SFQFR @detero jerhm ntiktstshAF

suneqc para gw gsimh sunrthsh, me kai

'Estw .

(x) = 0
(b)

gia kje

x [a, b]

An

: [a, b] R I = ([a, b])

f :IR

enai mia

suneqc

sunrthsh, tte

(5.3.17)
a
Apdeixh

f ((t)) dt =
(a)

f (s)( 1 ) (s) ds.

F r eni suneq ki den mhdenzeti sto [a, b]D r eni pnto jetik pnto rnhtik sto [a, b]F unepD h eni gnhsw montonh sto [a, b]F enD qwr periorism th genikthtD upojsoume ti h eni gnhsw xous tte orzeti h ntstrofh sunrthsh 1 : I R th sto I = ([a, b]) = [(a), (b)]F ifrmzoume to prto jerhm ntiktstsh gi thn f ( 1 ) @prthrste ti h ( 1 ) eni suneq sto I AF 9iqoume
(b) b

f ( 1 )
(a)

=
a b

[(f ( 1 ) ) ] (f ) [( 1 ) ]
a b

= =
a b

(f ) ( 1 ) f .
a

=
eut podeiknei thn @SFQFIUAF

SFR

qenikeumn oloklhrmt

e utn thn prgrfo epektenoume ton orism tou oloklhrmto gi sunrtE sei pou den eni frgmne eni orismne se distmt pou den eni kleist ki frgmnF t rkestome se kpoie sik ki qrsime periptseiF oloklhrsimh kt Riemann se kje disthm th morf [a, x]D pou a < x < bF en uprqei to
x

IF pojtoume ti b R b = + ki f : [a, b) R eni mi sunrthsh pou eni

(5.4.1)

xb

lim

f (t) dt
a

SFR qenikeumn oloklhrmt VW

ki eni prgmtik rijmD tte lme ti h f eni oloklhrsimh sto [a, b) ki orzoume
b x

f (t) dt = lim
a

xb

f (t) dt.
a b

en to {rio} sthn @SFRFIA eni tte lme ti to a f (t) dt poklnei sto F intel nlog orzeti to genikeumno oloklrwm mi sunrthsh f : (a, b] R @pou a R a = A pou eni oloklhrsimh sto [x, b] gi kje a < x < bD n eni to
b b a

f (t) dt = lim+
xa

f (t) dt,
x

n to teleuto rio uprqeiF

rdegmt
@A tewrome th sunrthsh f : [1, ) R me f (x) =
x 1 1 x2 F

qi kje x > 1 qoume

1 1 1 dt = |x = 1 . t2 t 1 x
x

unepD
1

f (t) dt = lim

f (t) dt = lim
1

1 x

= 1.

1 @A tewrome th sunrthsh f : [1, ) R me f (x) = x F qi kje x > 1 qoume x 1

1 dt = ln t |x = ln x ln 1 = ln x. 1 t
x

unepD
1

f (t) dt = lim

f (t) dt = lim ln x = +.
1 x

@gA tewrome th sunrthsh f : (0, 1] R me f (x) = ln xF rthrste ti h f den eni frgmnhX lim ln x = F qi kje x (0, 1) qoume
x0+ 1

ln t dt = t ln t t |1 = 1 x ln x + x. x
x

unepD
1 0 1

f (t) dt = lim+
x0

f (t) dt = lim+ (1 x ln x + x) = 1.
x0

1 @dA tewrome th sunrthsh f : [0, 1) R me f (x) = 1x F rthrste ti h f 1 den eni frgmnhX lim 1x = +F qi kje x (0, 1) qoume x1 x

1 dt = 2 1 t |x = 2 2 1 x. 0 1t

unepD
1 x

f (t) dt = lim
0

x1

f (t) dt = lim (2 2 1 x) = 2.
x1

WH o jemelides jerhm tou epeirostiko vogismo

@eA tewrome th sunrthsh f : [0, ) R me f (x) = sin xF qi kje x > 0 qoume
x

sin t dt = cos t |x = cos x 1. 0

0

efo to rio lim (cos x 1) den uprqeiD to genikeumno oloklrwm x den prnei kpoi timF

sin t dt

sunrthsh pou eni oloklhrsimh kt Riemann se kje kleist disthm [x, y]D pou a < x < y < bF tewrome tuqn c (a, b) ki exetzoume n uprqoun t genikeumn oloklhrmt
c b

PF pojtoume ti b R b = + ki a R a = F 9istw f : (a, b) R mi

f (t) dt ki
a c

f (t) dt.
b a

en uprqoun ki t doD tte lme ti to genikeumno oloklrwm ki eni so me

b c b

f (t) dt uprqei

f (t) dt =
a a

f (t) dt +
c

f (t) dt.

rthrste tiD se utn thn perptwshD h tim tou jrosmto sto dexi mE lo den exrtti p thn epilog tou c sto (a, b) @exhgste gitAF unepD to genikeumno oloklrwm orzeti kl me utn ton trpoF en kpoio p t do c b genikeumn oloklhrmt a f (t) dt ki c f (t) dt den qei timD tte lme ti to

f (t) dt den orzeti @den qei timAF ti periptsei pou kpoio p t do ki t do genikeumn oloklhrmt poklnoun sto isqoun t sunjh gi ti morf a F

b a

rdegmt
@A tewrome th sunrthsh f : R R me f (x) =
x x x2 +1 F

9iqoume

f (t) dt = lim
0

0 0

t2

t ln(x2 + 1) dt = lim = +. x +1 2

9ymoiD

f (t) dt = .

unepD to

f (t) dt den orzetiX qoume prosdiristh morf (+) + ()F

1 x2 +1 F

@A tewrome th sunrthsh f : R R me f (x) =

x

9iqoume

f (t) dt = lim
0

0 0

t2

1 dt = lim arctan x = /2. x +1

9ymoiD

f (t) dt = /2.

unepD

1 dt = t2 + 1

1 dt + t2 + 1

1 dt = + = . t2 + 1 2 2

SFR qenikeumn oloklhrmt WI

SFR

o kritrio tou oloklhrmto

9istw f : [a, ) R+ mh rnhtik sunrthshD h opo eni oloklhrsimh se kje disthm [a, x]D pou x > aF e utn thn perptwshD h sunrthsh
x

F (x) :=
a

f (t) dt

eni xous sto (a, +)F unepD to

x

f (t) dt = lim
a

f (t) dt
a

uprqei n ki mno n h F eni nw frgmnhF hiforetikD a f (t) dt = +F entstoiqo potlesm eqme de gi thn sgklish seirn k=1 ak me mhE rnhtiko rouF wi ttoi seir sugklnei n ki mno n h kolouj (sn ) twn merikn jroismtwn th eni nw frgmnhF hiforetikD poklnei sto +F o epmeno jerhm dnei n kritrio sgklish gi seir pou grfonti sth morf k=1 f (k)D pou f : [1, +) R eni mi fjnous mhErnhtik sunrthshF

terhm SFRFIF
timc. mh Jewrome arnhtikn

'Estw thn

rwn

f : [1, +) R (ak ) ak = f (k) k = 1, 2, . . . ak k=1

fjnousa sunrthsh akolouja me , sugklnei an kai mno an to

me .

mh

arnhtikc h seir

Tte,

genikeumno

oloklrwma

f (t) dt

uprqei.

Apdeixh.

ep to gegon ti h f eni fjnous prokptei mes ti h f eni oloklhrsimh se kje disthm [k, k + 1] ki
k+1

ak+1 = f (k + 1)
k

f (t) dt f (k) = ak
k=1

gi kje k NF en upojsoume ti h seir qoume

x [x]+1 [x]

ak sugklneiD tte gi kje x > 1

[x]

k+1

f (t) dt
1 1

f (t) dt =
k=1 k

f (t) dt
k=1 x

ak
k=1

ak .

9ipeti ti to
1

f (t) dt = lim
uprqeiF entstrofD n to
1

f (t) dt
1

f (t) dt uprqeiD gi kje n N qoume

n1 k+1

sn

= f (1) + f (2) + + f (n) f (1) +

k=1 n k

f (t) dt

= f (1) +
1

f (t) dt f (1) +
1

f (t) dt.
k=1

efo h kolouj (sn ) twn merikn jroismtwn th h seir sugklneiF

ak eni nw frgmnhD 2F

rdegmt

WP o jemelides jerhm tou epeirostiko vogismo

@A r seir
2 1 k=2 k ln k x 2

poklnei diti

1 dt = lim x t ln t

1 dt = lim x t ln t
sugklnei diti
x 2

ln x ln 2

dy = lim (ln(ln x) ln(ln 2)) = +. x y

@A r seir
2

1 k=2 k(ln k)2

1 dt = lim x t(ln t)2

1 dt = lim x t(ln t)2

ln x ln 2

dy = lim x y2

1 1 ln 2 ln x

1 . ln 2

SFS

esksei

ymd e9 IF 9istw f : [a, b] R oloklhrsimh sunrthshF hexte ti uprqei s [a, b] ste

s b

f (t)dt =
a s

f (t)dt.

wporome pnt n epilgoume n ttoio s sto noikt disthm (a, b)c

PF 9istw f : [0, 1] R oloklhrsimh ki jetik sunrthsh ste

hexte ti gi kje n N uprqei dimrish {0 = t0 < t1 < tk+1 1 f (x)dx = n gi kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1F tk

1 f (x)dx = 1F 0 < tn = 1} ste

QF 9istw f : [0, 1] R suneq sunrthshF hexte ti uprqei s [0, 1] ste

1

f (x)x2 dx =
0

f (s) . 3

RF pojtoume ti h f : [0, 1] R eni suneq ki ti

x 1

f (t)dt =
0 x

f (t)dt

gi kje x [0, 1]F hexte ti f (x) = 0 gi kje x [0, 1]F

SF 9istw f, h : [0, +) [0, +)F pojtoume ti h h eni suneq ki h f eni

prgwgsimhF yrzoume
f (x)

F (x) =
0

h(t)dt.

hexte ti F (x) = h(f (x)) f (x)F

TF 9istw f : R R suneq ki stw > 0F yrzoume

x+

g(x) =
x

f (t)dt.

hexte ti h g eni prgwgsimh ki rete thn g F

SFS eskseis WQ

UF 9istw g, h : R R prgwgsime sunrtseiF yrzoume

g(x)

G(x) =
h(x)

t2 dt.

hexte ti h G eni prgwgsimh sto R ki rete thn G F

VF 9istw f : [1, +) R suneq sunrthshF yrzoume

x

F (x) =
1

x t

dt.

frete thn F F

WF 9istw f : [0, a] R suneqF hexte tiD gi kje x [0, a]D

x x u

f (u)(x u)du =
0 0 0

f (t)dt du.

IHF 9istw a, b R me a < b ki f : [a, b] R suneq prgwgsimh sunrthshF

en P = {a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b} eni dimrish tou [a, b]D dexte ti
n1 b

|f (xk+1 ) f (xk )|
k=0 a

|f (x)| dx.

IIF 9istw f : [0, +) [0, +) gnhsw xousD suneq prgwgsimh sunrthsh me f (0) = 0F hexte tiD gi kje x > 0D
x f (x)

f (t) dt +
0 0

f 1 (t) dt = xf (x).

ymd f9 IPF 9istw f : [0, 1] R suneq prgwgsimh sunrthsh me f (0) = 0F hexte ti

gi kje x [0, 1] isqei
1 1/2

|f (x)|
0

|f (t)|2 dt

IQF 9istw f : [0, +) R suneq sunrthsh me f (x) = 0 gi kje x > 0D h opo iknopoie thn
x

f (x)2 = 2
0

f (t)dt

gi kje x 0F hexte ti f (x) = x gi kje x 0F

IRF 9istw f : [a, b] R suneq prgwgsimh sunrthshF hexte ti

b n b

lim

f (x) cos(nx)dx = 0
a

ki

lim

f (x) sin(nx)dx = 0.
a

WR o jemelides jerhm tou epeirostiko vogismo

ISF ixetste w pro th sgklish ti kolouje

an =
0

sin(nx)dx ki bn =
0

| sin(nx)|dx.

