RACE 2011 Proceeding

RECENT ADVANCES IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

EDITORS
S.B. Dwivedi
Rajesh Kumar
K.K. Pandey
Kesheo Prasad
Medha Jha
Anurag Ohri
P.B. Ramudu

By
Department of Civil Engineering,
Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi-221005, India

Proceeding of the National Conference on Recent Advances in Civil Engineering
October 14-16, 2011, Varanasi

Editors, RACE-2011
No part of the publication can be reproduced in any form or by any means without the prior
Written Permission of the publisher.
Due care has been taken to ensure that the information provided in this book is correct.
However, the editors bear no responsibility for any damage resulting from any inadvertent
omission or inaccuracy in this book.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

Department of Civil Engineering,
Varanasi-221005, India

RECENT ADVANCES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING-2011 i

EDITORIAL DESK
A consistent endeavor has been made by the Civil Engineering professionals since last few years
to solve the complex problems and challenges by employing certain advanced solution. In view
of fulfilling the research gap a National conference on Recent Advances in Civil Engineering
(RACE-2011) is being organized in Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology,
Banaras Hindu University during 14
th
to 16
th
October-2011. In order to highlight the recent
advances in Civil Engineering presented papers of the conference related to Structural
Engineering, Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering,
Environmental Engineering, Transportation Engineering, GIS & Remote Sensing, Applied
Geology and Disaster Mitigation have been included in this edited volume of Proceeding RACE-
2011. This proceeding, we believe, shall be acknowledged in future as a land mark for acquiring
a good understanding of the potential role of Recent Advances in Civil Engineering to solve the
problems. Themes covered in the proceeding are not only quite relevant but also carries a lot of
weight in addressing Civil Engineering problems and seek the solutions using recent
research/innovations which took place till today. For the reasons mention above this proceeding
is more informative and worth full for researchers. It is exciting to know that recent problems in
Civil Engineering e.g. Earth quake resistant structures, Water Harvesting, Avalanches, Flood
Mitigation, Geo-environmental problem, Solid Waste Engineering, GIS & Remote Sensing,
Applied Geology etc. which call for greater attention for the country and has been addressed
among the various papers of the proceeding. This volume includes one hundred twenty research
papers which are peer reviewed. We highly appreciate the efforts of all researchers, scientists and
engineers from different parts of the country who readily accepted and responded to our request
and submitted the full papers well in time. Most of the papers of this proceeding are based on
original data base and organized properly.
We must acknowledge the financial support provided by Ministry of Earth Science, Govt. of
India, New Delhi, Head, SERC Division, Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi,
Director General, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, Ministry of Water
Resources, New Delhi, Head, Department of Civil Engineering and Banaras Hindu University to
organize the National conference on Recent Advances in Civil Engineering (RACE-2011)
during 14
th
to 16
th
October, 2011 and bringing out this proceeding in present shape.
This proceeding is a commendable attempt to highlight the Recent Advances in Civil
Engineering among the researchers of different disciplines of Civil Engineering. All papers are
properly arranged covering the varied aspects of Civil Engineering problems. However, still
there are many gaps in the relevant knowledge which can be fulfilled by bringing out more
volume on similar themes in future. We are pretty sure that this proceeding will be useful to the
post graduate students researchers working in the field of Civil Engineering.

Editors
RECENT ADVANCES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING-2011 ii

CONTENTS OF THE PROCEEDINGS PAGE No

EDITORIAL DESK i

CONTENTS iivii

1 VARIABILITY OF MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT IN CONTROLLED CHAMBER
EVAPORATION EXPERIMENTS
C.S.P. Ojha, Hiroshi Yasuda, Surampalli Rao, Mohamed A. M. Abd Elbasit, Manoj Kumar
1-6
2 A SMOOTH DMS-FEM FORMULATION FOR MINDLIN PLATE BENDING
PROBLEMS
S. Narayan, D. Roy, R. M. Vasu
7-12
3 ENHANCING THE REACTIVITY OF FLY ASH FOR GEOTECHNICAL AND
GEOENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS
P.V. Sivapullaiah
13-21
4 SORPTION BEHAVIOUR OF DEEP SEATED COAL: A GEOENGINEERING
APPROACH TO CARBON DIOXIDE SINKING
V. Vishal, T. N. Singh
22-26
5 CHARACTERISTICS OF BADLANDS MORPHOLOGY
Sanjay Tignath, Medha Jha
27-30
6 PERFORMANCE GRADING OF INDIAN BITUMINOUS BINDERS
G. Bharath, M. Amaranatha Reddy
31-36
7 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN NITRATE REMOVAL TECHNIQUES FROM WATER
P.K. Singh, Y.C. Sharma, A. L. Srivastav
37-47
8 SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF EXPANSIVE SOIL MIXED WITH LIME AND FLY ASH
AS ADDITIVES
Dhirendra Kumar, Suresh Kumar, Bala Ramudu Paramkusam
48-51
9 USE OF MULTIPLICATIVE DECOMPOSITION METHOD FOR BUS TRAVEL TIME
PREDICTION UNDER HETEROGENEOUS TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
S.Vasantha Kumar, Lelitha Vanajakshi
52-57
10 INFLUENCE OF TYPE OF BINDER AND CRUMB RUBBER ON THE MORPHOLOGY
OF CRUMB RUBBER MODIFIED BITUMEN
P. S. Divya, J. Murali Krishnan
58-62
11 HYDROINFORMATICS IN GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION: A CASE STUDY
D.K. Pardeshi, A.O. Rathor, D. G. Regulwar
63-68
12 APPLICATION OF RS AND GIS FOR APPROXIMATING STREAM FLOW
Om Prakash Dubey
69-73
13 SEISMIC VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT OF SKEW BRIDGES
S.P. Deepu, S. Ray-Chaudhuri
74-80
14 GEOCHRONOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS OF EASTERN DHARWAR CRATON: A
REVIEW
D. Prakash, P. Chandra Singh, S. Tewari, I.N. Sharma
81-87
15 VELOCITIES IN NON-UNIFORM FLOW ON CLOSELY PACKED ROUGH BED
Kesheo Prasad, C.S.P. Ojha, K. M. Singh
88-94
16 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION OF A LOW COST FOLDABLE DOME
Rajesh Kumar, Aniruddh Vashisth, Vineet Singla
95-99
17 GROUNDWATER PROSPECTING OF URBAN AREA OF THE JABALPUR DISTRICT
USING REMOTE SENSING AND GIS
Medha Jha, Sanjay Tignath
100-102
18 PARAMETRIC STUDY OF PREDICTION OF SCOUR DEPTH IN SPILLWAYS - A
NEURAL NETWORK APPROACH
Arun Goel
103-107
19 URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE PLANNING USING GIS A CASE STUDY OF SURAT
Shri Chetan R. Patel, Nikunj B. Shah
108-111

RECENT ADVANCES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING-2011 iii

20 A STUDY ON LANDFILL LEACHING USING THREE DIMENSIONAL COLUMN
LEACH APPARATUS
P.J .Barman, S.A. Kartha, B. Pradhan
112-115

21 WATER SCARCITY: ISSUES, CONCERNS AND OPTION (A CASE STUDY OF
KOLKATA AND SUB- URBAN AREAS)
Sabita Madhvi Singh
116-121
22 SITE SELECTION FOR GROUND WATER RECHARGE USING TREATED
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATERS- A CASE STUDY OF VARANASI (INDIA)
P.K.Singh, Anurag Ohri, Abhishek Kumar Bhardwaj
122-130
23 ANALYSIS OF GAS DYNAMICS IN A FUNNEL DURING AIR SUCTION
K.K. Pandey, Aniruddh Vashisth
131-136
24 EVOLUTION OF SOME RESISTANCE LAW FOR NON-UNIFORM ACCELERATED
FLOW OVER CLOSELY PACKED ROUGH BED
Kesheo Prasad, C.S.P. Ojha, K. M. Singh
137-143
25 FACTORS AFFECTING BEHAVIOUR OF PILED RAFT FOUNDATION
Rajendra Singh Bisht, Baleshwar Singh
144-150
26 OPTIMISATION OF LOW RISE MULTI-STOREY BUILDING USING STEEL-
CONCRETE COMPOSITE SECTION & SEMI-RIGID BEAM TO COLUMN
CONNECTIONS
P. S. Buradkar
151-156
27 ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS FOR REAL TIME RESERVOIR INFLOW
MODELING AND PREDICTION
A.K. Pardeshi, D.G. Regulwar
157-163
28 FLOOD FORECASTING SYSTEM IN KOSI BASIN
L. B. Roy, Sunil Kumar, Jay Prakash Kumar
164-169
29 PUSHOVER ANALYSIS OF RCC BUILDING WITH AND WITHOUT INFILL WALL
R. E. Dalvi
170-174
30 DEFORMATION AND STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF FLY ASH ADDED SOILS
Tapas Das, Baleshwar Singh
175-180
31 GIS: AS A NECESSARY TOOL FOR URBAN PLANNING
Arati S. Petkar, Eshwar M. Bahirat
181-186
32 CANAL REGULATION AND SCADA
Kinnari R. Mishra, N.K.Sherasia
187-189
33 DELINEATION OF GROUNDWATER SATURATED FRACTURE ZONES IN HARD
ROCK TERRAINS USING INTEGRATED RESISTIVITY SURVEY APPROACH
N.P. Singh
190-194
34 VISCO-ELASTO-PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF LAYERED PLATE: A UNIFIED OVERLAY
APPROACH
P. Srimani, S. Roy Chowdhury, K. K. Ghosh,
195-200
35 AUTOMATED HIGHWAY SYSTEMS
S. Lakshminarasimhan, K.S. Yuvaraaj
201-204
36 A CASE STUDY OF MULA RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION ASSESSMENT USING
BATHYMETRY ALONG WITH SATELLITEREMOTE SENSING TECHNOLOGY
D.D.Bhide,, P.R.Bhamare, S.N.Kulkarni
205-209
37 REVIEW ON USE OF RECYCLED AGGREGATES IN CONCRETE
G.D. Ransinchung R.N, Kumar Praveen, Chauhan Prakash Arun
210-214
38 EFFECT OF LOADING FREQUENCY ON PERFORMANCE OF RC BEAM-COLUMN
CONNECTIONS
C. Marthong, A. Dutta, S.K. Deb
215-220
39 STUDIES ON THE TREATMENT OF VEGETABLE WASTE WITH HIGHSOLID
ANAEROBIC DIGESTERS
S. Venkatesh
221-226

40 PROTOTYPE DEVELOPMENT FOR A BUS ARRIVAL TIME PREDICTION SYSTEM
UNDER INDIAN TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
Akhilesh Koppineni, Krishna Chaithanya, K. Sidharth, Lelitha Vanajakshi,
227-233

RECENT ADVANCES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING-2011 iv

41 CORROSION MONITORING TECHNIQUES FOR EVALUATION OF PERFORMANCE
OF STEEL IN CONCRETE STRUCTURE
Jitu Kujur, B. Bhattacharjee
234-238
42 ASSESSMENT OF CONCRETE STRENGTH USING FLYASH AND RICE HUSK ASH
Satish D. Kene, Pravin V. Domke, Sandesh D. Deshmukh, R.S. Deotale
239-245
43 PILE FOUNDATIONS DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
M. Sujan
246-249
44 MODELING QUEUING & DISCHARGE BEHAVIOUR OF HETEROGENEOUS
TRAFFIC AT MANUALLY CONTROLLED URBAN INTERSECTION
Ghadiyali G.A., Shah M.K., Katti B.K.
250-255
45 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION RESPONSES
Prishati Raychowdhury, Sumit Jindal
256-261
46 DUST DEPOSITION CAPACITY OF CERTAIN ROADSIDE PLANTS IN AIZAWL,
MIZORAM: IMPLICATIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL GEOMAGNETIC STUDIES
Prabhat Kumar Rai
262-270
47 DISASTER MITIGATION AND MANAGEMENT FOR FLOOD CONTROL USING
GEOINFORMATICAL TOOLS
M.B.Kumthekar, P.K.Deshpande, R.D.Padhye, S.B.Thalange
271-275
48 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF LAMINATED COMPOSITE FOLDED PLATE FOR
DIFFERENT BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Sourav Chandra, Sreyashi Das, A. Guha Niyogi
276-279
49 CONCRETE BEAMS STRENGTHENED WITH NEAR SURFACE MOUNTED AFRP
RODS
V.G. Kalpana,K. Subramanian
280-282
50 DAMAGE ANALYSIS OF STEEL STRUCTURES
Pranav P. Pande
283-285
51 STREAM FLOW MODELLING OF BEAS RIVER AT MANALI, HIMACHAL PRADESH
S. K. Jain, S. P Rai, Rajeev S. Ahluwalia
286-289
52 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE MEASUREMENT OF WETTING SWCC
C. Malaya, S. Sreedeep
290-293
53 CHANNEL AND CORED UNIT FOR ROOFING\FLOORING FOR LOW COST
HOUSING: A REVEIW
Rajesh Kumar, Harshit Jain, S. B Dwivedi
294-298
54 A STUDY ON DUCTILITY OF CONCRETE AND MORTAR WITH THE ADDITION OF
RUBBER POWDER
C. B. K. Rao, R. Bhaskar,V. Rajendra Prasad
299-305
55 EFFECTS OF AGGRESSIVE CHLORIDE ENVIRONMENT ON HIGH PERFORMANCE
STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE
Dhirendra Singhal, Bal Krishan
306-310
56 THE INFLUENCE OF GEO-ENVIRONMENTAL PROPERTIES ON MUNICIPAL SOLID
WASTE
Sunita Kumari, A.K. Nema, K.B. Ladhane
311-316
57 CEMENT AND POLYPROPYLENE FIBRES TO IMPROVE THE LOAD BEARING
CAPACITY OF PEAT
Behzad Kalantari, Arun Prasad
317-322
58 EFFECT OF NaOH MOLARITY ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF GEOPOLYMER
CONCRETE IN AMBIENT CURING CONDITION
S. V. Joshi, M. S. Kadu
323-327

59 ECONOMICS AND STUDY UNDER BORDER IRRIGATION ON GROUNDNUT CROP
AT VARIOUS WATER APPLICATION LEVELS
A.B. Rathod, B.Jigar Parekh
328-330

60 PETROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION OF CORROSION INHIBITORS ADMIXED
CONCRETE
B.N. Singh, S.K. Singh, V. Kumar, M.A. Quraishi
331-335

RECENT ADVANCES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING-2011 v

61 DETECTION OF ACTIVE LANDSLIDE AREAS IN HIMALAYAS USING SMALL
BASELINE SUBSET INTERFEROMETRY
A. Bhattacharya, Manoj. K. Arora, Mukat. L. Sharma
336-342
62 TIME PERIOD ANALYSIS OF LIQUID FILLED CYLINDRICAL CONTAINER DURING
SLOSHING
P. R. Maiti, Abhinav Srivastava
343-348
63 AVERAGE P-T ESTIMATES AND MINERAL CHEMISTRY OF THE TWO PYROXENE
BEARING GRANULITES FROM SONAPAHAR,WEST KHASI HILLS DISTRICT,
MEGHALAYA
S.B.Dwivedi, K.Theunuo
349-354
64 CRACK SENSING CAPABILITIES OF SMART CANTILEVER STRUCTURES
Nilanjan Mallik
355-359
65 ESTIMATION OF GUST EFFECTIVE FACTOR USING IS 875(PART 3) 1987 AND
MODIFICATIONS PROPOSED BY PREMKRISHNA (2002)
Deepak Kumar, S. Mandal
360-364
66 ANALYSIS OF SKEW SLAB DECK USING ANALYTICAL METHODS
Rajesh Kumar, Veerendra Kumar, Bikram Kesharee Patra
365-369
67 REMOVAL MECHANISM OF Cr (VI) AND Fe (III) METAL IONS FROMEXPAN-SIVE
SOIL BY ELECTROKINETIC EXTRACTION
Ch. Ramakrishna, B. S. Nagendra Prakash, P.V. Sivapullaiah
370-376
68 APPLICATION OF ISOTOPIC TECHNIQUES IN HYDROLOGY OF MOUNTA-INOUS
REGION
S. P. Rai, Bhishn Kumar, Y.S. Rawat, P. Purushothaman
377-381
69 GROUND WATER ZONES AROUND JHANSI TOWN USING SATELLITE-REMOTE
SENSING DATA IN THE GRANITIC TERRAIN OFBUNDELKHAND
S.P. Singh, Yamini Singh
382-387
70 INFLUENCE OF CRUSHABILITY AND MIGRATION OF MOISTURE ONCBR
CHARACTERISTICS OF POND ASH
M.V.S. Sreedhar, G.Venkatappa Rao, R.Ramesh Reddy,
388-391
71 PERFORMANCE HISTORY OF WARM MIX ASPHALT
Rajan Choudhary, Eleena Gao, Ashok Julaganti
392-395
72 DETERIORATION OF GROUND QUALITY DUE TO OPENCASTCOAL MINES AND
OTHER RELATED INDUSTRIES IN SINGRAULIAREA
Raj K. Sharma, C.S. Singh,.
396-399
73 STABLE ISOTOPIC CHARACTERISATION OFGROUNDWATERS INBIST- DOAB
REGION, PUNJAB
P. Purushothaman, M.S. Rao, B. Kumar,Y.S. Rawat, Gopal Krishan
400-404
74 LINEAR AND NON LINEAR ANALYSIS OF SQUARE PLATE
Ashish Johri, Rajesh Kumar, Veerendra Kumar
405-407
75 LOCAL STRATEGIC PLANNING PROCESSES AND SUSTAINABILITY
TRANSITIONS IN INFRASTRUCTURE SECTORS
Rajesh Singh, P.K.S. Dikshit
408-416
76 ENVIRONMENTAL CAPACITY CONCEPT IN NOISE POLLUTION ANALYSIS OF A
ROADWAY
Kanakabandi Shalini, Brind Kumar
417-420
77 ESTIMATION OF SCOUR DEPTH AROUND BRIDGE PIERS BYUSING HEC-RAS
Dilip Kumar, Hira Lal Yadav, Sushil Kumar Himanshu
421-425
78 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF BUILDING WITH COMPOSITE ANDRCC STRUCTURE
A.K. Chitkeshwar, V.G. Meshram
426-432
79 SHEAR STRENGTH OF ORGANIC SOIL TREATED WITH CEMENTGROUT AND
MODIFIED WITH ADDITIVES
SinaKazemian, Arun Prasad
433-437
80 POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION ASSESSMENT BY USING
MWSWATMODELING ON SABARMATI RIVER
Shaikh M Zuned, P P Lodha
438-439

RECENT ADVANCES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING-2011 vi

81 LOCATION OF WATER HARVESTING STRUCTURES IN SEETHARIVER BASIN OF
COASTAL KARNATAKA BY RS AND GISPERSPECTIVE A CASE STUDY
Mohandas Chadaga, Ravindranath, Sreeniwas Poudel S., Varun Kadian
440-444
82 REVIEW ON SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE
Kumar Praveen, G.D. Ransinchung R.N, Jindal Abhishek
445-449
83 A STUDY ON SHOTCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Vipin Bansal, Abhishek Choudhary, Dipendu Bhunia, Ashutosh Parauha, Nikhil Shrivastava
450-456
84 SOME STUDIES ON THE INFLUENCE OF CLAY ON
CONSOLIDATIONCHARACTERISTICS OF COHESIVE SOILS
S.V. Rao
457-460
85 NONDIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF A CIRCULAR PLATE RESTING ONTHE
PASTERNAK FOUNDATION USING THE STRAIN ENERGY APPROACH
Ashish Gupta, Dilip Kumar
461-468
86 OPTICAL SENSOR BASED CRACK OPENING DISPLACEMNETS STUDIES IN
CONCRETE
K. Samrajyam, B.Sobha, T D Gunneswara Rao
469-471
87 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF NAILED OPEN CUTS- A CASE STUDY
Bhishm Singh Khati, Dilip Kumar, Swami Saran
472-479
88 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OPTIMAL CROPPING PATTERN USING LINEAR
PROGRAMMING AND GENETIC ALGORITHM
Ingle Visha, D.G.Regulwar
480-488
89 A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF FOLLOWING PHENOMENA IN INDIAN MIXED
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
K.V.R. Ravi Shankar, Tom V. Mathew
489-491
90 FEM FORMULATION OF DIRECT METHOD OF CONCRETE GRAVITY DAM -
NONLINEAR FOUNDATION INTERACTION
A Burman, D Maity, A Kumar, S Bhushan
492-496
91 DEVELOPMENT OF A STIFFNESS ANALYSIS FOR A STRUCTURAL ELEMENT IN A
BUILDING INFRASTRUCTURE
Pradeep Kumar, Swatantra K. Porwal
497-501
92 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES FOR COLOUR REMOVAL
Shiva Shankar Y, Abhishek Kumar, Harshit Jain, Devendra Mohan
502-506
93 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF BED LOAD FORMULAS FOR INTENSE BEDLOAD
CHANNELS
Sumit Talukdar, Bimlesh Kumar, Subashisa Dutta
507-512
94 ANALYSIS OF ROUGHNESS AND CRACKING ON SELECTED FLEXIBLE
PAVEMENT IN BANGALORE CITY
Prathima G
513-518
95 INVESTIGATIONS OF MIXING IN MECHANICALLY STIRRED TANK:COMPARISON
OF CD-6 IMPELLER AND RUSHTON TURBINE
Thiyam Tamphasana Devi
519-524
96 ESTIMATION OF HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION FROM MUNICIPAL SOLID
WASTE LANDFILL AT KOLKATA USING, EPACMTP MODEL
Sanjukta Basak, Subhasish Chattopadhyay, Swapan Kumar Mukhopadhyay, Amit Dutta
525-532
97 BEHAVIOUR OF SUCTION CAISSON AS FOUNDATION SYSTEM FOR OFFSHORE
WIND TURBINE IN SANDY SOILS
Suchit Kumar Patel, Baleshwar Singh
533-537
98 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF MULTISTORIED BUILDING USING FLAT SLAB,
M.S.Janbandhu, V.G. Meshram
538-547
99 TECHNO-ECONOMIC STUDY OF REMOTE AREA SMALL HYDRO POWER PLANTS
Mon Prakash Upadhyay, Rahul Bhatt, Nitin Kumar Sahu
548-550
100 A PRAGMATIC APPROACH OF POT HOLES REPAIR UNDER INDIAN SERVICE
CONDITIONS
G.D. Ransinchung R.N, Praveen Kumar, Brind Kumar
551-557

RECENT ADVANCES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING-2011 vii

101 ANALYSIS OF THE MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURE SEVEN HOMOGENEO-US
REGIONS OF INDIA
R.K.S. Maurya, G. P. Singh
558-562
102 RELATE AVERAGE CONCENTRATION OF SEDIMENT TO LOCAL
CONCENTRATION FOR STEADY UNIFORM FLOW
N.D. Vernekar, A.R. Bhalerao
563-565
103 GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL CONTAMINATED BY TANNING
INDUSTRY EFFLUENTS
Ashwani Jain
566-568
104 WATER MANAGEMENT ON DRIP AND MICRO SPRINKLER IRRIGATION FOR
SUMMER GROUNDNUT CROP UNDER DEFICIT WATER SUPPLIES
A.B. Rathod, S. A. Trivedi
569-573
105 A REVIEW OF NOISE ANALYSIS FOR ROAD TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
Brind Kumar, G.D. Ransinchung R.N., Saurabh Gupta, Gajendra Kumar Yadav, Alok Kumar
577-583
106 BEARING CAPACITY OF POND ASH REINFORCED WITH A COIR GEOTEXTILE
M.V.S. Sreedhar,G. Venkatappa Rao,R. Ramesh Reddy
584-587
107 PERFORMANCE OF CONCRETE FILLED STEEL (CFT) HOLLOW BEAM SECTIONS
IN FLEXURE
Sunil Kute, T.Jayashree, Shantanu Pande
591-594
108 FORECASTING OF GROUND WATER LEVEL OF SIMGATEHSIL, RAIPUR
DISTRICT, CHHATTISGARH USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL
NETWORK
Umank Mishra, K.K. Pandey, S B Dwiwedi
595-602
109 REDUCTION OF FLUORIDE WITH FREE JETS FOR INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
Suresh Kumar N., Ravi Kumar, S.
598-601
110 COMPARATIVE BEHAVIOUR OF TWO STOREY BRICK MASONRY BUILDING
MODELS OF CONFINED, UN-CONFINED AND MODEL AS PER IS CODE
Vikash Khatri, P. K. Singh, P.R. Maiti
602-609
111 DAMAGE ESTIMATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURAL MEMBER BY DISPLACEMENT
BASED ANALYSIS TECHNICS
A.Vimala, Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar
610-613
112 LONG-TERM STATISTICAL EXPRESSION OF TEMPERATURE OVER INDIA
R. K. S. Maurya, G. P. Singh
614-617
113 EFFECTS OF CORROSION INHIBITOR ON THE PERFORMANCE OF MILD STEEL
AND PRESTRESSING STEEL
Vasugi Jegan , Vandhana Mary Jacob, Radhakrishna G. Pillai
618-624
114 REMEDIAL MEASURES FOR RESTORATION OF DISTRESSES INPART PARALLEL
TAXIWAY AND APRON A CASE STUDY OF LAL
BAHADUR SHASTRI AIRPORT AT BABATPUR, VARANASI
Brind Kumar, Pramod Kumar Singh
625-634
115 AN EXACT SOLUTION OF MHD FLOW DUE TO ACCELERATED MOTION OF
INFINITE POROUS PLATE
J. Singh, Munna Lal, Dheeraj Agrawal, Mona Goyal
635-637
116 GPS DERIVED STRAIN ANALYSIS AND CRUSTAL DEFORMATION IN INDIA
Abhay P. Singh Abhishek Rai
638-642
117 MODELLING HETEROGENEOUS TRAFFIC USING VISSIM
A.K. Maurya, S. Sharma, S. Biswas
643-647
118 RECENT ADVANCES IN HYDROLOGICAL ANALYSIS, MODELING, AND
DECISION - MAKING
648-655
R.D. Singh, M. Goel
119 STATIC AND DYNAMIC STABILITY OF PLATES AND SHELLS 656-662
L.S. Ramachandra
120 EFFECT OF BRIDGE PIERS SHAPE ON SCOURING
Manvendra Singh Chauhan, U. K. Choudhary, P. K. Singh Dikshit
663-666
AUTHOR INDEX 667-669

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7
RECENT ADVANCES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING-2011 1

VARIABILITY OF MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT IN
CONTROLLED CHAMBER EVAPORATION EXPERIMENTS

C.S.P. Ojha
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India
Hiroshi Yasuda
Arid Land Research Center, Tottori University, Japan
Surampalli Rao

USEPA, Kansas, USA
Mohamed A. M. Abd Elbasit
Desertification Research Institute, National Center for Research, Khartoum, Sudan
Manoj Kumar

Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India

ABSTRACT: Evaporation is estimated using mass transfer, energy or a combination approach which includes
mass transfer as well as energy based approach. In the literature, there are a large number of studies which use
mass transfer approach as the basis of estimating evaporation. In this study, the potential of mass transfer
approach are evaluated using data from controlled chamber experiments in which radiation and wind velocity
were kept constant and temperature and relative humidity profiles were varied in different patterns. Currently,
FAO procedure lists three approaches to compute air vapour pressure based on temperature and relative
humidity profiles. In this study, the impact of using different procedures of estimating air vapour pressure is also
examined to assess the use of mass transfer approach for estimating evaporation. To achieve this, a part of the
data is used to calibrate mass transfer coefficient which is subsequently used to project evaporation for future
states. Accordingly, strategies are ranked for their potential in estimating evaporation.

Key Words: Mass transfer coefficient, Vapour pressure, Evaporation rate, Variability, Relative humidity and
Temperature.

INTRODUCTION
Evaporation is the phenomenon by which a substance is
converted from liquid phase to vapour. Evaporation is
relevant in many disciplines from small to very large
scale. It is important in determining the water balance
of watersheds, allowing prediction and estimation of
runoff and ground water recharge. Evaporation data are
required in managing both irrigation and dry land
farming operations. The amount and rate of evaporation
from water surfaces are the parameters essential for
designers to plan storage reservoirs of waste water and
brine ponds. Such information is also needed in
determining the evaporation from natural lakes,
irrigation scheduling, condenser cooling water and
water requirements for hydroelectric power, as well as
settling of various water-right disputes, etc.
In fact, if the man is to survive and improve living
standards on earth, something must be done to increase
the supply of fresh water. One method of increasing the
available water supply could be to decrease or prevent
evaporation from water surfaces. Evaporation not only
reduces the amount of available water, but it also
decreases the quality of water and increases impurity
concentration because only pure water is lost by
evaporation. For all the above-mentioned reasons, there
is a need for better understanding of the evaporation
process. It is therefore necessary to examine the
evaporation process and contributing factors and to
develop a method of accurately predicting evaporation
rates from water body.
Evaporation research was started with the pioneer
work of Sir Dalton in 1802 who observed that
evaporation rate is closely related to vapour
pressure difference between evaporating surface
and the surrounding air. This led to the classical
Dalton equation, also called aerodynamic equation.
Tanner and Sincalir (1983) reported that the vapour
pressure deficit is a dominant factor influencing the
evaporation. Vapour pressure denotes the partial
pressure exerted by the water vapour present in the
air. Vapour pressure at equilibrium state is called
the saturation vapour pressure (P
s
). It is a function
of temperature only; it increases with increase in
temperature (Dingman, 1994). Evaporation rate
from an open water surface depends on the
difference between the vapour pressure of water
and air (P
a
) (called vapour pressure deficit), vapour
pressure of water being the saturation vapour
pressure for the temperature of water. Thus, the
vapour pressure deficit (P
s
-P
a
) is an indicator of
actual evaporative demand of air (Yoder et al
2005). Evaporation continues as long as vapour
pressure of water surface exceeds the vapour
pressure of the air (Trewartha and Horn, 1980).
Singh and Xu (1997) reported that the mass
transfer equations to determine the evaporation are
sensitive to vapour pressure gradient. Gianniou and
Antonopoulos (2007) observed that the particularly
lower evaporation rates are sensitive to air vapour
pressure. Winter (1981) reported the error in


determining the evaporation rates which also depends
on vapour pressure deficit. It has been further reported
that the errors of 25% could be introduced in
calculating the u (P
s
-P
a
) term (u being the wind
velocity) in the mass transfer equation if the
corresponding errors in air and water temperatures is
1%. Ojha et al (2010) reported the errors in evaporation
and compared the errors with three different models.

Air vapour pressures are not directly measured by any
instrument. However its value depends on the
measurement of temperature and relative humidity
which is most commonly used in practice. A number of
methods are available for the estimation of vapour
pressure and vapour pressure deficit. Jansen et al (1990)
reported procedure to estimate the vapour pressure.
Allen et al. (1998) reported three models for estimating
vapour pressure from temperature and relative
humidity.

Chuck and Sparrow (1987) investigated experimentally
the evaporation characteristics of a rectangular pan with
water at the bottom panel of the duct and turbulent air
was passed through the duct and over the surface of the
water. The thermal conditions of the air and water and
evaporation rate were measured. The height of water in
the pan was varied and two pan lengths of 12.5 and
27.9 cm were used. Adams et al. (1990) studied the
evaporation from heated water bodies. The discharge
coming out of the nuclear plant was taken for study
where the temperature of water was approximately 70
0
C. Theoretical analysis had been used to examine
various evaporation regimes and found that at heated
ponds as wind speed increases, the thermal loading
decreases. Pauken et al. (1999, 1995 and 1993)
performed experiments by evaporating heated water
from a circular pan in a low speed wind tunnel. The
evaporation boundary layer that resulted was a
combined turbulent forced and turbulent free
convection boundary layer, where the forced
convection was dominated by the air velocity and the
free convection was a result of the density difference
between the air at the surface of the water and the
ambient air. It was found that 30% of the evaporation
rate was due to free convection and only 10% by forced
convection and the rest was by combined free and force
convection.
With the above background, the following objectives
are set for the present study.
1. To perform controlled chamber experiments in
which radiation and wind velocity are kept
constant.
2. To produce different variations of temperature and
relative humidity to look into variability of air
vapour pressure as it depends on temperature and
relative humidity of air as per FAO (Food and
Agriculture Organization) procedure.
3. To estimate air vapour pressure using different
approaches suggested by FAO and to use this in
developing several strategies for computing
mass transfer coefficient.
4. To evaluate the different strategies of mass
transfer coefficients computations in
estimation of evaporation for future states and
to rank them on the basis of their ability to
forecast future states.

DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
To achieve the above objectives, the experiments
were conducted in controlled programmable
chamber with base area equal to 7.5 m
2
. The
chamber is located at Arid Land research centre,
Tottori, Japan. The radiation and wind velocity
were kept constant throughout the experiments.
The average value of radiation and wind velocity
was 75.1 W m
-2
(the average light intensity was
50,000 lux) and 0.9 m s
-1
, respectively. The
chamber temperature (T) and relative humidity
(RH) have been programmed to follow four T/RH
patterns; namely: increasing T decreasing RH
(T/RH1), decreasing T increasing RH (T/RH2),
increasing T increasing RH (T/RH3), and
decreasing T decreasing RH (T/RH4) shown in fig
1. The maximum, average, and minimum
temperature was 30, 20, and 10C, respectively. On
the other hand the maximum, average, minimum
relative humidity was 75, 50, and 25%,
respectively. The starting temperature and humidity
at the four T/RH patterns was the average. The rate
of change in temperature and relative humidity was
2C h
-1
, and 5% h
-1
, respectively. Each pattern has
tack 24 hours to complete its cycle. To measure the
water evaporation, a steel evaporation pan with
19.8 cm diameter was placed on electronic scale
(Sartorius LP-2200P, Goettingen, Germany) with
0.01 g accuracy. The scale was programmed to
transfer the weight data every 10 minute to a
personal computer shown in fig 2. The air
temperature and relative humidity was also
measured in 10 minute time interval using thermo
recorder sensor (RS-12, ESPEC MIC Corp., Osaka,
Japan). The radiation flux density in the chamber
was measured using pyranometer in W m
-2
(PYR,
Decagon Devices, Washington, USA). The
pyranometer was fixed on the chamber floor and
connected to a data logger (Em50, Decagon
Devices, Washington. USA).

Fig 1 Temperature and humidity patterns applied to
the chamber


Fig 2 Computer-controlled chamber (a) general view of
the chamber and (b) experimental setup

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The mass transfer coefficient depends on the vapour
pressure difference (P
v
) between the air and surface of
water, evaporation rate (m
e
) and is also a function of
wind velocity f (u). The evaporation rate (m
e
) is directly
proportional to pressure difference of vapour, i.e.
.
( ) e
v
m P
(1)
Invoking dependence of mass transfer coefficient on
wind velocity through a function f (u), one can also
express eq. (1) as
.
( )( ) e
v
m Kf u P
(2)
where, K is the proportionality constant and is denoted
as mass transfer coefficient. Therefore,
.
( )
e
v
m
K
f u P
(3)
In equation (3) m
e
is taken as the evaporation rate in
g/m
2
hr, u as velocity in m/sec and (P
v
) is the pressure
difference of vapour in kPa, expressed as
( )
v s a
P P P
(4)
where, P
s
the vapour pressure at the surface of water
and P
a
is the vapour pressure of air. P
s
can be computed
using steam tables or approximate relationships .One
such relationship (Subramanya 2007) is
17.27
( ) 4.584exp( )
237.3
s sat s
T
P P T
T

(5)
where, T is the temperature in degree C
To estimate P
a
, FAO recommends three approaches.
According to first approach
max min
[ ( ) ( )] / 2
a mean s s
P RH P T P T
(6)
According to second approach
min (max) max (min)
[ ( ) ( ) )] / 2
a s s
P P T RH P T RH
(7)
According to third approach
max
min
( )
100
a s
RH
P P T
(8)
In eq. (6) T
min
is minimum temperature, T
max
is
maximum temperature and RH
mean
is the average
relative humidity which is computed as
max min
( ) / 2
mean
RH RH RH (9)
where, RH
min
is minimum relative humidity and
RH
max
is maximum relative humidity
Based on use of eqs (6), (7) and (8) for computing
P
a
, seven strategies are considered to calculate the
value of mass transfer coefficient K in eq. (2).
These strategies are listed below:
Strategy 1
P
s

(transient)
and P
a

(transient)

In strategy (1), P
s
and P
a
are taken transient at any
given time corresponding to measured temperature
and relative humidity.
Strategy 2
P
s

(transient)
and P
a

(constant)

In strategy (2), P
a
is computed from eq. (7)
Strategy 3
P
s (average)
and P
a (constant)

In strategy (3), P
s
is obtained by considering all the
values of P
s
in a given time period (one day) and P
a

is computed from eq. (7)
Strategy 4
P
s

(average)
and P
a (average)
In strategy (4), P
s
and P
a
are obtained considering
all the value of P
s
and P
a
in a given time period.
Strategy 5
In strategy (5), average value of P
s
and P
a
are used.
P
s (average)
is computed as
P
s (average)
= (P
s (max)
+ P
s (min)
)/2 (10)
and P
a (average)
= RH
(average)
*P
s (average)

(11)
where, RH
(average)
is computed as (RH
max
+
RH
min
)/2 (12)
Strategy 6
P
a
= P
s (Tmin)
RH
max,
and P
s (transient)
is taken similar to strategy 1.
Strategy 7
P
a
= P
s (Tmin)
RH
max
and P
s (Average)

ANALYSIS OF EVAPORATION DATA
Under different variations of temperature and
relative humidity, evaporation in the pan showed
the following variation, as given in the fig.3. As per
the strategy (1), P
s
and P
a
are considered as
transient at any given time. Using eq. (5), P
s
can be
computed as a function of time. Similarly,
multiplying P
s
at any time with the corresponding
relative humidity, P
a
can be obtained as a function
of time. For example, corresponding to data of
temperature and relative humidity, the variation of
P
s
and P
a
with time is shown for day one in fig 4
and 5. The values of evaporation rate is shown in
fig.3 and from the eq.(2) , the mass transfer
coefficient is computed and is shown in fig. 6. Fig.


6 can be also used to compute average values of mass
transfer coefficient for day one.

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time (hr)
E
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
io
n
r
a
t
e
(
g
/m
2
h
r
)

Fig.3 Variation of evaporation rate with time

0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (hr)
P
s
(
k
P
a
)

Fig.4 Variation of P
s
with time

0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (hr)
P
a
(
k
P
a
)

Fig.5 Variation of P
a
with time

Using the data of fig.3, mass transfer coefficient is
computed using different strategies and the variation of
the same is shown in the fig. 6

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fig.3 shows the transient variation of evaporation rate.
It can be seen that between 0 hrs to 10 hrs, evaporation
rate increases sharply while variation is small from 11
hrs to 24 hrs. It shows the evaporation rate in an
interval of 10 minutes during the experimental period.
From the analysis of evaporation data, the variation
between the mass transfer coefficients are obtained
using different strategies and all these is shown in fig.
6. To study the impact of using these mass transfer
coefficients evaporation has been estimated for day 2,
3, 4 and 5 of controlled experiments. Day one is used to
calibrate mass coefficient and this calibrated mass
transfer coefficient is used to compute evaporation for
other days. The objective of this is to identify the best
performing strategies.
Figs. 7 to 10 show the computed evaporation using
different strategies along with observed evaporation for
day two to five. From comparison of performance of
different strategies in fig. 7 to 10, it can be seen that the
strategy (4) gives the best agreement between
computed and observed evaporation for all the
days. In real life, it is very difficult to have
continuous monitoring of temperature and RH; thus
use of strategy (4) may not be always feasible.
Thus, to screen out the next best performing
strategy, fig. 7 to 10 favour the use of strategy (5).
It can be seen that the strategies considered in this
work can be classified into three categories as per
the data availability. Strategy (1) and (2) pertain to
the category when the data availability is not a
concern and transient variation of temperature and
RH are available. However in many situations,
such type of data availability lacks. In view of this,
one can think of using FAO procedure in which the
data availability is restricted to T
min
(minimum
temperature), T
max
(maximum temperature) , RH
min

(minimum relative humidity), RH
max
(maximum
relative humidity) and evaporation in a given time
period (typically one day). Strategies 5, 6 and 7 fall
into this category. The FAO approach also suggests
computing P
a
using when the data on RH
min
is not
available, as in strategy (7)

It is interesting to see that strategies 3, 4 and 5
produced lower estimates of evaporation than the
observed one. On the contrary, strategies 1, 2, 6
and 7 yield higher estimates of evaporation than the
observed one.

In this work, the considered strategies have a
potential of being used in different situations of
data availability. The experimental data in
controlled chamber experiment has offered
simultaneous evaluation of these strategies which
otherwise would have been very difficult to
achieve. From the analysis of data, it is apparent
that there is no substitute for the lack of precise
data base on temperature, RH and evaporation.
However, under data limited conditions, the
strategies 5 to 7 offer better potential for
application, as per the analysis of present
experiments. Further details on these strategies are
available in Ojha et al. (2011 b).

0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time (hr)
K
K (Strategy 1)
K (Strategy 2)
K (Strategy 3)
K (Strategy 4)
K (Strategy 5)
K (Strategy 6)
K (Strategy 7)

Fig 6 Variation of constant K with different
approaches


0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strategies
E
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e
(
g
/
m
2

h
r
)
Observed
Computed

Fig. 7 Comparison of observed and computed
evaporation rate for second day

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strategies
E
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

(
g
/
m
2

h
r
)
Observed
Computed

evaporation rate for third day

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strategies
E
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

(
g
/
m
2

h
r
)
Observed
Computed

evaporation rate for fourth day

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strategies
E
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

(
g
/
m
2

h
r
)
Observed
Computed

evaporation rate for fifth day

CONCLUSIONS
1. Mass transfer approach has the potential of
being used as an estimator of evaporation.
2. There can be a large number of strategies to
evaluate mass transfer coefficients and these
strategies vary depending on the availability of
data. In this work, the use of seven strategies is
demonstrated to estimate K.
3. Strategies are found to fall into two categories
in terms of their underestimation or
overestimation of evaporation. Strategies give
the similar performance for all the days of
forecasts.
4. Strategy based on average saturation vapor
pressure and average air vapor pressure, where
average is based on the consideration of
complete data in calibration range, is found to
outperform other strategies.

NOMENCLATURE

ACRONYMS
RH Relative humidity
ENGLISH SYMBOL
A
s
area of evaporating surface (m
2
)
cm centimetre
D
h
hydraulic diameter of pan (m)
D Pan diameter (m)
g Acceleration due to gravity (m/sec
2
)
K mass transfer coefficient
m metre
.
m
mass flow rate of air (kg/sec)
.
e m
mass flow rate of water vapour from pan
(kg/sec)
s
P

partial pressure of water vapour at the
surface of water
sat
P
saturated water vapour pressure (Pa)
a
P

vapour pressure of air
P
pressure (Pa)
T temperaure (K)
u velocity of air (m/sec)

GREEK SYMBOLS
dynamic viscosity (Ns/m
2
)
kinematic viscosity (m
2
/sec)

SUBSCRIPTS
a air
Avg average
min minimum
max maximum
s saturation
v water vapour


REFERENCE
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Evaporation from heated water bodies: Predicting
combined forced plus free convection. Water
Resour. Res., 26: 425-435 .
Allen R G, Pareira L S, Raes D, & Smith, M. 1998,
Crop evapotranspiration: guidelines for computing
crop water requirements. Irrigation and Drainage
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Chuck W & Sparrow E M.1987, Evaporative mass
transfer in turbulent forced convection duct flows.
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer.
30: 215-222.
Dingman S l. 1994, Evapotranspiration. Physics
Hydrology. McMillan Pub. Co., New York, 256-
265.
Gianniou S K and Antopoulos V Z.2007, Evaporation
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Incropera F P & DeWitt D P 2002, Fundamentals of
Heat and Mass Transfer. Fifth ed., John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 465-531.
Jensen M E, Burman R D and Allen R G. 1990,
Evapotranspiration and irrigation water
requirements. ASCE manuals and reports on
engineering practice No. 70, ASCE, New York.
Ojha C. S. P., Khobragade S. D. and Adeloye A. J.
2011a, Estimating air vapour pressure in a semi-
arid region using FAO-56. Journal of Irrigation
and Drainage Engineering. ASCE.
Ojha C. S. P., Yasuda H., Rao S., Abd Elbasit M. A. M.
and Kumar M. 2011b, Evaporation in relation to
CO
2
concentration: Analysis of mass transfer
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of combined turbulent free and forced evaporation.
Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 18: 334-
340.
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1995, An experimental investigation of water
evaporation into low-velocity air currents.
ASHRAE Trans 101: 90-96.
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method for measuring water evaporation into still
air. ASHRAE Trans. 99: 297-300.
Singh V P and Xu C Y.1997, Sensitivity of mass
transfer based evaporation equations to errors in
daily and monthly input data. Hydrological
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Subramanya K. 2007, Engineering Hydrology. Tata
McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 74.
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precipitation. An Introduction to Climate, 5
th

edition, McGraw Hills Book Co., New York., 41-
53.
Winter T C. 1981, Uncertainties in estimating the
water balance of lakes. Water Res. Bul. 17: 82-
112.
Yoder R E, Odhiambo L O and Wright W C. 2005
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ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7
A SMOOTH DMS-FEM FORMULATION FOR MINDLIN PLATE
BENDING PROBLEMS

S. Narayan
Computational Mechanics Lab, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science Bangalore, India
D. Roy

Corresponding Author,

Computational Mechanics Lab, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore, India, Email: royd@civil.iisc.ernet.in
R. M. Vasu

Department of Instrumentation and Applied Physics, Indian Institute of Science Bangalore, India

ABSTRACT: The main purpose of this article is to introduce a strictly higher order continuous and
polynomial reproducing functional approximation within an FE-like domain discretization for the numerical
solution of Mindlin plate bending problems. While the classical C
0
shape functions, typically used with the
FEM, is known to suffice to tackle the weak form corresponding to such problems, it is demonstrated through
several numerical illustrations that the higher order inter-element continuity, possessed by the presently adopted
approximation scheme (referred to as the DMS-FEM), indeed plays a remarkably significant role in improving
the numerical accuracy, convergence characteristics and locking-resistant nature of the computed response.

INTRODUCTION
Plate bending constitutes an important class of
problems in engineering applications of solid
mechanics. Of the two well known plate theories,
Kirchhoff plate and MindlinReissner, the former has
seen wide applications to solve bending of thin plates
with negligible shear deformation. A major
complication in the finite element (FE) implementation
of this theory is the requirement of uniformly C
1

continuity of shape functions for approximating the
displacement field. Using deflection (w) and rotation
() as independent field variables, however, partly
eases the requirement of C
1
continuity and this has led
to development of the discrete Kirchhoff triangle
(DKT) element. Here, the condition of zero transverse
shear strain is satisfied at some discrete points in the
element along the edges. The basic idea is to compute
the shear strains not directly from the derivatives of the
displacements but at a few discrete collocation points
using the displacements alone. This allows for a
continuous representation through their interpolation
over the element(s) via appropriate shape functions.
Fig. 1 TUBA 6 and TUBA 15 elements

Efforts at enforcing C
1
continuity of shape function
across inter element boundary have been made by
taking higher order derivatives of displacement field as
degrees of freedom (DOF-s). The TUBA family of
plate elements (Argyris et al.1968) is an example of
such elements. These elements are based on complete
polynomial displacement functions of order n 5.

Total DOF-s required for complete polynomial
function of order n is
1
2
(n+1)(n+2). Fig. 1 shows
nodes and corresponding DOF-s for TUBA-6 (n =
5) and TUBA-15 (n = 7) elements. A problem with
the TUBA family is the use of normal vectors to
define the DOF-s, especially given that a vector to
be normal to a surface is not preserved by an affine
transformation. Thus a triangle described in natural
co-ordinate is not affine equivalent to one in
Cartesian co-ordinate. Bell (1969) has proposed a
modified TUBA element by expressing the normal
derivative at each mid-point as a linear
combination of first and second derivatives of the
function at the corresponding end points.

Mindlin-Reissner plate theory accounts for shear
deformation. An advantage of the Mindlin-Reissner
model over the biharmonic plate model is that the
energy involves only first derivatives of the
unknowns and so the so-called conforming FE
approximations require, in principle, only C
0
shape
functions instead of their C
1
counterparts necessary
for the biharmonic model. However Mindlin-
Reissner plate elements exhibit shear locking as the
thickness of the plate approaches zero. Shear
locking is characterized by the numerically
generated incorrect transverse forces under
bending. Early methods have tried to overcome
shear locking by reduced integration or a selective
reduced integration. The idea has been to split the
strain energy into two parts, one due to bending
and the other due to shear, and use different
integration rules for the terms involving bending
and shear strains. Hughes (1982) has developed a
linear triangle (i.e. a 3-noded triangle using linear
shape functions) element using the so-called one
point centroidal quadrature for integration.
Quadratic triangular elements have also been


explored to overcome this problem. Sze et al. (1997)
have developed T6/3
*
changing the quadrature rule for
integration over original T6/3(Sze et al. 1997).
Zhongnian (1992) has reported a 3-noded triangular
element with 3 basic DOF-s per node and 2 internal
rotational DOF-s (11 DOF-s) using selective reduced
integration on the shear energy term. Reduced
integration results in zero-energy modes and instability
due to rank deficiency. The enhanced assumed strain
(EAS) method can be used to avoid locking
phenomena as well (Simo and Rifai 1990). Sze et al.
(1997) have developed an AST-6 element by
optimizing sampled strains of T6/3
*
. The element
T6/3-B3 (Zienkiewicz and Lefebvre 1988) has 3
bubble heterosis nodes as rotational DOF-s and 6
boundary nodes. TRI-6 is an assumed strain quadratic
element that does not have a bubble node. MITC7
(Bathe et al. 1989) is another quadratic triangular
strain element having a bubble heterosis node. Wang et
al. (2004) have traced shear locking in Mindlin-
Reissner plate formulations to the inability of the
approximation functions to reproduce the Kirchhoff
mode, and to the inability of the numerical method to
achieve pure bending exactness (BE) in the Galerkin
approximation. In their study, the Kirchhoff mode
reproducing condition (KMRC) is ensured for
Mindlin-Reissner plates. The approximation functions
for displacements and rotations are constructed to meet
the KMRC. They have derived integration constraints
for achieving BE and proposed a curvature smoothing
method (CSM) to meet the bending integration
constraints.

Mesh-free methods developed more recently allow
adequate flexibility in customizing the approximation
functions for the desired smoothness. In mesh-free
methods with stabilized conforming nodal integration
(SCNI) (Chen et al. 2001), the domain is discretized
into cells that in a sense define the field of nodes (such
as the cells of a Voronoi diagram). Integration is
performed along the edges of each cell. Although
mesh-free methods such as the element-free Galerkin
(EFG) obtain good accuracy and high convergence
rates, the non-polynomial approximation space
increases the computational overhead while evaluating
the shape functions and the weak forms. Recently, the
so called smoothed finite element method (SFEM), an
interface of the SCNI with the FEM, has been applied
to two dimensional elasticity problems (Liu et al.
2007). It is shown that the SFEM is stable, accurate
and effective.

Other recent attempts at establishing such handshake
strategies that combine the FEM and mesh-free
methods include the NURBS-based smooth parametric
methods (Shaw and Roy 2008, Shaw et al. 2008) and a
smooth FEM based on triangular B-splines or DMS-
splines (Sunilkumar and Roy 2010a, 2010b;
Sunilkumar et al. 2011). The latter class of methods
(DMS-FEM), which typically use triangulation or
tetrahedralization for domain discretization (as in a
class of mesh-free methods) whilst adopting
polynomial reproduction for deriving the shape
functions (as in the FEM), have been shown to
possess superior convergence and locking-resistant
characteristics vis--vis the FEM for a fairly
general class of linear and nonlinear elasticity
problems. The aim of this work is to extend the
DMS-FEM for Mindlin plate bending problems
and assess its performance for different orders of
polynomial reproduction. DMS-Splines (DMS
being an acronym for Dahmen, Micchelli and
Seidel, authors who introduced the spline; Dahmen
et al. 1992) are essentially weighted sums of
simplex splines over triangles. DMS-Splines of
order n are C
n-1
continuous across the inter-
triangular boundaries. In developing the plate
bending element, no numerical artifices, typically
employed in the FE literature, have been used.
Numerical results are compared with those via
AST-6 and MITC7, two prominently used plate
bending elements allowing for shear deformation.
The resulting element, which is practically free
from thickness locking and spurious zero energy
modes, also shows conspicuously better accuracy
than its FE counterparts.

DMS-FEM Shape Functions
DMS-splines are weighted sums of simplex splines,
which are a multivariate generalization of the well-
known univariate B-splines. A degree n simplex
spline consists of a family of smooth, degree n
piecewise polynomial functions each defined over
a set of
dim
1 n N + + points, an element
dim
N
e x R
of which is called a knot and the set of
knots, the knotset. Here
dim
N denotes the domain
dimension (presently we have
dim
2 N = ). Simplex
splines have
1 n
C

continuity if no three knots are
collinear in the knotset. The domain of DMS-
splines is a proper triangulation. A degree n DMS-
spline basis function at a point
2
x eR
is defined
over the control points
I
c
|
and is given by
( )
( )
det | V
I
I
M x V |
|
,
where a
( )
| V
I
M x
|
is simplex splines of degree n
and
I
V| , a triangle consisting of the end knots of
the knotclouds of the three vertices of the triangle I,
corresponding to a control point
I
c
|
, i.e.
{ }
, ,
0 1 2
0 1 2
I
I I I
V v v v |
| | |
= . The number of control
points is equal to
( 1)( 2)
2
n n + +
in
2
R .


Depending on the knot length which is typically a
small fraction of the smallest triangular side, a DMS-
spline is nearly supported over a triangle (more
precisely, it is supported over the polygon formed by
connecting the knots located close to the vertices of the
triangle). Every DMS-spline is constructed
corresponding to a nodal point x in the triangle to the
half-open convex hull of which x belongs. In general,
DMS-splines satisfy the partition of unity and their
derivatives (including the splines themselves) are
globally smooth. Nevertheless, it has been
conclusively demonstrated (Sunilkumar and Roy
2010a) that functional approximations directly based
on these splines could be inaccurate owing to their
sensitive dependence on the knot locations. Such
sensitivity is largely overcome by introducing a
polynomial reproduction strategy while constructing
the shape functions, with DMS-splines acting as
kernels in the integral functional representation.
Specifically, let the shape functions be required to
reproduce a complete set of polynomials up to
degree p n s . Now, the approximant ( ) , u x y
o
for a
target function ( ) , u x y in a bounded domain is
given in the standard form:
1
( , ) ( , )
N
nd
i i
i
u x y x y u
o
=
=

(1)
where
nd
N represents the number of nodes in ,
( ) ,
i i i
u u x y = is the function value at particle i and
( ) ,
i
x y are the globally smooth shape functions
given by:
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
T
i i i i i
x y x x y y x y x x y y | = H b

(2)
( ) ,
T
x y H is a set of monomials defined as
{ }
| | p
x y
o |
o | + s
, ( , ) x y b are coefficient functions
determined below and ( ) ,
i i
x x y y | is the DMS-
spline based at ( ) ,
i i
x y acting as the kernel function.
The coefficients ( , ) x y b are obtained based on the
following reproduction conditions:
1
( , ) 1
nd
N
i
i
x y
=
=

(3)
1
( , )( )
N
nd
i i i
i
x y x y x y
o | o |
=
=
| | p o | + s

(4)
Fr om Eq. 4
( ) ( )
( ) | || |,0
1
( , )
N
nd
i i i
i
x y x x y y
o |
o |
o
=
=
| | p o | + s
(5)

From Eqs. 2 and 5
1
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
N
nd
T
i i i i i i
i
x x y y x y x x y y x x y y |
=

H b H

(0) = H
(6)
Eq. 6 can be written as ( , ) ( , ) (0) x y x y = M b H
where,
( , ) x y = M
1
( , ) ( , ) ( , )
nd
N
T
i i i i i i
i
x x y y x x y y x x y y |
=

H H
is
the moment matrix and the coefficient vector is
thus given by:

The global shape function in 2D is finally given by:
( , )
i
x y =

1
( , ) ( , ) (0) ( , )
T
i i i i
x x y y x y x x y y |
M H H

(5)

MINDILIN PLATE
Consistent with the basic postulates of the
Reissner-Mindlin plate theory, one describes the
displacement fields, in-plane ( ) u,v and
transverse ( ) w , purely through rotations ( , )
x y
u u ,
and the transverse displacement of the mid-layer as
(Fig. 2):
( , ); ( , ); ( , )
x y
u z x y v z x y w w x y u u = = = (6)

Fi g. 2 Ki nemat i cs of M i ndl i n pl at e def or mat i on

Strains on planes parallel to the middle layer are
thus given by:
; ;
y y x x
x y xy
z z z
x y y x
u u
u u
c c
c c ( c c
= = = +
(
c c c c

(7)

and those in the transverse direction are obtained
as:
;
xz x yz y
w w
x y
u u
( c c (
= + = +
(
(
c c

(8)
For isotropic, homogeneous materials, bending
moment resultants are thus derivable as:
DL M u =

(9)
Where
x y xy
M , M , M
T
( =

M ; ,
T
x y
u u ( =

;
3
2
1 0
1 0
12(1 )
1
0 0
2
Et
v
v
v
v
(
(
(
=
(
(

D
;
0
0
x
y
y x
(
c
(
c
(
( c
=
(
c
(
( c c
(
c c

L
.
Here E and v are Youngs modulus and Poissons
ratio, t the plate thickness. Accounting for similar
material constitution, the transverse shear force
resultants are given by:


| | w o = + V S ; Gt o k = . (10)
Here G is the shear modulus of the material and k the
shear correction factor (value of k is presently taken
to be 5 6). From the moment-shear and linear
momentum balance we get:
0 o V =
T
L DL + ( ) w+

(11)
| | ( ) 0
T
w o V V + + = q (12)
subject to appropriate prescriptions of boundary
conditions. This is an irreducible system corresponding
to minimization of total potential energy.
1
( , )
2
T
w d u u u
O
H = O
}
(L ) D(L )

( ) ( )
T
w w d u o u
O
+ V V O
}
(13)

bt
wqd
O
O+ H
}
(15)

DISCRETIZATION AND NUMERICAL
IMPLEMENTATION
Proper domain triangulation is presently ensured by
Delaunay triangulation. Number of control points
( )
n
p in
3
R

required for a triangle corresponding to
order n DMS-spline is
( 1)( 2)
2
n n + +
. Their
locations define where the control points influence
more. Projections of control points coincide with the
nodes of
n
p noded Lagrange triangle. Consistent with
the mesh-free literature, projections of control points
on triangles may be called particles. Their functionality
is the same as that of nodes in the FEM. For order 2
DMS-splines, the total number of particles required is
6 and for order 3 it is 10. Particles and knots for DMS-
spline of order 3 are shown in Fig. 3.
The field variables are interpolated as
1
1 3 3
.
. . . .
.
n
n
e
x p e
y
ep
w
o
u
u
o

( = =
` `

)

)
I I N
(14)
where, I
3
is third order identity matrix, and
T
ei i xi yi
w u u ( =

is the vector of kinematic
degree of freedoms at the i
th
node.
Substituting Eq. 16 in Eq.9 and Eq.10 we get
x
xz
x b e s e
yz
xy
z
c

= =
` `
)
)
B B
(15)

(a) DM S or der 3

(b) DM S or der 2
Fig. 3 Control points and knotcloud

Thus taking variation in Eq. (15) and substituting
Eq. 17, we obtain discretized form as:
3
12
T T
b b s s e
t
d d o
O O
| |
O+ O
|
\ .
} }
B DB B B
T T
d d
O I
= O+ I
} }
N N q S (16)
where q is applied load vector and S the applied
traction vector fields. This can be written as:
e
= K f (17)
where K is the stiffness matrix given by:
3
12
T T
b b s s
t
d d o
O O
O+ O
} }
K = B DB B B (18)
In this formulation K is integrated using seven
point gauss quadrature rule. Given the non-
polynomial rational nature of the DMS-FEM shape
functions, use of such larger number of quadrature
points is only expected and an optimal number of
such points must be found a-priori through some
numerical experiments.

NUMERICAL RESULTS
In the first example, a clamped square plate of side
L and with varying L to t ratio is subjected to a
central point load. Given the symmetry, only a
quadrant of the plate is modeled by 8 elements, see
Fig. 4. The central deflections, normalization by
thin plate solution (Timoshenko 1959) as predicted
by the DMS-FEM and compared with the AST-6
element for varying length to thickness ratio, are
presented in Table 1. The solutions via the DMS-
FEM ( ) 3 n = not only show higher numerical
accuracy (in terms of their closeness to the solution
corresponding to the thin plate limit), but also
exhibit significantly reduced deterioration as L/t
increases.

Fi g. 4 Tr i angul at i on of a Quadr ant of squar e


Table 1 Normalized central deflection of clamped
square plate subjected to central point load
L/t ratio AST-6 DMS-FEM
(n=3)
10
2
0.872 0.961
10
3
0.712 0.923
10
4
0.707 0.913
10
5
0.707 0.913

For the second set of examples, again consider a
square plate of 1000 L t = . As before, only a
quadrant is meshed using Delaunay triangulation (Fig.
3). In the first case, the plate is assumed to be
subjected to a central point load and, in the second,
uniform pressure. Both simply supported ( ) w=0 and
fully clamped boundary
conditions
( )
x y
w=0; =0; =0 are considered.
For numerical work with the DMS-FEM, we have used
shape functions corresponding to both 2 n = and
3 n = . The predicted deflections at the centre,
normalized with respect to the thin plate limit as
before, are listed in Tables 2 and 3. While the DMS-
FEM( ) 2 n = shows a slightly poorer performance
via-a-vis the MITC7 or AST-6 elements (Fig. 5),
results via DMS-FEM( ) 3 n = shows significantly
improved accuracy in comparison with both of these
elements (Fig. 6).

For the third and final example, we adopt Morleys
skew plate model, i.e. a skew rhombic plate with skew
angle 30
, all sides simply supported and subjected

uniform pressure. The same is analyzed using DMS-
FEM( ) 3 n = . Central deflections, as normalized by
thin plate series solution of Morley (1963) and
compared with the solutions based on the AST-6
element, are shown in Fig. 7. DMS-FEM clearly
outperforms the AST-6 scheme once again.

Fig. 5 Simply supported square plate with a central
point load

Fig. 6 Simply supported square plate with
uniformly distributed loaded

Table 2 Deflection of a square plate
( 1000 L t = ) via DMS-FEM( ) 3 n =
no of
elements
simply supported Fully clamped
udl point
load
udl point
load
18 1.0000423 0.979437 0.923741 0.916524
36 1.0004906 0.988949 0.985732 0.970960
62 1.0006939 0.998245 0.996485 0.994884
106 1.0004430 0.996421 0.998643 0.993420
236 1.0004265 1.000017 0.999874 1.001465
Table 3 Deflection of a square plate ( 1000 L t = )
via DMS-FEM( ) 2 n =
no of
elements
simply supported Fully clamped
udl point load udl point
load
26 0.966640 0.915473 0.222531 0.24941
36 0.968799 0.918116 0.384413 0.40163
62 0.985270 0.960369 0.664072 0.71643
106 0.994097 0.974748 0.873208 0.88119
236 0.997920 0.990156 0.967651 0.96645

Fig. 7 Morleys skew plate

CONCLUDING REMARKS
The smooth DMS-FEM, which enables C
1
or still
higher order continuity uniformly over a bounded
geometrical domain of interest, is extended and
explored for Mindlin plate bending problems.
While the domain discretization is via
triangulation, bearing close similarity with the one


employed within the standard FE framework, the
generation of the polynomial reproducing smooth
shape functions requires the additional usage of knots,
whose placement must satisfy a non-collinearity
constraint, marks a departure from the usual FE mesh.
While computing the DMS-FEM shape functions
(typically needed at the quadrature points) is
computationally involved, the extra numerical work is
amply compensated through a significant improvement
in convergence and accuracy of solutions via-a-vis
those via some of the best known finite elements, e.g.
AST6 or MIT7 for Mindlin plates. As evidenced
through the presented numerical work, this
distinguishing feature of the DMS-FEM is more
pronounced as the thin plate limit is approached. Work
is currently under way to extend to method to
nonlinear plates and shells, including formulations
involving finite rotations and geometrically exact
kinematics.

REFERENCES
Batoz, J.L., Bathe, K.J. & Ho, L.-W.( 1980) A study
of three-node triangular plate bending elements
International Journal for Numerical Methods in
Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, , 15(12),
1771-1812
Lee, S. W. & Zhang, J. C. (1985) A six-node finite
element for plate bending
Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 21, 131-143
Papadopoulos, P. & Taylor, R. L. (1990) A triangular
element based on Reissner-Mindlin plate theory
Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 30(5),
1029-1049
Sze, K. Y., Zhu, D. & Chen, D.P. (1997), Quadratic
Triangular C
0
Plate Bending Element
Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 40(5), 937-
951
Zienkiewicz, O., Taylor, R., Papadopoulos, P. &
Oate, E. (1990) Plate bending elements with
discrete constraints: New triangular elements
Computers & Structures, 35(4), 505 - 522
Argyris, J. H., Fried, I. & Scharpf, D. W. (1968) The
TUBA family of plate elements for the matrix
displacement method Aeronautical Journal, 72,
701-709
Zhongnian, X. (1992) A thick-thin triangular plate
element International Journal for Numerical
Methods in Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd,
33(5), 963-973
Zienkiewicz, O. C. & Lefebvre, D. (1988) A robust
triangular plate bending element of the Reissner-
Mindlin type International Journal for
Numerical Methods in Engineering, John Wiley &
Sons, Ltd, 26(5), 1169-1184
Bathe, K. J., Brezzi, F. & Cho, S. W.(1989) The
MITC7 and MITC9 Plate bending elements
Computers & Structures, 32(3-4), 797 - 814
Wang, D. & Chen, J. S. (2004) Locking-free
stabilized conforming nodal integration for
meshfree Mindlin-Reissner plate formulation
Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering, 193(12-14), 1065 - 108
Nguyen-Xuan, H., Rabczuk, T., Bordas, S. &
Debongnie, J. (2008) A smoothed finite
element method for plate analysis Computer
Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering, 197(13-16), 1184 - 1203
Sunilkumar, N. & Roy, D. (2010) A Smooth
Finite Element Method Based on Reproducing
Kernel DMS-Splines CMES: Computer
Modeling in Engineering & Sciences, 65(2),
107-153
Morley, L.S.D. (1963) Skew Plates and
Structures, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Timoshenko, S. & Woinowsky-Krieger, S (1959)
Theory of Plates and Shells , McGraw-Hill,
New York
Zienkiewicz, O. C. & Taylor R. L. (2000) The
Finite Element Method volume 2: Solid
Mechanics Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

ENHANCING THE REACTIVITY OF FLY ASH FOR
GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS

P.V. Sivapullaiah
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012 Email: siva@civil.iisc.ernet.in

ABSTRACT: The use of abundantly available fly ash needs to be promoted to avoid disposal problems and
associated environmental hazards. Most bulk uses of fly ashes depend on its pozzolanic nature. Enhancing the
pozzolanic reactivity can enhance its use for bulk geotechnical and Geoenvironmental applications. The use of
gypsum, apart from lime, can decrease not only its lime leachabiity to sustain and enhance its pozzolanic
reactivity which inturn enhances its strength and volume change behaviour. This can also reduce its hydraulic
conductivity one of the main limitation for its application as barrier material for waste disposal facilities.
Amending gypsum to fly ash reduces the leachability of trace elements present in fly ash and improves the
retention capacity for different contaminants in leachates.

PRODUCTION OF FLY ASH
Current energy policies worldwide consider thermal
power generation as a major source of power for
industrial development. Fly ash generated from the
combustion of coal presently comprises about 900
million tons every year. With the commencing of
super power thermal power plants and the increasing
use of low grade coals with high ash contents, the
production of ash currently is about one thousand
million tons per annum in India alone.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN OF FLY ASHES
Management and disposal of such huge quantities of
fly ash are bound to create tremendous environmental
stress unless the utilization rate of fly ash is not
increased by a significant order of magnitude. It can
cause all the three environmental risks - air, surface
water and ground water pollution. Air pollution is
caused by direct emission of toxic gases from the
power plants as well as wind-blown ash dust from ash
mound/pond. The air-borne dust can fall on surface
water system or soil and may contaminate the
water/soil system. The wet system of disposal in most
power plants causes discharge of particulate ash
directly into the nearby surface water system. The
long storage of ash in ponds under wet condition and
humid climate can cause leaching of toxic metals
from ash and contaminate the underlying soil and
ultimately the groundwater system. As fly is fine and
light, it can easily spread by wind into the regions
leeward sides of the ash dumps. In these regions fly
ash will be everywhere on the beds, dining tables and
of course in human eyes, ears, and lunges.
The health hazards and environmental impacts
result from the mobilization of toxic elements from
ash. Presence of fly ash in lunges may cause serious
lung diseases like silicosis, fibroses, bronchitis,
pneumonitis, etc. Mobilization of various elements
from the ash into the environment depends on climate,
soils, indigenous vegetation and agricultural practices.
Bulk quantities of fly ash are usually stored wet
rather than dry so that fugitive dust is minimized. The
resulting impoundments (ponds) are to be typically
large and stable for long periods, but any breach of

their dams or bunding will be rapid and on a massive
scale. Some trace elements in coal are naturally
radioactive. These radioactive elements include
uranium (U), thorium (Th), and their numerous decay
products, including radium (Ra) and radon (Rn) etc.
However, the vast majority of coals and most of the
fly ashes are not significantly enriched in radioactive
elements, or in associated radioactivity.

TYPES OF ASH

Fly Ash
It consists of inorganic, incombustible matter present
in the coal that has been fused during combustion into
a glassy, amorphous structure. Fly ash material gets
solidified while suspended in the exhaust gases and is
collected in the electrostatic precipitators. The lighter
one, which goes up the chimney and gets collected
either in mechanical or electrostatic precipitators, is
known as fly ash. Some portion of fly ash escapes
along with hot gases through chimney. Since the
particles are solidified while suspended in the exhaust,
they are generally spherical in shape and range in
sizes from 0.5 micron to 100 micron. Fly ash is such a
complex material that its characterization in detail is
quite difficult. With the type of fly ash its physical,
chemical and engineering properties vary due to the
following factors.
Type of coal used: Fly ashes, produced from
burning anthracite or bituminous coals have
pozzolanic properties. Fly ashes produced from
lignitic or sub bituminous coals have
cementitious properties in addition to the
pozzolanic ones.
The treatment to which the coal has been
subjected prior to combustion.
The method of combustion.
Furnace temperature
Amount of air circulation
Collection and storage places adopted


Bottom Ash
Bottom ash refers to the non-combustible constituents
of coal with traces of combustibles embedded in
forming clinkers and sticking to the hot side walls of a
coal-burning furnace during its operation. The
clinkers fall by themselves into the water or
sometimes by manual poking, and get cooled.

Pond Ash
Fly ash and bottom ash are often sluiced into ponds
and lagoons. Such heterogeneous materials collected
in pond are referred to as pond ash. Bottom ash
accounts for nearly 20% and fly ash for 80% of the
total ash produced.
PROPERTIES OF FLY ASH
Ash properties may also vary within the same boiler
at various times in response to varying demands. The
chemical and mineralogical compositions and
physical and morphological properties of fly ashes are
summarized in the following sections.

Chemical Composition
The elemental composition of fly ash is highly
variable and is directly related to the source of coal,
its pretreatment and the operation of the plant while
burning the coal. Fly ash is an alumino silicate glass
consisting of the oxides of Si, Al, Fe and Ca with
minor amounts of Mg, Na, K, Zn and S and various
trace elements. The principal constituents of fly ashes
are silicon dioxide (SiO
2
), aluminum oxide (AI
2
O
3
),
iron oxide (Fe
2
O
3
), calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon
content. Ash also contains smaller amounts of MgO,
TiO
2
, Na
2
O and K
2
O; and very small quantities of
other 20 to 50 elements. The concentration associated
with the ash may be either adsorbed on the surface of
particle or incorporated into matrix (Natusch et al.,
1974). The range of chemical composition of Indian
coal ashes is reported in Table 1.

Table 1 Range of chemical composition of Indian
coal ashes
Compounds Fly Ash Pond Ash Bottom Ash
SiO
2
38-63 37.7-75.1 23-73
Al
2
O
3
27-44 11.7-53.3 13-26.7
TiO
2
0.4-1.8 0.2-1.4 0.2-1.8
Fe
2
O
3
3.3-6.4 3.5-34.6 4-10.9
MnO 0-0.5 bd-0.6 bd-0.3
MgO 0.01-0.5 0.1-0.8 0.1-0.7
CaO 0.2-8 0.2-0.6 0.1-0.8
K
2
O 0.04-0.9 0.1-0.7 bd-0.56
Na
2
O 0.07-0.43 0.05-0.31 bd-0.3
LOI 0.2-3.4 0.01-20.9 0.61-51.6
bd: below detection; LOI: loss on ignition

Mineralogy
The mineralogy of fly ash depends to a great extent on
its chemical composition. The phases of minerals
which exist in fly ash are governed by the impurities
of original coals and combustion temperature
(Hubbard and Dhir, 1985). The mineralogy of fly ash
also depends on the combustion methods. The boiler
operating at high temperatures tends to have a large
amount of crystalline phase. Thus the dry bottom fly
ash has higher content of crystalline phase than that of
the wet bottom one. This also results in lower
pozzolanic activity of the dry bottom fly ash than that
of the wet bottom fly ash comparing at the same
particle size. Fly ash can be mineralogically divided
into three major categories.
1. Amorphous Glass
2. Mullite (3Al
2
O
3
.2SiO
2
) Quartz (SiO
2
) and
Magnetite Spinel (Includes magnetite (Fe
3
O
4
),
hematite (Fe
2
O
3
), ferrite, and -Fe
2
O
3
(El-Mogazi et
al., 1988; Liem et al., 1983). The range of
mineralogical composition and the glass content
found are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2 Mineralogical composition of fly ashes
Mineral Range, weight percent
Quartz 2-10
Mullite 5-15
Hematite 1-3
Magnetite 0.5-3
Glass content 50-90

Category two and three are crystalline phases.
They collectively account for 25 to 30% of
composition (Liem et al., 1983). Amorphous glass
material predominates in most of the fly ash samples
(Tazaki et al., 1989), and it gives fly ash its
pozzolanic properties. The finest fraction is the richest
in glass. The proportions of crystalline minerals -
quartz, mullite, magnesite and hematite in high
calcium (CaO > 15%) fly ashes are much smaller than
in low (CaO < 5%) or medium calcium (CaO, 5 -
15%) fly ashes.
Morphology
The morphology of a fly ash particle is defined as the
form or structure of the particle. Knowledge of
particle morphology can be quite helpful in predicting
the physical properties and leaching behavior of the
fly ashes.

Fig. 1 SEM Image of Fly Ash Particles
Fly ash particles are classified into eight different


morphological groups based on the microscopic
examination and chemical analysis.
Fly ash is made up of clear glass spheres and rounded
spongy glass particles. The clear glass spheres are
generally smaller than other particles. Some particles
have both small and large bubbles and range from
foam to cenospheres. Cenospheres are hollow spheres
filled with nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Opacity in
spheres is due to the presence of magnetite and
hematite. Fly ashes may also contain plerospheres
which are hallow spheres filled with smaller spheres
(Fig. 1).
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity values of fly ashes vary considerably
from 1.7 to 2.9 unlike soils. The variation in specific
gravity values arise due to the changes in boiler load,
firing conditions, differential settlement in lagoons in
lagoon ash, degree of pulverization of coal, design of
the furnace etc. Specific gravity of fly ash depends
considerably upon its iron content, which increases
the specific gravity and carbon content, which
decreases the specific gravity. Because of the
generally low values for the specific gravity of coal
ash compared to soils, ash fills tend to result in low
dry densities. The reduction in unit weight is of
advantage in the case of its use as a backfill material
for retaining walls since the pressure exerted on the
retaining structure as well as the foundation will be
less. The other areas of application include
embankments especially on weak foundation soils,
reclamation of low-lying areas, etc. The variation of
specific gravity of the coal ash is the result of a
combination of many factors such as gradation,
particle shape and chemical composition (Gray and
Lin, 1972). Coal ash comprises mostly of glassy
cenospheres and some solid spheres (Prashanth,
1998). The reason for a low specific gravity could
either be due to the presence of large number of
hollow cenospheres from which the entrapped air
cannot be removed, or the variation in the chemical
composition, in particular the iron content, or both.

Colour
Fly ash spans a colour range of light tan to grey to
black. Increased carbon content causes a darker grey -
black tone, while increased iron content imparts tan
colour to ash.
Particle Size Distribution
80 to 99% of fly ash sample by weight passes 74 m
screen size. Fly ash is generally fine grained and falls
within the silt range (2 m to 74 m). Fly ashes
disposed off by wet ash disposal system and deposited
near the discharge area, show more than 50% fine
sand range of particles. Fly ashes, which are deposited
away from the discharge unit show more than 50%
silt range particles. In pond ashes silt-size fraction
predominates with some sand-size fraction. The
bottom ashes are coarser particles consisting
predominantly of sand-size fraction with some silt-
size fraction. Based on the grain-size distribution, the
coal ashes can be classified as sandy silt to silty sand.
They are poorly graded with coefficients of curvatures
ranging between 0.61 and 3.70. The coefficient of
uniformity is in the range of 1.5914.0.

Fineness
ASTM C 618-08 (2008) uses the fineness for
specifying ash as Class F and C. It specifies that not
more than 34% of fly ash particles shall retain on 45
m sieve for class F and C fly ashes. However, more
information is given by particle size distribution
curve.

Surface Area
The surface area of particles is important because it
controls the total adsorption capacity to some extent.
The surface areas of fly ash particles generally vary
inversely with the particle size (i.e. the smaller the
particle, the larger the surface area). Particles over 74
m the shape deviates from the spherical one and
takes irregular sponge like shape which in turn
increases the surface area. The larger particle sizes are
usually carbonaceous which indicates they are likely
result of incomplete combustion.

Pozzolanic Reactivity
In almost all geotechnical applications pozzolanic
property of ashes plays an important role. It is the
main property of the agent, which differentiates it
from silt.
ASTM C 618-08 (2008a) has classified fly ash for use
as a mineral admixture in portland cement concrete as
Class F and Class C fly ashes. Class F fly ashes shall
be essentially pozzolanic fly ashes. Class C fly ashes
shall be essentially self pozzolanic fly ashes.
Pozzolanic reactivity is influenced by - particle size
distribution, fineness, particle morphologies,
mineralogical composition and chemical composition.
Based on pozzolanic property, fly ashes can be
classified as self pozzolanic, pozzolanic and non
pozzolanic. Self pozzolanic or self hardening fly ashes
are those which produce cementitious compounds and
thus harden with time in the presence of water,
without external addition of lime. Pozzolanic fly ashes
are those, which produce cementitious compounds on
the addition of lime. It is the lime content which
differentiates between self pozzolanic and pozzolanic
fly ashes. Non pozzolanic fly ashes do not produce
sufficient cementitious compounds even on addition
of lime (Sivapullaiah et al. 1995). Reactive fly ashes
are those, which react with lime to give significant
amount of strength. Non reactive fly ashes do not give
sufficient strength even on the addition of lime. Self
pozzolanic and pozzolanic fly ashes are reactive fly
ashes whereas non pozzolanic fly ashes are mere non
reactive fly ashes Sivapullaiah et al., 1998).
Particle size distribution plays an important role
in determining the activity of the fly ash. The particles


in the size range of about 5 to 30 m play a decisive
role in determining the activity of fly ash. Smooth
spheres of sizes ranging from 2 to 25 m are
considered to be more reactive. For low calcium fly
ashes, the reactivity is found to be directly
proportional to the number of particles smaller than
10 m, and inversely proportional to that greater than
45 m. However, sole evaluation of fraction passing
through a 45 m sieve does not by itself appear to be
fully appropriate. Particle size distribution alone may
not reflect the potential reactivity of a fly ash though
the finer the fly ash the higher is the pozzolanic
reactivity. Linear relationship exists between specific
surface area of fly ash and its pozzolanic reactivity.
But the relation is found to be linear only in a limited
range.
Fly ashes which contain mainly spherical particles,
ranging between 2 to 25 m and predominantly
smooth glassy surface without any deposition but with
only adherence, are highly reactive fly ashes. Fly
ashes which contain mainly spherical particles having
size of 2 to 35 m and surface deposition and some
sintering are considered to have moderate reactivity.
Fly ashes which contain mainly irregular shaped
particles (being relatively coarser) along with small
amount of spherical particles, are considered to have
poor reactivity. But the rough textured porous glass
spheres possess larger surface areas for reactivity than
smooth spheres and the particle size distribution alone
may not reflect the potential of reactivity of a fly ash.
The crystalline minerals - quartz, mullite, magnesite
and hematite present in fly ash are non reactive at
ordinary temperatures. The crystalline minerals like
CS, C
3
A, C
4
A
3
S etc. present in fly ash are highly
reactive. High calcium fly ashes generally contain
minerals like CS, C
3
A, C
4
A
3
S. The amount of SiO
2
or
SiO
2
+ Al
2
O
3
in fly ash influences the pozzolanic
activity for long periods of curing (Sivapullaiah et al.,
1998). Higher ultimate strengths are obtained when
the silica or silica plus alumina content is high. The
reactivity of a particular fly ash can be quite a
complex phenomenon that cannot be related to only
its SiO
2
+ Al
2
O
3
+ Fe
2
O
3
content and lime plays a
very important role (Sivapullaiah et al., 1998).
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF FLY ASHES
Among the various uses of fly ash, its bulk utilization
is possible only in geotechnical engineering
applications. The challenge for the scientific
community is to exploit these applications, as low
tech materials such as fly ashes help in solving large-
volume societal-environmental needs. The various
engineering properties that necessitate the
applicability of fly ashes in many civil engineering
applications in general and in geotechnical
applications in particular are: compaction
characteristics, shear strength, hydraulic conductivity
and compressibility characteristics.
A brief review of these properties is presented in the
following sections.

Compaction Characteristics
The density of coal ashes is an important parameter
since it controls the strength, compressibility and
permeability. In general, fly ashes show considerable
variation in compaction due to variation in the nature
of fly ash produced from the same power plant over
time (Yudhbir and Honjo, 1991; Winter and Clarke,
2002). The variation of dry density with moisture
content for fly ashes is less compared to that for a
well-graded soil, both having the same medium grain
size (Moulton, 1978). Relatively higher void ratios
tend to limit the buildup of pore pressures during
compaction, allowing the fly ashes to be compacted
over a larger range of water content (Toth et al.,
1988). The dry density values of fly ashes are
influenced by particle shape, particle distribution and
the low unit weight of solid particles (De Santayana
and Mazo, 1994). For fly ashes having a wide range
of specific gravities compaction curves expressed on a
volume basis, viz., volume of solids per unit volume
of compacted sample or porosity or void ratio and
volume of water per unit volume of solids, can better
serve to explain the compaction behavior (Prashanth,
1998). The dry densities in coal ashes are relatively
less sensitive to compaction water content compared
to soils, hence the field compaction can be carried out
at dry side of the optimum taking care of the dust
problem.

Shear Strength Characteristics
The shear strength of fly ash is affected by the density
and moisture content of the test sample, with
maximum shear strength exhibited at the optimum
moisture content (Lamb, 1978). Pozzolanic fly ash
has been observed to have a friction angle that is
usually in the range of 26 to 42. Most of the shear
strength is due to internal friction (Singh and Panda,
1996). For fly ash specimens complete loss of
cohesion occurs on full saturation whereas the angle
of shearing resistance remains unchanged (Indraratna
et al. 1991). However pozzolanic fly ashes improved
strength and do not loose strength due to saturation
after curing.

Hydraulic Conductivity Behavior
Hydraulic conductivity is an important parameter in
the design of liners to contain leachate migration,
dykes to predict the loss of water, embankments as
well as the stability of slopes and as a sub-base
material. The hydraulic conductivity of well-
compacted fly ash has been found to range from 10
-4

to 10
-6
cm/s, which is roughly equivalent to the
normal range of permeability of silty sand to silty clay
soils. The hydraulic conductivity of fly ash is affected
by its density or degree of compaction, its grain size
distribution, pozzolanic activity and its internal pore
structure (Rajasekhar, 1995; Pandian and
Balasubramonian, 1999).
Compressibility Characteristics


Compressibility characteristics of coal ash depend on
its initial density, degree of saturation, self-hardening
characteristics and pozzolanic activity. Consolidation
occurs more rapidly in compacted fly ash than in silty
clay soil because partially saturated fly ashes are less
compressible compared to fully saturated ones Fly ash
has a higher void ratio and greater permeability than
the soil. The age-hardening can reduce the time rate of
consolidation, as well as the magnitude of the
compressibility.

FLY ASH UTILIZATION
The beneficial applications of fly ashes based on their
favorable properties are:
Fly ash has been used as a fill material in
embankments, behind retaining walls and as a
reclamation material.
Fly ash is capable of adsorbing various compounds
present in leachates (Fly ash is used to stabilize
heavy metal contaminated soils (Due to its light
weight it is used for the production of light weight
aggregates,
It is used as sub-base material in road construction
It is used as a decolorizing agent for dye effluents.
It is used in the manufacture of clay flooring /
terracing.
It is used in the manufacture of sintered glass
ceramics.
Due to its pozzolanic nature, it has been used for
the partial replacement of cement in concrete; in
the manufacture of high strength and low drying
shrinkage concrete; in the manufacture of workable
and abrasion resistant concrete and chloride
resistant concrete
It is used in mitigation of acid mine drainage
caused by the reactive mine tailings.
It is used along with lime in stabilizing soil bocks
which are used in building construction.
It is used as an ameliorant in increasing the crop
productivity.

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
APPLICATIONS
About 65% of ash generated is used for geotechnical
applications. The uses are:
Fly Ash in Embankment and Sub-Base
To minimize the potential for environmental problems
with structural embankments, it is necessary to restrict
the rate of water permeation of fills. For this purpose
granular lift berm should b provided. The berm and
the top soil also prevents the erosion of fly ash due to
wind. Preventing ground water intrusion is equally
important. Capillary break layer should be provided. It
is also necessary to prevent shifting of fly ash into
coarse material with a filter cloth geo-textile.

Building Foundation using Fly Ash
To minimize deeper percolation, fly ash is used along
with an earthen or synthetic barrier.

Fly ash as Valley Fill
Fly ash can be used extensively with the use of geo-
textiles to allay environmental concern.

Fly ash in Dams
Fly ash can form the downstream shell of the dam
supporting an impervious core. Fly ash is protected by
filter and drainage layers to ensure dry condition. The
upstream shell is of a rock fill to provide stability
under rapid draw down condition. Fly ash occupies
almost 50% of the gross volume of the embankment.
Downstream slope of fly ash is protected by soil
cover.