ITF 9istw f : [0, +) R suneq prgwgsimh sunrthshF hexte ti uprqoun

suneqeD xouse ki jetik sunrtsei g, h : [0, +) R ste f = g hF

Keflaio 6

Teqnikc oloklrwshc
e ut to ueflio perigrfoumeD qwr iditerh usthrthtD ti sik mejdou upologismo oloklhrwmtwnF hneti mi sunrthsh f ki jloume n rome mi ntiprgwgo th f D dhld mi sunrthsh F me thn iditht F = f F teD

f (x)dx = F (x) + c.

TFI
TFI

yloklrwsh me ntiktstsh
nk stoiqeiwdn oloklhrwmtwn

uje tpo prggish F (x) = f (x) m dnei nn tpo oloklrwshX h F eE ni ntiprgwgo th f F wporome tsi n dhmiourgsoume nn pnk sikn oloklhrwmtwnD ntistrfont tou tpou prggish twn pio sikn sunrtE sewnX

xa dx =

xa+1 , a+1

a = 1,

1 dx = ln |x| + c x sin x dx = cos x + c 1 dx = tan x + c cos2 x 1 dx = arcsin x + c 1 x2

ex dx = ex + c, cos x dx = sin x + c, 1 dx = cot x + c, sin2 x 1 dx = arctan x + c. 1 + x2

TFI

pologism tou

f ((x)) (x) dx

r ntiktstsh u = (x)D du = (x) dx m dnei

f ((x)) (x) dx =

f (u) du,

u = (x).

en to oloklrwm dexi upologzeti eukolterD jtont pou u thn (x) upE ologzoume to oloklrwm risterF

WT eqniks oloklrwshs

rdegmt
@A qi ton upologism tou

arctan x dx 1 + x2
dx 1+x2

jtoume u = arctan xF teD du =

ki ngmste sto

u du =
9ipeti ti

u2 + c. 2

(arctan x)2 arctan x dx = + c. 2 1+x 2

@A qi ton upologism tou

tan x dx =

sin x dx cos x

jtoume u = cos xF teD du = sin x dx ki ngmste sto

9ipeti ti

1 du = ln |u| + c. u

tan x dx = ln | cos x| + c.
@gA qi ton upologism tou

jtoume u =

cos( x) dx x
dx 2 x

xF teD du =

ki ngmste sto

2 cos u du = 2 sin u + c.
9ipeti ti

cos( x) dx = 2 sin( x) + c. x

TFIg

rigwnometrik oloklhrmt

yloklhrmt pou periqoun dunmei ginmen trigwnometrikn sunrtsewn mE poron n nqjon se ploster n qrhsimopoisoume ti sik trigwnometrik tutthteX

sin2 x + cos2 x = 1, 1 , sin2 x 1 cos 2x sin2 x = , 2 cos(a b)x cos(a + b)x sin ax sin bx = , 2 cos(a + b)x + cos(a b)x cos ax cos bx = . 2 1 + cot2 x =

1 cos2 x 1 + cos 2x cos2 x = 2 1 + tan2 x = sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x sin ax cos bx = sin(a + b)x + sin(a b)x 2

TFI yloklrwsh me ntiktstsh WU

rdegmt
@A qi ton upologism tou

cos2 x dx
qrhsimopoiome thn cos2 x =
1+cos 2x X 2

qoume

cos2 x dx =

1 + cos 2x 1 dx = 2 2

dx +

1 2

cos 2x dx =

x sin 2x + + c. 2 4

we ton dio trpo mporome n uplogsoume to

cos4 x dxD qrhsimopoint thn

cos4 x =

1 + cos 2x 2

1 cos 2x cos2 2x 1 cos 2x 1 + cos 4x + + = + + . 4 2 4 4 2 8

@A qi ton upologism tou

sin5 x dx =

sin4 x sin x dx =

(1 cos2 x)2 sin x dx

eni protimterh h ntiktstsh u = cos xF teD du = sin x dx ki ngmste sto 2u3 u5 (1 u2 )2 du = u + + c. 3 5 9ipeti ti 2 cos3 x cos5 x sin5 x dx = cos x + + c. 3 5 hn di mjodo mporome n qrhsimopoisoume gi opoiodpote oloklrwm th morf

cosm x sinn x dx
n n p tou ekjte m, n eni peritt ki o llo rtioF qi prdeigmD n m = 3 ki n = 4D grfoume

cos3 x sin4 x dx =

(1 sin2 x) sin4 x cos x dx

kiD me thn ntiktstsh u = sin xD ngmste sto pl oloklrwm

(1 u2 )u4 du.
@gA ho qrsim oloklhrmt eni t

tan2 x dx ki
qi to prto grfoume

cot2 x dx.

tan2 x dx =

1 1 cos2 x

dx =

[(tan x) 1] dx = tan x x + c,

kiD moiD gi to detero grfoume

cot2 x dx =

1 1 sin2 x

dx =

[( cot x) 1] dx = cot x x + c.

WV eqniks oloklrwshs

TFId

pologism tou

f (x) dx me thn ntiktstsh x = (t)

r ntiktstsh x = (t)D dx = (t) dt pou ntistryimh sunrthsh m dnei

f (x) dx =

f ((t)) (t) dt.

en to oloklrwm dexi upologzeti eukolterD jtont pou t thn 1 (x) upE ologzoume to oloklrwm risterF

rdegmtX trigwnometrik ntiktstsei

@A e oloklhrmt pou periqoun thn

a2 x2 jtoume x = a sin tF teD

a2 x2 = a cos t ki dx = a cos t dt.

qi prdeigmD gi ton upologism tou

dx , 9 x2 n jsoume x = 3 sin tD tte dx = 3 cos t dt ki 9 x2 = 3 cos tD ki ngmste sto 3 cos t dt 1 dt 1 = = cot t + c. 9 9 9 sin2 t(3 cos t) sin2 t x2
teD p thn

cos t cot t = = sin t

prnoume

1 sin2 t = sin t

9 x2 , x

9 x2 dx = + c. 2 9 x2 9x x x2 a2 jtoume x = a/ cos tF teD a sin t dt. cos2 t

@A e oloklhrmt pou periqoun thn

x2 a2 = a tan t ki dx =
qi prdeigmD gi ton upologism tou x2 4 dx, x n jsoume x = ngmste sto
2 cos t D

tte dx =

2 sin t cos2 t

dt =

2 tan t cos t

dt ki

x2 4 = 2 tan tD ki

2 tan t 2 tan t dt = 2 2/ cos t cos t

efo t = arctan
x2 4 D 2

tan2 t dt = 2 tan t 2t + c.

prnoume

x2 4 dx = x

x2 4 2 arctan

x2 4 + c. 2

TFP yloklrwsh kt mrh WW

@gA e oloklhrmt pou periqoun thn

x2 + a2 jtoume x = a tan tF teD

x2 + a2 =

a a ki dx = dt. cos t cos2 t

qi prdeigmD gi ton upologism tou x2 + 1 dx, x4 1 n jsoume x = tan tD tte dx = cos2 t dt ki x2 + 1 =

1 cos t D

ki ngmste sto

1 1 1 dt = cos t tan4 t cos2 t

cos t 2 dt = + c. sin4 t 3 sin3 t

x x2 +1

efo t = arctan xD lpoume ti sin t = tan t cos t =

ki telik prnoume

x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)3/2 dx = + c. x4 3x3

TFP

yloklrwsh kt mrh

y tpo th oloklrwsh kt mrh eniX

f (x)g (x) dx = f (x)g(x)

f (x)g(x) dx,

ki prokptei mes p thn (f g) = f g + f g D n oloklhrsoume t do mlh thF uqnD eni eukoltero n upologsoume to oloklrwm sto dexi mloF

rdegmt
@A qi ton upologism tou

x log x dx grfoume x2 log x 1 2 2 x dx = x2 log x x2 + c. 2 4

x log x dx =

1 2

(x2 ) log x dx =

@A qi ton upologism tou

x cos x dx grfoume sin x dx = x sin x + cos x + c.

x cos x dx =

x(sin x) dx = x sin x

@gA qi ton upologism tou

ex sin x dx grfoume ex cos x dx ex (cos x) dx

I=

ex sin x dx =

(ex ) sin x dx = ex sin x

= ex sin x

(ex ) cos x dx = ex sin x ex cos x +

= ex (sin x cos x)
9ipeti ti

ex sin x dx = ex (sin x cos x) I.

ex sin x dx =

ex (sin x cos x) + c. 2

IHH eqniks oloklrwshs

@dA qi ton upologism tou 1cos(2x) grfoume 2

x sin2 x dx qrhsimopoint thn tuttht sin2 x =

x sin2 x dx =

x dx 2

cos(2x) dx. 2

qi to detero oloklrwmD qrhsimopoiome thn ntiktstsh u = 2x ki olokE lrwsh kt mrh pw sto @AF @eA qi ton upologism tou log(x + x) dx grfoume

log(x+ x) dx =

(x) log(x+ x) dx = x log(x+ x) xF

x x+ x

1 1+ 2 x

dx.

utpinD efrmzoume thn ntiktstsh u =

TFQ

yloklrwsh rhtn sunrtsewn

e ut thn prgrfo perigrfoume mi mjodo me thn opo mpore kne n upologsei to risto oloklrwm opoisdpote rht sunrthsh

(6.3.1)

f (x) =

p(x) an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 . = q(x) bm xm + bm1 xm1 + + b1 x + b0

r prth prtrhsh eni ti mporome pnt n upojtoume ti n < mF en o jm n tou rijmht p(x) eni megltero so p ton jm m tou pronoE mst q(x)D tte diirome to p(x) me to q(x)X uprqoun polunum (x) ki (x) ste o jm tou (x) n eni mikrtero p m ki

(6.3.2)
teD

p(x) = (x)q(x) + (x).

(6.3.3)

f (x) =

(x)q(x) + (x) (x) = (x) + . q(x) q(x)

unepD gi ton upologism tou f (x) dx mporome tr n upologsoume qwrist to (x) dx @pl oloklrwm poluwnumik sunrthshA ki to (x) dx @rht q(x) sunrthsh me thn prsjeth iditht ti deg() < deg(q)AF pojtoume loipn sth sunqei ti f = p/q ki deg(p) < deg(q)F wporome epsh n upojsoume ti an = bm = 1F rhsimopoiome tr to gegon ti kje polunumo nleti se ginmeno prwtojmiwn ki deuterojmiwn rwnF o q(x) = xm + + b1 x + b0 grfeti sth morf

(6.3.4)

q(x) = (x 1 )r1 (x k )rk (x2 + 1 x + 1 )s1 (x2 + l x + l )sl .

yi 1 , . . . , k eni oi prgmtik rze tou q(x) @ki rj eni h pollpltht th rz j A en oi roi x2 + i x + i eni t ginmen (x zi )(x zi ) pou zi oi migdik rze tou q(x) @ki si eni h pollpltht th rz zi AF rthrste ti kje ro th morf x2 + i x + i qei rnhtik dikrnousF ipshD oi k, s 0 ki r1 + + rk + 2s1 + + 2sl = m @o jm tou q(x)AF

TFQ yloklrwsh rhtn sunrtsewn IHI

qrfoume thn f (x) sth morf

(6.3.5)

f (x) =

(x 1

)r1

xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 , (x k )rk (x2 + 1 x + 1 )s1 (x2 + l x + l )sl

ki thn {nloume se pl klsmt}X uprqoun suntelest Ajt D Bit , it ste

f (x)

A11 A12 A1r1 + + + 2 x 1 (x 1 ) (x 1 )r1 + Ak2 Akr1 Ak1 + + + + x k (x k )2 (x k )rk B12 x + 12 B1s x + 1s1 B11 x + 11 + 2 + + 2 1 + 2 2 x + 1 x + 1 (x + 1 x + 1 ) (x + 1 x + 1 )s1 + Bl1 x + l1 Bl2 x + l2 Bls x + lsl + 2 + 2 + + 2 1 . x + l x + l (x + l x + l )2 (x + l x + l )sl

r eresh twn suntelestn gneti w exX pollplsizoume t do mlh th istht me to q(x) @prthrste ti isoti me to elqisto koin pollplsio twn pronomstn tou dexio mlouAF rokptei tte mi istht poluwnmwnF ixisnont tou suntelest touD prnoume n ssthm m exissewn me m gE nstouX tou Aj1 , . . . , Ajrj D Bi1 , . . . , Bisi D i1 , . . . , isi D j = 1, . . . , k D i = 1, . . . , lF wet p ut to mD qrhsimopoint thn grmmiktht tou oloklhrmtoD ngmste ston upologism oloklhrwmtwn twn ex do morfnX

@A yloklhrmt th morf
k 2 tte (6.3.6)
ki n k = 1 tte

1 dxF (x)k

eut upologzonti mesX n

1 1 dx = + c, k (x ) (k 1)(x )k1

(6.3.7)

1 dx = ln |x | + c. x
Bx+ dxD pou to x2 (x2 +bx+)k = B (2x + b) + Bb 2 2

@A yloklhrmt th morf
htik dikrnousF qrfont Bx + oloklhrmt

+ bx + qei rnE
D ngmste st

(6.3.8)

2x + b dx ki (x2 + bx + )k

1 dx. (x2 + bx + )k

o prto upologzeti me thn ntiktstsh y = x2 + bx + @exhgste gitAF qi 2 b 2 to deteroD grfoume prt x2 +bx+ = x + 2 + 4b ki me thn ntiktstsh 4 4b2 b x+ 2 = y ngmste @exhgste gitA ston upologism oloklhrwmtwn 2 th morf

(6.3.9)

Ik =

1 dy. (y 2 + 1)k

IHP eqniks oloklrwshs

y upologism tou Ik szeti sthn ndromik sqsh

(6.3.10)

Ik+1 =

1 y 2k 1 + Ik . 2 + 1)k 2k (y 2k

qi thn pdeixh th @TFQFIHA qrhsimopoiome oloklrwsh kt mrhF qrfoume

Ik =

(y 2

dx + 1)k

= = = =

1 y dy = 2 + 2k + 1)k (y + 1)k y2 + 1 1 y + 2k dy (y 2 + 1)k (y 2 + 1)k+1 y 1 + 2k dy 2k (y 2 + 1)k (y 2 + 1)k y + 2kIk 2kIk+1 . (y 2 + 1)k (y) (y 2

(y 2

y2 dy + 1)k+1

1 dy (y 2 + 1)k+1

9ipeti to zhtomenoF qnwrzoume ti

(6.3.11)

I1 =

1 dy = arctan y + c, y2 + 1

rD qrhsimopoint thn @TFQFIHAD mporome didoqik n rome t I2 , I3 , . . .F

rdegmt
@A qi ton upologism tou oloklhrmto

x3
zhtme a, b, c R ste

3x2 + 6 dx = + x2 2x

3x2 + 6 dx, x(x 1)(x + 2)

3x2 + 6 a b c = + + . x(x 1)(x + 2) x x1 x+2

qrfoume

3x2 + 6 x(x 1)(x + 2)

= =

a(x 1)(x + 2) + bx(x + 2) + cx(x 1) x(x 1)(x + 2) (a + b + c)x2 + (a + 2b c)x 2a , x(x 1)(x + 2)

ki lnoume to ssthm

a + b + c = 3,

a + 2b c = 0,

2a = 6.

r lsh eniX a = 3D b = 3 ki c = 3F unepD

3x2 + 6 dx dx dx dx = 3 +3 +3 x(x 1)(x + 2) x x1 x+2 = 3 ln |x| + 3 ln |x 1| + 3 ln |x + 2| + c.

TFQ yloklrwsh rhtn sunrtsewn IHQ

@A qi ton upologism tou oloklhrmto

5x2 + 12x + 1 dx = x3 + 3x2 4

zhtme a, b, c R ste

5x2 + 12x + 1 dx, (x 1)(x + 2)2

5x2 + 12x + 1 a b c . = + + (x 1)(x + 2)2 x 1 x + 2 (x + 2)2

qrfoume

5x2 + 12x + 1 (x 1)(x + 2)2

= =

a(x + 2)2 + b(x 1)(x + 2) + c(x 1) (x 1)(x + 2)2 2 (a + b)x + (4a + b + c)x + (4a 2b c) , (x 1)(x + 2)2

ki lnoume to ssthm

a + b = 5,

4a + b + c = 12,

4a 2b c = 1.

r lsh eniX a = 2D b = 3 ki c = 1F unepD

5x2 + 12x + 1 dx = (x 1)(x + 2)2 =

dx (x + 2)2 1 + c. 2 ln |x 1| + 3 ln |x + 2| x+2

dx +3 x1

dx + x+2

@gA qi ton upologism tou oloklhrmto

x+1 dx = x5 x4 + 2x3 2x2 + x 1

zhtme a, b, c, d, e R ste

x+1 dx, (x 1)(x2 + 1)2

x+1 a bx + c dx + e = + + . (x 1)(x2 + 1)2 x 1 x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2

utlgoume sthn

x + 1 = a(x2 + 1)2 + (bx + c)(x 1)(x2 + 1) + (dx + e)(x 1)

ki lnoume to ssthm

a + b = 0,

b + c = 0,

2a + b c + d = 0,

b + c d + e = 1,

a c e = 1.

r lsh eniX a = 1/2D b = 1/2D c = 1/2D d = 1 ki e = 0F unepD

x5 = = =

x4

x+1 dx + 2x3 2x2 + x 1

1 dx 1 x+1 x dx dx 2+1 2 + 1)2 2 x1 2 x (x 1 dx 1 2x 1 dx 1 (x2 + 1) dx dx 2+1 2+1 2 x1 4 x 2 x 2 (x2 + 1)2 1 1 1 1 1 ln |x 1| ln |x2 + 1| arctan x + + c. 2 4 2 2 x2 + 1

IHR eqniks oloklrwshs

TFR
TFR

upoie qrsime ntiktstsei

ht sunrtsei twn cos x ki sin x

qi ton upologism oloklhrwmtwn th morf

R(cos x, sin x) dx
pou R(u, v) eni phlko poluwnmwn me metlht u ki v D suqn qrhsimopoiome thn ntiktstsh x u = tan . 2 rthrste ti

cos x =
ki

cos2 cos2

x 2 x 2

sin2 + sin2

x 2 x 2

1 tan2 1 + tan2

x 2 x 2

1 u2 1 + u2

sin x = 2 sin
ipshD
du dx

2 tan x x x x x 2u 2 . cos = 2 tan cos2 = = 1 + u2 2 2 2 2 1 + tan2 x 2

1+tan2 2
x 2

1 2 cos2

x 2

D dhld

dx =
9itsiD ngmste sto oloklrwm

2du . 1 + u2

2u 1 u2 , 2 1 + u2 1+u
2

2 du. 1 + u2

2u 2 hedomnou ti h sunrthsh F (u) = R 1u2 , 1+u2 1+u2 eni rht sunrthsh tou 1+u uD to teleuto oloklrwm upologzeti me th mjodo pou perigryme sthn rE grfo TFQF

rdegmtF
@A qi ton upologism tou oloklhrmto

1 + sin x dx 1 cos x
jtoume u = tan x F efo dx = 2 sto oloklrwm
2 1+u2 duD

cos x =

1u2 1+u2

ki sin x =

2u 1+u2 D

ngmste

(1 + u)2 du, u2 (1 + u2 )
to opoo upologzeti me nlush se pl klsmtF @A qi ton upologism tou oloklhrmto

x dx 1 + sin x

TFR upoies qrsimes ntiktstseis IHS

jtoume u = tan x F efo dx = 2 lrwm
2 1+u2 du

ki sin x =

2u 1+u2 D

ngmste sto olokE

2 arctan u

1 1+
2u 1+u2

2 du 1 + u2

arctan u

1 du (1 + u)2 1 1+u (1 + du 1 u2 )(1 + u) du.

= 4 = 4

arctan u arctan u +4 1+u

o teleuto oloklrwm upologzeti me nlush se pl klsmtF

TFR

yloklhrmt lgerikn sunrtsewn eidik morf

erigrfoume ed kpoie ntiktstsei pou qrhsimopoionti gi ton upologisE m oloklhrwmtwn th morf

R(x,

1 x2 ) dx,

R(x,

x2 1) dx,

R(x,

x2 + 1) dx,

pou R(u, v) eni phlko poluwnmwn me metlht u ki v F @A qi to oloklrwm R(x, 1 x2 ) dxD knoume prt thn llg metlht x = sin tF efo 1 x2 = cos t ki dx = cos t dtD ngmste sto oloklrwm

R(sin t, cos t) cos t dt,

to opoo upologzeti me thn ntiktstsh th prohgomenh upoprgrfou @rht sunrthsh twn cos t ki sin tAF @A qi to oloklrwm R(x, x2 1) dxD mi id eni n qrhsimopoisoume thn 1 sin sin llg metlht x = cos t F teD x2 1 = cos t ki dx = cos2tt dtF engmste t tsi sto oloklrwm

1 sin t , sin t cos t

sin t dt = cos2 t

R1 (cos t, sin t) dt

gi kpoi rht sunrthsh R1 (u, v)D to opoo upologzeti me thn ntiktstsh th prohgomenh upoprgrfou @rht sunrthsh twn cos t ki sin tAF ini mw protimtero n qrhsimopoisoume thn ex llg metlhtX

u=x+
teD

x2 1. u2 1 du. 2u2

u2 1 u2 + 1 x2 1 = , , 2u 2u engmste tsi sto rht oloklrwm x= R u2 + 1 u2 1 , 2u 2u

dx =

u2 1 du 2u2

to opoo upologzeti me nlush se pl klsmtF

IHT eqniks oloklrwshs

@A qi to oloklrwm R(x, x2 + 1) D mi id eni n qrhsimopoisoume thn dx 1 1 llg metlht x = cot tF teD x2 1 = sin t ki dx = sin2 t dtF engE mste tsi sto oloklrwm R cos t 1 , sin t sin t 1 dt = sin2 t R1 (cos t, sin t) dt

gi kpoi rht sunrthsh R1 (u, v)D to opoo upologzeti me thn ntiktstsh th prohgomenh upoprgrfou @rht sunrthsh twn cos t ki sin tAF ini mw protimtero n qrhsimopoisoume thn ex llg metlhtX

u=x+
teD

x2 + 1. u2 + 1 du. 2u2

u2 + 1 u2 1 , x2 1 = , 2u 2u engmste tsi sto rht oloklrwm x= R u2 1 u2 + 1 , 2u 2u

dx =

u2 + 1 du 2u2

to opoo upologzeti me nlush se pl klsmtF

rdegmt
@A qi ton upologism tou oloklhrmto

x2 1 dx
+1 jtoume x2 1 = (x u)2 F ssodnmD x = u2u F teD dx = 2 x u = 1u D opte ngmste ston upologism tou 2u
2

u2 1 2u2

du ki

(u2 1)2 du. 4u3

@A qi ton upologism tou oloklhrmto

1 dx x x2 + 1
jtoume u = x +

x2 + 1F teD x2 1 = u2 + 1 , 2u dx = u2 + 1 du. 2u2

x=

u2 1 , 2u

engmste tsi sto oloklrwm

u2

2 du 1

to opoo upologzeti me nlush se pl klsmtF

TFS eskseis IHU

TFS

esksei

ymd e9 IF pologste t klouj oloklhrmtX

x2 2x dx , + 2x + 2 2x2 + x + 1 dx , (x + 3)(x 1)2 x3 3x2 + 3x + 1 dx. + 2x2 + 2x + 1

PF pologste t klouj oloklhrmtX

dx , x4 + 1 dx , x+ 3x dx , x x2 1 dx . 1 + ex

QF pologste t klouj oloklhrmtX

cos3 x dx , cos2 x sin3 x dx , tan2 x dx , dx , cos4 x tan x dx .