Stabilisation of Soils
Fly ash has been extensively used for stabilization of
soils such as expansive soils. Pozzolanic fly ashes
cement soil particles and improve their strength
considerable. Generally the strength of soil increases
with fly ash content and curing period. While self
pozzolanic fly ash develops strength without lime
addition pozzolanic fly ashes improve the strength of
soil in presence of lime. Initial moulding water
content plays an important role.

Fly ash as Interposing Layer
CNS soil is used as interposing layer between
expansive soil and foundation to reduce the swelling
potential of the foundation soil. Recently attempts
have been made to use fly ash with minimum amount
of expansive soil as an interposing layer.

Stabilisation of Contaminated Soils
It is known that contamination of soils can alter the
engineering behaviour of soils to various extents
depending on the type of soil, concentration and
duration of interaction. It has been shown that an
increase in swelling and a decrease in compressibility
of both swelling and non swelling soils can occur due
to contamination with NaOH or acid sulphate. This
has been attributed to free energy changes due
mineralogical alterations due soil alkali/acid
interaction. Detailed studies have shown that fly ash is
very effective to reduce contaminant effects (Fig. 2,
Sivapullaiah and Hari, 2009).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (days)
%
S
w
e
l
l

-

H
/
H
*
1
0
0
BC soil + 2N NaOH
BC soil + 25%NFA + 2N NaOH
BC soil + 50%NFA + 2N NaOH
NFA + 2N NaOH

Fig. 2 Effect of Fly Ash on the alkali induced swell in
Soil


Fly ash as Landfill Liner
Fly ash because of some unburnt carbon posseses
sorption capacity. Fly ash is non swelling, non
shrinking and non compressible material
(Sivapullaiah and Lakshmikanth, 2004). The high
permeability of fly ash can reduced with addition of
low permeability soil. Fly ash with about 20% of
expansive soil can be used as landfill liner. Fly ash
bentonite mixture is stable in alkaline solutions.

FACTORS LIMITING THE USE OF FLY ASH
Fly ash can be either an industrial waste material and
an ecological nuisance, or a valuable raw material.
The various factors which limit the usage of fly ashes
in various civil engineering and geotechnical
applications are listed below:
The problem of leaching of trace elements from
fly ashes into nearby aquifers which in turn
contaminate the ground water. Hence, the use of
fly ash as landfill or road bed material is
considered as a serious ecological concern.
Most of the fly ashes generated in India often do
not meet the requirements for effective
performance in various geotechnical applications
as they are not self cementing even though they
are pozzolanic in nature. Hence, in order to
increase their pozzolanic activity certain
cementing agents are added to them. But often, it
is observed that the cementing agent itself is
prone to leaching making the stabilized matrix
vulnerable.
All the potential fly ash handling resources have
now reached their maximum level of utilization
viz., in cement industry as a pozzolanic
admixture, stockpiling near thermal power
stations etc. Hence, there is a need to explore the
other possible uses of fly ash.
The reuse of fly ash as an engineering material
primarily stems from its pozzolanic nature, spherical
shape, and relative uniformity.

ENHANCEMENT OF PROPERTIES OF FLY
ASH
The strength development in class F fly ashes occurs
significantly with the addition of lime.
2
( ) Ca OH is consumed by the pozzolanic reactions
resulting in the formation of various gel forms of
calcium silicates, aluminates and alumino silicates
which gradually crystallize with time. The hydroxide
derived calcium silicates contribute to the additional
strength of the stabilised fly ashes.
With curing,
2
( ) Ca OH is consumed by the
pozzolanic reactions resulting in the precipitation of
various calcium silicates, aluminates and
aluminosilicates. The addition of lime activates the
silica and alumina phases in the following manner:

2
2 2 2 2
. . Ca SiO H O x CaO ySiO z H O

Eq. 1
2
2 3 2 2 3 2
. . Ca Al O H O x CaO y Al O z H O

Eq. 2
2
2 3
2 2 3 2 2
2 3
. . .
Al O
Ca H O xCaO yAl O z SiO wH O
Si O

Eq. 3
The hydroxide derived calcium silicates
contribute to additional strength to the stabilised fly
ashes. The surfaces of nucleating fly ash particles
provide sites for
2
( ) Ca OH , C-S-H, and other
hydration products to precipitate, thereby leading to a
more homogeneous distribution of hydration products
(Xu and Sarkar, 1994). The effect of formation of
these compounds with curing at different lime
contents on the lime leachability behavior with
continuous passing of leaching fluid (millipore grade
water) is presented in the subsequent paragraphs.
The surfaces of nucleating fly ash particles
provide sites for
2
( ) Ca OH , C-S-H, and other
hydration products to precipitate, thereby leading to a
more homogeneous distribution of hydration products.
Formation of these compounds which increase with
the curing period reduces lime leachability ratio which
is taken as the ratio of lime leached to the total lime
added. The strength gain is sustainable only if the
lime leachability is minimized. Lime leachability from
fly ashes is due to their sustained leaching under the
prevailing hydrological field conditions and their
continuous exposure to fresh water. Lime is sparingly
soluble in water and dissociates into calcium and
hydroxyl ions and the concentration of hydroxyl ions
can only give a maximum pH value of 12.6. More and
more lime is dissociated only if the produced calcium
and or hydroxyl ions are used in pozzolanic reactions
or these ions are diffused away into the water. Thus if
the ions are diffused away before they react with silica
of fly ashes to produce calcium silicate hydrate gel,
lime is wasted and the pozzolanic reactivity gets
inhibited affecting the performance of fly ashes in
many applications.
Hence, the lime leachability studies on fly ashes
amended with lime contents in the range of 1 to 10%
are conducted. The addition of lime triggers the onset
of pozzolanic reaction early, by increasing the
solubility of silica as it breaks the Si-O bonds in the
silica rich glassy phases of fly ash. The hydration of
fly ash begins immediately with the depolymerization
of glassy phases releasing alumina and silica. This in
turn produces cementing compounds such as calcium
silicate gel which gradually crystallizes with time
attributing strength to fly ash particles. The nature
and amount of compounds formed vary both with the
amount of lime added and duration of curing period.
It has been seen that the lime reaches
equilibrium value at any given lime content after
passing of water for two days. Further it is observed
that for both the fly ashes, the equilibrium
concentration of calcium in the leachate was found to
increase with increase in lime content. This leaching
concentration of lime is not in proportion to the


amount of lime added. Hence the amount of
equilibrium concentration of lime leached is
expressed as ratio of lime in the leachate to the total
amount of lime added. This ratio is observed to
decrease with increase in the lime content. This
indicates that lime is converted from more soluble
form to less soluble forms of calcium silicate
hydrates. This confirms that relatively more lime is
actually utilized for pozzolanic reactions with silica
content of fly ash to produce cementitious
compounds.
Role of Gypsum
Attempts have hence been made to reduce the
leachability of lime by incorporating gypsum. The
role of gypsum in lime-silica reactions has been
analysed in detail and based on these studies the
mechanism of change is explained as follows:
Gypsum is known to accelerate the gain in strength by
altering the course of hydration of calcium silicate
which predominantly occurs in the early hydration
stages (Sivapullaiah and Baig, 2011). Apart from
calcium silicate hydrate, calcium aluminate hydrate is
also formed favoring the hydration of fly ash.
Addition of gypsum aids in the release of sulphate
ions which react with alumina phase of fly ash as
shown in equation 4 below:

2 2
4 2 3 2 2 3 4 2
. . . Ca SO Al O HO xCaOyAl O zCaSO wHO

Eq. 4

Hence, in the presence of gypsum the enhanced
pozzolanic activity of lime stabilised fly ashes results
in denser, higher strength material. The manner in
which the formation of calcium silicate hydrates along
with the formation of calcium aluminate hydrate
affects the lime leachability of fly ashes has been
studied and the effect of addition of 1 and 2.5%
gypsum contents on the lime leachability values of
specimens cured for 7 and 14 days have been
discussed below.
It has been shown that the concentrations of calcium
in the leachate for the lime stabilized fly ash samples
at the end of 7 days of curing period amended with
1% and 2.5% gypsum contents reach equilibrium
within two days of passing water through the samples
in the mould. It is seen that fly ashes with gypsum
leach out lower equilibrium amounts of lime
compared to fly ashes without any gypsum at any
given lime content, even though the amount of
calcium present in the matrix increases. The lime
leachability decreases with increase in gypsum
content. The reduction in the leaching of calcium is
due to the alteration of the nature of pozzolanic
reaction compounds producing calcium aluminate
silicate hydrate which minimizes further leaching of
calcium from the matrix. With increase in curing
period to 14 days, the lime leachability values are
further reduced, which confirms that, the cementation
products formed at higher curing period further
hardens the matrix. The amount of lime reached is
relatively more for NFA compared to that for MFA.
This might be due to the higher free lime content
initially present in NFA than in MFA. Also coarser
NFA particles leach relatively more amount of
calcium ions.
It has been shown from the leachability of
calcium from fly ashes with different lime contents
that the ratio of calcium leached to the total calcium
added is an indication of the conversion of free lime
into the less soluble forms. The ratios of calcium
leached to the total amount of calcium added are
calculated for both the fly ashes with different lime
contents and are compared with the addition of
gypsum at different curing periods. The ratio
drastically reduces with the inclusion of gypsum. Also
there is a noteworthy reduction in the ratio at higher
lime and gypsum contents. This marked reduction in
the ratio in the presence of gypsum further confirms
the alteration of hydration products formed, compared
to those formed with the addition of lime alone.
Qualitatively similar trends occur for both the fly
ashes at different lime and gypsum contents.
Addition of gypsum aids in the release of sulphate
ions which react with alumina phase of fly ash to
produce
2 3 4 2
. . . x CaO y Al O z CaSO w H O. In the
presence of gypsum the enhanced pozzolanic activity
of lime stabilised fly ashes results in a material denser
with higher strength. It has been shown that the
formation of calcium silicate hydrate along with the
formation of calcium aluminate hydrate occurs and
this reduces the lime leachability of fly ashes. The
leachability of lime from fly ashes reduces
significantly in the presence of gypsum. The steep
reduction in the presence of gypsum is due to the
formation of calcium aluminate silicate hydrate apart
from the calcium silicate hydrate. With increase in
curing period, the amount of lime leaching from
gypsum treated lime stabilized fly ashes reduces to a
considerable extent. The effects of the reduction in the
lime leachability on the strength, CBR values,
compressibility, and hydraulic conductivity have been
elaborated.
It is made clear that the addition of gypsum increases
the strength of fly ashes at any lime content. At lower
curing periods the increase in strength with gypsum
and low lime contents is quite significant. Increase in
strength is observed after a considerable period at
higher lime contents. Thus the increase in strength at
higher lime and gypsum contents after curing for
more than 60 days is found to increase by 40 times.
Fly ash which responds readily to lime stabilization
shows accelerated gain in strength due to the addition
of gypsum at early curing periods. Further the
increase in strength achieved with gypsum is least
susceptible to the effects of alternate wet and dry
cycles and to soaking in different solutions containing
heavy metals.


Fig. 3 Effect of Lime and Gypsum on the Hydraulic
Conductivity of Fly Ash

Addition of gypsum is found to be much more
beneficial than increasing lime content in gaining
unconfined compressive strength. Though the strength
improvement with additives is one of the important
factors in reducing the compressibility, other factors
such as particle size distribution also control the
compressibility behaviour leading to a large scatter in
the relationship between the reduction in the
compressibility and reduction in lime leachability
ratio.

Increased additions of lime reduced the hydraulic
conductivity of fly ashes but gypsum along with lime
is more effective than lime alone in reducing the
hydraulic conductivity of fly ashes due to the
enhanced hydration and accelerated formation of
cementitious compounds. Addition of more than 1%
of gypsum is effective only with the higher lime
contents. The reduction in the hydraulic conductivity
increases with increase in curing period. Significant
reduction in hydraulic conductivity values that occurs
in the presence of gypsum at high lime contents of 5
and 10 percent is due to the combined actions of
enhanced hydration, formation of cementitious
compounds and the precipitation of unreacted lime
(Fig. 3). Even though the hydraulic conductivity of fly
ashes is reduced many folds with the addition of lime
and gypsum, a general correlation is still observed to
exist between the hydraulic conductivity values and
the lime leachability ratios (Sivapullaiah and Baig,
2010).
Of the many industrial leachates heavy metal
contaminants are the most important ones. Thus the
retention capacity of fly ashes with respect to heavy
metals needs to be established in their application as
barrier materials. It is well known that two dominant
mechanisms responsible for the retention of metal
ions by fly ashes are precipitation and adsorption. Fly
ashes studied had enough of lime to keep the pH of
the fly ash system sufficiently high to precipitate
heavy metals. Further to study the role of pH
particularly at acidic levels, which can become
important when they are leached continuously due to
the prevailing hydrological conditions, the retention
capacities of fly ashes have been studied by batch
equilibrium tests. The retention by precipitation is far
more than adsorption and hence retention of heavy
metals at higher pHs is more than that at lower levels
(Fig. 4).

0.010
0.100
1.000
10.000
100.000
Pb Cd Zn Mn Cu
M
e
t
a
l

E
x
t
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

(
%
)

pH 2
pH 4
pH 6
pH 8
pH 10

Fig. 4 Effect of Gypsum on the Leachability of Trace
Elements from Fly Ash

Along with the increase in pH as the retention
transforms predominantly from surface adsorption to
complex metal precipitation, the kinetic rate constants
increase rapidly. At every pH the equilibrium sorption
of metal ions is best described by Langmuir isotherm.
Since the amount of metal ion retained increases
proportionately with the increase in initial
concentration of the metal ion in solution, the
percentage removal remained constant. The retention
order for all metal ions studied is the same for both
the fly ashes at all the pH values indicating that the
adsorption is predominantly by silica surfaces than by
alumina or iron oxide surfaces.
Along with very favourable improvement in strength,
reduction in compressibility and hydraulic
conductivity with the addition of gypsum to fly ashes,
their low leachability of trace elements and significant
adsorption capacity at different environmental
conditions make them important barrier materials.
It has been broiught out the role of gypsum in
modifying the nature of the pozzolanic compounds in
fly ash lime reactions, reducing greatly the lime
leachability and at the same time enhancing most of
the geotechnical properties along with their durability
which enlarges their potential for bulk applications.

SUMMARY
Many uses of fly ashes in geotechnical engineering
such as reclamation of low lying area, construction of
road, dikes and dams are mainly based on pozzolanic
reactivity, which is due to its reactive silica. There is
an optimum lime content for each fly ash for
maximum reactivity. More applications can be found
by enhancing the reactivity of fly ashes. Gypsum


which enhances the reactivity of fly ashes improves
its strength, CBR value, volume stability is also found
to reduce its hydraulic conductivity. Gypsum
amended fly ash can be used as barrier material for
waste impound materials. Gypsum is found to reduce
the lime leachability of fly ashes and enhance the
retention capacity of various trace elements present in
the lechates.

REFERENCES
De Santayana FP and Mazo CO (1994) Behavior of
Fly Ash in Experimental Embankments.
Proceedings of 13th International Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, New
Delhi, 1603-1606.
El-Mogazi D, Lisk DJ, and Weinstein LH, (1988) A
Review of Physical, Chemical and Biological
Properties of Fly Ash and Effects on Agricultural
Ecosystems. The Science of the Total
Environment, 74, 1-37.
Gray DH and Lin YK (1972) Engineering Properties
of Compacted Fly Ash. Journal of the Soil
Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, 98,
361380.
Hubbard FH and Dhir RK (1985) A Compositional
Index of the Pozzolanic Potential of Pulverized-
fuel Ash. Journal of Materials Science Letters, 3,
958-960.
Indraratna B, Nutalaya P, Koo KS and Kuganenthira
N (1991) Engineering behavior of low carbon,
pozzolanic fly ash and its potential as a
construction fill. Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
28, 542-555.
Lamb DW (1978) Ash disposal in dams, mounds,
structural fills, and retaining walls. Proceedings of
the Third International Ash Utilization
Symposium, Pittsburgh, PA, 262-280.
Natusch DFS, Wallace JR and Evans Jr. CA (1974)
Toxic trace elements: preferential concentration in
respirable particles. Science, 183 (4121), 202-204.
Pandian NS and Balasubramonian S (1999)
Permeability and consolidation behaviour of fly
ashes. Journal of Testing and Evaluation, ASTM,
27, 337342.
Prashanth JP (1998) Evaluation of the properties of
fly ash for its use in geotechnical applications. Ph.
D. Thesis, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.

Prashanth JP, Sivapullaiah PV, Sridharan A (2000)
Pozzolanic fly ash as a hydraulic barrier in
landfills. Engineering Geology, 60, 245-252.
Rajasekhar C (1995) Retention and permeability
characteristics of clays and clayfly ash systems
subjected to flow of contaminants. Ph.D. Thesis,
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
Sivapullaiah P.V., and Arif Ali Baig M.
(2010).Gypsum Treated Fly Ash As A Liner For
Waste Disposal Facilities, , Waste Management 31,
359-369.
Sivapullaiah P.V. and Arif Ali Baig M. (2011). Role
of Gypsum in the Strength Development of F Fly
Ashes with Lime, ASCE Journal of Materials in
Civil Engineering, Vol. 23, 197-206.
Sivapullaiah PV, Lakshmikantha H (2004) Properties
of Fly Ash as Hydraulic Barrier. Soil and Sediment
Contamination, 13(5), 489-504.
Sivapullaiah PV, Prashanth JP and Sridharan A
(1995) Optimization of Lime Content for Fly Ash.
Journal of Testing and Evaluation, ASTM, 23(3),
222-227.
Sivapullaiah PV, Prashanth JP, Sridharan A and
Narayana BV (1998) Reactive silica and strength
of fly ashes. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geological Engineering, 16, 239-250.
Sivapullaiah, P. V. and Hari Prasad Reddy, P. (2009),
Fly Ash to Control Alkali Induced Volume
Changes In Soils Ground Improvement, 162,
pp.167-173.
Tazaki K, Fyfe WS, Sahu KC and Powell M (1989)
Observations on the nature of fly ash particles.
Fuel, 68(6), 727-734.
Toth PS, Chan HT and Cragg CB (1988) Coal ash as
structural fill with special reference to Ontario
experience. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 25,
694704.
Winter MG and Clarke BG (2002) Improved use of
pulverised fuel ash as general fill. Proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers, Geotechnical
Engineering, 155(2), 133-141.
Xu A and Sarkar SL (1991) Microstructural study of
gypsum activated fly ash hydration in cement
paste. Cement Concrete Research, 21, 6, 1137
1149.
Yudhbir and Honjo Y (1991) Application of
geotechnical engineering to environmental control.
Proceedings of the 9th Asian Regional Conference
on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,
Bangkok, 2, 431469.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

SORPTION BEHAVIOUR OF DEEP SEATED COAL: A GEO-
ENGINEERING APPROACH TO CARBON DIOXIDE SINKING

V. Vishal
IITB-Monash Research Academy, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
T. N. Singh
Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India, Email: v.vishal@iitb.ac.in

ABSTRACT: The rate of generation of greenhouse gases has increased in the past century with the rapid rate of
industrialization. This has eventually led to an increase in the global average surface temperature. With a still higher
rate of industrialization and subsequent release of carbon dioxide, the global temperature is expected to rise further
in the current century. It has been identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), that apart
from switching to low carbon energy with advanced technologies, it is important to consider the geological
sequestration of greenhouse gases into deep reservoirs for preventing the release of these gases into the atmosphere
as an attempt to greenhouse remediation. There are various probable sink spaces in the underground for storing
CO
2
. Of other sequestration spaces, coal beds offer a value added product of methane, the recovery of which can be
enhanced by injecting CO
2
. Understanding coal characteristics in terms of its sorption capacity is vital to ensure that
the process of storing is safe and to quantify the volume of gases involved. In this paper, an overview of the sorption
behaviour of coal is discussed with the perspective of sequestration of greenhouse gases in it along with enhanced
recovery of clean, low carbon, energy i.e. methane.

Keywords: CO
2
sequestration, Coal Bed Methane (CBM), coal, sorption

INTRODUCTION
The advent of geoengineering to meet with the growing
challenges in several aspects for sustainable
development has come a long way in the recent years.
One of the major questions ahead of the scientists,
researchers and policy makers is that of the gradual
increase in the mean global surface temperature of the
Earth in the past two centuries. At the same time, the
demand of energy for large scale development of
various nations is also growing at a rapid rate. This
growth will be directly related to the release of
pollutants, especially green house gases, as a
continuation of the recent trend of development. IPCC
(2005, 2007) recognized that the global warming has
taken place with a significant increase in the
concentration of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide
in past century and the two are correlated. There comes
the question of prevention of release of these
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere to let the Earth
maintain its temperature and prevent such a dramatic
rise.
Coal exists in huge quantities in India. It not only offers
huge energy base to India but also adds to the
maximum pollution due to release of enormous
quantities of CO
2
especially from the coal based power
plants. In this context, coal also contains significant
quantities of methane depending on several factors like
rank of coal, temperature, pressure conditions of
horizon, moisture content, etc. The methane, referred to

as Coal Bed Methane (CBM) is a low carbon, green
energy, when burnt converts to less potent
greenhouse gas, CO
2
. CBM has witnessed a phase
when it was done away with to prevent any fire
problems during coal mining to the current state of
development to the level of a mainstream fuel. Coal
also offers a safe sinking space for the waste CO
2
for
long term storage underneath and this has been opted
for prevention of CO
2
release in the air. Thus, a dual
benefit in utilizing deep seated coals, for producing
methane and in place storing CO
2
, makes greenhouse
gas sinking in these, the most preferred option. Indian
coals at greater depths, especially from the
Gondwana coalfields have substantial amounts of
methane and may be utilized for the geological
sequestration of CO
2
for enhanced recovery of CBM
(ECBM).

Coal behaviour in CO
2
ECBM Process
Methane is generated as a byproduct during the
coalification process of physic-chemical alteration of
peat as a consequence of bacterial decay, heat action
and in due course of time. Coal is formed and the
process and degree of maturation produces coals of
various ranks. The conversion of peat to coal is
associated with generation of hydrocarbons as a
byproduct, namely methane. Coal seam gas (CSG)
typically contains more than 95% methane other than
fewer quantities of higher hydrocarbons or some
CO
2
. Methane is produced from these coal reservoirs

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

if the content is in good volumes. However, production
behaviour of coal reservoir has to be properly
understood before the attempt to tap the fuel. Coal
characteristics are quite different from the conventional
geological reservoirs. Coal acts as the source as well as
the reservoir for the hydrocarbon. Coal exhibits a dual
porosity model with the fine spaces within the matrix
blocks representing the micropores while the fractures
or cleats system constituting the macroporous structure
of coal. The flow of gases in micropores is different
from that in the cleats. The gases in the micropores
flow by diffusion, something like that described by
Ficks Law while they follow a Darcian model during
flow across the cleats. Coal seams are usually saturated
with water content and when a well is dug, dewatering
starts and water continues to be pumped out from the
seam. Excessive dewatering causes depressurization
which leads to the release of methane from coal. The
gases are not stored in the pores spaces by means of
compression as in case of conventional reservoirs. They
are stored on to the porous surface of the coal by
mechanism of adsorption. Coal has affinity towards
CO
2
over CH
4
, the degree of affinity varying from 3 to
10 times depending on several parameters. This is an
advantage in storing CO
2
inside the coal seams which
may lead to enhanced CBM recovery.

FACTORS CONTROLLING SORPTION
CHARACTERISTICS OF COAL
The gas content that is stored in the adsorbed state in
coal is affected by various control parameters. As the
hydrocarbons are a product of coalification, the
characteristics are highly affected by the degree of
maturation. Low rank coals are formed under lower P-T
range and usually contain lesser gas content.
Experimental works by several researchers has
established that the adsorption capacity increases with
increasing rank for moisture saturated coals while it
decreases for dry coals (Briggs and Sinha, 1933,
Reucroft and Sethuraman, 1987, Yee et al., 1993, Levy,
1997, Busch et al., 2003, Vishal, 2007). The content of
macerals and their types also control the adsorption
behaviour of coal. More commonly accepted theory is
that there is a significant increase in the gas sorption
capacity with increase in vitrinite content of coal,
particularly in high rank coals (Levine, 1993,
Lamberson and Bustin, 1993, Crosdale et al., 1998 and
many others). However, Ettinger et al. (1966) had
shown the inertinite-rich coals having the greatest
methane adsorption capacity. The gas adsorption
capacity of coal will depend much upon the insitu
pressure- temperature conditions of coal seams (Yee et
al, 1993, Levy et al., 1997, Bustin and Clarkson, 1998,
Schroeder et al., 2001, Azmi et al., 2006). While higher
pressure helps more gas to remain adsorbed in place,
higher temperatures increase the kinetic energy of the
system and enables gas molecules to stay in free state
than in adsorbed state. The gas adsorption also varies
as the pH of the coal seam system. Azmi et al. (2006)
experimented on Malaysian low rank coals and
obtained that acidic treated samples have a higher
CO
2
gas adsorption rate followed by alkali and nally
neutral conditions, although under in-situ conditions,
if CO2 sequestration is applied, the high range of
variations in pH values make it inconclusive to
incorporate the pH dependent variability in sorption
in coal. Their research also brought forth the fact that
adsorption rate depends on particle size of adsorbent.
Fine grained solids have a larger surface area and
hence enable more adsorption than coarse matrix.

Geo-engineering of CO
2
ECBM process
Sorption of gases
Production of gas from coal seams will involve
excessive dewatering that causes depressurization of
the seams. This eventually induces the release
methane from the micropores that flow through the
cleat system to reach the production wells. Slowly as
the pressure declines, production of methane from the
coal also decreases. In such a case, CO
2
may be
injected into the reservoir to maintain the reservoir
pressure that would lead to further release of
methane. CO
2
is preferentially adsorbed by the coal
and being denser, it settles into the porous spaces and
finally methane production is enhanced from the
block. This process seems advantageous for
production of fuel and in place sequesters the
hazardous greenhouse gas to be stored for long
periods of time. This geoengineering approach for
green house remediation has gained attention
worldwide and needs to be worked out for Indian
scenario. It is important to understand the
petrophysical characteristics along with the
geotechnical properties of the reservoir rocks, the
relative permeability of the fluid phases, sorption
characteristics of coal, insitu P-T conditions, etc. The
sorption characteristics of coal for various gases are
expressed as a function of pressure at a constant
temperature, called as adsorption isotherms.
Adsorption isotherms are used to study the gas
storage capacity of coal with respect to gas pressures
(or concentrations) at a particular temperature.
The adsorption isotherms of methane on coal are
most commonly described using Langmuir equation
(1916) which is based on the dynamic equilibrium
between the adsorbent and adsorbate as a function of
pressure or concentration of the adsorbate. Langmuir
isotherm is produced when the extent of adsorbing
molecules coverage is believed to be limited to one
molecular layer (Type I).
The equation for the Langmuir isotherm for a single
gas phase is given as:

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

p p
p
V V
L
L
(1)
where V is the volume of gas adsorbed per unit mass in
the coal matrix and p is the pressure of the system. V
L
is
the Langmuir volume constant while p
L
is Langmuir
pressure constant. V
L
represents the maximum volume
of gas that a unit mass of coal can adsorb onto its
matrix surface at saturation pressure. p
L
is the pressure
at which the storage capacity of the coal is equal to one-
half of the Langmuir volume V
L
. These constants are
material specific and are determined by best fitting of
desorption data.
However, in case of gas mixtures, the equation is
modified as individual gases are said to compete for the
same sorption sites. Arri et al (1992) established the
extended Langmuir equation for gas mixtures as:

j j L
j
i L
i
i L i
p
r
p
p
r
p
V V
1

(2)

NUMERICAL APPROACH
Modeling of coal beds for CO
2
driven ECBM recovery
is carried out after understanding the complex reservoir
phenomena. Key features in such a model should
include: heterogeneity and anisotropy in coals, dual
porosity (micropores and macropores), transport of
gases by diffusion (governed by Ficks law) and flow in
cleats (governed by Darcys law), interaction of CO
2
and CBM, coal matrix shrinkage due to desorption of
gas and swelling due to adsorption of gas, stress
dependency of the whole system, variations in the
permeability of coals throughout the process and the
utility of extended Langmuirs isotherm for estimation
of volumes of gases involved. Several reservoir
simulators have been designed to model the flow
characteristics of CBM reservoirs. The simulator should
be multi-component, multi-phase, multi-porosity
simulator capable of modeling underground fluid-rock
environment in coal capable of encompassing the coal-
cleat matrix represented by a well defined dual porosity
system as described by Warren and Root (1963).
Numerical study provides solves complex equations
that describe some physical phenomena using iterations
and approximations. The approach is important to
investigate the several probabilities indifferent
scenarios and solve complex problems using numerical
models. However, the setting up of model and its valid
establishment to the real scenario is very important and
extremely critical. It should reflect the real conditions
with minimum limitations. Hence, in case of coal
reservoir, this approach is highly important to monitor
and quantify the flow of gases and its response thereof
onto the surrounding. A brief study on the coal
sorption behaviour for Gondwana coal seams in
Jharkhand area is discussed in this article. The input
parameters are taken mostly from the field and
laboratory studies while a few standard curves like
that of relative permeability model have been
assumed. The Langmuir constants have been taken
from the published works from Central Institute of
Mining and Fuel Research. These parameters have
been input to model the scenario of a 800m deep coal
seam chosen for simultaneous release of methane
along with carbon-dioxide sequestration using
COMET3 simulator.
The disposition of gases has been monitored and the
spatial distribution of both CO
2
and CH
4
is shown in
Figure 1 and 2, respectively after 200 days and 2000
days. The adsorption pattern of both the gases,
namely CO
2
and CH
4
is monitored throughout the
study period. However, the two diagrams are simply
a representation of the spatial distribution of the two
gas phases. The CO
2
, injected from the centrally
located well is adsorbed by the coal instantly and the
rate of spread of gas all along is slower than the
migration of methane. The injected CO2 pushes
methane by displacing it from the sorption sites and
finally, the gas is driven towards the production well
which enhances the recovery of methane. This is a
study to quantify the volume of gas produced in turn
of the volume of CO
2
sequestered in it. Further study
establishes that over a period of 6000 days, the
chosen rock strata will adsorb 73.83 bcf of CO
2
and
in place it produces a total of 2.71 bcf of CBM. The
results indicate that the rate of water production in
the initial period of study is very high (around 43
BPD) while it starts declining at the end of 400 days
and finally it wanes at the rate of 1.2 BPD).

CONCLUSIONS
Characteristics of coal are highly variable from one
basin to the other and also within the same basin.
It is vital to understand the sorption behavior of
the reservoir for sinking CO
2
alongside
production of methane. Gas desorption rate is
controlled mainly by the pressure conditions and
the relative saturation of gases. Experimental as
well as simulation studies are required at various
scales to accurately predict the rock response in
context to sequestration. CO
2
sinking in coal can
be visualized as a value added sequestration
where in the waste gases are utilized to tap the
fuel. Sorption/desorption induced
swelling/shrinkage in coal for sorptive gases like
CO
2
and CH
4
needs to be worked out for Indian
scenario. Moreover, the gas molecules compete
for the same sorptive sites and it is vital to
understand the degree of preference of coal for
either of the gases, which will eventually control

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

Fig. 1: Matrix methane concentration in the area over a period of 200days and 2000days respectively (IW=Injection
Well, PW = Production well)

Fig. 2: Matrix carbon dioxide concentration in the area over a period of 200days and 2000days respectively
(IW=Injection Well, PW = Production well)

Fig. 2a
I W
PW
PW
Fig. 2b
I W
PW
PW
Fig. 1a
I W
PW
PW
Fig. 1b
I W
PW
PW

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

the storage capacity of the reservoir. Therefore
sorption of gases onto coal surface is a critical
phenomenon and it controls the entire
storage/production of gases from coal seams.

REFERENCES
Azmi A.S., Yusup, S., Muhamad, S., 2006 The
influence of temperature on adsorption capacity
of Malaysian coal; Chemical Engineering
Processing, Vol. 45, pp. 392-396.
Arri, L. E., Yee, D., Morgan, W. D. and Jeansonne,
M. W., 1992. Modelling coalbed methane
production with binary gas sorption. SPE 24363,
SPE Rocky Mountain Regional Meeting, Casper
Wyoming.
Briggs, H. and Sinha, R. P., 1933. Expansion and
contraction of coal caused respectively by the
sorption and discharge of gas, Proceedings of the
royal society of Edinburgh, Vol. 53, pp. 48-53.
Busch, A., Gensterblum, Y., Siemons, N., and
Krooss, B.M., 2003. Investigation of preferential
sorption behaviour of CO2 and CH4 on coals by
high pressure adsorption/desorption experiments
with gas mixtures. International Coalbed
Methane Symposium, University of Alabama,
Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 5-9 May, paper 0350.
Bustin, R. M., and Clarkson, C. R., 1998. Geological
controls on coalbed methane reservoir capacity
and gas content. International Journal of Coal
Geology, Vol. 38, pp. 3-26.
Crosdale, P.J., Beamish, B.B. and Valix, M., 1998.
Coalbed methane sorption related to coal
composition. International Journal of Coal
Geology, 35, 147158.
Ettinger, I., Eremin, B., Zimakov, Yavovskaya, M.,
1966. Natural factors influencing coal sorption
properties: I. Petrography and the sorption
properties of coals. Fuel 45, 267275.
IPCC, 2005. IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide
Capture and Storage. Prepared by the Working
Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change [Metz, B., O. Davidson, H. C.de
Conninck, M. Loos, and L.A. Meyer (eds.)].
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
and New York , USA , pp . 442.
IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007, The physical
science basis. Contribution of Working Group I
to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Solomon, S., D. Qin., M. Manning., Z. Chen.,
M.Marquis., K.B. Averyt., M. Tignor and H.L.
miller (eds)]. Cambridge Univ. Press,
Cambridge, UK and NY, N.Y. USA.
Lamberson, M.N. and Bustin, R.M., 1993. Coalbed
methane characteristics of gates formation coals,
northern British Columbia: effect of maceral
composition. AAPG Bullelin Vol. 77, pp. 2062
2076.
Langmuir, I., 1916. The constitution and fundamental
properties of solids and liquids. Journal of the
American Chemical Society, Vol. 38, pp. 2221-
2295.
Levine, J.R., 1993. Coalification: the evolution of
coal as source rock and reservoir. In: Law, B.E.,
Rice, D.D. Eds.., Hydrocarbons from Coal.
American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
AAPG Studies in Geology, Vol. 38, pp. 3977.
Levy, J.H., Day, S.J., Killingley, J.S., 1997. Methane
capacities of Bowen Basin coals related to coal
properties. Fuel, Vol. 76, pp. 813819.
Reucroft P.J. and Sethuraman A.R., 1987. Effect of
Pressure on Carbon Dioxide Induced Coal
Swelling. Energy & Fuels, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 72-
75.
Vishal, V., 2007. Coal Bed Methane: An
Introduction, Indian Journal of Earth Sciences,
Vol. 33, Nos. 1-4, pp. 76-79.
Warren, J. E., Root, P. J., 1963. The Behavior of
Naturally Fractured Reservoirs, Society of
Petroleum Engineers Journal, pp. 245-255.
Yee, D., Seidle, J.P., Hanson, W.B., 1993. Gas
sorption on coal and measurement of gas content
in hydrocarbons from coal. AAPG Studies in
Geology, Vol. 38, pp. 203218.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


CHARACTERISTICS OF BADLANDS MORPHOLOGY
Sanjay Tignath
Professor,Govt. Autonomous Science College, Jabalpur-482001, M. P , India. tignathsanjay@rediffmail.com
Medha Jha
Assistant Professor, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005 U. P., India
.jha_medha@rediffmail.com

ABSTRACT: Badlands manifest a systematic morphology laterally and vertically. An investigation of
alluvial badlands of Narmada in Narsinghpur district of Madhya Pradesh (India) led to a rational description of
their formation and an understanding of their preference in natural choices of angle and spacing. Badlands
represent a storey-like morphology. Proper understanding of this morphology may be best utilized for
developing riparian water ponds and on slope agriculture practices.

INTRODUCTION
The development of badland topography has been
attributed to headward erosion (Blong, 1966) of rills
and gullies (Tuckfield, 1964; Yi-Fu Tan, 1966), and
creep on slopes (Horton, 1945) propped up by bank
collapse (Schumm, 1956a, 1956b). Topographic
hollows are common in the sandy-silty alluvial plains
with gentle slopes. The erosive phenomenon
gradually develops a network of ravines by cutting
and deepening below the general ground level of the
original accretional plain. The common slope forms
of ravines constitute a small convex upper slope and
a straight slope below it, leading down to channel
(Hack, 1960), and where concave slopes exist, these
are often channelized seasonally.
The present day concepts of gullying are primarily
founded on the researches carried out in various parts
of the world during 60s and 70s. The works of
Blong (1970), Berry (1970), Deshmukh, D.S. et.al
(2009),Lusby (1970), Gregory (1977a), Butzer
(1971), Harris & Vita-Finzi (1968), and Yi-Fu Tan
(1966) are worth citing among several others. Natural
causes of badlands formation include climatic
changes in rainfall and variation in temperature along
with alluvial type. Anthropogenic causes are more
severe and include the change in land use and land
cover, including changes in agricultural practices,
deforestation, overgrazing, burning for vegetation
clearance, etc.
Using the simplest configuration of convex and
concave segments, Smith and Bretherton (1972)
proposed a landscape forming transport law also
applicable to badlands. The magnitude of sediment
discharge per unit width at any point is a function of
the magnitude of the local gradient, S, and the
magnitude of discharge of water per unit width, q.
Expressed mathematically, q
s
= f (S, q), where f
represents the function of and q
s
is the magnitude of
discharge of sediment per unit width. They also
presented the concept of critical distance, X
c
, from
top to inflection point along the profile, where
perturbations grow into a rill like feature, and as
these deepen, the intervening ridges, if less than X
c
in
width, are left without formation of rills.

Despite the above, there still exists less than complete
understanding on the subject of badland formation
and its pattern development.

MORPHOLOGY
Study was carried out along the Narmada River of
central India through Narsinghpur district. The
badland forms were surveyed along the main river, its
major tributaries like Sher, Omar and Balurewa, and
its local tributary system generating badlands on the
Narmada alluviums.

Storey-forms of Badlands
Badlands exhibit a typical storeyed morphology.
Simplest badlands show only single storey with
respect to the channel bed of the master river and the
latter may be designated as zero level/floor. Like-
wise upper floors may be designated first floor,
second floor and so on. Each floor is an active level
of gullying. However, it is noticeable fact that the
isolated mounds of alluviums rising above the levels
approach at the extreme to be encircled by hexagonal
pattern of gullies-cum-channels. In this regard, the
floors are different from an erosional bench which
may be recognizable along the master river. Each of
the successive floors of a badland may not be
represented in a single profile across the banks.
Floored morphology of the badlands often collects
rainfall for some time during the monsoon period or
rainy season. Shallow pools form on the floors due to
scouring action of run-off water on the floor from the
immediate mounds. It may form multilevel short-
lived pools. However, this typical form of badlands
processes can be positively utilized in land and soil
conservation with added advantage of improved and
sustained discharge in the stream.

Patterns and spacing
The most common type of pattern and spatial
arrangement that channels develop in the badlands by
headward erosion (Fig. 1) exhibits a regular spacing
of channel (as discussed later) with frequent
occurrence of confluence angles of 30
0
, 60
0
, 90
0
, and
120
0
, as shown in Fig. 2 (derived from Fig. 1)


depicting the frequency of angles for badlands of the
quaternary-recent alluvial plains of Narmada in the
Narsinghpur district of Madhya Pradesh in India.
From observations and as suggested by the natural
choice of angles, these channels appear to grow in
such a fashion that leads to a nearly hexagonal
pattern, which, however, is generally obscured by
rounding up of corners as the system approaches the
culmination stage of headward-joining of channels.
In fact, this is the headward erosion at the aforesaid
angles which inevitably and eventually leads to the
formation of near hexagonal polygons(Fig 3).
Fig. 1 Badlands of rivers Dhamani and Saras in
Narsinghpur district, M.P. India

To describe the formation and development of
channel networks, the distances of all the off-shoot
channels from the downstream confluences were
measured from Fig. 1 in various classes of segment
lengths, as shown in Table 1.
This table shows the frequency of various segment
lengths. Based on their high frequency of occurrence,
five classes appear to dominate the pattern: 100 -
150m, 200 - 250m, 350 - 400m, 500 - 550m, and 700
- 750m. Notably, the 200 - 250m class shows the
highest frequency of occurrence and in this class,
most segments were measured close to 250 m. Here,
gullies of less than 100m though occurring frequently
were not considered as dominating for these were
under-grown offshoots in the overall pattern of
Narsinghpur badland. However, the segments of 125
m exhibited fully developed off-shoots. Thus, the
variation in segment lengths of channels can be
described in multiples of the minimum spacing of
125 m between two off-shoot channels of the
network. Table 1 indicates that 70% of off-shoot
channels and gullies belong to classes 200 - 250m,
100 -150m, and less than 100m, the first of which
constitutes more than 30%. These facts are consistent
with the concept of selective minimum area for
gullying held by several researchers.

Fig. 2 Frequency of confluence angles of Dhamani
and Saras badlands.

Fig.3 Schematic representation of pattern
development of channels in badlands. X = minimum
spacing. G1, G2, G3 are the first, second, third
generation off-shoots.
Small badlands are generally seen to develop
intensively on the concave side of a stream or convex
side of a bank or ambilateral to an individual stream
or between the interfluvial regions of small streams.
Sometimes, the channels extend from adjacent
convex bends of a meander and converge so as to
enclose the part of land in the inner side of a concave
bend.
Generally, the gradient of central channel bed is
extremely less, usually of the order of 1: 1000,
whereas in case of exterior links (Shreve, 1966) or
sources (Werritty, 1972), it commonly ranges from 1:
300 to 1: 500. An idealized profile of such a channel
system is shown in Fig. 4. The figure depicts that in
the badlands of nearly flat or very gently sloping
regions, the lateral channels remained below the level
of headscarp of the main channel and submergence of
60
o

90
o

120
o

30
o

= 10 confluences
Scale:


headscarp would lead to submergence of the whole
system.
With the above initial conditions of channel bed
slope of badlands, which are nearly representative of
real world ravine characteristics as found in the study
area, two opposite problems of land and water
resources development, namely erosion and
deposition (silting), may be combined to recover the
land and improve water resources in such badlands.
To this end, for favouring sediment deposition in the
space of ravine network upstream, the water velocity
can be greatly attenuated by constructing a check
dam on a suitable site at the end of badland belt. The
impounded water behind the check dam is likely to
stay for long period, of course, depending on the rate
of water discharge through the check dam, volume of
water reaching the badland and its spread area in the
reservoir, infiltration rates, and climatic conditions.
Thus, the reservoir will act as a site for sub-aqueous
aggradational leveling of the ravines of badlands. The
stored water in the whole network will immediately
result in advantages.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This study brings to attention the storey-nature of
badlands formation. There is a natural selection of
angle of offshoots of rills-channels. The geometric
form of channel network in an ideal case tends to
assume a hexagonal pattern causing development of
mounds. The spacing of channels also has preferred
minimum distance or its multiples. Badlands are
degenerative geomorphic systems resulting in loss of
soil, soil quality, moisture and decline of
groundwater table. Understanding of the morphology
of badlands may be helpful in prioritization and
planning of their watersheds.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The first author is thankful to Professor U.C. Chaube
for supervising the Post Doctrol research project at
IIT Roorkee and to the UGC Delhi for funding the
same.

REFERENCES
Berry,L (1970), Some erosional features due to
piping and sub-surface wash with special
reference to Sudan. Geogfafiska annaler, 52A,
113-119.
Blong,R.J.(1970),The development of discontinuous
gullies in a pumice catchment. Amer. J. Sci. 268,
369-383.
Butzer,K.W.(1971) , Fine alluvial fills in the Oranfe
and Vaal basins of South Africa. Proc. Ass. Am.
Geog.,3, 41-48.
Deshmukh, D.S., U.C. Chaube, S. Tignath, Medha
Jha & S.K. Tripathi (2009), Geomorphological
analysis and Distribution of Badland around the
Confluence of Narmada and Sher Rivers,
Scifronts: J. mult.sc., Vol:III (3), Dec. Pp 47-55
Gregory K.J.(1977a),Context of river channel
changes. In: Gregory KJ (ed.) River channel
changes, John Wiley &Sons,Chichester,1-
11,(11.1).
Hack, J.T. (1960), Interpretation of erosional
topography in humid temperate regions, Amer.
J. Sci., 258A, 80-97.
Harris,D.R.&VitaFinzi,C.(1968),Kokkinopolis- A
Greek badland. Geog. Journal, 134, 537-545.
Horton, R.E. (1945), Erosional development of
streams and their drainage basins: Hydrological
approach to quantitative analysis, Geol. Soc.
Amer. Bull., 56, 275- 370.
Lusby,G.C.(1970) , Hydrologic and biotic effects of
grazing and nongrazing near Grand Junction,
Colorado. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper, 700B,
232-236.
Schumm, S.A. (1956a),Evolution of drainage systems
and slopes in badlands in Perth Amboy, Geol.
Soc. Amer. Bull.67, N.J., 597-646.
Schumm, S.A (1956b), The role of creep and rain-
wash on the retreat of badland slopes, Amer. J.
Sci., 254, 693-706.
Shreve, R.L. (1966),Statistical law of stream
numbers, Jour. Geol., 74, 17-37.
Smith, T.R. & F.P. Bretherton (1972),Stability and
the conservation of mass in drainage basin
evolution, Water Resources Research, Vol. 8,
No.6, 1507-1529.
Tuckfield, C.G.(1964) Gully erosion in the New
Forest, Hampshire. Amer. J. Sci.,262, 795-807.
Werrity A. (1972), Topology of stream networks, In:
Spatial Analysis in Geomorphology, Chorley,
R.J. (Ed.), Harper and Row Pub., London, 167-
196.
Yi-Fu Tan (1966), New Mexican gullies: A critical
review and some recent observations. Annals.
Ass. Amer. Geog.,56, 573-597.


Table 1: Segment length of ravineous offshoot channels
Range of segment
length
(m)
Frequency Cumulative
frequency
Relative cumulative
frequency (%)
Relative frequency
in proportion (%)
25-50 8 8 7.54 7.54
50-100 17 25 23.58 16.03
100-150 15 40 37.73 14.15
150-200 9 49 46.22 8.49
200-250 33 82 77.41 31.19
250-300 2 84 79.29 1.88
300-350 1 85 80.19 0.9
350-400 4 89 83.96 3.77
400-450 3 92 86.79 2.83
450-500 1 93 87.69 0.90
500-550 4 97 91.46 3.77
550-600 0 97 91.46 0.00
600-650 3 100 94.29 2.83
650-700 0 100 99.95 0.00
700-750 6 106 99.95 5.66

Fig: 4 Simplified profile of a badland channel.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

PERFORMANCE GRADING OF INDIAN BITUMINOUS BINDERS

G. Bharath
Research Scholar, Deptt., of Civil Engg., IIT Kharagpur, email: bharat.varma.020@gmail.com
M. Amaranatha Reddy
Associate Professor, Dett., of Civil Engg., IIT Kharagpur, email: manreddy@iitkgp.ac.in

ABSTRACT: Bituminous binders play an important role in the performance of the pavements and therefore selection of
quality and quantity of binder is crucial. For a given location, pavement temperature and expected traffic are the general
parameters considered for choosing type of binder and mix design for amount of binder. Normal, polymer, crumb rubber
modified binders are being currently used in India to build high volume roads and these binders are classified based on the
parameters such as (i) viscosity at 60
o
C (ii) penetration value and (iii) softening point value of the binders respectively. All
binders need to satisfy the requirements as per Indian standards. Though binders are being classified based on different
criteria and corresponding tests, the expected performance of the pavements cannot be guaranteed as no performance
related tests/specifications are included in the evaluation of binders. On the other hand SUPERPAVE specifications in USA
has adopted performance based grading of binders (PG), combining all binders, to meet expected climatic conditions and
significant improvement in the pavement performance has been observed since its adoption. It is therefore necessary to
initiate the development of perfromncee based specifications in india. As a first step towards this direction, Indian binders
need to be classified in to performance grading system. Keeping the above in view, an attempt has been made in the
present study to classify Indian binders based on performance based tests and to suggest type of binders to be used in
different regions of India. In the absence of performance data of India pavements, SUPERPAVE specifications have been
considered while arriving at equivalent PG grade. By adopting suitable model, pavement temperature was estimated from
maximum air temperature data of different regions. Binders considered in the study were evaluated using dynamic shear
rheometer (DSR) and results were compared with SUPERPAVE specifications to arrive at appropriate PG grading.. From
the maximum pavement temperature data of different regions and PG grading of Indian binders, an appropriate binder to be
used in different regions was suggested.

INTRODUCTION
Indian road infrastructure has been expanding at a faster
rate with ambitious development of road networks under
National Highways Development Programme (NHDP),
State Highways Improvement Programmes (SHIPs), Bharat
Nirman, Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) to
cater the needs of the demand for road transportation net
work. Also modernization and expansion of airports are
being undertaken to meet the increasing air travel demand.
Large portions of these roads have flexible pavements with
bituminous layer at the surface. Higher pavement
temperature, overloading and higher tyre pressures are the
major problems of the Indian highways and causing
premature failures.

For a given aggregate gradation, type binder and its content
are very crucial as they affect the performance of the
pavement significantly. Amount of binder to be used is
arrived at based on mix design where as type of binder to
be selected based on a criterion that will result in expected
pavement performance. Selection of type of binder in India
is largely based on experience that takes in to account the
maximum air temperature of the location. MoRTH
guidelines (2001) specifies use of 60/70 (VG-30) or
modified binders for high volume roads and the criterion
for selection of binder is temperature (hot, medium and
cold region) and traffic (high, medium and light). Recent
specifications on modified binders (IRC: SP-53:2010) uses

maximum air temperature for selecting binder and
recommends rutting parameter (complex modulus- G*
and phase angle- ; G*/ sin ) as one of the requirements
of the binder. SUPERPAVE specifications adopted in
USA are based on field performance where the binder is
designated as Performance Grade (PG) bitumen and is
classified mainly based on application pavement
temperature. The PG system uses a common set of tests
to measure physical properties of the binder that can be
directly related to field performance (fatigue, rutting and
cracking) of the pavement at extreme temperatures.
Kandhal, 2005 has emphasized the need of similar types
of performance based specifications in India and
suggested an appropriate binder (viscosity grade) to be
used for different applications.

Classification of normal binders in India has been
gradually changed and a number of binder tests are
incorporated to judge the quality of binders. At present,
viscosity based grade of bitumen is in practice (IS: 72-
2006) for normal binders, penetration and softening point
is the basis for modified binders (IS: 15462, 2004). Most
of the tests are empirical in nature and no performance
related tests are included in evaluation of binders.
However Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP)
introduced performance based binder specification
Performance Grade (PG) based on the shear


susceptibility parameters to address rutting, fatigue and
thermal cracking failures of the pavements. Selection of
particular type of binder is based on traffic and temperature
of the particular location. For example PG 68-28 is
expected to serve in a region where seven day average
maximum pavement temperature with some reliability is 68
0
C and minimum is - 28
0
C. PG grade binder should satisfy
the performance tests as per AASHTO MP-1, 1998
including rutting parameter complex modulus (G*) and
phase angle () i.e G* / sin .

In order to improve the pavement performance, it is
desirable to adopt performance based evaluation of binders
and therefore classification of binders in to PG grade is a
first step towards this direction. Among the different
distresses, rutting is the major concern of the Indian
highways and effort should be made to improve rutting
resistance of the bituminous mixes. Complex modulus
(G*) and phase angle () and G* / sin parameter explains
the rutting behavior of the binder. Keeping this in view,
G*/ sin value of the binder is considered as as the main
parameter to classify the prevailing binders in to equivalent
PG grade.

In the present paper, an attempt has been made to
categorize typical Indian binders in to PG grade and
appropriate binder for different regions has been suggested.
For this, six binders including three modified binders were
considered and these binders were evaluated as per IS: 72-
2006 and IS: 15462, 2004 guidelines. Rheological
parameters such as complex modulus and phase angle were
measured at different temperatures using dynamic shear
rheometer. Maximum air temperatures in some locations of
India were collected and expected pavement temperatures
were estimated from SUPERPAVE air pavement
temperature model. Max. temperature at which G*/ sin
values of the a particular binder satisfy Superpave
specifications is considered for classifying the binders into
equivalent PG grade.

SUPERPAVE PG BINDER SPECIFICATION
Performance-related binder parameters are used in the
SUPERPAVE Performance grade (PG) binder specification
and these parameters are related to service pavement
temperatures to which binders will be exposed during their
service life. PG XX-YY is the designation of the binder
where XX refers to highest seven-day average pavement
temperature and -YY to lowest one day pavement
temperature For example, a PG 58-28 would meet the PG
Binder specification for a design high pavement
temperature up to 58C and design low pavement
temperature down to -28C. The PG grade binder needs to
satisfy several test requirements including some
performance based tests. These include the viscosity at
135C, short term aging of binder by Rolling Thin Film
Oven Test (RTFOT), and Flash Point. Other performance
based tests include long-term aging, determination of
design temperatures, low temperature stiffness and
tensile tests, high temperature complex modulus (and
phase angle). The SUPERPAVE protocol for selecting a
PG binder grade is determination of the pavement design
temperatures for proposed construction site and choosing
the appropriate PG grade binder based on the design
temperatures. The selected binder should satisfy all test
requirements as per AASHTO MP-1.

PG BINDER SPECIFICATION TESTS:
PG binder testing includes tests performed on unaged or
original, short-term aged, and long-term aged asphalt
binder and confirm to AASHTO MP-1(1998). . Short
and long term aging represents the loss of volatiles and
oxidation that occurs during construction and pavement
after 5 to 10 years of service life respectively. Rolling
thin film oven test (AASHTO T 240) and pressure aging
vessel test (AASHTO PP1, 1998) simulates these aging.
Table 1 shows the binder, equipment used for sample
preparation and test procedure for binder
characterization.

Rotational viscosity testing (ASTM D 4402) is included
to ensure that the binder can be pumped at the asphalt
plant (ASTM, 1998) and complex shear modulus (G*)
and the phase angle () and G*/sin (linear visco-elastic
range) is an indicator of the stiffness or resistance of the
asphalt binder to deformation under load and G*sin for
fatigue resistance. Binder condition, parameters and its
specification are given below
Binder Condition Parameter Specification
Unaged binder G*/sin 1.0 kPa
RTFO residue G*/sin 2.2 kPa
PAV residue G*sin 5000 kPa

Models for estimation of Pavement Temperature
In Superpave PG grade binder classification, estimation
high pavement design temperature at a depth 20 mm
below the pavement surface for any given project
location based on the following relationship
T
20mm
= (T
air
- 0.00618 Lat
2
+ 0.2289 Lat + 42.2)(0.9545)
- 17.78 (1)
where T
20mm
= high pavement design temperature at a
depth of 20 mm
T
air
= seven-day average high air temperature; Lat = the
projects location in degrees latitude

Evaluation of Binders
Three normal binders( VG-10, VG-30 and VG-40) and
three modified binders ( PMB 40, PMB 70 and CRMB
55) were evaluated as per relevant Indian standards
(IS:73-2006 and IS:15462-2004) . Results of tests
conducted on normal and modified binders are given in


Table 2 and 3. From the above, it is observed that all the
binders evaluated for different test parameters satisfy the
requirements as per standards.

Evaluation of Rheological Parameters Using Dynaimc
Shear Rheometer
Bitumen binders are visco-elastic in nature and its
behaviour is influenced by temperature and loading
frequency. As binder are subjected to pavement
temperature during its service life, it is necessary to
characterize binders over the range of pavement service
temperatures. As binder contribute towards resisting rutting
and fatigue failures, it is also necessary to identify
appropriate characteristics of binders that can be used to
explain the fatigue and rutting performance of binders. A
number of researchers have identified complex modulus
(G*) and phase angle () parameters would explain the
both rutting and fatigue behavior of the binder. Complex
modulus is a measure of the total resistance of a material to
deformation when repeatedly sheared. The phase angle
indicates the relative magnitude of recoverable and non-
recoverable deformation of binder. Dynamic shear
rheometer (DSR) is used extensively for evaluating the
rheological properties such as G* and phase angle of
bituminous binders (AASHTO TP5, 1988).

DSR is used to evaluate the binder response by subjecting a
thin bitumen film to oscillatory (sinusoidal) stresses at
constant temperature and frequency. The Principle of DSR
is illustrated in Fig.1. Binder film (1 or 2 mm as case may
be) is sandwiched between two parallel circular plates.
Bottom plate is fixed and top plate oscillates at a given
frequency. Fig.2 shows typical variation of shear stress and
shear strain during a DSR test. For a given frequency and
temperature, two main parameters, complex shear modulus
(G*) and phase angle () are determined from shear
stresses and corresponding strains and log between them.
Complex modulus is computed using equation 2.
Complex modulus,
G* = (
max
-
min
) / (
max
-
min
) (2)

Where,
max
and
min
are maximum and minimum shear
stresses respectively,
max
and
min
are maximum and
minimum shear strains respectively.
Phase angle () is the lag between the applied shear stress
and the resulting shear strain (see Fig.2). For typical paving
binders, the complex modulus (G*) value ranges from 500
to 6000Pa and phase angle ranges from 50 to 90
0
. For
evaluation of rheological parameters of binder i.e complex
modulus and phase angle, unpaged and RTFO aged binders
were tested in DSR at different temperatures and angular
frequency of 10 rad/s (corresponds to a traffic speed of
about 90 km/hr). Photograph 1 shows the Dynamic Shear
Rheometer used for evaluating rhelogical parameters of
binder.

Photo-1: Dynamic Shear Rheometer used for Evaluating
Rhelogical Parameters of Binder

Rheological parameters of VG 30 unaged and aged
(RTFO and PAV) binder at different temperature is
given in Table 4 to Table 6. From the above, VG 30
binder is expected to performance better up to 64
0
C
(higher temperature G*/ sin - 1 kPa for unaged
binder) and 19
0
C ( intermediated temperature- G* sin -
5000 kPa for PAV binder) and -24
0
C (low temperature-
extrapolated from intermediate temperatures). Therefore
VG 30 binder can be assigned as equivalent to PG 64-24.
Similarly for other binders G * and sin values at
different temperatures and angular frequency of 10
rads/sec were evaluated. The maximum service
temperature of different unaged binders satisfying the
G*/sin value of 1.00 kPa as per Superpave specifications
were noted from this data and presented in Table 7. The
intermediate and low temperature values of the different
binders were obtained are also presented in Table 7.
From these data, equivalent PG grade of the binders
considered in this study were obtained and reported in
the Table 7.
Maximum and minimum air temperatures of these
regions were obtained from meterological department
and are shon in Photograph 2.. From these temperatures,
pavement temperatures were estimated using Superpave
pavement temperature prediction model (eauation:1).
Table 8 gives the details of air temperature, average
latitude of different regions and corresponding pavement
temperature obtained from the model. Also presents the
equivalent PG grade for each region and actual grade of
binder to be used that includes bumping ( one grade
higher) for higher traffic. Superpave recommends
increasing the high temperature grade by one grade when
the design traffic level exceeds 30 million ESALs (see
Table 8). Bituminous binders are classified by viscosity
grading in India and a number of empirical tests are
specified as per Indian standards. No proper guidelines
are available for selection of binder for pavement
construction at a given location. Superpave recommends
performance based grading of binder with number of
performance tests on binder to control different


pavement distresses and uses pavement temperature and
traffic parameters for selecting binder for a region.

Photo-2:Regional temperature distribution for India

From the present study, normal and modified binders used
in India, which are presently classified based on viscosity
and other methods, are converted in terms of performance
grade (PG) binders. Rheological parameters of the binders
and SHRP guidelines are the main criteria for obtaining
equivalent PG grade. Based on altitude and air temperature
of different regions of India, expected pavement
temperatures were estimated and based on this appropriate
grade of binder to be used was suggested for better
performance.

REFERENCES
AASHTO MP1 (1998). Standard Specification for
Performance Graded Asphalt Binder. American
Association of State Highway & Transportation
Officials Washington, DC.
AASHTO PP1 (1988). Standard Practice for Accelerated
Aging of Asphalt Binder Using a Pressurized Aging
Vessel (PAV). American Association of State
Highway & Transportation Officials Washington,
DC.
AASHTO TP5 (1988). Standard Test Method for
Determining the Rheological Properties of Asphalt
Binder Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer,
American Association of State Highway &
Transportation Officials Washington, DC.
AASHTO TP3 (2000). Standard Test Method for
Determining the Fracture Properties of Asphalt
Binder in Direct Tension (DT), American
Association of State Highway & Transportation
Officials Washington, DC.
ASTM D 4402 06, Standard Test Method for Viscosity
Determination of Asphalt at Elevated Temperatures
Using a Rotational Viscometer.
ASTM D2872 (2004). Standard Test Method for Effect
of Heat and Air on a Moving Film of Asphalt
(Rolling Thin-Film Oven Test.)
BIS: 73 (2006). Specifications for Viscosity Grade
Paving Bitumen, Bureau of Indian standards, New
Delhi.
BIS: 15462 (2004). Specification for Polymer and
Rubber Modified Bitumen, Bureau of Indian
standards, New Delhi.
IRC: SP: 53 (2010), Specification for Modified Bitumen,
Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
Kandhal, P.S (2005). Selection of Bitumen for Paving
Highways in India, Vol. 33, Indian Highways,
pp.17-27.
MoRTH (2001): Specifications for Roads and Bridge
Works, 4
th
edition, New Delhi.
SP-1 (2003), Superpave Series No.1, Superpave
Performance Graded Asphalt Binder Specification
and Testing, Asphalt Institute, 3rd Edition, Research
Park Drive, Lexington, KY.

Table 1 Binder sample preparation and test procedure for binder characterization
Binder Binder characterisation
Condition of the
Binder
Equipment used for sample
preparation
Parameter Equipment Test Procedure
Unaged/ original --------
Viscosity Rotational Viscometer ASTM D 4402
Flash Point Cleveland Open Cup AASHTO T 48
G* & sin G*/ sin Dynamic shear Rheometer AASHTO TP 5
Short tem aged Rolling Thin Film oven
G* and sin
G*/ sin
Dynamic shear Rheometer AASHTO TP 5
Long term aged Pressure aging Vessel
G* and sin
G*sin
Dynamic shear Rheometer AASHTO TP 5
Creep stiffness Bending Beam Rheometer AASHTO TP1
Direct Tension Direct Tension Tester AASHTO TP 3

RECENT ADVANCES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING-2011
35

Table 2: Results of tests conducted on normal binders (IS: 73, 2006)
Parameter Test Method
VG-40 VG-30 VG-10
Result Spec. Result Spec. Result Spec.
Absolute Viscosity at 60
0
C, P IS: 1206 (Part 2) (1978) 4250 min 3200 3228 min 2400 1296 min 800
Kinematic Viscosity at 135
0
C, cSt IS: 1206 (Part 3) (1978) 721 min 400 528 min 350 312 min 250
Penetration at 25
0
C, 100g, 5s,
0.1mm
IS: 1203 (1978) 43 40-60 62 50-70 90 80-100
Softening Point (R&B),
0
C IS: 1205 (1978) 65 min 50 57 min 47 48 min 40

Table 3: Results of tests conducted on modified binders (IS: 15462, 2004)
Parameter Test Method
PMB-40 PMB-70 CRMB-55
Result Spec. Result Spec. Result Spec.
Penetration at 25
0
C, 100g, 5s, 0.1mm IS:1203 (1978) 41 30-50 59 50-90 47 Max 50
Softening point (R&B),
0
C IS: 1205 (1978) 62 Min 60 54 Min 55 59 Min 60
Elastic recovery of half thread in ductilometer at 15
0
C, % IS:15462, Annex-A (2004) 72 Min 70 75 Min 70 55 Min 50
Separation, difference in softening point (R&B),
0
C IS:15462, Annex-B (2004) 2 Max 3 2 Max 3 3 Max 4
Viscosity at 150
0
C, P IS:1206 (Part I) (1978) 7.2 3-9 5.9 2-6 5.6 Max 4

Table 4 Rheological parameters of VG 30 binder at different temperatures (unaged)
Temperature
0
C Complex modulus (G*) kPa Phase angle () G*/ sin (kPa)
46 17.80 84.15 17.89
52 6.52 85.67 6.53
58 2.74 86.46 2.74
64 0.98 86.75 0.98
70 0.68 86.52 0.68

Table 5 Rheological parameters of VG 30 binder at different temperatures (RTFO aged)
Temperature
0
C Complex modulus (G*) kPa Phase angle () G*/ sin (kPa)
46 39.53 81.14 40.01
52 14.80 84.07 14.88
58 5.55 85.89 5.57
64 2.07 87.18 2.07
70 1.06 87.74 1.06

Table 6 Rheological parameters of VG 30 binder at different temperatures PAV aged)
Temperature
0
C
Complex modulus (G*) kPa
Phase angle
()
G*sin (kPa)
22 3652 56.41 3040
19 5775 52.92 4600
16 9290 48.96 7015
13 13900 44.95 9817
10 21808 40.52 14205

Table 7 Service temperatures of different binders and Performance Grade
Viscosity grade (VG)
Temperature(
0
C)
Performance grade
(PG)
Maximum
Intermediate
(PAV aged)
Low
(SP-2)
unaged RTFO aged
VG-10 56 57 13 -30 PG58-30
VG-30 63 62 19 -24 PG64-24
VG-40 76 82 25 -18 PG82-18
PMB-40 83 83 34 -12 PG82-12
PMB-70 73 72 25 -18 PG76-18
CRMB-55 82 83 34 -12 PG82-12

36

Table 8: PG Binder selection guide table

Fig.1: Principle of Dynamic Shear Rheometer

Fig.2: Typical Stress vs Strain Response in DSR Test

Region Average
Latitude
Average
max. air
temp(
o
C)
Average
pavement
temp(
o
C)
Equivalent PG grade for
normal traffic <(10^7
ESAL)
Binder for high traffic >(3*10^7)ESAL
(Bumping)
PG Grade Equivalent
Indian Grade
1 23.5
o
38 50 PG 52-24 PG 64-24 VG-30
2 28
o
42 54 PG 58-18 PG 70-18 PMB-70
3 20
o
40 52 PG 58-18 PG70-18 PMB-70
4 14
0
39 51 PG 52-24 PG 64-24 VG-30
5 32
o
32 44 PG 46-30 PG 58-30 VG-10
Appl i ed shear
st r ess or st r ai n
Rot at i ng pl at e
Fi xed pl at e
Bi t umen f i lm
min
min
max
max
t i me
t i me
Shear st r ess,
Shear st r ai n,
Phase angle, = t.
= angul ar f r equency
Ti me l ag, t

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN NITRATE REMOVAL TECHNIQUES
FROM WATER
P.K. Singh
Corresponding author, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, I.T., B.H.U. Varanasi-221005, email:
dr_pksingh1@rediffmail.com
Y.C. Sharma

Associate Professor, Department of Applied Chemistry, I.T., B.H.U., Varanasi-221005.
A. L. Srivastav

Research Scholar, Department of Applied Chemistry, I.T., B.H.U., Varanasi-221005

ABSTRACT: Nitrate contamination of the groundwater is a cause of concern throughout the world, and India
is not an exception to it. More than 95% of the rural population and about 30 to 40% of the urban population in
India depends on ground water for their domestic requirements. Use of nitrogenous fertilizers in agricultural
practices and seepages from domestic wastewaters appear the major sources of nitrate contamination of ground
water. The desirable and permissible limits for nitrate in drinking water are 45 mg NO
3
-
/L in India. Nitrate
contamination of drinking water is problematic due to its harmful biological effects. High concentrations can
cause methemoglobinemia, and have been cited as a risk factor in developing gastric an intestinal cancer. Due to
these heath risks, a great deal of emphasis has been placed on finding effective treatment processes to reduce
nitrate concentrations to safe levels. This paper attempts to summarize the nitrate contamination status of ground
waters in India, reported health risks associated with consuming high nitrate containing waters, and updated
stage of nitrate treatment technologies for drinking water. Widely accepted nitrate removal methods including
chemical reduction, biological denitrification, adsorption, ion exchange, and reverse osmosis have been
discussed and new developments in the area using electro dialysis, combined processes and inorganic ion
exchange materials for point of entry (POE) and point of use (POU) treatment systems have been reported.

Keywords: Nitrate removal technologies, PRB, RO, Inorganic ion exchange, Hydrous metal oxides (HMOs).

INTRODUCTION
More than 95% of the rural and about 30 to 40% of
the urban population in India depend on ground water
for their domestic requirements. Ground water
contamination is a worldwide problem that has
economic and human health impacts (WHO, 2002).
Inorganic anions of nitrate, arsenic and fluoride have
been found in potentially harmful concentrations in
drinking water sources (Smith et al., 2002; Petrovic et
al., 2003; Velizarov et al., 2004). Nitrate, due to its
high water solubility, is possibly the most widespread
groundwater contaminant in the world, imposing a
serious threat to drinking water supplies and
promoting eutrophication (Majumdar and Gupta,
2000). Point and non-point sources of nitrate
contamination include agricultural and urban runoff,
disposal of untreated sanitary and industrial wastes in
unsafe manner, leakage from septic systems, landfill
leachate, animal manure, NOx air stripping waste
from air pollution control devices (Bhatnagar and
Sillanpa, 2011). High concentrations of nitrate in
drinking water may cause methemoglobinemia, and
have been cited as a risk factor in developing gastric
an intestinal cancer. Nitrate ion is a precursor of
carcinogen and also causes diabetes (Kostraba et al.,
1992).The epidemiologic evidence of linkages
between drinking water nitrate and risk of specific
cancers, adverse reproductive outcomes, and other
health outcomes in the context of the current
regulatory limit for this anion in drinking water have
been reviewed recently (Ward et al., 2005).
Due to these heath risks, a great deal of emphasis
has been placed on finding effective treatment
processes to reduce nitrate concentrations to safe
levels. Reducing the amount of chemical fertilizers
in agriculture will help alleviate the problem, and
may not hurt crop yields. With these preventive
methods the concentration of nitrate in the
groundwater may be reduced over time. Biological
denitrification of various descriptions including
based on electrochemical approaches and catalytic
support are found suitable for in situ applications.
Among the physico-chemical methods, whereas
reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, and electro dialysis
are membrane based separation processes for nitrate
removal, ion exchange has been one among the best
available technologies to treat nitrate contaminated
water in ex-situ conditions such as Point of Use
(POU) and/or Point of Entry (POE) treatments.

NITRATE CONTAMINATION STATUS OF
GROUND WATERS IN INDIA
Among the three basic physiogeographic geological
condition the intervening Indo-Gangetic plain has
the greatest risk for nitrate pollution (Lunkad,
1993). Central Ground Water Board (CGWB),
Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India
has enlisted the districts of 18 states where nitrate
level in groundwater exceeds 45 mg NO
3
-
/L. In
Uttar Pradesh, the nitrate affected districts are as
given in Table 1.


ADVERSE HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS OF
HIGH NITRATE CONCENTRATIONS IN
DRINKING WATER
Nitrate in drinking water is associated with a number
of health problems in human beings such as
methemoglobinemia, oral cancer, cancer of colon,
rectum and other gastrointestinal cancers, Alzheimers
disease, Non-Hodgkins lymphoma etc. (Rao and
Puttanna, 2006). In India, methemoglobinemia has
been found prevalent in all age groups in areas of
Rajasthan with high nitrate concentrations in drinking
water (Gupta et al. 1999). Recurrent acute respiratory
tract infections in some areas of Rajasthan have been
attributed to high nitrate concentrations in drinking
water (Gupta et al., 2000). Nitrate in drinking water
has been recognized as a factor for enhanced goiter
incidence in many countries including Bulgaria
(Gatseva et al., 1998). Increased nitrate intake could
also affect the thyroid function. The reason is that the
nitrate-ion (NO
3
-
) alone or in mixture with thiocyanate
(SCN
-
) and perchlorate (ClO
4
-
) shares the same
transport mechanism at the sodium iodide (I
-
)
symporter of thyroid gland and competitively inhibits
the iodide uptake (Tonacchera et al., 2004). This
inhibition could lead to a decrease in thyroid hormone
secretion, followed by an increase in the thyroid-
stimulating hormone. In the end thyroid gland
enlargement (goiter) could occur (Eskiocak et al.,
2005). Nitrate toxicity to human is manifested by
increased levels of methemoglobin and formation of
carcinogenic compounds (WHO, 2007). Excess of
nitrate in water can cause several problems. The effect
of nitrate itself is called primary toxicity. Its high
intake in drinking water causes abdominal pain,
diarrhea, vomiting, hypertension, increased infant
mortality, central nervous systems defects, birth
defects, diabetes, spontaneous abortions, respiratory
tract infections and changes to the immune system
(Samatya et al., 2006). Secondary toxicity of nitrate is
due to microbially reduced reactive nitrite ion in the
intestine. It has been correlated with
methemoglobinemia, especially in infants of age
under 6-7 years. MetHB (methemoglobin) is formed
when nitrite oxidizes the ferrous ion in hemoglobin to
the ferric form. The condition of methemoglobinemia
is characterized by cyanosis, stupor and cerebral
anoxia. Symptoms include bluish grey or brownish
grey skin colour, irritability, and excessive crying in
children (Samatya et al., 2006). In tertiary toxicity, the
reaction between nitrite and secondary or tertiary
amine in acidic medium can result in the formation of
N- Nitroso compounds, some of which are known as
carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic (Samatya et
al., 2006).

NITRATE REMOVAL METHODS FROM
WATER FOR DRINKING PURPOSE
In dealing with the nitrate problem in subsurface
waters, there are two options for achieving safe nitrate
levels for drinking purpose. Firstly, there are non-
treatment techniques that consist of blending
drinking waters, or changing water sources. The
second option is the use of treatment techniques,
such as ion exchange, reverse osmosis, biological
denitrification and chemical reduction etc to
achieve the objectives. Excellent reviews have been
published for nitrate removal from drinking water
(Green and Shelef, 1994; Kapoor and Virarghavan,
1997; Shrimali and Singh, 2001). Nitrate removal
methods in water treatment are basically of two
types: (i) Elimination Processes, and (ii) Separation
Processes. Whereas chemical and biological/
biochemical methods remove nitrate from water by
reductive elimination, reverse osmosis, electro
dialysis, and ion exchange are physicochemical
methods using separation technique for nitrate
removal from water (Singh, 1999). It has been
established that among these processes ion
exchange and biological denitrification are more
acceptable than other technologies. Ion exchange
process is more viable for ground water nitrate
removal while biological denitrification is more
suitable for surface water flows (Kapoor and
Virarghavan, 1997).

Chemical nitrate reduction
In-situ chemical reduction of nitrate is achievable
using zero-valent iron (ZVI). It has been shown that
zero-valent iron (Fe
0
) can serve as an electron donor
to reduce nitrate. Two possible mechanisms are
direct reduction of nitrate by Fe
0
and its indirect
reduction by hydrogen generated by iron corrosion.
Nitrate reduction by Fe
0
is a spontaneous process
under acidic conditions:

For the above reaction to proceed at a significant
rate the solution pH must be low or hydrogen must
be supplied. However, this process has some
disadvantages regarding release ammonium which
must be successively removed. The process does
not evolve rapidly at neutral pH, and formate,
oxalate, citrate, chloride, sulphate, borate and
phosphate acting as ligands on ZVI significantly
reduce nitrate reduction rate (Su and Puls, 2004).
Catalytic reduction process for nitrate removal from
ground water involves use of some specific
catalysts like Pd-Cu/TiO
2
. Centi et al., (2002)
reported works on ground water nitrate elimination
using catalysis which offers various advantages
with respect to conventional technologies. Using a
Pd-Cu-based catalytic membrane, a reaction
temperature below 15
C, a mixed 4:1 CO
2
:H
2
feed
and controlling bulk solution pH by HCl addition, it
was found possible to obtain a nitrate conversion
higher than 80% even with ammonium ion
formation below 0.5 ppm, i.e. the maximum


concentration allowable to meet the requirements for
drinking purposes. However this technology seems to
be effective on small scale application and cannot be
used effectively at a commercial level. Ammonium
ions form as by-product of the reduction in an amount
higher than the allowed limit (0.5 mg/L). Use of a
catalyst in the form of suspended powder causes
problems in catalyst recovery, and water
contamination by suspended particles containing
noble metals.

Biological Denitrification process offers the
possibility of selective reduction of nitrate to nitrogen.
However, the nitrate treated water may be
contaminated with microorganisms and metabolic
substances; hence a final treatment is necessary before
human consumption.

Autotrophic denitrification processes utilize
autotrophic denitrifiers, to reduce nitrate or nitrite to
nitrogen gas. The energy source of the autotrophic
denitrifying microorganisms is derived from inorganic
oxidation-reduction reactions with elements such as
hydrogen or various reduced-sulfur compounds as the
electron donor, while the carbon sources are inorganic
carbon compounds (e.g. CO
2
, HCO
3
-,
etc.).
Autotrophic denitrification using sulfur or sulfur
derivatives has been studied by several investigators
in laboratory and pilot-scale experiments. The
following stoichiometric relationship has been
reported (Green and Shelef, 1994).
(i) Sulphur
55S+50NO
3
-
+38H
2
O+20CO
2
+4NH
4
+

4C
2
H
7
O
2
N+25N
2
+64H
+
+ + 55 SO
4
2-

(ii) Sulfides
5S2- +8NO3- +8H
+

5SO
4
2-
+ 4N
2
+4H
2
O

(iii) Thiosulfate
5S
2
O
3
2-
+8NO
3
-
+H
2
O
4N
2
+ 10SO
4
2-
+2H
-

(iv) Hydrogen
5H
2
+2NO
3
-
N
2
+ 4H
2
O + 2OH
-

Hydrogen, being inherently clean and only very
slightly soluble in water (1.6 mg/L at 20C) may be a
good reactant and hence many investigators have
studied autotrophic denitrification using hydrogen.
Stoichiometrically, 0.35 mg of hydrogen is required
for complete denitrification of 1.0 mg N (Green and
Shelef, 1994).
Heterotrophic denitrification process uses an
organic carbon source as the electron donor. Ethanol
is the most common carbon source used followed by
methanol and acetic acid (Green and Shelef. 1994).
Post treatment is always required since the effluents
from the denitrification reactor contain
microorganisms, carbon source residuals, organic
matters resulting from bacterial activity, nitrites and
no dissolved oxygen. High biomass concentration in
the denitrification reactor is usually obtained by the
biological sludge attachment to solid media, which
is either stationary (fixed bed), moving (rotating
discs), or fluidized (fluidized bed). Schipper et al.,
(2004) worked on the denitrification of ground
water by making denitrifying walls. They are
constructed by digging a trench perpendicular to
groundwater flow and mixing the aquifer material
with organic matter, such as sawdust, which acts as
a carbon source to stimulate denitrification. For
efficient functioning, walls need to be permeable to
groundwater flow.

Permeable Reactive Barrier (PRB) for in situ
Denitrification
PRB is one of the in situ methods for contaminated
ground water treatment. The technology was
developed as a less costly, more effective
alternative to the standard pump-and-treat
methods used to clean up aquifers and soils
contaminated with chlorinated solvents, fuel
hydrocarbons, explosives, nitrates, and toxic
metals. Laboratory studies have shown, however,
that many other contaminants, including nitrate and
nitrite can also be treated using PRB technology
with the selection of the proper reactant (EPA,
1998). Nitrate has been reported to be readily
reduced by metallic iron and has been suggested as
a promising candidate for treatment by iron PRBs
(Moore and Young, 2005). Although most of the
Fe
0
based PRB rely on chemical reduction;
heterotrophic denitrification (HD), autotrophic
denitrification (AD), and a combination of
simultaneous heterotrophic and autotrophic
denitrification (HAD) can also be used in PRB
process.

Autotrophic Denitrification in PRB
Biological process using autotrophic denitrification
(AD) requires no external carbon source and
produces low amounts of biomass. Autotrophic
denitrification using S
0
as an electron donor occurs
by sulfur-oxidizing bacteria such as Thiobacillus
denitrificans and Thiomicrospira denitrificans, and
stoichiometic equation can be expressed as follows:
55S + 20CO
2
+ 50NO
3
-
+ 38H
2
O + 4NH
4
+

4C
5
H
7
O
2
N + 25N
2
+ 55SO
4
2-
+ 64H
+
A negative outcome of sulfur-supported
denitrification is sulfate release and consumption of
alkalinity. Lately, many studies have focused on
preventing the inhibition effect of alkalinity
decrease using limestone and sodium bicarbonate.
Alternatively, various workers have used hydrogen
gas as electron donor for autotrophic denitrification.
Hydrogen-supported AD is a well known and


developed approach. Till et al. (1998) proposed the
use of zero- valent iron, which indirectly produces
hydrogen to support autotrophic denitrification and
showed that increasing the hydraulic retention time
increased the nitrate removal efficiency. Table 4 gives
some of the system descriptions of autotrophic
denitrification.

Heterotrophic Denitrification in PRB
Heterotrophic denitrification is the biological process
in which nitrate is anaerobically converted to nitrogen
gas. Heterotrophic bacteria need an external source of
organic carbon to develop their metabolism. Many
typical simple carbon compounds have been used to
support groundwater denitrification processes, such as
ethanol, methanol and acetate. Recently various
studies have been conducted to evaluate the potential
use of solid carbon (SC) as energy source in
denitrification processes, such as cellulose-based
material and biodegradable polymers, which can act as
permeable reactive barriers (PRB) for in situ
application. Cellulose is the most abundant renewable
resource in the world being a basic component of all
plant materials. Cotton is the purest form of naturally
occurring cellulose with the highest specific external
surface to support the heterotrophic denitrification
(HD) process. Rocca et al. (2005) reported that the use
of cotton provided very good nitrate removal
performance and the nitrate removal ratio increased
with temperature till an optimum of 28
C. However, it
was coupled with an increased release of total organic
carbon (TOC) and bacteria and the performance
decreased with time due to compression of cotton and
reduced permeability.

A field level PRB for in situ denitrification was built
at Bardowei farm, Cambridge, North Island (New
Zealand) in January 1996 using saw dust as reactive
filling material. A 35m long, 1.5m wide and 1.5 m
deep trench (volume 78.75 m
3
) was filled with 40 m
3
of sawdust. During 5 years of observation, although
there was a large decline in denitrifying enzyme
activity, denitrification rates were still sufficient to
account for nitrate removal. Subsequently, due to
increased biomass and reduced permeability, the
ground waters were found to bypass under the wall
(Schipper et al. 2004). The results suggested the
precautions for the use of suspended wall type PRB in
aquifers with coarse textured subsoils. Table 5 shows
various systems using solid carbon supported
denitrification systems.

Gibert et al. (2008) studied seven natural organic
substrate for their possible application in PRB for
denitrification and found that softwood could be one
of the potential filling material for the purpose.

Heterotrophic and autotrophic denitrification (HAD)
Rocca et al., (2005) proposed a new approach
combining the heterotrophic and autotrophic
denitrification (HAD) together. HAD is based on
the use of ZVI coupled with cotton as solid carbon
source. In the system, ZVI reduces dissolved
oxygen (DO) in water and produces cathodic
hydrogen, while cotton acts both as a source of
organic carbon for HD and as solid-carrier for
biofilm formation. At the same time, carbon dioxide
generated by HD can be used as inorganic carbon
source by the microorganisms involved in AD
process simultaneously:

This coupled process provided higher volumetric
nitrate removal ratio (VNR) than HD using cotton
as carbon source and solid support. The process is
shows potentials to remove simultaneously nitrate
and other priority pollutants such as Cr (VI) and
TCE via ZVI reduction (Rocca et al. 2007). For the
case of its in-situ application of HAD, a double-
layer barrier could be suitable as illustrated in Fig.
1. The first layer would be filled with an iron/sand
mix followed by a cotton/sand layer. Mixing with
sand or, if necessary, with gravel assures wall
permeability higher than the aquifer one, avoiding a
wall by-pass. In this application a critical detention
time of 0.6 to 1.0 h in the ZVI zone is required to
assure low (<1 mg) ammonium production. A ratio
between nitrate and phosphorous of 7.5 was found
to be sufficient for no-growth limiting conditions
(Rocca et al., 2008).

Adsorption
In many cases, wells serve small local communities
which cannot be connected to centralized water
treatment units. Comparatively, adsorption seems to
be a more attractive method for the removal of
nitrate in terms of cost, simplicity of design and
operation. Different adsorbents have been tested for
the removal of nitrate from water. Selection of a
suitable adsorbent media for NO3
-
removal from
water generally depends on several factors
including,
(1) The range of initial NO3
-
concentrations,
(2) Other competing ions and their concentration in
water,
(3) Optimization of adsorbent dose,
(4) Adjustment of pH in water, and
(5) Proper operation and maintenance.
Bhatnagar and Sillanpa (2011) compiled a list of
several materials which have been explored as
adsorbent for NO
3
-
removal from water (Fig.2). It
included double layered hydroxides/hydrotalcite-
type compounds and modified chitosan.
Agricultural wastes, after surface modification,
have also been explored for NO
3
-
removal and, in


some cases, these wastes show an appreciable
potential for NO
3
-
removal. However, during chemical
treatment of adsorbent, one should not ignore the cost
factor. Low production cost with higher removal
efficiency would make the process economical and
efficient.

Thus, selection of a suitable adsorbent for effective
NO
3
-
removal is a complex task. A particular sorbent
which shows higher uptake of NO
3
-
in the laboratory,
may fail in field conditions.
Conventionally, nitrate removal by different
adsorbents has been employed using micron-sized
particles, however, in recent years; nanotechnology
has emerged as one of the attractive technologies for
water treatment. The benefits of using nano-materials
may derive from their self-assembly, large surface
area and enhanced reactivity (Hristovski et al., 2007)
and can be potentially utilized for water remediation
(Zhao et al., 2010). Islam and Patel (2009)
investigated the ability of MgAlCl hydrotalcite-like
compound for the removal of nitrate from synthetic
nitrate solution. At an initial nitrate concentration of
10 mg N/L using 0.3 g of adsorbent in 100mL of
nitrate solution, a removal of 87.6% under neutral
condition was observed.

Ion Exchange Process
Ion exchange involves the passage of nitrate loaded
water through a resin base containing strong base
anion exchanger resins on which nitrate ions are
exchanged for chloride until the resins exchange
capacity exhausted.
Available technical data, experience and economies
indicate that ion exchange process is most suitable
method for ground water supply for its simplicity
effectiveness, recovery and relatively low cost .
Peter et al., (1987) had used three strong base anion
exchangers Duolite A 161, Duolite A 165 and
Amberlite IRA 996 for removal of nitrate from
drinking water and found them to be more nitrate
selective than sulphate in treating high nitrate
concentration in potable water. Biological
denitrification reactor was used for removal of nitrate
from regenerant, reducing nitrate to N
2
gas. In this
combination of ion exchange and biological
denitrification, regeneration was possible in 6 hr at a
flow rate of 11 bed volumes/ hr. Ion exchange
processes suffers from three difficulties. The first is
the production of large amounts of waste with high
concentration of nitrate, sulfate and chloride or
bicarbonate concentrations, having disposal problems
and are found unfit from both financial as well as
environmental point of view. The second problem in
ion exchange process is of selectivity. Other problem
associated with the use of ion exchange technique for
the removal of nitrates is the increase in both
corrosiveness (due to chloride ions) and
aggressiveness (low alkalinity) of water due to the
replacement of nitrate, sulfate and bicarbonate ions
(Richard, 1989). Vaaramaa and Lehto (2003)
worked on the ion exchange process and evaluated
five organic and three inorganic resins for efficient
removal of transition metals and other anions The
Strong Base Anion (SBA) exchanger was found to
remove nitrate from feed ground water. Samatya et
al., (2006) used nitrate selective ion exchange
resins, Purolite A 520 E and presented experimental
results showing nitrate removal from water.
Chabani et al. (2006) studied the kinetic modeling
of nitrate removal from ground water by ion
exchange resin (Amberlite IRA 400) and observed
that diffusion of nitrates into pores of the resin was
not the only rate-controlling step and results of the
intra-particle diffusion and the film diffusion
models showing the film diffusion as the main rate-
limiting step. Freundlich isotherms indicated
maximum sorption capacity of the resin to be
769.2mg/g at 25 C.

Reverse Osmosis
Reverse Osmosis (RO) a process for the removal of
dissolved ions from water in which pressure is used
to force the water through a semi permeable
membrane element which will pass the water but
reject most of the dissolved materials. This method
has better economy, large automation possibilities,
lower level in feed and control parameter and there
is no need for post treatment. However this
technology is relatively expansive and usually
applicable for medium and small scale application.
It merely displace nitrate into brine solution having
disposal problem. Schoeman et al., (2003) have
studied the nitrate removal by reverse osmosis in
rural areas of South Africa. It was demonstrated that
the RO process could be very effectively applied for
water denitrification and water desalination in a
rural area. Nitrate-nitrogen was reduced from 42.5
mg/L in the RO feed to only 0.9 mg/L in the RO
product water. The TDS of the RO feed was
reduced from 1292 mg/L to 24 mg/L in the RO
permeate. Therefore, excellent quality water could
be produced for potable purposes.
RO and NF are known as high pressure membrane
processes whereas UF and MF are known as low
pressure membrane processes (Xu and Chellam,
2005). NF falls between RO and UF, and its
separation characteristics are based on sieve effect.
But, as most commercial NF membranes are
charged, so the rejection of ions by NF membranes
is the consequence of the combination of
electrostatic and steric interaction associated with
charge shielding, Donnan exclusion and ion
hydration (Peeters et al. 1998) . Moros et al. (2005)
reported performance of three commercial
nanofiltration membranes (NF90 and NF 270, Dow-
FilmTec; ESNA1-LF, Hydranautics) in the removal
of nitrate ions from model solution and ground


water in Spain. NF90 membrane is designed to
remove high percentage of nitrate ions, NF270 is
commonly used for hardness removal, and ESNA1-LF
is a new membrane characterized by its low energy
consumption. NF90 and ESNA1-LF showed good
nitrate rejection results (over 90%) with model
solution in nitrate concentration range of 50- 150 mg
NO
3
-
/L, but important differences were observed
while working with ground water. Thus, pilot plant
studies were felt essential before selecting the best
suited membrane (Moros et al., 2005).
Other Upcoming Processes

Electro-dialysis
USEPA has identified reverse osmosis and electro
dialysis along with ion- exchange as the "best
available technologies" for nitrate removal, and water
treatment costs for both of reverse osmosis and electro
dialysis were reported to be equivalent. Nitrate
removal from ground water using reverse osmosis
ranges from $ 1.55/m
3
treated in small systems to $
0.40/m
3
treated in large systems, when nitrate
concentration is reduced from 100 mg N/L to 10 mg
N/L. Cost could be expected to be 20 -50% lower if
nitrate levels in raw water is about 50 mg N/L only
(USEPA, 1991). The ED combines the advantages of
selectivity and low chemical demand (Hell et al.
1998). RO and ED have large automation possibilities.
Lower nitrate levels in feed, ease of controls for
process parameters and not needing excessive post
treatment are advantages of RO and ED (Elmidaoui
and Elhannouni, 2002). Sahli et al., (2005) conducted
experiments to optimize condition of nitrate removal
from ground water employing electro dialysis process,
using a pilot plant having a capacity 24 m
3
/d. The
optimization was carried out on the basis of
correlation between demineralization-denitrification,
recovery rates, and power and reagent consumptions.
Electro dialysis operation was conducted continuously
during an extended period, under optimized conditions
to control the constancy of the electro dialysis plant
performances. Optimized technical and economical
conditions were proposed to reduce nitrate from
groundwater. However this process is relatively
expansive compared to biological denitrification and
ion exchange. One drawback is the saturation of
membrane surface with charge ion and it is to be
cleaned intermittently by reversing the polarity. It is
mainly suitable for ultra pure water. Elyanow (2005)
discussed Electro dialysis reversal (EDR) process and
described advances in EDR membranes, systems and
performance in nitrate removal. The EDR system
periodically reverses the polarity of the electrical field,
and consequently the dilute and concentrates
compartments, to help flush scale forming ions off the
membrane surface and minimize membrane cleaning.
It was noted that the improvements to the spacer that
allow better transport of nitrate to the membrane
surface have more of an economic impact on the
system with respect to emphasizing enhanced
membrane selectivity alone. Kabay et al. (2006)
reported the effects of process parameters on
separation performance of nitrate by electro dialysis
and found that the percent removal of nitrate with
electro dialysis method decreased at low initial
concentration of nitrate and it increased when the
concentration in the feed solution increased. The
operation time became short when a high potential
was applied. Menkkouchi Sahli et al. (2006)
reported technical optimization of nitrate removal
from ground water from Morocco using an ED pilot
plant of 24 m
3
/h flow. CMX-Sb cation exchange
membrane (64 no.) and ACS anion exchange
membranes (60 no.) were used in the pilot plant.
Menkkouchi Sahli et al. (2008) compared the nitrate
removal from brackish ground water by chemical
adsorption using chitosan and electro dialysis. The
results indicated that the chitosan adsorbent
removed 12 mg NO
3
-/g in a retention time of 10
minutes and from electro dialysis different quality
can be obtained with changes in driving force or ED
time. A water safe with respect to nitrate could be
obtained at a demineralization rate of 50%, but
other parameters still exceeded the permissible
limits for potable water. Overall good potable water
could be obtained at a demineralization rate of 70%.

Combined Processes
Some researchers have tried to use a combination of
two basic approaches to optimize the process.
Ayyasamy et al., (2007) used a two-stage nitrate
removal system- one biological and the other a
chemical treatment using a coagulant. For the
biological system, the effect of carbon sources on
nitrate removal was first investigated using mineral
salt medium (MSM) containing 500 mg/L nitrate to
select the most effective carbon source. Starch was
used as a representative carbon source and nitrate
removal was observed in MSM solution and
groundwater samples containing 500 mg/L and 460
mg/L nitrate respectively. About 86% and 89% of
nitrate were removed from the MSM solution and
groundwater samples respectively at 72 h. Chemical
coagulants such as alum, lime and poly aluminum
chloride were tested for the removal of nitrate
remaining in the samples. Among the coagulants,
lime at 150 mg l
1
exhibited the highest nitrate
removal efficiency with complete disappearance
from the MSM solutions. Thus, a combined system
of biological and chemical treatments was found
effective in complete removal of nitrate from
groundwater. Das and Chaudhary (2005) have
studied the electrochemical denitrification of
ground water with an objective to maximize the
nitrate transformation to nitrogen gas. They used
aluminium, graphite, iron and titanium as an
electrode. While aluminum, iron and titanium
electrodes showed 7097% nitrate reduction, with


graphite electrode the removal was only 8%. Nitrate
was transformed to ammonia with iron and aluminum
electrodes but with titanium electrodes, nitrogen was
apparently the major end product. Shin and Cha
(2008) have evaluated the nitrate removal efficiency
employing microbial reduction in the presence of
Nanoscale Zero Valent Iron (NZVI) to assess the
feasibility of employing NZVI in the biological nitrate
treatment. Nitrate was completely removed or reduced
within 3 days in a Nanoscale Fe(0)-cell reactor , while
only 50 % of the nitrate was abiotically reduced over 7
days at 25C. The removal rate of nitrate was
unaffected by the presence of high amount of
sulphate. It has been indicated that Fe (II), might act
as an electron donor which is produced during
anaerobic corrosion in the Fe(0) cell system,
supported by anaerobic culture in 14 day. This study
demonstrated the potential applicability of employing
NZVI iron as a source of electrons for biological
nitrate reduction. For microbial nitrate reduction
associated with one disadvantages is that it relies on
organic substrate or explosive hydrogen gas.

Inorganic Ion Exchange
Ball and Harries (1988) reported that anion exchange
resins are less stable than cation exchange resins and
undergo a degradation of the exchange group in
service. Strongly basic groups of anion exchange
resins undergo thermal degradation over 20-80
o
C,
with a consequent loss of capacity. They are also more
susceptible to foulants. Gonder et al (2006) reported
capacity loss in an organically fouled anion exchanger
and observed that anion exchange resins are more
sensitive to fouling by organic materials.
Under such situations, a need to search for inorganic
ion exchange materials for possible application in
drinking water treatment was felt. The available
literature indicates that there are very few inorganic
materials which show nitrate removal properties by
ion exchange. Fritche (1993) reported nitrate and other
anions removal from aqueous solutions using yellow
bismuth hydroxide precipitate and inferred ion
exchange as the possible mechanism. Kodama (1993)
developed a new inorganic anion exchanger from
thermal decomposition of basic bismuth nitrate and
used it to remove iodide for conc. <2.0 moles/L. Singh
(1999) made a detailed study on the possibility of
using various bismuth compounds for nitrate removal
from water. The study indicated that hydrous bismuth
oxides (HBOs) have definite potentials for nitrate
removal from water and ion exchange of nitrate with
embedded chloride might be the possible mechanism
of nitrate removal. Singh and Ghosh (2000) reported
nitrate removal potentials of various bismuth
compounds and showed that the polymeric forms of
hydrous bismuth oxide are more efficient in nitrate
removal. Singh et al. (2010) studied different hydrous
metal oxides (HMOs) for their potentials in removal
of arsenic, fluoride and nitrate from water. Bhatnagar
et al (2010) studied the adsorption feasibility of
nano-alumina for nitrate removal from aqueous
solutions. The maximum nitrate sorption capacity of
nano-alumina was found 4.0 mg/g at 252 C at pH
4.4. Singh et al. (2011) reported the nitrate removal
potentials of hydrous bismuth oxides (HBOs) and
by XRD, FTIR and pH
PZC
analyses of materials,
delineated the roles of hydroxide and chloride
present in the system.

Concluding Remarks
Nitrate contamination of the groundwater is a cause
of concern throughout the world. Nitrate, due to its
high water solubility is possibly the most
widespread groundwater contaminant in the world,
imposing a serious threat to drinking water supplies
and promoting eutrophication. Widely accepted
nitrate removal technologies include chemical and
catalytic reduction, biological denitrification,
adsorption, ion exchange, reverse osmosis and
electro dialysis. Ion exchange, RO, and ED are
approved as Best Available Technologies (BAT) to
treat NO
3
contaminated water by USEPA (Canter,

1997; Haugen, 2002). Removal of nitrate using
resin based ion exchange materials is technically
feasible but in the area of drinking water treatment
it faces many difficulties. Several workers reported
organic fouling and consequent capacity loss of ion
exchange materials. Thermal instability and
bacteriological degradation potentials of resin based
filters are the major problems in drinking water
treatment application. Hence search for inorganic
materials for the purpose is of high importance.
Various inorganic materials including hydrous
metal oxides (HMOs) have been reported to remove
nitrate removal from water. Nano alumina and
hydrous bismuth oxide (HBO) powders are being
evaluated for the purpose. As rightly observed by
Habuda-Stanic et al. (2008), in water treatment, an
adsorption technology includes simultaneous
processes of adsorption and filtration. Various
hydrous oxides of metals have been found to have
excellent adsorptive properties, but, they are
available only as fine powders or are generated in
situ as gels, which causes difficulties when it comes
to their separation in water treatment process. Thus,
finding an optimal carrier that will enable the
contaminant removal by column adsorption is an
objective of many investigations. This remains the
challenge in the contemporary ground water
contaminants treatment for drinking purpose at
point of entry (POE) and point of use (POU) scale
applications.

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Table 1: Districts of Uttar Pradesh having more than 45 mg NO
3
-
/L in ground waters

State Districts
Uttar Pradesh

Agra, Aligarh, Allahabad, Ambedkar Nagar, Auraiya, Badaun, Baghpat, Balrampur, Banda,
Barabanki, Bareilly, Basti, Bijnor,Bulandshahr, Chitrakoot, Etah, Etawa, Fatehpur, Firozabad,
GB Nagar, Ghaziabad, Ghazipur, Hamirpur, Hardoi, Jaunpur, Jhansi, Kannauj, Kanpur Dehat,
Lakhimpur, Mahoba, Mathura, Meerut,Moradabad, Muzaffarnagar, Raebareli, Rampur, Sant
Ravidas Nagar, Shahjahanpur, Sitapur, Sonbhadra, Sultanpur, Unnao
(Source: CGWB, 2010)
Table 2: Important features of different techniques for nitrate removal from water
S.N. Nitrate Removal
Technologies
Important features
1. Chemical methods No waste disposal is required.
pH and temperature effects are important.
Post treatment is required due to production of by products.
Maximum reported efficiency >60-70%.
High operational cost.
2. Biological methods Requires biomass waste disposal.
Temperature effect is important.
Post-treatment is required due to microorganisms.
>99 % efficiency can be achieved.
Medium operational cost.
3. Adsorption Requires saturated/spent adsorbent disposal.
pH and temperature effects are important.
Post treatment is often not required.
Removal efficiency varies with different adsorbent.
4. Ion exchange Requires waste brine disposal.
pH and temperature effects are not important.
Post treatment is required due to corrosivity of product water.
Approx. 90 % efficiency can be achieved.
5. Reverse osmosis Requires high TDS disposal
pH and temperature effects are not important.
Post treatment is required due to corrosivity of product water.
>95 % efficiency can be achieved.
High operational cost.
(Source: Bhatnagar and Sillanpa, 2011)

Table 3: A comparative view of nitrate removal efficiencies from ground water
Methods Nitrate Removal Efficiency
(%)
Chemical methods >60-70
Biological methods >99
Adsorption Varies with the different adsorbents
Ion-exchange ~90
Reverse osmosis >95
(Source: Bhatnagar and Sillanpa, 2011)


Table 4: Different autotrophic denitrification systems

a
VNR: Volumetric nitrate removal ratio (Source: Rocca et al. 2007)

Table 5: Different solid carbon supported denitrification systems (Rocca et al., 2007)

Fig 1: Potential permeable reactive barrier application of the HAD (Rocca et al. 2007)

Fig.2: Origin of different adsorbents of nitrate removal from water (Source: Bhatnagar and Sillanpa, 2011)

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF EXPANSIVE SOIL MIXED WITH LIME
AND FLY ASH AS ADDITIVES

Dhirendra Kumar
Former Post Graduate student, Deptt. of Civil Engg, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi.
Suresh Kumar
Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Civil Engg, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
Bala Ramudu Paramkusam
Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Civil Engg, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi

ABSTRACT: It is well known that expansive soils undergo large amounts of heaving and shrinking due to seasonal
moisture changes. The main aim of this research is to determine the optimum lime content (OLC), optimum fly ash content
(OFAC) to reduce the swelling pressure of the expansive soil. For this in the present study the evaluation of the swelling
behavior of expansive soil (black cotton soil) with the addition of lime (1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%) and fly ash (5%, 10%, 15%,
20%, 25%) at different percentages at maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC) state as well as
at 2% OMC. The swelling pressure of mixed soil at each percentage of lime, and fly ash, and finally the optimum content
of lime, fly ash, determine on the basis of minimum swelling pressure of mixed soil. It was found that both lime and fly ash
reduced the swelling pressure, however, the addition of lime reduced the swelling pressure to a greater degree than the fly
ash. Even though it takes much less percentage of lime than percentage of fly ash to reduce the swelling pressure of a highly
expansive soil, it may be less expensive to utilize fly ash, which is a waste product of electric power production plants.

INTRODUCTION
Expansive soils also called swelling soils undergo
harmful volume changes corresponding to alter in
moisture content. The alternate swelling and
shrinkage of expansive soils in alternate wet and dry
seasons cause severe cracking in lightly loaded
structures founded on them such as foundations,
pavements, canal beds and linings. According to
Jones and Holtz 1973, the damage caused due to these
soils is more than any other natural hazards, including
earthquakes and floods.

The expansive soils, which are spread over extensive
areas of India in states, like Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
Tamilnadu posed serious problems for buildings and
roads. The lightweight structures are severely affected
due to high swelling pressure exerted by these soils.
Such type of large scale distress, due to expansive and
shrinking nature of expansive soil, can be prevented
by either obstructing the soil movement and reducing
the swelling pressure of soil or making the structure
sufficiently resistant to damage from soil movement.
There are so many additives such as lime, cement, fly
ash, rice husk, gypsum; geosynthetics etc. are
available to improve the physicochemical properties
of clay soils in order to permanently stabilize them.
But fly ash and lime are easily available and more
economical so it is used in large extent as additive to
improve the strength of expansive soil. Some of the
researchers worked on the stabilization of the
expansive soil and discussed in following. Katti,
(1979) worked on the swelling soil causes due to its
expansive nature due to water, cracks are formed in
buildings, lining etc. He gave the various suggestions

to overcome the problem due to expansive soils using
cohesive non-swelling layer (CNS) layer. Choudhary

(1994) studied the influence of fly ash on the
characteristics of expansive soil and he conclude that
addition of fly ash is observed to increase the
maximum dry unit weight and decrease the optimum
moisture content up to certain fly ash content called
optimum fly ash content and the trend is reversed for
fly ash content exceeding the optimum fly ash
content. Bell (1996) presented a study using the linear
shrinkage test with montmorillonite and different
percentages of additive lime and showed that the
shrinkage decreased with additional lime addition, but
that it was not a linear decrease. Erdal Cokca (2001)
studied the effect of fly-ash on expansive soil and
experimental findings confirmed that the plasticity
index, activity and swelling potential of the samples
decreased with increasing percent stabilizer and
curing time and the optimum content of fly-ash in
decreasing the swell potential was found to be 20%.
Pandian et.al. (2002) studied the effect of two types of
fly ashes Raichur fly ash (class F) and Neyveli fly ash
(class C) on the CBR characteristics of the black
cotton soil. Phanikumar and Sharma (2004) a similar
study was carried out and the effect of fly ash on
engineering properties of expansive soil through an
experimental programme. Al-Rawas et al. (2005)
study the effect of lime, cement, Combinations of
lime and cement, Sarooj (articial pozzolan) and heat
treatment on the swelling potential of Al-Khod
expansive soil. In the present research the efforts have
been put on to study the effect of lime and fly ash
addition on swelling behavior of an expansive soil
with an objective to understand the comparative
efficiency of these two additives.

MATERIALS AND METHOD
An expansive soil (S) obtained from NTPC Mouda,
Nagpur was used and fly ash (FA) obtained from


Anpara thermal power plant. The physical properties
of the expansive soil and fly ash are shown in the
table 1 & 2. The grain size distribution curves of both
expansive soil and fly ash shown in fig. 1 &2. The
lime used in this investigation was purchased from the
local market. The lime (L) was quick lime (CaO)
which was allowed to slake with addition of water
produced hydrated lime (Ca (OH)
2
). Expansive soil
has been mixed with different proportion of lime, and
fly ash at OMC (23%), at dry condition i.e. 2% less
than OMC (21%), at wet condition i.e. 2% more than
OMC (25%) to evaluate its swelling pressure. The
preparation of mix and designation shown in table 3.

Table 1: Physical properties of expansive soil
Properties Values
Liquid limit (%) 68
Plastic limit (%) 20
Shrinkage limit (%) 7.05
Gravel (%) 0
Sand (%) 6
Silt (%) 35
Clay (%) 59
Maximum dry density (g/cc) 1.52
Optimum Moisture content (%) 23
Specific gravity 2.70
UCS (kg/cm
2
) 4.0
Shear stress or cohesion (kPa) 60.20
Angle of internal friction (
o
) 21.5
Coefficient of permeability (cm/sec) 1.5x10
-8

Differential Free Swell (%) 64
Swelling Pressure (kPa) 48.2
soil classification (IS) CH

Table 2: Physical properties of fly ash
Properties Value
Sand particle (%) 22
Silt particle (%) 78
Clay particle (%) 0.0
Maximum dry density (g/cc) 1.104
Optimum Moisture content (%) 28%

For the preparation of sample first expansive soil and
water added at OMC at different percentage of
additives (lime and fly ash) and mix them in tray
properly and compact in a swelling pressure mould as
per IS:2720:2002 Part XLI. Later prepared sample
with assembly were kept in water drum and tested
using swelling pressure apparatus (constant volume
method) and recorded the initial and final proving ring
readings after the proving ring reading become
constant. In the case of expansive soil the swelling
pressure was evaluated based on reading constant
after 10 days. For other tests in case of lime mixed
soil and fly ash mixed soils the reading become
constant after 4 days and corresponding swelling
pressure values reported.

Table 3: Mix designation and description
Mix
designation
Description
M0L Expansive Soil at OMC + 0 % lime
M0FA Expansive Soil at OMC + 0 % fly ash
D0L Expansive Soil at -2% OMC + 0 % lime
D4L Expansive Soil at -2% OMC + 4 % lime
D0FA Expansive Soil at -2% OMC + 0% fly ash
D20FA Expansive Soil at -2% OMC + 20 % fly ash
W0L Expansive Soil at +2% OMC + 0 % lime
W4L Expansive Soil at +2% OMC + 4 % lime
W0FA Expansive Soil at +2% OMC + 0 % fly ash
W20FA Expansive Soil at +2% OMC + 20 % fly ash

At OMC, the swelling pressure of black cotton soil
with lime at 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, and 5% by dry
weight of soil are 48.3, 38.35, 25.3, 10.35, 6.9 and
19.55 kN/m
2
respectively, which are shown in the
table 4. The swelling pressure of black cotton soil
with fly ash at 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25% by
dry weight of soil are 48.3, 44.27, 38.35, 33.35, 27.6
and 52.9 KN/m
2
respectively, which are shown in the
table 4.

At dry condition, the swelling pressure of soil at
without additive, 4% lime, and 20% fly ash are 70.15,
11.5, and 40.25 kN/m
2
respectively which are shown
in table 4. At wet condition, the swelling pressure of
soil at without additive, 4% lime, and 20% fly ash are
20.7, 5.75, 36.8 kN/m
2
respectively which are shown
in table 4. Fig 3-5 show the variations in swelling
pressure values of expansive soil, without additives
and with additives as per the mix designations.

From the above result it is found that the swelling
pressure of soil generally decreases when the additive
content increases. It is also observed that lime is more
effective than fly ash. The decrease in the swelling
pressure may be explained due to the pozzolanic and
cation exchange reaction occurred between the soil
and additive. The reactions in lime and soil may
create the new minerals as the cementatious
component CSH (calcium silicate hydrate), and CAH
(calcium aluminate hydrate). These new products
increase the strength, reduce the swell potential and
change the soil classifications.

CONCLUSIONS
It has been found that from the experimental
programme the swelling pressure is decreasing up to
an optimum content of additives further increase in


1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Clay=60.0 %
Silt=34.0 %
Sand=6.0 %
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

F
i
n
n
e
r

i
n

(

%

)

-
-
-
-
-
Grain Size in( mm) -----
Fig. 1 Grain size distribution curve of soil

Fig. 2 Grain size distribution curve of fly ash

Table 4: Swelling pressure values of soil at OMC
(23%) and OMC with lime and Fly ash
Mix
Swelling
Pressure
( kN/m
2
)
Mix
Swelling
Pressure
( kN/m
2
)
M0L 48.3 M20FA 27.6
M1L 38.35 M25FA 52.9
M2L 25.3 D0L 70.15
M3L 10.35 D4L 11.5
M4L 6.9 D0FA 70.15
M5L 19.55 D20FA 40.25
M0FA 48.3 W0L 20.7
M5FA 44.27 W4L 5.75
M10FA 38.35 W0FA 20.7
M15FA 33.35 W20FA 36.8

0 2 4 6 8 10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
AT WET CONDITION
AT OMC
AT DRY CONDITION
S
w
e
l
l
i
n
g

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

i
n

K
N
/
m
2

-
-
Time in days ---
Fig. 3 Comparison of swelling pressure of expansive
soil with time at dry side of OMC, at OMC, and at
wet side of OMC

0 1 2 3 4 5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
SP=19.55
SP=6.9
SP=10.35
SP=25.3
SP=38.35
SP=48.3
S
w
e
l
l
i
n
g

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
K
N
/
m
2
)
Percentage of lime
Fig. 4 Variation of swelling pressure of soil with lime
at OMC

0 5 10 15 20 25
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
SP=52.9
SP=27.6
SP=33.35
SP=38.35
SP=44.27
SP=48.3
S
w
e
l
l
i
n
g

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
K
N
/
m
2
)
Percentage of fly ash

Fig 5. Variation of swelling pressure of soil with fly
ash at OMC


additives it leads to increase in swelling pressure. The
following are the conclusions
1. On increasing the lime content the swelling
pressure of soil decreases steadily to a lowest
value at 4% and then it increases slightly.
Therefore the optimum Lime content (OLC) is
equal to 4%.
2. On increasing the fly ash content the swelling
pressure of soil decreases steadily to a lowest
value at 20% and then it increases rapidly.
Therefore the optimum fly ash content (OFAC) is
equal to 20%.
3. The swelling pressure of the soil in case of dry
condition is more than the wet condition i.e. the
swelling pressure of soil is decreases with
increase in the moisture content.
4. At optimum lime content, lime retards the
swelling pressure of soil in dry as well as in wet
condition.
5. At optimum fly ash content, fly ash has less role
to retards the swelling pressure of soil in dry and
wet condition.
REFERENCES
Al-Rawas, A.A., Hago, A.W., and Al-Sarmi, H.
(2005). Effect of lime, cement and sarooj
(artificial pozzolona) on the swelling potential of
an expansive soil from Oman. Building and
Environment, Elsevier, Vol.40, 681-687.
Bell, F.G. (1996). Lime stabilization of clay minerals
and soils. Engineering Geology. Vol. 42, 223-
237.
Choudhary, A.K. (1994) Influence of Fly Ash on the
Characteristics if Expansive Soil. Indian
Geotechnical Confrence-1994 on Developments
in Geotechnical Engineering, Warangal, India,
215-218.
Erdal Cokca (2001). Use of class C fly ashes for the
stabilization of an expansive soil. ASCE, Journal
of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering. Vol. 127, 568-573.
Jones, D.E. and Holtz, W.G. (1973). Expansive Soils -
the hidden disaster. Civil Engineering. Vol. 43
No. 8. 49-51.
Katti, R.K. (1979). Search for solutions to problems in
black cotton soils. Indian Geotechnical Journal,
Vol. 9, No. 1.
IS: 2720- 1977 (Reaffirmed 2002) Part XLI.
Measurement of Swelling Pressure of Soil,
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), New Delhi.
Pandian,N.S. Krishna,K.C. and Leelavathamma B.
(2002). Effect of Fly Ash on the CBR Behaviour
of Soils , Indian Geotechnical Conference,
Allahabad,Vol.1, 183-186.
Phanikumar B.R., & Radhey S.Sharma (2004). Effect
of flyash on engineering properties of expansive
Soil. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 130, No.7,
764-767.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7
USE OF MULTIPLICATIVE DECOMPOSITION METHOD FOR BUS
TRAVEL TIME PREDICTION UNDER HETEROGENEOUS TRAFFIC
CONDITIONS
S.Vasantha Kumar
Ph.D Research Scholar, Dept. of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai-36. Email: vasanth_research@yahoo.co.in
Lelitha Vanajakshi
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai-36. Email: lelitha@iitm.ac.in.
ABSTRACT: The provision of expected arrival time of the next bus which requires the prediction of bus travel
time is one of the key areas of advanced public transportation which aims for a congestion free traffic on the
urban roads by increasing the public transport usage. One of the popular tools used for such prediction is using
time series methods. However, most of the reported studies explored the use of advanced time series tools such
as Box-Jenkins Autoregressive (AR), Moving average (MA) or combination of AR and MA models (ARMA,
ARIMA etc.). But there are classical methods in time series analysis like multiplicative decomposition, additive
decomposition etc. developed long before the Box-Jenkins models, which are powerful and even now popular in
many areas such as financial forecasts. However, there are not many reported studies which explored the
usefulness of the decomposition methods for the problem of bus travel time prediction. The present study tries
to explore the usefulness of multiplicative decomposition method for bus travel time prediction under
heterogeneous traffic conditions. The developed model is tested for its accuracy using 41 actual bus trips data in
a particular transit route representing a typical heterogeneous traffic environment in India. The results are found
to be encouraging and the developed model is transferable to a similar environment.
INTRODUCTION
The problem of traffic congestion and ways to tackle
it is a question of serious concern which needs to be
answered in most of the metropolitan cities around the
world and similar situation exists in most urban areas
of India. The use of personal vehicles without any
restriction during procurement stage or usage stage is
the major reason for traffic congestion especially in
India. The total private vehicle population in Chennai,
India is increased from 10 lakhs in 1999 to almost 32
lakhs in 2011 as shown in Fig.1. (THE HINDU dated
March 2, 2010 & Times of India dated July 11, 2011).
This account for about 300 percent rise in private
vehicle population in the last 12 years and everyday
1700 new vehicles are being registered in Chennai
(Times of India dated July 11, 2011). The increase of
private vehicles on the urban roads not only causes
traffic congestion but leads to more accidents. For
example, around 700 people die in road accidents
every year in Chennai and another 5000 gets involved
in mishaps across the city (Deccan Chronicle dated
December 25, 2009). As shown in Fig.1, during the
same period, the public transit buses were not
increased much and the numbers were still reduced
from 4235 in 2009 to 3421 in 2011. The
transportation planners suggests a minimum of 5000-
6000 buses in order to meet the demand of 5.2 million
passengers using public transit services everyday in
Chennai (Times of India dated July 11, 2011). In
Bangalore, 6100 buses are being used every day for a
population of atleast 7 lakhs less than Chennai.
Though it is important to increase the fleet size which
helps to reduce overcrowding during peak hours, this
is not the only solution to make public transport a
more attractive option. More reliable services with
increased comfort and convenience will definitely
attract more users to public transport buses. Provision
of expected arrival time information of buses through
display boards at bus stops/ web, providing real time
information on passenger loading, etc. provided either
pre-trip or en-route can lead to more reliability thus
making public transit a hassle-free mode for urban
commuters.

Fig.1. Growth of private vehicles and public transport
buses in Chennai during 1999 and 2011
The experience in developed countries shows that,
with the introduction of services of these kinds, the
increase in public transport ridership will be evident.
For example, after the introduction of Washington
Metro and Transport for London, the public
transport ridership went up by 18 percent (THE
HINDU dated October 21, 2010). Even in Chennai,
after the introduction of Air-Conditioned buses, more
than 24 percent had shifted from cars and two-
wheelers (THE HINDU dated May 10, 2011). If one
wants to develop a bus arrival time prediction based
on only the time chart/schedule list provided by the
Metropolitan Transport Corporation (MTC) of
Chennai, a prediction error of 30-40 minutes is
observed which is unacceptable from a user
perspective (THE HINDU dated July 26, 2011). The
Google transit, a website which aims to promote
public transport has been recently launched for
Chennai and Hyderabad. It provides the list of bus
services between the user-defined origin and
destination and approximate travel time by public
transit in that route. The major drawback of Google
transit is that, the travel times are not based on real
time data and so the reliability of the travel time
information is a question. In order to make the travel
time/arrival time information more reliable, the
prediction model used behind should be accurate and
should take the real time data as input. The present
study tries to focus on these issues and try to develop
prediction model using one of the classical time series
methods namely, multiplicative decomposition
technique for bus travel time prediction using real
time Global Positioning System (GPS) data from
public transit buses operating in a particular transit
route of Chennai. The objective is to find an accurate
prediction methodology which can overcome the
disadvantages of the popularly used prediction
methods such as Box-Jenkins ARIMA model,
machine learning techniques etc. For example, Box-
Jenkins ARIMA model has many disadvantages such
as stationarity and specialized software requirement,
transferability issues, difficulty in understanding etc.
Machine learning techniques are data driven and
require huge data base for better performance, which
may not be available in many cases such as the
present study. The present study overcomes these
difficulties by using the multiplicative decomposition
method, which is easy to understand, simple to
execute using just spreadsheet program, and is not
site-specific. Moreover, the input time series need not
be stationary. Hence, the present study tries to
concentrate on whether the advantages of
multiplicative decomposition technique can be
utilized for bus travel time prediction under
heterogeneous traffic conditions.

The following section gives a brief review of
important studies in the area of bus arrival time
prediction. The data collection is detailed next
followed by the detailed methodology and results and
discussion.

LITERATURE REVIEW
A brief review of the studies in the area of bus travel
time prediction using data driven techniques and
model based approaches are given below.

The data driven techniques includes regression, time
series and machine learning methods such as neural
network and the model based approach mainly using
Kalman filtering technique. Bo et al. used one month
weekdays bus trip data for developing a linear
regression model for bus arrival time prediction in
Dalian City, China. Jeong developed five regression
models using distance and schedule adherence as
independent variables. The GPS data collected over
six months from Houston metro buses of Texas were
used as the input data. Patnaik et al. used six months
weekday data from Automatic Passenger Counting
[APC] systems, divided into eight categories based on
different time periods of the day as input and
developed the regression model. The time period is
used as a dummy variable in the regression model.
Ramakrishna et al. used only 25 trips as the input for
developing the regression and artificial neural
network (ANN) model under heterogeneous traffic
conditions. Bhandari used seven months of AVL data
of transit buses in New Jersey for developing an Auto
Regressive (AR) time series model for bus arrival
time prediction. Similar to Patnaik et al., the input
data of bus trips were classified based on seven
categories of time periods using starting time of each
trip. Chien et al. used the simulated data from the
morning peak to develop an ANN based bus arrival
time prediction model. Vanajakshi et al. used only
preceding two buses data for predicting the next
vehicle travel time in a model based approach using
Kalman filtering technique (KFT) under
heterogeneous traffic conditions. Dailey et al. used
KFT with input of bus trips data collected on different
days at the same time of the day.

From the above studies, it can be seen that, most of
the prediction models were developed for
homogeneous traffic conditions and only few studies
were concentrated on heterogeneous traffic
conditions. Also, the use of classical time series
methods like multiplicative decomposition was not
attempted yet for bus arrival time prediction. This
clear gap leads to the motivation for the present study
which aims to develop a prediction model using
multiplicative decomposition technique which can be
used for bus travel time prediction under

DATA COLLECTION AND EXTRACTION
The study stretch selected for the present study was
route number 5C, which connects the Parrys bus

depot in the northern part of Chennai, and the
Taramani bus depot in the southern part of Chennai
city. The average time headway between the buses
was 15-30 minutes. The total route length is 15 km
and the approximate travel time to cover the total
stretch is 60 minutes during peak hour and 40 minutes
during off-peak hour. There are 21 bus stops and 14
signalized intersections in this route. The selected
road stretch is a typical representation of an urban
road in India. The total route comprises road links of
different categories like major arterials, and collector
streets with varying volume levels.

Seven public transit buses in route number 5C are
fitted with GPS units and the data reporting is at every
5 sec. Data from a total of 41 trips in the month of
September and December 2010 were used in this
study. One of the previous studies (Kumar et al. 2011)
showed that, for the selected study stretch, the most
significant trips for predicting a current trip are same
day same time trips from one week before (W1), and
two weeks before (W2) and the previous two trips
(PV1, PV2) of the same day. Hence, the data
collection also involved the GPS data of all the trips
during corresponding week1 and week 2 of test dates.

The study stretch of 15 km is divided into 150
sections of each 100m length and the validation of the
proposed methodology involved the comparison of
observed bus travel time with the predicted bus travel
time in each of these subsections, for all the trips.
Hence, the data extraction involved the extraction of
100m section travel times of 41 trips during test dates,
35 trips during week 1 and 38 trips during week 2
after checking for any outliers in the raw GPS data.

METHODOLOGY
The methodology proposed here for bus travel time
prediction uses one of the classical time series method
called multiplicative decomposition technique. The
steps involved in decomposing a time series data
using multiplicative decomposition technique to
predict the test vehicle (TV) travel time, is explained
below.

Steps in Multiplicative Decomposition
The decomposition methods usually try to identify
two separate components of the basic underlying
pattern that tend to characterize the given time series,
namely the trend cycle and seasonal factors. The trend
cycle represents the long term changes in the series.
The seasonal factor is the periodic fluctuations of
constant length. The mathematical representation of
the decomposition approach is,

) , , (
t t t t
e S T f Y

Where,
t
Y is the time series value (actual data) at
period t,
t
T is the trend cycle component at period t,
t
S is the seasonal component (index) at period t, and
t
e is the irregular component at period t. For
multiplicative decomposition method, Eq. (1) takes
the form,

t t t t
e S T Y

The first step in multiplicative decomposition method
is the calculation of seasonal indexes through the use
of simple moving average (MA) and then centered
moving averages (CMA). The idea behind the moving
averages is that the average eliminates some of the
randomness in the data, and leaves a smooth trend-
cycle component, i.e., deseasonalized time series data.
The formula for calculating simple moving average of
order k, or MA (k) is given as,

m
m j
j t
Y
k
k MA
1
) (

Where, 2 / ) 1 ( k m on either side of the time
series. If the order of MA is odd, then CMA is
calculated further by taking average of the two
consecutive moving averages, which will produce a
smooth data free from any seasonal effects. Thus, the
CMAs represent a perfect deseasonalized data.

The degree of seasonality, called seasonal factor (SF)
can be obtained by taking the ratio of the actual value
to the deseasonalized value. That is,

t
t
t
CMA
Y
SF

Now, by averaging seasonal factors of same time
period, which will remove any irregular
components ) (
t
e , seasonal index ) (
t
S can be
obtained for each k for Eq. (2). It is to be noted here
that, the seasonal index provide a useful insight into
the time series being analyzed. The next step is to
calculate the trend cycle component,
t
T . The trend
cycle component requires the deseasonalized data
which can be obtained by dividing the raw data or the
actual value ) (
t
Y , by the seasonal index ) (
t
S . The
method of least squares can then be used to fit a
regression line using deseasonalized data as the
dependent variable and t as the independent
variable, where t varies from 1 to n, and n is the total
number of data points in a time series. Once
t
T and
t
S were calculated, Eq.2 can be used to find the
forecasts for (n+1), (n+2) etc.
(1)
(2)
(4)
(3)


The time series in the present study comprises
section travel times of W1, W2, PV1 and PV2 for
forecasting the section travel times of test vehicle
(TV). Hence, for predicting a particular trip, the input
is a time series consisting of 600 section travel time
values (i.e, 150/trip 4 trips of W1, W2, PV1 and
PV2). Thus for predicting a total of 41 trips in 2
weekdays, 24600 data points will be available. Once
the 100m section travel times of TV are computed,
they were summed up for 500m sections in order to
facilitate the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE)
calculation as explained below.

The validation of the methodology proposed above
involves the comparison of observed bus travel time
with the predicted bus travel time in each of the 30
sections (each of length 500m) of the route, for all the
trips. The Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) is
used as a measure of estimation accuracy and is
calculated using

100
1
1
n
i obs
obs pre
TR
tt
tt tt
n
MAPE

where,
TR
MAPE is the mean absolute percentage
error between observed and predicted travel time for
each trip (TR ranges from 1 to 41). The term
pre
tt
and
obs
tt are the predicted and observed travel times
of the bus in each subsection of the study route
considered and n is equivalent to 30, the total
number of 500m sections in the test route selected.

The MAPE result of multiplicative decomposition
method was compared with the real-time application
method, described as follows. In real-time application
method, the traffic conditions when PV2 passes is
assumed to remain the same till TV passes. The
assumption can be justified since the time headway
between PV2 and TV is in the range of 15-30
minutes. Thus the 500m section travel time of PV2
was assumed to be the predicted 500m section travel
time of test vehicle (TV) and MAPE was calculated
between observed and predicted test vehicle travel
time using Eq. (5) for all the 41 trips. Afterwards, the
MAPE result of real-time application method was
compared with the multiplicative decomposition
method to check the performance of decomposition
method.

While applying the multiplicative decomposition
technique, the moving average of order 150 is taken
(k value in Eq.3) since there are 150 section travel
times available in each trip of the series. Before
presenting the MAPE results of bus travel time
prediction, the results of seasonal index calculated
using Eq. 4 for a sample data is given in Fig.2. The
purpose is to explore the usefulness of seasonal index
for a transit authority.

Fig.2. Seasonal index calculated for a sample data

The seasonal index in Fig.2 (Y-axis) is a
dimensionless value calculated for each 100m
subsections for the entire study stretch of 15 km long.
The higher the index value, higher the section travel
time of the public transit buses in that section. By
using the index values, the transit authority can
explore the areas spatially, where the public transit
buses take a longer travel time to pass through that
100m section. If dwell time is not the cause, the
reason for higher travel time may be possibly the
signal delays. So, the transit authority may justify for
a bus priority system if the signal delays causes
relatively high seasonal index values or the Bus Rapid
Transit (BRT) System. Thus, the intermediate results
of multiplicative decomposition technique are also of
great significance besides the final bus travel time
prediction results.

The final results of bus travel time prediction using
multiplicative decomposition technique is presented
here. The average MAPE obtained for December 22
and September 30, 2010 was 27 and 23 respectively.
In practical sense, the MAPE can be interpreted as
follows. If the transit bus is travelling at a uniform
speed of 25 km/hr, it takes 72 sec. for traversing a
500m section. If the average MAPE is 25, then the
predicted bus travel time in that section would be, 72+
(25% of 72 sec.) or 72- (25% of 72 sec.). Thus the
predicted travel time may be 90 sec. or 54 sec. The
final purpose of predicted section travel times is to
extract the bus arrival time at a particular bus stop. In
order to evaluate the accuracy of the arrival time, a
hypothetical bus stop is assumed to be located at a
cumulative distance of 10 km from the origin. A
sample of two trips that started at off-peak and peak
hour was taken in order to evaluate, whether the
predicted bus arrival time at the hypothetical bus stop
is reliable or not. The 500m section travel times of
predicted and observed were summed up till 10 km
distance in order to arrive the predicted and observed
arrival times at the hypothetical bus stop. It was found
that, the absolute difference for off-peak and peak
(5)

hour trip was 105 and 312 sec. That is, for an off-peak
trip, the difference between the actual and predicted
arrival time at the hypothetical bus stop was
approximately 2 minutes and for the peak hour trip,
the difference is approximately 5 minutes. It is
reported that from a user perspective, a prediction
error of 5 minutes is acceptable for a 60 minutes trip
(Schweiger et al.). A plot of observed vs. predicted
section travel times for sample trips during the two
test dates of December 22 and September 30, 2010 are
shown in Fig.3, 4 and 5. The sample plots shows
predicted and observed travel times for trips started
during an off-peak hour (Fig.3), morning peak hour
(Fig.4) and evening peak hour (Fig.5). The
corresponding MAPE are 17.106 (Fig.3), 16.583
(Fig.4) and 20.725 (Fig.5).

Fig.3. Plot of observed vs. predicted bus travel time
(trip started during an off-peak hour)

(trip started during morning peak hour)

(trip started during evening peak hour)

We can observe from Fig.3-5 that, the predicted travel
time reasonably follows the trend of observed travel
time and hence the time series method using
multiplicative decomposition technique can be
considered for bus travel/arrival time prediction under

The MAPE plot of multiplicative decomposition and
real time application method is shown in Fig.6 for all
the 41 trips of test dates. In 28 out of 41 trips,
multiplicative decomposition performs better than real
time application method.

Fig.6. MAPE plot of multiplicative decomposition
and real-time application method

CONCLUSION
In India, under Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban
Renewal Mission (JNNURM), public transport buses
in most of the urban cities are slowly being equipped
with GPS to get real time positioning of transit buses.
In Chennai, 600 buses were equipped with GPS out of
the total fleet size of 3400. Process is underway to
install GPS in more number of buses. This real time
positioning can effectively be used to develop a bus
arrival time information system which can be
deployed at bus stops through variable messaging
signs (VMS) or through dedicated websites. The en-
route information on what time the next service will
arrive will help the commuters to decide upon
whether to wait or not. If the information is provided
pre-trip through websites, the users can reduce their
waiting times at bus stops. Deploying such an
Advanced Public Transportation Systems (APTS) will
not only reduce the number of personal vehicles on
the road but will increase the revenue of the public
transport services by more number of transit users.
The present study tries to focus on this problem of
accurate prediction of bus arrival time using one of
the classical time series methods namely the
multiplicative decomposition technique. The results
showed that, the average MAPE for the two test dates
is around 25%. It was found that, the decomposition
method is able to predict the arrival time within 2-5
minutes of the actual arrival time for a hypothetical
bus stop. The performance of decomposition method
was compared with a base line method called real
time method and the decomposition method was
found to be performing better in 28 out of 41 cases.

Thus under heterogeneous traffic conditions for bus
arrival time prediction, multiplicative decomposition
method can be considered. It is to be noted here that,
when compared to ARIMA models, the
decomposition technique is easy to understand and
can be implemented using a simple spreadsheet
program. Also, there is no site-specific issue, because
there is no specific model involved for the selected
study stretch. Hence, there is no transferability issue
with decomposition technique when compared to
ARIMA models.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors acknowledge the support for this study as
part of the project CIE/10-11/168/IITM/LELI by
Ministry of Urban Development, Government of
India, through letter No. N-11025/30/2008-UCD.

REFERENCES
Bhandari, R.R. (2005). Bus arrival time prediction
using stochastic time series and Markov chains.
Doctoral Thesis, Dept. Civil Eng., New Jersey
Institute of Technology, Newark.
Bo, Y., Jing, L., Bin, Y. and Zhongzhen, Y. (2009).
An adaptive bus arrival time prediction model.
Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for
Transportation Studies, Vol.7, 2009.
Chien, S.I., Ding, Y. and Wei, C. (2002). Dynamic
bus arrival time prediction with artificial neural
networks. Journal of Transportation
Engineering, 128(5), 429 438.
Dailey, D.J. (1999). An algorithm for predicting the
arrival time of mass transit vehicles using
automatic vehicle location data. Proceedings of
the 70
th
Annual Meeting, CD-ROM,
Transportation Research Board of the National
Academics, Washington, D.C.
Jeong, R.H., and Rilett, L.R. (2005). Bus arrival time
prediction model for real time applications.
Proceedings of the 84
th
Annual Meeting, CD-
ROM, Transportation Research Board of the
National Academics, Washington, D.C.
Kumar, S.V., Chaitanya, K., Koppineni, A. and
Vanajakshi, L. (2011). Travel Time Pattern
Identification under Heterogeneous Traffic
Conditions for Bus Arrival Time Prediction. 2nd
National Conference on Intelligent
Transportation Systems, Mumbai, India.
Patnaik, J., Chien, S. and Bladikas. A. (2004).
Estimation of bus arrival times using APC data.
Journal of Public Transportation, 7(1), 1 20.
Ramakrishna, Y., Ramakrishna, P., Laxshmanan, V.
and Sivanandan, R. (2006). Bus travel time
prediction using GPS data. Proceedings of the
Map India 2006, New Delhi.
Schweiger, C.L. (2003). Real-time Bus Arrival
Information Systems - A Synthesis of Transit
Practice. TCRP 395 Synthesis 48, Transportation
Research Board, Washington, D.C.
Vanajakshi, L., Subramanian, S.C. and Sivanandan,
R. (2009). Travel time prediction under
heterogeneous traffic conditions using global
positioning system data from buses. IET Intell.
Transp. Syst, 3(1), 1 9.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

INFLUENCE OF TYPE OF BINDER AND CRUMB RUBBER ON THE
MORPHOLOGY OF CRUMB RUBBER MODIFIED BITUMEN

P. S. Divya
Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai - 600036.
J. Murali Krishnan
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai - 600036.

ABSTRACT: Crumb rubber modified bitumen (CRMB) provides enhanced performance properties when
compared to unmodified bitumen. To understand the influence of various factors such as crumb rubber type,
dosage rate and bitumen type on the improved performance, morphological investigations were conducted at IIT
Madras. In this study, the microstructure of CRMB was observed using Environmental Scanning Electron
Microscope. Coarse and fine graded rubber particles were blended with air blown and blended bitumen. Three
dosage rates for rubber particles (8, 10 and 12%) were used. ESEM images revealed the network fibril like
structure of CRMB and their change with the type of binder, dosage rate and gradation of rubber particles. In
order to study the chemical composition analysis of the network fibril of CRMB, Energy Dispersive X-ray
Spectrometry (EDX) analysis was carried out on ESEM images. EDX analysis showed that the network fibrils
for CRMB were different from the unmodified binders due to the presence of rubber particles.

Keywords: Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy, Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen, Energy
Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry, Image Processing, Air blown bitumen, Blended bitumen.

INTRODUCTION
The increased applications of Crumb Rubber Modified
Bitumen (CRMB) in pavements are due to its improved
performance characteristics. The property enhancement
due to the addition of modifiers to bitumen depends
upon the type of modifier. CRMB provides
improvement against rutting, fatigue cracking and low
temperature cracking (Bahia et al., 2001).
According to Whiteoak (1990) bitumen is a colloidal
system consisting of asphaltenes, resins and oil. The
high molecular weight asphaltenes are surrounded by
resins and this micelle structure is dispersed in oil. The
asphaltene/resin structures changes with the processing
conditions, it also changes when the binder is modified.
The rheological properties of the modified binders are a
consequence of the arrangement and association of
asphaltene particle + modifier in the oily phase.
In order to study the effect of Crumb Rubber Modifier
(CRM) in binders the interaction mechanisms have to
be understood. Addition of rubber particles to bitumen
results in complex interaction mechanisms between
rubber particles and bitumen. The interaction
mechanisms are normally classified as swelling of
rubber molecules, dissolution of rubber in bitumen and
devolatilization and cross-linking in rubber (Shen et al.,
2009). When crumb rubber is added to bitumen, the
lighter aromatic fractions are absorbed by the rubber
particles (Heitzman, 1992; Frantzis, 2004). The bitumen
rubber interaction is not chemical in nature; but,
rubber particles swell due to the absorption of bitumen's
oily phase at very high temperature (above 160 C)
leading to a gel-like structure (Heitzman, 1992).
Swelling of rubber particles depends upon various
factors related to bitumen and rubber. According to
Heitzman (1992), the rate of interaction depends on the
interaction temperature and duration, size and surface
profile of CRM, amount of work done during mixing
and the amount of lighter aromatic fractions in bitumen.
The amount of lighter fractions in bitumen depends
primarily upon its crude source and processing method
(Corbett, 1984). Processing methods such as air
blowing significantly affect the percentage of lighter
fractions available in bitumen (Glozman and
Akhmetova, 1970; Patwardhan and Khade, 1982).
Buckly and Berger (1962) found that the time required
for swelling is proportional to the square of the particle
size which means that while finer particles interact
much faster, it may not be the same with coarser
particles. Abdelrahman and Carpenter (1999)
investigated that fine rubber particles affect the liquid
phase of the binder whereas the coarse rubber particles
affect the binder matrix phase.. With the increase in
interaction temperature, the rate of swelling of rubber
increases but the extent of swelling decreases (Green,
1977). From these studies, it can be understood that
interaction mechanisms results in the change in
morphology of the rubber-bitumen blends. Hence it is
necessary to understand the change in microscopic
structure of CRMB.
Various microscopic techniques such as Optical
Microscopy, Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM),
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and
fluorescence microscopy are used to study the internal
structure of modified binders. These techniques are able
to find only the dispersion of modifiers in the binders
and are not able to capture the internal network
structure of the binders (Airey et al. 2002; Chen et al.
2002; Morale et al. 2005; Masson et al. 2005). Rozeveld


et al. (1997) used Environmental Scanning Electron
Microscopy (ESEM) to study the change in internal
structure of unmodified binders as well as Polymer
Modified Bitumen (PMB). ESEM technique was
considered as the best technique for studying the change
in network structure for oil bearing materials like
bitumen. From their study it was understood that
internal structure of unmodified binders as well as PMB
consists of network fibrils. In the case of PMB these
network fibrils were strongly aligned in a particular
direction whereas in the case of unmodified binders the
network fibrils were randomly arranged. It was also
found that this network structure changes with dosage
rate of polymer as well as with the aging of binders.
From the above discussions, it is clear that to develop
an understanding of CRMB, it is necessary to carefully
understand and quantify the change in internal structure
of CRMB. The aim of this investigation is to use ESEM
and explore the morphology of a wide variety of
CRMB.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
In total, 12 CRMB samples, prepared from two different
type of binder (PDA blended and air blown), two
gradation (fine and coarse) and three dosage rates (8, 10
and 12 %) of CRM were used. The unmodified binder
used corresponds to VG 30 grade as per Indian
standards (IS73:2006, 2006). All the blends were
prepared in the pilot batching plant at R&D facility of
Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited, Greater Noida,
U.P, India. Table 1 gives the details of gradation of
CRM used in this investigation.

Table 1 Gradation of CRM
Mesh size Fine CRM Coarse CRM
(m) (% retained) (% retained)
600 0.48 0.2
425 3.46 1.77
250 50.02 34.76
150 40.95 54.82
75 4.17 6.26
Pan 0.92 2.19

The internal structure characterization was done using
ESEM, Quanta 200, available at the Department of
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, IIT Madras.
All the samples were preconditioned by heating it to
150 C and were mixed to get a uniform blend. These
samples were spread on glass slides as thin films of
thickness about 1 mm and were observed under electron
beam under four different magnification scales- 250,
500, 1000 and 2000 X.

ESEM RESULTS
Initially when the sample was exposed to electron
beam, the sample surface was featureless as shown in
figure 1(a).

(a) (b)
Fig. 1 ESEM image for blended bitumen with 8 %
coarse CRM at 250 X

With initial trials, it was found that an exposure time of
8 minutes is required to observe noticeable changes in
the microstructure and hence all the images were
captured for 8 minutes of exposure time. The network
structure obtained for blended bitumen with 8% coarse
CRM at a magnification of 250 X is shown in figure 1
(b). Figure 2(a) shows the ESEM image for CRMB
made with blended bitumen and 2(b) shows a similar
image with blown bitumen containing 12 % fine CRM.
The difference in the microstructure developed for
blended and blown bitumen can be clearly seen.

(a) (b)
Fig. 2 ESEM image for blended and blown bitumen
with 12% fine CRM

Figure 3(a) and (b) shows the ESEM for blended
bitumen with 12 % coarse and fine CRM. The
difference in the network structure between fine and
coarse CRM are clearly observed.

(a) (b)
Fig. 3 ESEM image for blended bitumen with 12%
coarse and fine CRM


Figure 4(a), (b) and (c) shows the ESEM images for
blended bitumen with 8, 10 and 12 % fine CRM.

(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 4 ESEM image for blended bitumen with 8, 10 and
12 % fine CRM

The ESEM images for unmodified blended and air
blown bitumen were also captured. Figure 5(a) and 5(b)
shows the ESEM images for unmodified blended and
air blown bitumen. The network structure of unmodified
blended and air blown bitumen does not show any
difference in terms of fibril density and diameter but it
varies due to the addition of rubber.

(a) (b)
Fig. 5 ESEM image for unmodified blended and blown
bitumen

According to the ESEM studies carried out on
unmodified binder and PMB by Rozeveld et al. (1997),
the network structure of unmodified binder consists of
asphaltene and resins but the network structure of PMB
consists of asphaltene, resins and to some extent the
constituents of the modifier.

ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY
SPECTROMETRY (EDX) ANALYSIS
In order to understand the elemental composition of the
network fibril of the CRMB, Energy Dispersive X-ray
Spectrometry (EDX) analysis was carried out on the
ESEM images obtained after 8 minutes for all the
samples as well as on the crumb rubber particle. EDX is
normally used to find the chemical composition of the
materials and create elemental composition maps. The
EDX system available at IIT Madras used a software
called EDX-Genesis to collect and analyze energy
spectra. When EDX is used in spot mode, the full
elemental spectrum can be recorded in very little time.
The software is used to identify the peaks and this
makes EDX a comprehensive survey tool to identify
unknown constituents prior to an accurate quantitative
analysis. Typically the peak height ratios are used to
determine the chemical composition. It is to be noted
that the chemical composition analysis with EDX is less
precise when compared to other methods. It is also to be
noted that EDX cannot detect lighter elements typically
below the atomic number of Na for detectors which are
equipped with Be window (Shindo and Oikawa, 2002,
Dragnevesk et al., 2009).
EDX spectrum is a plot of X-ray count vs Energy (in
keV). The energy peaks corresponding to the different
elements present in the samples is also shown. Figure 6
shows the EDX spectrum for crumb rubber.

Fig. 6 EDX Spectrum for Crumb rubber

Fig. 7 EDX Spectrum for CRMB

Fig. 8 EDX Spectrum for VG 30

Figure 7 and 8 shows the EDX spectrum for CRMB and
VG 30 respectively. The difference between unmodified
binder, crumb rubber and CRMB are seen. It can be
noted that the elemental peak heights between VG 30
and CRMB are different and this may be hypothesized
due to the presence of rubber particles in the network
fibrils. This also provides an extra proof that the
network fibrils are not beam induced artifact.


IMAGE PROCESSING
The ESEM images were analyzed using GIMP- image
processing software. This analysis was done by
assuming isotropic morphology of the material (Stangl
et al., 2006). Initially the junction points were identified
and the centre line was traced. Using the centre line, the
inter-junction length and the diameter was determined.
Determination of number of junction points and tracing
the centre line was purely based on eye-judgment
(Figure 8).

Fig. 8 Image Processing
The diameter of the network strands varies especially
near the junctions and hence the diameter was measured
at different locations and the average was taken As the
inter-junction length and diameter varied over a wide
range of values, these parameters were studied in
conjunction with standard deviation of the observations
(Table 2 and 3)
Table 2 Inter-junction length for different samples
Crumb
rubber type
Dosage
rate (%)
Inter-junction
Length
Blown Blended
Unmodified 0 Mean 38.8 36.2
S.D. 13.7 14.2
Coarse

8 Mean 34.5 35.9
S.D. 6.8 19.4
10 Mean 23.6 37.8
S.D. 8.9 14.7
12 Mean 20.6 30.2
S.D. 5.9 2.5
Fine 8 Mean 30.2 15.4
S.D. 3.4 3.6
10 Mean 23.7 16.0
S.D. 3.2 5.0
12 Mean 21.4 13.8
S.D. 6.5 2.0

Image processing results revealed the influence of type
of bitumen, gradation and dosage rate of CRM on the
number of junctions, inter-junction length and diameter
of network strands.
The red coloured lines correspond to the error bar to a
standard deviation of 2 m and the green line
corresponds to the fibril diameter for unmodified
blended and blown bitumen. It is clear from the figure
that due to rubber addition the fibril diameter had
increased. For blended bitumen, considerable difference
exists between the gradation of CRM whereas for blown
bitumen difference exists between the dosage rate of
CRM.
Table 3 Diameter for different samples
Crumb
rubber type
Dosage
rate (%)
Diameter
Blown Blended
Unmodified 0 Mean 11.5 36.2
S.D. 13.7 14.2
Coarse

8 Mean 34.5 35.9
S.D. 6.8 19.4
10 Mean 23.6 37.8
S.D. 8.9 14.7
12 Mean 20.6 30.2
S.D. 5.9 2.5
Fine 8 Mean 30.2 15.4
S.D. 3.4 3.6
10 Mean 23.7 16.0
S.D. 3.2 5.0
12 Mean 21.4 13.8
S.D. 6.5 2.0

Fig. 9 shows the variation of diameter of different
CRMB.

Fig. 9 Diameter for different CRMB

Fig. 10 Inter-junction length for different CRMB.

Figure 10 shows the inter-junction length for different
samples. Due to the addition of rubber the inter-junction
length of the binders decreased. Inter-junction length
also depends on gradation of CRM for blended bitumen
and on dosage rate of CRM for blown bitumen.

ESEM studies on the different types of CRMB revealed
the fact that the morphology of CRMB varied with the
type of binder, dosage rate and gradation of CRM. It


was found that the binder surface was initially plain and
the network strands were observed after some minutes
of beam exposure. EDX analysis done on ESEM images
showed that the difference in the network fibrils of
CRMB from unmodified binders exists due to the
addition of crumb rubber. The analysis of the ESEM
images by image processing provided an useful
indication of change in network structure with the
processing and modification of binders.
Based on the results of this study, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
ESEM is a powerful technique and when
coupled with EDX, can unravel the internal
structure of modified binders.
EDX analysis showed that the network fibrils
obtained are not beam induced artifact and the
difference in network structure of CRMB from
unmodified binders are due to the addition of
crumb rubber.
Image processing technique showed that the
internal structure varied with type of binder,
gradation and dosage rate of CRM.
The fibril diameter and inter-junction length
depended more on gradation of CRM for
blended bitumen and for air blown bitumen
these parameters changed with dosage rate of
CRM

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge here Ms. Sonal
Maheswari, Senior Scientist, R&D, M/s Bharat
Petroleum Corporation Limited for manufacturing these
binders and sharing the same with us. Our thanks are
due to Ms. Shanthi, Material Testing Facility at the
Department of Metallurgy, IIT Madras for help with the
use of ESEM.

REFERENCES
Abdelrahman, M. A. and Carpenter, S. H. (1999).
Mechanism of interaction of asphalt cement with
crumb rubber modifier." Transportation Research
Record, 1661, 106-113.
Airey, G. D., Singleton, T. M., and Collop, A. C. (2002).
Properties of polymer modified bitumen after
rubber-bitumen interaction, Journal of Materials
in Civil Engineering, 14(4), 344-354.
Bahia, H. U., Hanson, D. I., Zeng, M., Zhai, H., Khatri,
M. A., and Anderson, R. M. (2001).
Characterization of modified asphalt binders in
superpave mix design. NCHRP Report No. 459,
Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington, D.C.
Buckly, D. and Berger, M. (1962). The swelling of
polymer system in solvents." Journal of Polymer
Science, 56(163), 163-174.
Chen, J. S., Liao, M.C., and Shiah, M. S. (2002).
Asphalt modified by styrene-butadiene-styrene
triblock copolymer: Morphology and model.
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 14(3),
224-229.
Corbett, W., L. (1984). Refinery processing of asphalt
cement." Transportation Research Record, 999,1-6.
Dragnevski, K. I., Donalda, A. M., Clarkeb, S. M., and
Maltby, A. (2009). Novel applications of ESEM
and EDX for the study of molecularly thin amide
monolayers on polymer films. Colloids and
Surfaces A-Physicochemical and Engineering
Aspects, 337(1-3), 47-51.
Frantzis, P. (2004). Crumb rubber-bitumen
interactions: Diffusion of bitumen into rubber.
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 16(4),
38-390.
Glozman, E. P. and Akhmetova, R. S. (1970).
Chemical composition of bitumen components."
Chemistry and Technology of Fuels and Oils, 6(5),
364-367
Green, E. and Tolonen, W. (1977). The chemical and
physical properties of asphalt-rubber mixtures, part
I basic material behavior." Report No. FHWA-AZ-
HPR14-162, Arizona Department of
Transportation.
Heitzman, M. (1992). State of the Practice- Design and
construction of asphalt paving materials with
crumb rubber modifier." FHWA Technical Report:
A-SA-92-022, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington D. C.
Masson, J. F., Leblond, V., and Margeson, J. (2005).
Bitumen morphologies by phase detection atomic
force microscopy, Journal of Microscopy, 221(1),
17-29.
Morales, G. M., Partal, P., Navarro, F. J., Boza, M. F.,
Gallegos, C., Gonzalez, N., Gonzalez, O., and
Munoz, M. E. (2004). Viscous properties and
microstructure of recycled eva modified bitumen."
Fuel, 83(1), 31-38.
Patwardhan, S. R. and Khade, S. B. (1982). Kinetics of
air-blowing of petroleum bitumen." Industrial &
Engineering Chemistry Process Design and
Development, 21(1), 154-157.
Rozeveld, S. J., Shin, E. E., Bhurke, A., France, L., and
Drzal, L. T. (1997). Network morphology of
straight and polymer modified asphalt cements,
Microscopy Research and Technique, 38(5), 529-
543.
Shen, J., Amirkhanian, S., Xiao, F., and Tang, B.
(2009). Influence of surface area and size of
crumb rubber on high temperature properties of
crumb rubber modified binders, Construction and
Building Materials, 23(1), 304-310.
Shindo, D., and Oikawa, T. (2002). Analytical Electron
Microscopy for Materials Science, Springer,
Tokyo.
Stangl, K., Jager, A., and Lackner R. (2006).
Microstructure-based identification of bitumen
performance, Road Materials and Pavement
Design, 7, 111 - 142.
Whiteoak, D. (1990). Shell Bitumen Handbook. Shell
Bitumen, UK, Surrey.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


HYDROINFORMATICS IN GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION: A
CASE STUDY

D.K. Pardeshi
Post graduate student, Department of Civil Engineering, Government College of Engineering, Aurangabad 431005,
Email: erdipeekapardeshi@gmail.com
A.O. Rathor
Asst.Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Rajarshi Shahu College of Engineering, Pune 411045,
Email: ashutosh_rathor@hotmail.com
D. G. Regulwar
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Government College of Engineering, Aurangabad 431005,
Email:dgregulwar@rediffmail.com

ABSTRACT: GIS is a tool for storing, manipulating, retrieving and presenting both spatial and non-spatial data
in a quick, efficient and organized way. Preparation and maintenance of data in the form of maps and referenced
tabular files itself can be considered as a primitive form of Geographic Information System (GIS). In the present
investigation Remote Sensing and GIS techniques have been in order to reveal the mode of occurrence,
movement and potentiality of ground water. In this study an integrated remote sensing and GIS based
methodology is developed and worked for the exploration of ground water resources. The different thematic
maps have prepared by using Quantum GIS software. The analysis is carried out by using weighted index
overlay method. It has been followed to explore groundwater potential zone map. The information of all layers
were generated and integrated to prepare groundwater potential map. This output map is identified with the help
of hydrology, geology and geomorphic character. The output values are generated with the help of groundwater
potential zone map and classified in four types such as poor, moderate, good and excellent. Also the ground
water prospect zones gives output values such as excellent 21%, good 23%, moderate 26% and poor 30%.

Keywords: Groundwater potential zone, Geographic Information System, Remote Sensing, Weighted index
overlay method.

INTRODUCTION
Groundwater is one of the most valuable resources,
which supports human health, economic development
and ecological diversity. The importance of
groundwater for the existence of human society
cannot be overemphasized. Groundwater is the major
source of drinking water in the area of rural and
urban. Also, it is an important source of water for the
agricultural and the industrial sector. Being an
important and integral part of the hydrological cycle,
their availability are depends on the rainfall and
recharge conditions. Till recently it had been
considered a dependable source of water. India is
heading towards a freshwater crisis mainly due to
improper management of water resources and
environmental degradation, which has lead to a lack
of access to safe water supply to millions of people.
This freshwater crisis is already evident in many parts
of India, varying in scale and intensity
In recent years, the use of remote sensed data and
Geographic Information System (GIS) application has
been found increasing in a wide range of resources
inventory, mapping analysis, monitoring and
environmental management. Remote Sensing
provides very useful methods of survey,
identification, classification and monitoring several
forms of earth resources and also helps in acquisition
of data in a short time at periodic intervals. The
process of GIS is to input sets of raw data to produce
useful output information. The study includes
demarcation of groundwater potential zones which is
consider ground water as a function of the various
dependent features such as lithology, geomorphology,
soil, land use/land cover, structures, slope, lineament,
drainage pattern and hydrology using remotely sensed
satellite data along with GIS. It is also used to prepare
database in the layers, an integrate map preparation
and analysis of combined layer. The field data is
collected for quantifying various lithological and
geomorphological units with reference to their
potential for groundwater occurrence.

STUDY AREA
The study area is bounded by North latitudes
19
0
1630 to 19
0
210 and East longitudes 74
0
1330
to 74
0
1630 falls in the Sangamner Taluka of
Ahmednagar district in Maharashtra and covered by
Survey of India toposheet no.47 I/7. In the hard rock
terrain of Eastern part, the groundwater occurs in an
unconfined condition within the fractured hard rocks
and its weathered mantle. The potential aquifer in this
part comprises of fractured hard rocks with
secondary porosity that extends up to 50 from the
surface. In the laterites and the alluvial areas
groundwater is in unconfined state in shallow aquifers
and in confined state below a blanket of clay of
varying thickness in deeper aquifers. The availability
of groundwater is problematic because of the annual
rainfall in the watershed is relatively moderate, the
low recharge rate, generally high runoff mainly from
western part of the watershed, unsuitable aquifer
conditions over the parts of hard rock areas, long and
hot dry season, excess withdrawals of groundwater in
parts of the alluvial tract for irrigation purposes have

caused continuous lowering of the groundwater table
over the years.
May is the hottest month of the year with the mean
daily maximum temperature at 38.9 C and the mean
daily minimum at 22.4 C. On individual days during
the hot weather period temperature occasionally goes
up to 43 or 44 C. With the onset of South-West
monsoon in the district there is an appreciable drop in
temperature and weather becomes pleasant. With the
withdrawal of the monsoon by about the first week of
October day temperatures increase slightly and a
secondary maximum day temperatures is recorded.
However the night temperatures decrease steadily
after the withdrawal of the monsoon. The highest
maximum temperature recorded at region was 43.7 C
on 9
th
May 1960 and the lowest minimum 2.2 C on
7th January 1945.

HYDROLOGY
Intensive fieldwork has been carried out in the study
of structural features of flows, joint and dykes. The
water, which occurs below the surface of the land is
invisible and not readily accessible and consequently
it always possesses on element for its occurrence. In
order to understand the nature of occurrence of
ground water, it is necessary to study the hydrological
framework and hydrogeomorphological settings
controlling the sub-surface and aerial distribution of
ground water. The hydrogeomorphic unit of study
area is shown in fig 1. The ground water is not
universally present everywhere therefore, it is
necessary to evaluate the geological horizons,
geomorphic landforms governing the ground water
occurrence and their yielding capacities.
Hydrological conditions control the occurrence of
water and the sub-surface rocks govern its distribution
and movement while the hydro geomorphic landforms
govern the surface flow and infiltration. In this
approach, all the variables controlling ground regime
such as geology, geomorphology, groundwater
occurrence, artificial recharge of groundwater, surface
water and drainage.
Alluvium is the most important water bearing
formation cover lesser portion of the study area. The
heavy monsoon rainfall results in quick recharge of
the alluvium aquifers and water levels attain their
highest elevation during July August period, they
start declining from the October with the rate
increasing after November. The saturated thickness
of alluvium aquifer is very little during the period of
March to May. Almost all the dug wells inventories in
the study area penetrating in alluvium (which from the
main aquifer). Recharge ponds and check dams
provide a good measure of groundwater potential
zone in hard rock terrains by collecting surface runoff
and increasing the surface area of infiltration.
Suitability of these structures depends on various
factors, which can be identifying using GIS
techniques. Weighted indexing has been adopted to
suggest the ideal locations for groundwater using 7
parameters namely geology, geomorphology,
lineament, soil, contour, slope, drainage density
whose suitability analysis has been performed purely
from a groundwater point of view and does not
include geotechnical considerations.

DATA AND METHODOLOGY
Survey of India Toposheet (SOI) No. 47 I/7 using to
prepare base map, contour map and drainage map.
Linear Image Self Scanning sensor IV data of the
Indian Remote Sensing Satellite P6 (IRS-P6 LISS IV)
with 5.8m resolution satellite data used and it helps to
prepare Digital elevation model (DEM), FCC,
Lineament density, observable terrain features like
geological, geomorphologic, structural features and
their hydrological characteristics. The visual
interpretation of IRS P6 data provided information
pertaining to hydrogeomorphic features was very
useful in understanding the nature and water
potentiality of different landforms. With the help of
Geographic Resources Analysis Support System
(GRASS), Quantum GIS software the study area
georeference and digitized, also help to prepare
thematic map such as Soil texture, slope, land used
and land cover, geology, geomorphology and
groundwater potential map.
The prime objective of the study was to evaluate the
groundwater potential of the regions, the approach
was to evaluate all the relevant factors viz.,
geological, geomorphologic, metrological,
geophysical and hydrological details. Remote sensing
data was used to derive some of the input parameters
and GIS was used as an analytical tool for integrated
analysis. Integrating the information on these multiple
aspects lead to identification and delineation of the
zone, which are favorable for groundwater recharges,
storage and exploration.
The literature survey covered collection of existing
literatures on ground prospect zones, artificial sites
and collection of existing data from different
Government organization. In the field work
geographical location of the road intersection and nala
cutting center was determined by a Global Positioning
Systems (GPS) at an accuracy of < + 5 in horizontal.
Rock samples were collected across the nala cutting,
hillside and dykes for laboratory analysis. Broken
samples of surface rock (as weathered as possible)
was collected for geological description. Properties of
the alluvium, soil and under laying parent material
was recorded.
Laboratory works include the generation of thematic
maps from the Survey of India (SOI) topographical
sheets and (IRS) data. A perspective view of this map
has been generated to enhance the understanding of
the role of topography in reservoir site selection.
Various thematic maps were prepared on 1:50000
scales and integrated using Open source image
processing in GRASS. The important steps in the
methodology are the various thematic maps such as
base map, geology, geomorphology, soil, land
use/cover, lineament, drainage, and contour maps are
generated through conventional filed methods using

the Survey of India (SOI) toposheet and IRSP6-LISS
IV imagery hard copy and IRS PAN Imagery and
digital data, the thematic maps were converted into
the vector format using digitization in QGIS software,
the Weightage overlay assignment work in GRASS
for to evaluate groundwater potential zone. Map no. 1,
2, 3, 4 are gives details of Geology map,
Geomorphology map, Soil map, Lineament map
respectively and these were used for weightage
analysis.

Fig. 1 Hydrogeomorphic unit

GIS ANALYSIS AND MODELING
The layered information obtained for study areas from
various sources viz. satellite data, topographic map
and other thematic map need to be integrated for the
prediction of an area referenced groundwater potential
zones. In this study a weightage overlay model is
developed for this purpose. The modeling concept
used in this study is based on the fact that any
thematic map pertaining to a given study provides
information on different aspects of groundwater
potential.

Digital Image Processing
In order to make use of digital data available from
satellite imagery, it must be processed in a manner
that is suitable for the end user. For many projects this
processing includes categorizing the land into its
various use functions. The classification process
categorizes all pixels in a digital image into one of
several land cover classes, or "themes". This
categorized data may then be used to produce
thematic maps of the land cover present in an image.
Normally, multispectral data are used to perform the
classification and indeed, the spectral pattern present
within the data for each pixel is used as the numerical
basis for categorization. Digital image processing
involves the manipulation and interpretation of digital
images with the aid of computer. In general satellite
data can be interpreted in two ways; the first one is
visual interpretation by using hard copy of satellite
data printed in a photographic paper, the second
method is digital image processing, where
interpretation, mapping is done with the help of
computer. Digital image processing may involve
numerous procedures including formatting and
correcting of the data, digital enhancement to
facilitate better visual interpretation, or even
automated classification of target and features entirely
by computer. In order to process remote sensing
imagery digitally, the data must be recorded and
available in a digital form suitable for storage on a
computer tape or disk obviously, the other
requirement for digital image processing is a
computer system, with the appropriate hardware and
software to process the data. In the present study,
initially, the IRS satellite data and the image
processing facilities available with GRASS GIS
software was used.

Supervised Classification

Supervised classification involves training of
computer to identify patterns on the basis of ground
truth, formulates decision rule for categorization and
then use the above decision rules to classify the rest of
the image data. In supervised classification, we need
to identify classes and extract the information, i.e.
Land covers types of interest in the satellite image.
Extraction of unmixed spectral value from
homogeneous land unit is called training site this
stage is called training stage. The ERADAS 8.6 /
GRASS GIS software is used to develop a statistical
characterization of the reflectance for each
information class. This stage is often called signature
analysis. Once a statistical characterization has been
achieved for each pixel and making a decision about
which of the signatures it resembles most. There are
several techniques available for making these decision
and are often termed as classifiers. GRASS for
windows offer different classification methods for the
present study. Maximum likelihood classifier is used
to classify different land cover units.

Reclassification and Grading of Maps
Creating a new raster model by classification is often
referred to as reclassification, reading or transforming
through look-up tables. Two methods of data
reclassification may be used. The first method is a one
to one change, meaning a cell value in the input grid
is assigned a new of 1 in the output grid. In
reclassification three maps were used. While
reclassification these maps the standard scheme for
reclassifications followed some parameters while
knowledge based ranking was followed for other
parameters. While reclassification of the different
maps, ranking values ranging from 1 to 5 were
assigned for different classes within each map. Prior
to reclassification, all the 7 thematic maps in the
vector format have to be rasterised. All the maps are
in vector polygons. Rasterisation of vector polygon
can be done using GRASS. After rasterisation,
reclassification of Drainage, Lineament density map
is done using reclassify.

Weightage Assignment
To delineate the groundwater potential zones
integrated analysis was carried out, also in process
digitized thematic maps such as geology,
geomorphology, soil, land use/cover, slope, drainage,
lineament and depth of water table were used for this
analysis. The attributes are assigned weightage (Wk)
depending on their relative influence on ground water
potential and recharge sites. Similarly the categories
of each attribute were also assigned numerical values
(Vjk) based on their relative influence. This enabled
in performing numerical integrated analysis and also
semi-quantitative evaluation. A similar numerical
weighted approach was developed during the present
study called the Numerical analysis of multi-
thematic information (NAMTI).The weightage
values for attributes and classes were assigned based
on relative influence on ground water potential. Since
the area is underlain by hard rock, the occurrence of
ground water is greatly controlled by the nature of
bedrock, geomorphology soil, slope, land use,
lineament and drainage density. The weightage have
been given each maps such as 20 for geology, 20 for
geomorphology, 15 for soil, 15 for slope, 15 for
lineament density respectively.
The classes (categories) in each map were given class
values in such a way that the class, which is highly
favorable for ground water potential, was given the
highest value i.e. of the attribute itself. The weightage
given for the attributes and the values corresponding
to classes are shown in table 1. The integration
analysis was carried out by superimposing all the nine
maps (attributes) by multiplying the weightage for
each map with corresponding weightage for each
class. In this analysis geology and geomorphology are
considered to be the most important parameter for
ground water potential and hence value 20 was
assigned shown in table no.1.

Nk
GWP = [S (Wk Vjk)]/100
(1)
K=1

Where nk = number of attributes, Wk = weightage of
attribute k, Vjk = value assigned to class j of attribute
k. Eq. (1) gives the groundwater potential of the
products of weightage factors for all the maps and the
class values of each pixel are summed up and 100
divided the sum.

Table 1 Weightage assignments of various thematic
maps
Thematic map Class Category Rank Weightage
Denudation Hill Poor 1
Plateau Good 3
Water Body Excellent 5
Compact Unjointed Basalt Poor 1
Dyke Good 3
Jointed & Fractured Basalt Excellent 5
Gravelly Clay Loam Poor 2
Gravelly Loam Good 3
Gravelly Sandy Loam Excellent 5
Moderately steep Slope Poor 2
Moderate Slope Moderate 3
Gentle Slope Good 4
Very Gentle Excellent 5
Low Poor 1
Medium Moderate 2
High Good 3
Very High Excellent 4
Slope
15
Lineament density
15
Geomorphology
20
Geology
20
Soil
15

Spatial Overlays and Analysis
The analysis work was carried out with after
weightage assignment and reclassified of all maps.
Analysis is performed for generating ground water
prospect map with the help of GIS analysis software.
The image calculator available in GRASS is used for
this analysis. Mathematical operation was used where
the rank assigned to different classes within each
parameter was multiplied with the weightage and
finally all of the seven parameters used for analysis
were added up together with the help of image
calculator. The final output shows the map of ground

water potential map no.5.The output values for all the
four classes varied from poor, moderate, good and
excellent. Table no.2 gives the spatial output values
for their classes.

Table 2 Spatial overlays and analysis

Spatial Value Output Ground Water Prospect Zones
15 18 Excellent
11 14 Good
8 10 Moderate
4 8 Poor

Map no. 1 Geology map

Map no. 2 Geomorphology map

Map no.3 Soil texture map

Map no. 4 Lineament map

Map no.5 Geomorphology map
The groundwater potential zones map generated
through this model was verified with the yield data to
ascertain the validity of the model developed and
found that it is in agreement with the bore wells yield
data. The integration of various thematic maps
prepared from remote sensing, toposheet and field
information was carried out based on empirical
modeling technique, where each of the thematic unit
of various thematic maps has been assigned grades
ranging from 1 to 5, with 1 representing lowest and 5
representing highest groundwater potential value.
These maps were digitizing and raster encoded with
the respective grade values. The integration of
geological and lineament information are important in
preparing hydro geomorphic potential map

CONCLUSION
In the present study GIS based methodology and
integrated remote sensing has been developed and
demonstrated for evaluation of groundwater
resources. Weightage assignment has been applied
and very useful in the selection of ground water
potential zone. Change in land use is mainly due to
the hydrological factors as is clear from the change
image derived by subtraction of the land use maps.
Moderately high-resolution remote sensing data (IRS-
PAN and LISS-IV) provide details of the terrain, as
well as visualize the general groundwater condition
indirectly. GIS works as storing information about
world as collection of thematic layers that can be
linked together by geography to solve many real
world problems. The application of remote sensing
and GIS have been found to be effective techniques
for generating data and integrating the different
layers, with detail of groundwater assessment which
reduce costs, time and effort.
ACKNOLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to WOTR (Watershed Organization
Trust, Pune) for their valuable support in extraction of
various maps and the facilities they have provided.

REFRENCES
Sener E., Davraz A. and Ozcelik M. (2005),
groundwater investigations, Hydrogeology
Journal, pp. 826834.
Akram J. and Mushtaq H. W. (2009), delineation of
Groundwater Potential Zones, Journal Geological
Society of India, Vol.73, pp. 229-236.
Rao Y. S. and Jugran D. K.(2003), delineation of
groundwater potential zones and zones of
groundwater quality suitable for domestic
purposes, Hydrological Sciences Journal, pp. 821-
833.
Mlisa, A. and Hartnady, C. U. (2003), geo-informatics
for groundwater exploration, Proceedings of the
21st International Cartographic Conference
(ICC), pp. 540-546.
Richard M. T. (1995), a low cast geographical
information system, Hydrogeology journal, Vol.3,
no.3, pp. 21-31.
Meijerink A. J.(1996), International Institute of
Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences,
Hydrological sciences-Journal-des science
Hydrologiques, 4l, 4 August 1996, pp. 549-56.
Per S.(1996), groundwater assessment in a Rural
groundwater project in Ghana, Hydrogeology
journal, Vol.4, no. 3, pp. 40-50.
Kazemi R., Porhemmat J. & Khirkhah (2009),
investigation of Lineaments Related to
Groundwater occurance, Research Journal of
Environmnt science 3(3), pp. 367-375.
Sudarsana R. G., Raghu K., S. Reddy G. and M.
Ravikumar(2009), identification of groundwater
potential zones, Indian Journal of environment
protection, Vol.29, no, pp. 690-704.
Goyal R., Arora A.N. (2003), ground water modeling,
Journals of water resources, Map India
Conference.
Choubey V. K.(1996), assessment of waterlogged
area in IGNP Stage I, Hydrology Journal, Vol.
XIX (2), pp. 81-90.
Ahmadi H.(2003), mass movements hazard zonation
in Germichay watershed, Ardebil, Iran, journal of
disaster management, Map India conference.
Balachandar. D, Alaguraja. P., Sundaraj .P,
Rutharvelmurthy. K , Kumaraswamy. K., artificial
recharge zone, International Journal of Geomatics
and Geosciences, Vol.1, no.1, 2010, pp. 84-97.
Gert A. S. (1997), Design and Operation of Water
Resources Systems, IAHS Publ. no. 242, pp. 3-
15.
Schumann A. H. (1993), Development of conceptual
semi-distributed hydrological models and
estimation of their parameters, Hydrological
Sciences Journal, pp. 519-528.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

APPLICAION OF RS AND GIS FOR APPROXIMATING STREAM
FLOW

Om Prakash Dubey
Professor, WALMI, Water and land management Institute (WALMI), Lucknow 226025,India

ABSTRACT: A watershed remains in dynamic equilibrium and responses to the changes in the land
characteristics. If developmental activities are not planned it may result in to floods, droughts and, or
erosion in the watershed. In the present study response of a Siwalik watershed on stream flow due to
changes in land cover has been studied. The data used for the study includes aerial photographs,
satellite imagery and ancillary data. The data has been analyzed visually as well as digitally. A brief
review of the available rainfall-runoff techniques has been made. The rational approach and SCS
curve number approach has been used for estimating the runoff. This model does not account the land
slope hence its use in assessing the impacts is limited. In this study a watershed model has been
proposed that takes in to account land slope in addition to watershed land cover and soil
characteristics. The proposed watershed model is simple and its input parameters can easily be
extracted from satellite data products. This model may be used to study the effect of developmental
activities and changes in land cover on stream flow. It has been found that in Ratmau watershed an
increase in forest cover induces reduction in stream flow. However detailed study is required before
finalizing a watershed management scheme.

BACKGROUND
The rainfall runoff relationship has been represented
by many empirical relationships. In 1608, Pierre
Perrault developed rainfall runoff relationship for
Seine river basin France (Linsley, 1967). Since then
several researchers have developed various
relationships for example Zieglar (1880), Kuichling
(1889), Justin (1915), Mead (1919), Gregory and
Arnold (1932). In India too a lot of work has been
carried out by several organizations e.g. Central
Water Commission, Irrigation Research Institute,
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, various State
Irrigation Departments, Universities and individuals
for example, Binnie, Barlow, Khosla, Lacey,
Majumdar, Panchang (1954), Sehgal (1967), Rao and
Pentaih (1971) etc. etc. These relations are based on
several assumptions, for example, runoff is maximum
when rainfall duration is equal to or greater than time
of concentration, runoff is linearly related to rainfall,
frequency of peak discharge is same as that of rainfall,
and the coefficient of runoff is same for all frequency
and for all storms.