RF rhsimopoint oloklrwsh kt mrhD dexte tiX gi kje n ND

(x2 dx 1 x 2n 1 = + n+1 2 + 1)n + 1) 2n (x 2n (x2 dx . + 1)n

SF pologste t klouj oloklhrmtX

x2 dx , (x2 4)(x2 1) x cos x dx , log(x + x) dx , 1 dx , (1 + x)(1 + x2 ) ex sin x dx , 1 dx , x 1 x2 cos3 x dx , sin2 x x log x dx

x sin2 x dx x+4 dx + 1)(x 1)

(x2

x dx , 1 + sin x

dx . (x2 + 2x + 2)2

TF pologste t oloklhrmt
sin(log x) dx , 1 log(1 x) dx. x x

UF pologste t oloklhrmt
x arctan x dx , (1 + x2 )2 xex dx. (1 + x)2

IHV eqniks oloklrwshs

VF pologste t oloklhrmt
ex dx , 1 + e2x log(tan x) dx. cos2 x

WF pologste t oloklhrmt
4

0 5

x dx , cos2 x

4
4

tan3 x dx cos3 x x tan2 x dx.

x log
0

1 + x2 dx ,
0

IHF pologste t klouj emdX

@A ou qwrou pou rsketi sto prto tetrthmrio ki frsseti p ti grfik prstsei twn sunrtsewn f (x) = xD g(x) = x 2 ki p ton xExonF @A ou qwrou pou frsseti p ti grfik prstsei twn sunrtsewn f (x) = cos x ki g(x) = sin x sto disthm [ , 5 ]F 4 4

ymd f9 IIF pologste t oloklhrmt

1 + sin x dx , 1 cos x 1 dx , (1 + x2 )2 1 dx , sin x x arctan x dx , x dx , (1 + x2 )2 x dx , x2 + 1 1 dx x 1 x2 x2 1 dx.

IPF pologste to oloklrwm

0

x sin x dx. 1 + cos2 x

IQF pologste to oloklrwm

2

sin x dx. sin x + cos x

IRF pologste to oloklrwm

4

log(1 + tan x) dx.

0

ISF hexte ti to genikeumno oloklrwm

xp dx
0

TFS eskseis IHW

den eni pepersmno gi knn p R.

ITF pologste t klouj genikeumn oloklhrmtX

0

xex dx ,
1

dx , 1 x2

log x dx .
0

IUF hexte tiD gi kje n ND

ex xn dx = n!
0

IVF frete t ri
x+

lim x e

3 x6 0

x3

e dt ,

t2

1 lim+ 4 x0 x

x2

et sin t dt.
0

Keflaio 7

Jerhma Taylor
UFI terhm Taylor
yrism UFIFIF 9istw f : [a, b] R ki stw x0 [a, b]F pojtoume ti h f eni n for prgwgsimh sto x0 F o polunumo Taylor txh n th f sto x0
eni to polunumo Tn,f,x0 : R R pou orzeti w exX
n

(7.1.1)
dhldD (7.1.2)

Tn,f,x0 (x) =
k=0

f (k) (x0 ) (x x0 )k , k!

Tn,f,x0 (x) = f (x0 ) + f (x0 )(x x0 ) +

f (x0 ) f (n) (x0 ) (x x0 )2 + + (x x0 )n . 2 n!

o uploipo Taylor txh n th f sto x0 eni h sunrthsh Rn,f,x0 : [a, b] R pou orzeti w exX

(7.1.3)

Rn,f,x0 (x) = f (x) Tn,f,x0 (x).

9ytn x0 = 0D sunhjzoume n onomzoume t Tn,f,0 ki Rn,f,0 polunumo MacLaurin ki uploipo MacLaurin th f ntstoiqF

rtrhsh UFIFPF rgwgzont to Tn,f,x0 lpoume tiX

n

Tn,f,x0 (x) =
k=0 n

f (k) (x0 ) (x x0 )k , r k!

Tn,f,x0 (x0 ) = f (x0 ), Tn,f,x0 (x0 ) = f (x0 ), Tn,f,x0 (x0 ) = f (x0 ), Tn,f,x0 (x0 ) = f (n) (x0 ).
(n)

Tn,f,x0 (x) =
k=1 n

f (k) (x0 ) (x x0 )k1 , r (k 1)!

f (k) (x0 ) (x x0 )k2 , r (k 2)! k=2 n f (k) (x0 ) (n) Tn,f,x0 (x) = (x x0 )kn , r (k n)! Tn,f,x0 (x) =
k=n

IIP terhm Taylor

hhldD to polunumo Taylor txh n th f sto x0 iknopoie ti

(7.1.3)

Tn,f,x0 (x0 ) = f (k) (x0 ),

(k)

k = 0, 1, . . . , n

ki eni to mondik polunumo jmo to pol sou me n pou qei ut thn iditht @exhgste gitAF

rtrhsh UFIFQF 9istw f : [a, b] R ki stw x0 [a, b]F pojtoume ti h f eni n 1 for prgwgsimh sto [a, b] ki n for prgwgsimh sto x0 F rthrste ti
n

(7.1.4)
ki

Tn,f,x0 (x) =
k=1

f (k) (x0 ) (x x0 )k1 (k 1)!

n1

(7.1.5)

Tn1,f

,x0 (x)

=
s=0

f (s+1) (x0 ) (x x0 )s . s!

ttont k = s + 1 sthn @UFIFSA sumpernoume ti

(7.1.6)
'Epetai ti

Tn,f,x0 = Tn1,f

,x0 .

(7.1.7)

Rn,f,x0 = Rn1,f
'Estw para gw gsimh

,x0 .
. Upojtoume ti h sto

rtsh UFIFRF
n1
forc

f : [a, b] R [a, b] n
sto kai

kai stw

x0 [a, b]

enai

forc

para gw gsimh

x0

Tte,

(7.1.8)
Apdeixh.

xx0

lim

Rn,f,x0 (x) = 0. (x x0 )n

we epgwg w pro nF qi n = 1 qoume

R1,f,x0 (x) = f (x) f (x0 ) f (x0 )(x x0 ),

r

(7.1.9)

R1,f,x0 (x) f (x) f (x0 ) = f (x0 ) 0 x x0 x x0

tn x x0 D p ton orism th prggou sto shmeo x0 F pojtoume ti h prtsh isqei gi n = m ki gi kje sunrthsh pou iknopoie ti upojseiF 9istw f : [a, b] RD m for prgwgsimh sto [a, b] ki m + 1 for prgwgsimh sto x0 F teD

(7.1.10)
ki

xx0

lim Rm+1,f,x0 (x) = lim (x x0 )m+1 = 0

xx0

(7.1.11)

xx0

lim

Rm+1,f,x0 (x) [(x x0 )m+1 ]

= lim

xx0

Rm,f ,x0 (x) =0 (m + 1)(x x0 )m

p thn epgwgik upjesh gi thn f F ifrmzont ton knn lHospital oloklhrnoume to epgwgik mF 2

UFI terhm Taylor IIQ

vmm UFIFSF
(7.1.12)
Tte,

'Estw

polunumo bajmo to pol sou me

to opoo ikanopoie thn

xx0
.

lim

p(x) = 0. (x x0 )n

p0

Apdeixh.

we epgwg w pro nF qi to epgwgik m prthrome prt ti

(7.1.13)

p(x0 ) = lim p(x) = lim

xx0

xx0

p(x) (x x0 )n = 0, (x x0 )n

unepD p(x0 ) = 0F 9erD

(7.1.14)

p(x) = (x x0 )p1 (x),

pou p1 polunumo jmo to pol sou me n 1 to opoo iknopoie thn

(7.1.15)

xx0

lim

p1 (x) p(x) = lim = 0. xx0 (x x0 )n (x x0 )n1

en upojsoume ti h rtsh isqei gi ton n 1D tte p1 0 r p 0F 2F r rtsh UFIFR ki to vmm UFIFS podeiknoun ton ex qrkthrism tou poluwnmou Taylor Tn,f,x0 X

terhm UFIFTF
enai

'Estw

n1

forc para gw gsimh sto

polunumo pol sou

me

Taylor n

txhc

f : [a, b] R [a, b] n f x0
thc sto

kai kai

stw

x0 [a, b]

Upojtoume

ti

f
to

forc para gw gsimh sto to monadik polunumo

enai

x0 T

Tte, to

bajmo

to opoo ikanopoie thn

(7.1.16)
Apdeixh.

xx0

lim

f (x) T (x) = 0. (x x0 )n

r rtsh UFIFR deqnei ti to Tn,f,x0 iknopoie thn @UFIFITAF qi th mondiktht rke n prthrsete ti n do polunum T1 , T2 jmo to pol sou me n iknopoion thn @UFIFITAD tte to polunumo p := T1 T2 iknopoie thn @UFIFIPAF ep to vmm UFIFS sumpernoume ti T1 T2 F 2 oume to polunumo Taylor txh n mi sunrthsh f se kpoio shmeo x0 F erke n rome n polunumo jmo to pol sou me n to opoo iknopoie thn @UFIFITAF 1 (i) r sunrthsh f (x) = 1x eni peire for prgwgsimh sto (1, 1) ki qoume dei ti 1 = 1 + x + x2 + + xn + gi kje |x| < 1. 1x t dexoume tiD gi kje nD

rtrhsh UFIFUF o terhm UFIFT m dnei nn mmeso trpo gi n rskE

Tn,f,0 (x) = Tn (x) := 1 + x + + xn .

rthrome ti

f (x) Tn (x) =

1 1 xn+1 xn+1 = . 1x 1x 1x

IIR terhm Taylor

9erD

f (x) Tn (x) x = lim = 0, n x0 1 x x0 x lim

ki to zhtomeno prokptei p to terhm UFIFTF

(ii) r sunrthsh f (x) = dei ti

1 1+x2

eni peire for prgwgsimh sto R ki qoume

1 = 1 x2 + x4 + + (1)n x2n + gi kje |x| < 1. 1 + x2

t dexoume tiD gi kje nD

T2n,f,0 (x) = T2n+1,f,0 (x) = T2n (x) := 1 x2 + x4 + (1)n x2n .

rthrome ti

f (x) Tn (x) =
9erD

1 (1)n+1 x2n+2 (1)n+1 x2n+2 1 = . 2 2 1+x 1+x 1 + x2

f (x) T2n (x) (1)n+1 x = lim = 0, x0 x0 1 + x2 x2n+1 lim

ki @profnA

f (x) T2n (x) (1)n+1 x2 = lim = 0, 2n x0 x0 x 1 + x2 lim

opte to zhtomeno prokptei p to terhm UFIFTF o terhm Taylor dnei eqrhste ekfrsei gi to uploipo Taylor Rn,f,x0 txh n mi sunrthsh f se kpoio shmeo x0 F

terhm UFIFV @terhm TaylorAF

forc para gw gsimh sto

[a, b]

kai stw

f : [a, b] R x0 [a, b]
'Estw . Tte, Uprqei

mia

sunrthsh

n+1
ste

gia kje

x [a, b] x0

(i) worf Cauchy tou upolopou TaylorX (7.1.17) Rn,f,x0 (x) =

metax twn

kai

f (n+1) () (x )n (x x0 ). n!
Uprqei

(ii) worf Lagrange tou upolopou TaylorX

ste

metax

twn

x0

kai

(7.1.18)

Rn,f,x0 (x) =

f (n+1) () (x x0 )n+1 . (n + 1)!

An h

(iii) yloklhrwtik morf tou upolopou TaylorX

sunrthsh, tte

f (n+1)

enai oloklhrsimh

(7.1.19)

Rn,f,x0 (x) =

1 n!

f (n+1) (t)(x t)n dt.

x0

UFI terhm Taylor IIS

tjeropoiome to x [a, b] ki orzoume : [a, b] R me
n

Apdeixh.

(7.1.20)

(t) = Rn,f,t (x) = f (x)

k=0

f (k) (t) (x t)k . k!

rgwgzont w pro t lpoume ti

n

(t)

= f (t)
k=1

f (k+1) (t) f (k) (t) (x t)k (x t)k1 k! (k 1)!

(t) (x t)n , n! fo to meso jroism eni thleskopikF rthrste epsh ti = (7.1.21) (x0 ) = Rn,f,x0 (x) ki (x) = Rn,f,x (x) = 0.

(n+1)

(i) qi thn morf Cauchy tou upolopou efrmzoume to terhm wsh im gi thn sto disthm me kr x ki x0 X prqei metx twn x0 ki x ste Rn,f,x0 (x) = (x0 ) (x) = ()(x0 x).
ep thn

() =
peti ti

f (n+1) () (x )n n!

f (n+1) () (x )n (x x0 ). n! (ii) qi thn morf Lagrange tou upolopou efrmzoume to terhm wsh im tou Cauchy gi thn ki gi thn g(t) = (x t)n+1 sto disthm me kr x ki x0 X prqei metx twn x0 ki x ste Rn,f,x0 (x) = Rn,f,x0 (x) (x0 ) (x) () = = . (x x0 )n+1 g(x0 ) g(x) g ()

9ipeti ti

Rn,f,x0 (x) =

f n! () (x )n f (n+1) () (x x0 )n+1 = (x x0 )n+1 . n (n + 1)(x ) (n + 1)!

(n+1)

(iii) qi thn oloklhrwtik morf tou upolopou prthrome ti @p thn upjes mA h eni oloklhrsimh sto disthm me kr x ki x0 D opte efrmzeti to detero jemelide jerhm tou epeirostiko vogismoX
x0

Rn,f,x0 (x)

= (x0 ) (x) =
x x0

(t) dt

=
x x

f (n+1) (t) (x t)n dt n!

=
x0

f (n+1) (t) (x t)n dt. n! 2

9itsiD qoume ti trei morf gi to uploipo Rn,f,x0 (x)F

thn epmenh rgrfo j qrhsimopoisoume to terhm Taylor gi n roume to nptugm se dunmoseir twn sikn upertikn sunrtsewnF

IIT terhm Taylor

UFP
UFP

hunmoseir ki nptgmt Taylor

r ekjetik sunrthsh f (x) = ex

rthrome ti f (k) (x) = ex gi kje x R ki k = 0, 1, 2, . . .F iidikterD f (k) (0) = 1 gi kje k 0F unepD

n

(7.2.1)

Tn (x) := Tn,f,0 (x) =

k=0

x2 xn xk =1+x+ + + . k! 2! n!

9istw x = 0F rhsimopoint thn morf Lagrange tou upolopou prnoume

(7.2.2)

Rn (x) := Rn,f,0 (x) =

e xn+1 (n + 1)!

gi kpoio metx twn 0 ki xF qi n ektimsoume to uploipo dikrnoume do periptseiF

en x > 0 tte |Rn (x)| =

e ex xn+1 xn+1 . (n + 1)! (n + 1)!

en x < 0D tte < 0 ki e < 1D r |Rn (x)| =

e kje perptwshD

|x|n+1 e |x|n+1 . (n + 1)! (n + 1)!

(7.2.3)

|Rn (x)|

e|x| |x|n+1 . (n + 1)!

e|x| |x|n+1 (n+1)!

9istw x = 0F ifrmzont to kritrio tou lgou gi thn kolouj an := lpoume ti |x| an+1 = 0, an n+2 r lim |Rn (x)| = 0.
n

unepD

(7.2.4)
gi kje x RF

ex = lim Tn (x) =
n k=0

xk k!

UFP

r sunrthsh f (x) = cos x

rthrome ti f (2k) (x) = (1)k cos x ki f (2k+1) (x) = (1)k sin x gi kje x R ki k = 0, 1, 2, . . .F iidikterD f (2k) (0) = (1)k ki f (2k+1) (0) = 0F unepD
n

(7.2.5)

T2n (x) := T2n,f,0 (x) =

k=0

(1)k x2k x2 x4 (1)n x2n =1 + + . (2k)! 2! 4! (2n)!

UFP hunmoseirs ki nptgmt Taylor IIU

9istw x = 0F rhsimopoint thn morf Lagrange tou upolopou prnoume

(7.2.6)

R2n (x) := R2n,f,0 (x) =

f (2n+1) () 2n+1 x (2n + 1)!

gi kpoio metx twn 0 ki xF qi n ektimsoume to uploipo prthrome ti |f (2n+1) ()| 1 @eni kpoio hmtono sunhmtonoAD r

(7.2.7)

|R2n (x)|

|x|2n+1 . (2n + 1)!

|x|2n+1 (2n+1)!

ifrmzont to kritrio tou lgou gi thn kolouj an :=

n

lpoume ti

lim |R2n (x)| = 0.

unepD

(7.2.8)
gi kje x RF

cos x = lim T2n (x) =

n k=0

(1)k x2k (2k)!

UFPg

r sunrthsh f (x) = sin x

rthrome ti f (2k) (x) = (1)k sin x ki f (2k+1) (x) = (1)k cos x gi kje x R ki k = 0, 1, 2, . . .F iidikterD f (2k) (0) = 0 ki f (2k+1) (0) = (1)k F unepD (7.2.9) n x3 x5 (1)n x2n+1 (1)k x2k+1 =x + + . T2n+1 (x) := T2n+1,f,0 (x) = (2k + 1)! 3! 5! (2n + 1)!
k=0

9istw x = 0F rhsimopoint thn morf Lagrange tou upolopou prnoume

(7.2.10)

R2n+1 (x) := R2n+1,f,0 (x) =

f (2n+2) () 2n+2 x (2n + 2)!

gi kpoio metx twn 0 ki xF qi n ektimsoume to uploipo prthrome ti |f (2n+2) ()| 1 @eni kpoio hmtono sunhmtonoAD r

(7.2.11)

|R2n+1 (x)|

|x|2n+2 . (2n + 2)!

|x|2n+2 (2n+2)!

ifrmzont to kritrio tou lgou gi thn kolouj an :=

n

lpoume ti

lim |R2n+1 (x)| = 0.

unepD

(7.2.12)
gi kje x RF

sin x = lim T2n+1 (x) =

n k=0

(1)k x2k+1 (2k + 1)!

IIV terhm Taylor

UFPd

r sunrthsh f (x) = ln(1 + x)D x (1, 1]

(k)

rthrome ti f (k) (x) = dikterD f (0) = 0 ki f

(0) = (1)
n

(1)k1 (k1)! (1+x)k k1

gi kje x > 1 ki k = 1, 2, . . .F iiE

(k 1)! gi kje k 1F unepD

(7.2.13) Tn (x) := Tn,f,0 (x) =

k=1

(1)k1 xk x2 x3 (1)n1 xn =x + + . k 2 3 n

9istw x > 1F rhsimopoint thn oloklhrwtik morf tou upolopou prnoume

x

(7.2.14)
ttoume u = unepD
xt 1+t F

Rn (x) := Rn,f,0 (x) = (1)n

0

(x t)n dt. (1 + t)n+1

dt 1+t

teD to u metlleti p x w 0 ki
0

du 1+u

@elgxte toAF

(7.2.15)
hikrnoume do periptseiX

Rn (x) =
x

un du. 1+u

en 1 < x < 0 tte

0

|Rn (x)|
x

|u|n 1 du 1+u 1+x

|x|

un du =
0

1 |x|n+1 . 1+x n+1

en 0 < x 1 tte
x

|Rn (x)| =
0

un du 1+u

un du =
0

|x|n+1 . (n + 1)

e kje perptwshD
n

lim |Rn (x)| = 0.

unepD

(7.2.16)

ln(1 + x) = lim Tn (x) =

n k=1

(1)k1 xk k

gi kje x (1, 1] @seir MercatorAF iidikterD gi x = 1 prnoume ton tpo tou Leibniz

(7.2.17)

ln 2 =
k=1

(1)k1 1 1 1 (1)n1 = 1 + + + + . k 2 3 4 n

hetero trpoX ep th sqsh

(7.2.18) 1 tn = 1 t + t2 + + (1)n1 tn1 + (1)n 1+t 1+t (t = 1)

qoumeD gi kje x > 1D (7.2.19) x 1 x2 x3 xn ln(1 + x) = dt = x + + + (1)n1 + (1)n 2 3 n 0 1+t

x 0

tn dt. 1+t

UFP hunmoseirs ki nptgmt Taylor IIW

en onomsoume Fn (x) th difor

(7.2.20)
qoume

ln(1 + x) x

x3 x2 xn + + + (1)n1 2 3 n

(7.2.21)

Fn (x) = (1)n
0

tn dt . 1+t

iktimnt to oloklrwm pw prinD lpoume ti

(7.2.22)

|Fn (x)| max 1,

1 x+1

|x|n+1 n+1

gi kje 1 < x 1F unepD limn Fn (x) = 0F 9ipeti ti

(7.2.23)

ln(1 + x) =
n=1

(1)n1

xn n

gi x (1, 1]F rthrste epsh ti lim

Fn (x) = Rn,f,0 (x)F 9ytn |x| > 1 h seir poklnei @fo h kolouj x = 1 epsh poklnei @rmonik seirAF

Fn (x) = 0D to opoo podeiknei ti x0 xn

xn n

den tenei sto HA ki gi

UFPe

r diwnumik sunrthsh f (x) = (1 + x)a D x > 1

r f orzeti p thn f (x) = exp(a ln(1 + x))F en a > 0D to rio limx1 f (x) uprqei ki eni so me 0D diti ln(1 + x) = y ki exp(ay) 0F e utn thn perptwsh mporome n epektenoume to pedo orismo th f sto [1, ) jtont f (1) = 0F rgwgzont lpoume ti

f (k) (x) = a(a 1) (a k + 1)(1 + x)ak f (k) (0) = a(a 1) (a k + 1).

unepD
n

(7.2.24)
pou

Tn (x) := Tn,f,0 (x) =

k=0

a k x k

(7.2.25)

a k

a(a 1) (a k + 1) . k!
a k

rthrste ti n a N tte

= 0 gi kje k N me k > aD opte

a

(7.2.26)