Many organizations and individuals have used
statistical techniques to develop rainfall-runoff
relationships (Krishnaswamy 1976, Majumdar 1965,
Bhalerao et.al. 1977, Subba Rao 1979). Most of the
proposed relationships are linear in nature. However,
now non linear and multivariate relationships have
also been developed (Mockus 1949, Das et.al. 1971,
Chow 1964). Sol Conservation Society (SCS)
proposed following formula to compute runoff,
popularly known as SCS model. The model involves,
rainfall (P), initial abstraction (S), Curve number
(CN), and runoff (Q).
It has been noticed that many conventional rainfall
runoff models are notable to provide satisfactory
answer to the effect of land use changes. Attention is,
therefore, being focused on physically based
watershed models. These models have potential to
overcome many of the deficiencies associated with
conventional models. On the other hand, such models
are complex and considerable resources in human
expertise and computing capability are needed for
their development and applications. In the light of
these concerns, System Hydrologic European or SHE
model was developed. This model requires about 45
parameters for calibration and testing. Hence its
application to data deficit watershed is difficult.

INFERENCES FOR REVIEW OF LITRATURE
Though a very brief review of the literature is done,
even then it is evident that, a variety of factors
influence stream flow from a watershed. These can be
grouped as (i) Storm characteristics: Type, nature,
season, intensity, duration, aerial extent, frequency,
direction of storm, antecedent precipitation etc. (ii)
Meteorological characteristics: Temperature,
Humidity, Wind velocity, Pressure variation,
Evapotranspiration etc. (iii) Basin characteristics:
Size, Shape, Altitude, Topography, Geology, Land
cover, Orientation drainage network, etc. and (iv)
Storage characteristics: Depression, Pools and Ponds,
Stream Control, Flood plains, Ground water and
Channel storage. Most of the available methods for
studying the rainfall runoff are generally not
accommodating the catchments physical
characteristics.

The conventional method of collecting the watershed
characteristics has many limitations such as: (i)
Accessibility to remote areas (ii) Providing spatial
data (iii) Frequency of observation (iv) Detectability
of very slow and fast processes. (v) Storage, retrieval


and processing of the data (vi) Cost and representative
data. As a result observation sites are kept minimum
possible and in easily accessible areas. Hence
possibility of missing the important data cannot be
ignored. Probably this is the reason that catchments
parameters were not given proper weightage in
rainfall runoff studies.

Applications of Remote Sensing
Remote sensing techniques have several advantages
over the conventional techniques of data collection.
These techniques are capable of providing point as
well as spatial data in near time through out day and
night and in all weather conditions for a large area.
Digital nature of the data helps in automatic
processing. Remotely Sensed data can be analyzed
visually as well as digitally or a combination of both.
Through remote sensing required parameters are
extracted by cause and effect analogy. Remote
sensing techniques may be applied basically in three
ways, such as, input to conventional models,
synergistic use of conventional and remote sensing
techniques and use of model developed specifically to
remote sensing. Only remote sensing techniques are
not sufficient and efficient for providing the
representative data. It has been proved by many
institutions (NASA, NRSA etc.) and individuals that
remote sensing techniques through synergistic use of
multi sensor, multilane and multi season data makes
the data extraction sufficient, accurate and useful in
evaluating the physiographic, geologic, soil,
hydrologic and climatic data (c.f. Verdant, 1977;
Hitchock, et.al. 1975; Kristof, 1971; Montgomery,
1976; Rango et.al. 1973; Aldrich, 1971; Gupta, 1980;
Ragan, 1976 and Foody 1999).

From the previous discussions, it is clear that for
studying and assessing the impact of land cover
changes on stream flow one needs varied and large
data set. Remote Sensing techniques have
multidimensional applications to such studies. The
synoptic view, almost instantaneous survey and
repetitive coverage are some of the unique capabilities
of remote sensing. Remote sensing can provide spatial
and temporal data related to landscape. Satellite
remote sensing now enables easy, accurate, time and
cost effective mapping and updating watershed data
base (Chakraborty 1993).

Detection of land cover changes requires multi
temporal data. Previously, land cover data were
acquired through ground surveys, topographic maps
and other sources. Data acquisition from these
methods are laborious, time consuming and
uneconomical. In addition to the several well-known
advantages, remote sensing provides the necessary
repetitive information at short interval of time with
reasonable cost (Jenson 1986). The repetitive
information can be extracted either from aerial
photographs, satellite imagery or digital data. The
basic logic in detecting the land cover changes using
remote sensing technique is that changes in earth
feature results in changes in radiance value. Selecting
appropriate data may reduce the effect of atmospheric
conditions, suns azimuth and altitude, and soil
moisture on the data product. Changes in land use can
be detected by comparative analysis or simultaneous
analysis of multi temporal data. Remote Sensing
applications to study some of the land cover changes
are listed in Table 1. In the present investigation,
remotely sensed data has been used to detect the land
cover changes and hydrologic modeling.

STUDY AREA AND SCOPE OF STUDY
The area under investigation Ratmau watershed,
covering about 500 Sq.km.(Fig 1), is bounded
between latitudes 29
0
55 N to 30
0
10
N and
longitude 77
0
55
to 78
0
05
E. The area is drained by

Ratmau stream system. In general area is slopping
towards south. Summer season begins from the end of
April continues up to middle of June. The temperature
variation during summer months is between 13
0
C and
45
0
C. During winter it is (-) 2
0
C to 34
0
C. Hills are
generally covered with Sal, Shisham, Khair and
Bambo. Ground elevation in the area varies between
810 m to 280 m above mean sea level. Ground slope
varies between 25m/Km to 0.3m/Km.. The present
study aims to study the response of Ratmau watershed
by formulating rainfall-runoff relationship.
Synergistic use of remote sensing techniques and
conventional techniques been utilized to extract the
required data.

INVESTIGATION PROGRAM
Step by step procedure of the investigation is being
described below.

Definition of the objective and data collection
Objective of the study is to assess the stream flow of
Ratmau watershed. In order to achieve the objectives
of the study topographic map from Survey of India at
1: 250,000 and 1: 50,000 scales, Aerial Photographs
at 1: 50,000 scales, Satellite imagery F.C.C. at 1:
250,000 scales and 1: 50,000 scales have been
analyzed. The remotely sensed data pertaining to the
years 1972, 1973, 1974 and 1990 have been selected
keeping in view the season, and spectral
characteristics. Observed Rainfall data is tabulated in
Table 2. Analysis has been carried out for the months
June, July, August and September. Other months have
not been considered as rainfall during this period is
insignificant to produce runoff.

Table.2. Rainfall in Ratmau Watershed
Months
Years
Rainfall in mm during
June July Aug. Sept
1972 67.0 117.0 281.0 124.0
1973 303.0 507.0 205.0 90.0
1990 28.0 354.0 335.4 218.8


Analysis of Remotely sensed data.
Remotely sensed data was interpreted at 1: 250,000
scales to delineate landscape features (land cover and
soil) using image characteristics. The minimum area
of 2mm x 2mm on the paper was delineated. As result
of data analysis Land covers Map and Soil Map at 1:
250,000 scales were prepared. In order to assess the
over all accuracy of the interpreted map a two-tier
approach has been adopted. First of all about 10% of
the total study area was analyzed on Aerial
photographs and Satellite imagery at 1: 50,000 scale.
Then after, Field traversing was conducted in about
1% of the total area. The overall accuracy of the
interpreted map was found to be about 80%. Land
cover statistics in Ratmau watershed is shown in
Table 3. An analysis of Table 3 reveals that during the
period 1972 forest cover in the watershed was of the
order of 56 % where as during 1990 it reduced to 48
%. Areal extent of human settlement is showing an
increasing pattern from 1.54 % to 2.78 %.
Agricultural land, Bare land, Barren land are showing
year-to-year fluctuation depending upon season,
agricultural practice.

Table 3. Land Cover Statistics
Land Cover Type Land Cover Area Coverage in Hectare (Based on Image Analysis)
1972 1973 1974 1977 1990
Thick Forest 17032.25 13437.50 17656.25 16093.75 9687.50
Thick Forest 11718.75 6718.75 4531.25 4531.25 14062.50
Agricultural Land 18593.75 26250.00 25625.00 25781.25 8437.50
Bare Land 1718.25 23442.00 14061.00 957.95 14687.95
Barren Land 781.25 937.50 781.25 2167.50 2343.75
Urban Area 781.25 937.50 625.00 1093.75 1406.25
Total Area 50625.45 50625.45 50625.45 50625.45 50625.45

Estimation of Stream Flow

Stream flow has been estimated using Rational
Formula and SCS model. SCS model
accommodates land cover and soil characteristics
including rainfall as input. Therefore, SCS model
is suitable for studying the effect of land cover
changes only. Developmental projects induce
changes in land cover, land slope, and soil
characteristics such as compaction, field
permeability etc. Therefore SCS model may not
find a vide scope in assessing the impacts. While
using Rational Formula first of all runoff
coefficient for different types of land cover soil-
slope complex has been determined. For this a
look up table (Table.4 & Fig 1) has been
prepared using Analytical Hierarchy Decision
Process (Satty 1988). For this data pertaining to
the year 1972 and 1973 have been used and
decision has been carried out through a decision
cascade modeling. The problem was decomposed
in to three components. Weights corresponding
to each subcomponent were calculated using a
Factor Analytic Model.

Decision Variable - Weight Score
y = 9.4722x
-0.9665
R
2
= 0.9857
y = 0.9328x
0.8691
R
2
= 0.9938
y = 3.9121x
-0.5533
R
2
= 0.9478
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Decision Variable
W
e
i
g
h
t

S
c
o
r
e
Slope
Permeability
Land Cover(%/10)
Power (Land Cover(%/10))
Power (Slope)
Power (Permeability)

Fig. 1 Relationship between Terrain Parameter and Score


Table. 4 Catchments Characteristics and Weight

Catchments Characteristics
Details
Weight
Range Description
Land Slope (%)

> 10 High Relief 6.0
5 - 2 Medium Relief 4.5
< 2 Low Relief 1.0
Hydrologic Soil Group
Permeability (cm / hr.)
< 1.5

C, D 3.0
1.5 10.0 B 1.5
> 10.0 A 1.0
Land Cover
(%) Ground cover)
> 60 Forest 1.0
60 40 Agricultural 2.0
< 40 Barren, Open 3.0

Score - Runoff coeficent
y = 0.0408x
1.2902
R
2
= 0.9997
y = 0.0952x - 0.1236
R
2
= 0.9972
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Total Score
R
u
n
o
f
f

C
o
e
f
f
i
c
e
n
t
Series1
Theoritical
Power (Theoritical)
Linear (Series1)

Fig. 2 Relationship between Total Score and Runoff Coefficient

For a particular land unit, based on its characteristics
weights corresponding to land slope, Hydrologic Soil
group and Land Cover can be assigned using Table 4.
These weights can be totaled to get total score (Ts).
Relationship between total score, Ts, and runoff
coefficient, C, in least squares sense (Coefficient of
correlation = 0.9972, Fig. 2) has been found to be:

C = 0.0952 - .126 Ts

Once rainfall and runoff coefficient is known, stream
flow can be easily computed through watershed
modeling. Physical system representing runoff from a
watershed has been mathematically expressed as:

Q = C
i
I
j
A
i,j

Where, Q is stream flow, m is total number of rain
gauges, n is total number of land cover,
Ai,j
is area of
I
th
type land cover in
jth
rain gauge station, C
i
is
runoff coefficient for the i
th
type of the land cover, C
j

has been evaluated by inversion of the system
response. In order to implement this model the
watershed was decomposed in to smaller cells. Runoff
coefficient for each cell was evaluated using the look
up table (Table 4).

RESULTS

Stream flow from the Ratmau watershed has been
computed for the years, 1972 and 1990 and results are
shown in Table 5.


Table 5. Computed Stream Flow
Month
1972 1977
Rainfall
(mm)

Runoff
Rainfall
(mm)
Runoff
Watershed
Model
(mm)
SCS
Model
(mm)
Watershed
Model
(mm)
SCS
Model
(mm)
Jun 67.00 75.10 36.0 20.81
July 117.00 60.84 45.78 494.50 237.36 223.49
Aug. 281.00 146.12 115.37 452.00 216.96 306.58
Sep. 124.00 64.48 28.43 126.90 60.91 46.79

CONCLUSIONS
From this study following conclusions have been
drawn.
(i) Remotely sensed data has to be properly
selected for getting the optimal results. It is
useful in data collection, storage, retrieval
and processing.
(ii) SCS model and the proposed watershed
model are yielding more or less similar
results.
(iii) Watershed model that incorporates
watershed characteristics namely, land slope,
Soil, and Land cover, and hence can be used
to study the effect of developmental
activities including land cover changes on
stream flow.
(iv) Land cover changes influences the water
yield from a watershed. In Ratmau watershed
it has been observed that an increase in forest
cover (% ground cover) induces reduction in
stream flow. If land cover doubles it reduces
stream flow to half. However this requires a
detailed study before finalizing a watershed
management scheme.

REFERENCES
Barrett, E.C. and Curtis, L.F., 1976, Introduction to
Environmental Remotesensing, London,
Champman and Hall, New York.
Chakraborti, A.K., 1993, Strategies For Watershed
Management and Planning Using Remote
Sensing Technique. Photonishwachak vol.21, No.
2 , 1993.
Chandra, S. and Sharma, K.P. 1978, Application of
Remotesensing to Hydrology of Rivers with
Small and Medium Catchments, CBIP, Vol.II.
Crow, F.R., Ghermaziew, T, Pathak, C.S. (1983). The
effect of land use parameters on runoff simulation
by the USDAHL Hydrology Model, Transactions
of ASAE, 26(1) 148-152.
Crowford, N.H. and R.K. Linsley, 1966, Digital
Simulation in Hydrology, Stanford Watershed
Model IV, Technical Report 39, Deptt. Of Civil
Engg. Stanford Univ. Stanford, California.
Dawdy, D.R., R.W. Litchy and J.M. Bergman, 1972.
A Rainfall-Runoff Simulation Model of
Estimation of flood Peaks for Small Drainage
Basins, U.S.G.S. Prof. Paper 28, Washington
D.C.
Dubey, O.P., 1990 Impact of landcover charges on
Sediment Yield Proc. VIEC PP 40-48.
Holton, N.H., G.J. Stilner, W.H. Hensen and N.C.
Lowpez. 1975. USDA HL-74 Revised Model of
Water Hydrology. Tech. Bull. 1518, Agriculture
Research Service, USDA, Washington D.C.
Hydraulic Engineering Centre, 1982. Hydrologic
Analysis of Unganged Watershed using HEC-1.
Trg. Document No. 15, US Army Corp. of
Engineers, Davis, California.
McCuen, R.H. A Guide to Hydrologic Analysis using
SCS Methods. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Ragan, R.M. and T.J. Jackson. 1976. Hydrograph
Synthesis using Landsat Remotesensing and
S.C.S.Models. NASA X-913-76-161 Goddard
Space Flight Centre, Green Belt., M.D.
Saaty, T.L. 1988. The Analytical Hierarchy Process.
University of Piltsburgh, Pa
Satapathy K.K., R.K. Panda, R.N.Prasad, 1977, An
Experimental Investigation of Runoff Production
on Hill Slopes Under various Land Uses. JIWRS,
17(3) pp 34-42.
Shahlace, A.K., Nuter W.L., Buroughs ER and
Morris, L.A. (1991) Runoff and Sediment
Production from burned forest sites in the
Georgia Piedmont, water Resources Bulletin,
27(3) : 485-493.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

SEISMIC VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT OF SKEW BRIDGES

S.P. Deepu
Former Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kanpur, Kanpur - 208016, Email: deepusp@gmail.com
S. Ray-Chaudhuri
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kanpur, Kanpur - 208016, Email:samitrc@iitk.ac.in

ABSTRACT: Bridges are the most important component of a surface transportation system. Past earthquakes
have demonstrated that bridges are highly vulnerable to earthquake induced failure with skew bridges being
more susceptible to damage during earthquakes than a normal bridge. This work focuses on seismic
vulnerability assessment of skew bridges. Representative numerical models of four skewed bridges of skew
angle 15, 30, 45 and 60 along with a normal bridge, all with similar span and deck width, are developed
using a widely used software to study the effects of varying skew angles. A suite of ground motions with
varying strong motion properties and representing different hazard levels are used. Seismic fragility curves are
generated for assessing the vulnerability of these bridges. Damage measures considered for fragility analysis are
the deck unseating and damage of columns. Results indicate that as the skew angle increases, there is an
increase in the probability of failure for a given ground motion intensity. The results of this study provide a
better understanding of behavior of bridges with different skew angle under seismic loading.

INTRODUCTION
Bridges are one of the most important elements of any
land transportation network. In order to cater the
growing industries and population, transportation
network in a few countries is undergoing a rapid
expansion, which in turn requires construction of a
vast number of bridges and over-crossings for
providing grade separation and thereby ensuring fast
and uninterrupted traffic flow. Many of these bridges
are skewed or curved in plan as per the requirements
of network layout.

Over the past few decades, it has been observed that
many bridges and highway over-crossings have been
severely damaged during earthquakes. It has also been
found that skew and curved bridges are the most
vulnerable when compared to straight bridges. So far
many researchers have investigated the static and
dynamic behaviour of skew bridges with/without
considering the flexibility of the bridge deck. To save
space, these studies are not listed here but can be
found in Deepu (2011). In a recent work, Pottatheere
and Renault (2008) studied the seismic vulnerability
of skew bridges by developing fragility curves for
bridges with skew angle of 0, 12:23 and 45,
considering bridge column failure. Although it has
been found that skew bridges are prone to deck
unseating damage, no systematic studies is conducted
to understand and evaluate the probability of bridge
failure under ground motion with given intensity and
considering deck unseating damage. In this work, a
systematic study is conducted to assess sesimic
vulnerability of skew bridges with varying skew
angles and when subjected to an ensemble ground
motions of different hazard levels. Vulnerability
assessment is done by means of fragility curves
assuming it as a two-parameter log-normal
distribution function with unknown parameters.

NUMERICAL MODELLING
A representative normal bridge along with four
skewed bridges of skew angles 15, 30, 45 and 60
but with similar span and deck width (i.e., two equal
spans of 20 m each and an overall width of 14.18 m
measured along the skew direction) are considered.
For each of these bridges, at first, a preliminary design
is performed based on the examples from Barker and
Puckett (1997) followed by a seismic design. For the
seismic design, the AASHTO-LRFD (2007) bridge
design specifications are used along with IBC-2006
IBC (2006) design spectrum for San Francisco area
(ZIP- 94101). The superstructure of the bridges
consists of a concrete T- beam girder deck section
with 250 mm thick deck slab and six 1.5 m deep T-
beam girders. The girders are placed on a column bent
consisting of three reinforced concrete columns all
with similar dimensions. Each end of the bridge is
supported on abutments. The stiffness of the
abutments is assumed to be negligible for modeling
purpose. The base of each column is assumed to be
fixed (i.e., no soil-structure interaction is considered).
For concrete, the compressive strength is assumed to
be 3 ksi (20 MPa) while for steel, it is assumed to be
40 ksi (275 MPa).

Bridge Superstructure
The superstructure consists of a reinforced concrete
continuous deck slab of 40 m overall length with 250
mm thickness in the supported parts and 260 mm
thickness in the overhanging part. It is supported on
six reinforced concrete T- beam girders having a cross
section dimension of 1.5 m x 0.45 m. The centre to
centre spacing
between any two T-beams is 2.44 m .The total span of
the bridge is 40 m with an intermediate bent cap
supporting the 6 girders at the mid span. The cross
sectional area of the T-girder deck slab is 6.9353 m
2

and moments of inertia about different axes are


J=0.3237 m
4
, I
33
=1.4313 m
4
and I
22
=118.7519 m
4
. A
schematic diagram of the cross section of the
superstructure is shown in Figure 1.

Columns, Cap beam and Bearings
The cross sections of all the three columns of all the
models are assumed to be circular in shape. All the
columns are designed for meeting the imposed
seismic load based on the design spectrum. It is found
that the force demand increases with an increase in
skew angle. This is because as the as skew angle
increases, the structure becomes stiffer and thus
attracts more force. As a result, the columns of the
normal bridge and the 15 and 30 skewed bridges are
1.7 m in diameter, whereas the columns of the 45 and
60 bridges are of 1.8 m and 1.9 m in diameter,
respectively. For longitudinal reinforcements, #18
bars are used and for confining reinforcement, #11
bars with 6 inches (150 mm) spacing are used as the
stirrups for each column and for all the five bridge
models. The height of these columns from the centre
line of the cap beam to the bottom is assumed to be 7
m. All the columns are equally spaced in the
transverse direction with the spacing being 5 m for the
normal bridge model and in all other skew models, the
spacing is such that the projected spacing along the
direction perpendicular to the longitudinal direction is
5 m. Thus the actual transverse spacing between the
columns in all the skew models depends on the skew
angle. The cap beam is assumed to be of dimension
1m x 2m and is modeled as a reinforced concrete
beam with 3 ksi concrete.

The cross sections of the columns are modeled in SAP
2000, v14.0.0- Advanced (2009). In all the columns,
the percentage of the longitudinal steel used are less
than 4% of the gross cross sectional area. In the
longitudinal direction, a column acts as a cantilever
beam with base being fixed. However, in the
transverse direction, both ends of a column can resist
rotation.

To model these bridges, two types of bearings are
used. They are friction isolator bearing, which is used
at the abutment and the rocker bearing, which is used
at the bent. The friction isolator bearings have a
stiffness of 123 kN/mm and a friction coefficient of
0.2 in the longitudinal direction. In other two
translational directions, the bearing is assumed to
provide rigid connection.

The girders are supported on the cap beam via rocker
bearing, which is modeled as a nonlinear element
(Wen) with the vertical and transverse directions
fixed. In the longitudinal direction, the bearing is
modeled with an effective stiffness, k
e
=14 kN/mm,
yield strength f
yield
being approximately equal to 4%
of the normal reaction, which is equal to 34kN, and
the post-yield stiffness ratio of 0.018. (Pan et al.,
2007).

Fig. 1 Cross section of the deck slab

EIGENVALUE AND M- ANALYSIS
It has been found that the first mode in all these
models is in-plane rotation. The second and third
modes are longitudinal and transverse translations,
respectively. The time periods obtained from analysis
are given in Table 1. It can be observed from this
table that for all models, the fundamental and second
periods decrease as the skew angle increases thereby
implying the increase in stiffness with an increase in
skewness. However, for the third mode, the period
increases with the increase in skew angle. This
implies that the transverse stiffness of all these models
reduces with the increase in skew angle.

Table 1 Eigenvalue analysis results
Modes Normal 15 30 45 60
First* 2.03s 1.98 s 1.37s 1.04s 0.79s
Second# 0.78s 0.78s 0.76s 0.71s 0.67s
Third** 0.30s 0.31s 0.36s 0.40s 0.44s
*In-plane rotation, #Longitudinal displacement,
**Transverse displacement

Generally, for dynamic analysis involving concrete
sections, the Moment-curvature (M-) relation is
idealized with an elastic perfectly plastic behavior for
simplicity of analysis. In this study, M- curves are
idealized as per clause 3.3.1, Caltrans SDC (2010).
Table 2.3 gives the plastic moment capacity (M
p
) and
yield curvature (
Y
) obtained from the moment-
curvature analyses for all the bridges models. It can be
observed from this table that as the skew angle
increases,
Y
decreases but M
p
increases.

Table 2 Salient values from M- analysis
Modes Normal 15 30 45 60
Y
(10
-
3
/m)
2.36 2.35 2.34 2.207 2.086
M
p
col

(kNm)
15202 15551 15978 18644 22962

PLASTIC HINGE DETAILS
The analytical plastic hinge length is the equivalent
length of column over which the plastic curvature is
assumed to be constant for estimation of plastic
rotation. According to Caltrans SDC (2010), the
length of the plastic hinge, L
p
is calculated as follows
(clause 7.6.2(a)):


L
p =
0.08L + 0.022 f
ye
d
bl
(mm,MPa)

(1)

where L=length from the point of contra-flexure to the
section with maximum moment and d
bl
=diameter of
the longitudinal reinforcing bar and f
ye
=the effective
yield strength of the longitudinal reinforcing bars.
Based on these calculations, the length of plastic
hinge L
p
is assigned as 0.62 m for all the five models
considered.

GROUND MOTION DETAILS
For the non-linear dynamic analysis, 60 ground
motions with different hazard levels and strong
motion characteristics are used in this study. These
ground motions are taken from the SAC steel project
for the Los Angeles area (SAC). Each model is
subjected to three sets of ground motions representing
hazard levels 2%, 10% and 50% in 50 years. Note that
each set contains 10 ground motions with two
orthogonal horizontal components for each ground
motion. The three sets of ground motions are named
as LA01- LA20, LA21- LA40 and LA41- LA60.
These acceleration time histories have been derived
from historical recordings or from physical
simulations and have been altered so that their mean
response spectrum matches with the 1997 NEHRP
design spectrum, modified from soil type of SB--SC
to soil type SD and having a hazard specified by the
1997 USGS maps.

NONLINEAR TIME HISTORY ANALYSIS
Nonlinear time history analysis is done with each bi-
directional ground motion after performing a dead
load analysis and holding the stress and deformation
states so that the P-delta effects can be properly taken
into consideration. The analysis is carried out with
Newmarks constant acceleration direct integration
method. The models are assigned with mass and
stiffness proportional Rayleigh damping with 5%
damping in first and second modes.

RESULTS
Longitudinal and Transverse Displacement
To demonstrate the response of the bridge models,
LA21_22 has been considered. Figure 2 shows the
longitudinal displacement time histories and Figure 3
shows the transverse displacement time histories of
different models for corner node of slab. Figure 4
gives the salient points of the deck slab model.

It is seen that the longitudinal displacement of
different models under the two ground motion cases
have minimal effect on their skewness. Investigation
of the maximum longitudinal displacement under
LA21_L22 shows that the both 45 and 60 model has
longitudinally displaced through 0.39 m where as it is
0.37 m for normal model. The permanent deformation
of the all the models were very small with maximum
occurring for 30 skew model with 0.023 m.

Fig. 2 Longitudinal displacement time history of node
531 of different models under load case LA21_LA22

Fig. 3 Transverse displacement time history of node
531 of different models under load case LA21_LA22

Fig. 4 Salient points of the deck slab model


It is seen that as the skewness of the model increases,
the amount of transverse displacement increases
during the ground shaking. It is also observed that all
the skew models show a permanent transverse
deformation with maximum being around 6cm for
model with 60 skew angle when subjected to
LA21_LA22 ground motion whereas there is little
permanent deformation for normal model. The
maximum transverse displacement is 0.134 m and
0.101 m under LA21_LA22 and LA35_LA36
respectively and it occurs in the case of 60 model.

In-Plane Rotational Response
The rotation of the bridge deck is calculated using the
relative longitudinal displacement of the two corner
points on the right. i.e., node numbers 531 & 553. The
rotation (R) in degrees is calculated using the
expression,

=
( 1
531
1
553
)
cos
360
2
( 2)

where U1
531
is the longitudinal displacement of node
531, U1
553
is the longitudinal displacement of node
553, L is
the width of the slab (14.18 m) and is the skew
angle.

Fig. 5 Schematic for illustrating calculation of
rotation

Figure 6 shows the rotational time history of the deck.
It is observed that the normal bridge has hardly had
any resultant in-plane residual rotation. During the
strong shaking,(from 8 sec to 25 sec), the normal
bridge model shows some rotation, which is very
small compared with the rotations of other bridge
models. As expected, all the skew models have
rotational behavior and the rotation increases with an
increase in the skew angle. For the load case
LA21_LA22, the maximum rotation was 0.09 and
the residual rotation is 0.07. It can be stated that the
skewness causes excessive in-plane permanent
rotation, which is undesirable. The excessive rotation
and longitudinal displacements may cause the bridge
to fail temporarily or collapse completely due to
unseating of the deck slab.

Fig. 6 Rotational time history of the deck

Curvature ductility
Under strong dynamic loads, the response of the
column can surpass its elastic limit forming plastic
hinges at the ends of the columns. The damage of a
column is generally quantified in terms of ductility
demands (displacement, rotational or curvature). The
curvature ductility is expressed as:

= 1 +

( 3)
where
is the ultimate curvature and
is the yield
curvature, which can be determined from the idealized
moment curvature plot.
is the maximum plastic

curvature of the hinge. The curvature ductility
demands were found out from the plastic rotations and
was used as an indication of damage.

VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT
An assessment of seismic vulnerability of structures
like buildings and bridges are generally carried out by
means of fragility curves. A seismic fragility curve
provides a conditional probability that a structure or
component will exceed a certain damage level given a
ground motion with specific intensity has occurred.
The intensity of a ground motion is generally
expressed in terms of peak parameters such as PGA or
spectral parameters. A fragility curve is often
expressed in the form of a two-parameter log-normal
distribution with the unknown median and log-
standard deviation. According to Shinozuka et al.


(2001), there are two methods for estimating the
fragility parameters. In this study, the method that
uses the same log-standard deviation for different
damage levels (eliminating the possibility of crossing
of fragility curves associated with various damage
levels) is used.

DAMAGE STATES DEFINITIONS
The fragility curves have been developed for 1)
damage due to deck unseating and 2) damage due to
failure of columns. Although several researchers have
generated fragility curves for column damage in terms
of ductility demand, which may be expressed in terms
of displacement ductility, rotational ductility or
curvature ductility, hardly any work is reported in the
literature for fragility curves involving unseating of
bridge decks in skew bridges. Since deck unseating, is
a common damage phenomenon occurring in skew
bridges, fragility curves for deck unseating can be
very useful for risk mitigation in earthquake prone
areas with large number of skew bridges. In this study
three states of damage, 1) Minor damage 2) Moderate
damage and 3) Major damage have been defined
based on the performances of the bridges under
different ground motions.

Fragility Curves for Deck Unseating
The unseating of the deck can happen due to
excessive longitudinal displacement, transverse
displacements or rotation of the deck slab or a
combination of these. For generating the fragility
curves for the damage due to unseating, separate
limits are set for the damage due to these three
individual parameters and the maximum damage state
among these three are taken.

Unseating due to Longitudinal Displacement
For the bridges considered in this study, the girders of
the deck are placed on the bearings at the two
abutments. Therefore, in case there is an excessive
longitudinal displacement of deck, the deck can
unseat from the bearing pads. The minimum seat
width to be provided is given in all prominent codes
and in AASHTO-LRFD (2007). According to Clause
4.7.4.4 of this code, the empirical seat width shall be
taken as

N = { 200 + 0.001 7L + 0.0067 H} { 1
+ 0 .000 125 S
} ( 4)
where N = minimum support length measured normal
to the centerline of bearing (mm), L = length of the
bridge deck (mm), H = average heights of columns
supporting the bridge deck (mm), S = skew of support
measured from the line normal to the span (degrees).

Unseating due to Transverse Displacement
The failure due to deck unseating can also happen by
excessive displacement of the deck in a direction
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bridge.
Since the girders are placed on the bearing pads, it is
logical to assume that the maximum width of the
bearing pads that can be used is less than or equal to
the breadth of the girders placed on the bearing pads.
So for all the models, regardless of the skew angles
the maximum limit of the transverse displacement is
taken as 450mm.

Unseating due to In-Plane Rotation
For the deck to get fully unseated due to rotation, the
relative displacement between the two corners should
be equal to seat length. Hence, maximum in-plane
rotation for deck unseating is given by

( degr ees) =
B
L cos
360
2
( 5)

where N = the seat width required as per Equation 3.1,
B = width of the bridge and = Skew angle (degrees).

Fig. 7 Fragility curve for unseating for 45 model

In each of these three damage modes, minor,
moderate and major damage states are defined by
assuming the limiting values to be 25%, 50% and
75% of the maximum value specified for each mode,
respectively. Figure 7 shows the fragility curve for the
deck unseating damage for the 45-degree model. The
fragility curves have also been developed for all other
models.
Figure 8 shows the variation of median PGA
(corresponds to 50% probability of exceedence) value
for different damage states with skew angles. There is
no definite trend seen in the median value for all
damage states. However for major damage, it is found
that the 45 model is the most vulnerable.


Fig. 8 Variation of median PGA with skew angles for
different unseating damage states

Damage State Definitions for Column Damage
According to Dutta & Mander (1998), five different
damage states namely `Almost no', `Minor',
`Moderate', `Major', and `Collapse' can be defined
based on column drift, which is defined as the ratio of
maximum displacement response at the top node to
the height of the column. Priestley et al., (1996)
recommended that the drift limit corresponding to the
yield state is 0.005. Therefore, curvature ductility
demand corresponding to `Almost no damage', which
corresponds to a drift limit of 0.5%, is equal to 1. The
curvature ductility demand corresponding to
`Collapse' is computed based on a drift limit of 7.5%.
The ductility demands corresponding to other damage
states are obtained in proportion to the ultimate drift
limits (Banerjee and Shinozuka, 2007), i.e., by linear
interpolation between these two end values. Table 3
shows the curvature ductility demand corresponding
to different damage limit states. In this study, `Major
damage' and `Complete damage' is not taken into
account as the bridge models were seismically
designed and no cases surpassed these upper damage
states.
Figure 9 shows the variation of median of different
column damage states with skew angles. It is
observed that the skew bridges with skew angles 30,
45 and 60 are more vulnerable compared to 15 and
normal bridge. As the skew angle increases, the force
demand generally increases and this explicitly
increases the vulnerability, even if the columns are
designed for that particular skew. Also it can be seen
that for the 45 skew model, the median value is
minimum, implying the most vulnerable model.

Table 3: Peak curvature ductility demand for columns
Damage
states
Normal
model
15
model
30
model
45
model
60
model
Almost No 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Minor 2.77 2.72 2.71 2.72 2.70
Moderate 8.09 7.89 7.86 7.86 7.78
Major 16.95 16.5 16.43 16.44 16.26
Collapse 25.81 25.12 25.00 25.01 24.74

Fig 11. Comparison of median values with varying
skew for different states of column damage.

CONCLUSIONS
Focusing on skew bridges, a systematic investigation
has been conducted in this work to assess seismic
vulnerability of skew bridges with varying skew
angles when subjected to bidirectional ground
motions. For this purpose, a normal bridge and four
skewed bridges of 15, 30, 45 and 60 skew but
with similar dimensions are designed as per
AASHTO-LRFD (2007) guidelines and modeled in a
widely used commercial finite element software, SAP
2000, v14.0.0- Advanced (2009). Sixty ground motion
time histories representing hazard levels of 2%, 10%
and 50% probability of exceedence in 50 years are
used and seismic seismic fragility curves are
generated using PGA as ground motion intensity
parameter and considering different damage states for
deck unseating and column failure. Specific findings
of this study are as follows:

1. It has been found that irrespective of skew angle,
rotational mode is the fundamental mode. However,
as the skew angle increases, the structure becomes
stiffer, which in turn attracts more forces and shows
higher responses compared to a normal bridge of the
same dimensions.

2. As the skewness of a bridge increases, it has been
found that the amount of transverse displacement
increases during the ground shaking.

3. It is observed that the normal bridge suffers
negligible in-plane residual rotation as a result of
ground excitation, whereas, due to torsional coupling,
all the skew models suffer significant rotation, which
increases with an increase in the skew angle.

4. As far as damage due to deck unseating is
considered, it is observed that the 45 model is the
most vulnerable and the vulnerability reduces with an
increase or a decrease in skew angle from 45.


5. In the case of column damage, it is found that the
skew bridges with skew angles 30, 45 and 60 are
more vulnerable compared to 15 or the normal bridge
model.

6. A comparison of fragility curves shows that the
failure probability for deck unseating is much more
than that of the column failure when similar damage
states are considered.

REFERENCES
AASHTO-LRFD (2007). AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications. American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials.
Banerjee, S. and Shinozuka, M. (2007). Nonlinear
Static Procedure for Seismic Vulnerability
Assessment of Bridges. Computer-Aided Civil and
Infrastructur Engineering, 22, 293-305.
Barker, R. and Puckett, J. (1997). Design of highway
bridges-Based on AASHTO LRFD Bridge design
specifications. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
York
Caltrans (2010). Seismic Design Criteria Version 1.6.
California Department of Transportation,
California.
Deepu, S.P. (2011) Seismic performance assessment
of skew bridges, M. Tech. Thesis, IIT Kanpur,
Kanpur, India.
Dutta, A. & Mander, J. B. (1998), Seismic fragility
analysis of highway bridges, in Proceedings of
INCEDE-MCEER Center-to-Center Workshop on
Earthquake Engineering Frontiers in
Transportation Systems, Tokyo, Japan, 31125.
IBC (2006). International Building Code.
International
Building Code Council.
Pan, Y., Agrawal, A., and Ghosn, M. (2007). Seismic
Fragility of Continuous Steel Highway Bridges in
New York State. Journal of Bridge Engineering,
12(6),689-699.
Pottatheere, P. and Renault, P. (2008). Seismic
Vulnerability Assessment of Skew Bridges.
Proceedings, 14th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, Beijing, China.
Priestley, M., Seible, F., and Calvi, G. (1996). Seismic
design and retrofit of bridges. John Wiley and
Sons,
Inc., New York.
SAC Steel Project. Seismic Design Criteria for Steel
Moment Frame Construction.
http:\\www.sacsteel.org.
SAP 2000, v14.0.0- Advanced (2009). Computers and
Structures Inc. Berkeley, California, USA.
Shinozuka, M., Feng, M., Kim, H., Uzawa, T., and
Ueda, T. (2001). Statistical Analysis of Fragility
Curves. Technical Report MCEER, USA.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

GEOCHRONOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS OF EASTERN DHARWAR
CRATON: A REVIEW

D. Prakash
Assistant Professor, Centre of Advanced Study in Geology, BHU, Varanasi- 22 1005, Email: dprakashbhu@yahoo.com
P. Chandra Singh
Research Scholar, Centre of Advanced Study in Geology, BHU, Varanasi- 22 1005, Email: pchandrageo@gmail.com
S. Tewari
Research Scholar, Centre of Advanced Study in Geology, BHU, Varanasi- 22 1005, Email: suparnatewari67@gmail.com
I.N. Sharma
Research Associate, Centre of Advanced Study in Geology, BHU, Varanasi- 22 1005, Email: indraneel_vns@rediffmail.com

ABSTRACT: The rocks of the Eastern Dharwar Craton span a vast period of time and have been dated by a
number of workers. On the basis of available geochronological data three major tectonothermal events have
been recognized in this part of the Dharwar Craton around 3.0 Ga (MI), 2.5 Ga (MII) and 2.0 Ga (MIII). Dates
from the sedimentary sequences indicate that the lower most part of the sequence may be older than 1.5 Ga and
the upper most part is around 0.5 Ga although no definite dates are available on the uppermost part. On the basis
of the available geochronological data from Eastern Dharwar craton, the emerging concept of different continent
assembly is endorsed.

INTRODUCTION
Geochronological studies of an area are necessary for
determining the age of different rocks and correlation
of their formation with the events that happened
during that period. Of the various methods available,
the radiometric dating is the best and most widely
accepted as this gives the absolute age. This is
particularly true of the Archean rocks due to the
absence of floral or faunal evidences. The most
widely used pairs for the radiometric dating of the
Archean rocks are Rb-Sr, U-Pb, Pb-Pb, Sm-Nd and
K-Ar. Out of these Sm-Nd dating technique is the best
but unfortunately in the Eastern Dharwar Craton
(EDC) this method has not been used so far. Another
new technique SHRIMP (Stimulated High Resolution
Ion Micro Probe) dating has been used in the EDC by
Friend and Nutman (1991) and Peucat et al. (1993) in
few places. This method gives an error of around 5
Ma which is very good in view of the dates obtained.
The radioactive mineral dates or whole rock dates are
meager in the EDC. The evolution of rocks and events
in this part of the Dharwar Craton are normally
inferred from those of the Western Dharwar Craton
(WDC). But there are some specific dates available in
the EDC of gneisses, granites, charnockites, dykes
and sedimentary sequences. Chronostratigraphy and
the tectonothermal events of the EDC have been given
in Table 1. Present paper attempts to club these
scattered radiometric dates in one place for
convenience and discuss the various tectonothermal
events in this part of the Dharwar Craton.

REGIONAL GEOLOGY
The EDC occupies the central portion in the
peninsular India (Fig. 1). It is separated from the
WDC by a N-S trending thrust located about 25 km
west of the N-S trending arcuate closepet granite. The
stratigraphic succession of the Dharwar craton, based
on swaminath and Ramkrishna (1981) is given in
Table 2. The major differences between EDC and
WDC are given in Table 3. In the east, Eastern Ghats
front separates it from the Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt.
In the north of it lies the Deccan Basalts and the
Permo-carboniferous sedimentary formations of
Godavari Graben. The later separates the EDC from
the Bastar Craton. In the south the rocks of the EDC
gradually merge into the Southern Granulites.
The prominent exposures in the EDC are the
supracrustal enclaves (Sakarsanahalli Group) and the
schist belts (Kolar, Hutti and Ramgiri), gneisses
(Peninsular Gneisses), granites (Closepet, Patna,
Hyderabad and Karimnagar), later dolerite dykes and
late Proterozoic sedimentary suites. The metamorphic
rocks of the EDC show an increase in the grade of
metamorphism southward from greenschist (Sandur,
Hospet, Ramgiri belts) to amphibolite (Kolar belt) to
granulite facies (Krishnagiri-Dharmapuri).
Karimnagar granulite terrain shows granulite facies
rocks further north of the greenschist facies belt in
EDC.
The metamorphic and igneous rocks of the EDC are
covered at places by almost undeformed sedimentary
sequences like Cuddapah and Bhima basins. Bhima
basin do not show any deformation, whereas,
Cuddapah basin shows mild tectonism throughout the
extent.

GEOCHRONOLOGY OF THE ROCKS OF
EASTERN DHARWAR CRATON
The available radiometric dates from the EDC are
summarized in Table 4. The oldest data available in
the EDC is 3.3 Ga (U-Pb isochron from zircon) for
the Peninsular gneiss from Kabbaldurga area (Stahle
et al., 1987) hence the rocks of the Sakarsanahalli
Group occurring as enclaves within these gneisses
must be older. The Peninsular gneisses are dated
around 3.0 Ga. At few places younger dates of around


2.5 Ga presumably due to resetting in the
concentration of the radioactive minerals during the
formation of charnockites and intrusion of granites
around 2.5 Ga. Similarly the younger dates for the
Closepet granites may be due to resetting during the
dolerite dyke emplacement around 2.0 Ga.
Kimberlites from Wajrakarur are highly weathered,
hence exact age determination is difficult, and
younger K-Ar dates of around 1.0 Ga has been
reported. These lower

Fig. 1(a). Reference map of India, (b) Lithological
patterns for Precambrian rocks of the Eastern
Dharwar Craton along with craton boundaries. The
abbreviations used are: WDC Western Dharwar
Craton, SG Southern Granulite, EGMB Eastern
Ghats Mobile Belt, B Bastar Craton, Hy
Hyderabad, K Karimnagar, C Cuddapah, BA
Bangalore, KR Krishnagiri.

dates may be due to escape of Ar as it is a gaseous
phase. The major dates available are 3.2 Ga, 3.0 Ga,
2.5 Ga and 2.0 Ga. The earliest recognizable
tectonothermal event is MI, which affected the
Peninsular Gneisses (3.2-3.0 Ga) and Sakarsanahalli
Group (> 3.0 Ga) around 3.0 Ga. During this event the
rocks were metamorphosed to amphibolite facies
conditions. The major event designated as MII was
responsible for the prograde metamorphism from
greenschist to granulite facies from north to south
around 2.6/2.5 Ga. This MII event affected the
Peninsular Gneiss with enclaves of Sakarsanahalli
Group of rocks which were already metamorphosed to
amphibolite facies conditions during the MI event.
MII event is also related with the widespread
charnockitisation and was closely followed by
widespread granite intrusion such as Closepet, Patna,
Hyderabad and Karimnagar granites. This MII event
was later on followed by a milder MIII event during
early Proterozoic (~ 2.0 Ga) and the rocks formed
during MI and MII events retrograded along the E-W
and N-S trending faults. This MIII event coincides
with the emplacement of dyke swarms.
In the sedimentary sequences 1.580.15 Ga date has
been obtained from the amygdaloidal basalts and a
date of 0.980.11 Ga has been obtained from the
altered dolerite dyke cutting the Vempalle dolomite,
both from the lower Cuddapah sequence. Thus the
dates available for the sedimentary sequences indicate
that the lower most part of the sequence may be older
than 1.5 Ga and the upper most part be around 0.5 Ga,
although no definitative dates are available on the
uppermost part. The dates of 0.5-0.6 Ga are still
disputed and not well established in the EDC.
Based on the lithology, Kameshwar Rao (1989) and
Rajesham et al. (1993) proposed two different
stratigraphic sequence for the rocks of the Karimnagar
area. Kameshwar Raos stratigraphic classification
does not have charnockite as one of the important
litho-unit of the area, where Rajesham et al. (1993)
does not include the peninsular gneissic complex in
their classification. Due to these descripancies a new
stratigraphic classification is being proposed here on
the basis of the lithology and geochrnological data
(Table 5).

TECTONIC SETTING
The primitive Earth consists of a magma ocean, in
which the less dense material floats over the dense
magma. The condensed less dense layer formed into a
number of small plates, which floats over the dense
magma. These plates characterize the early Archaean
crustal evolution (Vansutre and Hari, 2010). The
subduction of Buster craton beneath the Dharwar
craon took place around 2600Ma (Fig.2a). After this,
the TTG (tonalitetrondhjemite Granodiorite) suite
formation occurred as a new continental crust with the
partial melting of hydrated basaltic crust (Condie,
1988; Martin et al., 2005) between 4 and 2.5 Ga. This
was followed by intense plume activity which is
evident by accretion of juvenile crustal materials, M II
event metamorphism is associated with widespread
charnockitization and the peak condition of
metamorphism in Dharwar craton found close to 2500
Ma. The heterogeneity in the density of the plates
was produced due to the cooling of the crusts, which
might have caused the development of subduction
zones, subsequently thickening of the crust (Vansutre
and Hari, 2010) (Fig.2b). The presence of granulite


crust in Archaean cratons is recognized on a global
scale, which was result of magmatic underplating
(Lopez et al., 2006). The geochemical signatures from
the rocks of Bhopalpatnam granulite belts (BGB),
suggest a provenance for the protolith in close
proximity to K- rich lithology (Vansutre, 2007) (Fig.
b and c). The clockwise exhumation paths deduced
from BGB and Karimnagar granulite belt (KGB)
suggest a collisional event between Dharwar craton
and Baster craton between 1.9 to 1.6 Ga.
There are two dates are available in Karimnagar, one
is from younger granites (2600-2700 Ma by Rb- Sr)
by Rajesham et al., (1993) and another from zircon
and monazite probe dating of the chanockites
(between 3.1 and 2.6 Ga) by Santosh et al., (2004). In
Karimnagar granulite belt, granites and charnockites
have inclaves of mafics (Prakash and Sharma, 2011),
which are very important to understand the evolution
of these areas. The fluid inclusion and mineral phase
equilibria studies of BGB rocks reveal clock wise
exhumation path and hence collision environment
should be operated at that time (Fig. 2d) between BC
and EDC (Santosh et al., 2006). Subsequently due to
intracontinental orogeny at around 1.5 Ga, the P-G rift
basin was formed (Fig. 2e).

IMPLICATIONS ON SUPERCONTINENT
HISTORY
The ages of formation and reworking of Precambrian
terrains yield important information for the history of
supercontinents. The Eastern Dharwar Craton
contains juvenile gneissic crust slightly before 3.0 Ga
and having widespread granitic activity at ~2.5 Ga
indicating plume activity beneath the crust at that time
(Jayananda et al., 2000). The West and East Dharwar
cratons were welded by oblique convergence during
late Archaean (Chadwick et al., 2000). The Bastar
craton on the other hand, was multicomponent in
nature with crustal and mantle derived magmatic
additions, and depositional and tectonic reworking
during 2.7-2.1 Ga (Ramachandra et al., 2001).The
3.0-2.5 Ga ages from the KGB rocks show that the
terrain was a part of the Eastern Dharwar Craton. The
present study has established that the KGT represents
a 2.5 Ga old collisional orogen at the southern margin
of the Bastar craton against the Dharwar craton. Thus
the Dharwar, Bastar and Singhbhum cratons of the
Indian subcontinent may not have formed at a 3.0 Ga
old contiguous assembly. Recently Rogers and
Santosh (2002) proposed the configuration of a
Mesoproterozoic supercontinent Columbia that
preceded Rodinia and began to accrete at -1.9-1.8 Ga,
reaching maximum packing at 1.6-1.5 Ga, and began
rifting at 1.5 Ga. Configuration of Columbia was also
proposed by Zhao et al. (2002) which is an alternative
one. Several configurations have also been proposed
for the younger supercontinent Rodinia, which existed
at ca. 1.0 Ga (Moores, 1991; Karlstrom et al., 1999;
Burrett and Berry, 2000).
The 2.5 Ga old collisional mobile belt at the northern
margin of the EDC against the Bastar craton, was
superposed by rift activity during -1.5 Ga creating the
PG basin. This sequence of events closely matches
with the accretion and break-up of Columbia. The
ages of 1.7 Ga from the dyke swarms demarcate the
last phase of activity for Columbia supercontinent. No
Grenville ages (ca. 1.0 Ga) corresponding to the
Rodinia accretion or late Pan-African ages (ca. 550
Ma) corresponding to the Gondwana amalgamation
are recorded from KGT or from parts of the PG basin
located away from the Eastern Ghats Front.
Therefore, we infer that the KGT and major parts of
the PG basin did not witness any of these younger
supercontinent histories. On the other hand, 1.6-1.5
Ga collision along the amalgamation at the northern
margins of the combined Dharwar-Bastar-Singhbhurn
cratons had no rift activity but was superposed by
second collision during ca 1.0 Ga. These relations
would imply that in certain cases, cratonic
convergence was followed by rifting during 1.6-1.5
Ga, which affected marginal parts of southeast India
and possibly coastal East Antarctica.

Fig. 2 Schematic model showing the evolution of northern
part of Eastern Dharwar craton (after Vansutre and Hari,
2010)


CONCLUSIONS
In the EDC few radiometric dates are now available
from gneisses, granites, charnockites, dykes and
sedimentary sequences. The oldest date available in
the Eastern Dharwar Craton is 3.3 Ga for the
Peninsular gneisses from Kabbaldurga area. Three
major tectonothermal events around 3.0 Ga (MI), 2.5
Ga (MII) and 2.0 Ga (MIII) have been recognized in
this part of the Dharwar Craton. MII event is the
strongest and is responsible for the present nature of
the craton except for the sedimentary basins. This MII
event is also correlated with the widespread
charnockitisation and granitic activity. Only scanty
and patchy dates are available for the sedimentary
sequences but on the basis of the two dates around 1.5
Ga and 0.98 Ga from the lower part of the Cuddapah
sequence, it may be said that these sedimentary rocks
were formed between 1.5 Ga and 0.5 Ga.

Acknowledgements: We are thankful to Head of the
Department of Geology, Banaras Hindu University
for providing the working facilities. DST is gratefully
acknowledged for providing financial support to first
author.

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Table 1. Chronostratigraphy of the Igneous and Metamorphic rocks of Eastern Dharwar Craton
Age (Ma.) Stratigraphy Tectonothermal Event
Deformation along E-W and N-S shear
2100-1700 Dolerite zone, retrograde metamorphism (MIII)
and thermal resetting of mineral dates.
Karimnagar Granite
2600.2400 Closepet Granite, Patna
Granite & Karimnagar
Granite-Gneisses
MII, 2600/2500 Ma, Deformation and
metamorphism greenschist to low
pressure
And-Sil type in Eastern Dharwar
Craton.
<3000 Kolar Group
------------------------unconformity----------------------- uplift and erosion
3000 Peninsular Gneisses MI, 3000 Ma, Deformation and granite
intrusive, high grade amphibolite facies
metamorphism throughout the Dharwar
Craton
> 3000 Sakarsanahalli Group
Basement Sialic (not exposed)
Oldest date is 3400 Ma of Peninsular Gneiss from Kabbaldurga area near the junction of the Western and
Eastern Dharwar Cratons.

Table 2. Chronostratigraphic Succession in Dharwar Craton (After Swaminath and Ramakrishna, 1981)
Age (Ma) Western Dharwar Craton Eastern Dharwar Craton
Middle to Late Proterozoic Kaladgi, Badami and Bhima Groups
----------------------------------------------unconformity-------------------------------------------------------------
2100-1700 -----------------------------------------------Dolerite Dykes-----------------------------------------


2600-2400 Chitradurga Granite Closepet and Patna
Granites
2600 to <3000 Dharwar Supergroup:
Chitradurga Group
-----------unconformity-----------
Bababudan Group Kolar Group
------------------------------------------unconformity-----------------------------------------------
3000 Peninsular Gneiss
>3000 Sargur Group Sakarsanahalli Group

3400 Tonalitic gneiss with Basement not exposed
to enclaves of basic and
3580 ultrabasic rocks

Table 3. Major Differences between the Two Blocks of the Dharwar Craton
Western Dharwar Craton Eastern Dharwar Craton
1. Characterised by medium to high pressure
kyanite-sillimanite type of facies series.

2. The younger supracrustals include continental
type shallow water clastic sediments grading
into greenstone-greywacke-chert association of
oceanic affinity (Dharwar type greenstone).

3. Tonalitic gneiss basement with enclaves of
basic and ultrabasic rocks.
1. Characterized by low to medium pressure
andalusite-sillimanite type of facies series.

2. The younger supracrustals include volcanics,
immature clastic and chemical sediments of
oceanic character (Keewatin or Kolar type
greenstone).

3. Basement not exposed.

Table 4: Geochronology of the rocks of Eastern Dharwar Craton
S.No. Rock Type Locality Age (Ga) Method Reference
1. Gneiss Kabbaldurga 3.3 U-Pb (Zircon) Stahle et al. (1987)
2. Schist Kolar 3.2 U-Pb (Zircon) Krogstad et al. (1988)
3. Amphibolite Hutti 3.2 K-Ar (whole rock) Sarkar (1968)
4. Cordierite-
gneisses
Western &
Eastern side
of Closepet
Granite
3.010.9 Rb-Sr, Sr
87
/Sr
86
of
0.7010.001
Jayaram et al. (1976)
5. Peninsular Gneiss Kabbaldurga 2.96 0.004 U-Pb (Zircon) Friend & Nutman (1991)
6. Gneiss & Granites Bangalore 2.950.11 Rb-Sr, l Sr
87
/Sr
86
of
0.7060.004
Venkatasubramanian &
Narayanaswamy (1974)
7. Amphibolite Kolar 2.9 Pb-Pb (whole rock) Tayler et al. (1988)
8. Champion Gneiss Kolar 2.890.96 Rb-Sr, Sr
87
/Sr
86
of
0.7020.002
Bhalla et al. (1978)
9. Amphibolite Kolar 2.730.155 Pb-Pb isochron Balakrishnan et al. (1988)
10. Amphibolite Kolar 2.690.14 Pb-Pb isochron Balakrishnan et al (1988)
11. Aplite Bangalore 2.6250.90 Rb-Sr, Sr
87
/Sr
86
of
0.7030.004
Venkatasubramanian &
Narayanaswamy (1974)
12. Charnockite Karimnagar 2.6120.100 Rb-Sr, Sr
87
/Sr
86
of
0.70330.08
Bhaskar Rao (1992)
13
*
. Peninsular Gneiss Bangalore 2.590.04 Rb-Sr, Sr
87
/Sr
86
of
70160.001
Crawford (1969)
14
*
. Peninsular Gneiss Kolar 2.590.04 Pb-Pb (whole rock) Tayler et al. (1988)
15. Closepet Granite Kolar 2.578 Pb-Pb (whole rock) Tayler et al. (1988)
16. Granite-gneiss Krishnagiri 2.5570.016 U-Pb (Zircon) Peucat et al. (1993)
17. Charnockite Krishnagiri 2.5530.005 Pb-Pb (Zircon) Peucat et al. (1993)
18. Tonalite-gneiss Krishnagiri 2.5520.014 Pb-Pb (Zircon) Peucat et al. (1993)
19. Patna Granites Kolar 2.550 U-Pb(Zircon, Sphene) Krogstad et al. (1988)


20. Charnockite Krishnagiri 2.5480.003 Pb-Pb (Zircon) Peucat et al. (1993)
21. Granite-gneiss Krishnagiri 2.5460.004 Pb-Pb (Zircon) Peucat et al. (1993)
22. Tonalitic-gneiss Krishnagiri 2.5330.003 Pb-Pb (Zircon) Peucat et al. (1993)
23. Tonalitic-gneiss Krishnagiri 2.5320.014 U-Pb (Zircon) Peucat et al. (1993)
24
*
. Peninsular Gneiss Kabbaldurga 2.5280.005 U-Pb (Zircon) Friend & Nutman (1991)
25. Closepet Granites Kabbaldurga 2.5130.005 U-Pb (Zircon) Friend & Nutman (1991)
26. Charnockite Krishnagiri 2.5170.010 Pb-Pb (Monazite) Peucat et al. (1993)
27. Charnockite Krishnagiri 2.5060.010 Pb-Pb (Monazite) Peucat et al. (1993)
28. Granites Hyderabad 2.4900.115 Rb-Sr, Sr
87
/Sr
86
of
0.70450.0044
Crawford (1969)
29. Granite-Gneisses Karimnagar 2.4830.204 Rb-Sr, Sr
87
/Sr
86
of
0.70470.026
Bhaskar Rao (1992)
30. Granite-Gneisses Karimnagar 2.4780.148 Rb-Sr Rajesham et al. (1993)
31. Closepet Granite Gadag 2.456 Rb-Sr Bhaskar Rao et al. (1992)
32. Closepet Granite Toranagulli 2.452 Rb-Sr Bhaskar Rao et al. (1992)
33. Charnockite Karimnagar 2.4460.065 Rb-Sr Rajesham et al. (1993)
34. Closepet Granite 2.3800.035 Rb-Sr, Sr
87
/Sr
86
of
0.70490.0014
Crawford (1969)
35. Closepet Granite Sandur 2.377 Rb-Sr Bhaskar Rao et al. (1992)
36. Charnockite Krishnagiri 2.3370.010 Rb-Sr,Sr
87
/Sr
86
of
0.7102537
Peucat et al. (1993)
37. Granite Karimnagar 2.2860.100 Rb-Sr, Sr
87
/Sr
86
of
0.71840.011
Bhaskar Rao (1992)
38. Grey-Gneisses Karimnagar 2.2170.108 Rb-Sr, Sr
87
/Sr
86
of
0.71330.003
Bhaskar Rao (1992)
39
**
. Closepet Granite 2.000 Rb-Sr Bhaskar Rao et al. (1992)
40. Charnockite Karimnagar 3.1 (Core)
2.6 (Rim)
U-Th-Pb
Zircon
Santosh et al. (2004)
41. Charnockite Karimnagar 2.420.08
2.470.03
Monazite, Uranitite
(U-Th-Pb)
Santosh et al. (2004)
* Age is lower than the commonly assumed age of gneisses, may be due to the effect of Closepet Granite.
** Age is lower due to thermal resetting during early Proterozoic, may be due to dolerite dykes.

Table 5. Stratigraphic Sequence of the Karimnagar area
SEDIMENT COVER
Quartz Veins
Dolerite Dykes
Karimnagar Granites
Intrusives
2.1 to 1.7 Ga
2.3 to 2.2 Ga

Karimnagar Granite-Gneisses comprising of granitic and
tonalitic rocks
Charnockites
Deformation and metamorphism MII (2.6/2.5 Ga) and
intrusion of granites
2.6 to 2.5 Ga

2.6 to 2.5 Ga
Basic Granulites
Amphibolites
Meta-ultramafics
Quartz-free granulites
Cordierite-bearing gneisses and biotite schists
Banded magnetite quartzites interbedded with quartzites

High-Grade Supracrustals*

(> 2.5 Ga)
BASEMENT NOT EXPOSED
These high grade supracrustals are not in stratigraphic order, as they occur together as enclaves within
granite-gneisses and charnockites and must be older than them.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

VELOCITIES IN NON-UNIFORM FLOW ON CLOSELY PACKED
ROUGH BED

Kesheo Prasad
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, BHU, Varanasi, India, e-mail: kesheo_bhu@yhoo.com
C.S.P. Ojha
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India
K. M. Singh
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India,

ABSTRACT: Series of experiments are conducted over closely packed hemispheres fixed bed of a channel and the
velocities in 3-D is measured using Acoustic Doppler Velocimiter (ADV). An attempt has been made to study the
variation in the flow velocities in the longitudinal direction of flow in wall region (y/h<0.2) and outer region
(0.2<y/h<1) in open channel, h being the fow depth of flow and y is the vertical distance measured with reference to
bed . In addition to this, an attempt is also made to understand the effect of the bed roughness on dip. Results for one
discharge 50m
3
/s (Reynolds and Froude number are 1.076x10
5
and 0.62, respectively indicate that the maximum
velocity is attained at 0.26h from water surface.

INTRODUCTION
Flow of water in hilly rivers above stones, air
movement above the cities and forest, and flow of fluid
in turbo machinery are some prominent areas where
turbulent flow appears in nature. Very often in
engineering applications, the transport rate of a scalar
contaminant is also fixed by transport mechanism
occurring at the wall. Turbulent flow produced by
rough bed surface is complex in nature and has
remained area of interest of the engineers since long
time. This has been studied with various flow
conditions; non-uniform flow with gradually
accelerating flows on a smooth surface by Tsujimoto et
al. (1990), Song and Graf (1994), Song and Chiew
(2001), Cardoso et al. (1991). Kironoto and Graf (1995)
determined velocity profiles for accelerating and
decelerating flows in a rough channel, whereas,
Bergstrom et al. (2002) studied turbulent flow in wind
tunnel. Nezu et al. (1994) measured turbulence
fluctuations for accelerating and decelerating flows in
smooth channel. Nikuradse (1932) stated that / U u
-
in
the wall region is a function of / yu
-
, where, U is the
average mean velocity, u
-
is the shear velocity, y is the
local depth of flow and v is the kinematic viscosity.
However, for rough pipe flow, an additional parameter
/ R ku
-
= (1)
[where, R is the hydraulic radius and k is the
roughness size] can also be considered to determine
/ U u
-
in the wall region. Laufer (1954) also supported
this theory. Figure 1 shows the conceptual definitions
of terms used in the Eq (1). In Fig. 2, U
m
and
represent the maximum velocity and the boundary layer
thickness, respectively; u is the local velocity at a
distance y, k is the height of roughness element, k
s
is the

equivalent roughness height and y
0
is the distance of
virtual bed level from the bed of the channel.
ks k
yo
F
l
o
w

d
e
p
t
h
,

h
o
Water surface
Virtual bed level
Y
Um
X
y
u

Fig. 1: Definition sketch, virtual bed level, rough
surface height and equivalent height.

Keulegan (1938) suggested that logarithmic law of
velocity distribution for smooth and rough pipes can
also be extended to smooth and rough open channel
flows and he suggested the following power laws:
for small / R k
values
( )
1/ 6
9.1 /
u
y k
u
-
= , (2)
for large / R k
values
( )
1/ 7
10.2 /
u
y k
u
-
= , (3)
Eqs. (2) and (3) are simple but range of small and large
/ R k was not defined; hence, for central vertical
velocity distribution a parabolic law was introduced as
( )
2
6.3 1
m
u u y
+ +
= (4)
where
/
m m
u u u
+
-
= and
*
/ u u u
+
= (5)
Vanoni (1941) observed that the vertical velocity
curves of the central region of channel were identical.


He also stated that these identical velocity curves will
be in the region of no dip and the phenomenon of dip
occurs in the vicinity of the side walls. Further, there
always exists a central region, in which the logarithmic
law extends up to the free surface, when value of aspect
ratio is less than 5. Coles (1956) introduced a purely
empirical expression to predict velocities in the fully
turbulent flow (
s
k
+
> 70) for inner region as well as for
outer region
*
*
1
ln
u y u y
A w
u k
H | |
= + +
|
K \ .
(6)
Where, H= 0.55 with K = 0.4, A = 5.1, and ( / ) w y is
law of the wake given by ( )
2
2sin / 2 y for zero
pressure gradient. Clauser (1956) stated that velocity
profile for turbulent flow layers depends upon both
Reynolds number and degree of roughness of the wall.
He developed a correlation between velocity u/u
m
with
y/ along the flow direction at a distance y from the
wall and concluded that no sample rescaling of u/u
m
and
y/ will reduce the curves to a single curve. But if
*
( ) /
m
u u u is used instead of u/u
m
, with y/, than
turbulent velocity may collapse to a single curve. Vittal
(1972) stated that a single logarithmic law is not
applicable over the entire depth of flow. Sarma et al.
(1983) reported an expression for velocity distribution
power law as
( )
*
/ /
n
u u C yu
-
= (7)
which fits best with C=8.3 and n=1/7 in wall region.
Further, the equation

2
*
2
1
c
w
u u
y
k
u B
| |
=
|
\ .
(8)
gives the better results in the outer side region,
where
w
k is a constant as 2.4. Sarma et al. (1983)
determined
*
u using the intercept by plotting semi log
of u and y/H at y/H=1. This value of
*
u was used to
determine the value of constant C in Power law and the
value of C was found 8.3. Sarma et al. (1983)
concluded that the aspect ratio in the range of 2.0 to 0.8
had no significant effect in the inner region of the bed,
side wall and outer region of bed. Kirkgz (1989)
studied the mean velocity in fully developed turbulent
flow on rough and smooth surfaces using velocity
measuring instrument LDA. He determined
*
u from
measured velocity distributions by shifting the virtual
bed level at a distance y
o
from the bed. He also
explained that the velocity, in the outer region is mainly
controlled by the turbulent shear and velocity
distribution. He derived velocity defect law as
2
*
1
ln 2cos
2
m
u u y y
u

H | |
= +
|
K K \ .
(9)
where,
*
u is determined using
*
u ghS = (10)
[where, h is depth of flow and S is slope of channel] for
smooth and rough surface. Afzalimher and Anctil(2000)
and Chen and Chiew (2003) stated that Eq. (10) can be
used to non uniform flow in an open channel flow.
Kirgoz (1989) determined Coles constant as 0.2 and
stated that velocity defect law is valid for y/o>0.03.
Swamee (1993) proposed an explicit equation of
velocity profile for smooth as well as rough surface
which covers entire inner region as
( )
0.3
10/ 3
10/ 3
1
9
k ln 1
1 0.3
y
u y
+
+ +
+

( (
= + +
` ( (
+

)
(11)
where
m
u
+
= , in which is the average roughness
height of the surface. Swamee (1994) developed an
average velocity equation for the uniform flow to a
rigid boundary known as resistance equation
0
0
0.221
2.547 ln
12
v gRS
R R gRS

| |
= + |
|
\ .
(12)
where g is gravitational acceleration (varying between
9.78 m/s
2
), is average roughness height of the channel
lining (m) and S
o
is channel bed slope. Nikora and
Smart (1997) stated that log wake law gives the
velocity distribution in longitudinal direction as
*
1
ln ( / )
o
u y
w y h
u y
= +
K
(13)
where u,
*
u , K, y, y
o
and w(y/h) are local mean velocity,
shear velocity; von Karman constant=0.4, distance
from channel bed, roughness parameter and the wake
function, respectively. Afzalimehr and Anctil (2000)
suggested that due to the uncertainty in the
measurement of the distance from the bed y and in the
estimation of the shear velocity
*
u , the law of the wall
can be formulated as
50
*
1
ln
c
s
y A d u
A
u k
| | +
= +
|
K
\ .
(14)
where K is the von Karman constant=0.4,
50 c
A d is
reference level,
c
A is the value producing best
correlation coefficient for the regression, A is constant
of integration, k
s
= d
50
is Nikuradse grain roughness.
They also observed that the maximum velocity appears
at y/h =0.6. The variation in choosing
s
k affects the
integration constant in the law of the wall, but the value
of k
s
does not influence the shear velocity. Sarma et al.
(2000) stated that the phenomenon of velocity dip is
caused by the secondary currents in open channel and
maximum velocity occurs below the water surface. Rao
and Kumar (2009) stated that in wall region, the


viscosity and wall shear stress are the important
parameters which govern the velocity distribution,
whereas in the outer region, the wall reduces velocity
below the maximum velocity and it independent of
viscosity. Song and Chiew (2001) defined that log law
*
1
ln
s
u y yo
B
u k
| | +
= +
|
K
\ .
(15)
[where, y
o
is the virtual distance from bed] can
represent the non-uniform in the inner region in open
channel flow, limited by y/h<0.20. The constant B as
8.5 is commonly accepted value for fully turbulent
rough bed. They rearranged the Eq. (15) as
*
2.5 ln( )
c
u u y yo A = + + (16)
where,
2.5ln
c s
A B k = (17)
Eq. (17) reveals that the slope of u versus ln(y) line will
give value of B and the value of k
s
can be evaluated.
Further, the estimation of k
s
has been attempted by
many researchers. Afzalimehr and Anctil (2000)
considered the equivalent Nikuradse grain roughness k
s

as d
50,
Hey (1979) as 3.5d
84
, and Ackers & White (1973)
as 1.23d
35
, Whiting and William (1990) as
84 s
k Ad = since the value of k
s
mainly affects the
velocity profile and measured discharges.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The experiments were conducted in a 10.5m long,
0.46m wide, and 0.60m deep horizontal flume. The
sides of channel were made up of glass and the bottom
of the channel was steel base with a 5mm fiber on top
of it. The flow in the flume was supplied through a pipe
of 202mm outer diameter through the pump. The water
depth in the flume was regulated using a tailgate at the
end of channel. To create turbulent flow, hemispheres
of concrete in 2.3cm height were prepared and fixed
(Fig. 2) over the bed of channel in 1.5m length in a
reach 1.5m at 4.5m from the upstream end of the flume.
At entrance, honey comb wall of small bricks was
constructed to reduce the large scale disturbances in the
approaching flow. A floating wooden baffle of 1m was
used to minimize the disturbances at free surface. To
measure levels of water, a movable carriage with a
pointer gauge (The pointer gauge arrangement had a
least count of 1mm) mounted on the pipe rail at the top
of the channel was used. The slope of the channel was
measured using two containers, connected at their
bottom with a long plastic tube, placed on the channel
bottom, one each at two predetermined locations along
the length of the channel. Care was taken to eliminate
air bubbles in the plastic tube. Nearly 18 hours time
was allowed for equalization of the water level in both
the containers and than water levels in both the
containers was noted by means of the pointer gauges
mounted on the rails. The difference in the gauge
reading represents the vertical drop in the channel. The
incoming discharge was measured continuously using a
Portable Transit Time Flow meter and the strength of
sound was checked and found more than 30DB during
the experiment.Three dimensional velocities with
sampling rate 10 Hz for a length of time series 150s
(total 1500 samples) were collected at six locations
(three sections at central line of channel and three at
10.5cm away from the side wall at distance 4.815m,
5.275m and 5.505m from inlet) in the longitudinal
direction (Fig. 2). These velocities were measured for
one discharge at fixed bottom slope, using a
downlooking intrusive instrument Acoustic Doppler
Velocimeter (ADV). The temperature and salinity of
water during the experiment were measured and were
found to be 20 degree centigrade and 20ppm,
respectively.

Fig. 2: Schematic diagram of vertical sections on rough
bed

Fig. 3: Closed packed hemisphere on bed

Speed of sound at 20 degree centigrade was also
recorded. The velocity range of flow was kept fixed 100
cm/s since the variation of actual local velocity was in
the range of 70cm/s to 95cm/s and the local velocity at
a point was determined using
1 1
( )
1
0
T N
u u t dt u t
i i
T T
i
= ~ A
}
=
(18)
Due to technical restriction of ADV, 3-D velocities data
using downlooking ADV within the depth 7cm below
from water surface were not available and it was also
observed that water at surface was making vortex
around the rod of ADV and it was creating an air cavity
around the rod of ADV, hence transducer of ADV
within depth 7cm from water surface may produce
erroneous data. Therefore, to collect error free data, the


downlooking probe was kept 3cm below inside water
and a 7cm deep section from water surface was
measured using upward looking ADV. Table 1 shows
the hydraulic parameters collected at 5.275 m from inlet
of channel.

Table 1: Summery of Flow Parameters and Cross
Section Geometry
Q (m
3
/s) Re (x10
5
) Fr Bed Slope w/h Ratio
0.05 1.067 0.62 0.000717 2.71

Table 2: The estimated
*
u from intercept method and
Run
*
u gHS = (m/s)
*
i
u (m/s)
k
s
(m)
50H M1 0.034508 0.058 0.0057
50H M4 0.034508 0.047 0.0027
50H M6 0.034508 0.043 0.0011
50H SR1 0.034508 0.072 0.0140
50H SR4 0.034508 0.042 0.0011
50H SR6 0.034508 0.066 0.0017

The estimated
*i
u from intercept method and
*
u using
Eq (10) is shown in the Table 2 along with the
estimated k
s
for different runs.

DISCUSSION AND RESULTS
Estimation of velocity distribution over the rough bed
of hemisphere of arranged closely are attempted in this
study. The velocity distribution in a two dimensional
uniform open channel flow usually follows Eq. (15) for
inner region. For the convenience, Eq. (15) is used in
the present nonuniform flow conditions. The velocity
profile in two regions (i) Inner region and (ii) Outer
region is examined along with the estimated value of k
s

using Eq (17).

Velocity distribution in inner region
From Eq (17), it is evident that the profile mainly
depends upon the chosen value of
*
u , y
o
and k
s.
. Hence,
proper estimation of these parameters plays a vital role
to define the velocity profile. Figs 4(a) & (b) are plotted
between u
+
versus y
+
, which depict that a wall region is
seen up to y/h<0.28 and it also follows log law in
central line region. However, near the side wall of
channel y/h<0.42, the reason of this may be due to the
secondary currents.

Shear velocity estimation
Chow (1959) proposed the friction slope application for
uniform flow and the negative bottom slope associated
with this type of flow may prevents the use of the zero
pressure-gradient model,
*
u gRS = , where S is the
bed slope. Use of conservation of momentum equation
leads to the bed shear velocity expression as
( )
2
0
1
e r
dy
S S F
dx
= (19)
where, y is the depth of flow. Clauser's (1956)
described another method to estimate the shear velocity
from the parameters of the regression of the mean point
velocity u and ln[(y+y
o
)/k
s
] as
ln( )
o
s
y y
u B
k
+
= + (20)
and Eq (17) leads to
*
u k = (21)
Which confirms the validity of the law of the wall for
the inner region of the flow. The spatially periodic
nature of the roughness bed features makes the
definition of streamwise average meaningful, e.g. the
mean energy slope S
e
. The total shear velocity, derived
from Eq (10) and Eq (19) as
* e
u ghS = (22)
is examined with the
*
u using Eq (10), as shown in
figure 4 (a &b). It is found that average men energy
slope S
e
is not showing much deviation with values
determined using Eq.(10). Hence, estimated
*
u using
Eq (10) is considered in the present study.
50H at Centre linel
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
u (m/s)
y

(
m
)
SWM 50H M1S
SWM 50H M1So
SWM 50H M4So
SWM 50H M4S
SWM 50H M6S
SWM 50H M6S0

(a)
50H at 10.5cmfromcentre
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
u (m/s)
y

(
m
)
SWM 50H M1S
SWM 50H M1So
SWM 50H M4So
SWM 50H M4S
SWM 50H M6S
SWM 50H M6S0

(b)
Fig. 4: A velocity profile using Eq (10) and Eq (22) at;
(a) central line section and (b)10.5cm from centre

Estimation of roughness height
The roughness height plays an important role to define
the velocity profile in rough open channel. The values
of k
s
for all runs are determined using Eq (17).


50HM1
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
100 1000 10000
y+
u
+
50H SR
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
100 1000 10000
u+
y
+

(a) (b)
Fig. 5: Validation of the logarithmic, Run 50H M1 and
50H SR1.
Kironoto and Graf (1995) indicated that the log law is
valid up to y/h<0.2 and the zone y/h>0.2 will not be
affected by the accelerating flow. Figure 6(a) & (b)
shows y/h versus /
m
u u along with the velocity data
[500VPs and 600 VPS] of Afzalimehr et al. (2010).
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
u/u
m
y
/
h
500 VPs
600 VPs
50HM1
50HM4
50HM6
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
u/u
m
y
/
h
500 VPs
600 VPs
50HSR1
50HSR4
50HSR6

(a) (b)
Fig. 6: Horizontal mean velocity profile at (a) central
line of channel, (b) 10.5cm from right side wall of
channel.
These two plots Fig 6(a) & (b) depict that velocity
profile over regular hemispheres is more affected in the
lower depth of flow comparative to the bed surface with
vegetation near to the channel side wall. The maximum
velocity, u
m
for accelerating flow should be 0.6 at y/h as
stated by Kironoto and Graf (1995) but according to
Afzalimehr and Dey (2009) u
m
occurred at y/h=0.45
when w/h=3 and, it occurred at y/h=0.6 when w/h=4.5
at the central axis of flume, while in our case it
occurred at y/h= 0.74 when w/h= 2.71.

0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0.001 0.01 0.1
y+yo (m)
u
(
m
/s
)
50H M1
50H M4
50H M6
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0.001 0.01 0.1
y+yo (m)
u
(
m
/s
)
50H SR1
50H SR4
50H SR6

(a) (b)
Fig. 7: Velocity distribution and fitted log law at center
line and at 10.5cm from right side wall.

Fig. 7(a) and (b) are drawn by fitting the u with y+y
o
for
central line region and at 10.5cm away from the right
side wall in the flow direction. Figs. 6(a) & (b) depict
that as one moves towards the down stream, the shear
stress is going to decrease, further Figs. 7(a) & (b) also
depict that as the intercept is increasing, shear stress is
decreasing in the flow direction in the central region.

Velocity Distribution in outer region
The phenomenon of dip in the velocity profiles in open
channel flows occurs if the aspect ratio of the channel
width to water depth is less than 5.0 (Sarma 1990). In
our case w/h = 2.71 and the dip is attained in the central
line region of the channel. In addition to this, the value
of Coles constant is determined for closely packed
hemispheres (Fig 8) and are found in the range -
0.068<H <-0.724 for the central region, similarly in the
range of -0.206< H <-0.472 at 10.5 distance from the
glass wall.
0
5
10
15
0.01 0.1 1 10
y/o
(
u
m
ax
-
u
)
/
u
*
500 VPs

0
5
10
15
0.01 0.1 1 10
y/o
(
u
m
ax
-
u
)
/u
*
50H M1

(a) 0.219 H = (b) 0.724 H =
0
5
10
15
0.01 0.1 1 10
y/o
(
u
m
ax
-
u
)
/u
*
50H M4

0
5
10
15
0.01 0.1 1 10
y/o
(
u
m
ax
-
u
)
/u
*
50H M6

(c) 0.564 H = (d) 0.068 H =
0
5
10
15
0.01 0.1 1 10
y/o
(
u
m
ax
-
u
)
/u
*
500 VPs 6
0
5
10
15
0.01 0.1 1 10
y/o
(
u
m
ax
-
u
)
/
u
*
50H SR1

(e) 0.826 H = (f) 0.472 H =
0
5
10
15
0.01 0.1 1 10
y/o
(
u
m
ax
-
u
)
/u
*
50H SR4
0
5
10
15
0.01 0.1 1 10
y/o
(
u
m
ax
-
u
)
/u
*
50H SR6

(g) 0.346 H = (h) 0.206 H =

Fig. 8: Calculation of H

The non-uniformity along the depth of flow in the
velocity distribution is due to change in the shear stress.


CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn from this study
1. In the estimation of the u
*
, Eq(10) performs well
compared to Eq (22) when the difference between bed
slope and energy line is not significant.
2. For the present experiments, the maximum velocity
is found at y/h=0.74 when w/h=2.71.
3. The Coles parameter for the closely packed
hemisphere were found in the range of -0.068 <H < -
0.724 for central region.
4. It is observed that H reduces in the direction of
flow.

NOMENCLATURE
d
50
=Mean size of particle
d
84
= 84% finer
F
r
= Froude number
h= Depth of flow in cannel
K = von Karman constant=0.4
k
s
= Equivalent roughness height
N = Number of observation
R= Hydraulic mean depth
S= Energy slope line
S
0
= Bed slope of channel
R
= Radius of pipe
R
e
= Reynolds number
U = Average mean velocity
u= local mean velocity
u
-
= Shear velocity
u
m
= Maximum velocity of flow
y = Depth of flow in vertical direction
y
o
= Virtual depth from bottom of channel
v = kinematic viscosity
= Average roughness height
o = Constant
= Distance of maximum velocity from channel bed

REFERENCES
Ackers, P. and White, W. R. (1973) Sediment transport:
new approach and analysis. J. Hydraulic Division.
ASCE , 99(11), 2041-2060.
Afzalimher H., Najfabadi, E.F., Singh, V.P., (2010),
Effect of Vegetation on Banks on Distributions of
Velocity and Reynolds Stress under Accelerating
Flow, J. Hydrologic Engineering, 15(9), 708-713.
Afzalimher, H. and Anctil, F. (2000). Accelerating
shear velocity in gravel-bed channels.
Hydrological Sciences, J. -des Sciences
Hydrologiques, 45(1), 113-124.
Afzalimehr, H., and Dey, S. (2009). Influence of bank
vegetation and gravel bed on velocity and
Reynolds stress distributions. Int. J. Sediment Res.,
24(2), 236246.
Bergstrom, D.J., Kotey, N.A., Tachie, M.F., (2002).
The effects of surface roughness on the mean
velocity profile in a turbulent boundary layer. J.
Fluids Engineering, 124, 664-670.
Cardoso, A.H., Graf, W.H., and Gust, G. (1991).
Steady gradually accelerating flow in a smooth
open channel. J. Hydraul. Res., 29(4), 525543.
Chen Xingwei and Chiew, Y.M. (2003). Response of
Velocity and Turbulence to Sudden Change of Bed
Roughness in Open-Channel Flow. J. Hydraulic
Engineering, 129(1), 35-43.
Coles, D. (1956). The law of the wake in the turbulent
boundary layer. J. Fluid Mechanics, 1, 191 - 226.
Chow, V.T (1959). Open Channel Hydraulics,
McGraw-Hill College
Clauser, F. H. (1956) The turbulent boundary layers.
Adv. Appl. Mech. 4, 1-15.
Hey, R.D. (1979). "Flow resistance in gravel-bed
rivers." J. Hydraulic Division, ASCE, 105(4), 365-
379.
Keulegan, C.H. (1938). Laws of turbulent flow in open
channels. J. Research National Bureau of
Standards, 21, 707-740.
Kirkgz, M.S. (1989). Turbulent Velocity Profiles for
Smooth and Rough open Channel Flow. J.
Hydraulic Engineering, 115(11), 1543-1561.
Kironoto, B., and Graf, W.H. (1995). Turbulence
characteristics in rough nonuniform open-channel
flow. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., Waters. Maritime
Energ., 112, 316348.
Laufer, J. (1954). The structure of turbulence in fully
developed pipe flow. Tech. Report No. 1174,
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,
Washington.
Nezu, I. (1994). Compound open channel turbulence
and its role in river environment keynote address
of 9
th
APD-IAHR Congress, Delft, The
Netherlands, 1-24.
Nikora, V.I., and Smart, G.M. (1997). Turbulence
characteristics of New Zealand gravel-bed rivers.
J. Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 123(9), 229-246.
Nikuradse, J. (1932). English Translation: Law of Flow
in Rough Pipes. TM 1292, NACA, USA.
Rao, A.R., Kumar, B. (2009) Transition of turbulent
pipe flow. J. Hydraulic research, 47(4), 529-533.
Sarma, K.V.N., Lakshminarayana, P., and Rao, N.S.L.
(1983). Velocity distribution in smooth
rectangular open-channels. J. Hydraulic
Engineering, ASCE, 109(2), 271-289.
Sarma, V.N. Kandula, Pasad B.V.R. and Sarma A.K.
(2000). Detailed Study of Binary Law for Open
Channel. J. Hydraulic Engineering, 126(3), 210-
214.
Song, T. and Graf, W.H. (1994). Non-uniform open
channel flow over a rough bed. J. Hydroscience
and Hydraulic Engineering, 12(1), 1-25.


Song, T. and Chiew, Y.M. (2001). Turbulence
Measurement in Nonuniform Open-Channel flow
using Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter (ADV). J.
Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, 219-232.
Swamee, P.K., (1993). Generalized inner region
velocity distribution equation. J. Hydraulic
Swamee, P.K., ISH, M., and Pathak S.K. (1994).
Velocity Distribution Equations for Laminar and
Turbulent Boundary Layers. The Indian Society
for Hydraulics J. Hydraulic Engineering, 8(1) 50-
59.
Tsujimoto, T., Saito, A., and Nitta, K. (1990). Open-
channel flow with spatial acceleration or
deceleration. KHL Progress Rep., Hydraulics
Laboratory, Kanazawa Univ., Kanazawa, Japan.
Vanoni, V.A. (1941). Velocity distribution in open
channels. Civ. Engrg., ASCE, 2(6), 356357.
Vittal. N. (1972). Flow over triangular roughness in
open channels. Ph. D. Thesis, Civil Engineering
Department, IIT Roorkee.
Whiting, P.J., and Dietrich, W.E. (1990). Boundary
shear stress and roughness over mobile alluvial
beds. J. Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 116(12),
1495-1511.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION OF A LOW COST FOLDABLE
DOME

Rajesh Kumar
Associate Professor, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University,Varanasi
Aniruddh Vashisth
UG Student, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University,Varanasi
Vineet Singla
UG Student, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University,Varanasi

ABSTRACT: The paper investigates the strength of domes which could be folded and the area coverage is
reduced to one-sixth of the original dome structure. Also an attempt has been made to test the durability of the
structure. The major advantage of such housings is listed, such as better dispersion of moments created due to
loads applied on the structure, along the surface of the structure due the curved surface area. It also enumerates
the various problems faced by such types of housings, as it is an unconventional method of housing. Geometry
of one structure was specified and analysis of Finite Elements gave the deflection of the structure, which
suggests that a dome is able to bear much greater loads as compared to conventional shelter techniques.

Keywords: domes, Finite element method, hoop, foldable dome, mesh
INTRODUCTION
Civil engineering does not restrict itself to
construction of buildings with the stereotypical
square or rectangular structures. It also includes
unconventional structures such as domes, which are
buildings with hemispherical design, usually having a
circular, square or octagonal base.
Domes
The dome is basically an engineered system of
triangular space frames that create self-reinforcing
roofs and wall units. These units are based on
mathematically precise divisions of the sphere and
each unit may be manufactured to exact specs in a
factory and assembled on site by simply bolting them
together. This structure reduces the quantity of
building materials needed per square foot of usable
area by about 30% over conventional construction
(deduced by simple mathematical calculation).
Throughout history, the dome has been the
architectural form of choice wherever efficiency and
strength are required of a structure. From the simple
igloo that shelters the Arctic hunter through the
ravages of a blinding storm, to the awe-inspiring
magnificence of the Sistine Chapel, the dome has
been used in every culture, on every continent, as one
of man's most versatile constructions.