(1 + x)a =
k=0

a k x . k

IPH terhm Taylor

pojtoume loipn ti a NF t dexoume tiD tn |x| < 1D tte Tn,f,0 (x) f (x)F / rhsimopoiome th morf Cauchy tou upolopouX uprqei nmes sto 0 ki sto x ste

Rn (x) =

f (n+1) () a(a 1) . . . (a n) (x )n x = (1 + )a(n+1) (x )n x n! n! n a(a 1) . . . (a n) x = (1 + )a1 x n! 1+

n

qi n dexoume ti lim Rn (x) = 0 tn |x| < 1D prthrome prt ti

(7.2.27)

x |x| 1+

tn |x| < 1.

rgmtiD n 0 x qoume

(7.2.28)

x x x = x = |x|. 1+ 1+ 1+

en 1 < x 0 jewrome thn sunrthsh gx : [x, 0] R me

(7.2.29)

gx () =

x x+1 = 1 1+ +1

h opo eni fjnous @fo x + 1 > 0A r qei mgisth tim thn gx (x) = 0 ki elqisth thn gx (0) = x opte gi kje t [x, 0] qoume gx () 0 r

(7.2.30)
9ipeti ti

x = gx () gx (0) = x = |x|. 1+

|Rn (x)| =

a(a 1) . . . (a n) x (1 + )a1 x n! 1+ a(a 1) . . . (a n) n x (1 + )a1 x n! a(a 1) . . . (a n) n x M (x) n!

pou M (x) = |x| max(1, (1 + x)a1 ) @skhshAD r rke n dexoume ti

yn
kj n F 9iqoume

a(a 1) . . . (a n) n x 0 n!

yn+1 a(a 1) . . . (a n)(a (n + 1)) n! xn+1 an+1 = = x . n yn a(a 1) . . . (a n) (n + 1)! x n+1

qi kje n a 1 qoume |a (n + 1)| = n + 1 aD r

(7.2.31)

yn+1 a (n + 1) n+1a = x = |x| |x| < 1 yn n+1 n+1

UFQ unrtseis prstsimes se dunmoseir IPI

tn n D r yn 0F hexme ti n |x| < 1 tte lim Rn (x) = 0F 9erD
n

(7.2.32)

(1 + x)a =
n=0

a k x k

gi 1 < x < 1F qi |x| > 1 h seir poklnei @kritrio lgouAF qi |x| = 1 h sumperifor exrtti p thn tim tou aF qi prdeigmD tn a = 1D h seir poklnei ki st do kr @gewmetrik seir me lgo xAF epodeikneti ti tn a = 1/2 h seir sugklnei gi x = 1 ki poklnei gi x = 1D ki tn a = 1/2 @ki genikter tn a > 0AD h seir sugklnei ki st do krF

UFP

r sunrthsh f (x) = arctan xD |x| 1

x

ekinme p thn

arctan x =
0

1 dt. 1 + t2

ent n prgwgsoume n for thn arctan sto 0D eni eukoltero n oloklhrE soume thn

(7.2.33)
opte
x

1 (1)n+1 t2n+2 = 1 t2 + t4 t6 + + (1)n t2n + 1 + t2 1 + t2

(7.2.34)
0

1 x3 x2n+1 dt = x + + (1)n + (1)n+1 1 + t2 3 2n + 1

x 0

t2n+2 dt. 1 + t2

en orsoume

(7.2.35)
qoume

pn (x) = x

x3 x2n+1 + + (1)n 3 2n + 1

(7.2.36)

|f (x) pn (x)| =
0

t2n+2 dt 1 + t2

|x|

t2n+2 dt
0

|x|2n+3 2n + 3

opteD tn |x| 1D lpoume ti lim pn (x) = f (x)D dhld

n

(7.2.37)
gi x [1, 1]F

arctan x =
n=0

(1)n

x2n+1 x3 x5 =x + + 2n + 1 3 5

UFQ

unrtsei prstsime se dunmoseir

thn rgrfo PFR suzhtsme gi prth for ti dunmoseirF idme ti n

ak xk eni mi dunmoseir me suntelest ak D tte to snolo twn shmewn st

k=0

IPP terhm Taylor

opo sugklnei h dunmoseir eni {ousistik} n disthm summetrik w pro to 0 @D endeqomnwD to {0} to RAF en orsoume

R := sup{|x| : h dunmoseir sugklnei sto x},

tte h dunmoseir sugklnei poltw se kje x (R, R) ki poklnei se kje x me |x| > RF o disthm (R, R) onomzeti th dunmoseirF o th dunmoseirD dhld to snolo lwn twn shmewn st opo sugklneiD prokptei p to (R, R) me thn prosjkh @swA tou R tou R twn RF thn perptwsh pou R = +D h dunmoseir sugklnei se kje x RF thn perptwsh pou R = 0D h dunmoseir sugklnei mno sto shmeo x = 0F r epmenh rtsh dnei nn {tpo} gi thn ktn sgklishF
disthma sgklishc snolo sgklishc

rtsh UFQFIF

'Estw

ak xk

mia

dunamoseir

me

suntelestc

ak

aktna

k=0
sgklisc thc dnetai ap thn

R=

1 . lim sup |ak |1/k

k

Apdeixh

F heqnoume prt ti n |x| lim sup

k

|ak | < 1D tte h seir

k=1

ak xk

sugklnei poltwF rgmtiD n jewrsoume s > 0 me |x| lim sup k |ak | < s < 1D tte p ton qrkthrism tou lim supD uprqei N N ste |ak xk | sk gi kje k N D ki to sumprsm peti p to kritrio sgkrishF th sunqei deqnoume ti n |x| lim sup
k
k

|ak | > 1D tte h seir

ak pokE

k=1

lneiF rgmtiD n jewrsoume s > 0 me |x| lim sup k |ak | > s > 1D tte p ton qrkthrism tou lim supD uprqoun peiroi dekte k1 < k2 < < kn < kn+1 < ste |akn xkn | skn > 1 gi kje n NF 9erD ak xk 0 ki efrmzeti to kritrio pklishF unduzont t prpnw lpoume ti to disthm sgklish th dunmoE seir eni ngkstik to (R, R)D pou R = lim sup1|ak |1/k F 2

yrism UFQFPF

Lme

ti

mia

sunrthsh

dunamoseir me kntro to

an uprqei akolouja

f : (R, R) R (ak ) k=0 ak xk

enai

parastsimh

se

pra gmatikn arijmn ste

f (x) =
k=0
gia kje

x (R, R)

o jerhm pou kolouje deqnei ti n mi sunrthsh eni prstsimh se dunmoseir sto (R, R)D tte eni peire for prgwgsimh ki oi prgwgo th upologzonti me prggish twn rwn th dunmoseirF enlogD upologzeE ti to oloklrwm th se kje upodisthm tou (R, R)F

terhm UFQFQ @jerhm prggish dunmoseirnAF

mia dunamoseir pou sugklnei me sto

'Estw .

n=0

an xn
th

(R, R)

gia

kpoion

R > 0

Jewrome

sunrthsh

f : (R, R) R

f (x) =
k=0

ak xk .

UFQ unrtseis prstsimes se dunmoseir IPQ

f k0 |x| < R

Tte, isqei

enai

peirec

forc

para gw gsimh:

gia

kje

kai

gia

kje

f
Epshc,

(k)

(x) =
n=k

n(n 1) (n k + 1)an xnk .

an =
kai, gia kje

f (n) (0) , n!

n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
sto

|x| < R

, h

enai oloklhrsimh

[0, x]

kai

f (t) dt =
0

an n+1 x . n+1 n=0

Apdeixh.

heqnoume prt tiD gi kje x (R, R)D

(1)

f (x) =
n=1

nan xn1 .

efo |x| < RD uprqei > 0 ste |x| + < RF 9ipeti @exhgste gitA ti

|an |(|x| + )n < +.

n=0

9istw 0 < |t| < F rthrste ti

n

|(x + t)n xn nxn1 t| =

k=2

n nk k x t = t2 k
n

k=2

n nk k2 x t k
n

unepD

t2 2

k=2

n t2 |x|nk tk2 2 2 k

k=2

n |x|nk k k

t2 (|x| + )n . 2

f (x + t) f (x) nan xn1 t n=1

an
n=1

(x + t)n xn nxn1 t t

|t| |an |(|x| + )n . 2 n=0

rnont to rio kj to t 0D lpoume ti

f (x + t) f (x) = nan xn1 , t0 t n=1 lim

to opoo podeiknei thn @IAF

IPR terhm Taylor

rhsimopoint thn rtsh UFQFI lpoume ti h dunmoseir n=1 nan xn1 qei thn di ktn sgklish me thn n=0 an xn @exhgste gitAF ifrmzont loipn ton dio sullogism gi thn f sth jsh th f D lpoume ti

(2)

(x) =
n=2

n(n 1)an xn2 .

uneqzont me ton dio trpoD podeiknoume ti h f eni peire for prgE wgsimh ki ti gi kje k 0 ki gi kje |x| < R isqei

(2)

(k)

(x) =
n=k

n(n 1) (n k + 1)an xnk .

ttont x = 0 sthn @PA lpoume ti

f (k) (0) = k!ak

gi kje k 0 @prthrste tiX n jsoume x = 0 sto dexi mlo th @PAD tte loi oi roi tou jrosmto mhdenzontiD ekt p ekenon pou ntistoiqe sthn tim n = k ki isoti me k(k 1) 2 1 ak x0 = k!ak AF an qi ton teleuto isqurismD prthrome ti h dunmoseir n=0 n+1 xn+1 qei thn di ktn sgklish me thn n=0 an xn @exhgste gitA ki prgwgzont ro pro ro thn an n+1 F (x) = x n+1 n=0 sto (R, R) prnoume

F (x) =
n=0

an xn = f (x).

ep to jemelide jerhm tou epeirostiko vogismo peti ti

x

f (t) dt = F (x) F (0) = F (x) =

0

an n+1 x n+1 n=0 2

gi kje x (R, R)F

rism UFQFR @jerhm mondikthtAF

matikn arijmn me thn exc idithta: uprqei

'Estw

(ak ) (bk )
, ste

akoloujec

pra g-

R>0

ak xk =
k=0
gia kje

bk xk
k=0

x (R, R)

Tte,

ak = bk
Apdeixh.

gia kje

k = 0, 1, 2, . . . .

ep to terhm UFQFQD gi th sunrthsh f : (R, R) R me

f (x) =
k=0

ak xk =
k=0

bk xk

qoume

f (k) (0) = k!ak = k!bk 2

gi kje k 0F unepD ak = bk gi kje k 0F

UFR eskseis IPS

UFR

esksei

rth ymd IF 9istw p(x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn polunumo jmo n ki stw a RF hexte

ti uprqoun b0 , b1 , , bn R ste

p(x) = b0 + b1 (x a) + + bn (x a)n
hexte ti

gi kje x R.

bk =

p(k) (a) , k!

k = 0, 1, . . . , n.

PF qryte kjn p t prktw polunum sth morf b0 + b1 (x 3) + +

bn (x 3)n X p1 (x) = x2 4x 9, p2 (x) = x4 12x3 + 44x2 + 2x + 1, p3 (x) = x5 .

QF qi kje m p ti prktw sunrtseiD n reje to polunumo Taylor Tn,f,a

pou upodeiknetiF

(T3,f,0 ) (T2n+1,f,0 ) (Tn,f,0 ) (T4,f,0 ) (T6,f,0 ) (T5,f,1 )

: : : : : :

f (x) = exp(sin x). f (x) = (1 + x2 )1 . f (x) = (1 + x)1 . f (x) = x5 + x3 + x. f (x) = x5 + x3 + x. f (x) = x5 + x3 + x.