Advantages of Domes
a) High Energy Efficiency
With a totally seamless layer of polyurethane
insulation sandwiched outside of the concrete and
under the roof membrane, the dome easily regulates
its internal temperature. A 50% savings of energy can
easily be attained over a conventional building.
b) Rapid Construction
The dome is constructed inside the enclosed airform,
enabling construction to progress rapidly regardless
of weather.
c) Better Space Utilization
Bearing walls and columns are not required even in
extremely large domes.
d) Lifespan
With the exterior protection of polyurethane
insulation and the waterproof roof membrane, the
steel reinforced concrete dome will not weather or
decay. The life span of these buildings will be
measured in centuries.
e) Strength
The monolithic concrete dome is probably the
strongest building that can be built with a specific
amount of time and materials. This means it has
very high resistance to the natural forces of
earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, and floods
f) Fireproof
In another case in California, fire-fighters took
refuge in a dome home to escape a ravenous forest
fire surrounding it. The fire caused only minimal
damage to the home. In one industrial example in
Channelview, Texas, an electrical fire caused 300
gallons of transformer oil to ignite and burn three
wood-framed structures while the Monolithic
Dome storage unit remained intact, preserving the
materials inside.
g) Low Maintenance
A dome is also significantly easier to maintain than
a regular building. There is no worry about roof
repairs, wood rot, termite damage or any other sort
of inconvenient maintenance required in a
conventional structure. Suspend lighting and other
important features from the thin shell.
h) Lower Construction Costs
Domes are often more economical when compared
to large conventional free span structures.


Problems faced by Dome structures

The shape of a dome house makes it difficult to
conform to code requirements for placement of sewer
vents and chimneys.
Air stratification and moisture distribution within
a dome are unusual, and these conditions tend to
quickly degrade wooden framing or interior paneling.
Privacy is difficult to guarantee because a dome
is difficult to partition satisfactorily.
Sounds, smells, and even reflected light tend to
be conveyed through the entire structure.
As with any curved shape, the dome produces
wall areas that can be difficult to use and leaves some
peripheral floor area with restricted use due to lack of
headroom.
Circular plan shapes lack the simple modularity
provided by rectangles.
Furnishers and fitters usually design with flat
surfaces in mind, and so placing standard beds results
in a crescent behind the sofa being wasted.
Wall areas are difficult to use due to the shape.
Banks, insurance companies and building
departments may not be familiar with this type of
construction
Dome design may not be compatible with
surrounding homes

INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT
METHOD
The finite element method (FEM) is a numerical
technique, well suited to digital computers, which can
be applied to solve problems in solid mechanics, fluid
mechanics, heat transfer and vibrations. The
procedure to solve problems in each of these fields is
similar; however our area of interest is its application
to solid mechanics problems. In finite element
models the domain (the solid in solid mechanics
problems) is divided into a finite number of elements.
These elements are connected at points called nodes.
Displacements in each element are directly related to
the nodal displacements. The nodal displacements are
then related to the strains and the stresses in the
elements. The finite element method tries to choose
the nodal displacements so that the stresses are in
equilibrium (approximately) with the applied loads.
The nodal displacements must also be consistent with
any constraints on the motion of the structure.

The finite element method converts the conditions of
equilibrium into a set of linear algebraic equations for
the nodal displacements. Once the equations are
solved, one can find the actual strains and stresses in
all the elements. By breaking the structure into a
larger number of smaller elements, the stresses
become closer to achieving equilibrium with the
applied loads. The accuracy of the obtained solution
is usually a function of the mesh resolution. Any
regions of highly concentrated stress, such as around
loading points and supports, must be carefully
analyzed with the use of a sufficiently refined
mesh.

2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE FEM
Although the label finite element method first
appeared in 1960, when it was used by Clough
(Clough; 1990) in a paper on plane elasticity
problems, the ideas of finite element analysis date
back much further. In fact, the questions, who
originated the finite element method and when did
it begin, have three different answers depending on
whether one asks an applied mathematician, a
physicist, or an engineer. All of these specialists
have some justification for claiming the finite
element method as their own, because each
developed the essential ideas independently at
different times and for different reasons.

The first efforts to use piecewise continuous
functions defined over triangular domains appear
in the applied mathematics literature with the work
of Courant (Courant; 1943) in 1943. Courant used
an assemblage of triangular elements and the
principle of minimum potential energy to study the
St. Venant torsion problem. In 1959 Greenstadt
(Greenstadt;1959), motivated by a discussion in the
book by Morse and Feshback (Morse and
Feshback;1953) , outlined a discretization approach
involving cells instead of points; that is, he
imagined the solution domain to be divided into a
set of contiguous sub-domains. In his theory he
describes a procedure for representing the
unknown function by a series of functions, each
associated with one cell. After assigning
approximating functions and evaluating the
appropriate variational principle to each cell, he
uses continuity requirements to tie together the
equations for all the cells. By this means he
reduces a continuous problem to a discrete one.
Greenstadts theory allows for irregularly shaped
cell meshes and contains many of the essential and
fundamental ideas that serve as the mathematical
basis for the finite element method as we know it
today.
.
While the mathematicians were developing and
using finite element concepts, the physicists were
also busy with similar ideas. The work of Prager
and Synge (Prager and Synge; 1947) leading to the
development of the hypercircle method is a key
example. As a concept in function space, the
hypercircle method was originally developed in
connection with classical elasticity theory to give
its minimum principles a geometric interpretation.
Outgrowths of the hypercircle method (such as the
one suggested by Synge (Synge; 1952)) can be
applied to the solution of continuum problems in
much the same way as finite element techniques
can be applied.


In the 1930, when a structural engineer encountered a
truss problem such as the one shown in Figure a, he
immediately knew how to solve for component
stresses and deflections as well as the overall strength
of the unit. First, he would recognize that the truss
was simply an assembly of rods whose force
deflection characteristics he knew well. Then he
would combine these individual characteristics
according to the laws of equilibrium and solve the
resulting system of equations for the unknown forces
and deflections for the overall system.

Fig. 1 Truss structure
This procedure worked well whenever the structure
in question had a finite number of interconnection
points, but then the following question arose: What
can we do when we encounter an elastic continuum
structure such as a plate that has an infinite number
of interconnection points? For example, in Figure b,
if a plate replaces the truss, the problem becomes
considerably more difficult. Intuitively, Hrenikoff
(Hrenikoff; 1941) reasoned that this difficulty could
be overcome by assuming the continuum structure to
be divided into elements or structural sections
(beams) interconnected at only a finite number of
node points. Under this assumption the problem
reduces to that of a conventional structure, which
could be handled by the old methods. Attempts to
apply Hrenikoffs framework method were
successful, and thus the seed to finite element
techniques began to germinate in the engineering
community. Shortly after various scientists began to
publish a series of papers extensively covering linear
structural analysis and efficient solution techniques
well suited to automatic digital computation.

The actual solution of plane stress problems by
means of triangular elements whose properties were
determined from the equations of elasticity theory
was first given in the 1956 paper of Turner, Clough,
Martin, and Topp (Turner et. al; 1956). These
investigators were the first to introduce what is now
known as the direct stiffness method for determining
finite element properties. Their studies, along with
the advent of the digital computer at that time,
opened the way to the solution of complex plane
elasticity problems. After further treatment of the
plane elasticity problem by Clough (Synge; 1952) in
1960, engineers began to recognize the efficacy of
the finite element method. During the late 1960s
and early 1970s (while mathematicians were
working on establishing errors, bounds, and
convergence criteria for finite element
approximations) engineers and other practitioners
of the finite element method were also studying
similar concepts for various problems in the area of
solid mechanics.

ANALYSIS BY A PART BY FEM

Fig. 2 Geometry of the Structure

There are a number of steps in the solution
procedure using finite element methods. ANSYS
has been used to carry out the analysis. It requires
the user to go through the following steps for
analysis of the structure by FEM.

a) Specifying Geometry - First the geometry of
the structure to be analyzed is defined. This
can be done either by entering the geometric
information in the ANSYS or by importing the
model from a solid modeller like
Pro/ENGINEER.
b) Folding Mechanism- Each hoop is made up of
eight sides. Each side is further divided into
three more parts such that each hoop could be
folded to form a shorter octagon. The smaller
octagon formed after the fold has a side that is
less than half the length of the original octagon
The specifications of the geometry are done in
Fig 3. And Fig 4

Fig 3. Geometric Specifications- Top View


Fig 4. Geometric Specifications- Side View

c) .

Fig 5. (a) Figure shows the link between two ends of
the tube welded to a hinge (b) show the section
view of the tube.

Fig 6. Figure shows the connection at an inclined
junction where tube is welded to hinge on both
sides.

d) Specify Element Type and Material Properties -
Next, the material properties are defined. In an
elastic analysis of an isotropic solid these consist
of the Young's modulus and the Poisson's ratio
of the material.

Material Properties
A
y
=A
z
= 3.510
-5
m
2

Iy=Iz=6.1017mm
4

Depth of the Tube=0.025m
Width of the tube=0.025m
Elasticity=205 kN/mm
2

Density=7833.41kg/m
3

Poisson ratio=0.3

e) Mesh the Object - Then, the structure is broken
(or meshed) into small elements. This involves
defining the types of elements into which the
structure will be broken, as well as specifying
how the structure will be subdivided into
elements (how it will be meshed). This
subdivision into elements can either be input
by the user or, with some finite element
programs can be chosen automatically by the
computer based on the geometry of the
structure (this is called auto meshing).

Fig 6. Meshed Structure- Top View

Fig 7. Meshed structure Side View

f) Apply Boundary Conditions and External
Loads - Next, the boundary conditions (e.g.
location of supports) and the external loads are
specified.

Live load of 3kN/m of UDL
Dust load of 1kN/m varying with the slope of
periphery of the dome.
Wind load of 50m/s is applied( with context to
local conditions)

g) Generate a Solution - Then the solution is
generated based on the previously input
parameters.


h) Postprocessing - Based on the initial conditions
and applied loads, data is returned after a
solution is processed. This data can be viewed in
a variety of graphs and displays.

i) Refine the Mesh - Finite element methods are
approximate methods and, in general, the
accuracy of the approximation increases with the
number of elements used. The number of
elements needed for an accurate model depends
on the problem and the specific results to be
extracted from it. Thus, in order to judge the
accuracy of results from a single finite element
run, you need to increase the number of elements
in the object and see if or how the results change.

j) Interpreting Results - This step is perhaps the
most critical step in the entire analysis because it
requires the fundamental knowledge of
mechanics to interpret and understand the output
of the model. This is critical for applying correct
results to solve real engineering problems and in
identifying when modelling mistakes have been
made.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
Height of the model increases in the Y axis and is
spread over the X-Z plane. The results have been
represented in form of graph for deflection in Figure
8 and Figure 9

Fig 8. Graph of deflection vs. distance from fixed end

Figure 9. Graph Resulatnt Deflection vs. Distance
from Fixed End

Analysis shows that structure is safe and stable under
given loading conditions. As it is a curved surface,
bending moment is negligible throughout the
length of the structure. Therefore much thickness
of the outer surface is not required.
As per 2001 census report the slum population of
India in cities and towns with a population of
50,000 and above was 42.6 million. The total urban
homeless population is 7, 78,599 people. It could
be conclued that
1.) This type of houses can be useful in slum areas
and also for homeless population of our country.
2.) It can prove a great alternative for small houses
which would be as safe and stable as the normal
houses but would be very cost effective.
Therefore, people with low budgets could have
their own houses. It would surely increase the
standard of living of the whole society.
3.) Government can also consider it as a good
remedial option for providing living space and
also to relocate victims of any kind of disasters.
4.) It can also prove benefitial for army as they can
carry it along their campaign.

Such structure could be benefical in various
spheres of life and prove to be very durable as well
as economical at the same time.

REFERENCES
Hrenikoff, Solution of Problems in Elasticity by
the Framework Method, J. Appl. Mech., Vol.
8, 1941, pp. 169175.
J. Greenstadt, On the Reduction of Continuous
Problems to Discrete Form, IBM J. Res. Dev.,
Vol. 3, 1959, pp. 355363.
J. L. Synge, Triangulation in the Hypercircle
Method for Plane Problems, Proc. R. Irish
Acad., Vol. 54A21, 1952.
M. J. Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L.
C. Topp, Stiffness and Deflection Analysis of
Complex Structures, J. Aeronaut. Sci., Vol.
23, No. 9, 1956, pp. 805823, 854
P. M. Morse and H. Feshback, Methods of
Theoretical Physics, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1953, Section 9.4.
R. Courant, Variational Methods for the Solutions
of Problems of Equilibrium and Vibrations,
Bull. Am. Math. Soc., Vol. 49, 1943, pp. 123.
R. W. Clough, The Finite Element Method in
Plane Stress Analysis, Proceedings of 2nd
ASCE Conference on Electronic Computation,
Pittsburgh, PA, Septembern89, 1960.
W. Prager and J. L. Synge, Approximation in
Elasticity Based on the Concept of Function
Space, Q. Appl. Math., Vol. 5, 1947, pp. 241
269.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


GROUNDWATER PROSPECTING OF URBAN AREA OF THE
JABALPUR DISTRICT USING REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

Medha Jha
Assistant Professor, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005U.P.India .jha_medha@rediffmail.com
Sanjay Tignath
Professor,Govt. Autonomous Science College, Jabalpur- 482001, M. P., India. tignathsanjay@rediffmail.com

ABSTRACT: The remote sensing data combined with Geographical Information System (GIS) technique has
proved to be very efficient in assessing the groundwater potential of any area. In the present paper, IRS 1C, LISS III
data and data derived from the toposheet have been used to identify the groundwater potential zones by integrating
various thematic maps generated on 1: 50,000 scale. These maps were integrated using ILWIS 3.4. Depending upon
their characteristics and the groundwater potential zones, the urban areas of the Jabalpur district, Madhya Pradesh
India were demarcated. The area of investigation has been classified into three categories of groundwater
potentiality. The present results show that integration of all attributes provides more accurate results in identification
of groundwater potential zones.

INTRODUCTION
The remote sensing and GIS tools have opened new
paths in water resources studies. Temporal data from
remote sensing enables identification of groundwater
aquifers whereas geographical information system (GIS)
enables integration of multi-thematic data. The concept
of integrated remote sensing and GIS has proved to be
an efficient tool in groundwater studies (CGWB, 1985 ;
Moore, G., & Waltz, F.A., 1986; K.S.R. Murthy, 2000;
Krishnamurthy et al., 1996; Saraf & Chaudhary, l998;
Singh A. K. et al, 2000; Erhan Sener et al, 2011; Khan
and Mohrana, 2002). Keeping this in view, an attempt
is made to identify groundwater potential using
integrated approach of remote sensing and GIS
techniques in urban areas of Jabalpur, district, M.P.
India .

STUDY AREA
Jabalpur is a city in the State of Madhya Pradesh in
India. It is located at 2310N 7957E / 2317N
79.95E (Fig 1). It has an average elevation of 411
meters (1348 feet).The city is located in the
Mahakoshal region in the geographic centre of India
and is one of the largest cities of Madhya Pradesh.
Jabalpur was the 27
th
largest urban conglomeration in
India in the year 2001 (2001 Census). On a global scale,
Jabalpur was the 325
th
largest city or urban area in the
world in the year 2006 and is estimated to be the 294
th

largest city in the world by the year 2020. Jabalpur
stands 121
st
in terms of the fastest growing cities and
urban areas in the world in 2006. As of 2001 India
census, Jabalpur and its continuous suburbs had a
population of 1276853. Jabalpur has a sub-tropical
climate, typical of North- Central India. Summers start
in late March and last up to early June. May is the
hottest month with an average temperature of 41.9
0
C.
They are followed by the monsoon season (average
precipitation of nearly 1200 mm.) which lasts up to

early October. Winters start in early November and last
until early March.

Fig 1: Map of the Study Area

The present work aims at studying the groundwater
potential zones of the urban areas of Jabalpur. The three
types of data sets have been used for the study:
Remotely sensed data, viz. IRS 1C LISS III of scale
1:50,000. The survey of India toposheet no. 55 M / 16
scale 1:50,000. Field data of geology, geomorphology,
and depth to water level data were used. The study has
been made in the GIS environment to generate
important maps and data using ILWIS 3.4 software.
The base map was prepared using the Survey of India
(SOI) toposheet (scale, 1:50000) no. 55 M / 16.


In order to demarcate the groundwater potential zones
of study area different thematic maps on 1:50,000 scale
were prepared from remote sensing data, topographic
maps, depth to the water level data. The thematic maps
on geology and geomorphology were prepared using
IRS 1C LISS-III data by visual interpretation on
1:50,000 scale. Depth to water level map was prepared
through GIS.These thematic layers were integrated in
GIS environment. The integrated layer was grouped
into different groundwater potential zones and the final
groundwater potential zone map was thus generated.

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
The area represents rocks of nearly all geological eras.
The general litho-stratigraphic sequence of the area
is(Fig 2):Alluviums (Newer and Older of Holocene and
late Pleistocene time) ,Traps - Basalts with Inter-
trappean formations (Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary),Lameta Formations-Green sands, Lower
lime stone, Clays, Mottled nodular lime stone (Jurassic-
cretaceous),Gondwana Formation - Sandstone, Shales
and clays (Triassic),Madan mahal Granites
(Proterozoic),Mahakoshal Metamorphics - Schists,
Slates and Dolomiticmarbles (Paleao-
proterozoic).Geomorphological map was prepared from
remotely sensed data(Fig 3). The geomorphology of the
area shows Granitic torred hills, Granitic gentle
undulations, Gondwana lowland, Gondwana flatland,
alluvial plains, Alluvial rolling lands and Regolith
passage.
Groundwater is developed in the study area through
dugwell, dug-cum borewells, borewells to meet
domestic and irrigation needs. Depth to water level map
has been prepared by using water level data of the
dugwells (Fig 4). The map shows that depth to water
level is quite variable, ranging between 0 to 2.5m,
2.5m to 5m and >5m.

Integration of thematic layer through GIS
Each one of the classes in thematic layers was
qualitatively placed into one of the following categories,
viz. (i) excellent(ii) good, (iii) moderate and(iv) poor,
depending on their ground water potential level. After
understanding their behavior with respect to
groundwater control, the different classes were
integrated in GIS environment and the area was
classified into excellent, good, and moderate ground
water prospecting zones. (Table 1).

CONCLUSION
In order to delineate the groundwater potential zones,
in general, different thematic layers viz: geology,
geomorphology, depth to water table have been
integrated through GIS technique. This provided a
broad idea about the groundwater prospect of the area.
The above study has demonstrated the capabilities of
using remote sensing and Geographical Information
System for demarcation of different ground water
potential zones, especially in diverse geological setup.
This gives more realistic groundwater potential map of
an area, which may be used for any groundwater
development and management programme.

Fig. 2: Showing the Geology of the Area

Fig. 3: Map Showing the Geomorphology of the Area

Fig 4: Map Showing Depth to Water table


Fig 5: Groundwater Prospect Map of the Area

Table 1: Table showing Groundwater Prospecting
categories
Depth to
water table
Geomorphology
Category of
Ground
water
prospect
Index of
Map
0-2.5 Granitic torred hills Excellent GTH
0-2.5
Granitic gentle
undulations
Excellent GTU
0-2.5 Gondwana lowland Excellent GL
0-2.5 Gondwana flatland Excellent GF
0-2.5 Alluvial plains Excellent AP
0-2.5
Alluvial rolling
lands
Excellent ARL
0-2.5 Regolith passage Excellent RP
2.5-5 Granitic torred hills Good GTH
2.5-5
Granitic gentle
undulations
Good GTU
2.5-5 Gondwana lowland Good GL
2.5-5 Gondwana flatland Good GF
2.5-5 Alluvial plains Good AP
2.5-5
Alluvial rolling
lands
Good ARL
2.5-5 Lameta hills Good LH
2.5-5 Low ridge Good LR
>5 Gondwana lowland Moderate GL
>5 Gondwana flatland Moderate GF
>5 Alluvial plains Moderate AP
>5 Lameta hills Moderate LH
>5
Basalt capped
Lameta highland
Moderate BCLH
>5 Saddle Moderate S

REFERENCES
Central Ground Water Board, (CGWB), (1985), Report
on hydrogeology and groundwater potential of
Mirzapur district U.P.
Erhan Sener, Aysen Davraz and Mehmet
Ozcelik(2011),An integration of GIS and remote
sensing in groundwater investigations: A case
study in Burdur, Turkey ,Hydrogeology Jour.Vol.
13, Numbers 5-6, 826-834,
Khan, M.A. and Moharana, P.C. (2002). Use of remote
sensing and GIS in the delineation and
characterization of groundwater prospect zones,
Jour. Indian Soc. Remote Sensing, 30(3):131-141.
Krishnamurthy, J. Venkataesa Kumar, N, Jayraman, V.
and Manivel, M. 1996 : An approach to demarcate
groundwater potential zones through Remote
Sensing and GIS. International Journal of Remote
Sensing, 17, No. 10, 1867-1884.
Moore, G., and Waltz, F.A. 1986, Objective procedure
for lineament enhancement and extraction,
photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing,
49, 641-647.
Murthy K.S.R., 2000, Groundwater potential in a semi-
arid region of Andhra Pradesh : A geographical
Information System approach, International
journal of Remote Sensing, Vol. 21 No. 9, 1867-
1884.
Saraf, A.K. and Chaudhary, P.R., 1998: Integrated
remote sensing and GIS for groundwater
exploration and identification of artificial recharges
sites, International Journal of Remote Sensing, Vol.
19, No. 10, 1825-1841.
Singh A.K, (2000). Delineation of groundwater
potential zonesin Bakhar subwatershed Mirzapur &
Sonebhadra districts, U.P., using integrated studies
of Remote Sensing, Geoelectrical and GIS
techniques, Proc. Od ISRS National symp. held at
Kanpur from Nov. 21-22, 2000,pp. 320-329.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

PARAMETRIC STUDY OF PREDICTION OF SCOUR DEPTH IN
SPILLWAYS - A NEURAL NETWORK APPROACH

Arun Goel
Associate Professor, Civil Engg. Dept., N.I.T. Kurukshetra-.136119. Haryana. E mail drarun_goel @yahoo.co.in.

ABSTRACT: The paper presents prediction of maximum depth of scour downstream of a spillway with linear
regression and back propagation neural network techniques based upon different combinations of input
parameters. The study shows that BP feed forward NN performed better than linear regression when more
number of individual parameters as inputs is considered. Moreover, the performance of model also gets affected
by the type of input parameter to a great extent. The results are also compared with different models with an aim
to study relative importance of parameter on the performance of the BPNN modeling and linear regression
based on root-mean square error and correlation coefficient performance criteria. Furthermore, the BPANN
exhibits inherent advantages leading to a unique optimal and global solution compared to the conventional linear
regression models.

INTRODUCTION
Prediction of maximum depth of scour downstream of
spillways is important for proper planning, design and
construction of any hydraulic structures. Scouring is a
complex and dynamic phenomenon affected by many
parameters which are often interrelated and difficult to
understand because flow in open channel is turbulent;
geometry is irregular and varies with time (Dey &
Sarkar 2006, Mason & Arumugam 1985). There are
various factors governing the depth of scour namely
discharge intensity q, height of fall H
1
, bucket radius
R, bucket lip angle, , type of rock, degree of rock
homogeneity, run time and mode of operation of
spillway etc (Fig.1).

The literature review indicates that a regression
mathematical model for predicting maximum depth of
scour is not readily available using different
combinations of flow, material and fluid parameters.
The researchers have mainly relied on the
conventional experimental approach to study the
scouring by using physical modeling. Recently
(Azmathullah et al. 2005, 2006, 2008a) have applied
soft computing modeling (ANN) for the prediction of
scour parameters downstream of ski jump type
spillway successfully. Many investigators have
applied soft computing techniques namely Genetic
algorithm, ANFIS, SVM and M5 tree (Azmathullah et
al. 2008b, Azmathullah et al. 2009, Goyal & Ojha C
2011) on prediction of scour downstream of
spillways. However, literature review (Goel 2008,
2009, 2011) indicates that no one has attempted ANN
based modeling and linear regression simultaneously
on the same data set by considering relative
significance of each individual parameter. The present
study aims to explore utility of the back propagation
based ANN and linear regression for the maximum
scour hole modeling and comparing its relative
performance with different combinations of input
parameters of this data set.

ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS
A neural network is an artificial intelligence technique
that mimics a function of the human brain. Neural
networks are general-purpose computing tools that
can solve complex non-linear problems in the field of
pattern recognition, classification, speech, vision and
control systems. The network comprises a large
number of simple processing elements linked to each
other by weighted connections according to a
specified architecture. A neuron consists of multiple
inputs and a single output. The number of neurons in
the input and output layers are fixed by the problem
being modeled as the number of input variables equals
number of input neurons and number of output
variables equal number of output neurons. The
determination of optimal number of hidden layers and
hidden neurons is usually cumbersome, as no general
methodology is available for their determination.
These networks learn from the training data by
adjusting the connection weights. There is a range of
artificial neural network architectures designed and
used in various fields of hydrology and hydraulics. In
this study, a feed-forward neural network with back
propagation learning algorithm is applied. The basic
element of a back-propagation neural network is
processing node and structure of commonly used back
propagation neural network (Fig.2). A three layer feed
forward ANN has been shown in Fig.2, which
consists of three layers known as input, hidden an
output layers. Input layer neuron are called as x
1
, x
2
,
x
3
; hidden layers neurons are h
1
, h
2
, h
3
and output
layers neurons are O
1
,O
2
,O
3
. A neuron consists of
multiple inputs and a single output. The sum of inputs


and their weights lead to a summation function. The
output of a neuron is decided by an activation
function, which can be step, sigmoid, threshold and
linear etc.
Each processing node behaves like a biological
neuron and performs two functions. First, it sums the
values of its inputs. This sum is then passed through
an activation function to generate an output. Any
differentiable function can be used as activation
function. All the processing nodes are arranged into
layers, each fully interconnected to the following
layer. There is no interconnection between the nodes
of the same layer. In a back propagation neural
network, generally, there is an input layer that acts as
a distribution structure for the data being presented to
the network. This layer is not used for any type of
processing. After this layer, one or more processing
layers follow, called the hidden layers. The final
processing layer is called the output layer in a
network. This process is repeated until the error rate is
minimized or reaches to an acceptable level, or until a
specified number of iterations have been
accomplished. All the interconnections between each
node have an associated weight. The values of the
interconnecting weights are not set by the analyst but
are determined by the network during the training
process, starting with randomly assigned initial
weights. There are a number of algorithms that can be
used to adjust the interconnecting weights to achieve
minimal overall training error in multi-layer networks.
The generalized delta rule, or back-propagation is one
of the most commonly used methods (Rumelhart et al
1996).

Fig. 2 Three layer feed forward neural network

PERFORMANCE COMPARISON CRITERIA

The data sets mentioned in a study (Azmathullah et al.
2005, 2006, 2008) are used in the present study for
model building and validation to assess the potential
of MLP based ANN modeling and linear regression in
predicting the scour parameters downstream of
spillway. The correlation coefficient (CC) and RMSE
values are used as shown in equation (1) and (2)
mainly for the performance evaluation of models and
comparison of the results for prediction of scour using
BPANN and the linear regression. The higher value of
a correlation coefficient and lower value of RMSE
mean a better performance of the model. To study the
scatter around the line of perfect agreement (i.e. a line
at 45 degrees) was plotted for the data set.

Error Measure
Following error measure criteria has been used in the
present study in order to compare the performance of
different modelling techniques.

1. Correlation coefficient (r)

=
2 2
y x
xy
r
(1)
Where x = X - X, y = Y - Y where X = observed
values; X = mean of X, Y = predicted values, Y =
mean of Y.
2. Root mean square error
( )
5 . 0
2
(
(

=

n
Y X
RMSE
(2)
MATERIAL AND METHODS USED
Neural networks are now being commonly applied to
the problems related to the hydraulics and hydrologic
modeling (ASCE 2000a, 2000b). The data set
(Azmathullah et al. 2005, 2006, 2008a) used in the
present study were from the laboratory and the field
for an ogee spillway. The data set comprises of a total
of 95 runs on different types of spillway models.
A neural network based modelling approach also
requires setting up several user-defined parameters
like learning rate, momentum, optimal number of
nodes in the hidden layer, number of iterations and the
number of hidden layers, so as to have a less complex
network with a relatively better generalization
capability. Further, training a neural network requires
a number of iterations and a large number of training
iterations may force ANN to over train, which may
affect the predicting capabilities of the model.
The cross-validation is a method of estimating the
accuracy of a classification or regression model. The
input data set is divided into several parts (a number
defined by the user), with each part in turn used to test
a model fitted to the remaining parts. In this study, the
data sets of the laboratory and field data were used for
both creating and testing the models by BPANN and
the linear regression techniques. Graphs have been
plotted for difference in actual and predicted values of
the scour results as shown in Figure 3 to 7 and two
+10% and -10% error line are also plotted on the


diagrams. The values of correlation coefficients and
RMSE obtained for different models are shown in
Table 1.
Table 1. Values of important parameters of BP ANN

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The first set of analysis was carried out by using
BPANN with data for predicting the maximum depth
of scour on downstream of spillway. Seven input
parameters namely ds, ws, ls, H1, R, and q were
considered from the data sets provided by the studies
carried out by (Azmathullah et al. 2005, 2006, 2008a)
to predict the maximum depth of scour (ds).In the
beginning, a model named a Model 1 consisting of
six parameters namely ds, ws, ls, H1, R, without q
were considered. A number of trials were carried out
to reach at the various user-defined parameters
required for the back propagation ANN based
algorithms using WEKA software. The details of user
defined parameters are mentioned in Table 1 for this
combination of input parameters keeping the
performance parameters in view. The obtained values
of correlation coefficients and rmse for the best ANN
model are for the given data set of Model is also given
in Table 2. Measured versus calculated values of the
maximum scour depth by BPANN are shown as a
scatter plots (Fig.3).
Similarly a different combinations of input parameters
such as Model 2 ds, ws, ls, q, R, without H1, Model
3 ds, ws, ls, q, H1, without R, Model 4 ds, ws, ls, q,
H1, R, with out and Model 5 ds, ws, ls, q, H1, R,
were considered and tested as above in Model 1 and
the results obtained are plotted in Fig 4,5,6 and 7
respectively. The values of performance parameters
namely r and rmse in model 1, model 2 model 3,
model 4 and model 5 are r = 0.6798, rmse = 0.0788),
(r = 0.7760, rmse = 0.0662), (r = 0.8737, rmse =
0.0534),(r =,0.8865, rmse = 0.0459) and (r = 0.9302,
rmse = 0.0369) respectively.

Table 2.Comparison of results

The same data set was utilized for predicting then
scour by using liner regression modeling technique.
Five models namely Model 1 to 5 were tested in
similar manner as in case of BP ANN by using
WEKA software. The results of r and rmse in models
1, model 2, model 3, model 4 and model 5 are ( r =
0.6574, rmse = 0.0749), (r = 0.6594, rmse =
0.0739), (r = 0. 7140, rmse = 0.0689.), (r =,0.6757,
rmse = 0.0729.) and (r = 0.8407., rmse = 0.0528.)
respectively.
The perusal of above exercise indicated that the
values of correlation coefficient (r) for ANN
regression modeling varied form 0.6798 to 0.9302,
while for linear regression 0.6574 to 0.8407. It is
maximum in case of back propagation ANN approach
(= 0.9302) and minimum in case of linear regression
(= 0.8407) as shown in the Table 2 for the best model
5 when all parameters are considered as input and
performance of the BPANN is relatively superior than
linear regression. It is evident from Figures 3 to 7 that
more number of points are lying on the 45
o
line when
S.No Type of
input
parameter
BPANN(MLP)

Hidden
nodes
Momentum
Learning
rate
Iterations
1 ds 8 0.2 0.3 500
2 ws 8 0.2 0.3 500
3 ls 8 0.2 0.3 500
4 q 8 0.2 0.3 500
5 H
1
8 0.2 0.3 500
6 R 8 0.2 0.3 500
7 8 0.2 0.3 500
S No Model
details
Type of
technique
CC
(r)

Root mean
squared
error
(RMSE)
Model 1 ds, ws, ls,
H1, R,
without q
ANN(MLP) 0.6798 0.0788
ds, ws, ls,
H1, R,
without q
Linear
regression
0.6574 0.0749
Model 2 ds, ws, ls,
q, R,
without
H1
ANN(MLP) 0.7760 0.0662
ds, ws, ls,
q, R,
without
H1
Linear
regression
0.6594 0.0739
Model 3 ds, ws, ls,
q, H1,
without R
ANN(MLP) 0.8737 0.0534
ds, ws, ls,
q, H1,
without R
Linear
regression
0.7140 0.0689
Model 4 ds, ws, ls,
q, H1, R,
with out
ANN(MLP) 0.8865 0.0459
ds, ws, ls,
q, H1, R,
with out
Linear
regression
0.6757 0.0729
Model 5 ds, ws, ls,
q, H1, R,
all
ANN(MLP) 0.9302 0.0369
ds, ws, ls,
q, H1, R,
all
Linear
regression
0.8407 0.0528


all the input parameters are used as input in the model
5 (Fig.7) as compared to model 1 (Fig.3) in both the
modeling techniques i.e. BPANN and the linear
regression. While comparing the performance of
model 5 and 6 both are performing the same as
indicated by the r values. It means that the bucket
radius and its angle are not affecting the scour
downstream of the spillway. It means that the factor q
which is discharge per unit width on the spillway is
affecting the performance of the model in both the
modeling techniques. The study has revealed the
relative importance of one parameter over
performance of the BPANN and linear regression
modeling techniques for predicting maximum scour
depth downstream of the spillway.
CONCLUSIONS
This study was carried out to judge the relative
importance of input parameters on the performance of
Back propagation based ANN and the linear
regression modeling methods for the prediction of
maximum depth of scour downstream of an ogee
spillway. Based upon the present study, the following
conclusions are drawn
1. A conclusion from this study is that the
performance of the Back propagation based ANN and
the linear regression techniques are affected when any
one of the input parameters is not considered as
indicated by performance parameters.
2. The discharge per unit width of the spillway is the
most significant parameter affecting the BPANN and
the linear regression technique as compared to
downstream parameters like bucket angle and its
radius of spillway.
3. The prediction capability of BPANN is better than
linear regression on the same data set under similar
conditions. The input parameters have significant
effect on the accuracy of the modeling technique.
4. The findings of this study would assist in selecting
most significant and a suitable parameter may be
chosen for estimation of the maximum scour
downstream of spillway to make it cost effective.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Observed max depth of scour without q
P
r
e
d
ic
t
e
d

m
a
x

d
e
p
t
h

o
f

s
c
o
u
r

w
it
h
o
u
t

q
Regression
BPNN

Fig.3 Variation of actual maximum scour depth with
predicted maximum scour depth by BPNN without q
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Actual max depth of scour without H1
P
r
e
d
ic
t
e
d

m
a
x

d
e
p
t
h

o
f

s
c
o
u
r

w
it
h
o
u
t

H
1
BPNN

predicted maximum scour depth by BPNN without
H1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Actual depth of max scour without R
P
r
e
d
ic
t
e
d

d
e
p
t
h

o
f

m
a
x

s
c
o
u
r

w
it
h
o
u
t

R
Regression
BPNN

predicted maximum scour depth by BPNN without R
+10% line
+10% line
+10% line
-10% line
-10% line
-10% line
Best fit line
Best fit line
Best fit line


0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Actual depth of max scour w ithout Phi
P
r
e
d
ic
t
e
d

d
e
p
t
h

o
f

m
a
x

s
c
o
u
r

w
it
h
o
u
t

p
h
i
Regression
BPNN

predicted maximum scour depth by BPNN without
Phi
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Actual max depth of scour
P
r
e
d
ic
t
e
d

m
a
x

d
e
p
t
h

o
f

s
c
o
u
r
Regression
BPNN

predicted maximum scour depth by BPNN with all
parameters

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Author wish to heartily and sincerely acknowledge the
authors for data taken from their paper Azamathulla et
al. (2005).

REFERENCES
ASCE Task committee on application of ANNs in
Hydrology (2000a), Artificial neural networks in
hydrology, I: preliminary concepts, J. Hydraulic
Engineering, ASCE, 5 (2), pp.115-123.
ASCE Task committee on application of ANNs in
Hydrology (2000b), Artificial neural networks in
hydrology, II: hydrologic applications, J.
Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 5 (2), pp.124-137.
Azmathullah, H. Md., Deo, M. C., and Deolalikar, P.
B. (2005). Neural Networks for Estimation of Scour
Downstream of a Ski jump Bucket. J. of Hydraulic
Engg, ASCE, Vol. 131, No. 10, pp. 898-908.
Azamathulla H. Md., Deo, M.C. and Deolalikar,
P.B. (2006). Estimation of Scour Below Spillways
Using Neural Network. Journal of Hydr Research,
Intl Association Hydraulic Engg., Vol. 44 No. 1,
pp. 6169.
Azamathulla, H.Md., Deo, M.C. and Deolalikar, P.B.
(2008a). Alternate Neural Networks to Estimate
the Scour below Spillways. J of Advances in Engg
Software,Vol.39, No.8, pp. 689698.
AzmathullahHM, Ghani AAB, Zakaria NA,Hin LS,
Kiat CC, Siang LC, Hasan ZA (2008b) Genetic
programming to predict ski-jump bucket spillway
scour. J of Hydrodynamics, 20 (4):477484.
Azmathullah HM, Ghani AAB, Zakaria NA (2009)
ANFIS based approach for predicting maximum
scour location of spillway. Water Management ICE
London, 162 (6):399407.
Dey, S. and Sarkar, A.(2006). Scour Downstream of
an Apron due to Submerged Horizontal Jets. J.
Hydraulic Engineering, Proc.ASCE, Vol. 132, No
3, pp. 246-257.
Goel A (2008), Prediction of Maximum Scour
Downstream of Ski jump type Spillways. National
Conference on Hydraulics and Water Resources,
MNIT Jaipur, 15-16 Dec 2008.
Goel A. (2009) Prediction of Maximum Scour
Downstream of Ski jump type Spillways
using M5 model tree. Specialty National
conference on River Hydraulics, MMU Mullana.
Goel A (2011) Predicting Max Scour Depth.
International Water Power and Dam Construction,
UK, pp.42-54
Goyal, M K and Ojha C. S. P. (2011) Estimation of
Scour Downstream of a Ski-Jump Bucket Using
Support Vector and M5 Model Tree. Water
Resources Management, 25:21772195.
Mason, P. J. and Arumugam, K. (1985). Free Jet
Scour Below Dams and Flip Buckets. Journal of
Hydraulics Engineering, Proc. ASCE, Vol. 111, pp.
220-235.
Rumelhart D.E, Hinton G.E., and Williams R.J
(1996) Learning Internal Representation by Error
Propagation, In: Parallel Distributed Processing:
Explorations, in the Microstructures of Cognition,
Cambridge, MIT Press, pp 318-362.
Weka software version 3.4.13
http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/~ml/weka/.

+10% line
+10% line
-10% line
-10% line
Best fit line
Best fit line

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE PLANNING USING GIS A CASE STUDY
OF SURAT

Shri Chetan R. Patel
Asst. Professor, M.Tech. (Planning), CED, SVNIT-SURAT, Gujarat (India), chetanrpatel@rediffmail.com
Nikunj B. Shah
M.Tech. Scholar (Planning), CED, SVNIT-SURAT, Gujarat (India), nik_shah71@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT: This paper describes how simple analytical GIS techniques can be used to support the planning
of social infrastructure in Surat city, India. The planning context in Surat consists of a micro and a macro level
by planning mechanism of Town Planning Schemes and Development Plan. The population and the population
density play important role in this context so its difficult for the urban planner to have decision for provision of
the social infrastructure. This paper illustrates how GIS-based analytical techniques can be usefully applied in
support of more strategic spatial planning of social infrastructure.

INTRODUCTION
Cities are considered as engines of growth, within
cities infrastructure provision, more specifically social
infrastructure provision are important to people. The
low quality or absence of these kinds of infrastructure
has a direct impact on living conditions, health and
potential for economic development in rapidly
growing cities in developing countries. Creating good
quality basic infrastructure therefore is the first and
foremost step to achieve sustainability and create
healthy living conditions in our cities. Cities in
developing countries also have to plan for urban
amenities, like physical infrastructures (road,
drainage, water supply, electricity, etc) and social
infrastructures (school, health care facility, etc) with
specific circumstances, like lack of financial support
and rapid informal development in urban periphery
often leading to deficient poor planning of urban land
use and infrastructure. In this the GIS based planning
will assist the urban planner to deal with such
complex system. In light of that this paper evaluates
the process and provision of infrastructure, especially
the planning for social infrastructures in the city of
Surat using GIS-based analysis.

STUDY AREA
Surat City is one of the rapidly developing cities in
India. The city is located in the southern part of
Gujarat State. It has experienced a very rapid growth
during the last 20 year with highest decadal growth
rate of 47% (Census, 2001) and second highest
population density after Ahmadabad.

Table1: Population and Growth Rate of Major Cities of Gujarat.

Name of municipal
corporation
Area in sq.km Population in
lakhs
Growth rate DENSITY ppha
1991 2001
Ahmadabad 190.94 35,15,361 36.44 154.02 184.20
Surat 324.16 24,33,785 62.38 134.83 216.76
Vadodara 108.26 13,06,035 32.44 952.7 120.64
Rajkot 104.86 9,66,642 53.12 810.7 92.18
Bhavnagar 90.16 5,10,958 - 44.62 56.67
Source: Surat Municipal Corporation
The spatial development of the city is controlled by
two authorities. The Surat Municipal Corporation
(SMC) is responsible for the planning in the city core,
and the Surat Urban Development Authority (SUDA)
plans for the newly developing and the peri urban
areas. Urban development is regulated in a
hierarchical manner: at the macro scale by a strategic
Development Plan which is revised every twenty
years; at the micro scale by means of Town Planning
Schemes (TPS). A TPS is a method of land
development which pools non-urban land, rearranges
the irregular plots of land into a regular pattern,
reserves part of the land for public space and
redistributes the remaining land to the original
owners, and provides for physical and social
infrastructure

Social infrastructure provided within the TPS are
usually lower order services, such as health care
facilities, schools, neighborhood centers, parks, and
open space. Individual planners decide upon the
quantity and quality of social in a particular TPS area.
Their decision is generally based upon issues such as,
for example, the population projection, and the
situation in the surrounding area. Therefore, the
decision is subjective to the planner who plans the

land allocation for each TPS. Furthermore, multiple
agencies (staff of SMC, SUDA or private consultant)
are involved in developing TPS. Because different
agencies work on separate TPS, this results in TPS
being prepared in isolation with each other, with none
or little coordination with the surrounding TPS areas.
This approach can easily lead to a no optimal
distribution of social infrastructure within a TPS area
and among adjacent TPS areas. Therefore, there is a
need to evaluate whether planned social infrastructure
in TPS area is sufficient in quantity and if it is
adequately distributed in geographic space.

Fig 1 Surat city

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSES
Before evaluating and proposing the new
infrastructure facility its prime important to identify
the problem in existing condition. So at the most the
study is carried out to evaluate the present situation of
the health care facility of the Surat city. Following
table 2 shows the existing health care facility of the
Surat city.

TABLE 2: HEALTH CARE FACILITY IN SURAT
Sr.No Zone
Government
Hospitals
Private
Hospitals
Charitable
Trust SMC
Total
Hospitals
No Of
Beds
1 south west zone 2 17 3 3 25 2000
2 south zone 0 23 0 3 26 791
3 south east zone 0 14 0 6 20 434
4 east zone 0 43 5 6 54 1350
5 west zone 0 90 14 3 107 1984
6 north zone 0 60 4 5 69 1303
7 central zone 0 101 18 16 135 5292
TOTAL 2 348 44 42 436 13154

Above table shows the present condition of health
care facility in Surat city. Most of the hospital located
in central zone of city and that will create location
disparities.

Figure 2 Distribution of health care facility in Surat
city

Mapping of the existing is done and presented in the
fig 2 after that the GIS based analysis of the served
and un served area is carried out in Arch GIS
software.

Evaluation of the Social infrastructure facility
Analysis of social infrastructure is based on network
distance. While locating all health facility together
and assume that the demand is absolutely satisfied,
but with respect to the location and travel distance /
time to reach facility scenario will completely
changed. Population in area near the boundary of
SMC needs to travel large distance to reach facility.
For distance analysis in Arc GIS proximity analysis is
done which gives nearest distance to the facility.
Determines the distances from each feature in the
Input Features to the nearest features in the Near
Features, within the Search Radius. The results are
recorded in the output table. For health care facility
this will be done for government hospitals, private
hospitals, charitable hospitals and urban health
centers.
Following Figures 3 to 6 shows the allocation of the
government hospital, intermediated hospital and urban
health centre. It also gives the idea for the served and
un served area of the city by the social infrastructure
provision.

Figure 3: Location Of Different Healthcare Facilities Figure 4: Un Served Area For 2500m Distance:
Government Hospital
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Legend
! PRI VATE_HOSPI TAL_SRT Events
! GOVERMENT_HOSPITAL_SRT Events
! SMC_UHC_SRT Events
! CHARI TABLE_TRUST_SRT Events
City_Road_Network
River
Hexagon_SRT


Figure 5: Un Served Area For 2500m Distance :
Intermediate Hospital
Figure 6: Un Served Area For 2500m Distance: Urban
Health Centre.

For the above analysis the GIS is the best tool to deal
with the complex urban problems and it provide
answer to the urban planner in the geographical point
of view. The ability of GIS to make model and predict
the future need is excellent and its best compared to
the other database management.

The central area is on higher side in terms of social
infrastructure provision, but sometimes this close
cluster which result into under utilization of the
facility. Further its not possible for the peripheral
area to utilize the same due to far distance.

CONCLUSION
The study demonstrates how simple GIS techniques
like accessibility and allocation analysis can be used
to better allocated and plan social infrastructure
facilities. It also demonstrates that such Measures can
be applied to improve the existing land use and land
allocation plans. The GIS based model will assist the
urban planner to deal with the complex systems.

REFERENCES
Geertman, S. and J. R. Ritsema van Eck (1995). "GIS
and models of accessibility potential: an
application in planning." International Journal of
Geographical Information Systems 9: 67-80.
Handy, S. L., Niemeier, D.A., (1997). "Measuring
Accessibility: An Exploration of Issues and
Alternatives." Environment and Planning A 29:
1175 -1194.
Hanson, S. and M. Schwab (1987). Accessibility and
interurban travel. Environment and Planning A.
12: 735- 748.
Ritsema van Eck, J.R., de Jong, T., (1999).
"Accessibility Analysis and Spatial Competition
Effects in the Context of GIS-Supported Service
Location Planning". Computers, Environment
and Urban Systems 23: 75-89.
Spiekerman, K. and M. Wegener (2000). Freedom
from the tyrrany of zones: towards new GIS-
based spatial models. Spatial models and GIS. A.
S. Fotheringham and M. Wegener. London,
Taylor and Francis: 45-60.
Talen E., Anselin L., (1998). Assessing Spatial
Equity: An Evaluation of Measures of
accessibility to Public Playgrounds.
Environment and Planning A 30 595-613.
Truelove, (1993). Measurement of spatial equity.
Environment and Planning C: Government and
Policy 11 19-34.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

A STUDY ON LANDFILL LEACHING USING THREE DIMENSIONAL
COLUMN LEACH APPARATUS

P.J .Barman
PhD student, Department of Civil Engineering, IITGuwahati Guwahati 781039, Email:pjb@iitg.ernet.in
S.A. Kartha
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IITGuwahati, Guwahati -781039, Email: kartha@iitg.ernet.in
B. Pradhan
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IITGuwahati, Guwahati-781039, Email:bulu@iitg.ernet.in

ABSTRACT: The focus of this study is to understand the leaching mechanisms in the landfills by
experimental investigation using column leaching apparatus. The leaching setup comprises of a three
dimensional trapezoidal apparatus (having bottom width of 90 cm, top width of 55 cm and slanted height of 60
cm). A rainfall simulator is fitted at the top. The apparatus is placed on an iron stand of height 70 cm. The
bottom of the apparatus contains a perforated net through which the leachate may percolate and get collected in
a collector device fitted just at the bottom of the net. The leachate is finally collected in a container and placed
in closed bottles. Afterwards by use of Flame photometry the concentrations of Sodium, Calcium and Potassium
are determined.Various experiments are performed by increasing the contaminated height. It has been observed
that with the increase in contaminated height, there is variation in the leached concentrations of different
elements. It was found that Calcium exhibits more fluctuations in leaching behavior as compared to Sodium and
Potassium.

Keywords: Landfill leaching, contaminated soil, Leaching behavior, Flame photometry

INTRODUCTION
Groundwater contamination due to various
anthropogenic sources has emerged in recent years as
a high priority topic. One of the major sources of
pollution is leaching from the landfills. Lack of
scientific knowledge leads to improper design of
landfills in many developing countries. Leachate is
produced whenever rainwater gets mixed with the
hazardous chemicals. Leachate may percolate through
the vadoze zone to the underlying aquifer and pose a
serious threat to pollution of groundwater resources.
Various models were developed to quantify and
describe leaching.
Kay et al (2005) carried out lysimeter experiment to
determine the leaching of veterinary antibiotics
through a clay soil. They observed that the
incorporation of the slurry which has been applied on
soil had little effect on the mobility of the antibiotics.
Yulkeselen and Alpaslan (2001) carried out a column
leach test to determine the leaching of metals from soil
contaminated by mining activities. They observed that
the degree of leaching of heavy metals is highly
dependent on soil pH. Dousset et al(2007) carried
column experiment for undisturbed and disturbed
condition to investigate the transport characteristics of
bromide and isoproturon. Their experimental results
showed faster transport of isoproturon in the
undisturbed soil due to higher preferential flow. Deiss
et al (2004) carried out a set of peat column
experiments to determine the transport potential of
lead and diesel range organics (DRO) in palustrine
slope wetlands near Juneau. It was observed that lead
was surprisingly mobile, both along and across the
bedding planes. Chotpantarat et al (2011) carried out
an experimental investigation to determine
competitive sorption and transport of lead, Nickel,
Manganese and Zinc in lateritic soil columns. It was
observed that the sorption capacity of lead was higher
in lateritic soil than that of other metals. Estevez et al
(2008) carried out a review on mobility and
degradation of pesticides in soil. French et al (2001)
carried out an experimental investigation to determine
the transport and degradation of propyleneglycol and
potassium acetate in the unsaturated zone. Ozkaya et
al (2006) carried out mathematical simulation after
long term monitoring of leachate components from
two different landfill cells. Foo and Hamid (2009)
presented an overview of landfill leachate treatment
through activated carbon adsorption process. Freijer et
al (1997) presented mathematical description of
degradation and leaching of pesticides for a column
experiment.The mathematical solutions presented by
their model allow interpretation of the degradation of
the compound in terms of half life and sorption
coefficient of the compound from the initial amount in
the leachate and the amount remaining in the leachate.
By all these reviews, it has been observed that
numerous attempts have been made by the scientific
community to study the effect of leaching behaviour in
soil by experimental investigation. However the
challenging task of a model is to effectively
characterize various geometric, hydraulic and soil
parameters which affect the leaching behaviour and
are responsible for groundwater contamination. An
attempt is made to study the effect of various field


parameters like flowrate, depth of contaminated soil
etc using column leach experiment.

EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
The experimental set up for column leach experiment
comprises of a three dimensional trapezoidal apparatus
having bottom width of 90 cm, top width of 55 cm and
slanted height of 60 cm. A rainfall simulator is fitted at
the top to pour water over the contaminated soil to
simulate a scenario similar to rainfall. The apparatus is
placed on an iron stand of height 70 cm. The
experimental set-up is shown in Fig1. The bottom of
the apparatus contains a perforated net through which
the leachate may percolate and get collected in a
collector device fitted just at the bottom of the net. The
leachate is finally collected in a container and placed
at the bottom and finally collected in closed bottles.

Fig. 1 Three dimensional Column leach apparatus

PROCEDURES
Contaminated soil samples are collected from the
landfill site of Guwahati city. Uncontaminated soil
samples are also taken from the nearby area.
Uncontaminated soil has been filled as a base soil in
the column over which contaminated soil has been
placed. Water is poured over the contaminated soil
from the rainfall simulator device at a predetermined
inflowrate.The inflowrate is measured using stopclock
and a measuring bottle. Water is sprinkled over
contaminated soil for 100 seconds. After sometime
the leachate comes out from the mesh at the bottom of
the device which is collected in a collector
arrangement comprising of tin sheet with a slope
fitted below the cylindrical portion of the apparatus.
In this way the leachate is finally collected in a
container at the bottom.

Experiment is conducted by changing the
contaminated height at the same flowrate and then
changing the flowrate at the same contaminated
height. The variation in concentration with time for
Sodium, Calcium and Potassium are shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Concentration vs time plot for Na, Ca and K at
H1/H2=6/10 and flow rate=125 ml/sec

It has been observed from Fig. 2 that concentrations of
Sodium, Calcium and Potassium increases gradually
with time. For the same time intervals Calcium
exhibits highest leached concentration whereas
Potassium shows the least leached concentration. The
patterns of increase in leached concentration obey
approximate logarithmic relationships as shown in the
Figure 2. The effect of increase in contaminated height
at the same flowrate is also studied. Contaminated
height is increased from 6cm to 8 cm keeping the
flowrate same as 125 ml/sec.The experimental
observation is plotted as shown in Fig 3

Fig. 3 Concentration vs time plot for Na, Ca and K at
H1/H2=8/10 and flowrate=125 ml/sec

It is observed that for each element (i.e Sodium,
Calcium and Potassium) the leached concentration
increases with time which follows approximate
logarithmic relationships and shown in Fig. 3.

The percent variations in concentrations for Sodium,
Calcium and Potassium when contaminated height


increases from 6cm to 8cm at constant flowrate of 125
ml/sec are shown in Fig.4, Fig.5 and Fig6 respectively.

Fig. 4 Percent variation in concentration of Sodium
when H1 changes from 6cm to 8 cm at flowrate of
125ml/sec

Fig. 5 Percent variation in concentration of Calcium
when H1 changes from 6cm to 8 cm at constant
flowrate of 125ml/sec

Fig. 6 Percent variation in concentration of Potassium
when H1 changes from 6cm to 8 cm at constant
flowrate of 125ml/sec

It has been observed that the leached concentration of
Sodium, Calcium and Potassium increases with the
increase in contaminated height. However the
variation of the same element is not same at different
time intervals. It can be observed from the bar
diagrams that there is an average 8% increase in
leached concentration for Sodium whereas in case of
Calcium and Potassium the average variation is
observed to be approximately 6% and 7% respectively
when the contaminated height increases from 6cm to
8cm.
The effect of increase in flowrate keeping the
contaminated height constant is studied. Contaminated
height is kept constant at 8cm and the flowrate is
increased from 125ml/sec to 200ml/sec.The
experimental observation is plotted and shown in Fig.
7

Fig .7 Concentration vs time plot for Na, Ca and K at
H1/H2=8/10 and flowrate=200 ml/sec

The percent variations in Concentration for Sodium,
Calcium and Potassium when flowrate increases from
125 ml/sec to 200ml/sec are shown in Fig.8, Fig.9 and
Fig10 respectively.

Fig. 8 Percent variation in concentration of Sodium
when flowrate changes from 125ml/sec to 200 ml/sec
at H1=8cm

Fig. 9 Percent variation in concentration of Calcium
when flowrate changes from 125ml/sec to 200 ml/sec
at H1=8cm


Fig. 10 Percent variation in concentration of
Potassium when flowrate changes from 125ml/sec to
200 ml/sec at H1=8cm

It has been observed that the leached concentration of
Sodium, Calcium and Potassium increases with the
increase in flowrate. However the variation of the
same element is not same at different time intervals. It
can be observed from the bar diagrams that there is an
average 25% increase in leached concentration for
Sodium whereas in case of Calcium and Potassium
the average variation is observed to be approximately
12% and 7% respectively when the flowrate increases
from 125 ml/sec to 200ml/sec.

CONCLUSION
1) The leached concentration of Sodium, Calcium and
Potassium increases with time and maintains an
approximate logarithmic relationship.
2) Calcium exhibits highest leached concentration
whereas Potassium exhibits least leached
concentration.
3) The effect of increase in flowrate is observed to be
more prominent than small increase in contaminated
height.

REFERENCES
Kay P, Blackwell A P, Boxall A B A (2005)
Column studies to investigate the fate of veterinary
antibiotics in clay soils following
Ozkaya B, Demir A, Bilgili S M (2006)
Mathematical simulation and long-term
monitoring of leachate components from two
different landfill cells Journal of Hazardous
Materials A135, 3239
Foo Y K, Hameed H B (2009) An overview of
landfill leachate treatment via activated carbon
adsorption process Journal of Hazardous
Materials 171, 5460
Yukselen A M, Alpaslan B(2001) Leaching of
metals from soil contaminated by mining
activities Journal of Hazardous Materials B87
,289300
Freijer J I , Veling M.J.E , Hassanizadeh M S(1998)
Analytical solutions of the convectiondispersion
equation applied to transport of pesticides in soil
columns Environmental Modeling & Software
13, 139149
Dousset S, Thevenot M , Pot V ,imunek J , Andreux
F(2007)Evaluating equilibrium and non-
equilibrium transport of bromide and isoproturon
in disturbed and undisturbed soil columns Journal
of Contaminant Hydrology 94 , 261276
Deiss J, Byers C, Clover D, Amore D D,Love
A,Menzies A M,Powell J,Walter T M(2004)
Transport of lead and diesel fuel through a peat
soil near Juneau, AK: a pilot study Journal of
Contaminant Hydrology74 1 18
Chotpantarat S , Ong S.K. Sutthira C, Osathaphan
K(2011) Competitive
sorptionandtransportofPb2+, Ni2+, Mn2+,
andZn2+ in lateritic soil columns Journal of
Hazardous Materials 190,391-396.
Estevez E A.M , Periago P L E , Carballo M
E,Gandara S J,Mejuto J C, Rio G L(2008) The
mobility and degradation of pesticides in soils and
the pollution of groundwater resources Review
The mobility and degradation of pesticides in soils
and the pollution of groundwater resources
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 123,
247260
French K H, Van der Zee S.E.A.T.M., Leijnse
A(2001) Transport and degradation of
propyleneglycol and potassium acetate in the
unsaturated zone Journal of Contaminant
Hydrology 49 , 2348

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


WATER SCARCITY: ISSUES, CONCERNS AND OPTION
(A CASE STUDY OF KOLKATA AND SUB- URBAN AREAS)

Sabita Madhvi Singh
Research Scholar in Civil Engg. Dept.,Institute of Technology,BHU, Varanasi, India.
E-Mail: sabitamadhvi@yahoo.co.in

ABSTRACT: The spatially uneven and temporally skewed rain water in almost every Indian state is an
extremely difficult challenge that often leads to the expansion of the twin calamities of flood and drought with
time, despite ever-increasing investment in water management. The same holds true for the state of West Bengal
too, in spite of being the land of plentiful rainfall (1200 to 2500 mm. annual rainfall) and rich alluvial aquifers
holding 31 billion cubic meters (BCM) of ground water, which is accessible at 5 to 10 meters below the ground
level in 95 percent of villages. West Bengal, located within GangaMeghna-Brahmaputra basin, covers 2.7
percent of the national territory and renders home to 8 percent of the Indian population. Significantly, it also
shares 7.5 percent of the water resources of the country. Rainwater harvesting is the process to capture and store
rainwater for its efficient utilization and conservation to control its runoff, evaporation and seepage, basically to
replenish ground water. The paper intends to highlight the different processes of Rainwater harvesting at small
micro-levels in Kolkata and suburban areas with effective net result achieved in water management. The
methods elaborated , if adopted and properly implemented, can bring about a difference though a marginal one.
Keywords: - Rainwater harvesting, Drought prone areas, Water conservation.
INTRODUCTION
WEST BENGAL the city of joy weeps for water.
West Bengal region with the largest population
density in India and wide spread poverty has also been
identifying by many as an area of quickly emerging
water crisis in spite of having some of the India
largest rivers. The challenges in water management
are rooted in the common objective of all the
countries in the region poverty alleviation and
sustainable development.
The spatially uneven and temporally skewed rain
water in almost every Indian state is an extremely
difficult challenge that often leads to the expansion of
the twin calamities of flood and drought with time,
despite ever-increasing investment in water
management. The same holds true for the state of
West Bengal too, in spite of being the land of plentiful
rainfall (1200 to 2500 mm. annual rainfall) and rich
alluvial aquifers holding 31 billion cubic meters
(BCM) of ground water, which is accessible at 5 to 10
meters below the ground level in 95 percent of
villages. West Bengal, located within Ganga

Meghna-Brahmaputra basin, covers 2.7 percent of the
national territory and renders home to 8 percent of the
Indian population. Significantly, it also shares 7.5
percent of the water resources of the country. But, this
is not just enough to cater all the primary needs of the
state during lean months, on account of uncontrolled
population growth, expansion of irrigation networks
and development issues. Elementarily, the dam-canal
networks yield 30-40 percent efficiency only due to
evaporation and transit losses. The problem also
accounts for the fact that only 40 percent of the
surface water is utilizable, out of 13.29 Mham.
Surface water available to the state from 22 river
basins and 4 large drains covering 7.62 Mham. of
catchment area. This forces no option but to opt for
the harvesting of the plentiful rainwater received by
the state with better management. Rainwater
harvesting is the process to capture and store
rainwater for its efficient utilization and conservation
to control its runoff, evaporation and seepage,
basically to replenish ground water.

Inadequate Civic Infrastructure
The civic infrastructure of the metropolitan area is not
adequate to cater to the citys growing population.
Unplanned development for the better part of the
city's three centuries of existence has taken its toll.
Fig. 1 Population growth in Kolkata from 1901 to
2015

The shortage of funds and low revenue generation has
also affected development work. Housing shortage
has resulted in the growth of slums. Roads are few
while the traffic has increased tremendously. Public
transportation is extremely crowded. Sanitation, water
supply, pollution, health, access to education and the
state of the economy are major areas of concern. The
demographic density during 1981 was 22,260 people
per sq km and during 1991 this rose to 23,670 persons
per sq km in Kolkata.

Water Sources
Fig. 2 Water sources for Kolkata
The residents get their water supply from three main
sources:
The KMC supplies treated water through an
underground pipeline network
The roadside public bore wells that KMC has dug
The innumerable private bore wells that the
residents have dug up.
Though there is no dearth of water, the city does not
have enough resources to treat it or maintain and
manage the distribution system.

History of Water Supply in Kolkata
Potable water supply began in Kolkata in 1869 with
the installation of a slow sand filtration unit having a
capacity of 6 million gallons per day (mgd) at Palta.
The plants capacity was raised, in stages, to 32 mgd
by 1911. The city expanded rapidly between 1948 and
1966 and had to cater to a huge influx of people for
various reasons, including the Second World War, the
infamous Bengal famine, Independence and partition
of Bengal. Large settlements grew on both side of
River Hooghly in the Gangetic delta. The Kolkata
Municipal Authority (KMA) looked after the civic
needs of a population of more than 14.6 million,
settled over 178,500 hectares. The first water works at
Palta for supply of 27.28 million litres of filtered
water every day to a population of 0.4 million was
constructed in 1870 for a community water supply
scheme with a supply of 68 litres per capita per day.
Today, the Palta Water Works, which is situated on
195 hectares along the riverfront, supplies about 780
million litres of water every day on an average. The
water from Palta flows through four pipes (of 1 to 1.8
m in diameter) to the reservoirs and pumping station
at Tallah. From Tallah the water is distributed to the
city by four zonal mains, which feed the vast
distribution network measuring about 3,800
kilometres in length.
However, the Tallah-Palta water supply system is not
enough to serve the consumers in the southern parts of
the city, particularly in areas that have been recently
added to the Kolkata Municipal Corporation like
Tollygunj, Garden Reach, South Suburban and
Jadavpur. Considering the low pressure and
inadequate supply in these areas, supplementary
arrangement from local groundwater sources is made
to augment the supply. With the setting up of Garden
Reach works in 1982 to supply water to these areas,
the critical water supply distribution system in South
Kolkata is expected to improve. Presently, Garden
Reach supplies 50 million litres per day, which is
expected to rise to 217 million litres per day when the
construction of various units of the water works is
completed.
Fig.3 Water demand and supply senario

Present status
According to B K Maiti, Deputy Chief Engineer,
Water Supply Dept, KMC, the demand as on 2004 is
around 334 million gallons per day (MGD) and
supply from surface and groundwater source is about
320 MGD with a gap of 10 MGD.
In 2002, KMC supplied 1062.18 MLD of water,
falling short of the demand by almost 189 MLD.
However, in 2003, the average supply rose to 1262.52
MLD, meeting nearly 90 percent of the requirement.
Keeping the needs of the growing population in mind,
KMC has undertaken several capacity enhancement
and up gradation programmes and hopes to exceed the
demand by 2005.
The New Palta Water Works at Indira Gandhi Water
Treatment Plant is a notable step in this process. The
378 MLD water generation project, which was
commissioned in July 2004, further augments Paltas
capacity by 226.8 MLD. This, along with the
increased supply from Garden Reach Water Works,
will increase the per capita water supply to 234 litres
per day from the present 202 litres per day.

Kolkatas Water Supply at a Glance
Table.1 Kolkata water supply
Total daily potable water supply (in
million litres)
1350
Per capita availability of water per day
(in litres)
202
No. of tube wells
Big diameter
Small diameter

455
7875
No. of connections
Domestic
Industrial and commercial

2,12,000
25,000
Public Access
Stand posts (in numbers)
Street hydrants that use unfiltered
water (in numbers)

17,019
2,000

No. of reservoirs
Present
Under construction
Combined capacity (in million
gallon)

7
14
96
After the commissioning of the New Palta Water
Works, the per capita water availability in
Kolkata will be 234 litres per day
Source: KMC

Problems that Palta Water Works faced
Rapid growth of population in the city placed a huge
burden on the plant. Increased salinity in River
Hooghly, excessive leakage through the old
distribution network and loss of pressure head as
water had to be conveyed over long distances were
among the chief problems that the plant faced. But,
with the construction of Garakka Barrage and
diversion of sweet water to River Hooghly, there has
been marked reduction in the salinity of river water.
With the establishment of Kolkata Metropolitan
Development Authority (KMDA), development work
for improvement of surface water to KMC and other
settlements in the Kolkata Metropolitan Area have
been undertaken.
The plant, which had an initial capacity of 22.68
million litres per day (MLD), generated filtered water
through sedimentation in pre and final settling tanks
and slow sand filtration in the Old Series of 12 filter
beds. Another 24 beds, each with a capacity of 3.78
MLD, were added between 1888-1893. In 1905, filter
beds with 7.56 MLD capacity, called New Series, was
started. Between 1920 and 1936 when 17 beds of
11.34 MLD capacity and one bed of 7.56 MLD
capacity, called Extension Series, were introduced.
With an output of 491.4 MLD the plant seems to have
perennial capacity to serve. In 1952, a 12-bed rapid
gravity unit with a capacity of 75.6 MLD was added.
This process helped in reducing the sedimentation
time. In 1968, another 226.8 MLD rapid gravity
filtration unit was added.

GROUNDWATER SCENARIO IN KOLKATA
History of Groundwater Extraction
The first move to tap sub-surface water in Kolkata
was made as early as 1804. Between 1918 and 1940,
nearly 200 medium diameter tube wells with an
average yield of 27,275 litres per hour were set up in
what is known today as Kokata Metorpolitan District.
Many more tubewells were drilled during the World
War II to ensure water supply during emergency.
The population growth after partition made it
necessary to install heavy-duty tubewells to
supplement Tallah-Palta water supply, particularly in
southern Kolkata. Though initially conceived as an
emergency and stopgap measure, the system has now
come to stay for good.
Presently, Kolkata Municipal Corporation runs 455
large diameter deep tubewells and 7825 small
diameter tubewells contributing about 136 million
litres of water per day. An unaccounted number of
deep tubewells by private industries and business
establishments, housing estates and highrise
apartment blocks have also been functioning. There
are also several thousand small diameter tubewells
owned by private households.

Groundwater Resource
Due to large-scale withdrawal of groundwater from
the confined aquifers, a depression of piezometric
surface in Central and South Central Kolkata has
developed. The magnitude of the depression is 6-8
metres, and has developed over a period of about 40
years (1958-98) in the core sector covering
Narkeldanga- Park Circus Bhowanipur. As a result,
the general southerly flow in the confined aquifers has
become radial in a much larger area surrounding the
cone of depression.
The central part of Kolkata Municipal
Corporation area is drawing water from all directions
resulting in its radial flow. The total quantity entering
form the immediate vicinity of KMC area into the
central depression zone comes to 204 MLD in the
absence of precise Census data of the withdrawal
structures it is difficult to evaluate precise ground
water draft in KMC area.
Groundwater withdrawal status
Table 2 Ground water status

Source Numbers Average
discharge
Assumed
hours of
pumping
Total per
day
withdrawal
Larger
diameter
tubewells
325 68 cubic
metres per
hour
7 hours 153 MLD
Small private
tubewells
(4.5 inch
diameter)
4834 27 cubic
metres per
hour
7 hours 914 MLD
Shallow
hand pumps
12,000 0.68 cubic
metres
7 hours 56.7 MLD
Total 1123.70
MLD
Source: Central Ground Water Board (CGWB)
According to the Central Ground Water Board
(CGWB) the withdrawal is 1123.70 MLD but the
inflow is only 204 MLD, which results in the fall in
the piezometric head. In 2003-04 according to KMC
the number of larger diameter tubewells has increased
to 455, and smaller diameter borewells to 9875 and
the number of shallow hand pumps is 17,019. Hence
the current groundwater based on the withdrawal
figure by CGWB will be about 2120.5 MLD. Hence it
is clear that between 1998 and 2003 the groundwater
extraction has increased by 1.9 times in five years
period

Rainwater Harvesting possibility in Kolkata
Rainwater harvesting will be an ideal option to
prevent the alarming fall in the water level in the city.
The study of the rainfall pattern and sub surface

geology shows that both storage and recharge
methods can be successful applied in the city.
Fig. 4 Rainfall pattern in Kolkata
Rainfall Pattern in Kolkata
The city lies in a monsoon region, with most of its
average annual rainfall of 1500 mm falling from June
through September. Though winters are mild, with an
average January temperature of 19 C (67 F), the
temperature sometimes dips to 10 C (50 F). From
March through September, Kolkata is hot and humid,
with an average July temperature of 29 C (85 F); in
the months of May and June the temperature may rise
as high as 38 C (100 F).

Fig. 5 40 years average rainfall vs rainy days(1964-
2005)
Months
Av. Annual Rainfall
(mm)
Rainy Days
Jan 12.1 1.0
Feb 24.5 1.8
Mar 44.8 2.4
Apr 55.7 3.7
May 153.6 6.8
Jun 311.9 12.8
Jul 332.5 17.2
Aug 349.5 17.0
Sep 287.3 13.3
Oct 147.0 6.3
Nov 36.9 1.2
Dec 9.4 0.5
Total 1765.1 84.0
Table no.3 40 years average rainfall (1964-2005)

Water Harvesting Potential of the City
Kolkata Municipal Area = 187 sq km
Annual average rainfall = 1500 mm
Total rainwater falling over the city = 187 x
1,000,000 x 1500
= 280,500,000,000 litres = 768 MLD
Present water supply = 1209.6 MLD
Even if we assume 70 per cent of the area to be
developed, 50 per cent of it to be roofed and we
collect 70 per cent of the water falling over it, the
quantity of rainwater that can be harvested works out
to 188 MLD. This is a sizeable quantity compared to
current water supply.
How much water can be harvested from individual
houses ?
If a house in Kolkata has a rooftop area of 100 sq m,
one can harvest about 1,20,000 litres of water. The
formula for calculating the amount of rainwater that
can be harvested is as follows.
Runoff =A x R x C
A=Area
R=Rainfall in millimetres
C=Runoff coefficient (0.8)
Heres how:
Area (A) =100 m
2

Rainfall = 1500 millimetres
Runoff coefficient = 0.8
Runoff (100 x 1500 x 0.8) = 1,20,000 litres
Storing rainwater
The design parameter for storage depends on the
number of dry days and requirement. The details for
calculation an optimum storage tank is given below.
Rainy days in the City

Fig. 5 Rain Pattern
The above graph shows that the number of dry spell
or non-rainy days in a year is 200. So, we have to
design the size of our storage tank in such a way that
during the dry periods, water is available for drinking
purpose. The below mentioned calculation can be
applied to determine the size of the storage tank.

No. of persons in a household :10
No. of dry days in a year :200
Per capita consumption (lpcd) :6

Average annual rainfall (mm) :1500
Rooftop area (sqm) :20
Runoff coefficient :0.80
Size of the storage tank:10 x 200 x 6=12,000 litres
Check :
Water available from roof : 1500 x 20 x 0.8
= 24,000
Hence, sufficient water is available to meet the
demand of 12,000 litres
The storage tank can be Ferro cement tank, plastic
tank or brickwork tank. The tanks can be placed of
surface or below the ground level also.

Relevant Case Study: Hindalco Industries Limited,
Belur Works, West Bengal
Unit Profile
The Belur Unit of Hindalco Industries Limited is
located in the State of West Bengal and is just 5 kM
from the city Kolkata. The plant was established in
the year 1938 and is the oldest aluminium sheet
rolling plant in the country. It has gradually grown
over the years and currently has a capacity of 45,000
tonnes per annum. The plant had a turnover of Rs 519
crores during 2004-05. It is one of the most
diversified aluminium sheet factories in the world
capable of manufacturing 32 different alloys and
supplying to the Defence, Packaging, Bottle Closure,
Pressure Cooker, Automobile and Building industry
throughout India. The unit is ISO 9001, ISO 14001
and OHSAS 18001 certified. The current employee
strength is 800.

Rain water Harvesting
The plant usually depends upon ground water to meet
all its water requirement. The input water is treated in
a water treatment plant far making it suitable for
industrial use. This process starting from pumping of
ground water, its treatment and then distribution
consumes lot of energy. The plant utilized the captive
pond to hold the rain water that is collected from the
overhead roof. Thus during rainy season it has able to
eliminate lifting of ground water and its treatment by
using the rain water directly in the process.

CAPTIVE POND
Captive pond volume: 5785 KL.
Average Savings : 75 KL/Day
Energy saved : 80,000 units per annum = Rs. 3.6
Lakhs
Investment : Rs. 2 Lakhs
Simple payback : 7 Months
RAINWATER COLLECTION

Fig.6 Collecting the rain water from factoryshed
RAINWATER TRANSPORTATION

Fig.7 Rainwater Transportation

RAINGAUGE AND LEVEL INDICATOR

Fig. 8 Raingauge and level indicator

RAINWATER VS. GROUNDWATER

Fig.9 Groundwater and rainwater used in industry

RAINWATER QUALITY

Table. 3 Rainwater and groundwater quality

REUSE OF REJECT WATER

Fig.10 Reuse of rejected water
Use of Reject water of WTP for non-critical usage
(Road washing/ Toilet flushing) - 50 KL/Day

REUSE OF ETP TREATED EFFLUENT
Fig. 11 Treated water from ETP to Urinal

RESULT
The wastage of water is reduced which implies Re-
scheduling of the timing for supplying water to the
Community.
Previous: @ 43 KL/Day (avg.)
Previous Timing: 24 hours
Present: @ 8 KL/Day (avg.)
Present Timing: 5 am - 2 pm & 5 pm - 9 pm

CONCLUSION
Water is at the heart of politics between the nations as
they increasingly face the challenge of meeting the
growing demands of their populations. The issue of
inadequate knowledge base within which modern
management practices are adopted often leads to
disastrous results, such as aresentization. The current
management regime of state determination of what is
good for people can go sour and may have a little
hope of ameliorating poor water quality. Accepting
the challenge would involve recognition of
multifaceted nature of water as a resource, accepting
that the local communities have the right over its use
and control, and that water cant be reduced
categorized and classified and manipulated and
treated other objects. A number of NGOs have
demonstrated the effectiveness of alternative
paradigms but there up scaling replication and
mainstreaming in to government programmes still
remain difficult tasks. This rain water harvesting
methods elaborated here, if adopted and properly
implemented, can bring about a difference though a
marginal one.

REFERENCES
Water Harvesting Manual, Centre for Science and
Environment
http://www.cgwaindia.com/suo/home.htm
A Water Harvesting Manual for Urban Areas: Case
Studies from Delhi. 2003. New Delhi: Centre for
Science and Environment.
Centre for Science and Environment. 2003. Site
dedicated to Rainwater Harvesting. Accessed on
various dates at http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/
Government of India. 2003. Ground Water in Delhi:
Improving the sustainability through Rainwater
Harvesting, Central Ground Water Board, Ministry
of Water Resources.
Government of India. 2003. Rainwater Harvesting: A
necessity in South and Southwest Districts of NCT,
Delhi. State Unit Office, Delhi, Central ground
Water Board, Ministry of Water
Resources.Government of India. 2003. Details on
Water Harvesting. Accessed on various dates at
http://www.cgwaindia.com/
Key Issues. September 2000. Water harvesting: urgent
need to reap rich rewards [Article] Indian Energy
Sector, TERI 2000. Accessed on 15 May 2003,
http://www.teriin.org/energy/waterhar.htm
Kumar, M. Dinesh. 2003. Paper: Roof Water Harvesting
for Domestic Water Security: Who gains and who
loses?

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

SITE SELECTION FOR GROUND WATER RECHARGE USING
TREATED MUNICIPAL WASTEWATERS- A CASE STUDY OF
VARANASI (INDIA)
P.K.Singh
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg, IT-BHU, Varanasi
Anurag Ohri
Corresponding author, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg, IT-BHU, Varanasi, Email aohri.civ@itbhu.ac.in
Abhishek Kumar Bhardwaj
Department of Environmental Science, Veer Bahadur Singh Purvanchal University, Jaunpur

ABSTRACT: Artificial ground water recharge has been practiced in many parts of the world, including India to
supplement the under ground water reserve. Application of reclaimed waters from municipal sewage treatment
plants for such purpose is relatively a new development. GIS and expert knowledge are used as a decision
support tool to determine potential ground water recharge (GWR) sites. These sites are identified using a single-
objective multi-criteria analysis. This paper intends to report a Geographical Information System (GIS) based
methodology for the GWR site selection when the source is surplus reclaimed water from Sewage Treatment
Plants (STPs). A set of six criteria (land use/land cover, altitude, distance from STP, distance from drinking
water pumping station, type of soil, and depth of ground water table) have been used for GWR site selection.
The selection of criteria and acceptable ranges is based on expert opinion and published guidelines. Analytic
hierarchy process (AHP) has been used to give weightage to different factors based upon expert opinion. The
criteria were aggregated and Attribute Value (A) is generated using weighted linear combination (WLC)
technique in GIS environment. The suitability index (0-10) values are classified into five categories: Not
Suitable, Least Suitable, Moderately Suitable, Suitable, and Most Suitable, to select the best site for the purpose.
The results indicate that in Varanasi city whereas adequate land under most suitable category appears
available near Bhagwanpur and DLW STPs, the lands available for the purpose near Dinapur STP fall under
moderately suitable category. It is found that GIS based multi-criteria decision analysis can be a powerful tool
for such applications.
Keywords: Ground Water Recharge using reclaimed water, Geographical Information System (GIS), Multi-
Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA), Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), Weighted Linear Combination
(WLC) technique.
INTRODUCTION
The artificial recharge to ground water aims at
augmentation of ground water reservoir by modifying
the natural movement of surface water utilizing
suitable civil construction techniques. Artificial
recharge techniques normally address to following
issues:
(i) To enhance the sustainable yield in areas
where over-development has depleted the aquifer.
(ii) Conservation and storage of excess surface
water for future requirements, since these
requirements often changes within a season or a
period.
(iii) To improve the quality of existing ground
water through dilution.
The basic purpose of artificial recharge of ground
water is to restore supplies from aquifers depleted due
to excessive ground water development (CGWB,
2000).
As noted by Asano and Cotruvo (2004), for more than
a quarter century, a recurring thesis in environmental
and water resources engineering has been that
improved wastewater treatment provides a treated
effluent of such quality that it should be put to
beneficial use. This conviction in responsible
engineering, coupled with increasing water shortages
and environmental pollution, provides a realistic
framework for considering reclaimed wastewater as a
water resource rather than a liability. The inclusion of
groundwater recharge in a wastewater reuse project
may provide psychological and aesthetic benefits as a
result of the transition between reclaimed municipal
wastewater and groundwater. However, the lack of
specific criteria and guidelines governing the artificial
recharge of groundwater with recycled municipal
wastewater is currently hampering the implementation
of large-scale groundwater recharge operations.
National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) has
been tasked with the preparation of a Ganga River
Basin Management Plan (GRBMP), implementation
of which is expected to result in the restoration of the
wholesomeness of all the rivers in the Ganga basin.
Two important objectives of GRBMP are the
restoration of 1) Nirmal dhara and 2) Aviral dhara
in the rivers of the Ganga basin. The restoration of
Nirmal dhara in all rivers of the Ganga basin will
require the following steps concerning sewage
collection, treatment and disposal processes:
1. Complete stoppage of the discharge of sewage,
either treated or untreated, from towns into all rivers
of the Ganga basin.

2. All effluents from urban domestic sources must be
collected and treated up to tertiary level.
3. The treated water should be recycled or reused for
various purposes, i.e., industrial, irrigation,
horticultural, noncontact/nonpotable domestic uses,
groundwater recharge, etc.
For this purpose, map showing areas where treated
sewage can be used for groundwater recharge needs to
be prepared (GRBMP Report, 2010).
Recharge is generally considered to occur in
topographic highs and discharge in topographic lows
in humid regions, whereas in arid alluvial-valley
regions recharge is usually focused in topographic
lows, such as channels of ephemeral streams.
Delineation of hydrogeomorphic settings on the basis
of topographic attributes including slope classes,
breaks in slope, curvature, and elevation is greatly
facilitated by the use of geographic information
systems (GIS) and digital elevation models and is
used widely in Australia (Salama et al. 1994).
Ghayoumiana & Mohseni (2006) reported application
of GIS techniques to determine areas most suitable for
artificial groundwater recharge in a coastal aquifer in
southern Iran. Parameters considered in the selection
of groundwater artificial recharge locations are
diverse and complex. In this study factors such as
slope, infiltration rate, depth to groundwater, quality
of alluvial sediments and land use were considered to
determine the areas most suitable for groundwater
recharge to determine the relationships between
geomorphological units and the appropriate sites for
groundwater artificial recharge, land-use and
geomorphological maps were developed from satellite
images. The results of the study indicated that about
12% of the study area is considered as appropriate and
8% moderately appropriate sites for artificial
groundwater recharge. Rao et al. (2009) used GIS
analysis for identification of groundwater potential
zones in and around Madhurawada (Andhra Pradesh,
India).
Various studies have been done to locate the site for
different purposes using GIS and AHP. Negi and Jain
(2008) have developed a methodology for site
selection of municipal solid waste landfill using GIS
and AHP, which is one of the methods of MCDA.
Siddiqui et al. (1996) have developed a methodology
to find the best location for landfill by integrating GIS
and AHP. Thus there is appreciable amount of
information available in literature for site selection
using GIS and MCDA. Varanasi city has three
functional sewage treatment plants at present. The
objective of this study is to find the GIS based
methodology for selection of suitable sites for ground
water recharge in Varanasi by treated municipal
wastewaters from STPs.
THE STUDY AREA
The Varanasi city is located in the North Eastern part
of the Nation and is one of the biggest cities of Uttar
Pradesh and is the district headquarters. The
geographical coordinates of the city are 25 0 to 25
16 North latitude and 82 5 to 83 1 East longitude.
It is bounded on north by Jaunpur and Ghazipur, on
south east by Mughal Sarai, on east by Bihar State, on
west by Bhadohi and on south by Mirzapur. The area
of the city is 78.5 km
2
. The Varanasi Nagar Nigam
has divided the area of the city in 90 wards for
administrative and management purposes. Apart from
being a place of pilgrimage and tourist centre,
Varanasi is a fast growing commercial, industrial and
trading centre of Uttar Pradesh and Central India. The
general features of the city are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: General features of Varanasi City
S.
No.
Information Data
1. Population ~ 14 lacs as per 2001
Census
2. Area 78.5 sq.kms
3. Altitude 80 meters above msl
4. Temperature
Summer
22.6 to 41.5 C
5. Temperature Winter 9.5 to 23.4 C
6. Rainfall 1113.4 mm
There are two sources of water available at Varanasi,
viz., ground water and river water (surface). Both the
sources are utilized for drinking water requirement of
the city. These water sources are also used for
industrial purposes, irrigation purposes and other
domestic usage of the city. In the unconsolidated
alluvial sediments ground water occurs in the pore
spaces in the zone of saturation. The ground water in
the unconsolidated deposits of the older alluvium in
the area comprises of two bodies, (i) a shallow ground
water body which occurs principally in clay and
kankar beds of back swamp deposits and (ii) deep or
main ground water body which occurs in thick sands
of the meander belt deposits. These two water bodies
are hydraulically distinct. The back swamp deposits
are thick but are likely to be inter connected when
they are comparatively thin. The shallow ground
water in back swap deposits is generally unconfined
and its static water level is only few meters bgl. It
supplies water to the dug wells. The deep ground
water body in meander belt deposits is considered to
be hydraulically continuous and is confined in nature.
It supplies water to the tube wells for irrigation,
industrial, and domestic uses. The back swamps
deposits and the meander belt deposits differ
considerably in their capacity to absorb and transmit
water to the zone of saturation. The back swamp clays
are massive and contain Kankar and in thin lenses of
fine grained sand. Because this material is generally
too fine grained to transmit water readily, it prevents
the downward percolation of water from the land
surface and also confines water in the underlying
meander belt sand deposits. The meander belt deposits
consist of medium to coarse grained sand and
underlying impervious back swamp clays, are
moderately to highly permeable and constitute a
potential ground water reservoir.
The population of Varanasi city and in particular of
Trans Varuna area is mostly dependent on the ground
water for its domestic use. About 115 MLD ground
water is extracted to fulfill the requirement. There are
about 111 tube wells in different localities of the city
and the Jal Sansthan has provided about 1954 hand
pumps to meet the requirement of public, who are
unable to get the water connection in their premises.
Besides these private boring is also very common.
Ground water resource evaluation conducted reveals
the information related to ground water recharge,
ground water depth, level of development, and
category of the city on the basis of the development.
The exploitable dynamic ground water resource is
estimated to be 1172.46 mcm and the ground water
draft is estimated to be 671.87 mcm. The balance of
500.59 mcm of ground water is available for future
development both for domestic and irrigation
purposes. Varanasi Jal Sansthan also draws water
from Ganga River for supply to residential colonies
after complete treatment. Static Water Table is around
16 m below ground level and a seasonal variation of 6
m is observed. Fig 1 shows the geographical map of
Varanasi and Fig 2 shows the drainage districts and
the location of sewage treatment plants in the city.