RF 9istw n 1 ki f, g : (a, b) R sunrtsei n for prgwgsime sto

x0 (a, b) ste f (x0 ) = f (x0 ) = = f (n1) (x0 ) = 0D g(x0 ) = g (x0 ) = = g (n1) (x0 ) = 0 ki g (n) (x0 ) = 0F hexte ti lim f (x) f (n) (x0 ) . = (n) g(x) g (x0 )

xx0

ste f (x0 ) = f (x0 ) = = f (n1) (x0 ) = 0 ki f (n) (x0 ) = 0F hexte tiX @A en o n eni rtio ki f (n) (x0 ) > 0D tte h f qei topik elqisto sto x0 F @A en o n eni rtio ki f (n) (x0 ) < 0D tte h f qei topik mgisto sto x0 F @gA en o n eni perittD tte h f den qei topik mgisto ote topik elqisto sto x0 D ll to x0 eni shmeo kmp gi thn f F prol sto grfhm th f sto shmeo (e, 1)F

SF 9istw n 2 ki f : (a, b) R sunrthsh n for prgwgsimh sto x0 (a, b)

TF en f (x) = ln xD x > 0D rete thn plhsisterh euje ki thn plhsisterh UF frete to polunumo Taylor Tn,f,0 gi th sunrthsh
x

f (x) =
0

et dt,

(x R).

IPT terhm Taylor

VF frete to polunumo Taylor Tn,f,0 gi th sunrthsh f : R R pou orzeti w

exX f (0) = 0 ki

f (x) = e1/x ,
upologste to jroism

x = 0.

WF rhsimopoint to nptugm Taylor th sunrthsh arctan x @1 x 1A

(1)n
n=0

1 . 3n (2n + 1)

IHF 9istw f : R R peire for prgwgsimh sunrthshF pojtoume ti

f = f ki f (0) = 1D f (0) = f (0) = 0F @A 9istw R > 0F hexte ti uprqei M = M (R) > 0 steX gi kje x [R, R] ki gi kje k = 0, 1, 2, . . .D |f (k) (x)| M.
@A frete to polunumo Taylor T3n,f,0 kiD qrhsimopoint to @A ki opoiondpote tpo upolopouD dexte ti x3k f (x) = (3k)!
k=0

gi kje x RF

IIF frete proseggistik timD me sflm mikrtero tou 106 D gi kjnn p

tou rijmo

sin 1,

sin 2,

1 sin , 2

e,

e2 .

IPF @A hexte ti
ki

1 1 = arctan + arctan 4 2 3

1 1 = 4 arctan arctan . 4 5 239 @A hexte ti = 3.14159 @me ll lgiD rete proseggistik tim gi ton rijm me sflm mikrtero tou 106 AF

Keflaio 8

Kurtc kai kolec sunartseic

VFI yrism
e ut to keflioD me I sumolzoume n @kleistD noikt hminoiktD pepersE mno peiroA disthm sto RF 9istw a, b R me a < bF to epmeno vmm perigrfoume t shme tou eujgrmmou tmmto [a, b]F

vmm VFIFIF
(8.1.1)

An

a<b

sto

tte

[a, b] = {(1 t)a + tb : 0 t 1}. x [a, b]

qoume

Eidiktera, gia kje

(8.1.2)
Apdeixh

x=

xa bx a+ b. ba ba

F ikol elgqoume tiD gi kje t [0, 1] isqei

(8.1.3)
dhld

a (1 t)a + tb = a + t(b a) b,

(8.1.4)

{(1 t)a + tb : 0 t 1} [a, b].

entstrofD kje x [a, b] grfeti sth morf

(8.1.5)

x=

bx xa a+ b. ba ba

rthrnt ti t := (x a)/(b a) [0, 1] ki 1 t = (b x)/(b a)D lpoume ti

(8.1.6)

[a, b] {(1 t)a + tb : 0 t 1}.

kurto sunduasmo

shme (1 t)a + tb tou [a, b] lgonti

twn a ki bF

IPV uurts ki koles sunrtseis

yrism VFIFPF 9istw f : I R mi sunrthshF

@A r f lgeti
kurt

(8.1.7)

f ((1 t)a + tb) (1 t)f (a) + tf (b)

gi kje a, b I ki gi kje t R me 0 < t < 1 @prthrste tiD fo to I eni disthmD to vmm VFIFI deqnei ti to shmeo (1 t)a + tb [a, b] I D dhld h f orzeti kl se utAF r gewmetrik shms tou orismo eni h exX h qord pou qei sn kr t shme (a, f (a)) ki (b, f (b)) den eni poujen ktw p to grfhm th f F @A r f lgeti n eni kurt ki qoume gnsi nistht sthn @VFIFUA gi kje a < b sto I ki gi kje 0 < t < 1F
gnhswc kurt

@gA r f : I R lgeti @ntstoiqD gnhsw kurtAF

kolh

@ntstoiqD gnhsw kolhA n h f eni kurt

rtrhsh VFIFQF ssodnmoi trpoi me tou opoou mpore n perigrfe h

kurttht th f : I R eni oi exX @A en a, b, x I ki a < x < bD tte

(8.1.8)

f (x)

bx xa f (a) + f (b). ba ba

rthrste ti to dexi mlo ut th nistht isoti me

(8.1.9)

f (a) +

f (b) f (a) (x a). ba

@A en a, b I ki n t, s > 0 me t + s = 1D tte

(8.1.10)

f (ta + sb) tf (a) + sf (b).

VFP

uurt sunrtsei orismne se noikt disthm

e ut thn rgrfo meletme w pro th sunqei ki thn prgwgisimtht mi kurt sunrthsh pou orzeti se noikt disthmF 9yl t potelsmt pou j podexoume eni sunpeie tou kloujou {lmmto twn trin qordn}X

rtsh VFPFI @to lmm twn trin qordnAF

sunrthsh. An

'Estw

f : (a, b) R

kurt

y<x<z

sto

(a, b)

, tte

(8.2.1)
Apdeixh

f (x) f (y) f (z) f (y) f (z) f (x) . xy zy zx

F efo h f eni kurtD qoume

(8.2.2)

f (x)

zx xy f (y) + f (z). zy zy

ep ut thn nistht lpoume ti

(8.2.3)

f (x) f (y)

yx xy xy f (y) + f (z) = [f (z) f (y)], zy zy zy

VFP uurts sunrtseis orismnes se noikt disthm IPW

to opoo podeiknei thn rister nistht sthn @VFPFIAF ekinnt pli p thn @VFPFPAD grfoume

(8.2.4)

f (x) f (z)

xz zx zx f (y) + f (z) = [f (z) f (y)], zy zy zy 2

p) pou prokptei h dexi nistht sthn @VFPFIAF

t qrhsimopoisoume epsh thn ex pl sunpei tou lmmto twn trin qordnF

vmm VFPFPF
(a, b)
, tte

'Estw

f : (a, b) R

kurt

sunrthsh.

An

y < x < z < w

sto

(8.2.5)
Apdeixh

f (x) f (y) f (w) f (z) . xy wz

F ifrmzont thn rtsh VFPFI gi t shme y < x < z D prnoume

(8.2.6)

f (x) f (y) f (z) f (x) . xy zx

ifrmzont pli thn rtsh VFPFI gi t shme x < z < wD prnoume

(8.2.7)
9ipeti to sumprsmF

f (z) f (x) f (w) f (z) . zx wz 2 f : (a, b) R

kurt sunrthsh. An

terhm VFPFQF
(8.2.8)
Apdeixh

'Estw

x (a, b)

tte

uprqoun oi pleurikc par gw goi

f (x) = lim
h0

f (x + h) f (x) h

kai

f+ (x) = lim

h0+

f (x + h) f (x) . h

F t dexoume ti uprqei h dexi pleurik prgwgo f+ (x) @me ton dio trpo douleoume gi thn rister pleurik prgwgo f (x)AF tewrome th sunrthsh gx : (x, b) R pou orzeti p thn

(8.2.9)

gx (z) :=

f (z) f (x) . zx

r gx eni xousX n x < z1 < z2 < bD to lmm twn trin qordn deqnei ti

(8.2.10)

gx (z1 ) =

f (z1 ) f (x) f (z2 ) f (x) = gx (z2 ). z1 x z2 x

ipshD n jewrsoume tuqn y (a, x)D to lmm twn trin qordn @gi t y < x < z A deqnei ti

(8.2.11)

f (x) f (y) f (z) f (x) = gx (z) xy zx

gi kje z (x, b)D dhld h gx eni ktw frgmnhF 9erD uprqei to

(8.2.12)

zx+

lim gx (z) = lim+

zx

f (z) f (x) f (x + h) f (x) = lim+ . zx h h0 2

hhldD uprqei h dexi pleurik prgwgo f+ (x)F

IQH uurts ki koles sunrtseis

terhm VFPFRF
f f+
, Apdeixh

'Estw

enai axousec sto

f : (a, b) R (a, b) f f+
kai

kurt

sunrthsh.

Oi

pleurikc

par gw goi

sto

(a, b)

F 9istw x < y sto (a, b)F qi rket mikr jetik h qoume x h, y h (a, b) ki x + h < y hF ep thn rtsh VFPFI ki p to vmm VFPFP lpoume ti (8.2.13) f (x) f (x h) f (x + h) f (x) f (y) f (y h) f (y + h) f (y) . h h h h rnont ri kj h 0+ D sumpernoume ti

(8.2.14)

f (x) f+ (x) f (y) f+ (y).

yi nisthte f (x) f (y) ki f+ (x) f+ (y) deqnoun ti oi f D f+ eni xE ouse sto (a, b)F r rister nistht sthn @VFPFIRA deqnei ti f f+ sto (a, b)F 2 r prxh twn pleurikn prggwn exsflzei ti kje kurt sunrthsh f : I R eni suneq sto eswterik tou I X

terhm VFPFSF
Apdeixh

Kje kurt

sunrthsh

f : (a, b) R

enai suneqc.

F 9istw x (a, b)F teD gi mikr h > 0 qoume x + h, x h (a, b) ki

(8.2.15)

f (x + h) = f (x) +

f (x + h) f (x) h f (x) + f+ (x) 0 = f (x) h

tn h 0+ D enD telew nlogD

(8.2.16)

f (x h) = f (x) +

f (x h) f (x) (h) f (x) + f (x) 0 = f (x) h 2

tn h 0+ F 9erD h f eni suneq sto xF

VFQ

rgwgsime kurt sunrtsei

ton epeirostik vogism s djhke n diforetik orism th kurttht gi mi prgwgsimh sunrthsh f : (a, b) RF qi kje x (a, b)D jewrsme thn efptomnh

(8.3.1)

u = f (x) + f (x)(u x)
kurt

tou grfmto th f sto (x, f (x)) ki epme ti h f eni kje x (a, b) ki gi kje y (a, b) qoume

sto (a, b) n gi

(8.3.2)

f (y) f (x) + f (x)(y x).

hhldD n to grfhm {(y, f (y)) : a < y < b} rsketi pnw p kje efptomnE hF o epmeno jerhm deqnei tiD n perioristome sthn klsh twn prgwgsimwn sunrtsewnD oi {do orismo} sumfwnonF

VFQ rgwgsimes kurts sunrtseis IQI

terhm VFQFIF
isodnama:

'Estw

f : (a, b) R

para gw gsimh

sunrthsh.

Ta

exc

enai

@A @A @gA

f f

enai kurt.

enai axousa.

Gia kje

x, y (a, b)

isqei h

(8.3.3)
Apdeixh

f (y) f (x) + f (x)(y x).