Fig.1(a) Study area in India map

Fig. 1(b): Drainage Districts and location of STPs in
Varanasi (JICA Report, 2005)
Varanasi city has following three existing STPs
1. STP at Bhagwanpur - 8 MLD
2. STP at Dinapur - 80 MLD
3. STP at DLW - 12 MLD
Total = 100 MLD
METHODOLOGY
Based on literature review regarding the site selection
for different purposes and keeping in mind the
sensitivity of different environmental parameters for
the purpose, overall six criteria were used for site
selection of ground water recharge.
i) Land use/land cover area: Land use provides
important indicators of the extent of groundwater
requirements and groundwater utilization, as well as
being an important indicator in the selection of sites
for artificial recharge of groundwater. Satellite data,
topographic maps and field information were used as
reference data. Different classes of land use were
identified (e.g. residential, lontic water, agriculture,
sand, barren land, lentic water) by visual image
interpretation of remote sensing image.
ii) Altitude: This criterion reflects the necessary
wastewater pumping devices and related costs. The
economic feasible elevation difference must not
exceed 15 m (Kallali et al., 2007).
iii) Distance from STP: The economic criteria
considered include water transfer costs from STP to
GWR sites. This reflects necessary pipe length in
meters and afferent costs to convey treated
wastewater from source to destination. The economic
feasible distance must not exceed 8 km (Kallali et al.,
2007).
iv) Distance from drinking water pumping station:
A safeguard distance of at least 1000 m from drinking
water pumping station to avoid their possible
contamination by wastewater infiltration.
v) Type of soil: Suitable soils should have a very low
clay fraction in order to firstly be permeable enough
to allow treated wastewater infiltration and secondly
perform good complementary wastewater
purification. In this respect, soils with greater than
10% clay fraction would exclude GWR site.
vi) Depth of ground water table: Suitable site must
have static groundwater level at least 5 m depth in
order to have a sufficient vadose zone for wastewater
purification. With this minimum aquifer depth, we
expect overcoming aquifer mounding regardless of its
transfer rate. (Kallali et al., 2007)
Accordingly, six input map layers for each of land
use/land cover area, altitude, distance from STP,
distance from drinking water pumping station, type of
soil, and ground water table are prepared to be used in
the analysis in GIS environment. All the data layers
are derived and prepared from related maps by
scanning, geocoding and digitizing the relevant
information. The information compiled from literature
from various sources about the suitability of site for
ground water recharge is used to determine the buffer
zones for each layer. After creating the classes for
each layer by using buffer zones, each layer is


converted into individual raster maps. After raster
conversion, each input map is reclassified to give
them weights based upon the suitability of ant site for
ground water recharge. Because of different scales
upon which criteria are measured, it is necessary that
factors be standardized before combination. All the
criteria are standardized in the scale of 0 to 10. Zero is
assigns to those areas which are not suitable for
ground water recharge and 10 are assigns to those
areas which are most suitable for locating ground
water recharge sites. Other numbers are assigns to
different areas having different suitability foe site
selection. The layers, buffer zones and their attribute
weights are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2: Sites Selection Criteria for Ground Water Recharge Using Treated Municipal Wastewaters
S. N. Name of criteria Constrain/
Factor
Zones Scale Value
(x
ij
)
Suitability
1 Land use/ land
cover
Constrain and
Factor
Residential
Lontic Water
Agriculture
Sand
Barren
Lentic Water
0
0
6
6
10
10
Not suitable
Not suitable
Moderately suitable
Moderately suitable
Most suitable
Most suitable
2 Altitude Constrain and
Factor
Bhagwanpur STP
elevation =76.5
76.5-78.5m
>78.5m
76.5-72.5m
72.5-68.5m
<68.5m

4
0
10
8
6

Least suitable
Not suitable
Most suitable
Suitable
Moderately suitable
Dinapur STP elevation
=78.5)
78.5-80.5m
>80.5m
78-74m
74-70m
70-66m

4
0
10
8
6

Least suitable
Not suitable
Most suitable
Suitable
Moderately suitable
DLW STP elevation
=82.5)
82.5-84.5m
>84.5m
82.5-78.5m
78.5-74.5m
74.5-70.5m

4
0
10
8
6

Least suitable
Not suitable
Most suitable
Suitable
Moderately suitable
3 Distance from
STP
Constrain and
Factor
0-1000m
1000-2000m
2000-3000m
3000-4000m
>4000m
10
8
6
4
2
Most Suitable
Moderately suitable
Suitable
Least Suitable
Least Suitable
4 Distance from
existing drinking
water pumping
station
Constrain and
Factor
0-1000 m
1000-2000m
2000-3000m
3000-4000m
>4000
0
4
6
8
10
Not suitable
Less Suitable
Moderately suitable
Most Suitable
Most Suitable
5 Ground Water
Table
Constrain and
Factor
0-2 m
2-5m
5-8m
8-12m
>12m
0
2
5
8
10
Not suitable
Least Suitable
Moderately Suitable
Suitable
Most Suitable
6 Type of Soil Factor Alluvial soil
Sandy soil
04
08
Not Suitable
suitable

Estimation of Area Required for Ground Water
Recharge using Treated Waste Water
For methodology development purpose, infiltration
rate and hydraulic loading rate as adopted by Bouwer
and Rice (1984) is used for Varanasi city also. The
range of infiltration rates (i.e. the rate water drains
into the ground when basin is flooded ) for the in and
off channel system is about 0.3 to 3 m/d including any
effect caused by clogging. Systems with year round
recharge and periodic drying and cleaning of the
bottom typically have hydraulic loading rates of 30 to
300 m/year. If the basin bottoms are not covered by
sediment or other clogging materials, and ground
water level are sufficiently low to not effect
infiltration, infiltration rates are about the same as
vertical hydraulic conductivity of the soil, which may
be about 0.3 m/d for sandy loam, 1 m/d for coarser
sand and 20-50 m/d for fine and clean gravel. Sand
and gravel mixtures gave lower hydraulic
conductivities than the sand alone ((Bouwer and Rice,
1984).

In Varanasi, the meander belt deposits consist of
medium to coarse grained sand and underlying
impervious back swamp clays are moderately to
highly permeable and constitute a potential ground
water reservoir. Under the circumstances, assuming
an annual hydraulic loading rate of 200 m/year (range
30-300 m/year) and following a 2 days wetting with 4
days drying schedule of waste water spreading and
recharge operation, the number of cycles per year is
approx. 61. This amounts to a hydraulic loading rate
of about 1.5 m/d in two days wetting period. Based
on this hydraulic loading rate, the infiltration basin
area required for spreading the treated waste waters
from STPs of Varanasi city is obtained as given in
Table 3.
Table 3: Land area required for ground water
recharge at different STP sites of Varanasi
S.
N.
Location of
STP
Design
Discharge
(MLD)
Approx.
Area
Required
(m2)
Approx.
size (ha)
1. Bhagvanpur 8 5333 0.5
2. DLW 12 8000 0.8
3. Dinapur 80 53330 5.3

Generation of suitability maps
Suitability maps have been generated using criteria
given in Table 2. A suitability map for GWR site on
the basis of different criteria set for the purpose is
shown in Fig. 2 for Bhagwanpur STP.

a
c d
b

Fig.2: Suitability map based on (a) Land use/Land cover area, (b) Altitude, (c) distance from STP, (d)
existing drinking water pumping station, (e) soil type, and (f) ground water table for Bhagwanpur STP
The criteria adopted for ground water recharge using
treated waste water has been assigned weightage
based on Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). In the
AHP, the first step is that a complex decision problem
is decomposed into simpler decision problems to form
a decision hierarchy. When developing a hierarchy,
the top level is the ultimate goal which in this case is
ground water recharge site selection. After the
decomposition stage, cardinal rankings for criteria are
determined which is done by pairwise comparisons.
Two alternatives and the importance relation between
them are considered at a time which provides easier
ranking. The comparison matrix developed for six
included criteria are shown in Table 4. The composite
weights are produced by means of a sequence of
multiplication. In the process, first, the decision
matrix is squared; the row sums are calculated and
then normalized. This procedure is continued till the
differences between normalized weights of the
iterations reach to a very small value. Finally the
weight has been calculated for different criteria.

Table 4: Weights and Comparison Matrix for AHP Calculation

L
a
n
d

u
s
e
\
L
a
n
d

c
o
v
e
r

A
l
t
i
t
u
d
e

a
r
e
a

D
i
s
t
.

F
r
o
m

S
T
P

P
u
m
p
i
n
g

s
t
a
t
i
o
n

T
y
p
e

o
f

s
o
i
l

G
r
o
u
n
d

w
a
t
e
r

t
a
b
l
e

W
e
i
g
h
t
s

(
w
i
)

Land use\Land cover
1 3 4 4 6 7 0.4391
Altitude area
1/3 1 2 2 4 5 0.2090
Dist. From STP
1/4 1/2 1 1 3 4 0.1289
Pumping station
1/4 1/2 1 1 3 4 0.1289
Type of soil
1/6 1/4 1/3 1/3 1 2 0.0559
Ground water table
1/7 1/5 1/4 1/4 1/2 1 0.0382
The consistency ratio is 0.02.
Before calculation of final results, the areas restricted
by rules and physical constraints are excluded from
the study area which are assigned 0 during the data
preparation stage. The exclusion of certainly
unsuitable areas is done by mask operation. The gray
areas in the mask are not suitable areas shown in Fig 3
(a). All data layers converted to raster are multiplied
by mask to become ready for ranking.
e f

Fig.3: (a) Mask map, (b) Final Site Suitability Map for GWR at Bhagvanpur STP.
Preparation of Final Maps
Following geoformula is used to generate the overall
score in terms of Attribute Value (A) in the GIS
environment.
) * ( * i ij A w x constrain

Where w
i
is the weight of i
th
criteria and x
ij
is the scale
value of j
th
class in i
th
criteria.
Table 5: Classification of Area based on Attribute
Value
Attribute Value (A) Recommendation
0 Not Suitable
2-4 Least Suitable
4-6 Moderately Suitable
6-8 Suitable
8-10 Most Suitable
A constrain value of 0 is assigned for not suitable
areas and 1 for remaining areas. The output map is
produced by using the map calculator. The output
values obtained are divided into five classes, one of
which are the masked areas with value of 0 and
defined as restricted areas for GWR. The other classes
in terms of increasing suitability are Least Suitable,
Moderately Suitable, Suitable and Most Suitable.
Normalized weight distribution of the factors is
shown according to their ranking. Classification of
area based on attribute value is done, as given in
Table 5.

Potential Sites for Ground Water Recharge
(GWR) using treated wastewaters around STPs
As per the final site suitability map (Fig. 3 b), lands
under various category for the GWR purpose near
Bhagwanpur STP are found as follows:
Most suitable: 0.8 ha (8700 m
2
)
Suitable: 150 ha (150,0000 m
2
)
Moderately suitable: 260 ha (260,0000 m
2
)
Most suitable area is situated on 2517'8.81"N,
8301'5.32"E, and suitable area on 2515'20.73"N,
8301'7.38"E. As the required area for the purpose
(0.5 ha) is available even in the most suitable category
of land, the ground water recharge possibilities using
the treated municipal waste waters may be explored
further at this site.

Suitable area obtain in DLW
As per the final site suitability map (Fig. 4 b), lands
under various categories for the GWR purpose near
DLW STP are found as follows:
Most suitable: 3.74 ha (37400 m
2
)
Suitable: 121 ha (121,0000 m
2
)
Moderately suitable: 945 ha (945,0000 m
2
)
Here most suitable area lies at 2518'0.61"N,
8258'4.36"E, near Lahartara and in Narwal. As the
area required for the purpose (0.8 ha) is much less
than the available area in most suitable category,
the GWR option using treated waste waters may be
explored further at this STP site also.
Suitability Maps for Dinapur
As per the final map, lands under various category for
the GWR purpose near Bhagwanpur STP are found as
follows:
Most suitable: Nil
Suitable: Nil
Moderately suitable: 138 ha or (138, 0000 m
2
)
An area of about 5. 3 ha have been estimated (Table
3) to be required for GWR from treated municipal
waste waters. There is no land available under most
suitable and suitable category primarily due to
high ground water table (within 3-5m bgl) in the
region. Area under moderately suitable category is
available near 2520'9.87"N, 8333'2.73''E in
Khalispur and Kotawa villages. Hence GWR facility
using treated waste waters from Dinapur STP may be
developed near this area subject to due precautions for
sensitive parameters. Other land requirements include
area for buffer zones, access roads, berms, and storage
(if necessary). Buffer zones can be used to screen sites
from public view. Access roads and ramps, typically 3
to 3.6 m wide, are needed so that maintenance
equipment for surface scratching can enter each basin.
a b

Fig-4 (a) Mask map (b) Final Site Suitability Map for GWR at DLW STP

Fig.5: (a) Mask map (b) Final Site Suitability Map for GWR at Dinapur STP
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Remote Sensing and GIS are important tools which
can efficiently be applied in sites selection for ground
water recharge. Land use/land cover, distance from
drinking water pumping station, distance from STP,
surface water body, altitude and type of soil are
considered important parameters which govern
ground water recharge site selection using treated
waste water. Among Multi Criteria Decision Analysis
(MCDA) methods, Analytical Hierarchy Process
(AHP) can conveniently be used for giving weightage
to different criteria for this purpose. In Varanasi,
assuming a hydraulic loading rate of 1.5 m/d, the
basic area required for infiltration basins to recharge
the ground water using treated waste waters from
Bhagwanpur, DLW and Dinapur STPs at designed
discharge is about 0.5, 0.8 and 5.3 ha respectively.
Whereas adequate land under most suitable
category appears available near Bhagwanpur and
DLW STPs, the lands available for the purpose near
a
b
a b

Dinapur STP fall under moderately suitable
category primarily due to high ground water table.
The approx. distances of sites under most suitable
category near Bhagwanpur and DLW STPs is 1.75
km. The sites under suitable category are around 0.7
km and 2.75 km away from Bhagwanpur and DLW
STPs respectively. The distance of moderately
suitable lands available for the purpose near Dinapur
STP is approx. 0.6 km. The relative merits of treated
waste waters to be conveyed to a distant most
suitable site with respect to developing an area under
suitable category nearer to the STPs need to be
examined. Actual field measurement of infiltration
rate near STP sites and applicable hydraulic load
estimation based on the quality of treated effluent may
be undertaken to plan the ground water recharge
systems for underground storage, treatment, disposal
and reuse purposes.

REFERENCES
Asanoa, T. and Cotruvob, J. A., (2004). Groundwater
recharge with reclaimed municipal wastewater:
health and regulatory considerations, Water
Research, 2004,
doi:10.1016/j.watres.2004.01.023
CGWB (2000). Guide on Artificial Recharge to
Ground Water, Ministry of Water Resources,
Government of India, New Delhi.
Ghayoumiana, J. and Mohseni S. M. (2007).
Application of GIS techniques to determine areas
most suitable for artificial groundwater recharge
in a coastal aquifer in southern Iran. Journal of
Asian Earth Sciences, 30, 364374.
GRBMP Report (2010). Plan for construction,
operation and maintenance Sewage Collection:
Treatment and Disposal Infrastructure Proposed
under GRBMP, Ministry of Environment and
Forest, Government of India.
Negi, P. and Jain, K. (2008). Spatial multicriteria
Analysis for Siting Groundwater Polluting
Industries. J Enviormental Informatics, 12(1),
54-63.
Rao P. J., Harikrishna, P., Srivastav, S. K.,
Satyanarayana, P. V. V., and Rao, B. V. D.
(2009). Selection of groundwater potential zones
in and around Madhurawada Dome,
Visakhapatnam District - A GIS approach. J. Ind.
Geophys. Union ., 13(4), 191-200.
Salma, R. B. (1994). The use of GIS in ground water
studied and modeling and dry land salinity risk
maps in proceedings of Resource technology.
New apportunities- Best practice, Univerrsity of
Melbourne, Australia.
Siddiqui, M. Z., Everett. And Vieux, B. E. (1996).
Landfill siting using geographic information
systems: a demonstration. Journal of
Environmental Engineering, 122-6, 515-523.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

ANALYSIS OF GAS DYNAMICS IN A FUNNEL DURING AIR
SUCTION
K.K. Pandey
Associate Professor, Deptt., of Civil Engg., IT-BHU, Varanasi, Email: kkp.civ@itbhu.ac.in
Aniruddh Vashisth
B. Tech Student, Deptt., of Civil Engg., IT-BHU, Varanasi

ABSTRACT: A study of gas dynamics is carried in a funnel pumped with air through a nozzle. The present
investigation predicts the suction flow rate from the atmosphere through the louvers of a funnel (used in naval
and merchant ships) when the high velocity exhaust comes out from a nozzle or a set of nozzles placed inside
the funnel. Conservation equations of mass and momentum have been solved for the funnel with a surrounding
computational domain so that the suction can take place at the louvers entry. The resulting equations have been
solved numerically using finite volume technique in an unstructured grid employing eddy viscosity based two
equation k- turbulence model.

INTRODUCTION
Flow of air in pipes is an example of compressible
fluid flow. Compressible fluid flow implies
appreciable variations in density throughout the flow
field (Zucker and Biblatz 2002), (Anderson 1990),
(Thompson 1972). Compressibility becomes an
important factor at high flow speeds or for large
temperature changes (Acker 1952), (Baham and
McCallum 1977). Large changes in velocity require
large pressure changes; for gas flow these pressure
changes are accomplished by significant variations in
both density and temperature. A familiar case of
application of vertical pipes where gas dynamics plays
a very important role is an exhaust pipe. A basic
attempt has been made to investigate the phenomenon
when air suction takes place inside a vertical pipe. The
analysis was further studied for vertical pipes having
louvers which allowed air to come into the pipe freely.
Normally the combustion products are very hot when
they reach the outlet of the nozzles protruding into the
funnel. The combustion products come out of the
nozzle at a very high speed and there are lots of
louvers around the periphery of the funnel through
which the atmospheric air from the surroundings
rushes into the funnel due to the jet action created by
the high speed jet coming out of the nozzle placed
inside the funnel (Isyumov and Tanaka, 1979) (Snyder
1981). The fresh air that enters the funnel thus mixes
with the hot gas and the mixture travels upward along
the axis of the funnel and gets discharged into the
atmosphere at the height of the. By the time the
mixture reaches the top of the funnel the temperature
of the gas drops considerably due to the mixing with
the cold air from the ambient (Jha et al. 2003). Making
the combustion product to attain a low temperature is
only possible (in a very practical way) by sucking
fresh air from the atmosphere through the louvers of
the funnel. No extra power through the use of a pump
is needed to do this. The jet action created by the high
speed jet coming out from the nozzle is utilized to
create low pressure zones in the funnel which will

cause atmospheric air to be sucked into the funnel
and mix with the hot gas thus making it to cool
down.
In real life the fluid is a hot gas. In case of
isothermal fluid the density is constant where as in
case of hot fluid the density is a function of
temperature which takes into account the buoyancy
effect. In case of buoyancy driven flow it is
expected that the mass ingress of air into the funnel
would be higher due to the extra buoyancy term
that is included in the momentum equation as the
body force. For constant nozzle mass flow rate the
velocity at the nozzle exit would be higher
(compared to a cold jet) due to low density of air
(because of high temperature) for which the mass
suction into the funnel is expected to be more.
An attempt is made to analyse the following cases:-
Analysis of Structural Stability.
Analysis of Air Suction through a funnel and its
various effects:-
a. Effect of number of cells on air suction rate
b. Effect of louvers opening area on suction
rate
c. Effect of height of the funnel on air suction
rate
d. Effect of funnel diameter on air suction rate
e. Effect of wind velocity on suction rate
METHODOLOGY
The funnel is analyzed for structural stability and
for the various effects by air suction in a funnel.
Structure Stability
The process of analyzing a structure according to
the given algorithm
A brief methodology of the analysis could be
stipulated as follows:-
a) Specifying Geometry - First the geometry of
the structure to be analyzed is defined.


Model
Definition

Solution
Phase

Fig.1. Flow diagram of the analysis procedure
followed by ANSYS (ANSYS Users Manual)
b) Specify Element Type and Material Properties -
Next, the material properties are defined. In an
elastic analysis of an isotropic solid these consist
of the Young's modulus and the Poisson's ratio
of the material.
c) Mesh the Object - Then, the structure is broken
(or meshed) into small elements. This involves
defining the types of elements into which the
structure will be broken, as well as specifying
how the structure will be subdivided into
elements.
d) Apply Boundary Conditions and External
Loads - Next, the boundary conditions (e.g.
location of supports, wind mass per second etc.)
and the external loads are specified.
e) Generate a Solution - Then the solution is
generated based on the previously input
parameters by the general equations by
formulating Element Matrices and
Triangularized Global Matrices are solved by
back substitution.
f) Refine the Mesh - Finite element methods are
approximate methods and, in general, the
accuracy of the approximation increases with the
number of elements used.

Air suction through funnel
The computational investigation is out for a
cylindrical funnel, of diameter, D
f
and height, H
f
as
shown in the given figure. The funnel is closed at the
bottom and opened at the top to the surrounding
atmosphere. At the bottom of the funnel a nozzle of
diameter, D
n
having a protrusion length of L
p
(into the
funnel) is placed at the centre to supply high
velocity air jet. Another cylindrical computational
domain of diameter, D
cd
and height, H
cd
(same as
funnel height) is placed around the funnel so that
boundary condition can be applied on the boundary
of the computational domain for suction to take
place near the louvers cut on the funnel. A number
of rectangular louvers (simply the opening), of
height, L
h
and width, L
w
has been cut around the
periphery of the funnel. The vertical distance
between the two consecutive rows of louvers, L
r

has been maintained to be 0.5 m from the view
point of structural rigidity of the funnel. The flow
field in the domain has been computed by using
three-dimensional, incompressible NavierStokes
equations with a two equation k-e turbulence
model. The Re
n
(Reynolds number based on the
nozzle diameter) vary from 5.3 10
6
to 8.8 10
6
.
For such a high Re flow it is believed that the two
equation k- turbulence model (high Re k-
model with wall functions) would produce the right
kind of result.
Fig. 2 Specifications of the funnel under
examination

MATHEMATICAL FORMULATIONS
Governing equations
The governing equations for the above analysis can
be written as
Continuity
. ( v )=0
Momentum
.(vv)= - p + .() + g
Where p is the static pressure, is the stress
tensor, is the fluid density and g is the
gravitational body force. It is to be noted here that
the pressure, p is a modified pressure because the
isotropic turbulence model used for the simulation
will scramble the pressure to be (p+2k/3) which is
computed iteratively from the momentum and
(Model Generation)
Define: 1) Elements
2) Material
3) Boundary
Frontal Solution
1) Formulate Element Matrix
2) Triangularize Global Matrix
3) Back Substitute
Results Calculated
1) Displacement
2) Stress/Strain
3) Moments/Forces


continuity balance though a standard pressure
correction scheme.
The stress tensor is given by

=
eff
( v + v
T
),

Effective viscosity

eff
= ( +
t
)

Turbulence kinetic energy k

.(vk)= (
t
/
k
) k +G
k
-

Rate of dissipation of k

.(v) = .(
t
/
) +(/k)(C
1
G
k
-
C
2
)
The turbulent viscosity
t
is computed from

t
= C
(k
2
/)

The term G
k
representing the production of turbulent
kinetic energy is computed from

G
k
=
t
( v + ( v)
T
): v

k
and
are the Prandtl numbers for k and

Fig.3 Boundary condition for computational domain

Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions can be seen from Fig 3 The
funnel wall, nozzle wall and bottom wall are solid and
have been given a no-slip and no-penetration
boundary condition. Pressure outlet boundary
conditions have been imposed at the outer periphery
of the computational domain and at the top surface of
the computational domain, while velocity inlet
boundary condition has been employed at the nozzle
outlet which ejects high velocity air jet into the funnel.
The boundary conditions can be summarized as
At the solid walls
v
x
= v
y
= v
z
= 0 (common for both analysis)
At the outer periphery and at the top surface of the
computational domain
p = p
a
(atmospheric pressure assumed to be
zero);(pressure outlet boundary) (common for both
analysis)
At the nozzle outlet
v
x
= 0; v
y
= 0; v
z
= v
inlet
(common for both
analysis)

The turbulent quantities, k and , on the first near
wall cell have been set from the equilibrium log-
law wall function (Jha and Dash 2002) ,( Jha and
Dash 2004), (Jha et al.2003). At the first near wall
cell, the values of k
p
and
p
are set from the log-
law wall function according to:
pu
p
k
p
1/2
c
1/4
1
---------------- = --- ln(Ez
+
)

w
k
Where
w
is the wall shear stress

Z
p
k
p
1/2
c
1/4

Z
+
= ---------------
v
Where E= 8.6 and k= 0.41

c
3/4
k
p
3/2

p = ---------------
kz
p
Numerical Solution Process
Three-dimensional equations of mass, momentum
and turbulence have been integrated over the
control volume and the subsequent equations have
been discretized over the control volume using the
finite volume technique to yield a set of algebraic
equations which could be solved by an algebraic
multi grid solver of Fluent by imposing proper
boundary conditions as specified above. Second
order upwind scheme was considered for
momentum as well as for the turbulence discretized
equations in order to get better accuracy. The k-
model has been used as a closure model for
turbulent flow. Fine grids were used at the nozzle
entrance as well as at the louvers opening area to
have better accuracy.


Results for Analysis for Structural stability
Analysis by ANSYS reports that as the height of
the tower increases, the deflection due the resultant
of the force generated by internal air suction and
the external wind pressures, has more prominent
impact on the structural stability of the funnel.
ANSYS divided the circumference in to 120
divisions of an angle of 3
o
(ANSYS Users
Manual). The displacement of the structure
increases gradually in the beginning but starts to
climb very quickly after a certain point (Girault and
Raviart, 1979),( Reddy, 1990). It is at this point
that the impact of the air turbulence inside the
funnel along with external wind speed begins to
overpower the structural stability. ANSYS
optimisation also suggests that a certain ration of
the height and the funnel diameter could be


maintained (for a given building material property),
for producing a stable structure.
Table 1
Parameters Value
Height of the vertical
pipe
20 m
Wind Speeds at height of
20m
50 m/s
Structure material
properties
M65 concrete
Thickness of walls 2 m

Results for the Air suction in a funnel due to high
velocity air-fluid jet.

Effect of number of cells on air suction rate
In order to start numerical investigation a cylindrical
computational domain of diameter (D
cd
) and height
(H
cd
) has been considered around the funnel. The
circumference of the funnel has been cut with 12
numbers of louvers per row of size (0.6 0.8) m
2
and
the total louvers opening area was 5.76 m
2
per row.
Such type of flow normally occurs from the Gas
turbine of a powerful ship at peak load. The analysis is
initiated with a grid independence test for the louvers
opening area (A
L
) of 5.76 m
2
while other parameters
were kept constant (Mishra and Dash, 2010).
Table 2
Parameters Value/Range
Diameter (D
f
) 4 m
Height of the funnel (H
f
) 9 m
Nozzle diameter (D
n
) 1.32 m
Protruding length (L
p
) of
nozzle
0.7 m
The height of the louvers 0.8 m
Curve length of the width 0.6 m
Vertical distance between
the adjacent rows (L
r
)
0.5 m
An air flow rate 137.76 kg/s

Fig. 4. Variation of air suction rate with number of
cells.
The air suction rate is enhanced with increase in
louvers opening area. The Computational Flow
Dynamics analysis suggests the louvers should be
located at the bottom half of the funnel and nearer
to the nozzle.

Effect of louvers opening area on suction rate
The effect of increase in louvers opening area on
the air suction rate from the surrounding
atmosphere has been shown in Fig. 5. In the present
study, simulations are carried out for louvers
opening area of 5.76 m
2
(A
L
/A
F
= 0.051), 11.52 m
2

(A
L
/A
F
= 0.1018), 17.28 m
2
(A
L
/A
F
= 0.1527),
23.04 m
2
(A
L
/A
F
= 0.2037) and 28.8 m
2
(A
L
/A
F
=
0.2546) with nozzle flow rate of 162 kg/s, 121.5
kg/s and 97.24 kg/s. The opening area is increased
by adding additional louver rows placed
symmetrically around the periphery. It is clear from
the graph that the air suction rate increases with
increase in louvers opening area. It is also evident
from Fig.9 that, when opening area of the louvers
are increased more than 23.04 m
2
the air suction
rate does not vary appreciably. This can be
explained from the fact that when the louvers are
located towards the top end of the funnel, it does
not create enough low pressure in the funnel so that
atmospheric air can be sucked in.
Table 3
Parameters Value/Range
nozzle diameter 1.32 m
protruding length of
nozzle
0.7 m
funnel diameter 4 m
funnel height 9 m
computational domain 24 m

Fig.5 Variation of air suction rate with louvers
opening area.
The air suction rate is more effective when the
louvers are located at the bottom half of the funnel
and it should be located near to the nozzle.
The air suction rate is independent of number of
louvers per row but strongly depends on louvers
opening area.


Effect of height of the funnel on air suction rate Fig.
6 shows the change of air suction rate with the height
of the funnel for three different cases of nozzle flow
rates of 97.2 kg/s, 121.5 kg/s and 162 kg/s. The height
of the domain has been changed in line with the funnel
height.

Fig. 6. Variation of air suction rate with height of the
funnel.

All the three curves of mass suction have been
reduced to a single curve by normalizing the mass
suction with the inlet nozzle flow rate.
The CFD analysis shows that increasing the height of
the funnel, the air suction rate is increased. But
increase in height of the funnel is limited due to
design of other parameters as well as from economical
point of view. But it is suggested that the maximum
possible funnel height should be used.

Effect of funnel diameter on air suction rate
For a particular nozzle flow rate and louvers opening
area, it is predicted through the CFD analysis that, the
diameter of the funnel should be three times the
diameter of the nozzle to get maximum suction effect.

Fig. 7 Variation of air suction rate with funnel
diameter
Fig. 7 shows the variation of air suction rate with the
diameter of the funnel. The nozzle diameter, louvers
opening area, protruding length of nozzle and height
of the funnel can be read from Fig.7. The present
simulation is carried out with three nozzle flow rates.
The suction rate has been normalized with inlet nozzle
flow rate and the funnel diameter is normalized with
nozzle diameter. It can be seen from the plot that
(Fig.7) the air suction rate initially increases with
the diameter of funnel and then decreases after
attaining a peak, suggesting the existence of an
optimum funnel diameter. If the funnel diameter
increases then the low pressure created at the
centreline due to the high velocity jet is not felt
well at the periphery where the louvers are located,
so the mass ingress into the funnel falls after a
certain diameter. The centre line pressure drop is
insignificant when the funnel diameter is 7 m, so
there is less mass ingress into the funnel for this
case. But for funnel diameter of 4 m and 5 m the
centre line pressure drop becomes significant and
the mass ingress into the funnel rises (Isyumov and
Tanaka, 1979), (Jifei et al. 2005).

Effect of wind velocity on suction rate
Fig 8 shows the effect of ambient wind velocity on
mass suction rate (other operating parameters can
be seen from the plot). It can be seen from the plot
the mass ingress into the funnel decreases as the
ambient air velocity increases. Ambient wind
creates a low pressure field around the funnel. Due
to this low pressure field, the difference in pressure
across the funnel (inside and outside the funnel)
decreases causing less suction of air into the funnel.
So it can be concluded the entrainment of air into
the funnel decreases with increase in ambient wind
velocity.

Fig. 8 Effect of ambient wind velocity on air
suction rate.

CONCLUSIONS
The procedure examined is a complete numerical
investigation of parametric study of air suction rate
through the louvers of a cylindrical funnel. The
conservation of mass and momentum equations
have been solved numerically with k- turbulence
model using unstructured grid to predict the air
suction rate. Throughout the entire analysis the
funnel has been considered to be cylindrical in
shape.
It has been found from the computation
i) Air suction rate into the funnel increases with
the increase in louvers opening area,
ii) Air suction rate into the funnel increases with
the increase nozzle flow rate


iii) Air suction rate into the funnel increases with the
increase height of the funnel.
iv) There also exists optimum louver opening area
on the funnel where the suction rate becomes the
maximum as a function of the funnel diameter.

NOTATION
L
r
- vertical distance between rows
m
inlet
mass flow rate through the nozzle
m
suction
- air suction rate through the nozzle

Greek
-density
- laminar viscosity
t
-turbulent viscosity
eff
- effective viscosity
- stress tensor
- rate of dissipation of k
k
- turbulent Prandtle number for k
- turbulent Prandtle number for

Subscripts
r- radial direction
- azimuthal direction
Z axial direction
L
w
- width of louver

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ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


EVOLUTION OF SOME RESISTANCE LAW FOR NON-UNIFORM
ACCELERATED FLOW OVER CLOSELY PACKED ROUGH BED

Kesheo Prasad
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IT-BHU, Varanasi, email: kesheo_bhu@yahoo.com
C.S.P. Ojha
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, email: cspojha@rediffmail.com
K. M. Singh
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee

ABSTRACT: In the present study, experiments were conducted on a closely packed array of hemispheres fixed on
the bed of a channel. Three-dimensional velocities were measured using Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter (ADV).
Effect of the turbulence on discharge measurement is also attempted using resistance laws of Colebrook, Bathurst,
Swamee and Manning. It is seen that in case of fully rough turbulent flow (k
s
+
>70), Swamees resistance law
estimates discharge more precisely. Further, a modified form of Griffiths equation is also proposed.

INTRODUCTION
Traditional hydrodynamic models assume that flows in
natural hilly regions are uniform and unidirectional
(Papanicolaou, 2002) as in mountain streams. Further, it
is assumed that the water flows through the gravel layer
in turbulent flow conditions, because mountain-river
has a bed with steep slope and relatively large gravels.
The factors which affect the velocity profile along the
depth of water are cross section, aspect ratio and
roughness type. Swamee et al. (2002) have described
the design procedure for the optimal cross section. The
discharge from any cross-section can be estimated
using law of conservation of mass

Q av = (1)
where a is cross section area, and v is the average flow
velocity in the direction of flow. The right hand side of
Eq. (1) mainly depends on the accuracy of the estimated
value of v. The average flow velocity v is itself a
function of various hydraulic parameters. The flow over
the gravel layer follows the law of flow resistance with
the roughness of bed material. The Mannings equation
2 / 3 1/ 2
1
v R S
n
= (2)
is most commonly used for uniform flow due to its
simplicity and acceptable degree of accuracy in most
discharge measuring techniques. Ganguillet and
Kutters, and Bazins formulas have largely gone out of
use (Swamee et al. 2002). Equation (2) depends on
physical parameters, R and S, of the channel along with
a suitable value of roughness coefficient, n. Manning
has classified the different types of roughness as shown
in Table 2 (Rangaraju 1993).

Flow in hilly region rivers remains fully in turbulent
condition. Very often in such cases, the transport rate of
a scalar contaminant is also fixed by transport

mechanism occurring at the wall. Turbulent flow
produced by rough bed surface is complex in nature.
Hence, it has remained area of interest of the engineers
since long time. It has been studied for non-uniform
flow conditions with gradually accelerating flows on
rough surface by Cardoso et al. (1991), Kironoto and
Graf (1995). Keulegan (1938) suggested that the
logarithmic law can be used for estimation of rough
open channel flow velocity. In general, a relation
between the dimensionless velocities and the physical
parameters can be represented by the power law:
for large / R k
values
( )
1/ 7
10.2 /
u
y k
u
-
= (3)
where, R
is the diameter of pipe. Equation (3) is

simple, but range of / R k
was not defined. Hence for

central vertical velocity distribution, a parabolic law
was introduced as
( )
2
6.3 1
m
u u y
+ +
= (4)
where u
-
is shear velocity and
/
m m
u u u
+
-
= and
*
/ u u u
+
= (5)
ks k
yo
F
l
o
w

d
e
p
t
h
,

h
o
Water surface
Virtual bed level
Y
Um
X
y
u

Fig. 1: Definition sketch, virtual bed level, rough
surface height and equivalent height.


In Fig. 1, U
m
and defines the maximum velocity and
the boundary layer thickness, respectively, u is the local
velocity at a distance y, k is the height of roughness
element, k
s
is the equivalent roughens height and y
0
is
the distance of virtual bed level from bed of the channel.

Vanoni (1941) also observed identical vertical velocity
curves of the central region of a channel. In addition to
this, he also stated that there always exists a central
region, in which the logarithmic law extends up to the
free surface, when w/h is less than 5. Colebrook (1939)
proposed an empirical relationship between hydraulic
parameters and depth of flow as
10
14.8
31.6 log
s
y
v gRS
k
| |
=
|
\ .
(6)
Coles (1956) introduced a purely empirical expression
to predict velocities in the fully turbulent flow (
s
k
+
>
70) for inner region as well as for outer region
*
*
1
ln
u y u y
A w
u k
H | |
= + +
|
K \ .
(7)
where H= 0.55, K = 0.4, A = 5.1, and ( / ) w y is law of
the wake given by ( )
2
2sin / 2 y for zero pressure
gradient. Clauser (1956) correlated
*
( ) /
m
u u u with
y/, and concluded that the turbulent velocity will
collapse to a single curve. Vittal (1972) and Swamee
(1994) stated that a single logarithmic law is not
applicable over the entire depth of flow. Griffiths (1980)
proposed an empirical resistance equation as
10
9.68
31.36 log
s
R
v
k
| |
=
|
\ .
(8)
Bathurst (1985) stated a resistance equation for channel
with boulders on bed having the ratio of depth of flow
to d
84
<5
10
15.44
31.6 log
s
y
v gRS
k
| |
=
|
\ .
(9)
Kirkgoz (1989) determined mean velocity using
2
*
1
ln 2cos
2
m
u u y y
u

H | |
= +
|
K K \ .
(10)
in fully developed turbulent flow in open channels
using LDV and determined v from these data by
shifting the virtual bed level at a distance y
o
from the
bed. In addition to this, he also explained that the
velocity in the outer region is mainly controlled by the
turbulent shear and velocity distribution. He estimated
*
u using
*
u ghS = (11)
for steady uniform flow in a wide channel. Equation (10)
is described by velocity defect law and Coles parameter
was estimated as H =0.2 for rough surface. He stated
that velocity defect law is valid for y/o>0.03. Swamee
(1993) proposed an explicit equation for velocity
profile for smooth as well as rough surface which
covers entire inner region as
( )
0.3
10/ 3
10/ 3
1
9
k ln 1
1 0.3
y
u y
+
+ +
+

( (
= + +
` ( (
+

)
(12)
where
m
u
+
= , in which is the average roughness
height of the surface. Further, Swamee et al. (1994)
developed an average velocity equation for the uniform
flow over a rigid boundary known as resistance
equation given by
0
0
0.221
2.547 ln
12
v gRS
R R gRS

| |
= + |
|
\ .
(13)
where g is gravitational acceleration and S
o
is channel
bed slope. Note that the Manning equation (2) is
applicable to fully rough turbulent flow for the limited
bandwidth of relative roughness (Swamee et al. 1994)
given by
( )
0.4
30
o
gS Q
> (14)
0.004 0.04
R
s s (15)
On the other hand, Eq. (13) which involves physically
conceivable parameters and v, is applicable for
hydraulically rough or smooth or transitional flows.
Also, Eq. (13) holds good for open channel sections in
the ranges of
3 8
10 10
VR
v
s s (Hager, 1989). Afzalimehr
and Anctil (2000) suggested that due to uncertainty in
the measurement of the distance from the bed y and in
the estimation of the shear velocity,
*
u , the law of the
wall can be rewritten as
50
*
1
ln
c
s
y A d u
A
u k
| | +
= +
|
K
\ .
(16)
where K is the von Karman constant(=0.4),
50 c
A d is
reference level,
c
A is the value producing best
correlation coefficient for the regression, A is constant
of integration, k
s
= d
50
is Nikuradse grain roughness. In
addition to this, they also observed that maximum
velocity occurs at y/h =0.6. Sarma et al. (2000) stated
that the velocity distribution in the inner and outer
region of a boundary layer can be described by the log
law and the parabolic law, respectively.

Equations (3), (4), (5), (6), (10) and (16) clearly show
that
*
u fundamentally affects the velocity profile.
Hence, precise estimation of the shear velocity is
required (Nezu and Nakagawa, 1993). The estimation


of shear velocity has been proposed by several
researchers. Chow (1959) proposed the friction slope
application for uniform flow, and shear velocity
*
u gRS = (17)
where S is the bed slope. Use of conservation of
momentum equation leads to the following expression
for energy slope
( )
2
0
1
e r
dy
S S F
dx
= (18)
Equation (17) may be rearranged for non-uniform flow
as
* e
u gRS = (19)
Further, Clauser (1956) described another method to
estimate the shear velocity from the parameters of the
regression of the mean point velocity u and ln[(y+y
o
)/k
s
]
as
*
1
ln
s
u y yo
B
u k
| | +
= +
|
K
\ .
(20)
ln( )
y yo
u B
ks
+
= + (21)
This leads to
*
u k = (22)
and confirms the validity of the law of the wall for the
inner region of the flow, where the regression is fitted
only to the lower fifth of the velocity profile.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The experiments were carried out in a 10.5m long,
0.46m wide, and 0.60m deep using a horizontal
rectangular laboratory flume at the Department of Civil
Engineering, IIT Roorkee. Two sides of channel were
made up of glass and the bottom of the channel was of
steel base with 5mm fiber on top of it. The flow in the
flume was supplied through a pipe of 202 mm outer
diameter through the pump. The water depth in the
flume was regulated using a tailgate at the end of
channel. To create rough turbulent flow, hemispheres of
cement mortar in 2.3cm height were prepared and fixed
on bed of channel in 1.5m length in a reach of 1.5m at
4.5m from the upstream end of the flume.

Fig. 2: Arrangement of hemispheres on channel bed

At entrance, honey comb wall of small bricks was
constructed to reduce the large scale disturbances in the
approaching flow. A floating wooden baffle of 1m was
used to minimize the disturbances at the free surface. A
movable carriage with pointer gauges (the pointer
gauge arrangement had a least count of 1mm) was
mounted on a pipe rail at the top of the channel to
measure levels of water. The slope of the channel was
measured using two containers, connected at their
bottom by a long plastic tube, placed on the channel
bottom one each at two predetermined locations along
the length of the channel. Care was taken to eliminate
air bubbles in the plastic tube. Nearly 18 hours time
was allowed for equalization of the water level in both
the containers and then water levels in both the
containers was noted by means of the pointer gauges
mounted on the rails. The difference in the gauge
reading represents the vertical drop in the channel. The
incoming discharge was measured continuously using a
Portable Transit Time Flow meter and the strength of
sound was checked and found more than 30DB during
the experiment.

In this experiment, six velocity profiles were measured
for one discharge. Three dimensional velocities at a
point were measured using downlooking intrusive
instrument Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter with
sampling rate 10 Hz for a length of time series 150s.
Thus, a total of 1500 samples were collected at six
locations (three sections at mid channel and three at
10.5cm away from the side wall) at 4.815m, 5.275m
and 5.505m from inlet in the longitudinal direction as
shown in Fig. 3. The temperature and salinity of water
during the experiment was measured and found to be 20
degree centigrade and 20 ppt respectively.

Fig. 3: Schematic diagram of vertical sections on rough
bed.

Speed of sound at 20 degree centigrade was recorded.
The velocity range of flow was kept fixed at 100 cm/s
since the variation of actual local velocity was between
70cm/s to 95cm/s.

Due to technical restriction of ADV, 3-D velocities data
using downlooking ADV were restricted beyond 7cm


below from the top of water surface. It was found that
water formed a vortex around the rod of ADV at water
surface which created an air cavity around the rod of
ADV. The transducer of ADV in 7cm from water
surface produced erroneous data. Hence, to collect error
free data the down looking probe was kept 3cm below
water surface and 7cm deep section water surface was
measured using upward looking ADV probe. Table 1
shows the hydraulic parameters at 5.275 m from inlet of
channel.
Table 1: Summery of Flow Parameters and Cross
Section Geometry
Q (m
3
/s) R
e
(x10
5
) F
r
Bed Slope w/h Ratio
0.05 1.067 0.62 0.000717 2.71

Table 2: Mannings coefficient for different types of
roughness
Surface Recommended value
Glass, plastic Brass 0.010
Timber 0.011-0.014
Cement plaster 0.011
Cast iron 0.013
Concrete 0.012-0.017
Drainage Tiles 0.013
Rubble Masonry 0.017-0.025
Rock cuts 0.035-0.040

The velocity distribution data over the rough bed of
closely packed hemispheres were collected and
analyzed in the present study. The velocity distribution
in a two dimensional uniform open channel flow
usually follows Eq. (20) in the inner region. Hence, the
velocity profiles in two regions: (i) Inner region and (ii)
Outer region are examined using estimated value of k
s

from Eq. (18) as shown in Fig. 6. Along with the
virtual bed level shifting y
o
, the dependency of
*
u on
is also studied for all set of observed data and it is
found that in most of the cases 0.625 = gives the
satisfactory results with correlation coefficient of 99%
as shown in Fig. 4. From a linear relation as shown in
Fig. 4, k
s
is determined.

y = 0.2068Ln(x) + 1.4226
R
2
= 0.9897
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.01 0.1 1
(y+yo) (m)
u

(
m
/
s
)

Fig. 4: Variation of u with y+yo for run 50H M1
In addition to this, the dependency of k
s
on y
o
is also
examined it is found that k
s
follows a power law as
shown in Fig. 5. Further, variation of y
o
with o and k
s

with best R
2
is shown also in Table 3.

50H M1
y = 153.32x2 - 6.1756x + 0.0619
-0.01
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.0000 0.0050 0.0100 0.0150 0.0200 0.0250
yo
k
s

Fig. 5: Value of k
s
versus y
o
for rum, 50H M1

Table 3 shows the variation of k
s
with y
o
affected by
parameter along with correlation coefficient and the
most correlated value y
o
=0.0144 and k
s
(Table 3 column
4) is adopted.

Table 3: Estimation of
*
u , y
o
and k
s

y
o
o k
s
R
2

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
0.0000 0.000 0.0623 0.9862
0.0029 0.125 0.0450 0.9881
0.0058 0.250 0.0310 0.9895
0.0086 0.375 0.0194 0.9916
0.0115 0.500 0.0109 0.9931
0.0144 0.625 0.0057 0.9937
0.0173 0.750 0.0019 0.9916
0.0201 0.875 0.0004 0.9791
0.0230 1.000 0.0000 0.8188

The estimated
*
u from slope of best fit along with
*
u
obtained using Eq. (11) is shown in the Table 4 with the
estimated k
s
. To examine the velocity profile the shear
velocity obtained from Eq. (11) is considered in the
present study

Table 4: Estimated
*
u from slope of best fit and Eq. (11)
Run
*
u ghS =
(m/s)
*
u using slope of
best fit (m/s)
k
s
(m)
50H M1 0.034508 0.058 0.0057
50H M4 0.034508 0.047 0.0027
50H M6 0.034508 0.043 0.0011
50H SR1 0.034508 0.072 0.0140
50H SR4 0.034508 0.042 0.0011
50H SR6 0.034508 0.066 0.0017


Fig. 6 shows relation between u
+
versus y
+
for the test
run 50H M1 and 50H SR1 to check the validity of the
log law.
While, Fig. 7(a & b) shows y/h versus /
m
u u for run
50H M1, 500VPs and 600Vps data.

50H M1
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
100 1000 10000
y+
u
+

(a)
50H SR
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
100 1000 10000
u+
y
+

(b)
Fig. 6: Validation of the logarithmic; (a) Run 50H M1
and (b) Run 50H SR1.

A wall region in central line region depicts that inner
layer lies below y/h<0.28. However, near the side wall,
maximum velocity is available at 0.42y from water
surface; the reason of this dip may be the secondary
wave movement.

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
u/u
m
y
/
h
500 VPs
600 VPs
50H M1

Fig 7: velocity profile for 50H M1 along with the data
[500VPs and 600 VPS] of Afzalimehr et al. (2010).

From Fig. 8 (a,b,c) at central line of channel and from
Fig. 8(d,e,f) at 10.5cm away from the side wall of
channel, it is clear that under the turbulent conditions,
Mannings equation (2) either over- or under-predicts
the discharge, while Bathrust and Colebrook equation
underestimates the discharge. The Swamees equation
(12) performs well, even though it is deviates in the
outer region due to dip formation.

50H M1
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
u (m/s)
y

(
m
)
OB data
Swamee
Bathurst
colebrook
Manning's

(a)
50HM4
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
u (m/s)
y
(
m
)
OB data
Swamee
Bathurst
coolbrook
Mannings

(b)
50H M6
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0 1 2 3 4 5
u (m/s)
y
(
m
)
OB data
Swamee
Bathurst
Colebrook
Mannings

(c)
50HSR1
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
u (m/s)
y
(
m
)
OB data
Swamee
Bathurst
Colebrook
Mannings

(d)
50H SR4
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
u (m/s)
y
(
m
)
OB data
Swamee
Bathurst
Colebrook
Mannings

(e)


50H SR6
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
u (m/s)
y

(
m
)
OB data
Swamee
Bathurst
Colebrook
Mannings

(f)
Fig. 8: Velocity profile at; (a,b,c) central line, and (d,e,f)
10.5cm from right side wall.

50H M1
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
u (m/s)
y

(
m
)
OB data
Swamee93
Bathurst
colebrook
Manning's
swmee94
ModGriffths

Fig. 9: Velocities at run 50H M1 by various researchers.

The above discussed resistance equations are examined
for nonuniform open channel flow and the results are
shown in the Table 5.

Table 5: Estimated discharge using resistance
Equations
Run
Discharge (m
3
/s)
Actual
Eq.
(13)
Eq.
(9)
Eq.
(6)
Eq. (2) Eq. (23)
50H
M1
0.050 0.044 0.026 0.026 0.067 0.079
50H
M4
0.050 0.042 0.026 0.026 0.127 0.082
50H
M6
0.050 0.045 0.028 0.028 0.287 0.090

Fig. 8 (a,b,c,d,e,f) depicts that the behavior of the
Mannings equation, Eq. 2 mainly depends on the
estimated value of the k
s
and Swamees equation, Eq. 13
may give measured discharge under turbulent flow
condition.

An attempt is also made to use the Griffith equation
with the modification in constant value on the basis of
arithmetic average value. The velocity profile suggested
for determining the velocity profile in turbulent flow
conditions is proposed as
10
9.68
0.26 log
s
R
v
k
| |
=
|
\ .
(23)
The velocity profile 50H M1 is also plotted (Fig. 9) to
understand the variation of velocities by various
researchers. The measured discharge using modified
Griffiths equation (23) is shown in Table 5 column 7,
which gives the results in the acceptable limit.

CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn from this study
1. Swamees equation provides good results as
compared to other available resistance equations.
2. Bathurst and Colebrook equation provides under
estimated discharge in most of the cases.
3. Accurate estimation of
*
u , y
o
and k
s
is needed to
use these parameters in velocity measurements.
4. Even modified Griffiths equation (23) does not
provide as precise estimate of discharge as
Swamees equation. But in absence of proper
*
u , it
provides comparatively good results.

NOMENCLATURE
U = Average mean velocity
y = Depth of flow in vertical direction
v = kinematic viscosity
K = von Karman constant=0.4
R
= Radius of pipe
u
-
= Shear velocity
u
m
= Maximum velocity of flow
= Distance at maximum velocity from bed
= Average roughness height
N = Number of observation
R= Hydraulic mean depth
S
0
= Bed slope of channel
y
o
= Virtual depth from bottom of channel
h= Depth of flow in cannel
u= local mean velocity
d
50
=Mean size of particle
d
84
= 84% finer
k
s
= Equivalent roughness height
S = energy slope line
F
r
= Froude number
R
e
= Reynolds number
o = Constant

REFERENCES
Afzalimher H. and Anctil, F. (2000). Accelerating
shear velocity in gravel-bed channels.
Hydrological Sciences, J. -des Sciences
Hydrologiques, 45(1), 113-124.
Afzalimher H., Najfabadi, EF, Singh, VP, (2010),
Effect of Vegetation on Banks on Distributions of
Velocity and Reynolds Stress under Accelerating
Flow, J. Hydrologic Engineering, 15(9), 708-713.


Afzalimehr, H., and Dey, S. (2009). Influence of bank
vegetation and gravel bed on velocity and
Reynolds stress distributions. Int. J. Sediment Res.,
24(2), 236246.
Bathurst J.C. (1985) Flow Resistance Estimation in
Mountain Rivers, J. Hydraulic Engineering,
111(4), 625-643
Cardoso, AH., Graf, WH., and Gust, G. (1991). Steady
gradually accelerating flow in a smooth open
channel. J. Hydraul. Res., 29(4), 525543.
Chow V.T (1959). Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-
Hill College.
Clauser, FH. (1956) The turbulent boundary layers.
Adv. Appl. Mech. 4, 1-15.
Colebrook, CF (1993), Turbulent flow in pipes, with
particular reference to the transmition region
between the smooth and rough pipes laws, J. Instn
Civ Engrs, 11, 133.
Coles D. (1956). The law of the wake in the turbulent
boundary layer. J. Fluid Mechanics, 1, 191 - 226.
Hager, W. H. (1989). Discussion of Noncircular sewer
design. J. Environ. Eng., 115(1), 274276.
Hey, R. D. (1979). "Flow resistance in gravel-bed
rivers." J. Hvdraulic Division, ASCE, 105(4), 365-
379.
Griffiths G.A. (1981) Flow Resistance in coarse gravel
bed rivers Proceedings ASCE, Journal of
Hydraulic Division, 107(7), 899-918
Keulegan C.H. (1938). Laws of turbulent flow in open
channels. J. Research National Bureau of
Standards, 21, 707-740.
Kirkgz, M.S. (1989). Turbulent Velocity Profiles for
Smooth and Rough open Channel Flow. J.
Kironoto, B., and Graf, W. H. (1995). Turbulence
characteristics in rough nonuniform open-channel
flow. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., Waters. Maritime
Energ., 112, 316348.
Nezu, I., and Nakagawa, H. (1993). Turbulence in
open-channel flows. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam,
The Netherlands.
Ranga Raju K.G. (1993) Flow through open channels,
Tata McGraw-Hill.
Papanicollaou, A.N. and Hilldale, R. (2002).
Turbulence Characteristics in Gradual Channel
Transition. J. Engineering Mechanics, 128(9),
948-960.
Sarma V. N. Kandula, Pasad B.V.R. and Sarma A K
(2000). Detailed Study of Binary Law for Open
Channel. J. Hydraulic Engineering, 126(3), 210-
214.
Swamee, P.K., (1993). Generalized inner region
velocity distribution equation. J. Hydraulic
Swamee, P.K., ISH, M. and Pathak S. K. (1994).
Velocity Distribution Equations for Laminar and
Turbulent Boundary Layers. The Indian Society
for Hydraulics J. Hydraulic Engineering, 8(1) 50-
59.
Swamee, PK, Mishra, GC, Chahar, BR, (2002),
Optimal Design of Transmission Canal, J.
Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 128 (4),
234-243.
Vanoni, V. A. (1941). Velocity distribution in open
channels. Civ. Engrg., ASCE, 2(6), 356357.
Vittal. N (1972). Flow over triangular roughness in
open channels. Ph. D. Thesis, Civil Engineering
Department, IIT Roorkee.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


FACTORS AFFECTING BEHAVIOUR OF PILED RAFT
FOUNDATION

Rajendra Singh Bisht
PG Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati 781039,
E-mail: r.bisht@iitg.ernet.in
Baleshwar Singh
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, E-mail: baleshwar@iitg.ernet.in

ABSTRACT: Piled raft foundation is considered as suitable alternative for foundation in tall buildings instead
of conventional pile foundation. When raft foundation alone cannot satisfy both bearing capacity and settlement
criteria then piles are added to enhance the performance. The primary function of piles in piled raft foundation is
to reduce or control overall and differential settlement. The load sharing between raft and piles as well as total
and differential settlement in a piled raft foundation depends on number of piles, pile diameter, pile length, pile
spacing, location of piles under raft and raft thickness. So in order to control overall and differential settlement
within an acceptable limit and also make piled raft foundation more cost effective as compare to conventional
pile foundation the pile group system geometry and raft geometry have to be designed optimally. In the present
paper, a review of various studies related to effects of pile group system and raft thickness on behaviour of piled
raft is presented.

INTRODUCTION
A piled raft foundation is combination of a raft and a
deep foundation. When a raft has adequate bearing
capacity but the settlement is not within an allowable
limit in that case instead of a fully pile foundation the
piled raft foundation has been proved more efficient
and economical. The piles not only control or reduce
overall and differential settlement but also increase
the bearing capacity of foundation. Overall settlement
has less effect on the performance of a structure but it
is differential settlement which is main concern in any
foundation.

There are complex soil structure interactions that take
place between raft piles and soil in a piled raft
foundation. The load is shared between piles and raft
and then transferred to the soil. The proportion of load
shared between piles and raft and the level of
reduction of overall and differential settlement depend
on piles group system geometry (i.e. pile length, pile
spacing, pile diameter, number of piles and location of
piles) and raft geometry (i.e. length, breadth and
thickness of raft).

In conventional method of design the piled raft
foundation is designed in such a way that the entire
load is carried by piles and neglecting the contribution
of raft, this approach results in installation of more
piles than that are necessary which will completely
eliminate settlements rather than control it to an
acceptable level and it is also uneconomical. The
conventional approach ignore primary objective of
addition of piles to piled raft foundation and treats
settlement as secondary issue.Therefore a major
design question is how to design piles optimally to
control the settlement.

Randolph (1994) proposed three different design
approaches for piled raft foundation. Depending on
primary function of piles in piled raft foundation the
differential settlement control design approach
suggests that the piles are designed in such a way as
to minimize differential settlement at the outset
without necessarily reducing the overall settlement.
The effects of pile group system and raft geometry on
piles load carrying capacity and settlements have been
studied by several researchers. A review of various
studies is presented in this paper.

EFFECT OF PILE SPACING
The pile spacing is one of the factors that affect the
behaviour of piled raft. Hain and Lee (1978) studied
the effect of piles spacing on percentage of total load
carried by the piles for a piled raft system containing
flexible raft and compressible piles. Figure 1 shows a
plot between spacing to diameter ratioand percentage
of load taken by the piles for different pile and raft
stiffness.
Here a group of 82 piles were used with length
todiameter ratio, L/d= 25 and Poissons ratio of soil
0.5. The percentage of total load carried by the piles
decreases with increase in pile spacing, and increases
as the pile stiffness increases. However, when the raft
stiffness is increased the load taken by the piles
decreases.
Prakoso and Kulhawy (2001) used a nonlinear plane
strain finite element model to find the effects of
system geometry elements on the performance of
piled raft. They examined the effect of pile spacing on
total and differential settlement. The piles and raft
parameters used for analysis are listed in Table 1


Fig. 1 Percentage of load taken by pile group versus
spacing to diameter ratio (after Hain and Lee 1978)

Table 1 Pile and raft dimensions
Parameters Magnitude (m)
Raft thickness, tr 2
Raft breadth, Br 42
Raft length, Lr 42
Pile depth, D 40
Pile spacing, S 4
Pile diameter, B 1
Height of soil layer, H 80

The pile group to raft width ratio used were in the
range B
g
/B
r
= 0.2 to 1. Here the settlement is
introduced as reference displacement, W
ref
which
represents a nominal average type of displacement
along the raft by considering the displacements at the
raft centre, point, and edge. The differential
settlement considered is the center edge differential
displacement, W
C-E
. Figure 2 shows a plot between
normalized reference displacement ratio, R
ref
(W
ref
for
piled raft/W
ref
for raft) and inverse pile spacing at
different pile group to raft width ratios.

Fig. 2 Reference displacement ratio versus inverse
pile spacing for different B
g
/B
r
(after Prakoso and
Kulhawy 2001)

The displacement ratio decreases with the decrease in
pile spacing but also the displacement ratio is more
for low pile group to raft width ratio (B
g
/B
r
). So to
minimize the total settlement of piled raft both pile
spacing and pile group to raft width ratio should be
considered.

The effect of pile spacing on center to edge
normalized differential settlement, W
C-E
is shown in
Figure 3. The differential settlement decreases with
decrease in pile spacing and for certain B
g
/B
r
ratio at
less spacing the differential settlement, W
C-E
even
become negative i.e. the edge of raft settles more than
the center.

Fig. 3 Differential settlement versus pile spacing
(after Prakoso and Kulhawy 2001)

EFFECT OF NUMBER OF PILE
Poulos (2001) used a hypothetical case of a raft
supported by nine piles and carrying a total load of 12
MN to find out the effect of number of piles in the
behaviour of piled raft. A computer program was used
for the analysis. In this case the raft was divided into
273 elements and the piles were assumed to exhibit
elastic-plastic load-settlement behaviour and its
stiffness and interaction characteristic were computed
from another computer program.

The various dimensions of piles, raft and soil
properties are given in Table 2.
Table 2 Pile and raft dimensions
Parameters Magnitude (m)
Raft thickness, t
r
0.5
Raft length 10
Raft breadth 5
Pile length, l 10
Pile diameter, d 0.5
Pile spacing, S 2
Height of soil layer, H 20


The effects of number of piles on maximum
settlement and maximum moment for both
concentrated and uniform load are shown in Figure 4.

The overall settlement decreases with the increase in
number of piles but after a limit the there is no further
decrease. The decrease is similar for both
concentrated and uniform loading. Howeverthe
increase in number of piles increases the maximum
bending moment for both concentrated and uniform
loading however maximum bending moment is more
for concentrated loading. For more than 9 piles there
is not much variation in maximum moment with
increase in number of piles and smallest moment
occurs when there are only three piles under raft.

Fig. 4 Effect of number of piles on maximum
settlement and maximum moment (after Poulos 2001)

Figure 5 shows the effect of number of piles on
differential settlement between centre and corner piles
and percentage load on piles. Unlike overall
settlement the effect of increasing in the number of
piles on differential settlement between centre and
corner piles is non-uniform.The differential settlement
does not decrease with increase in number of piles.
The minimum differential settlement is achieved
when only three piles are present under the raft. So in
order to minimize differential settlement providing
less number of piles below a central portion of raft
can be more efficient. In the case of concentrated
loading the differential settlement between centre and
corner piles shows higher value as compared to the
case of uniform loading.

The number of piles also affects the percentage load
carried on piles. The percentage load taken by piles
increases with the increase in number of piles and
achieved maximum value for certain number of piles.
Once the maximum value is reached after this the
percentage load on piles shows a constant value. So
there is a certain higher limit of number of piles
beyond this limit further increase in number of piles
does not have any effect on percentage load taken by
piles. The type of loading does not have any effect on
the percentage load on piles. The percentage load
taken by piles is similar for concentrated and uniform
loading.

Fig. 5 Effect of number of piles on differential
settlement and percentage load on piles (after Poulos
2001)

Bajad and Sahu (2008) conducted some experiments
to find out the effect of number of piles on the
settlement of piled raft on soft clay and used the
concept of equivalent pier to analyse piled raft. A
small scale model tests were conducted on piled raft
using a soil bin made of mild steel and solid steel
piles. They used a cohesive soil having liquid limit of
57% and plastic limit 27% with undrained shear
strength of 101kPa. To examine the effect of number
of piles on the settlement and load carried by piles the
equivalent modulus, E
eq
, given in eq. (2) settlement


reduction ratio, S
r
, given in eq. (1) and load sharing
ratio,
pr
given in eq. (3) were used.

Settlement reduction ratio, S
r
=
r
-
pr
/
r

(1)
Where
r
and
pr
are the settlement of raft and piled
raft respectively for a given load.

Equivalent pier modulus, E
eq
=E
S
+ [E
P
-E
S
]*A
tp
/A
g

... (2)
Where E
P
is the youngs modulus of pile and E
S
is the
youngs modulus of soil, A
tp
is total cross sectional
area of the piles in the group and Ag is the gross cross
sectional of the pile group.
Equivalent pier diameter, d
eq
=2/*A
g
..
(3)
where A
g
is the gross cross sectional area of the pile
group.

The various dimensions of soil bin, pile and raft are
given in Table 3.

Table 3 Dimensions of soil bin, pile and raft
Dimensions Magnitude (mm)
Soil bin
Thickness 3
Diameter 570
Height 500

Pile
Diameter 10
Length 100 and 200

Raft
Length 100
Breadth 100
Thickness 10

Figure 6 shows a plot between settlement reduction
ratio and equivalent pier modulus at a working load of
400N and 250N. The settlement reduction ratio, S
r

increases as the equivalent pier modulus, E
eq
increases
i.e. as the number of piles increases but the reduction
in settlement is there for certain number of piles and
further increase in number of piles does not affect the
settlement reduction ratio.

Fig. 6 Effect of number of piles on settlement of piled
raft (after Bajad and Sahu 2008)

EFFECT OF PILE LENGTH
Horikoshi and Randolph (1998) used a concept of
equivalent pier to find the effect of pile length on
piled raft behaviour. A square piled raft with group of
nine piles was modelled beneath a flexible raft and
elastic analyses were performed with different pile
length and the piles were set at s/b=0.4, where s is
spacing between piles and b is half the length of raft.
The piled raft stiffness, K
pr
was kept constant at 1.02.
Figure 7 shows a plot between differential settlement,
W* and relative pile length, L
P
/a
eq
. where L
P
is the
length of pile and a
eq
is the equivqlent circular raft
radius for rectangular raft of length L and breadth B
and a
eq
= (BL/). There is not much variation in
differential settlement with the change in pile length
for a constant stiffness of piled raft, K
pr
the
differential settlement does not change with change in
pile length. So long piles are ineffective in reducing
differential settlement.

Fig. 7 Effect of pile length on differential settlement
(after Horikoshi and Randolph 1998)

The effect of pile length on total settlement was
studied by Prakoso and Kulhawy (2001). A plane
strain finite element model was analysed using
geotechnical finite element code PLAXIS and a six-
node triangular element was used.The various
raft,piles and soil properties are given in Table 1. The
effect of pile depth, D on normalized
referencesettlement ratio, R
ref
(W
ref
of piled raft/Wref
for raft ) was examined for different pile group to
raftwidth ratio,B
g
/B
r
. Figure 8 shows that the
reference


Fig. 8 Effect of pile depth on reference displacement
ratio (after Prakoso and Kulhawy 2001)

displacement decreases as the pile depth increases and
the decrease is more when a large width pile group is
used. the minimum value of refrence settlement is
obtained with increase in pile depth when width of
pile group is equal to the width of raft.

EFFECT OF PILE DIAMETER
Prakoso and Kulhawy (2001) also studied the effect of
pile diameter on refrence displacement ratio and
differential displacement.the various raft,pile and soil
properties are given in Table 1. Figure 9 shows
thatthe refrence displacement ratio decreases with
decrease in pile diameter but the decrease in the value
of refrence settlement is very less amd even the
change in B
g
/B
r
ratio does not show much variation so
the smaller diameter piles are preferred for reducing
refrence settlement.

Fig. 9 Pile diameter versus reference displacement
ratio (after Prakoso and Kulhawy 2001)

Figure 10 shows the effect of pile diameter on
normalized differential displacement. The differential
displacement decreases slightly as pile diameter
increases but for less value of B
g
/B
r
and bigger pile
diameter the differential settlement even become
negative . so smaller diameter piles are preferred to
minimize settlement effeciently and economically.

Fig 10 Pile diameter versus differential displacement
(after Prakoso and Kulhawy 2001)

Oh et. al. (2009) analysed a piled raft foundation on
sand using the PLAXIS. A six-layer soil model was
adopted in which there are five different soil layers
and layer six is assumed to be rock layer below 30 m.
The effect of pile diameter on differential settlement
and pile load was examined for three different load
intensities using a piled raft with thickness of 0.6m
and the pile group size is 3
2
. The pile diameters are
changed as 0.6, 0.8and 1m. the spacing between piles
are kept as 4d butthe pile group area and raft area
increases due to the increase in pile diameter.

Figure 11 shows that the normalised differential
settlement increase with the increase in pile diameter.
For a less load intensity the increase in differential
settlement is not much significant but for higher load
intensity the increase in normalized differential
settlement with increase in pile diameter is very high.

Fig. 11 Normalized differential settlement versus pile
diameter (after Oh et al. 2009)

The effect of pile diameter on normalized total pile
load,R
g
/qB
2
where R
g
is the pile load, q is the load
intensity and B is the breadth of raft is shown in
Figure 12 for different load intensities.


Fig. 12 Pile diameter versus normalized total pile load
(after Oh et al. 2009)

The total pile load increases with increase in pile
diameter and reaches at maximum value at the pile
diameter of 0.8 and then decreases with further
increase in pile diameter. The reason for this
particular behaviour is that as pile diameter increases
the pile spacing also increases and the pile-pile
interaction become less effective and piles in piled
raft behaves as single pile.

EFFECT OF RAFT THICKNESS
The effect of raft thickness on piled raft behaviour is
studied by poulos (2001). To analyse a piled raft
foundation a computer program was used. The various
parameters of piled raft foundation used in analysis is
already given in Table 2. The effect of thickness of
raft on maximum moment and differential settlement
between centre and corner column is shown in Figure
13.

The maximum moment increases with increase in raft
thickness but when there is no piles under raft the
bending moment decrease as raft thickness increases.
the larger piles group showing more increase in
maximum moment as compared to small pile group.
The differential settlement showing a positive
response with increase in raft thickness there is a
decrease in differential settlement between centrer and
corner column.

Fig. 13 Effect of raft thivckeness on differential
settlement and maximum moment (after Poulos 2001)

CONCLUSIONS
The pile spacing, number of piles in a group, pile
diameter, pile length and raft thickness affect the
behaviour of piled raft foundation. From above study
the following points are observed.
1) The decrease in pile spacing decreases the total
and differential settlement and increases the pile
load carrying capacity. But if the piles are spaced
very close to each other then the differential
settlement can even become negative i.e. the
settlement at the edges will be more compare to
center.
2) The increase in number of piles beyond a certain
limit is not very beneficial. However a large
group of piles placed uniformly under the raft is
not useful instead of this placing a small group of
piles below the central portion of raft can
minimize the differential settlement
3) Long piles are effective in reducing total
settlement but the differential settlement is not
much affected by change in length of pile.
4) The increase in diameter of pile does not show
any significant change in reduction of differential
and total settlement but the percentage piles load
increases with increase in pile diameter. So
generally a small diameter piles are preferred for
reducing differential and total settlement.
5) The increase in raft thickness reduces the
differential settlement but increases the maximum


bending moment. So a thick raft is generally not
preferred and it is also uneconomical.

REFERENCES
Bajad, S. P. and Sahu, R. B. (2008). An experimental
study on the behaviour of vertically loaded piled
raft on soft clay. Proceedings of the 12th
International Conference of International
Association for Computer Methods and Advances
in Geomechanics, 1-6 October, 2008, Goa, India.
Hain, S. J. and Lee, I. K. (1978). The analysis of
flexible raft-pile systems. Geotechnique, 28(1), 65-
83.
Horikoshi, K. and Randolph, M. F. (1998). A
contribution to optimum design of piled rafts.
Geotechnique, 48(3), 301-317.
Oh, E. Y. N., Bui, Q. M., Surarak, C. and
Balasurbamaniam, A. S. (2009). Investigation of
the behaviour of piled raft foundation in sand by
numerical modelling. Proceedings of the 19th
International Offshore and Polar Engineering
Conference, June 21-26, Osaka, Japan.
Poulos, H. G. (2001). Piled raft foundation- design
and application. Geotechnique, 51(2), 95-113.
Prakoso, W. A. and Kulhawy, F. H. (2001).
Contribution to piled raft foundation and design.
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Randolph, M. F. (1994). Design method for pile
groups and piled rafts. Proceedings of the 13th
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, New Delhi, 5, 6182.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


OPTIMISATION OF LOW RISE MULTI-STOREY BUILDING USING
STEEL-CONCRETE COMPOSITE SECTION & SEMI-RIGID BEAM TO
COLUMN CONNECTIONS

P. S. Buradkar
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Shri Ramdeobaba Kamla Nehru Engineering College, Nagpur 440 013,
Email: prachi.buradkar@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Scarcity of land obstructs the horizontal expansion of accommodations resulting in their vertical
advancement. Steel-concrete composite systems have benefits of combining the two construction materials. Reinforced
concrete is inexpensive, massive, and stiff, while steel members are strong, lightweight, and easy to assemble. Steel
concrete composite structures, owing to their high capacity for prefabrication and rational use of materials can provide
high levels of performance in terms of ductility and dissipation of energy.
Basic assumption of conventional structural analysis is that beam-to-column joints are either perfectly rigid or hinged.
Therefore, when analyzing a structure, joints are idealized as either fixed or hinged. These assumptions allow a great
simplification in structural analysis and design but they neglect the true behaviour of joints. However, in actual
structures, typical connections do not behave in either a perfectly rigid or perfectly hinged manner. These non-ideal
connections are often referred as semi-rigid connections. The consideration of semi-rigid behaviour results into reduced
midspan moment and increased end moments in the beams. Thus a reduced steel beam section caters the need. This
paper deals with the analysis and design of a low rise, multi-storey building using the benefits of steel-concrete
composite construction and semi-rigid beam to column connection.

INTRODUCTION
Multi-storey buildings are being proposed in different
cities of India to resolve the problem of overpopulation
caused by migration of people searching better living
opportunities there. Scarcity of land limits the horizontal
expansion of accommodations meant for various
purposes. With this requirement, it has become a
necessity of time in our country to reduce the construction
time by adopting fast track construction methodologies as
well as allowing parallel construction activities.

Beam
The use of composite action has certain advantages. In
particular, a composite beam has greater stiffness and
usually a higher load resistance than its non-composite
counterpart. Considering the increase in stiffness of the
composite beam section in case of full shear connection
between concrete slab and steel beam, a full shear
connection has been used to secure bond between the in
situ concrete slab and the steel beam designed for the
building frame in this paper. The composite action
between steel beam and concrete slab is achieved through
the provision of mechanical shear connectors. The shear
connectors required at the steel-concrete interface are
designed to (a) Transmit longitudinal shear along the
interface, and (b) Prevent separation of steel beam and
concrete slab at the interface. Concrete is stronger in
compression than in tension, and steel is susceptible to
buckling in compression. By the composite action
between the two, we can utilise their respective
advantages to the fullest extent. For single span beams,
sagging bending moments, due to applied vertical loads,
cause tensile forces in the steel section and compression
in the concrete deck thereby making optimum use of each
material. Therefore, composite beams, even with small
steel sections, have high stiffness and can carry heavy
loads on long spans. Keeping the span and loading
unaltered; a more economical steel section (in terms of
depth and weight) is adequate in composite construction
compared with conventional non-composite construction.
As the depth of beam reduces, the construction depth
reduces, resulting in enhanced headroom. In decks,
composite systems eliminate the need for formwork. One
important advantage of composite systems is that
construction is accelerated through separation of trades.
Initially, a bare steel frame is erected to carry the gravity,
construction, and lateral loads during construction. As
erection of the building progresses, concrete is cast in to
form the composite system that will resist the total gravity
and lateral loads.
This paper focuses on the extraction of the benefits of
steel-concrete composite construction for the design of
low rise (upto eight storeys of height) multistorey
buildings. It not only ends here but the technique to
optimize design solution of such buildings is also
considered. However this optimization technique is
applicable to all the non-composite steel frames also. The
composite beams for the frame in question are designed
as per IS 11384- 1998 based on limit state of collapse.

Column
The column could have also been designed as a steel-
concrete composite section but the building in question
being a low rise multistorey building having the total
number of storeys less than eight, the column could be
designed as a single steel I section using IS 800-2007.

Connections
One of the basic assumptions of conventional structural


analysis is that beam-to-column joints are either perfectly
rigid or perfectly hinged. Therefore, when analyzing a
structure, joints are idealized as either fixed or hinged.
These assumptions allow a great simplification in
structural analysis and design-but they neglect the true
behavior of the joints. However, in actual structures,
typical connections do not behave in either a perfectly
rigid or a perfectly hinged manner. The different types of
connections that are commonly used fill the entire
flexibility spectrum from flexible "hinge like"
connections to semi-rigid connections to rigid
connections. These non-ideal connections are often
referred to as flexible connections, semi-rigid
connections, spring hinged joints, or sticky hinges. Semi-
rigid connections have highly nonlinear behaviour, but
they present a more realistic structural analysis.

Simple Connections
Simple connections are assumed to transfer shear only at
some nominal eccentricity. In simple connections no
moment transfer is assumed between the connected parts
and hence assumed as hinged. Therefore such connections
can be used only in non-sway frames where the lateral
loads are resisted by some alternative arrangement such
as bracings or shear walls. Simple connections are
typically used in frames up to about five storeys in height,
where strength rather than stiffness govern the design.

Rigid Connections
Rigid connections transfer significant moments to the
columns and are assumed to undergo negligible
deformations. Rigid connections are necessary in sway
frames for stability and also contribute in resisting lateral
loads. In high-rise and slender structures, stiffness
requirements may warrant the use of rigid connections.

Semi-Rigid Connections
Semi-rigid connections are those fall between simple and
rigid connections. Semi-rigid connections may not have
the sufficient capacity to hold the original angles between
the members and develop less than the full moment
capacity. Most simple connections do have some degree
of rotational rigidity. Similarly rigid connections do
experience some degree of joint deformation and this can
be utilized to reduce the joint design moments. These
connections are used in conjunction with other lateral
load resisting systems for increased safety and
performance. Use of semi-rigid connections makes the
analysis somewhat difficult but leads to economy in
member designs. The analysis of semi-rigid connections
is usually done by assuming linear rotational springs at
the supports or by advanced analysis methods, which
account for non-linear moment-rotation characteristics.

TRUE BEHAVIOR OF CONNECTIONS IN STEEL
FRAMES

Moment Rotation Relationship of Connections
The moment-rotation characteristics of the connections
have to be determined based on experiments conducted
for the specific design. These test results are then made
available as data bases. Semi-rigid joints can be modeled
using a rotational spring which separates a member from
its surrounding environment. The rotational spring is
characterized by its moment-rotation curve. Simple
models are proposed in the form of equations with
empirical constants derived based on test results.
Depending on the degree of accuracy required, the
moment-rotation characteristics may be idealized as
linear, bilinear or nonlinear curves. The major advantage
of semi-rigid connections is that they are cheaper than
rigid connections and allow the optimum utilization of the
beam member. By using a semi-rigid connection we can
control the mid span and support moments to the desired
value.
For obtaining the moment rotation relationship the Frye-
Morris polynomial model is recommended by IS 800 -
2007. The model has the form shown in the following
equation
r
= C
1
(KM)
1
+ C
2
(KM)
3
+ C
3
(KM)
5
(1)
Where, K = a standardization parameter dependent upon
the connection type and geometry and C1, C2, C3 = curve
fitting constants.
IS 8002007 also gives classification proposed by
Bjorhovde which can be conveniently used with Frye
Morris model to model semi rigid connections.

Table. 1 Bjorhovdes Connection Classification
Nature of the
connection
In terms of
strength
In terms of
stiffness
Rigid connection m 0.7 m 2.5
Semi rigid
connection
0.7 > m > 0.2 2.5 > m >
0.5
Flexible connection m 0.2 m 0.5

Where, m = M
u
/M
p
and =
r
/
p

CONNECTION STIFFNESS, JOINT STIFFNESS
AND FIXITY FACTOR
Fig. 1 shows typical M vs r relation observed in semi
rigid connections for which the connecton is modeled as
a spring. Initially the connection behaves nearly
elastically and the curve is nearly a straightline with a
slope J=M/r, which represents the rotational spring
constant of the connection and is called the joint
modulus or also termed as the connection spring
stiffness.

Fig. 1 Moment Rotation Relationship and Connection
Characteristics
Relative rotation r
EI
L
J1 J2
Initial spring
stiffness J = M/ r
Strength of spring Mc


On further loading, the connection begins to deform
inelastically and the angle of rotation increases rapidly.
The connection stiffness decreases as the load increases
and it is characterized by the M-
r
curve becoming flatter
and flatter as it asymptotically approaches the plastic
moment capacity M
c
of the connection.
The magnitude of the stiffness of the spring J (kN-m/rad)
does not determine if a joint will behave in a rigid or
flexible manner. Rather it is the ratio of the spring
stiffness J to the flexural stiffness of the member (beam)
EI/L that determines what behavior will be exhibited.
This ratio is often called the "joint stiffness" and is
defined as JL/EI. When the joint stiffness is less than 1.0
the beam behaves as if it is hinged, while if the joint
stiffness is greater than 100 the beam behaves as if it is
fixed. Therefore it may not be worth the effort to model a
connection with a rotational spring if the resulting joint
stiffness being used is less than 1 or greater than 100.
Furthermore, if semi-rigid behavior is desired a joint
stiffness between 1 and 100 should be used.
To incorporate the connection flexibility into a computer
based program for frame analysis a term Fixity factor is
used. Monforton and Wu (1963) defined the fixity factor
of a semi rigid connection as follows

Fixity factor r
i
= 1/[ 1 + (3 EI/ J
i
L)] (2)

Where, i = 1, 2
The fixity factor r
i
defines the rotational stiffness of each
end connection relative to that of attached of member. For
a pinned connection the value of end fixity factor is zero
(r
i
= 0), for a fixed connection the end fixity factor is
unity (r
i
= 1). Therefore, a semi- rigid connection has end
fixity factor value between zero and unity (0 < r
i
< 1).
Upon the introduction of this fixity factor, different
member end restraint conditions are then readily modeled,
such as Rigid Pinned, Rigid Semi-rigid, Pinned -
Semi-rigid, etc. simply by setting the end fixity factor at
the two ends of the members to appropriate values.

ANALYSIS & DESIGN
Analysis of the frame is done using STAAD.pro 2006.
Being a frame analysis, slab is not modeled. Instead the
load is transferred to the beams. The beam element is
assigned with property of a composite section. Single I
steel section property is assigned to the column element.
In case of beam element, the partial release of moment (in
the major direction only) is assigned through the
specifications option. The frame is reanalyzed and the
beam column elements are designed accordingly.

Problem Statement
The two bays five storey frame considered for the
design is as shown in Fig. 2. Spacing of frames is 3m and
height of columns is 4m. Thickness of slab and floor
finish is 150mm and 50mm respectively. Construction
load is 0.25 kN/m
2
and imposed load is assumed to be
4kN/m
2
. Concrete used is M30, structural steel is Fe250
and reinforcing steel used is Fe415 and Fe250. Soil type
is medium soil and Zone III.

FOURTH FLOOR
THIRD FLOOR
SECOND FLOOR
FIRST FLOOR
GROUND FLOOR
# 6
# 5
# 4
# 3
# 2
# 1
20m
7m 7m
# 7
# 8
# 9
# 10
# 11
# 12

Fig. 2 Building Frame Under Consideration

The frame is analyzed for load combinations as per IS
1893-2002 viz. (i) 1.5 (DL + IL), (ii) 1.5 (DL EL), (iii)
1.2 (DL + IL EL), (iv) 0.9 DL 1.5 EL and IS 800-
2007 viz. (v) 1.2 DL + 0.5 IL 2.5 EL (vi) DL 2.5 EL.

Analysis Results: Beams & Columns
Table 2 Frame Analysis Results
Floor
Level
Midspan Moment
kN-m
End Moment
kN-m

Fourth 76.6 120
Third 146 251
Second 145 222
First 144 235
Ground 145 260
Floor
Level
Exterior Column Interior
Column P(kN) Mt Mb P(kN)
Fourth 124 121 112 200
Third 127 125 340 620
Second 121 118 566 1053
First 122 117 788 1492
Ground 91 87 1004
1945

Design Results
Table 3 Design Results: Composite Beam
Floor
Level
Sectio-
n
No. of
shear
connectors
Minim-
um slab
r/f mm
2
+ve M
/ M
u

Fourth ISMB
300
22 362.5 0.2289
Third ISMB
350
26 426.5 0.3443
Second ISMB
350
26 426.5 0.3419
First ISMB
350
26 426.5 0.3395
Groun
d
ISMB
350
26 426.5 0.3419

Table 4 Design Results: Interior Column
Floor Level Section P/P
d
Fourth ISWB 200 0.7044
Third ISWB 250 0.9888
Second ISWB 450 0.8513


First ISWB 500 0.8251
Ground ISWB 550 0.8870
Table 5 Design Results: Exterior Column
Floor
Level
Secti-
on
N/N
dz
M/M
dz
N/N
dz

+
M/M
dz

P/P
dz
+
(k
z
C
mz

M
z
/M
dz
)
Grou-
nd
ISMB
450
0.479 0.253 0.732 0.751
First ISMB
450
0.376 0.344 0.720 0.851
Second ISMB
400
0.317 0.455 0.772 0.991
Third ISMB
400
0.191 0.481 0.672 0.897
Fourth ISMB
350
0.074 0.622 0.696 0.970

Design of Connection
After designing beams and columns as per first analysis
results, three types of beam to column connections are
designed viz. (i) End plate connection with stiffners, (ii)
T-stub connection, (iii) Top & seat angle connection
consecutively. The Moment Rotation relationship of
these three connections is derived and depending on it
their fixity factor in the frame is decided. The frame is
then reanalyzed using this fixity factor. Then the frame is
redesigned for the new results.