F pojtoume ti h f eni kurtF efo h f eni prgwgsimhD qoume f = f = f+ sto (a, b)F ep to terhm VFPFR oi f , f+ eni xouseD r h f eni xousF pojtoume tr ti h f eni xousF 9istw x, y (a, b)F en x < y D efrmzont to jerhm msh tim sto [x, y]D rskoume (x, y) ste f (y) = f (x) + f ()(y x)F efo > x ki h f eni xousD qoume f () f (x)F efo y x > 0D peti ti

(8.3.4)

f (y) = f (x) + f ()(y x) f (x) + f (x)(y x).

en x > y D efrmzont to jerhm msh tim sto [y, x]D rskoume (y, x) ste f (y) = f (x) + f ()(y x)F efo < x ki h f eni xousD qoume f () f (x)F efo y x < 0D peti pli ti

(8.3.5)

f (y) = f (x) + f ()(y x) f (x) + f (x)(y x).

loD upojtoume ti h @VFQFQA isqei gi kje x, y (a, b) ki j dexoume ti h f eni kurtF 9istw x < y sto (a, b) ki stw 0 < t < 1F ttoume z = (1 t)x + ty F ifrmzont thn upjesh gi t zeugri x, z ki y, z D prnoume

(8.3.6)
9erD

f (x) f (z) + f (z)(x z) ki f (y) f (z) + f (z)(y z).

(1 t)f (x) + tf (y) (1 t)f (z) + tf (z) + f (z)[(1 t)(x z) + t(y z)] = f (z) + f (z)[(1 t)x + ty z] = f (z).
hhldD (1 t)f (x) + tf (y) f ((1 t)x + ty)F

thn perptwsh pou h f eni do for prgwgsimh sto (a, b)D h isodunm twn @A ki @A sto terhm VFQFI dnei nn pl qrkthrism th kurttht msw th deterh prggouF

terhm VFQFPF
enai kurt an kai

'Estw

mno an

f : (a, b) R f (x) 0

do

forc

para gw gsimh .

sunrthsh.

gia kje

x (a, b)

Apdeixh

F r f eni xous n ki mno n f 0 sto (a, b)F 9ymwD sto terhm VFQFI edme ti h f eni xous n ki mno n h f eni kurtF 2

IQP uurts ki koles sunrtseis

VFR

enistht tou Jensen

tou

r Jensen podeikneti me epgwg ki {genikeei} thn nistht tou orismo th kurt sunrthshF
anisthta

rtsh VFRFI @nistht tou JensenAF

An

x1 , . . . , xm I

kai

t1 , . . . , t m 0

me

f :I R t1 + + tm = 1
'Estw , tte

kurt

sunrthsh.

m i=1 ti xi

kai

(8.4.1)
Apdeixh

f (t1 x1 + + tm xm ) t1 f (x1 ) + + tm f (xm ).

F 9istw a = min{x1 , . . . , xm } ki b = max{x1 , . . . , xm }F efo to I eni disthm ki a, b I D sumpernoume ti {x1 , . . . , xm } [a, b] I F efo ti 0 ki t1 + + tm = 1D qoume

(8.4.2)

a = (t1 + + tm )a t1 x1 + + tm xm (t1 + + tm )b = b,

dhldD t1 x1 + + tm xm I F t dexoume thn @VFRFIA me epgwg w pro mF qi m = 1 den qoume tpot n dexoumeD en gi m = 2 h @VFRFIA iknopoieti p ton orism th kurt sunrthshF qi to epgwgik m upojtoume ti m 2D x1 , . . . , xm , xm+1 I ki t1 , . . . , tm , tm+1 0 me t1 + +tm +tm+1 = 1F wporome n upojsoume ti kpoio ti < 1 @lliD h nistht isqei tetrimmnAF wr periorism th geniktht upojtoume ti tm+1 < 1F ttoume t = t1 + + tm = 1 tm+1 > 0F efo x1 , . . . , xm I ki tt1 + + tm = 1D h epgwgik upjesh m dnei t

(8.4.3)
ki

x=

t1 tm x1 + + xm I t t

(8.4.4)

tf (x) = tf

t1 tm x1 + + xm t t

t1 f (x1 ) + + tm f (xm ).

ifrmzont tr ton orism th kurt sunrthshD prnoume

(8.4.5)

f (tx + tm+1 xm+1 ) tf (x) + tm+1 f (xm+1 ).

unduzont ti do prohgomene nisthteD qoume

f (t1 x1 + + tm xm + tm+1 xm+1 )

= f (tx + tm+1 xm+1 ) t1 f (x1 ) + + tm f (xm ) +tm+1 f (xm+1 ). 2

rhsimopoint thn nistht tou Jensen j dexoume kpoie klsik nisthtE eF r prth p ut genikeei thn nistht rijmhtikoEgewmetriko msouF

enistht rijmhtikoEgewmetriko msouF

jetiko pra gmatiko arijmo me

'Estw

x1 , . . . , xn

kai

r1 , . . . , r n

r1 + + rn = 1
n n

Tte,

(8.4.6)
i=1

xri i
i=1

ri xi .

VFR enistht tou Jensen IQQ

F r sunrthsh x ln x eni kolh sto (0, +)F efo ri > 0 ki r1 + + rn = 1D h nistht tou Jensen @gi thn kurt sunrthsh lnA deqnei ti
Apdeixh

(8.4.7)
hhldD

r1 ln x1 + + rn ln xn ln(r1 x1 + + rn xn ).

(8.4.8)

ln(xr1 xrn ) ln(r1 x1 + + rn xn ). n 1

o zhtomeno prokptei mes p to gegon ti h ekjetik sunrthsh x ex eni xousF 2 iidik periptsei th prohgomenh nistht eni oi exX @A r klsik nistht rijmhtikoEgewmetriko msou

(8.4.9)

(x1 xn )1/n

x1 + + xn n

pou x1 , . . . , xn > 0D h opo prokptei p thn @VFRFTA n proume r1 = = rn = 1 nF @A r nistht tou YoungX x, y > 0 t, s > 0 t+s=1
An kai me , tte

(8.4.10)

xt y s tx + sy.
an

r @VFRFIHA emfnzeti pol suqn sthn ex morfX 1 1 p + q =1

, tte

x, y > 0

kai

p, q > 1

me

(8.4.11)

xy

xp yq + p q

1 rgmtiD rke n proume tou xp , y q sth jsh twn x, y ki tou p , 1 sth jsh q twn t, sF yi p ki q lgonti F rhsimopoint ut thn nistht mporome n dexoume thn klsik nistht tou HlderX o p, q a1 , . . . , an b1 , . . . , b n
suz ugec ekjtec 'Estw suz ugec ekjtec. An kai enai jetiko pra gmatiko arijmo, tte

1/p

1/q

(8.4.12)
i=1

ai bi
i=1 n 1/p

ap i
i=1 n

bq i
1/q

.
ki xi = ai /AD yi = bi /B F

Apdeixh

F ttoume A = ( i=1 ap ) D B = ( i=1 bq ) i i teD h zhtomenh nistht @VFRFIPA prnei th morf

n

(8.4.13)
i=1

xi yi 1.

ep thn @VFRFIIA qoume

n n

(8.4.14)
i=1

xi yi
i=1

xp yq i + i p q

1 p

xp + i
i=1

1 q

n q yi . i=1

rthrome ti
n

(8.4.15)
i=1

xp = i

1 Ap

ap = 1 ki i
i=1 i=1

q yi =

1 Bq

bq = 1. i
i=1

IQR uurts ki koles sunrtseis

9erD
n

(8.4.16)
i=1

xi yi

1 1 1 + 1 = 1. p q 2F
an

9ipeti h @VFRFIPAF ipilgont p = q = 2 prnoume thn nistht Cauchy-SchwarzX b1 , . . . , b n

kai enai jetiko pra gmatiko arijmo, tte

a1 , . . . , an

1/2

1/2

(8.4.17)
i=1

ai bi
i=1

a2 i
i=1

b2 i

VFS

esksei

ymd e9 IF 9istw f, fn : I RF pojtoume ti kje fn eni kurt sunrthsh ki ti

fn (x) f (x) gi kje x I F hexte ti h f eni kurtF

PF 9istw {fn : n N} kolouj kurtn sunrtsewn fn : I RF yrzoume

f : I R me f (x) = sup{fn (x) : n N}F en h f eni pepersmnh pnto sto I D tte h f eni kurtF

QF 9istw f, g : R R kurt sunrtseiF pojtoume km ti h g eni xousF

hexte ti h g f eni kurtF

RF 9istw f : I R kurt sunrthshF hexte ti

f (x1 + ) f (x1 ) f (x2 + ) f (x2 )
gi kje x1 < x2 I ki > 0 gi to opoo x1 + , x2 + I F

SF 9istw f : [a, b] R kurt sunrthshF hexte me n prdeigm ti h f den eni ngkstik sunrthsh Lipschitz se olklhro to [a, b]D km ki n upojsoume ti h f eni frgmnhF ipshD dexte ti h f den eni ngkstik suneq sto [a, b]F TF 9istw f : (a, b) R kurt sunrthsh ki (a, b)F hexte tiX
@A n h f qei olik mgisto sto tte h f eni stjerF @A n h f qei olik elqisto sto tte h f eni fjnous sto (a, ) ki xous sto (, b)F @gA n h f qei topik elqisto sto tte qei olik elqisto sto F @dA n h f eni gnhsw kurtD tte qei to pol n shmeo oliko elqstouF

UF 9istw f : R R kurt sunrthshF en h f eni nw frgmnhD tte eni

stjerF

VF hexte ti kje kurt sunrthsh orismnh se frgmno disthm eni ktw

frgmnhF

VFS eskseis IQS

WF 9istw f : (0, +) R kolhD xousD nw frgmnh ki prgwgsimh

sunrthshF hexte ti
x+

lim xf (x) = 0.

tte

ymd f9 IHF hexte ti n h f : (0, +) R eni kurt ki x1 , . . . , xm , y1 , . . . , ym > 0D

(x1 + + xm )f y1 + + ym x1 + + xm
m

i=1

xi f

yi xi

hexte ti h f (x) = (1+xp )1/p eni kurt sto (0, +) tn p 1D ki sumpernte ti

m

((x1 + + xm )p + (y1 + + ym )p )

1/p

i=1

p (xp + yi )1/p . i

IIF hexte ti h sunrthsh sin x eni kurt sto [0, ]F rhsimopoint to

dexte ti h mgisth permetro nEgnou pou eggrfeti sto mondio kklo eni 2n sin(/n)F

IPF 9istw 1 , 2 , . . . , n jetiko rijmoF hexte ti

(1 + 1 )(1 + 2 ) (1 + n ) 1 + (1 2 n )1/n

Updeixh:

rthrste ti h x ln(1 + ex ) eni kurtF

ymd q9 IQF 9istw f : I R jetik kolh sunrthshF hexte ti h 1/f eni kurtF IRF 9istw f : [0, 2] R kurt sunrthshF hexte ti gi kje k 1D
1
n
2

f (x) cos kxdx 0.

0

ISF 9istw f : (a, b) R suneq sunrthshF hexte ti h f eni kurt n ki mno

f (x) 1 2h
h

f (x + t)dt
h

gi kje disthm [x h, x + h] (a, b)F

ITF 9istw f : (a, b) R kurt sunrthsh ki c (a, b)F hexte ti h f eni

prgwgsimh sto c n ki mno n
h0+

lim

f (c + h) + f (c h) 2f (c) = 0. h

IUF 9istw f : [0, +) kurtD mh rnhtik sunrthsh me f (0) = 0F yrzoume

F : [0, +) R me F (0) = 0 ki F (x) =
hexte ti h F eni kurtF

1 x

f (t)dt.
0