(i)End plate connection with stiffners
Table 6 Design Results of End Plate Connection
Positio-
n
C/c of the
outermost
bolt, d
g

(mm)
Thickness
of the
end plate,
t
p
(mm)
Diameter of
the bolt, d
b

(mm)
#2 470 16 30
#8 470 16 30
#3 470 25 30
#9 470 25 30
#4 470 20 30
#10 470 25 27
#5 470 20 30
#11 470 20 30
#6 400 20 22
#12 400 25 27

Moment Rotation relationship of connection

Fig. 3 M- Curve for End Plate Connection
Connection classification:
Table 7 Classification of End Plate Connection as per
Frye Morris Model
Pos
iti-
on
Stiffness
of
connection
kN-m/rad
Joint
stiffness
Fixity
factor
Type of
connection
> 0 & < 1
semi-rigid
#2 2.84 E +6 729.99 0.9959 Semi-rigid
#8 2.84 E +6 729.99 0.9959 Semi-rigid
#3 3.82 E +6 980.86 0.9970 Semi-rigid
#9 3.82 E +6 980.86 0.9970 Semi-rigid
#4 3.30 E +6 848.30 0.9965 Semi-rigid
#10 3.82 E +6 980.86 0.9970 Semi-rigid
#5 3.30 E +6 848.30 0.9965 Semi-rigid
#11 3.30 E +6 848.30 0.9965 Semi-rigid
#6 2.09 E+6 850.35 0.9965 Semi-rigid
#12 1.74 E +6 447.39 0.9933 Semi-rigid

Table 8 Classification of End Plate Connection as per
Bjorhovde
Posi-
tion
m =
M/M
p

=
r/
p

Type of connection
in terms of
Strength Stiffness
#2 1.2884 0.2580 Rigid Rigid
#8 1.0307 0.1286 Rigid Rigid
#3 1.1645 0.2007 Rigid Rigid
#9 1.1645 0.2007 Rigid Rigid
#4 1.1001 0.1702 Rigid Rigid
#10 1.2190 0.2783 Rigid Rigid
#5 1.0654 0.1574 Rigid Rigid
#11 1.2438 0.2410 Rigid Rigid
#6 0.4932 0.0052 Semi-rigid Rigid
#12 0.8075 0.0188 Rigid Rigid
Similarly connection classification of T-stub connection
and Top & seat angle connection are as follows:

ii) T-stub connection
Table 9 Classification of T-stub Connection as per Frye
Morris Model
Pos
iti-
on
Stiffness
of
connection
Joint
stiffness
Fixity
factor
Type of
connection

#2 1.05 E +7 2693 0.9989 Semi-rigid
#8 1.05 E +7 2693 0.9989 Semi-rigid
#3 8.22 E +6 2109 0.9986 Semi-rigid
#9 8.22 E +6 2109 0.9986 Semi-rigid
#4 8.22 E +6 2109 0.9986 Semi-rigid
#10 1.05 E +7 2693 0.9989 Semi-rigid
#5 8.22 E +6 2109 0.9986 Semi-rigid
#11 1.05 E +7 2693 0.9989 Semi-rigid
#6 4.31 E +6 1753 0.9983 Semi-rigid
0
100
200
300
0.00E+00 1.00E-03 2.00E-03 3.00E-03 4.00E-03 5.00E-03 M
o
m
e
n
t

(
k
N
)
r (Radians)
M - Curve


#12 5.67 E +6 2307 0.9987 Semi-rigid
Table 10 Classification of T-stub Connection as per
Bjorhovde
Posi-
tion
m =
M/M
p

=
r/
p

Type of connection
in terms of
Strength Stiffness
#2 1.0307 0.3862 Rigid Rigid
#8 1.2884 0.5341 Rigid Semi-rigid
#3 1.1645 0.4565 Rigid Rigid
#9 1.1645 0.4565 Rigid Rigid
#4 1.1001 0.3996 Rigid Rigid
#5 1.0654 0.3821 Rigid Rigid
#12 0.8075 0.1213 Rigid Rigid

The above results are based on the M-q relationship for
T-stub connection as follows

Fig. 4 M- Curve for T-stub Connection

iii) Top & seat angle connection
Table 11 Classification of Top & Seat Angle Connection
as per Frye Morris Model
Pos
iti-
on
Stiffness
of
connection
Joint
stiffness
Fixity
factor
Type of
connection

#2 2.91 E +4 7.47 0.7135 Semi-rigid
#8 2.91 E +4 7.47 0.7135 Semi-rigid
#3 2.91 E +4 7.47 0.7135 Semi-rigid
#9 2.91 E +4 7.47 0.7135 Semi-rigid
#4 2.91 E +4 7.47 0.7135 Semi-rigid
#10 2.91 E +4 7.47 0.7135 Semi-rigid
#5 2.91 E +4 7.47 0.7135 Semi-rigid
#11 2.91 E +4 7.47 0.7135 Semi-rigid
#6 2.03 E +4 8.24 0.7332 Semi-rigid
#12 2.03 E +4 8.24 0.7332 Semi-rigid

Fig. 5 M- Curve for Top & seat angle Connection

Table 12 Classification of Top & Seat Angle Connection
as per Bjorhovde
Posi-
tion
m =
M/M
p

=
r/
p

Type of connection
in terms of
Strength Stiffness
#2 0.9118 0.0554 Rigid Rigid
#8 1.0109 0.0896 Rigid Rigid
#3 0.9613 0.0690 Rigid Rigid
#9 0.9811 0.0757 Rigid Rigid
#4 0.9019 0.0513 Rigid Rigid
#10 1.0307 0.0958 Rigid Rigid
#5 0.8919 0.0485 Rigid Rigid
#11 1.0307 0.0958 Rigid Rigid

The frame was then re analysed using the values of fixity
factor at the corresponding nodes and redesigned for the
three connections in consecution.
It was observed that beams in the frame with end plate
connection and T stub connection showed almost the
same value of negative moment as in the first analysis
results. Whereas, the negative beam moment in case of
frame with top and seat angle connections was reduced
almost by an average of 16.16%.
More the negative moment more the number of lateral
restraints required to resist the lateral torsional buckling
of the composite beam at the construction stage. In this
respect, the beam in top and seat angle connection frame
becomes a better option.
An increased positive beam moment value in case of
frame with top and seat angle connection was observed as
compared to that with end plate connection with stiffners
and T stub connection.
The positive moment capacity of composite beam even
with smaller steel section is very high and hence, a better
utilization of this capacity of the composite beam section
in case top and seat angle connectioned frame was noticed
as summarized below, though the beam section could not
be reduced because of limited deflection criteria.
0
100
200
300
0.00E+00 1.00E+00 2.00E+00 3.00E+00 4.00E+00
M
o
m
e
n
t

(
k
N
)
r (Radians)
M - Curve
0
100
200
300
0.00E+00 2.00E-05 4.00E-05 6.00E-05
M
o
m
e
n
t

(
k
N
)
r (Radians)
M - Curve


Fig. 6 Comparison of Positive Moments in case of
different connections

No major change in the axial loads of the exterior and
interior columns both of the frames with the three
different connections was observed.
First analysis results of moments were retained in case of
frame with end plate connection with stiffners and T
stub connection, whereas, the results found to be
attenuated in case of frame provided with top & seat
angle connection with double web angle.
No change of column section was observed in the first
two cases of connections while a change of section in
frame with top & seat angle connection was observed
from ISMB 400 to ISMB 350 at the third floor exterior
column.
The major contribution of the exterior columns combined
axial load and moment resisting capacity was towards
resisting the moments. As a result, even though no
remarkable reduction in axial loads occurred, an average
reduction of 16.22% of the original moments led to the
reduction in column section at third floor.
Joint stiffness of all the three connection showed great
difference. Whereas the fixity factor for end plate
connection and T stub connection was approximately
same. Still T stub connection had the greatest value of
fixity and thus it can be differentiated almost as a rigid
connection. End plate connection can also be said to be a
rigid connection. But top and seat angle connection had
the least value of fixity factor and can be categorized as a
semi rigid connection.
Though as good as almost 40% of the moment could be
released in case of top & seat angle connection, it was
restricted to a maximum value of 29% by providing
higher sections to secure the connection.
The drift values of node number six of the rigid
connections were found to be nearly same. In semi rigid
connectioned frame, the drift value was observed to be
higher than that with rigid connections.
The drift in case of frame with end plate connection was
1/1639h, for T-stub connection the value was 1/1644h
and it was the largest in case of top & seat angle
connection equal to 1/1249h. But all the drift values were
less than 1/250h. So none of the connections violated the
drift laws of IS: 1893 2002 (I).

Fig. 7 Comparison of Horizontal Deflection in case of
different connections
CONCLUSIONS
The objective of this paper was to analyse and design a
low rise multi-storey building using steel-concrete
composite section. The use of a steel-concrete composite
beam in the building frame results in a lower beam
section than that would have been resulted by the use of
any non-composite section whether RCC or plain steel.
This enabled greater headroom or vertical clearance. This
building frame was then tested for three connections viz.,
end plate connection with stiffners, T stub connection
and top & seat angle connection with double web angle,
accounting the true behaviour of the connections. The
use of semi-rigid connection results in better utilization of
the steel-concrete composite beams positive moment
capacity. The reduction in the beams negative moment
enables lesser number of lateral restraints to be used at the
construction stage. The building frame with semi-rigid
connections showed an increase in the lateral drift than
that was observed in case rigid connectioned frames. But
this drift was below 1/250h, as limited by the Indian
seismic code which proved the reliability of the semi-
rigid connectioned frame.

REFERENCES
S.A.L. de Andrade, P.C.G. da S. Vellasco, L.T.S.
Ferreira, L.R.O. de Lima, (April 2006), Semi-rigid
composite frames with perfobond and T-rib
connectors Part 2: Design models assessment,
Journal of constructional steel research
Scott A. Burns, Recent Advances in Optimal Structural
Design (Equation 2)
Tazeen Fatema & Md. Toihidul Islam, (June 2006),
Study on connection between precast concrete beam
and cast-in-situ column in prefabricated building
frames, ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied
Sciences
- IS: 456 2002, Plain and Reinforced Concrete Code
of Practice
- IS: 800 2007, General Construction in Steel Code
of Practice (Table 1, Equation 1)
- IS: 1893 2002, Criteria for Earthquake Resistant
Design of Structures: Part 1 General Provisions
and Buildings- IS: 11384 1998, Code of
Practice for Composite Construction in Structural
Steel and Concrete
0
50
100
150
200
G
r
o
u
n
d

f
l
o
o
r
F
i
r
s
t

f
l
o
o
r
S
e
c
o
n
d

f
l
o
o
r
T
h
i
r
d

f
l
o
o
r
F
o
u
r
t
h

f
l
o
o
r
s
M
o
m
e
n
t

(
k
N
-
m
)
Positive moment
End plate
connection with
stiffners
T - stub
connection
Top & seat angle
connection with
double web angle
12.199
12.167
15.018
Drift (mm)
Top & seat angle connection with double
web angle
T - stub connection
End plate connection with stiffners

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS FOR REAL TIME RESERVOIR
INFLOW MODELING AND PREDICTION

A.K. Pardeshi
PG student, Department of Civil Engg. Government College of Engineering, Aurangabad 431005,
Email:alka.pardeshi@gmail.com
D.G. Regulwar
Associate Professor Department of Civil Engg. Government College of Engineering, Aurangabad 431005,
Email: regulwar@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: A neural network modeling approach is used to construct a real time catchment flow
prediction model for river basin. The present study aims towards introducing the use of ANN technique to
model and predict the monthly inflow of Jayakwadi Reservoir. The data pertaining to the years 1927-1971
have been explored to develop the predictive model with Tanh Axon non linearity and Levenberg Marquardt
as a training algorithm. The Jayakwadi reservoir, one of the largest irrigation projects in Maharashtra with
catchment area of 21,750 km
2
, is selected as the study area. ANN model was developed based on the
historical inflow data of the Jayakwadi Reservoir and successfully predicted inflow with less error. In this
study six forecasting model approach are used, which are multilayer Perceptron (MLP), feed forward (FF),
modular neural network (MNN), Jordan/Elman network, time-lag recurrent (TLRNN), CANFIS network
method for the natural inflow at Jayakwadi utilizing the inflow data of the monitoring stations. Inflow data
collected over the last 45 years is used to develop the model and examined its performance. 70% of data is
used to develop the model and rest of data is utilized to test the models. Except CANFIS method in all five
methods i.e. MLP, GFFNN, MNN, J/ENN, TLRNN results shows that coefficient of correlations are above
90% and in CANFIS method coefficient of correlation is 89%. The result of this study showed that ANN
technique is capable with small computational effort and high accuracy of predicting the monthly inflow.

KEY WORDS: Inflow prediction, artificial neural network, tanhaxon, Llevenberg marquardt.

INTRODUCTION
The management of the water resources is of crucial
importance since it directly affects the design and
operation of many water resources structures.
Conventional procedures for design and analysis are
basically trial-and-error procedures. In these
methods the aim is to predict the monthly inflow of
reservoir. At the stage of the planning of the
reservoir size this is a very important subject. Here
the monthly total inflow of the reservoir is the main
data series. It is better to have a data record length
as long as possible. Regarding water engineering
field, several researchers have incorporated ANN
technique in hydrology, groundwater and hydraulics
and reservoir operation to simulate their problems.
Due to rapid growth of population and economy in
the world, water is becoming a precious and scares
resource as a result of growing demands from
various purposes, such as irrigation, hydropower,
municipal and industrial water supply, navigation,
etc. (Jain et al [1]).
Artificial neural networks (ANN) are black box
models that are used for forecasting and estimating
purposes in so many different areas of the science
and engineering. The accurate predictions of short
and long term inflow of Jayakwadi reservoir are
important for the dam safety.

Neural network technology have provided many
promising results in modeling complex nonlinear
systems, and successful applications of this artificial
intelligence in the field of hydrology and water
resources modeling have been widely reported, such as
for stream flow and river flow prediction (Sharifi et al.
2005; Aquil et al. 2007, Sankarasubramanian et al.
2007; Kim 2004; Haddad et al. 2005; Ahmed et al.
2007; Raju et al. 2004; Gopakumar et al. 2007; Jian et
al. 2006; Lin et al.), and inflow prediction (kote 2010;
Coulibaly et al. 2000; Wang et al. 2009; Ismail et al.
2005; Kolen et al. 2000; Shafie et al. 2009),
groundwater modeling ( Coulibaly et al. 2001;Sohail
et al. 2007; Agrawal et al.2004; Nauraniet al. 2009; ),
rainfallrunoff simulation (Jain et al. 2004; Sminia et
al. 2003).

ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS
A neural network is a method that is inspired by the
studies of the brain and nerve systems in biological
organisms. Neural networks have the capability of
self-learning and automatic abstracting. Artificial
neural networks are important alternatives to the
traditional methods of data analysis and modeling.


Multilayer Perceptron
Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) are the most
commonly used ANN in hydrological predictions.
The multilayer perception neural network is built up
of several layers by the addition of more hidden
layers. In these method neurons within the same
layer connected to the neurons in the next layers.

Fig. 1 Typical Multilayer Perceptron Network
The connections are forward and the layers are
cascaded together to form the MLP network. Each
MLP is consists of a minimum of three layers these
are: an input layer, one or more hidden layers and
an output layer. A typical three layer network is
shown in Fig. 1. Only three layer MLPs will be
considered in this work.

Feed Forward Neural Network
FFNN has parallel layers or subgroups made up of
processing elements. Each layer of processing
elements makes independent calculations on data
that it receives and forwards the results to next
layer. The next layer again passes the results to yet
further layer.

Fig. 2 Generalized Feed Forward Neural Network
Finally a last layer determines the output from this
network system. Basically output of neural network
is a weighted sum of its input but threshold function
is sometimes used to qualify the output of a neuron
in the output layer. In general, it is composed of
three or more layers: an input layer, which is used to
present data to the network; an output layer, which is
used to generate an appropriate output; and one or
more intermediate layers or subgroups, which are
used to act as a supplier of results to the next layer.
The network-layered structure consists of a set of
nodes (neurons) connected by links from one layer to
its next layer. Following Fig. 2 shows the structure
of FFNN. The main advantage of the feed forward
architecture is that it requires relatively less of
computing time during training.

Modular Neural Network
In a modular neural network there are combinations
of two or more neural networks in one network by
providing appropriate connections between layers of
one subnetwork to layers of others.

Fig. 3 Modular Neural Network Architecture

Each independent neural network acts as a module
and operates on separate inputs to complete some
subtask to achieve the task of network as shown in
Fig. 3. The mediator takes the outputs from each
module and processes them to generate the output of
the network. The mediator only accepts the modules
outputs it does not respond to it. The modules do not
interact with each other. One of the major benefits of
a modular neural network is the ability to reduce a
large, unwieldy neural network to smaller, more
manageable components.

Jordan / Elman Neural Network
In Elman neural network the input layer is divided
into two parts: the true input units and the context
units. The network generated its output signals from
the hidden layer to train the network. The
connections are all feed forward, and the weights
from the context units can be trained exactly as the
back propagation methods. In Jordan neural network
the network determines its output signals from the
output layer to train the network. Its output signals
are fed back to the input layer via context units as
shown in Fig. 4. Again, the weights from the context


units can be trained in exactly the same manner as
those of ordinary type ERN.

Fig. 4 Elman Recurrent Network

Time Lag Recurrent Network
Time lagged recurrent networks (TLRNs) are MLPs
comprehensive with short term memory structures
and local recurring connections. The input layer
used the inputs delayed by multiple time points
before presented to the network. The network
general architecture has three layers and the
feedback connection connected from the hidden
layer to the input layer as shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Time Lag Recurrent Network

CANFIS Network (Fuzzy Logic)

Fig. 6: CANFIS Architecture
CANFIS is a generalized form of ANFIS has the
benefit of non-linear rule formations. CANFIS
method can obtain more than one outputs. The
CANFIS model integrates fuzzy inputs with a
modular neural network to quickly solve poorly
defined problems. The output of a fuzzy axon is
calculated by the formula as shown in Fig. 6.

Levenberg Marquardt Backpropagation
Training
In this study the LMBP (Levenberg-Marquardt
BackPropagation) algorithm method for ANN
training is used. The LMBP, one of the second-order
nonlinear optimization techniques, is usually faster
and reliable. The LMBP uses the approximate
Hessian matrix that can be approximated as follows
H=J
T
J (2.1)
Where J is the Jacobian matrix with first derivatives
of the ANN errors with respect to weights and
biases.

MODEL DEVELOPMENTS

Description of Study Area
Jayakwadi project is one of the largest irrigation
projects at Paithan in Aurangabad District of
Maharashtra State. It is a multipurpose project.
Jayakwadi is one of the largest earthen dams in Asia.
Its catchment area is 21,750 km. Total submergence
area due to the reservoir is approximate 35,000 ha.
Its height is approx 41.30 m and length of 9998 m
(10 km approximate) Nath Sagar is the name of the
reservoir formed due to Jayakwadi Dam. Total area
of reservoir is approx 350 km
2
. Its total storage
capacity is approx 2.909 km and effective live
storage capacity is 2.17 km. The length of left bank
canal is 208 km and the length of right bank canal is
132 km. It irrigates cultivable area of 237,452 ha in
the Districts
of Aurangabad, Jalna, Beed and Parbhani.
The reservoir with latitude 19
0
29 8.7 N and
longitude 75
0
22 12 E is located on Godavari river.
The hydrological data used in this study included
monthly inflow data.

Model Structure
Accurate prediction of reservoir inflow has been
predictable as an important measure for effective
flood-risk management strategy. A neural network
modeling approach is used to construct a real time
reservoir inflow prediction model for a river basin.
Six types of neural network architecture i.e. MLP,
GFFNN, MNN, J/EN, TLRNN, CANFIS Network
and Levenberg-Marquardt training algorithm, with
adaptive learning examined in this study.
Artificial Neural Network models have developed by
using Neuro Solution Software. Six models are
developed depending one lag of previous one month
using data from 1927-1971. It is very important to
make sure that the validation data should not have
been used as part of the training process.

Model 1 of MLP
Graph 7 shows the graph of desired output and the
graph of actual network output result for 2-20-1
model developed in Neuro solutions. With two


input nodes U(t-1), U(t-2), one hidden layers with
20 processing elements and one output node U(t).

Graph 7 Multilayer perceptron Testing Graph

Table 1: Result Summary of MLP Model

Performance Ut
MSE 38373.71651
NMSE 0.129848209
MAE 128.4363943
Min Abs Error 5.37409643
Max Abs Error 1177.047649
r 0.940817632

The monthly inflow data of 45 years was taken in
model, out of which 70% was used for training and
30% for testing. The network build is Multilayer
Perceptron with learning algorithm, Levenberg
Marquardt. The TanhAxon transfer function has
used. The correlation factor r is 0.9408 and
Normalized Mean Square Error (NMSE) is 0.1298
as shown in Table 1.

Model 2 of GFFNN
Graph 8 show the graph of desired output and the
model, 70% was used for training and 30% for
testing. The TanhAxon transfer function has used.
The correlation factor r is 0.9296 and Normalized
Mean Square Error (NMSE) is 0.1419 as shown in
Table 2.

Graph 8 Generalized Feed Forward Testing
Graph

Table 2: Result Summary of GFFNN Model

Performance Ut
MSE 41954.75529
NMSE 0.141965656
MAE 115.2845047
r 0.929627666

Model 3 of MNN
Graph 9 shows the result for 2-6-4-1 model
developed in Neuro solutions. With two input nodes
U(t-1), U(t-2), two hidden layers with upper and
lower PEs 6 and 4. In both hidden layer upper and
lower transfer function is TanhAxon and in output
layer sigmoid Axon transfer function has been used
with one output node U(t).

Graph 9 Modular Neural Network Testing Graph

- 500
0
500
1 000
1 500
2 000
2 500
3 000
3 500
4 000
1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136 151
O
u
t
p
u
t
Exem plar
Desired Output and Actual Network
Output
UT
UT Out put
-500
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136 151
O
u
t
p
u
t
Exem plar
Desired Output and Actual Network Output
UT
UT Out put
-500
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136 151
O
u
t
p
u
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Output
UT


Table 3: Result Summary of MNN Model

Performance UT

MSE 37710.10661
NMSE 0.127602699
MAE 90.39697836
r 0.936429223

model. The correlation factor r is 0.9364 and
Normalized Mean Square Error (NMSE) is 0.1276
as shown in Table 3.

Model 4 of J/ENN
Graph 10 shows the graph of desired output and the

Graph 10 Jordan / Elman Network Testing Graph

Table 4: Result Summary of J/ENN Model

Performance UT

MSE 40834.65052
NMSE 0.138175468
MAE 115.0383927
r 0.9388224

model, out of which 70% was used for training and
30% for testing. The network build is Jordan/Elman
Network with learning algorithm, Levenberg
Marquardt. The TanhAxon transfer function has been
used in hidden layer and SigmoidAxon transfer
function has been used in output layer. The
correlation factor r is 0.9388 and Normalized Mean
Square Error (NMSE) is 0.1381as shown in Table 4

Model 5 of TLRNN
Graph 11 shows the result for 2-15-1 model
developed in Neuro solutions. With two input nodes
U(t-1), U(t-2), one hidden layers with 15 processing
elements and one output node U(t). The monthly
inflow data of 45 years was taken in model, out of
which 70% was used for training and 30% for
testing.

Graph 11 Time Lag Recurrent Network Testing
Graph

Table 5: Result Summary of TLRNN Model

Performance UT

MSE 51472.08936
NMSE 0.174170219
MAE 149.1692248
r 0.929158665

The network build is Time Lag Recurrent Network
with learning algorithm, Levenberg Marquardt
Focused on Gamma Axon. The TanhAxon transfer
function has used. The correlation factor r is 0.9291
and Normalized Mean Square Error (NMSE) is
0.1741 as shown in Table 5.

Model 6 of CANFIS Network

Graph 12 the result for 2-0-1 model developed in
Neuro solutions. With two input nodes U(t-1), U(t-
2), one hidden layers with zero processing elements
and one output node U(t). The network build is
CANFIS Network with learning rule, Momentum.
The correlation factor r is 0.8998 and Normalized
Mean Square Error (NMSE) is 0.2048 as shown in
Table 6.
-500
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136 151
O
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p
u
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Output
UT
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136 151
O
u
t
p
u
t
Exem plar
Output
UT
UT Out put


Graph 12 CANFIS Network Testing Graph

Table 6: Result Summary of CANFIS Model

Performance UT

MSE 60540.27553
NMSE 0.204854965
MAE 136.2111536
r 0.899828108

Justification for Error
The methods were used to predict inflow in
Jayakwadi river basin at paithan, the model
results indicate that reasonable prediction accuracy
was achieved for most of models for one month
ahead forecast with correlation > 0.91. However,
the model accuracy deteriorates as the lead time
increases. When compare, a 2-20-1 multilayer
Perceptron and 2-25-1 generalized feed forward
network, has produced better performances on
indicators related to average goodness of prediction
for the one month ahead river inflow compared to
CANFIS model based on fuzzy logic. Thus the
result of the study show that MLP, GFFNN, MNN,
J/ENN and TLRNN trained with Levenberg-
Marquardt are able to forecast the reservoir inflow
up to one month in advance with reasonable
prediction accuracy. It means one lag is sufficient
for predicting better inflows. ANN predicts much
better that is magnitude of each and every error
term leads to higher accuracy than CANFIS method
based on fuzzy logic. Table 7 shows result
summary of ANN models.

CONCLUSIONS
Artificial neural networks, one of the artificial
intelligence tools which capture the pattern
between input and output is found to be suitable in
predicting inflows. Even though the conventional
models show that the future value could be
predicted well, researchers are seeking for better
model to predict the future inflows with better
accuracy in terms of high flows and low flows.
The results shows that MLP, GFFNN, MNN,
J/ENN and TLRNN trained with Levenberg-
Marquardt are able to forecast the reservoir inflow
up to one month in advance with reasonable
prediction accuracy, it means one lag is sufficient
for predicting better inflows.
In Model 1 of MLP ANN shown best result with
maximum correlation coefficient (r) as 0.94 and
minimum value of Normalized Mean Square Error
(NMSE). In all ANNs model accuracy is so
significant that all error measures were improved
by using correlation. The result of a given case
study shown that ANN has some significant
advantages for short and long term prediction of
inflow in hydrology.
The ANN methodology has been reported to
provide reasonably good solution for circumstances
where there are complex systems that may be
poorly defined or understood using mathematical
equations.
Artificial Neural Networks are considered as a
promising tool for reservoir inflow prediction when
detailed time series of hydrological metrological
data are available. When trying to decide the input
parameters of the neural network a correlation
coefficient analysis of the parameters can give
hints of which parameters are important and should
be included.

REFERENCES
Ahmed El-Shae, Alaa E. Abdin, Aboelmagd
Noureldin and Mohd R. Taha. (2009). Enhancing
Inow Forecasting Model at Aswan High Dam
Utilizing Radial Basis Neural Network and
Upstream Monitoring Stations Measurements.
Springer Science Environmental Management,
22892315.
Alka Sunil Kote and V. Jothiprakash. (2008).
Reservoir Inflow Prediction Using Time
Lagged Recurrent Neural Networks. Emerging
Trends in Engineering & Technology,
International Conference, IEEE Computer
Society, 618-623.
Coulibaly P, Anctil F, Boobe B. (2001). Multivariate
Reservoir Inflow Forecasting Using Temporal
Neural Networks. Journal of Hydrology Engg.6,
367-376.
Dae-Il Jeong and Young-Oh Kim. (2005). Rainfall-
Runoff Models Using Artificial Neural Networks
for Ensemble Streamflow Prediction.
Hydrological Processes. 38193835.
Ismail Kilinc and Kerem Cigizoglu. Reservoir
Management Using Artificial Neural Networks.
14th. Reg. Directorate of DSI (State Hydraulic
Works) Istanbul Turkey.
Jain S.K., Das, and Shrivastava D.K. (1999).
Application of ANN for Reservoir Inflow
-500
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136 151
O
u
t
p
u
t
Exem plar
Output
UT


Prediction and Operation. J. Water Resources
Planning and Management, ASCE, Vol.125,
No.5, 263-271.
John F. Kolen and Rattikoen Hewett. (2000).
Predication of Lake Inflows with Neural
Networks. IEEE, 572-576.
Majid Heydari and Parisa Hosseinzadeh
Talaee.(2011).
Prediction of flow through rockfill dams using a
neuro-fuzzy computing technique. The Journal of
Mathematics and Computer Science, Vol .2 No.3,
515-528.
Muhammad Aqil , Ichiro Kita , Akira Yano and
Soichi Nishiyama. (2007). Neural Networks for
Real Time Catchment Flow Modeling and
Prediction. Springer Science Water Resour
Manage, 1781-1796.
Wensheng Wang ,Juliang Jin and Yueqing Li.
(2009). Prediction of Inow At Three Gorges
Dam In Yangtze River With Wavelet Network
Model. Springer Science Water Resour Manage,
27912803.
Yu-Min Wang

and Seydou Traore.(2009). Time-
lagged Recurrent Network for Forecasting
Episodic Event Suspended Sediment Load in
Typhoon Prone Area. International Journal of
Physical Sciences, Vol. 4 No.9, 519-528.

Acknowledgement
The authors are thankful to command area
development authority, Aurangabad, Maharashtra
state, India. For providing necessary data for the
analysis.

Table 7 Result Summary of ANN Models

Model

% Training
& Testing

Network &
Transfer
function

Learning
algorithm

Epochs

Testing result

NMSE

MAE

r

ANN (2-20-1)

70:30

MLP (TA-TA)

LM

25

0.129

128.436

0.94

ANN (2-25-1)

70:30

GFFNN (TA-TA)

LM

27

0.141

115.284

0.92

ANN (2-6-4-1)

70:30

MNN (TA-SA)

LM

37

0.127

90.3969

0.93

ANN (2-12-1)

70:30

J/ENN (TA-SA)

LM

18

0.138

115.038

0.93

ANN (2-15-1)

70:30

TLRN (TA-TA)

LM

27

0.174

149.169

0.92

ANN (2-0-1)

70:30

CANFIS

LM

481

0.204

136.211

0.89

.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

FLOOD FORECASTING SYSTEM IN KOSI BASIN

L. B. Roy
Associate Professor & Head, Civil Engineering Department, NIT Patna, Ashok Rajpath, Patna 800 005 (India), Email:
lalbahadurroy@yahoo.co.in,
Sunil Kumar
Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Muzaffarpur, Bihar, email: sunil_mit1@yahoo.in
Jay Prakash Kumar
Research Scholar,MIT Muzaffarpur, B. R. Ambedkar Bihar University, Muzaffarpur, Bihar

ABSTRACT: Flood Forecasting System, which is reducing the flood damages by giving timely warning, is
now fully realized, although it can in no way prevent the recurrence of flood. The real time flood forecasting is
one of the most effective non-structural measures for flood management. For formulation the flood forecast in
the real time, observed meteorological and flow data are transmitted to the forecasting stations through different
means of data communication which include telephone, wireless and network of telemetry stations etc. The
collected meteorological and flow data in real time are then used into the calibrated & validation real time flood
forecasting model to forecast the flood flow and corresponding water level for different lead periods varying
from few hours to few days depending on the size of catchment and purpose of forecast. Structure of the model
should be simple and it should not have excessive input requirements, but the same time the forecast flood must
be as accurate as possible. The Central Forecasting Organization of CWC has been conducting the flood
forecasting work in Kosi river system since 1970. At present there are three forecasting sites on the river Kosi,
,namely Basua, Baltara and Kursela with two base station at Barahkshetra and Birpur barrage. All these sites are
equipped with wireless system for efficient communication purpose. The method of forecasting is practically on
the basis of gauge to gauge co-relation among these stations in the network.

INTRODUCTION
Flood and drainage are the two vital interrelated
problems of this poverty stricken state of Bihar,
particularly in North Bihar. The north Bihar plains
are drained by some Himalayan rivers and the
Ganges being the trunk drain. These rivers are
perennial as these are rain fed as well as snow fed.
Important rivers of North Bihar include the Kosi, the
Gandak, the Baghmati, the Burhi Gandak, the
Kamala, the Kamala Balan, the Mahananda and few
others. All these rivers have relatively youthful
topography and are engaged in channel deepening.
They move parallel to the Ganges in the south-cast
direction and then drain into it. The rainfall in North
Bihar is monsoonal in character and its distribution
shows wide temporal and spatial variation. Rainfall
is confined to few months and is higher in north-
eastern part. This variation in rainfall distribution
causes frequent floods in North Bihar, huge losses to
crops as large areas are inundated every year.
Obviously the principal cause of recurrent flood is
heavy and erratic rainfall and inadequate drainage.
Hence, flood forecasting system in such rivers e. g.
Kosi may prove to be an effective means to
overcome the flood damages in the basin. Flood
problem of India and the Flood damages of India are
given in Table 1 and Table 2 respectively.
Flood forecasting may be defined as the process of
estimating the future stages or flows and its time
sequence at selected points along the river during
floods. Flood forecast refers to prediction of the
crest and its time of occurrence and logical extension
to the stages of river above as specified water level
called Warring level. This warning level is
generally 1 meter below the danger line fixed in
consultation with the beneficiary i.e. the concerning
state authority.
Utility of Forecast
Utility of forecast is dependent on both accuracy and
time of prediction. At the time of issue of the
forecast, the value and utility of the forecast can be
considered to be zero. The entire operation of the
Flood Forecasting Service has to he planned around a
time-factor keeping in view the following factors:
(a) Availability of Operational data
The operational data being generally poor and
incomplete, a compromise between a theoretical
desirable and operationa1ly available is required.
(b) Adoption of Appropriate Technique
The use of appropriate techniques or methods to
meet the requirements of accuracy and period of
warning to different locations are required

Table 1: Flood Problem of India
SI No Items Areas/states/bas
in
1 Geographical Area 329 m ha
2 Total Flood Prone Area
As Assessed by RBA
As reported by the State to the
working group on flood control

40 m ha


programme for 10
th
five year plan 45.65 m ha
3 Major Flood Prone States Assam, Bihar,
West Bengal,
UP, Orissa, A.P.
4 Major Flood Prone Basin Ganga,
Brahmputra,Mah
anda River

Table 2: Flood Damages (India) During 1953-2005
SI
No
Items Average Maximum
(Year)
1. Area Affected
(Million Hectare)
7.55 17.50 (1978)
2. Crop Affected
(Million Hectare)
3.54 10.15 (1988)
3. Population
Affected (Crores)
3.286 7.045 (1978)
4. Human Lives
Lost (Nos)
1,589 11,316
(1977)
5. Cattle Lost (Nos) 94,839 6,18,248
(1979)
6. House Damages
(Nos)
12,17,918 35,07,542
(1978)
7. Value of
Damages to
Crops (Crores)
710.63 4246.62
(2000)
8. Value of
Damages to
House (Crores)
270.59 1307.89
(1995)
9. Value of
Damages to
Public Utility
(Crores)
820.75 5604.46
(2001)
10. Values of
Damages to
Crops and Public
Houses (Crores)
1805.18 8864.54
(2000)

(c) Dissemination of Forecast
Dissemination of forecast is equally important as
accuracy. There should be an efficient arrangement
for dissemination of the forecast. Attempts should be
made to convey the forecast/warning to the authority
concerned so that they get adequate time to organize
necessary measures, if required in the light of the
forecast issued.
Methods of Flood Forecasting
On the basis of the analytical approach for
development of the forecasting model, the method of
flood forecasting can be classified as:
1. Methods based on statistical approach and
2. Methods based on mechanism of formation and
propagation of flood.
In the first category, the forecasting methods which
are generally graphical or in the form of
mathematical relationship, are developed with the
help of historical data, using the statistical analysis.
These include simple gauge to gauge relationships,
with some additional parameters and rainfall-peak
stage relationship etc. These relationships can be
easily developed and are most commonly used in
India as well as other countries of the world.
But the most systematic approach for development of
forecasting model will be one which is based on the
concept regarding the mechanism of formulation and
propagation of flood i.e. transformation of rainfall
falling over the basin into run off, its time
distribution and further propagation down below.
Based on the data used for formulation of forecast,
the various methods of flood forecasting can be
classified in three major groups
1. Forecast on the basis of stage-discharge data,
2. Rainfall-runoff methods and
3. Meteorological methods.
FLOOD FORECASTING SYSTEMS EXISTING
IN THE KOSI RIVER
The Central Water Commission has a good network
for the forecast of flood in river Kosi and its
tributaries under the Middle Ganga Division IV,
Patna. Information relating Rain gauges, river
gauges, communication network and methods
adopted for forecasting is being described below.
Rain Gauge Network
A network of 10 Nos. of raingauges in the plains
serves for the real-time data input in the flood
forecasting operations during flood season. These
raingauges are ordinary as well as self-recording
type. Most of raingauges are installed by Flood
Meteorological Organization (FMD) of the IMD, and
upkeep of the instruments are their responsibility.
However the observations are made by CWC
officials. The list of various rain gauge stations being
maintained for forecasting is given in Table- 3
River Gauge Network
The 15 nos. of hydrological stations on Kosi and its
tributaries are functioning under Middle Ganga
Division IV of CWC Distributions of these stations
are given in Table- 4. In addition to these stations
at least 67 gauge and discharge sites are reported to
be in operation under Irrigation Department of Govt.
of Bihar
Communication Network
The wireless communications, a vital operational
component in flood forecasting activities, are used
for real time transmission of data & flood
information etc. Means of communication being used
to communicate information of flood are given
below.


1. CWC wireless network
2. Custom and Central Excise wireless network
3. Bihar Police wireless network
4. Inter State Police Wireless network
5. Telephone
6. Telegrams
7. Special Messenger
Description of wireless sets at various stations in
plain of Kosi, maintained by Middle Gang.: Division
IV CWC is given in Table- 5.
METHODS OF FLOOD FORECASTING USED
BY CWC IN THE BASIN
Method based on statistical approach has been used
to analyze the historical data with an objective to
develop methods for the formulation of flood
forecasts. The methods thus developed have been
presented in the form of graphical
relations/mathematical equations. a large number of
data covering a wide range of conditions have been
analyzed to derive the relationship between gauge to
gauge relationship with or without parameters and
rainfall-peak relationship.
Methodology
The variables which affect the stage at forecasting
site are identified and mathematical relationship thus
established between the stage at forecasting site and
the identified variables (Chander S and Prasad T.,
1981). The probable variables which used to affect at
forecasting points are given below.
(a) Stage and Discharge of the base station,
(b) Change in stage and discharge of the base
station,
(c) Travel time at various stages,
d) The rainfall (amount, intensity and duration)., in
the intercepting catchment.
(e) Topography, nature of vegetation etc.
(f) The climatic and atmospheric conditions,
(g) Stage and discharge of any tributary joining the
main stream between base and forecasting stations.
Factors (a) to (c) being the basic parameters have
been used in the development of the correlation
curves and factor (g), being very important, has been
considered where required.
Direct Correlation between Gauges at U/S and
D/S
Correlation between N
th
hour stage of base station
and (N+T)
th
hour stage of the forecasting station,
where T hours (T=Time of travels of flood wave
between the base station and forecasting site) is
developed and used. This method helps to tide over
errors due to aggradation or degradation in the
forecasting station.
Also, correlation between the change in stage of the
forecasting station and change in the stage of base
stations during T hours (T = Time of travel of flood
wave between the base station and forecasting site).
is developed and used This method helps to tide over
errors due to aggradation or degradation in the river
section depending upon flows.
Further, correlation between the N hour and (N+T)
hour stages of the forecasting station with change in
stages at the base station during past T hours as
variable is also used and mathematical equations are
developed corresponding to rising and falling
conditions of the river.
In tributary like Kamala Balan, where wide
fluctuations in the stages of the upstream station
causes relatively identical/less fluctuations at the
downstream station due to valley storage in between
the base and forecasting stations, relationship has
been established between N
th
and hour (N+T)
th
hour
stage of the forecasting site with change in the stage
of the forecasting site in the past T hours and
average gauge of the base station. .
The mathematical equation developed is based on the
fact that it should have fairly constant travel time &
having considerable discharge & no major tributary
between the reach.
Table 3: Rain Gauge Stations in the Kosi Basin for
Flood Forecasting (CWC, 1989 & 1992)
Sl.
N.
Name
of
Station

Location Freq. Type
Longitude Latitude
1. Birpur 8700E 2625N Hourly Ord/
SR
2. Basua 8636E 2607N Hourly Ord/
SR
3. Baltara 8650E 2530N Hourly Ord/
SR
4. Kursela 8716E 2530N Hourly Ord/
SR
Kamla Balan River
5. Jainagar 8614
E
26.34
N
Daily Ord/
SR
6. Jhanjhar
pur
8640
E
2616N Hourly Ord/
SR
7. Balan 8620
E
2637
N
Hourly Qrd/
SR


Sl.
N.
Name
of
Station

Location Freq. Type
Longitude Latitude
Adhwara Group Rivers
-
8.

Sonbarsa

8530
E

2625
N

Hourly

Ord/
S.R.
9. Saulighat 8550
E
2625
N
Hourly Ord/
S.R.
10. Kamtaul 8548
E
2610
N
Hourly Ord/
S.R

However, in North Bihar rivers, the travel time is not
constant and varies with water level and found to
give considerable errors under different conditions.
Therefore, while issuing forecasts, the following
aspects are taken into account:
(i) The variation in travel time,
(ii) Varying conditions during rising and falling
stages of the flood.
(iii) Characteristics of flood wave,
Table 4: Gauge sites on Kosi and its Tributaries for
Flood Forecasting CWC, 1989 & 1992)
S.
N.
Name of the
Site
Danger
Level
Highest
Level
Flood
Level
Year
Bagmati River
1. Benibad 48.68 49.66 1987
2. Hayaghat 45.72 48.96 1987
3. Runisaidpur 53.73 54.46 1987
4. Dheng bridge 70.10 72.00 1975
Kamla Balan River
5. Jhanjharpur 50.00 52.73 1987
6. Jainagar 67.75 71.35 1965
7. Balan H/W 75.34 79.56 1987
Adhawara group River
8. Kamtaul 50.00 52.99 1987
9. Ekmighat 46.94 49.27 1987
10. Sonbarsa 80.66 82.60 1987
11. Solighat 52.37 54.90 1987
Kosi River
12. Basua 47.75 48.65 1987
14. Karsela 30.00 31.85 1978
S.
N.
Name of the
Site
Danger
Level
Highest
Level
Flood
Level
Year
15. Barahachatra 120.30 132.18 1968
16. Birpur 74.70 75.53 1990

Therefore, precisely the travel time characteristics of
the North Bihar rivers can be put in three distinct
categories:
(a) For rivers in the upper reaches, the travels time
increases uniformly with the increase in flood
stage as the rivers are very shallow and has less
water carrying channel capacity.
(b) The rivers in the middle reaches have got a
constant travel time as the river water remains
confined to its banks.
(c) As soon as the flood water starts spilling over
banks in flat plains, there is large increase in
travel time for even very small increase in flood
stage due to the inundation on both sides of the
river getting large.

Table 5: Wireless Network in the Kosi Basin (CWC,
1989 & 1992)
Sl.
No.
River Station
No.
of
sets
Type
of set
1. Bagmati Runisaidpur - -
2. Bagmati Benibad 1 15
watt
3. Bagmati Hayaghat - -
4. Adhwara
Group
Sonebarsa - -
5. Adhwara
Group
Kamtaul 1 15
watt
6. Adhwara
Group
Saulighat - -
7. Kamla
Balan
Jainagar 1 15
watt
8. Kamla
Balan
Jhanjharpur 1 20
watt
9. Kamla
Balan
Balan - -
10. Kosi Birpur 1 15
watt
11. Kosi Basua 1 20
watt
12. Kosi Baltara 1 15


Sl.
No.
River Station
No.
of
sets
Type
of set
watt
13. Kosi Kursela 1 15
watt

Mathematical Relationship
With the synopsis as generalized above, method and
mathematical equations used for individual
forecasting stations under Middle Ganga Division
IV, CWC, Patna, are given below
Equation for Basua
Basua is the first forecasting site on the river Kosi
where co-relation between change in discharge with
change in gauge at Barahkshetra base station and
corresponding gauge observations at Basua is
developed having time of travel i.e warning time is
24 hours. However the warning time at Basua
forecasting site is reduced to 16 hours when co-
relationship of discharge released and gauge
observation at Birpur barrage and corresponding
stages at Basua established and the mathematical
equation developed for this forecasting site as follow.
a. For Rising Stage
BAS
N+T
= BAS
N
+ 0.64607(BIR
N
- BIR
N
.-
T
)
0.86851

b. For Falling Stage
BAS
N+T
= BAS
N
0.64607(BIR
N-T
- BIR
N
)
0.86851

Where, BAS
N
& BAS
N+T
are Gauge at Basua at
N
th
&
hour (N+T)
th
respectively
and BIR
N &
BIR
N-T
are

Gauge at Birpur at N
th

& ((N-T)
th
hour respectively.
T = Travel time, 16 hours.
Equation for Baltara (Kosi)
Baltara is the second station on the river Kosi having
co-relations of gauge observation between Basua and
Baltara. The river Bagmati along with river Kamla-
Balan meets the river Kosi at a point which is
slightly upstream of Baltara so the gauge at Hayaghat
site on the river Bagmati is also co-related with the
gauge at Baltara which gives another parameters for
forecasting at this site.
Forecasting for this site is done with due change in
gauge at base station Basua during the past T hours
in the 1st quadrant and incorporating the change in
stage at the tributary base station Hayaghat during
past {(N-10)-(N-28)} hours in the second quadrant.
Travel time from (i) Basua to Baltara is 18 hours, &
(ii) Hayaghat to Baltara is 28 hours.
Case I- Basua & Hayaghat both Rising
BAL
N+T
= BAL
N
+ 0.875876 ( * BAS)
1.123508

+ 0.9376 (* HAY)
1.302
Case II- Basua Rising & Hayaghat Falling:
BAL
N+T
= BAL
N
+ 0.875876 ( * BAS)
1.123508
+ 0.5 (* HAY)

Case III- Basua Falling & Hayaghat Rising:
BAL
N+T
= BAL
N
+ 0.7 ( * BAS)

+ 0.9376 (*
HAY)
1.30

Case IV- B.asua & Hayaghat both Failing:
BAL
N+T
= BAL
N
- 0.7 ( * BAS)

+-0.5 (* HAY)
Where,
BAL
N
& BAL
N+T
= Gauge at BALTARA at N
th
&
(N+T)
th
hour
respectively
(*BAS) = Change in Gauge at BASUA during
past
T hours.
(*HAY) = Change in Gauge at Hayaghat during
past
T hours.

Equation for Kursela (Kosi)
Kursela is the third and the last forecasting site on
river Kosi. The gauges at Kursela are influenced by
the back water effect of Ganga. Accounting for this
aspect, a two quadrant graph is being used. The base
stations are, Hathidah on Ganga & Basu (Kosi). The
travel time for the forecast reach is as given below:
(i) Basua to Kursela is 26 hours &
(ii) Hathidah to Kursela varies from 20 to 45 hours.
The mathematical equation for the forecasting site is
as follow
Case I- Hathidah & Basua Both Rising:
KUR
N+T
= KUR
N
+ 0.7143 (*HTD) + 0.5 (*BAS)

Case II- Hathidah & Basua both Falling:
KUR
N+T
= KUR
N
+ 0.75 (*HTD) + 0.5 (*BA5)
Case III- Hathidah Rising & Basua Falling:
KUR
N+T
= KUR
N
+ 0.7143 (*HTD) + 0.5 (*BAS)


Case IV- Hathidah Falling & Basua Rising:
KUR
N+T
= KUR
N
+ 0.75 (*HTD) + 0.5 (*BAS)
Where.
KUR
N+T
& KUR
N
= Gauge at Kursela at
(N+T )
th
& N
th
hours respectively
(*HTD = Change in Hathidah gauge during
Past T hours
(*BAS) = Change in Basua gauge during
Past T hours

CONCLUSIONS
Flood forecasting has proved to be of great help in
issuing warning to the people in flood prone areas
,organizing flood fighting and safety measures for
the engineering works, timely evacuation of people
from affected area, salvation of movable properties
besides mobilizing relief operations as per IWRS
(2001),.
It has come to the notice that the overall performance
of the forecasting made at all these three stations
have been found to be quite satisfactory when
compared with the actual gauge level. However, the
forecasting can be improved by increasing the
warning time if more gauge discharge sites being
established by CWC in the upper reach of the river in
Nepal portion start functioning.
Although there is wide appreciation of Flood
Forecasting System and Warning issued by CWC,
there is very little feedback on the procedures
specified or evolved by the civil administration and
the engineering organization for undertaking
relief/rescue/ precautionary action on the basis of the
forecast. It is also not known as to how effectively
the necessary advice is being given to the people.
On receipt of the forecast, its dissemination to the
local population in terms of likely depth of
inundation and its duration in the areas by the
administrative authorities is very important so that
affected population, cattle, movable properties etc.
are evacuated before the area gets submerged by the
flood waters which cause damage. For this, a
network of wireless stations and telephone system
are necessary in the basin near critical/vulnerable
reaches of embankment and towns etc. especially
where other means of communications are not
dependable or adequate. Flood Warning to smaller
areas in villages may be conveyed through public
address system or in its absence by beat of drum.
Specific advice should be given to the people
regarding evacuation the areas likely to be affected
and also about the locations which could be
considered safe for the level indicated in the flood
forecast .Necessary training in this regard should be
imparted to the concerned officials on a regular basis
so that they are well versed in the interpretation of
the forecast and taking precautionary measures in the
event of an imminent threat to the life and property.
This training programme should become regular
features before the flood season every year as per
Second Bihar State Irrigation Commission Report,
(1994).
REFERENCES
Central Water Commission, (1989), Manual on
Flood Forecasting, River Management Wing,
New Delhi.
Central Water Commission, (1992), Manual on
Flood Forecasting, New Delhi.
Chander S and Prasad T., (1981), Forecasting and
Prediction of Floods, Indo- US Workshop on
Flood Mitigation, New Delhi.
IWRS, (2001), Theme Paper on Management of
Floods and Droughts Indian Water Resources
Society, Roorkee.
Second Bihar State Irrigation Commission Report,
(1994), Flood and Drainage Problem of Bihar
and Their Remedial Measures, Volume V,
Patna.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

PUSHOVER ANALYSIS OF RCC BUILDING WITH AND WITHOUT
INFILL WALL

R. E. Dalvi
Post Graduate student, Structural Engineering Department, V.J.T.I.,Mumbai-400019,
Email: ranjud123@gmail.com , ranjana_dalvi@yahoo.co.in

ABSTRACT: A large number of buildings in India are constructed with masonry infills for functional and
architectural reasons. Masonry infills are normally considered as non-structural elements and their stiffness
contributions are generally ignored in practice. However, infill walls tend to interact with the frame when the
structure is subjected to lateral loads. In the present study, effect of masonry infill wall on frame structure
building is studied along with mass irregularity at ground and 5th story level. Pushover analysis is carried out on
G+7 story rectangular 3D frame RCC building using nonlinear analyses option of commercial software
SAP2000(V.14.2).The building elements first design according to the IS456:2000. Both geometric and material
nonlinearity is considered in the structure. For nonlinear analysis, hinges assign to beam and column. The
diagonal strut approach is adopted for modeling of masonry infill walls as compression only member with pin
joint at the both ends. Presence of masonry infill wall alters displacements and base shear of the frame. Masonry
infill walls increase global stiffness and strength of the structure. But discontinuous and irregular arrangement of
infill wall drastically changes the failure mechanisms of building frame.

INTRODUCTION
A large number of buildings in India are constructed
with masonry infills for functional and architectural
reasons. In buildings, the ordinarily occurring vertical
loads, dead or live do not pose much of a problem, but
the lateral loads due to earthquake tremors area matter
of great concern and need special consideration in the
design of buildings. These lateral forces can produce
the critical stress in a structure, set up undesirable
vibrations and in addition, cause lateral sway of the
structure which can reach a stage of discomfort to the
occupants. In many countries situated in seismic
regions, reinforced concrete frames are infilled fully
or partially by brick masonry panels with or without
openings.

Masonry infills are normally considered as non-
structural elements and their stiffness contributions
are generally ignored in practice. However, infill
walls tend to interact with the frame when the
structure is subjected to lateral loads, and also exhibit
energy-dissipation characteristics under seismic
loading. Masonry walls contribute to the stiffness of
the infill under the action of lateral load. The term
infilled frame is used to denote a composite
structure formed by the combination of a moment
resisting plane frame and infill walls. The composite
behaviour of an infilled frame imparts lateral stiffness
and strength to the building.
Normally, infill walls are not connected to
surrounding RC columns and beams. When columns
receive horizontal forces at floor levels, they try to
move in the horizontal direction, but masonry walls
tend to resist this movement. Due to their heavy
weight and thickness, these walls attract rather large
horizontal forces. Infill walls are behaves like
compression strut in moment resisting RC frame
However, since masonry is a brittle material, these
walls develop cracks once their ability to carry
horizontal load is exceeded. Thus, infill walls
develop cracks under severe ground shaking but help
share the load of the beams and columns until
cracking. Although the infill panels significantly
enhance both the stiffness and strength of the frame,
their contribution is often not taken into account
because of the lack of knowledge of the composite
behavior of the frame and the infill.

Masonry infill wall panels increase strength, stiffness,
overall ductility and energy dissipation of the
building. More importantly, they help in drastically
reducing the deformation and ductility demand on RC
frame members. This explains the excellent
performance of many such buildings in moderate
earthquakes even when the buildings were not
designed or detailed for earthquake forces. The
reinforcement in the infills does not contribute
significantly towards stiffness and strength; in fact, it
may lead to reduction in stiffness and strength due to
increased mortar thickness in the layers containing the
reinforcement. However, the reinforcement helps in
improving the post-cracking behaviour of the
masonry and in preventing out-of-plane collapse.

Conversely there is a common misconception for infill
wall that it increase the overall lateral load carrying
capacity. This would lead to undesirable performance
of moment resisting frames because the infill which
was not considered during design stage would modify
the inherent of RC frame members. As a consequence,
failure in different forms would be the result due to
additional loads on the stiffened members
The present study is investigates the contribution of
infill walls to the buildings seismic response.
Hypothetical eight-storeyed RCC frame buildings
with brick masonry infills are considered for the
present study. Different type of infill arrangements
considered in plan and elevation of building. Pushover
analysis for bare framed and infilled framed RCC
building is carried out with mass irregularities in
structure.

STRUCTURAL MODEL DETAILS
A 8 story RCC frame building is analyzed using
sap2000 (nonlinear version 14) Building dimension is
16mX12m. Beam size is 230X450 mm and column
size is 600X400 mm for ground, 1, 2 story and
450X400 is used for 3
rd
to 5
th
story. Slab thickness is
120mm. Typical story height is 3m. Bay width is 4m
in X direction and 3m in Y direction.

Material Properties
The grade of concrete used M20 for beam and M25
for column having Young modulus 22360 N/mm
2
and
25000 N/mm
2
respectively with Poissons Ratio 0.2.
Grade of Steel used Fe 415 having, Youngs Modulus
2.1 x 10
5
N/mm
2
and Poissons Ratio 0.3. Unit weight
Bricks masonry is 20 KN/m
3
and Youngs Modulus
2530 N/mm
2
with Poissons Ratio 0.15 .The modulus
of brick masonry is obtained using FEMA 356(2000)
recommendations i.e Em = 550fm where fm is
compressive strength of brick masonry.

Loading data
The building frame is subjected to dead load of 1
KN/m
2
on floor 1.5 KN/m
2
on roof and live load of 4
KN/m
2
on floor and 2 KN/m
2
on roof. The structure is
considered to located in the Indian seismic zone IV
with hard soil strata. Response Reduction Factor (R)
of 5 is considered for design the structural system (IS
1893:2000-Part I) consistent with the code.
Importance Factor for building is taken as 1.

Equivalent Lateral load pattern: IS 1893 (part I),
2002
This method uses the equivalent lateral forces due to
fundamental period of vibrations. The code lateral
load shape represents the forces obtained from the
predominant mode of the vibration and uses the
parabolic distribution of lateral forces along the height
of the building. The following expression has been
used to calculate the load pattern as per IS 1893 (Part-
I): 2002.
V
B
= A
h
W (1)

(2)

Where,
V
B
= Design Base Shear as per IS 1893(Part-I): 2002
Ah = Design horizontal acceleration spectrum value
as per IS 1893(Part-I): 2002
W= Seismic weight of the building as per 7.4.2.
Qi = Lateral Force at Floor i ,
Wi = Seismic weight of floor i ,
hi = Height of floor i measured from base and
n = Number of storey in the building.

Calculation of Width of Diagonal Strut
Formula used for width calculation for the equivalent
diagonal compression strut member is as given in the
FEMA 356 (7.5.2.1)
a=0.175(
1
h
col
)
0.4
r
inf
(3)
Where

h
col
= Column height between centerlines of beams, m
h
inf
= Height of infill panel, m.
E
fe
= Expected modulus of elasticity of frame
material, kN/m
2

E
me
= Expected modulus of elasticity of infill
material, kN/m
2

I
col
= Moment of inertia of column, m
4

L
inf
= Length of infill panel, m
r
inf
= Diagonal length of infill panel, m.
t
inf
= Thickness of infill panel and equivalent strut, m

Both material and geometric nonlinearity is
considered in analyses which are available in
SAP2000. Plastic hinges assign to beam (M3) and
column (PM2M3) and tension limit taken as zero in
equivalent diagonal strut member. P-delta effects are
considered in analysis.

PARAMETRIC STUDY
Typical pushover analysis is achieved using
displacement control strategy, where in the whole
structure is pushed to evaluate the seismic
performance of the buildings using preselected lateral
load pattern until the roof displacement reaches the
target value. In addition to these lateral loadings the
structures are subjected to dead loads and live loads.
The results of various models were discussed
separately to have proper comparison with that of the
bare frame model.

Following different models are analyzed using
sap2000
Model I : Bare frame
Model II : Masonry infill are arranged in outer
periphery
Model III: Masonry infill are arranged in symmetric
manner
Model IV: Masonry infill are arranged in
unsymmetrical manner
These models are analyzed with following cases.
1. Without soft story
2. Soft story at ground floor
3. Soft story at 5
th
floor

These models are as follows:

Figure 1: Elevation- CASE 1 Figure 2 : Elevation- CASE 2 Figure 3 :Elevation- CASE 3

Figure 4: Plan Model 1 Figure 5: Plan Model 2 Figure 6: Plan Model 3 Figure 7: Plan Model 4

OBSERVATION TABLES
Case 1 : Without soft story
Table 1: Linear analysis for earthquake loading , CASE1
Model No. 1 2 3 4
Fundamental time
period(sec)
1.19 0.8404 0.8482 0.8890
Roof
displacement(m)
0.0201 0.0082 0.00892 0.00898

Table 2: Pushover analysis, CASE1
Model No. 1 2 3 4
IO
Base Reaction(KN) 1312.12 3197.12 2825.04 2782.88
Roof displacement(m) 0.0350 0.03434 0.03256 0.03234
LS
Base Reaction(KN) 1976.35 6099.68 5804.26 6085.48
CP
Base Reaction(KN) 2210.58 6704.4 6242.97 6153.38

CASE 2 : With soft story at ground level
Table 3: Linear analysis for earthquake loading, CASE 2
Model No. 2 3 4
Fundamental time period(sec) 0.8799 0.8816 0.9233
Roof displacement(m) 0.008628 0.009291 0.009314

Table 4: Pushover analysis, CASE 2
Model No. Model No 2 3 4
IO
Base Reaction(KN) 2579.98 2428.6 2412.185
LS
Base Reaction(KN) 5895.87 5529.42 5401.6
CP
Base Reaction(KN) 5918.113 5592.12 5632.0


CASE 3 : With soft story at 5
th
story level
Table 5: Linear analysis for earthquake loading , CASE 3
Model No. 2 3 4
Fundamental time
period(sec)
0.8352 0.8358 0.8739

Table 6: Pushover analysis, CASE 3
Model No. Model No 2 3 4
IO
Base Reaction(KN) 2098.95 1783.70 1779.03
LS
Base Reaction(KN) 4951.16 4509.54 4482.60
CP
Base Reaction(KN) 5203.76 5169.67 4839.81

CONCLUSION
The based on above results, the following conclusion
are drawn.
Fundamental time period reduces with
introduction of infill wall in RC frame panel.
Presence of masonry infill wall also alters
displacements and base shear of the frame.
Masonry infill walls increase global stiffness
and strength of the structure.
Presence of masonry infill wall reduces the
ductility of the structure.
If infill wall arrange unsymmetrically,
Reduction in fundamental time period
decreases
Increase in base shear reduces.
Reduction in displacement also decreases.
When there is a mass irregularity in the structure,
Consideration of infill wall drastically
changes the failure mechanisms of building
frame.
Failure of frame elements takes place at level
where change in infill pattern is occur.
Increase in base shear decreases as compared
to symmetric and continuous infill wall
arrangement.

REFERENCES
V R Murty and Sudhir K Jain (2000), Beneficial
Influence of Masonry Infill Walls On Seismic

Performance of Rc Frame Buildings 12th World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Paper No.
1790
Robin Davis, Praseetha Krishnan1, Devdas Menon, .
Meher Prasad, (2004) Effect Of Infill Stiffness On
Seismic Performance Of Multi-Storey Rc Framed
Buildings In India 13th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, Paper No. 1198
Kasm Armagan Korkmaz, Fuat and Mustafa (2007)
Earthquake Assessment Of R/C Structures With

Masonry Infill Walls , International Journal of
Science & Technology Volume 2, No 2, 155-164
Kashif Mahmud , Md. Rashadul Islam and Md. Al-
Amin (2007) Study The Reinforced Concrete
Frame With Brick Masonry Infill Due To Lateral
Loads , International Journal of Civil &
Environmental Engineering IJCEE-IJENS Vol: 10
No: 04
MatjaZ DolSek_, Peter Fajfar (2008),The Effect Of
Masonry Infills On The Seismic Response Of A
Four-Storey Reinforced Concrete FrameA
Deterministic Assessment Engineering Structures
30
Sujatha , Jiji Anna Varughese, Bindhu K.R.(2009),
The Influence Of Masonry Infill In Rc Multi-
Storey Buildings , 10th National Conference on
Technological Trends
S.M. Wilkinson , R.A. Hiley (2006) A Non-Linear
Response History Model For The Seismic Analysis
Of High-Rise Framed Buildings Computers and
Structures 84
Combescure, D. et al. (1995). Modelling of the in-
plane behaviour of masonry infilled frames.
European Seismic Design Practice, Rotterdam,
Balkema
Haddad, M. H. E. (1991). "Finite element analysis of
infilled frames considerng cracking and separation
phenomena." Computers & Structures 41(3): 439-
447.
Polyakov, S. (1960). "On the Intereaction between
Masonry Filler Walls and Enclosing Frame when
Loaded in the Plane of the wall."
Holmes, M. (1961). Steel Frame with Brickwork and
Concrete Infilling
Stafford Smith, B. (1962). "Lateral stiffness of Infilled
Frames." 182-197.
Stafford Smith, B. (1966). "Behaviour of Square
Infilled Frame
Mainstone, R. J. (1971). On the Stiffness and Strength
of infilled frames: 57-90
Mallick, D. V. & Garg, R. P. (1971). Effects of
openings on the lateral stiffness of the infilled
frames. Institute of Civil; engineering

Asteris, P. (2003). "Lateral stiffness of brick masonry
infilled plane frames." Structural Engineering 129:
1071-1080
IS code 1893:2000 ( Part1)
Applied Technology Council, ATC-40. Seismic
evaluation and retrofit of concrete buildings, vols. 1
& 2. California; 1996
FEMA-356, (2000). Prestandards and commentary
for Seismic rehabilitation of buildings
Pankaj Agarwal And Manish Shrikhande , A Book
Of Earthquake Resistance Design Of Structures
Anil K. Chopra, A Book of Dynamic Of Structure

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7
DEFORMATION AND STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF FLY ASH
ADDED SOILS

Tapas Das
Post Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati - 781039
Email: d.tapas@iitg.ernet.in
Baleshwar Singh
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039
Email: baleshwar@iitg.ernet.in

ABSTRACT: At present, for various types of construction, engineers are forced to lay foundation on soft
ground. The characteristics of soft ground are low strength, instability, high total settlement and differential
settlement. Ground improvement by treating soft soil with various types of industrial by-products and binders is
an attractive alternative and often economical compared to other ground improvement methods. Addition of
industrial by-products and binder alters the engineering properties of the existing soil to create a new site
material which is capable of enhancing strength. In India there are many industrial by-products, which are being
dumped as waste material, creating disposal problem and pollution hazard. Fly ash is a by-product of the
combustion of pulverized coal in thermal power plants. Geotechnical use of fly ash with soil provides viable
solutions for its large-scale disposal and utilization. Efforts have been made by different researchers in the
laboratory to understand the effect of fly ash addition on soils. This paper presents a review of the studies on
deformation and strength characteristics of fly ash added soils.

INTRODUCTION
Coal-based electrical power production has an
important role over the world. The combustion of coal
is used throughout the world to raise steam for power
generation. About 80-90% of the ash formed from the
burnt coal is carried out of the furnace, extracted from
the flue gas and is known as fly ash. The remaining
coarser fraction falls to the bottom of the furnace
where it sinters together to become the bottom ash.
The quantity of fly ash produced depends on different
factors such as the quality of coal, degree of
pulverization, furnace design, changes in coal supply,
changes in boiler load, and firing conditions. The
structure, composition and properties of the fly ash
particles depend upon the structure and composition
of the coal and the combustion processes by which the
fly ash is formed.

In addition to the fossilised organic matter, coal
contains an appreciable amount of inorganic material
in the form of quartz, clay and fine-grained minerals.
Fly ashes are mainly classified in two groups, C and
F classes. When fly ash consists of more than 10%
CaO, the fly ash is categorized as class C. Class C
ashes which are produced from lignite coals have
more pozzolanic and cementing activity than class F
ashes which are produced from bituminous coals.
Both types are available in India.

The increase in the demand for power has led to the
commissioning of large coal-fired power stations in
India. The generation of fly ash at present is about 100
million tons per year, but its use is less than 10%. The
management and disposal of the remaining huge
quantity of fly ash has created tremendous
environmental problems. Bulk use of fly ash or fly
ash/soil mixtures is possible in geotechnical
engineering applications such as construction of
embankments, dams, back-fill material behind
retaining walls, base or sub-base material and land fill
reclamation (Joshi & Nagaraj 1987). The advantages
of using fly ash in geotechnical applications are its
low unit weight, high shear strength (Sridharan et al.
1998), low compressibility, low specific gravity
(Pandian et al. 1998), insensitivity to moisture
variation and pozzolanic nature (Sivapullaiah et al.
1998), which could result in significant engineering
benefits in addition to facilitating mass disposal of fly
ash. The effectiveness and economy of using fly ash
has been explored by researchers.

Several research works and studies have already been
carried out to improve soil strength with the addition
of fly ash. In this paper an attempt has been made to
review the effects of fly ash addition on deformation
and strength characteristics of soils.

FLY ASH PROPERTIES
Since rock detritus or mineral matter in coal is likely
to vary from one coal to another, variations are to be
expected between ashes. Further variations are
introduced by the actual firing process, the degree of
pulverization the coal receives, the type of furnace,
and the firing conditions. At thermal power plants, the
amount of producing fly ash trapped from chimney
gasses mainly depend on the level of the technology
of the plant, which is about 15% of the coal burnt.

Mineralogical and Chemical Properties
The majority of mineral matter consists of clays,
pyrite and calcite. More than 85% of most fly ashes
consist of glassy and crystalline compounds formed
by the thermal treatment of minerals. In considering
the composition of fly ashes, a convenient division
based on their chemical nature can be made, notably
between those derived from sub-bituminous and
lignite coal sources and those derived from
bituminous coal. Sub-bituminous and lignite coal
ashes are characterised by a relatively high proportion
of CaO and MgO to Fe
2
O
3
, as distinct from
bituminous coal ash, which is usually low in CaO and
MgO and relatively rich in Fe
2
O
3
. Some of the coal
particles remain unburned and are collected with the
fly ash as carbon particles. The amount of unburned
coal is determined by such factors as the rate of
combustion, the air/fuel ratio and the degree of
pulverization of the coal. Typical chemical
components of fly ashes which exhibit varying degree
of self hardening characteristics are summarized in
Table 1 (Joshi 2010).

Table 1 Typical chemical composition of fly ash
Constituents % by weight
SiO
2
29 - 58
Al
2
O
3
14 - 25
Fe
2
O
3
3 - 8
CaO 10 - 30
MgO 1 - 8
SO
3
0 - 4
Loss on Ignition, LOI 0 - 1

Physical and Geotechnical Properties
Physical and index properties of fly ash mainly
depend on the quality and grinding size, burning
technology of the plant, ash collecting and stocking
method. Fly ash is generally consist of grey, some
black portion when unburned, depending upon
combustion efficiency, 1 to 100 m rounded particles,
commonly in silt size, non-plastic material. The
specific gravity of fly ash paticles varies from 2.05 to
2.66 (Joshi 2010). Fly ash containing high amounts of
unburnt carbon and hollow spherical particles, called
cenospheres, has low specific gravity. Larger
proportions of iron-rich particles and other
compounds impart a high specific gravity to the ash.

Pozzolanic Activity
Formation of cementitious material by the reaction of
lime with the pozzolans (Al
2
O
3
, SiO
2
, Fe
2
O
3
) in the
presence of water is known as hydration of fly ash.
The hydrated calcium silicate gel or calcium
aluminate gel (cementitious material) can bind inert
material together. The pozzolanic reactions for soil
stabilization are as follows (Senol et al. 2002):

CaO + H
2
O => Ca(OH)
2

Ca(OH)
2
=> Ca
++
+ 2[OH]
-

Ca
++
+ 2[OH]
-
+ SiO
2
=> CSH
(silica) (gel)
Ca
++
+ 2[OH]
-
+ Al
2
O
3
=> CSH
(alumina) (gel)

For class C fly ash (containing more than 15% CaO),
the lime present in the fly ash reacts with the siliceous
and aluminous materials (pozzolans) in the fly ash. A
similar reaction can occur in class F fly ash, but lime
must be added because the lime content of the ash is
too low. Lime stabilization of soils occurs in a similar
manner, where the pozzolanic reactions depend on the
siliceous and aluminous materials provided by the
soil.

EFFECT OF FLY ASH ON SOIL PROPERTIES

Compaction Behaviour
In many studies, fly ash-soil ratio by weight have
preferred between 5% and 30%. Since the specific
gravity of soils is greater and the optimum water
content is smaller than fly ashes, the increase in the
fly ash content decreases the maximum dry density of
the mixture, on the contrary the fly ash content
increases the optimum water content. Compaction
characteristics of clay-fly ash mixtures vary between
100% of clay and 100% of fly ash depending upon the
fly ash/clay ratio as expected.

Tan & Iyisan (2001) have investigated the effects of
the admixture of 10% and 20% fly ash (class C
contains 12% CaO) on the mechanical behaviour of
the clay. Compaction curves under the Standard
Proctor energy have been given in Figure 1.

Fig. 1 Compaction curves of clay and mixtures
(after Tan & Iyisan 2001)

Deformation and Strength Behaviour
Pandian et al. (2001) have studied the effect of
Raichur fly ash (class F contains 1.7% CaO) on the
CBR characteristics of the black cotton (BC) soil.
Figures 2 and 3 show the stress versus penetration
plot and variation of CBR values with the addition of
fly ash content respectively for soaked condition.
The results clearly bring out that the fly ash could be
an effective additive (about 20%) to improve the CBR
of BC soil (about 200%) significantly. On the other
hand, the CBR of fly ash could be improved (about
50%) with the addition of 30% BC soil. The mixing
of fly ash and BC soil in suitable proportions
improves the compacted strength as well as CBR
values considerably.

Fig. 2 Stress versus penetration plots of CBR test for
BC soil treated with class F fly ash (after Pandian et
al. 2001)

Fig. 3 Variation of CBR values with the addition of
class F fly ash to BC soil (after Pandian &
Krishna 2001)

Tan & Iyisan (2001) have investigated the effects of
the admixture of 10% and 20% fly ash (class C
contains 12% CaO) on the mechanical behaviour of
the clay and the time effect. Experimental results
represent that even a day after sample preparation, the
strength increases significantly. Both cohesion and
angle of friction terms of Mohr-Coulomb criteria,
initial tangent modulus increases by adding fly ash to
the soil. As can be seen from the test results (Table 2),
cohesion of the fly ash admixtures soil increases about
20% by adding fly ash. An obvious increment is
observed in angle of shear strength by both time and
amount of added fly ash (Table 2). Fly ash content has
major effect than the time most probably due to
rounded particles of the fly ash. By the time
pozzolanic or cementing properties increases the shear
strength.

The deformation modulus increases by fly ash content
and by the time as can be seen in Figure 4, which
should signify increase in strength. As in the shear
strength, in tangent modulus increment of fly ash
content is more effective than the time. Tangent
modulus increases very sharply from from 10% to
about 75% but the increment by the time is around
25~50% in 30 days.

Another parameter of the stress-deformation
characteristics is the deformation to reach the failure.
While the tangent modulus increases by fly ash
content but no significant changes in failure
deformation (Fig. 5).

Table 2 Experimental results of shear strength
parameters

Fly ash/clay
ratio (%)
Curing time
(days)
Cohesion,
c (kPa)
Angle of
shear
0 -- 125 6
10 1 150 11
10 7 150 12
10 33 150 13
20 1 150 15
20 7 150 16
20 33 150 18

Fig. 4 Variation of the tangent modulus with the time

Fig. 5 Variation of deformation at failure of mixture
with the amount of added fly ash (after Tan & Iyisan
2001)

Senol et al. (2002) have found that the class C fly ash
can be used without any other activator for improving
the engineering properties of soft soil. Like
unconfined compressive strength and CBR, resilient
modulus increases substantially with increase in fly
ash content (Fig. 6). The rate of increase of CBR
diminishes as the fly ash content increases. The
strength of fly ash added soil can be maximized by
stabilizing at specified water content and minimizing
compaction delay.

Fig. 6 Resilient modulus of fly ash added soil at
different fly ash contents (after Senol et al.
2002)

Pandian & Krishna (2003) have studied the effect of
Neyveli fly ash (class C contains 15.5% CaO) on the
CBR characteristics of the black cotton (BC) soil.
Figures 7 and 8 show the stress versus penetration
plot and variation of CBR values with the addition of
fly ash content respectively for soaked condition.
The results show that upon addition of fly ash to BC
soil, the CBR of the mix increases. The increase in
CBR with the addition of fly ash can be attributed to
pozzolanic reaction forming a cementitious
compound, which results in good binding between BC
soil and fly ash particles. The increase in CBR under
soaked conditions (i.e. curing) is due mainly to the
presence of calcium present in the high lime content
fly ash that results in a pozzolanic reaction leading to
increased strength. For fly ashes with low calcium, the
soaked CBR will be less than the unsoaked CBR.

Fig. 7 Stress versus penetration plots of CBR test for
BC soil treated with class C fly ash (after
Pandian & Krishna 2003)

Sezer et al. (2006) have investigated the stabilization
of a soft clay subgrade of a military zone in Izmir,
Turkey with a very high lime fly ash obtained from
the Soma Power Plant. It can be clearly seen from
plots of unconfined compressive strength (q
u
)-fly ash
content (Fig. 9) and cohesion (c)-fly ash content (Fig.
10) that addition of fly ash up to 15% increases both
q
u
and c values of the resultant mixtures. Increasing
the fly ash substitution level to 20% has a negligible
effect on the above-mentioned properties as compared
to that of the 15% FA bearing mixture.
The effects of fly ash addition on the internal friction
angle () of the mixtures are shown in Figure 11. The
increases with time irrespective of the fly ash
content of the mixture. Besides, internal friction angle
increases considerably with increasing fly ash
inclusion level.


Fig. 8 Variation of CBR values with the addition of
class C fly ash to BC soil (after Pandian & Krishna
2003)

Fig. 9 Variation of q
u
with fly ash content (after
Sezer et al. 2006)

Fig. 10 Variation of c with fly ash content (after
Sezer et al. 2006)

Fig. 11 Variation of with fly ash content (after
Sezer et al. 2006)

CONCLUSIONS
The study reveals that the deformation and strength
characteristics of soft soils can be improved by use of
high lime content fly ash without any other
activator.

The addition of fly ash to soil leads to significant
improvement on geotechnical behaviour of clay. The
unconfined compressive strength (q
u
), cohesion (c)
and angle of internal friction increase ( ) with
addition of fly ash and the stabilizing effect of fly ash
increases with time.

The deformation modulus viz. tangent modulus and
resilient modulus increase sharply with fly ash
content. Deformation at failure has no significance on
fly ash content but the stress at failure increases with
fly ash content.

REFERENCES
Joshi, R.C. (2010). Fly ash - production, variability
and possible complete utilization. Indian
Geotechnical Conference 2010, GEOtrendz, IIT
Bombay.
Joshi, R.C. and Nagaraj, T.S. (1987). Fly ash
utilization for soil improvement. Environmental
Geotechnics and Problematic Soils and Rocks,
Balasubramaniam et al. (eds), Balkema,
Rotterdam, 15-24.
Pandian, N.S. and Krishna, K.C. (2003). The
pozzolanic effect of fly ash on the California
Bearing Ratio behaviour of black cotton soil.
Journal of Testing and Evaluation, ASTM, Vol.
31, No. 6.
Pandian, N.S., Krishna, K.C. and Sridharan, A.
(2001). California Bearing Ratio behaviour of
soil/fly ash mixtures. Journal of Testing and
Evaluation, ASTM, Vol. 29, No. 2, 220-226.
Pandian, N.S., Rajasekhar, C. and Sridharan, A.
(1998). Studies on the specific gravity of some
Indian coal ashes. Journal of Testing and
Evaluation, ASTM, Vol. 26, No. 3, 177-186.
Senol, A., Bin-Shafique, Md. S, Edil, T.B. and
Benson, C.H. (2002). Use of class C fly ash for
stabilization of soft subgrade. Fifth International
Congress on Advances in Civil Engineering,
Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey.
Sezer, A., Inan, G., Yilmaz, H.R. and Ramyar, K.
(2006). Utilization of a very high lime fly ash for
improvement of Izmir clay. Building and
Environment, 41, 150-155.
Sivapullaiah, P.V., Prashanth, J.P., Sridharan, A. and
Narayana, B.V. (1998). Reactive silica and
strength of fly ashes. Geotechnical and Geological
Engineering, No. 16, 239-250.
Sridharan, A., Pandian, N.S. and Srinivasa Rao, P.
(1998). Shear strength characteristics of some
Indian fly ashes. Ground Improvement, London,
Vol. 2, No. 3, 141-146.
Tan, O. and Iyisan, R. (2001). Strength and
deformation characteristics of fly ash added clay.
Proc. of the Fifteenth International Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering,
Istanbul, Turkey, Vols. -3, 1859-1862.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

GIS: AS A NECESSARY TOOL FOR URBAN PLANNING

Arati S. Petkar
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Pune 411005, Email: asp.civil@coep.ac.in
Eshwar M. Bahirat
M. Tech Student, Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Pune 411005, Email:eshwar.jgd@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: The conventional or traditional method of creating map on a piece of paper for the planning
purposes are time consuming and with less accuracy. Further, the information which is collected for survey has
both spatial attributes as well as its relative non-spatial attributes. This information should be properly stored,
managed and analyzed for getting the desired results with a speedy process and less time. Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) helps to greater extent in storing, managing, and analyzing the data as well to add or
to change the spatial information in existing data, with the facility of linking the attribute data with map. This
paper focuses on how GIS is useful for the data storage, handling, analyzing as well as spatial, graphical,
statistical representation of data. Why it is necessary tool for urban planning, how it will help decision makers
and planners in urban planning process. In order to understand the theory and the explanation given in the paper,
an area from Pune city is selected as an example for the application for GIS.

KEY WORDS: Urban planning, spatial analysis, attribute data, Geo-referencing

INTRODUCTION
The urban planning process includes multiple aspects
like surveys, data collection, data storage, data
analysis, spatial data representation, map creation and
predictions for the future development. The data
which is used for planning purpose is spatial data,
which must be geographically referenced. While the
maps which are created for the reference must be in
the scale of the geographically referenced spatial data.
For the purpose of efficient planning process these
planning aspects needs to be addressed very skilfully
and carefully for the predictions in the future
development. For this purpose of urban planning
process the information system which is used for the
data collection, storage, analysis, representation, map
creation and retrieval of data must be liable to handle
these planning aspects efficiently. So the necessity of
the efficient information system for the purpose of
efficient urban planning process is real need in this
technological era.

THE NECESSITY OF INFORMATION SYSTEM
The purpose of any information system is to store,
analyse and display the data so that whenever required
it can be used and recollected for the specific purpose
as well as it can be modified whenever necessary. So
any information system which is dealing with the
planning aspect for the efficient planning process has
got very much importance for the future development.
The information system should be such efficient that
it can handle all these aspects effectively.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is such kind
of information system which is used for to store and
analyse the data as well as to display data with
function of modification of data. Moreover the GIS is
an information system which is for capturing, storing,
querying, analyzing, and displaying geographically
referenced data. The first GIS was the Canada
Geographic Information System, designed in, the mid-
1960s as a computerized map measuring system. GIS
is a computer based information system which is used
to represent and analyze the information of the
geographic features which are present on the surface
of Earth. Like, other information systems, the GIS not
only store, display and modify the data, but also it can
analyze, query, and retrieve. The basic function of
GIS is to work with data referenced by geographical
coordinates. It can also deal with the information from
different databases for putting them on map. GIS has
two basic features firstly it can generate the map with
geographically referenced objects and secondly it can
link the database associated with the geographically
referenced objects with the set of operations for
working with data. So with the specific set of
operations GIS visualize the backend data on the map
as well as make the analysis from the data for the
desired outcome for planning issues. This is the basic
difference between the GIS and other information
system.

APPLICATION AREAS OF GIS
Geographic Information System encompasses both
the digital and geographical techniques involved in
the systems used for the processing and dissemination
of geographic information as well it, facilitates
combining of data from a variety of sources with
different map scales and produces the desired results
as per the user need. GIS, therefore, as a tool, can
enhance and improve the quality of the planning
process with better and accurate maps creation and
analysis to solve spatial problems with speed. Like
other information systems GIS has specific functions
to deal with the data. The use of GIS for urban
planning has following functions which are beneficial
as compared to other database systems.


Data Types
The data collected for the planning purpose mostly
comes in three basic forms.
Vector Data: It is the data which contains the location
and shape of geographic objects. This data has three
basic shapes to present real-world features: points,
lines, and polygons.
Attribute Data: Attribute data is the descriptive data
that GIS used to link with map features. Attribute data
is collected and compiled for specific areas like names
of the locations, population data, temperature and
rainfall variation data , and so on and comes with
reference to vector data.
Raster Data: This is a data which is collected from
satellite images, aerial photographs, and scanned
images.
Data Models
For to processing the data any information system
requires the data model. GIS has two data models,
Raster data model and vector data model.
Vector Data Model: Discrete features, such as
locations and data summarized by area, are usually
represented using the vector model.
Raster Data Model: The raster data model is the data
model which is the image data directly used in GIS
for the data analysis. Continuous numeric values, such
as elevation, and continuous categories, such as
vegetation types, are represented using the raster
model.
The use of data models:
The either data model is used in GIS as per the users
need and the data collected. Discrete features, such as
customer locations, pole locations or others; and data
summarized by area, such as postal code areas or
lakes; are usually represented using the vector model.
Continuous categories, such as soil type, rainfall, or
elevation, are usually represented using the raster
model.

Coordinate System
The data which is collected has to be georeferenced so
that it can be projected on the globe or real world. A
coordinate system is a reference system which is used
to represent the locations of geographic features
within a common geographic framework. For any
spatial mapping system the coordinate system is
important. GIS provides the coordinate system which
is spatially referenced and can be projected in the
metric system. GIS has both spatially referenced
system geographical coordinate system (GCS) and
Universal Transverse Mercator System (UTM). The
data which is collected has to be georeferenced so that
it can be projected on the globe or real world. In GIS
Geographic Coordinate System (GCS): spherical
coordinates, Cartesian coordinate system (CCS):
planar coordinates, are used for the data projection.
The Geo-Referencing and Projection System
Georeferencing is the important tool for GIS, which is
not effectively, used in the other information systems.
This tool provides the function to locate the
coordinates of the spatial objects with respect to the
earths coordinate system that is GCS. Once the
coordinates of the spatial objects are located with
respect to the earths coordinates the georeferencing is
done and the objects are referenced on their exact
geographic locations on the globe. So in this way any
spatial data can be located to their exact locations with
the help of geo referencing tool. The georeferencing
provides the locating the spatial data to its
geographical locations with GCS. Which will gives
the coordinates in latitude and longitude which are
spherical coordinates. This coordinate system is not
handy for the planning purpose. So it must be
projected into the CCS or planar coordinate system.
When GIS obtains the data, it often needs to be
referenced and projected. Since the data received is
not processed and it should be process and need to
place the coordinates to raster image. The earth shape
is spherical and we must transform its three
dimensional surface to create a flat map sheet. And
this process of transformation is termed as a map
projection in GIS. So using the GIS the data can be
georeferenced to the geographical coordinates at the
same it can be projected to the Cartesian coordinate
system. So the dual purpose is fulfilled by the
georeferencing and projection tool in GIS.

Join and Relationship Class
The join provides the function to join the database
table from different databases like SQL server,
Microsoft access and other compatible formats in to
the GIS map on the basis of common field related to
the map attributes. This process of joining the
descriptive data makes the map analysis easy and fast
as well as representation of the table data with
reference to the spatial locations. This makes the
planners work easy and fast for analyzing the data on
the basis of these attributes. This data can be queried
by using the select by attribute query. For e.g. the
recreational plots in the particular area of Pune city
say kasaba peth need to find out for the area
calculations and finding the deficiency for the
population residing in the nearby areas. So in this
case, by using the select by attribute query the
recreational areas can be found out in kasaba peth. So
by using this query only recreational areas from
kasaba peth can be selected and its area can be found
out. So by using this technique any particular data can
be selected and analysed for decision making. So this
is the important tool for planners point of view for


the analysis of the spatial data and making the correct
proposals.
Relationship class is important when one to many
relations are there for e.g. for one residential land use
there are many buildings and when these buildings are
to be related then it is not easy to relate or join in such
cases the relationship class is used to relate the data
on the basis of common field in both the databases. In
the case of study area the common field the GIS
identity (GISid) is the common field, on the basis of
land use data, the one to many fields of buildings the
GISid from sub-land use table the relationship class
between the land use table and sub-land use table is
made.

Symbology
For any mapping system the annotation system is
most important for the graphical representation of the
database. Maps are an interface to GIS. They are used
for variety of
method of communicating geospatial data. For the
effective communication the symbology and
annotation techniques are very important. GIS
provides large scope for the symbology
customization. GIS has different types
combined and can be displayed as the map. So this
provides the large scope for to represent the data on
the purposes. As a visual tool, maps are most effective
of symbolization system they are Features,
Categories, technique, the different land uses in
particular locations say peth area in Pune city can be
represented. So by using this technique the data can
be displayed with the combined coding system for the
peth area and the land
uses. So for every land use in every peth there will be
single and combined code. Like these three fields can
be Quantities, Charts, and Multiple attributes using
these symbolization techniques the data can be
analysed very
easily. For e.g. in Pune Development Plan the GIS id
is the common field which is used for the data
linkage. So without the data linkage we cannot sort
the land use data
according to land use codes and represent on the map.
So after the data linkage the data can be represented
by using the land use codes and create the map. As
well using the
combination of the fields used in the data base the
data can be graphically represented on map. So using
this basis
Of the different data fields which are attached by join
and relationship class.

Clipping
Clipping is the method of cutting required set of
feature or polygons from the total map and creating
the new map with new layer along with all the
attributes with the clipped map. This method is very
useful to create the map of required feature from the
original map. By this method any area from the Pune
city Development Plan (DP) can be clipped and it can
be used as different layer with its associated attributes.
For e.g. if Sadashiv peth area is to be clipped from the
sector-1 of Pune DP then by using the clip feature it
will be very easy to clip and make separate layer of
sadashiv peth, and do particular analysis of the
Sadashiv peth. Refer Fig. 1 and Fig. 2.

Buffer and overlay
The buffers are the influence areas around the vector
data sets. Buffers are created around point, line and
polygon. The application of buffer in GIS has got the
highest important as it gives the output very precise
and accurate. For e.g. square on laxmi road say
shagun chowk is to be widened for the turning of the
heavy traffic movement, so in this case the point
buffer will be used at the centre of the square and the
buffer value will be given for the square to be
widened, so the buffer value will be given as per the
requirement and the buffer will be created. Now the
buffer overlaps on the adjoining properties, so by
using the overlay technique, how much part of each
adjoining plots is to be acquired can be calculated.
This method can be applicable for the whole Pune city
squares at a time in a single command. By using the
same buffer and overlay technique, the road widening
can be done with the line buffer technique. Also
common areas between the two adjoining areas can be
found out by using the polygon buffer. Fig. 3
indicates use of point buffer on laxmi road and Fig. 4
indicates use of intersect overlay on laxmi road.

Join
The join provides us the joining the database table
from
different databases like SQL server, Microsoft access
and other compatible formats in to the GIS map on the
basis of common field related to the map attributes,
which makes the map analysis easy and fast as well as
representation of the table data on the spatial
locations, Refer Fig. 5. This process makes the
planners work easy and fast for the decision making
for analyzing the land uses, road network, water
bodies location, areas of land uses etc. this is the
important tool for planners point of view for the
analysis of the spatial data and making the correct
proposals.

Relationship class
Relationship class is important when one to many
relations are there for e.g. for one residential land use
there are many buildings and when these buildings are
to be spatially related then it is not easy to relate or
join in such cases the relationship class is used to
relate the data on the basis of common field in both
the databases, Refer Fig. 6. In case of study area the
common field the GISID is the common field, on the
basis of land use data, the one to many fields of
buildings the GISID from sub-land use table the


relationship class between the land use table and sub-
land use table is made.
CONCLUSION
In developing country like India the urban planning
process is continuous process, and for this purpose a
vast data is required to be handled repetitively for
different purposes. The GIS is the tool which can
handle this data for the effective urban planning
process with precise, accurate and speedy data
processing as well as useful for analysis and graphical
data representation. For efficient and integrated
planning process all the urban planning authorities of
India should adapt the GIS technology. The data
collection, manipulation and the data processing
should be done according to GIS technology from the
beginning of the planning stage for the effective usage
of the GIS technology.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Dr. Pratap Raval and Dr.
Nikhil Shejawalkar for their valuable support
REFERENCES
Anshu Gupta, Dr. Jagdish Singh, An Investigation of
Reliability on Remote Sensing and GIS Data as an
Aid to Urban Development Plan: A Case Study on
Bhopal, Institute of Town planners, India Journal 7
- 4, 90 - 100, October - December 2010
Desai C.G., Patil M.B,, Mahale V.D. and Umrikar B.,
Application of remote sensing and geographic
information system to study land use / land cover
changes: a case study of Pune Metropolis,
Advances in Computational Research, ISSN: 0975
3273, Volume 1, Issue 2, 2009, pp-10-13
Dr.M.Krishnaveni, J.Prakashvel, Dr.M.Kaarmegam,
(2003), Capabilities for Interlinking of Indian
Rivers, Map Asia conference 2003- Water
Resources.
K. Ram Mohan Rao, Ismat Bakshihov and B.S.
Sokhi, A Customized GIS application for
Dehradun Tourist Information System, Institute of
Town Planners, India Journal 6 - 2, 86-96, April -
June 2009
M. Anji Reddy (2003), remote sensing and
geographical information systems, second Edition,
BS Publication, Hyderabad.
Vivek N Patkar (2003), Directions for GIS in Urban
Planning, Map Asia conference 2003- Geospatial
Application Papers.


Fig. 1 Pune city, Sector-1

Fig. 2 Clipping of sadashiv peth, Pune city
Fig. 3 Use of point buffer on laxmi road, Pune


Fig. 4 Use of intersect overlay on laxmi road, Pune
Fig. 5 Joining the table to the map
Fig. 6 Relationship class on the basis of common field- GISID

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

CANAL REGULATION AND SCADA
Kinnari R. Mishra
Water Resource Management Department, L.D.College of Engineering, Ahmedabad, Gujarat.
E-mail: kinnari.mishra@gmail.com
N.K.Sherasia
Water Resource Management Department, L.D.College of Engineering, Ahmedabad, Gujarat.

INTRODUCTION
The water which enters into the main canal from the river has to be
divided into different branches and distributaries, in accordance
with the relative urgency of demand on different channels. This
process of distribution is called Regulation. To distribute water
effectively, the discharge has to be adjusted to any desired value.
This aim is achieved by means of regulators.
The works which are constructed in order to control and regulate
discharges, depths, velocities etc, in canals, are known as canal
regulation works. These structures ensures the efficient functioning
of a canal irrigation system. Canal Regulators such as distributary
head regulator and cross regulator Flumes are the structures which
help in regulating the canal.

Necessity of the regulators:
To effectively control the entire Canal Irrigation System.
To regulate or control the supplies entering the off-take
channel.
To control silt entry into the off-take channel.
To serve as meter for measuring discharge.
To maintain water level.
To absorb fluctuations in various sections of the canal system.
To prevent the possibilities of breaches in the tail reaches
Water distribution infrastructure has been targeted
for upgrades and modernised to promote efficiency
and conservation. Systems in place for 50 years or
more are common. These old systems depend on
occasional manual observation and control of
conditions within a system and assume spillage.
Labour and fuel were cheap and conservation not
critical or mandated.
In the last years, digital controllers became a very
interesting alternative (low costs and higher
accuracy) to the analogue or to the hydrodynamic
traditional controllers in water supply canal
automation, in order to match water supply to water
demands. This kind of hydraulic systems needs
particular research for control applications because
they are big scale systems, open and characterized by
big delays and great inertia. Low-cost communication
technology, automation, easily deployable sensors,
and computer software provide the tools to
modernize how a system is operated to reduce costs,
optimize conservation, and report operational data in
real time as required. Technologies has the
demonstrated ability to design, manufacture, install,
and maintain data

collection stations, automated gates and valves,
Remote Terminal Units (RTU), communication
networks, and SCADA control systems that will save
time (labour and support costs), water (reduce or
eliminate spillage) and money (increase overall
efficiency).
The ability to know the exact status of all aspects of
your water delivery system at all times and
efficiently control operation is now possible by
innovative products and turn-key SCADA control
systems.
Technology can assess needs and provide a system
that continuously collects station or system-wide data
in real time, efficiently operates automated
equipment in SCADA systems, and distributes real
time data to those who need it. Having data at your
fingertips allows for sound decision making, but is
also necessary for accurate and timely billing, record
keeping, and reporting to state agencies.
IMPORTANCE OF SCADA OVER OTHER
CONVENTIONAL METHOD
Today, competition for scarce water resources and
competition in the marketplace for quality and price
are placing increased pressures on irrigated
agriculture, and consequently on the operation and
performance of irrigation water delivery systems.
While knowledge of irrigation and methods for
distributing water over large areas slowly advanced
over the millennia. Fixed structures Many early
schemes for the diversion, conveyance, and
distribution of water relied on fixed structures. This
is an advancement over use of a shovel or digging
tool to open earth berms. Fixed structures, when
properly constructed, are efficient at "water
spreading." Such systems are supply oriented and
resemble water disposal systems. Water diverted at
the head finds the path of least resistance as it winds
its way through the canal network to the fields. Such
systems do not provide the flexibility and service
required for efficient utilization of irrigation water
supplies. The need to constantly adjust to changing
demands, due to weather conditions and the variety
of crops and farm irrigation systems, is increasingly
important. Irrigation water delivery systems are
being forced to become more and more demand
oriented, which requires better water control.
Pressurized systems would satisfy these
requirements, but they are prohibitively expensive
for large structure.


SCADA' Impact On Regulation:
Remote monitoring with SCADA systems has had a
major impact on the operation of irrigation canal
systems over the last several decades. SCADA
systems allow operators to monitor and control water
distribution from a central location, rather than from
riding or driving to the canal where they could see
and control only one gate structure at a time.
SCADA systems are now economical for even the
smallest water districts. Good water measurement is
also essential for improving water control. In general,
check structures do not give accurate water
measurement. Over the last several decades, modern
flumes and weirs have provided simple, accurate, and
inexpensive means for measuring water flow at all
bifurcation or division points. In places where such
measurement is difficult, acoustic flow meters are
now becoming common. The ability to tie remote
water measurement information into SCADA
software allows continuous monitoring of flows
within the system. This has also proven useful for
water accounting and documentation of annual water
uses.

SYSTEM CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION

About Software
SCADA software is used to provide a graphical
interface between an operator and a network of
sensors and control devices deployed in the field. It
can include the entire program for operating the
SCADA system, including communications, or be an
adjunct to a Master RTU (Remote Terminal Unit)
that communicates to a deployed set of slave RTUs,
but in all cases it is used to display data, alarms, and
equipment status while providing for control of
deployed devices, SCADA software was developed
for process control applications typically associated
with large-scale industrial operations. Now SCADA
is developed by different agencies suited for
Maritime and Water Management markets that
brings this powerful technology to tasks of more
modest size than the typical industrial setting. This
saves programming time and money along the way.
Software is uniquely configured for each SCADA
project. The objectives of the HMI operation are to
provide clear images, efficiently generate commands
and reports and communicate with RTUs in the field
and remote operators. How efficiently software can
be deployed and operated depends on the complexity
of the task.

Software can be managed and modified by the
system operator. This feature makes a vast difference
in the deployed cost of a program and certainly its
maintenance since a field engineer may not be
required to make typical changes or additions to a
project.

Fig. 1 SCADA software
Working of SCADA
SCADA refers to a system that collects data from
various sensors at a factory, plant or in other remote
locations and then sends this data to a central
computer which then manages and controls the data.
There are many parts of a working SCADA system.
A SCADA system usually includes signal hardware
(input and output), controllers, networks, user
interface (HMI), communications equipment and
software. All together, the term SCADA refers to the
entire central system.
A key tool of integrated water resources management
is automation of the water distribution system based on
introducing the state-of-the-art system of supervisory
control and data acquisition (SCADA). This system
allows improving the quality, flexibility and reliability
of water distribution management and reducing
unproductive losses of water resources.
Supervisory control consists of bringing system-wide
information from remote sites to a single master
station. Supervisory monitoring can give a water
master the power to view the whole project without
leaving the office. Supervisory control changes the
target points of local controllers and empowers a
water master to make rapid coordinated changes at
key structures. Supervisory control was implemented
in the 1970s on several irrigation systems, such as
the Salt River Project and the Coachella Irrigation
District. With further advances in equipment
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
has now spread to a number of irrigation districts in
the all over the world. Adoption of SCADA has
considerably improved the performance of irrigation
districts.

Fig. 2 Supervised control

Fig. 3 Centralised control

Few SCADA projects have been implemented in
developing countries and many of them have failed
for various reasons. The most critical phase in an
automation project is implementation: Selection of
the equipment, the integration of hardware and
software components, installation and testing.
Shortcomings in electronic/communications-based
automation are possible at all stages: Design,
implementation and operation, control algorithm
limitation, poor integration of components,
malfunctioning of equipment, lack of training of
operation staff, lack of spare parts and poor
maintenance.
REFERENCES
Irrigation and Hydraulic Structure By S.K.Garg
http://program-plc.blogspot.com/2011/01/canal-
automation-history.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCADA
http://www.ncs.gov/library/tech_bulletins/2004/tib_0
4-1.pdf

Fig. 4 Distributary control

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

DELINEATION OF GROUNDWATER SATURATED FRACTURE
ZONES IN HARD ROCK TERRAINS USING INTEGRATED
RESISTIVITY SURVEY APPROACH

N.P. Singh
Associate Professor, Department of Geophysics, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi- 221 005, Email:
singhnpbhu@yahoo.co.in

ABSTRACT: Groundwater in hard rocks owes its occurrences to secondary porosity, generally developed due
to weathering, fracturing, jointing, faulting and fissures etc. In present study, an attempt has been made to
delineate the fractured zones saturated with groundwater using resistivity survey techniques in Birsa Agriculture
University campus, Kanke, Ranchi District, Jharkhand. Gradient profiling, Wenner profiling and geoelectrical
soundings were carried out in the area during the December 27, 2008 to Jan 10, 2009. Gradient profiling survey
was conducted along two parallel profiles with fixed current electrodes separation of 600m and potential
electrodes separation of 10m for the points lying between central regions of the profile (i.e. about 1/3
rd
of the
total spread length of geoelectrical sounding survey) at station interval of 5m and covering a total length of
500m. Wenner profiling with electrode separation ( 30 a m = ) was conducted along a specific profile line of
gradient profiling for comparative study. In Wenner profiling, the magnitude of observed apparent resistivity is
lower in comparison to the gradient profiling due to the predominant contribution of the surface layer as
compared to the underlying hard rock, which happened because the depth of penetration in Wenner profiling
was low since the current electrode separation was taken as 30m only. However, in case of gradient profiling
the magnitude of the apparent resistivity is higher due to the predominant contribution of hard rocks compared
to the overlying surface layer of clay because the current electrode separation was 600m which resulted in a
relatively larger depth of penetration. The resolution of gradient profiling is more compared to Wenner
profiling. In case of gradient profiling, apparent resistivity varies between 73 ohm-m to 905ohm-m, whereas in
case of Wenner profiling the apparent resistivity varies between 28 ohm-m and 128 ohm-m. Based on the
analyses of responses of gradient survey, four low resistive and one high resistive points were selected, and
thereafter at these selected locations geoelectrical sounding survey were carried out for detailed analyses with
depth. The interpreted sounding results show presence of moderately to highly fractured zones. Results of
soundings conducted at low resistive points indicate that the resistivity of highly to moderately fractured zone
ranging between 38 ohm.m to 181 ohm.m, with varying thickness of 45m to 108m, a possible indication of
water saturated fractures. However, the interpreted results of the sounding conducted at high resistive point
indicate high resistivity rocks below 15m from the ground surface. The study, clearly demonstrates that an
integrated resistivity survey approach (combination of gradient profiling and geoelectrical sounding techniques)
can be used successfully to investigate the presence of water saturated fractures in hard rock terrains.

INTRODUCTION
In hard rock area, water saturated fractures are
randomly distributed. Therefore, in such areas, if
geoelectrical sounding is conducted randomly then it
may not coincide exactly with the fractured zone and
consequently fails to locate the presence of fractures
in the area. Due to this reason, many unnecessary
geoelectrical soundings would have to conduct in the
area which requires relatively more time and costs
associated with the survey. Hence, there is need to test
the various approaches of conducting geoelectrical
surveys and establish the particular one, which is
suitable for hard rock areas. Among the various
approaches, the gradient profiling is possibly the one
way which might be used for mapping the fracture
zones and their inter connectivity for groundwater
exploration in hard rock areas.
Application of various techniques in hard rock areas
had been carried out by many researchers [Chandra et
al. (1987), Yadav and Singh (2007 & 2008)]. Chandra
et al. (1987) have applied an integrated approach of
geoelectrical techniques in an experimental field study
for detection of cavities in limestones of Kurnool
district, A.P., India. Yadav and Singh (2007 and
2008) have applied Gradient profiling survey
followed by geoelectrical sounding for delineation of
water saturated fracture zones in Gurudev Nagar,
Mirzapur, and Robertsganj, Sonebhadra district, U.P.,
India, respectively in Vindhyan terrains. Their study
show promising preliminary results in these areas. As
a confirmatory test for the preliminary success of
Yadav and Singh (2007 and 2008) and an
experimental study for assessing the suitable
combination of geoelectrical techniques in hard rock,
an integrated survey approach consisting of gradient
profiling followed by geoelectrical sounding was
carried out in hard rock area of Ranchi, Jharkhand in
the granitic terrain and the results have been discussed
with supporting data.

LOCATION MAP OF STUDY AREA
The study has been carried out in the granitic terrain
of Ranchi urban area, the capital city of Jharkhand
state. Jumar river flows in approximately east-west


direction with flow direction from east to west, and
was in flowing condition during the survey work
(December 27, 2008 to Jan 10, 2009). The survey area
falls under Chotanagpur plateau with granitic-gneiss
rock type. The location map of the study area is
presented in Fig. 1.
VES 5
VES 4
VES 2
C21
C11
C22
C12
C13
C23
R
A
N
C
H
I K
A
N
K
E
R
O
A
D
KRISHAK
BHAWAN
ROAD R
O
A
D
BIRSA AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY CAMPUS
LAYOUT OF THE GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY AT BIRSA
AGRIICULTURE UNIVERSITY CAMPUS RANCHI
G
P
- 1
&
W
e
n
n
e
r
G
P
- 2
B ANGLADESH
NEPAL
PAKI STAN
JHARKHAND
JHARKHAND STATE
Study Area
RANCHI
VES 3
50 m
500 m
JUMAR NADI
VES 1

Fig. 1: Study area and locations of survey points.
Dark circles show the centre of the sounding (VES)
along the profile line.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND FIELD
PROCEEDURES
There are number of techniques for conducting
geoelectrical surveys for groundwater investigations.
The gradient profiling array comprising of two fixed
current electrodes placed at large separation and one
moving potential dipole with considerably small
electrode separation is one of the technique used for
groundwater exploration. The resistivity
measurements are made using potential dipole in the
central region, i.e. between the central 33% region of
the current electrodes separation along the line joining
the current electrodes or parallel to it. The potential
field in this region is constant, and as a consequence
of this a uniform horizontal electric field is generated
over a homogeneous earth. Therefore, in principle,
any inhomogeneity encountered within this region
produces variation in the response and thereby can be
easily identified using gradient profiling technique.
This forms the logic behind the application of
integrated gradient profiling and geoelectrical
sounding techniques for exploration of ground water
in hard rock areas.

The general layout of gradient profiling array and
variations of potential and potential gradient along a
straight line passing through the point source at the
surface of a homogeneous earth is shown in Fig. (2).
In upper portion of the figure (Fig. 2a), the fixed
separation between current electrodes A & B is taken
as 600m. The central 1/3
rd
region between the current
electrodes (-100 m to 100m on both side of the centre)
is scanned at a regular station interval of 5m for the
smallest possible spacing of potential electrodes. The
smallest spacing of potential electrode can be taken as
10m which satisfies the condition
( ) b x L 5 >>
to
measure the potential gradient (Kunetz, 1966;
Summer, 1976; Bertin and Loeb, 1976; Kearey and
Brooks, 1984; Sharma, 1997; and Telford et al.,
1998). The current electrode separation can be
increased or decreased depending on the availability
of the space and accordingly the observations within
the central region may be increased or decreased to
fulfill the condition for the measurement of potential
gradient. For gradient profiling array, one can easily
derive the formula for the field apparent resistivity as
following.

I
V
K
a
A
=
(1)

where K is the geometrical factor, which can be
written using Fig.(1a) as

|
.
|
\
|
+ t =
NB
1
NA
1
MB
1
MA
1
2 K
(2)
With
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
d b) x L NB and ; d b) x L NA
; d b) x L MB ; d ) b x L MA
+ = + + + =
+ + = + + =
( (
( (

In the above equation, L 2 & b 2 are distances
between current electrodes and potential electrodes;
x is the distance between the centre of the current
electrodes and centre of potential electrodes, d is the
distance between main profile and parallel sub-profile,
V A is the observed potential difference, and I is the
input current. The lower portion of Fig. 2b, shows
theoretical responses of potential
( ) mV
and potential
gradient ( ) m mV / over a homogeneous earth for a
fixed current electrode separation m AB 600 = . The
potential gradient is computed using
5000 2 / = I

( ) m ohm mA I = = 4 . 31 , 1000
.
The potential gradient curve shows almost constant
value in the central
rd
3 / 1 region and a significant
change in potential gradient beyond this region. Thus,
the array can be used to measure the potential gradient
within the limit specified by 0 3 > > x L
and
0 3 > > d L
. It is worthwhile mentioning here that
the field strength and depth of investigation will be
nearly constant in the central region bounded by
3 / L x =
and 3 / L d = in case of homogeneous
earth. Under the similar earth condition, if the


potential electrodes MN are kept out-side this region,
the depth of investigation decreases and the horizontal
electric field deviates due to the influence of either
current electrode A or B depending upon its position.
These changes in electric field and depth of
investigation, in real field condition, would produce
responses leading to false interpretation of the
presence of inhomogeneities, which are actually not
there.

-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
Distance (m)
-500
0
500
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

V

(
m
V
)
-25
0
25
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

G
r
a
d
i
e
n
t

V
/
2
b

(
m
V
/
m
)
Potential
Potential Gradient
(b)
A B
M N
d O
2 L
2b
y y
x
Profile Lines
(a)
-y
-x
-y
(x,d)

Fig. 2: (a) Lay-out of gradient measurement of
potential field, where AB = current electrodes and
MN = potential electrodes, and (b) Distribution of
potential and gradient of potential along a line at the
surface of a homogeneous earth for 0 = d ,
mA I 1000 = , and m ohm = 4 . 31 .
The prime aim of gradient profiling is to locate the
lateral inhomogeneities in the ground. Therefore, the
above array can be used as Gradient profiling for
taking observations along the main profile AB when
0 = d , and along the parallel sub-profile for a fixed
value of d for the same setup of current electrodes.
The measurements along parallel sub-profiles are
normally made to trace the lateral extents and
orientation of anomalous feature. In case, if the zone
of interest exceeds the
rd
3 / 1 central region or one
wants to increase the coverage, the entire profile is
shifted along the same line having same current
electrodes spacing in such a manner that the shifted
rd
3 / 1 central region overlaps the former one and cover
the exceeded zone of interest.
Apart from the proven field advantages, the gradient
profiling suffers from certain serious limitation, such
as variation in depth of investigation within the
current electrode interval. Depth of investigation is
deeper towards the centre of AB and shallower
towards the electrode end A or B . This problem can
be minimized provided the observations are confined
to the central one-third region of AB . However, in
this study, the objective of applying gradient profiling
is to use the technique only for qualitative
interpretation of the data to identify the possible
locations of fracture zones, where geoelectrical
sounding can be conducted for further details using
the same array as a Schlumberger array (while
b L 5 > , and 0 = d 0 = x ).


Gradient Profiling (GP)
Initially, two Gradient profiles (GP) were carried out
for a fixed current electrodes separation of m 600
using the Resistivity meter- Syscal-R2. The potential
electrodes separation was taken as m 10 with
observation interval of 5m along a profile to cover
m 200 ( m 100 to m 100 ) span in the central 1/3
rd

region of current electrodes spacing. Computation of
apparent resistivity has been carried out for each
gradient profile using equation (1). The data (apparent
resistivity and distance) are plotted on linear scales.
-100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Distance in m (Station interval=5m)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
A
p
p
a
r
e
n
t

R
e
s
i
s
t
i
v
i
t
y

(
o
h
m
.
m
)
Gradient Profile
Separation AB = 600 m
Separation MN= 10 m
Wenner Profile
Separation AB (3a) =30 m
Separation MN (a) =10 m
Gradient Profile -1
V
E
S
-

4
V
E
S
-
2
V
E
S
-

3
V
E
S
-

5
V
E
S
-

1

Fig. 3: Comparison of Gradient profiling response
along the profile 1 GP for fixed current and potential
electrode separations
( ) m MN m AB 10 , 600 = =
with
Wenner profiling response for fixed current and
potential electrode separations ( ) m MN AB 10 , 30 = = .
The selected prominent lows are marked as 2 VES ,
3 VES , 4 VES & 5 VES and a prominent high is
marked as 1 VES on the profile.
Figure 3 shows Gradient profiling response (upper
curve) and Wenner profiling response (lower curve)
for a total length of m 500 . The Gradient profiling
curve is obtained for the potential electrode separation
of m MN 10 = for the fixed current electrode
separation of m 600 . The initial m 200 ( m 100 to
m 100 ) of the response presents the result of first setup
of the Gradient profile where as the remaining 300 m
of response presents the result for next setup of the


gradient profile. The lower portion of the curve
presents the response of Wenner profiling for current
electrode separation of m AB 30 = . The comparison of
both the response curves for Gradient profiling and
Wenner profiling is quite interesting.
The nature of the curve for Gradient profile shows
similar trend (considering moving average) as that for
the Wenner profile curve, except for the magnitude of
apparent resistivity and the amplitude fluctuations. In
case of Wenner profiling the magnitude of apparent
resistivity is lower compared to the Gradient profiling
due to the predominant contribution of the surface
layer compared to the underlying hard rock which is
due to the fact that the depth of penetration is low
(since the current electrode separation is taken as
m 30 only). However, in case of Gradient profiling
the magnitude of the apparent resistivity is of higher
range due to the predominant contribution of hard
rock compared to the overlying surface layer as the
current electrode separation is m 600 giving a
relatively larger depth of penetration. Variation in the
apparent resistivity from left to right in Wenner
profile (lower curve) reflects the presence of different
nature of surface layer which is very well
corroborated with the existing geomorphological
setup along the profile. In case of gradient profiling,
apparent resistivity varies between m ohm 73 to
m ohm 905 , whereas in case of Wenner profiling the
apparent resistivity varies between m ohm 28 and
m ohm 128 . Further, on the basis of analyses of the
responses of gradient survey, four low resistive
points and one high resistive point were selected for
the vertical electrical sounding.
-100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Distance in m (Station interval=5m)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
A
p
p
a
r
e
n
t

R
e
s
i
s
t
i
v
i
t
y

(
o
h
m
.
m
)
Gradient Profile -1
Separation MN= 10 m
Gradient Profile -1 & 2
Gradient Profile -2
Separation MN= 10 m

Fig. 4: Gradient profiling curves along the profile
1 GP and 2 GP (parallel profiles, 50m apart) for
potential electrode separation ( ) m MN 10 = and current
electrode separation ( ) m AB 600 = .
Figure 4 shows Gradient profiling (( 1 GP
& 2 GP ), parallel to each other and 50 m apart)
response over a total length of m 500 . The first
m 200 ( m 100 to m 100 ) of the response presents
the result of first setup of the Gradient profile where
as remaining m 300 of response presents the results of
next setup of the Gradient profiling.

Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 10 100 1000
Half- Current Electrode Spacing (AB/2) in m
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
10
100
1000
A
p
p
a
r
e
n
t

R
e
s
i
s
t
i
v
i
t
y

(
O
h
m
.
m
)
VES-1
VES-2
VES-3 VES-4
VES-5

Fig. 5: Field apparent resistivity data and curves
obtained through geoelectrical soundings at
1 VES
,
2 VES
, 3 VES ,
4 VES
&
5 VES
locations.
Five vertical electrical sounding (VES) using
Schlumberger configuration were carried out at one
high and four low points selected from the
Gradient profiling along the gradient profile
1 GP
for
the maximum current electrode spacing of m 500
using the same Syscal-R2 Resistivity-meter unit.
The data obtained in the field at each sounding
location contains the records for the value of current
and potential electrode spacing. Each data set was
processed and plotted for 2 / AB versus apparent
resistivity on a bi-logarithmic scale and interpreted in
terms of layer parameters i.e. thickness and resistivity
of individual layers. The field data and curves are
presented in Fig. 5. During interpretation, the layer
parameters are initially obtained using the partial
curve matching technique with the help of three layer
master curves (Rijkswaterstaat, 1969) and auxiliary
point charts (Ebert, 1943). These parameters are
further used as initial models for computer assisted
software, WIN IPI 2 . The final layer parameters are
presented in Table-1.


Table 1: Final interpretation in terms of lithological
units based on the results of geoelectrical
interpretation in terms of layer parameters (Thickness
and Resistivity)

CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents the efficacy of combined gradient
profiling and vertical electrical sounding
(Schlumberger sounding) surveys for delineating the
weathered and fractured zones in hard rock area. The
results presented for Wenner and gradient profiling
surveys clearly indicate that gradient profiling survey
is more efficient and yields improved results with
better resolution as compared to the Wenner profiling
survey. The gradient profiling surveys are useful in
investigation of lateral variation of apparent resistivity
and selection of interesting point (low) where further
vertical electrical surveys should be conducted for
variation of resistivity with depth. Thus, the gradient
profiling survey are very much helpful in deciphering
the prospective locations for conducting detailed VES
survey for exploration of ground water resources and
avoiding unfruitful attempts of conducting VES
survey at several randomly selected locations, and
thereby minimizing the cost and time of geoelectrical
surveys to a great extent.
The overall study demonstrates that the integrated
resistivity survey (Gradient profiling and Vertical
electrical sounding) approach can be successfully
applied for exploration of ground water resources in
hard rock terrains.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Author is grateful to Dr. P. Chandra, Regional
Director and Dr. S.K. Singh, Scientist, CGWB, MER,
Patna for providing logistic and technical support for
conducting the survey. The author also acknowledges
the support of M. Sc. (Tech) Geophysics- II year
(Session 2008-09) students, who were actively
involved in the survey work.

REFERENCES
Bertin, J. and Loeb, J. (1976). Experimental and
Theoretical Aspects of IP: Presentation and
Application of the IP Method Case Histories,
Vol. 1, Gebruder Borntraeger, Berlin, 250pp.
Chandra, P.C., Tata, S.N. and Raju, K.C.B. (1987).
Geoelectrical response of cavities in limestones: an
experimental field study from Kurnool district,
A.P., India. Journal of Applied Geophysics, 24,
483-502.
Kearey, P. and Brooks, M. (1984). An Introduction to
Geophysical Exploration. Blackwell Scientific
Publications, Oxford, London, 296 pp.
Kunetz, G. (1966). Principles of Direct Current
Resistivity Prospecting. Gebruder Borntraeger,
Berlin, 250pp.
Sharma, P.V. (1997). Environmental and Engineering
Geophysics. Cambridge University Press, New
York. 475pp.
Summer, J.S. (1976). Principles of IP for Geophysical
Exploration. Elsevier, New York, 278pp.
Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P., Sheriff, R.E. and Keys,
D. A. (1988). Applied Geophysics, 2
nd
Ed.,
Cambridge University Press.
Yadav, G. S. and Singh, S.K. (2007). Integrated
resistivity surveys for delineation of fractures for
groundwater exploration in hard rock areas. Journal
of Applied Geophysics, 62, 301-312.
Yadav, G. S. and Singh, S.K. (2008). Gradient
profiling for the investigation of groundwater
saturated fractures in hard rock of Uttar Pradesh,
India. Hydrogeology Journal, 16, 363-372.

VES
No.
Layer
Geoelectrical
Interpretation
Lithological
Interpretation Thicknes
s (m)
Resistivi
ty
(ohm.m)
VES-1
1 1.0 41.6 Surface layer
2 1.7 10.7
Highly
Weathered
Formation
3 14.8 110.0
Highly Fractured
Formation
4 1172.0
Compact
Formation
VES-2
2 2.9 272.9
Weathered
Formation
3 6.4 35.7
Highly
Weathered
Formation
4 108.0 181.4
Fractured
Formation
5 251.5 Fractured Formation
VES-3
2 4.2 168.2
Weathered
Formation
3 2.3 46.3
Highly
Weathered
Formation
4 45.5 92.0
Highly Fractured
Formation
5 67453
Compact
Formation
VES-4
2 4.4 71.1
Weathered
Formation
3 5.4 32.6
Highly
Weathered
Formation
4 429
Semi-Fractured
Formation
VES-5
2 1.4 49.5
Highly
Weathered
Formation
3 9.7 138.0
Weathered
Formation
4 13.9 7.2
Highly
Weathered
Formation
5 94.2 38.9
Highly Fractured
Formation
6 155.0
Fractured
Formation

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

VISCO-ELASTO-PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF LAYERED PLATE: A
UNIFIED OVERLAY APPROACH

P. Srimani
Post-Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032 Email:
psrimani@gmail.com
S. Roy Chowdhury
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032 Email: srceju@yahoo.com
K. K. Ghosh
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032 Email:g_kallol@vsnl.net

ABSTRACT: An overlay model is employed to provide a unified approach for visco-elasto-plastic analysis
of layered finite element for thick plate bending problems under monotonically increasing transverse static
loads. The plate element based on Reissner-Mindlin theory, is discretized into different layers across its
thickness to incorporate gradual propagation of plastic zone from outer most surface to mid plane as well as to
consider the possibility of variation of material properties of the plate in that direction. Furthermore each layer is
again divided, for mathematical convenience only, into different number of overlays. Each overlay can posses
different material properties or time dependent characteristics but undergoes same deformation. The total stress
field for a particular layer is obtained by summing the weighted contributions of each overlay. A basic
component is added which allows an instantaneous elastic response followed by viscous deformation, the onset
of which is governed by the yield limit of a parallel friction slider. By combining several of these components in
the form of overlays it is shown that a single layered finite element formulation is capable of modelling time-
dependent behaviour of materials in elastic as well as in plastic stage. Further numerical experiments are carried
out to prove its applicability.

INTRODUCTION
The deformation of the structures in inelastic range
always has time rate effects to some extent. The
prediction of structural response is significantly
influenced by this effect and its degree depends on
several factors. The structures subjected to both
mechanical load and thermal load simultaneously
during a long period of time, exhibit simultaneously
both the phenomena of creep and viscoplasticity. The
first one is essentially a redistribution of stress/strain
with time under elastic material response and thats
why can be termed as visco-elasticity. The second one
i.e. viscoplasticity is a time-dependent plastic
deformation i.e. after initial yielding of the material
the plastic flow occurs and the resulting stresses and
strains become time dependent.
Viscoelastic & viscoplastic characterizations of
materials have always been an active research field in
continuum mechanics and material science since three
or four decades. In the available literatures
(Zienkiewicz et al. 1968, Dinis & Owen 1978), it is
found that visco-elastic and visco-plastic analysis of
different materials are performed separately by using
different formulations and different sets of material
parameters. But experimental observations cannot
distinguish between these two phenomena. For the
theoretical interest, they are treated separately during
the time of analysis of such structures.
This is why there is a need to develop a unique
numerical method for predicting both types of time
dependent response of structural members that are
subjected to thermal loads in addition to mechanical
loads.
Some attempts have been taken by Khan & Zhang
(2001) and Lin & Schomburg (2003) in recent year to
combine viscoplasticity theories with viscoelasticity
theories to characterize the mechanical behavior of
polymers. But the same approach has not been
reported for the analysis of structural components like
slab, plate etc.
Alternatively overlay approach has been followed
by some researchers in the past in the similar
applications. Zienkiewicz et al. (1972) introduced the
concept of a finite element overlay model for elasto-
plastic deformation of solids. Owen et al. (1974)
firstly employed the same in the solution of several
numerical examples and compared with alternative
approaches. Pande et al. (1977) indicates how overlay
models can be employed in time-dependent material
studies.
The objective of the present work is to develop a
unique constitutive model based on overlay
approach capable of both viscoelastic and
viscoplastic analysis of layered plate under transverse
mechanical load.

THEORY
Elastic-viscoplastic analysis of layered plate
The first phase of this work is to develop an elastic-
viscoplastic finite element model for the analysis of
layered plate under transverse load. This finite
element plate model is developed in a layered
approach to analyze the plate made of isotropic,
orthotropic or any other composite materials and to
simulate stress variation across the thickness of the
plate.


The main reason to adopt the layered approach are- (i)
to incorporate variation of material properties of
composite plate or reinforced concrete slab etc. across
its thickness, (ii) to get the variation of stresses or
strains across the thickness of the plate, (iii) to locate
the propagation of zone of plastification of the
materials in both inplane & transverse direction of the
plate.
For nonlinear continua problem
vp e
+ = (1)
So,
vp e
+ = (2)

Total stress rate

e
D = Where, D = Elasticity
matrix.

Fig. 1 Division of layered plate element and basic one
dimensional elasto-viscoplastic model

The onset of viscoplastic behavior is governed by a
scalar yield condition: 0 ) , (
0
= F F
vp
(3)
where =
0
F Uniaxial yield stress which may be a
function of hardening parameter. It is assumed that
viscoplastic flow occurs for the value of F>F
0
only.
So, 0 ) , ( ) , , (
0
= = F F F
vp vp
(4)
According to viscoplastic rule:

c
c
> < =
Q
F
vp
) ( (5)
where, = Fluidity parameter.

) , , (
vp
Q Q =

= Plastic potential.

>= < ) (F Positive monotonic increasing function.

) ( ) ( F F >= < for F>0

0 ) ( >= < F for F<0
For associated plasticity situation Q F

So, a
F
F
vp
> < =
c
c
> < =
) ( (6)

where, a
F
=
c
c
= Flow vector
and ) ( ) (
0
0
F
F F
F

=

Overlay approach a unified model
Overlay concept is applied in the same viscoplastic
model to convert that into a unified approach for
visco-elasto-plastic analysis of plate.
Each layer is again divided into different number of
overlays. Here, in place of a layer, it is considered that
different overlay can posses different material
properties or time dependent characteristics.
Physically there is no existence of overlay. By setting
different suitable values of different material
properties like modulus of elasticity, yield stress,
fluidity parameter of different overlays, viscoelastic,
viscoplastic and combined visco-elasto-plastic
analysis have been done in this work.

Fig. 2 Overlay model

Fig. 3 Overlays in a single layer and the unified model

All overlays present in a single layer undergo same
deformation. This results in a different stress field
} {
i
in each overlay which contribute to the total
stress field } { of the layer according to the overlay
thickness
i
t

,
In which 1
1
=
=
k
i
i
t (7)


{ } { }
i
k
i
i
t .
1
=
= (8)

Distribution of modulus of elasticity
{ }
i
k
i
i
t E E .
1
=
=
In the unified model viscoplastic strain rate at nth
time step for rth overlay of a single layer becomes:
n
r
r
n r
n r n
r
r
r
vp
j
F
F F
} {
) ( 2
3
] [
] [
} {
2 / 1
2
0
0

'
(
(

=
(9)
where,
=
n
r
F ] [ yield function & = zero [or arbitrary small
value] for viscoelastic overlay. So, Viscoelastic strain
rate at nth time step for rth overlay of a single layer
becomes:
| | { }
n
r
r
n r n
r r
r
ve
j
F F
2 / 1
2
0
) ( 2
3
] [ } {
'
=
(10)
NUMERICAL EXAMPLES

A study of viscoelastic response with the unified
overlay approach:
A square plate [50cm X 50cm] of 1.25cm thick
(Fig.4) has been considered and analysis has been
done under increasing uniformly distributed
transverse loading. The material properties are:
E=83.7625 t/cm
2
, fluidity parameter of visco-elastic
response
ve
= 3.01x10
-5
min/t/cm
2
, poissons ratio =
0.3.

Fig. 4 Finite element discretization of the plate

For viscoelastic analysis of the above problem two
overlay has been considered in each layer. Out of
these, one is maxwell overlay representing the time
dependent elastic deformations and other is fully
elastic overlay representing time indipendent elastic
behaviours. In this present model, maxwell overlay
has been developed by considering = 0 in classical
viscoplastic model and fully elastic overlay is the
viscoplastic overlay with .

Table 1 Equivalent overlay model:
Number of layers considered = 10
Number of overlay in each layer = 2
Overlay Thk
y
/ Y
(t/cm
2
)
E
(t/cm
2
)
ve

(min/t/
cm
2
)

1 0.5 159.0 ----- 0.3
2 0.5 0 8.525 3.01 0.3

Load-deflection (vertical displacement at central point
of the plate) curve has been shown in Figure 5 for
simply supported condition. As it is a time dependent
elastic deformation the load-deflection curve is linear.
To get the nature of time dependent nature of
deflection properly the load has been applied in six
steps as: 1.40x10
-4
t/cm
2
, 2.80x10
-4
t/cm
2
, 4.20x10
-4

t/cm
2
, 5.20x10
-4
t/cm
2
, 6.20x10
-4
t/cm
2
, 7.00x10
-4

t/cm
2
. The time dependent viscoelastic deformations
are shown in Figure 6.

Fig. 5 Load-displacement curves of viscoelastic
deformation

It is clear that viscoelastic deformation consists of two
part, one is instantaneous and other is time dependent.
For this problem the time depndent deformation is
quite small.

Fig. 6 w/h vs. time curves of viscoelastic deformation

The variation of stresses along the thickness of the
plate at the central point with the load increments has
been shown in the Figure 7.


Fig. 7 Stress distribution across the thickness at
central point of the plate in viscoelastic situation

Parametric study 1: Distribution of E between two
overlays
The material considered here has the following
properties: E= 85 t/cm
2
, fluidity parameter of
viscoelastic response = 3.01x10
-5
min/t/cm
2
. A study
has been performed for viscoelastic responses with
different distributions of E in two overlays according
to: E = [E
1
x t
1
+E
2
x t
2
]
The combinations are considered as: (1) E
1
= 100
t/cm
2
, E
2
= 70 t/cm
2
(2) E
1
= 120 t/cm
2
, E
2
= 50 t/cm
2

(3) E
1
=140 t/cm
2
, E
2
=30 t/cm
2
(4) E
1
=160 t/cm
2
,
E
2
=10 t/cm
2
.
From the load-deflection curves presented in Figure 8,
it is found that for [E
1
=160 t/cm
2
, E
2
=10 t/cm
2
], the
curve is stiffer than others and it is very close to the
fully elastic load-deflection curve with E = 85 t/cm
2
.
It is also clear from Figure 8 that with the increse of E
of maxwell overlay (i.e. E
2
), the viscoelastic load-
displacement curve becomes more softer. This is
because with the increment of E
2
, the time dependent
deformatin becomes more prominent. From Figure 9,
it is also clear that the time dependent deformation
increses with the increment of E
2
.

Fig. 8 Effect on load-displacement curve

Fig. 9 Effect on displacement-time curve

Fig. 10 Effect on stress diagram across thickness:
[element 16, gauss point 4] (simply supported
condition)

Again Figure 10 shows that although the time
dependent deformation increses with the increment of
E
2
, as the total E = [E
1
x t
1
+E
2
x t
2
] remain constant in
different combinations, the stress distribution across
the thickness remain unchanged for all type of
distributions of E.
This parametric study is very effective for the
selection of distribution of E in different overlays for
viscoelastic analysis of materials in overlay approach,
according to the experimental load-displacement
curve.

Parametric study 2: Variation of in Maxwell
overlay
Another parametric study has been performed here
with different values of viscoelastic fluidity parameter
. It is found that is a very important parameter for
the time dependent part of the viscoelastic
deformation. Figure 11 shows quicker time step
convergence with the increase of . That means
viscoelastic strain rate increases with the increment of
fluidity parameter. Another important observation is
that the has no effect on load-deflection curve as
shown in Figure 12.

Fig. 11 Effect on load-displacement curve: [E
1
=100
t/cm
2
, E
2
=70 t/cm
2
]


Fig. 12 Effect on displacement-time curve:[E
1
=100
t/cm
2
, E
2
=70 t/cm
2
]

A study of visco-elasto-plastic response with the
unified overlay approach

Same square plate [50cm X 50cm] of 1.25cm thick
under increasing uniformly distributed transverse
loading is considered. The material properties are:
E=83.7625 t/cm
2
, uniaxial yield stress = 0.057 t/cm
2
,
fluidity parameter of viscoelastic response
ve
= 3.01x
10
-5
min/t/cm
2
, fluidity parameter of viscoplastic
response
vp
= 2.15x10
-5
min/t/cm
2
, poissons ratio =
0.3
Like previous case study, by employing at least one
Maxwell type overlay and one visco-plastic overlay,
the complete behaviour in the visco-elastic range as
well as irrecoverable creep deformations can be
generated. The maxwell overlay represents the time
dependent part of viscoelastic deformations and other
viscoplastic overlay with a definite value of uniaxial
yield stress (represented by the friction slider) gives a
fully elastic behaviour untill the yield stress has been
crossed. Thus the model behaves as a standard linear
solid until the failure of the friction slider in the
visco-plastic overlay after which it behaves as a four
parameter fluid i.e. viscoplastic behaviour. In fact a
fifth parameter , the yield limit of the slider, must
also be defined. These parameters are material
characteristics and their values must be
experimentally determined.

Table 2 Equivalent overlay model:
Number of layers considered = 10
Number of overlay in each layer = 2
Overl
ay
Thk y / Y
(t/cm
2
)
E
(t/cm
2
)
(min/t/
cm
2
)

1 0.5 0.114 159 2.15 0.3
2 0.5 0 8.525 3.01 0.3

Load-deflection (vertical displacement at central point
of the plate) curve has been shown in Figure 13 for
simply supported conditions.

Fig. 13 Load-displacement curves of visco-elasto-
plastic deformation.

Fig. 14 w/h vs. time curves of visco-elasto-plastic
deformation.
The liner portion of the curve represents the visco-
elastic load-deflection response and after yielding it is
gradually converted to visco-plastic response. The
whole load-deflection path is time dependent.
To get the time dependent nature of deflection
properly, as shown in Figure 14, the load has been
applied in five steps as follows:
a) 6.00x10
-5
t/cm
2
, b) 1.00x10
-4
t/cm
2
, c) 1.40x10
-4

t/cm
2
, d) 1.80x10
-4
t/cm
2
and e) 2.00x10
-4
t/cm
2
.

Fig. 15 Stress distribution across thickness: [element
16, gauss point 4]
Figure 15 shows the stress diagram across the
thickness of the plate near the central point i.e at gauss
point 4 of element 16 at different stage of loading.

Parametric study 1: Distribution of E between two
overlays
Similar to the previous case study the distribution of E
in different overlays has been studied for visco-elasto-
plastic analysis also. The same material properties and
combinations of E distributions has been considered
here and similar type of results has been obtained.


Fig. 16 Effect on load-displacement curve

Fig. 17 Effect on displacement-time curve

Parametric study 2: Variation of in both
Maxwell and viscoplastic overlay
Here also the similar type of results has been obtained
as case study for viscoelastic analysis. It is found (Fig.
18) that both
ve
and
vp
has no considerable effects on
load displacement curve. But they have major effects
on the rate of time dependent viscoelastic and
viscoplastic deformations respectively.

Fig. 18 Effect on load-displacement curve: [E
1
=100
t/cm
2
, E
2
=70 t/cm
2
]

In Figure 19
ve
varies with a constant value of
vp
i.e.

2x10
-5
min/t/cm
2
. In which it is clear that variation of
ve
affects only on the viscoelastic time dependent
deformation. With the increment of
ve
the rate of time
dependent viscoelastic displacements also increases.
On the other hand if
vp
increases with a constant
value of
ve
, only the viscoplastic strain rate increases
while the viscoelastic time dependent deformation
remains unaffected Figure 20.

Fig. 19 Effect of increase of
ve
with a constant value
of
vp
i.e. 2 x 10
-5
min/t/cm
2

Fig. 20 Effect of increase of
vp
with a constant value
of
ve
i.e. 3x 10
-5
min/t/cm
2

Note: Although all results presented here are for
simply supported plate, but both the numerical
problems have been analyzed for clamped plate also
and similar type of results have been obtained.

CONCLUSIONS
The overlay approach is one of the better alternative
for the development of unified finite element
formulation that can be used for both visco-elastic and
viscoplastic analysis of layered plate structure. This
approach is very effective for proper modelling of
material behaviour without considering a large
amount of experimental informations needed for it.
The distribution of material properties like modulus of
elasticity (E), fluidity parameter (), thicknesses (t)
etc. are to be properly selected to model the time
dependent behaviour of the material of the layered
plate in a more realistic manner. Slight change in
some of the parameters of different overlays may
affect the overall structural response to a great extent.
Application of this overlay model can be suitably
extended for the visco-elasto-plastic analysis of the
plates made of layered composites, reinforced
concrete etc. This requires further attention for
incorporation of complicated material response and
failure criteria of those materials.

REFERENCES
Dinis, L.M.S. and Owen, D.R.J. (1978). Elastic-viscoplastic
analysis of plates by the finite element method.
Computer & Structures, 8, 207-215.
Khan, A. and Zhang, H. (2001). Finite deformation of a
polymer: experiments and modeling. Int .J. Plasticity,
17, 1167-1188.
Lin, R.C. and Schomburg, U. (2003). A nite elastic-
viscoelastic-elastoplastic material law with damage:
theoretical and numerical aspects. Comput. Methods
Appl. Mech. Eng.,192, 15911627.
Owen D.R.J., Prakash, A. and Zienkiewicz, O.C. (1974).
Finite Element Analysis of Composite Materials by use
of Overlay Systems. Computer & Structures, 4, 1251-
1267.
Pande, G.N., Owen, D.R.J. and Zienkiewicz, O.C. (1977).
Overlay models in Time-Dependent Non-Linear
Material Analysis. Computer & Structures, 7, 435-443.
Zienkiewicz, O.C., Watson, M. and King, I.P. (1968). A
numerical method of viscoelastic stress analysis. Int.
J. Mech. Scencei, 10, 807827.
Zienkiewicz, O.C., Nayak, G.C. and Owen, D.R.J. (1972).
Composite and overlay models in numerical analysis
of elasto-plastic continua. Int. Symp. on Foundations of
Plasticity, September, 1972, Warsaw.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7
AUTOMATED HIGHWAY SYSTEMS

S. Lakshminarasimhan
Student, Final year B.E civil engineering, Sri sairam engineering college Chennai-600044, Email ar14jun@gmail.com
K.S. Yuvaraaj
Student, Final year B.E civil engineering, Sri sairam engineering college Chennai-600044, Email - yuvaraajkd@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT: The ever growing population and the increasing standard of living signifies the rapid and
uncontrolled growth in the traffic volume and since this growth is not properly met by the present road
infrastructure there is a possibility of reduction in the functional efficiency and therefore leads to the ultimate
situation of congestion and accidents. Not only this lead to some 50 billion collective hours of delay annually
but also an estimated productivity loss of $500 billion worldwide. The traditional solution to this problem is to
increase the road network but that is no longer a viable option owing to the high financial, social and
environmental impacts of such giant projects. Somehow we need to meet the unsatisfied demand for the
freedom and mobility of cars and other vehicles and find ways to operate the existing system more efficiently
and effectively. The idea is to have a magnetic reference sensor system for lateral control, an electronic throttle
actuation system, a communication protocol for vehicle-to-vehicle communication.
Keywords: Automated Highways, intelligent cars, lateral control, environmental impacts.

AHS-THE EMERGING CONCEPT:
Definition
The Automated Highway System (AHS) concept
defines a new relationship between vehicles and the
highway infrastructure. AHS refers to a set of
designated lanes on a limited access roadway where
specially equipped vehicles are operated under
completely automatic control. AHS uses vehicle and
highway control technologies that shift driving
functions from the driver to the vehicle. Throttle,
steering, and braking are automatically controlled to
provide safer and more convenient travel.

LEVELS OF AHS
A driver electing to use such an automated highway
might first pass through a validation lane, similar to
today's high-occupancy-vehicle (HOV).These lanes
are also known as carpool lanes, commuter lanes,
diamond lanes, express lanes, and transit lanes.
Basically the level of Intelligence between the
vehicles and the infrastructure can be of the following
four types (Randolph W. Hall et al, 1997).

Independent Vehicle Concept:
This is a very futuristic model where vehicles will
have a high degree of autonomous operation,
allowing them to operate with or without roadside
systems.
Cooperative:
Vehicles have the capability to broadcast messages
and to receive messages broadcasted by other
vehicles or the roadside, in addition to possessing
sensing capabilities.
Infrastructure Supported:
In this concept, the infrastructure plays an active role
to enhance performance. Automated vehicles would
travel on dedicated lanes, which use infrastructure
intelligence to support decision-making at the vehicle
level.
Maximally Adaptable Concept:
This concept of maximum adaptability envisions a set
of standards by which vehicles could operate under a
variety of conditions, depending on local design
decisions.
AHS - IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS

The following describes the various steps in the
planning process and identifies which issues will be
most relevant for each step.

The Site Selection:
This step involves identifying the various potential
sites and conducting Field Tests (FT) to determine the
suitability.

Site Characteristics:
The site characteristics include descriptions
of existing roadways,
Surrounding land-uses and surrounding
communities, along with
Planned Non-AHS roadway changes and
Climatic conditions.
Physical Characteristics
Number of Lanes, Width and length of
Existing Roadway
Number of tight radius curves (and their
radius)
Number of Signal Controlled Intersections
(if any)
Connections to other highways
Grades (maximum ascent, descent)

Performance Characteristics
Vehicle hours of delay per day
Accidents/fatalities per 1,000,000 vehicle
miles
Average daily traffic level
Average peak hour traffic level

Characteristics of Proposed Right-of-Way
Width of ROW (min/max/variation)
Number/Value of Existing Structures
Property Value of ROW

PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING
This step involves the selection of the project,
identifying the proper site, preparing the field review
form which consists of the physical and performance
characteristics of the site selected, and conducting the
field review.

Based upon the site characteristics data obtained the
viability of a site is determined. For this first we have
to have a basic idea of how to select. The selection is
essentially based on two things, the need for
development in the site and the potential available for
the development. There is more than just planning of
the design of the highway involved, various other
parameters need to be developed such as
Advanced Transport Management Systems
(ATMS)
Advanced Traveler Information Systems
(ATIS)
Automated Vehicle Control Systems
(AVCS)

Advanced Transport Management Systems (ATMS):
The need to have a new and improved system of
managing the traffic has led to the making of
specialized softwares which are intelligent and
merge different facets of technology to bring about
the desired change in traffic governing. This area has
huge implications when it comes to managing
automated traffic and one advantage would be that
the system could directly interact with vehicle and
exchange information. The traffic system has to be in
pristine condition to provide a safe and faster journey.
Traffic Detection is the first step in making an
advanced transport management system work. For
traffic detection we can make use of the following
techniques:
Inductive Loops Detection System
Close Circuit Television (CCTV)
Wide Area Video Detection System
Infrared Laser Detection System
Other ways to manage traffic efficiently is to properly
regulate signals, emergency management, having an
incident command centre to manage traffic flow.
Basic to the automated-highway schemes are
computer simulations to indicate that such systems
may be successful. Automation could double or even
triple highway capacity.

The California Partners for Advanced Transit and
Highways (PATH) Program has developed the
technology whereby magnets buried at intervals in the
roadbed would be sensed by magnetometers in
vehicles, providing a way to monitor their location
and velocity. This approach could cost around
$10,000 per mile to install, far less than the millions
of dollars to build each mile of new highway.

Fig (1-3) Drilling done to insert magnets at regular
intervals.

Advanced Traveler Information System (ATIS):
Congestion is building on the nations streets and
highways and is predicted to get worse. ATIS is about
providing citizens, businesses and commercial
carriers with the right information at the right time to
improve the quality and convenience of their trip and
the overall performance of the transportation system.
From a technical standpoint, ATIS has three steps:
Collecting data (e.g., using loop and other
detection systems as well as cameras),
Consolidating that information, then
Communicating the unified information to
various agencies and/or the public.

It is important to remember that the exact mix of
technologies for collecting, consolidating and
communicating information depends on your regions
unique needs and, ultimately, on the broader trends in
the information services industry. With only the
development of the desired road structure and the
vehicle controls the AHS cannot be implemented. An
integrated information providing system must be
centrally present.

Any ATIS will incorporate the following four
fundamental features for providing support.
Geographical Information System (GIS)
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)
Mobile Communications (MC)

Automated Vehicle Control System (AVCS)
To many people the subject of self-guided
"automatic" automobiles has a "science fiction"
flavor, typical of projects that are either far beyond
the state of the art or impractical from a cost/benefit
standpoint. Actually, recent advances in computers,
sensors and other related technology have made such
a system feasible in the relatively near term and
enormous benefits can justify major development and
deployment costs. An automated system can have
major advantages over the current system in the areas
of highway space utilization and safety.
Listed below are the five layers in which an
automated control system will be able to co-ordinate
the movement between vehicles.
Table 1: Five layers of automated control

FIG 4: Example of an automated car

ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS
This step includes the preparation of a preliminary
environmental study, obligating funds for preparing
the environmental document, completing the
environmental assessment or Environmental Impact
Statement (EIS), approving the assessment or EIS,
and approving the location of the project.

Environmental Infrastructure Issues deal with the
actual infrastructure changes required for AHS
deployment. These infrastructure issues will further
intensify concerns about the urban form and sprawl
implications of freeways. Communities and
neighborhoods adjacent to freeways typically
experience lower property values, traffic, noise, and
pollution.

Environmental issues will obviously be encountered
throughout the environmental analysis phase, but may
first arise when the project is initially selected. The
most significant impact these issues will have on the
project is in additional costs required for
environmental remediation, as well as time delays in
conducting the EIS. Public acceptance will also be a
significant concern once the construction phase of the
process begins and creates inconveniences such as
traffic congestion, noise and dust.

Legal and liability concerns should primarily be
addressed in the engineering and design phase of the
project. Organizational capacity and resource issues
will predominate throughout the process when it
comes time to obligate funds to conduct studies,
acquire right-of-way, and begin construction.

Lastly competition with other projects will be
encountered early in the planning process in trying to
get approval for the project. The urban commuter
sites present the greatest deployment challenges, both
in terms of infrastructure cost and garnering support.
In general, the attractive feature of the urban sites is
that it would be relatively simple to attract
participants from any vehicle classification and there
are few climatic or terrain challenges. The drawback
is that the AHS would likely require construction of a
grade-separated roadway, which would expose the
project to lots of environmental reviews and huge
cost. Provision of dedicated on and off ramps could
prove to be especially expensive. With average daily
traffic in the range of 20,000 - 35,000 vehicles per
lane per day, it would be impossible to develop AHS
within existing lanes. The task of completing the
project on time would be involving a huge risk factor
and delays would be unacceptable in case of urban
sites.
ENGINEERING, DEVELOPMENT AND
DESIGN
In conjunction with the environmental assessment or
EIS, this step develops engineering studies for
alternative analysis. Once the assessment or EIS is
approved, the final design is started and completed
and preparation of construction documents begins.
Engineering deals with the specific needs of the
selected site. The development and simulation of
models is required in case of engineering and these
must be adequately equipped with parameters for the
present as well as the likely trends to emerge in the
future due to presence of AHS. The development of
required services along with the automated vehicle is
essential. The amount of participation brings about
the success of the AHS and participation is attracted
by giving incentives to the users.

S.No Layer Function
1 Network Controls Entering\Exiting
Traffic and regulates flow
2 Link Computes and broadcasts
routes, maneuvers and
speed for each vehicle in
each section
3 Co-ordination Communicate and co-
ordinate with peers and
selects one maneuver to be
executed
4 Regulation Executes the maneuver,
maintains speed, and
performs lane change etc.
5 Physical Decouples lateral and
longitudinal control.
DEVELOPMENT OF AHS
Road-Side System
The roadside control systems primary objective is to
optimize the capacity and traffic flow of the overall
AHS. The models used in the link layer involve
aggregated vehicle densities and traffic flows but not
individual vehicles. Thus, vehicle safety cannot be
monitored, much less enforced. The roadside control
system can control the network and link layers in
ways that tend to increase vehicle safety, such as
maintaining sufficiently low aggregated vehicle
densities and decreasing the inlet traffic flow into
links where aggregated traffic density is very large.
At the link layer a large number of vehicles are
controlled in a decentralized but coordinated manner.

On-Board System
The vehicle in order to communicate with the road
side system has to have an information gathering
system inside and apart from that it has to have an
intelligent decision making system within itself to
process and bring out the necessary effect on the
vehicle. An important perceptual task during driving
is the ability to detect and avoid collisions. Failure to
accurately perform this task can have serious
consequences for the driver and passengers. Many
recent researches have developed 3D sensing models
(e.g., range or distance) these models are based on the
visual information available to the driver. It uses
visual angle and change in visual angle to regulate
speed during car following.
CONCLUSION
While it has been agreed upon that traffic congestion
is a major problem in the world, the solutions to this
problem have ranged from the simple to the exotic.
On paper, an automated highway system looks like a
solution to future traffic problems, but technical
feasibility has not been proven beyond a few lab and
controlled test track demonstrations. These
technologies have to be pretty much proved
otherwise, there's no way to avoid the legal liabilities
involved.
While this seems like a lot, converting one lane of
existing freeway into an AHS lane amounts to the
construction of two new lanes to the existing
infrastructure.
Another is the restriction of maximum operational
speed by compromising geometrics. The need to
provide safe and comfortable conditions while
negotiating a curve restricts the ability of vehicles to
travel at unlimited maximum speeds, and therefore
places a ceiling on the maximum achievable capacity.
While the capacity would be controlled more by
weaving and merging sections, these geometrics
create the need to transition vehicles between higher
speed operations and lower speed operations. A new
concept which applies exclusively to the Automated
Highway System is that of platooning. With platoon
spacing set at a half a car length, cars can draft off
each other, reducing drag by half. This arrangement
could result in a 20-percent boost in fuel economy.

While this expanded capacity seems like the
commuters dream, one must be careful of its future
effects. Recall how when the Highway System was
implemented, growth developed around it to utilize
the new infrastructure. This growth ultimately
continued until the highway system could no longer
support it. This growth has to be expected to happen
around the AHS also. This is where the danger comes
in. Operation of the AHS must be controlled so as to
allow for gradual growth over time instead of having
large population centers developing overnight.

Finally there the issue of what operational method the
AHS should operate under, user equilibrium or
system optimization. With the present highway
system this was not an issue, since drivers naturally
conform to user equilibrium while there is no way to
alter their travel patterns to conform to system
optimization. But with vehicles under automated
control, system optimization now becomes a very real
option. By implementing a system optimal approach,
one would be able to keep more local traffic on the
freeway by regulating vehicle flow. And by
implementing a system optimal operational approach
the total travel time experienced through the system
will be lower, thereby increasing the efficiency of the
system simply by not allowing travelers to choose
routes according to user equilibrium. Thus one must
conclude by saying AHS can be seen as a viable
option in controlling the congestion and various other
problems. But projects like these can be only
implemented in steps. So people must have the
patience to wait to reap the benefits of such
improvements in taking the process of driving to a
whole new level.

REFERENCES
S.L. Dhingra, Integrated Transit Systems for
sustainable development, IIT Bombay, 2008.
Farokh H. Eskafi, Modelling and simulation of
automated highway systems, California PATH,
1996.
Rillings, James H., Automated Highways. Scientific
American, 1997
R. Horowitz and P. Varaiya, Control design of
Automated Highway syatems, Berkeley, 2000.
Rodney Lay VehicleHighway Automation
Directions, Challenges, and Contributing Factors
JUAN Zhicai, WU Jianping , Mike Mcdonald, Socio-
Economic Impact Assessment Of Intelligent
Transport Systems, Southampton, 2006.
Varaiya, Pravin, and Steven E. Shladover, Sketch of
IVHS Systems Architecture. California PATH,
1997.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

A CASE STUDY OF MULA RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION
ASSESSMENT USING BATHYMETRY ALONG WITH SATELLITE
REMOTE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

D.D.Bhide
Director Genera, Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute, Nashik -422004, Maharashtra,
P.R.Bhamare
Chief Engineer, Maharashtra EngineeringTraining Academy, Nashik -422004, Maharashtra
V.B.Pandhare
S.E. & Jt. Director, Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute, Nashik -422004, Maharashtra
S.N.Kulkarni
Research Officer, Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute, Nashik -422004, Maharashtra
S.K.Kalvit
Asst. Res. Officer,Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute, Nashik -422004, Maharashtra
E mail rssd_meri@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT: Differential Global Positioning System based bathymetric survey and Satellite Remote Sensing
technique are two widely accepted methods for evaluation of storage capacity and assessment of sedimentation
in reservoirs. The Hi Tech DGPS bathymetric survey is more accurate, reliable and covers almost entire
reservoir portion if the survey is conducted at F.R.L. condition. However it is expensive and takes more time
and manpower as compared to remote sensing method. DGPS bathymetric survey does not cover reservoir
portion of shallow depth of 1.5 - 2 m since the survey vessel requires minimum depth of 1 to 1.5 m for its free
movement and accurate echo sounding. Satellite remote sensing method is fast, less laborious, fairly reliable. It
is cost effective one and hence preferred over DGPS based bathymetry for repetitive surveys. However,
limitation of this method is that its application is generally restricted to live storage zone of the reservoir. Since
both SRS technique and DGPS bathymetric survey have inherent advantages and limitations as mentioned
above, a hybrid technique of using both the methods in conjunction provides better solution to make the survey
cost effective, fast, accurate and complete one. In this paper a case study of Mula reservoir sedimentation survey
using Remote sensing technique and bathymetry is briefly discussed.

INTRODUCTION
Reservoirs are important fresh water resources.
Today many of them are under the threat of
excessive sedimentation. The excessive soil erosion
in the catchment area due to various reasons leads to
heavy sedimentation in the reservoirs. The eroded
soil settles down in the reservoirs at different
elevations reducing their storage potential. For
realistic and effective planning of reservoir water it is
important to know how much storage is lost due to
sedimentation over a period of years so that the net
storage available for planning can be ascertained. It
can be known by conducting sedimentation surveys
of reservoirs. Today Differential Global Positioning
System based bathymetric survey and Satellite
Remote Sensing technique are widely accepted
methods for assessment of sedimentation in
reservoirs and evaluation of storage capacity. Hi
Tech DGPS bathymetric survey is more accurate,
reliable and covers almost entire reservoir portion if
the survey is conducted at F.R.L. condition. However
it is expensive and takes more time and manpower as
compared to remote sensing method. DGPS
bathymetric survey does not cover reservoir portion
of shallow depth of 1.5 - 2 m since the survey
vessel requires minimum depth of 1 to 1.5 m for its
free movement and accurate echo sounding. Satellite
remote sensing method is fast, less laborious, fairly
reliable, a cost effective one and hence preferred over
DGPS based bathymetric survey for monitoring of
sedimentation in reservoirs at regular interval of
time. However, limitation of this method is that its
application is generally restricted to live storage zone
of the reservoir. Since both SRS technique and
DGPS bathymetric survey have inherent advantages
and limitations as explained above, a hybrid
technique of using both the methods in conjunction
provides better solution to make the survey full
fledged, cost effective, fast, accurate and reliable.
Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute
(M.E.R.I.) Nashik, a research organization of Water
Resources Department Govt. of Maharashtra, has
conducted number of reservoir sedimentation
assessment surveys so far, by both DGPS based
bathymetric survey and by Satellite remote sensing
method either independently or in conjunction. The
survey of Mula irrigation reservoir in Ahmadnagar
district of Maharashtra was conducted using both the
techniques in combination.

STUDY AREA
Mula reservoir lies between following geographical
co-ordinates.
Latitude from 19
0
15 15 to 19
0
23
29

Longitude from 74
0
24 55 to 74
0
37
16
The reservoir is constructed on river Mula, a
tributary of river Godavari, in Ahmadnagar district of
Maharashtra. It is a major irrigation project. Total
catchment area of the reservoir is 2275.86 sq. km.
The designed gross storage capacity of the reservoir
at FRL is 738.02 Mm
3
and live storage capacity
between FRL 552.30 m to MDDL 534.016 m is 609
Mm
3
. The dead storage capacity below MDDL is 129
Mm
3
. The submergence area at FRL is 5360 ha. The
construction of this reservoir was completed in the
year 1972. As per the present practice, the useful life
period of major reservoir is considered as 100 years.
The reservoir is nearly 38 years old. Thus nearly 38
% of its useful life span is already over. Hence it was
felt necessary to assess the loss in its storage capacity
on account of sedimentation. The sedimentation
assessment survey of this reservoir was conducted by
Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute, Nashik
in the year 2009-10 using DGPS based bathymetry in
conjunction with satellite remote sensing.

APPROACH & METHODOLOGY
The DGPS Bathymetric survey of this reservoir was
planned to be conducted at FRL condition so as to
cover maximum reservoir portion under bathymetric
survey. But due to some reasons the survey started
late and by the time survey started the water level in
reservoir had depleted almost 7 meters below FRL.
So bathymetric survey alone would not have covered
entire reservoir portion. It was therefore planned to
conduct satellite remote sensing survey for the
reservoir portion not covered under bathymetric
survey. Thus Mula reservoir sedimentation survey
comprised of two parts viz. (I) Bathymetry and (II)
remote sensing.

Part (I) DGPS Based Integrated Bathymetric
Survey
In DGPS based hydrographic survey two or more
satellite based GPS receivers are used in differential
mode for positioning and echo sounder is used for
depth measurement. GPS reference receiver is
located at a known latitude and longitude position
and GPS mobile receiver is located on the survey
boat. Both the GPS operate in differential mode
through a communication link. The location accuracy
increases with the adoption of differential global
positioning system involving the reference station
and the mobile station
Mula reservoir survey preparation was done in
following stages.
1. Installation of DGPS reference station.
2. Launching of boat and installation of mobile
station.
3. Installation of Echo sounder.
4. Installation of data acquisition PC and helmsman
display.
5. Project chart and range-lines

Fig: 1 Schematic sketch of DGPS bathymetric survey

The survey vessel with twin mounted 60 HP engines
was transported to dam site & launched with the help
of the crane from a suitable jetty place at the
reservoir. The boat mounted equipment the GPS
mobile station, GPS antenna, UHF data link with
UHF antenna, batteries of boat engine, and batteries
of equipment were installed. The survey boat was
also fitted with the small navigation echo sounder for
the boat driver. Echo sounder was installed in the
boat. The Echo sounder was calibrated with the help
of calibrator. The transducer was fitted to the
transducer well provided in the boat properly and
connected to the echo-sounder. A Pentium laptop PC
installed with Navitronic software was used for the
hydrographic survey work. Mobile GPS was
interfaced with the echo sounder and the echo
sounder was interfaced with the Laptop. The laptop
used, had inbuilt VGA port which is interfaced with
the additional LCD monitor (Helmsman display) for
the boat driver to view the range lines to be surveyed.
The range lines with spacing 100m were generated to
conduct the survey at this interval. The boat driver
was guided to position the boat on the selected track
with the help of helmsmans display. After
positioning the boat on the line, the data logging was
started. The time base (2 sec) for data logging for
depth & positioning was done. The boat speed of 2.5
to 3.5 knots was maintained. The software
automatically recorded the position and depth data at
the time interval set. During the reservoir survey,
daily water level was collected at the start of the
survey. The water level was required for
transforming the depth data into reservoir level. At
the reservoir upstream end area, the survey was
conducted at range line interval of 200 m, and 300 m.
The survey area of about 25 sq. km inclusive of 270
range lines was completed within 10 days period.
The shallow regions of the reservoir approximately
less than 1.5 m depth could not be surveyed, as it was
not possible to maneuver the boat in these regions.


Part (II) Remote Sensing in Reservoir
Sedimentation Study
Reservoir sedimentation surveys are essentially
based on mapping of water-spread areas at the time
of satellite over pass. It uses the fact that water-
spread area of the reservoir reduces with the
sedimentation at different levels. The water-spread
area and the elevation information are used to
calculate the volume of water stored between
different levels. These capacity values are then
compared with the previously calculated capacity
values to find out change in capacity due to
sedimentation at different levels.
In this case, the Remote Sensing survey covered a
reservoir portion between R.L. 541 m and FRL
552.30 m. Water level information on the dates of
satellite passes was collected from the field office.
The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite IRS P6
(RESOURCESAT) LISS III images of different
water levels from R.L. 552.30 m to R.L. 540.40 were
analysed in this study.

Fig. 2 Mula reservoir satellite image

Steps involved in digital image analysis
The basic concept is to find out the water-spread area
from satellite images of different water levels. The
difference between aerial spread of water between
current year and earlier years is the aerial extent of
silting at these levels. The methodology for
estimation of live capacity of reservoir using remote
sensing consists of following major heads:
Digital data base creation
Estimation of water-spread area
Calculation of reservoir capacity
Comparison with previous surveys
Estimation of live capacity loss due to
sedimentation
Image processing and analysis
It comprised of following activities.
a) Image Geo-referencing
b) Study area extraction from the satellite images
c) Water spread area extraction
After pre-processing of images i.e. geo-referencing
and extracting area of interest from all the images,
the geo-referenced subsets were digitally analysed
using standard image analysis software. In the
analysis NDVI method and classification technique
were adopted to measure the water spread area in
each image
NDVI is one index, which enhances vegetation and
water. NDVI is generated using the formula given
below.
NDVI = (NIR R)/ (NIR+R)
Where NIR is digital number in near infrared band
and R is digital number in red band. The ratioed
image is then density sliced. Water pixels generally
occupy lower range of histogram in ratioed image.
Since Classification technique was found more
appropriate in most of the cases its results were
finally retained

Table showing IRS P6 LISS III images of different
water levels used in this study and respective
estimated water spread area is given below

Water spread area at regular interval
A graph of elevation Vs area (see figure - 3) was
plotted and a best fit polynomial equation of second
order was derived for the graph as below
y = 0.039x
2
+ 1.72x + 26.35
with Coefficient of co-relation, r =
0.9996
where x = Elevation difference in meters (measured
above R.L. 540.40 m)
y = Water spread area in Mm
2

Using this equation, the Water Spread Areas at
regular interval of elevation have been worked out

Calculation of Reservoir Capacity
Computation of reservoir capacity at different
elevations has been done using following prismoidal
formula
V = H/3 x (A
1
+ A
2
+ SQRT (A
1
x A
2
))
Where V- Reservoir capacity between two
successive elevation H
1
and H
2

H- Elevation difference (H
2
H
1
) between two
successive contours
A
1
and A
2
are water spread areas at elevation H
1
and
H
2

The capacity at different levels worked out by DGPS
bathymetric survey and by remote sensing survey
were clubbed together to estimate total revised
capacity from reservoir bed level to FRL. A table
giving revised area and storage capacity at different
elevations at an interval of 1 meter is given below. In
this table area and capacity from R.L. 511.00m to
R.L. 541.00m are as per Bathymetric survey and area
and capacity above R.L. 541.00m up to FRL 552.30
m are as per Remote sensing survey.

Sedimentation assessment
The quantum of sedimentation is estimated by
deducting present capacity from original capacity.
Following table gives various parameters derived
from the study.


Table -1
Date of pass Elevation in m. Area in Mm
2

9-5-2007 540.40 25.92
15-4-07 543.12 32.33
22-3-2007 544.95 34.63
7-2-2006 546.29 37.99
26-2-2007 546.86 38.73
2-2-2007 547.89 41.89
4-1-2008 548.75 43.14
26-12-2005 549.14 43.87
9-1-2007 550.00 46.41
11-12-2007 550.13 46.59
17-11-2007 551.95 51.9
24-10-2007 552.30 52.31

Fig. 3Elevation Vs Satellite estimated water spread
area

Revised Elevation - Capacitycurve for Mula reservoir and its comparison with original
capacity
505
510
515
520
525
530
535
540
545
550
555
0 100 2 00 3 00 400 5 00 60 0 700 800
Gross storage capacity in Mm
3
-->
E
l
e
v
a
t
io
n
i
n
m
e
t
e
r
s

-
-
-
-
>
Ca pacity b y DGPS Su rvey
Ca pacity b y Rem ot e sensing
Orig ina l Ca pacity

Fig: 4 Elevation Vs Original and Revised Storage
Capacity

Table -2
Elevation in
meters
Revised Area
in Mm
2

Revised
Capacity
In Mm
3

511.00 0.0028 0.00
515.00 0.54 0.771
519.00 2.00 5.442
523.00 4.60 18.579
527.00 7.41 42.410
532.00 12.14 90.856
533.00 13.13 103.488
534.00 14.16 117.129
535.00 15.36 131.881
536.00 16.69 147.901
537.00 18.26 165.370
538.00 20.26 184.622
539.00 22.35 205.918
540.00 24.53 229.35
541.00 27.40 255.299
542.00 29.20 283.598
543.00 31.09 313.737
544.00 33.05 345.798
545.00 35.09 379.861
546.00 37.21 416.002
547.00 39.40 454.299
548.00 41.67 494.832
549.00 44.03 537.677
550.00 46.46 582.913
551.00 48.96 630.617
552.00 51.55 680.869
552.30 52.34 696.448

Table - 3
Details Original
Survey
year
(1972)
Survey
conducte
d in year
(2008)
Gross Capacity
between R.L. 511.00
m to R.L. 552.30 m
in Mm
3

738.02

696.448
Silt deposited
between original
and latest surveys in
Mm
3

41.572
Period in years -- 36
Rate of silt
deposited between
two surveys in
Mm
3
/year
1.154
% to original
capacity
% Annual loss
5.633
0.156
Rate of siltation in
Ha-
m/100sq.km/year
5.074

Elevation Vs Satellite measured water spread area curve between R.L.540.40 m to
R.L.552.30 m
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Elevation difference in meters measured above R.L. 540.40 m ---->
W
a
t
e
r

s
p
r
e
a
d

A
r
e
a
i
n

M
m
2

-
-
-
-
>


RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
The sedimentation study of Mula reservoir by Hybrid
Technique of combined DGPS bathymetric survey
and remote sensing survey covered entire reservoir
portion and hence siltation in reservoir at different
elevations could be estimated. The present study
revealed that the Gross storage capacity of reservoir
is reduced by a margin of 41.572 Mm
3
which is about
5.633% of the total capacity. This implies that
sedimentation in the reservoir in a span of 36 years is
41.572 Mm
3
.

Percentage annual loss in capacity is of
the order of 0.156 only which is not significant. The
live storage capacity of the reservoir is reduced by
30.25 Mm
3
which is now 579.09 Mm
3
against
original live storage capacity of 609.34 Mm
3
The
rate of siltation, which is 5.074 ha-m/100sq.km./year,
is also within the norms generally adopted by CWC
(6.54 - 7.15 ham/100 sq.km /year) for major
reservoirs in Maharashtra

CONCLUSIONS
The Hybrid technique of DGPS bathymetric survey
in combination with remote sensing survey was
found to be very useful for assessing total
sedimentation in reservoirs. It is faster, economical,
less laborious and reliable also. It is recommended
that such sedimentation studies may be repeated at 5-
10 years interval for assessing the true contents of the
reservoir and keeping the content table of reservoir
updated.

REFERENCE
Technical report of M.E.R.I., Nashik on Capacity
evaluation and sedimentation assessment of Mula
reservoir by hybrid technique -Year 2010.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7
REVIEW ON USE OF RECYCLED AGGREGATES IN CONCRETE

G.D. Ransinchung R.N
Asstt. Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT-Roorkee, 247667, gdranfce@iitr.ernet.in
Kumar Praveen
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT-Roorkee, 247667,pkaerfce@iitr.ernet.in
Chauhan Prakash Arun
M.Tech. Student, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT-Roorkee, 247667, arunppce@iitr.ernet.in

ABSTRACT: Use of recycled aggregate in concrete can be useful for environmental protection and economical
terms. Recycled aggregates are the materials for the future. The application of recycled aggregates has been
started in many construction projects in the countries like European, American and Asian. As on today, recycled
aggregates have not been experimented in India on a wide scale due to lack of awareness and limitations exist
on the part of formulating the guidelines. Therefore, more research work has to be carried out especially in de-
veloping country like in India. There is significant potential for growth of recycled and secondary aggregates as
an appropriate and green solution to the anticipated increased world wide construction activity. This paper
herein reviews the influence of recycled aggregates on mechanical and durability properties of concrete.

Keywords: Recycled aggregates; Recycled aggregate concrete; Waste materials; Construction & demolition; Durability

INTRODUCTION

Any construction activity requires several materials
such as concrete, steel, brick, stone, glass, clay, mud,
wood, and so on. However, the cement concrete re-
mains the main construction material used in con-
struction industries. For its suitability and adaptability
with respect to the changing environment, the con-
crete must be such that it can conserve resources, pro-
tect the environment, economize and lead to proper
utilization of energy. To achieve this, major emphasis
must be laid on the use of wastes and by-products in
cement and concrete used for new constructions. The
utilization of recycled aggregate is particularly very
promising as 75 per cent of concrete is made of ag-
gregates etc. The enormous quantities of demolished
concrete are available at various construction sites,
which are now posing a serious problem of disposal in
urban areas. This can easily be recycled as aggregate
and used in concrete. Research & Development activi-
ties have been taken up all over the world for proving
its feasibility, economic viability and cost effective-
ness.
Figure 1 shows the percentage of recycling material
available in this world as per Material classes in Cali-
fornias overall disposed waste stream, 2003. (Casca-
dia Consulting Group, Inc., 2004).
The main reasons for increase of volume of demoli-
tion concrete / masonry waste are as follows:-
1. Many old buildings, concrete pavements, bridges
and other structures have overcome their age and
limit of use due to structural deterioration beyond
repairs and need to be demolished.
2. The structures, even adequate to use are under
demolition because they are not serving the
needs in present scenario.
3. New construction for better economic growth.
4. Structures are turned into debris resulting from
natural disasters like earthquake, cyclone and floods
etc.
5. Creation of building waste resulting from manmade
disaster/waste.

Fig.1 Distribution of Waste Materials
The recycling and reuse of construction & demolition
wastes seems feasible solution in rehabilitation and
new constructions after the natural disaster or demoli-
tion of old structures. This becomes very important
especially for those countries where national and local
policies are stringent for disposal of construction and
demolition wastes with guidance, penalties, levies etc.

INDIA STATUS
There is severe shortage of infrastructural facilities
like houses, hospitals, roads etc. in India and large
quantities of construction materials for creating these
facilities are needed. The planning Commission allo-
cated approximately 50% of capital outlay for infra-
structure development in successive 10th & 11th five
year plans. Rapid infrastructural development such
highways, airports etc. and growing demand for hous-
ing has led to scarcity & rise in cost of construction
materials. Most of waste materials produced by de-
molished structures disposed off by dumping them as
CONCRETE
65%
BRICKS
AND TILES
25%
M ETAL 2%
PLASTICS
1% OTHERS 2%
WOOD 5%

land fill. Dumping of wastes on land is causing short-
age of dumping place in urban areas. Therefore, it is
necessary to start recycling and re-use of demolition
concrete waste to save environment, cost and energy.
Central Pollution Control Board has estimated current
quantum of solid waste generation in India to the tune
of 48 million tons per annum out of which, waste
from construction industry only accounts for more
than 25%. Management of such high quantum of
waste puts enormous pressure on solid waste man-
agement system. In view of significant role of recy-
cled construction material and technology in the de-
velopment of urban infrastructure, based on the sur-
vey conducted by few organisations on Utilization of
Waste from Construction Industry targeting housing
/building and road segment. The total quantum of
waste from construction industry is estimated to be 12
to 14.7 million tons per annum out of which 7-8 mil-
lion tons are concrete and brick waste (Singh, S.K. et
al.,1997). According to findings of survey, 70% of the
respondent have given the reason for not adopting
recycling of waste from Construction Industry is Not
aware of the recycling techniques while remaining
30% have indicated that they are not even aware of
recycling possibilities. Further, the user agencies/
industries pointed out that presently, the BIS (Bureau
of Indian Standards) and other codal provisions do not
provide the specifications for use of recycled product
in the construction activities (use of recycle aggregate
in concrete a paradigm shift)
In view of above, there is urgent need to take up the
following measures:-
1. Sensitization/ dissemination/ capacity building to-
wards utilization of construction & demolition waste.
2. Preparation and implementation of techno-legal
regime including legislations, guidance, penalties etc.
for disposal of building & construction waste.
3. Delineation of dumping areas for pre-selection,
treatment, transport of RCA (Recycle Concrete Ag-
gregate).
4. National level support on research studies on RCA.
5. Preparation of techno-financial regime, financial
support for introducing RCA in construction including
assistance in transportation, establishing recycling
plant etc.
6. Preparation of data base on utilization of RCA.
7. Formulation of guidelines, specifications and codal
provisions.
8. Preparation of list of experts available in this field
who can provide know how and technology on totality
basis.
9. Incentives on using recycled aggregate concrete
subsidy or tax exemption.

BARRIERS IN PROMOTING USE OF RA AND
RAC
Acceptability of recycled material is hampered due to
a poor image associated with recycling activity, and
lack of confidence in a finished product made from
recycled material. Cost of disposal of waste from con-
struction industry to landfill has a direct bearing on
recycling operations. Low dumping costs in develop-
ing countries also acts as a barrier to recycling activi-
ties. Imposition of charge on sanitary landfill can in-
duce builders and owners to divert the waste for recy-
cling. Some of these issues act as barriers in promot-
ing more widespread use of recycled aggregate and
concrete made with recycled aggregate.

Lack of Appropriately Located Recycling Facilities
Construction and demolition waste is generated in
small quantities at locations, which could be widely
separated. Therefore, portable equipment is needed,
which can be used and set up close to a demolition
site. Transporting waste over large distances makes
the proposition of using C&D waste uneconomical.
Lack of such plants is a major barrier for Newco-
mers in the field of C&D (construction and demoli-
tion) waste management. Commissioning of appro-
priately located recycling crusher units in a pilot plant
can help in lowering barriers against recycling of con-
struction & demolition waste (Akash Rao et al., 2006)

Absence of Appropriate Technology
There are very few commercially viable technologies
for recycling construction and demolition wastes, and
methods that can be used to crush C&D waste on a
commercial scale are urgently required. In fact, when
the technology is established, other issues such as
quality control of raw material and finished product,
etc. can be taken up.

Lack of Awareness
Lack of awareness towards recycling possibilities and
environmental implications of using only fresh-mined
aggregates are the main barriers due to which C&D
waste is disposed only in landfills. Creating awareness
and dissemination of information relating to the above
barriers and the properties of concrete made with re-
cycled aggregate are essential to mobilize public opi-
nion and instill confidence in favor of the recycling
option. There is a need to create a market for recycled
products by involving the construction industry and
encouraging them to use recycled materials in
projects.

Lack of Government Support
A lack of government support and commitment to-
wards development of recycling industry is often
seen. Developing appropriate policy supported by
proper regulatory framework can provide necessary
impetus. It will also help in data compilation, docu-
mentation and control over disposal of waste material.

Lack of Proper Standard
Apart from the specifications of RILEM (Runion
Internationale des Laboratoires dEssais et de Re-
cherches sur les Matriaux et les Constructions), JIS
(Japan Industrial Standard) and those used in Hong

Kong, only very limited codal specifications/standards
regarding use of recycled aggregates are available. In
fact, use of concrete with 100% recycled coarse ag-
gregate for lower grade applications is allowed in
Hong Kong, though for higher grade applications
(above M35 concrete), only 20% replacement is al-
lowed, and the concrete can be used for general appli-
cations, except in water retaining structures. In Japan,
JIS has drafted a Technical Report; TRA 0006 Re-
cycled Concrete-Using Recycled Aggregate to pro-
mote the use of concrete made with recycled aggre-
gate Development of relevant standards for recycled
materials would provide producers with targets and
users an assurance of quality of material. Standards
formulated in the above-mentioned countries can be a
guideline for development of specifications
An effort has been made in this paper to present a
summary of the use of various recycled aggregates in
concrete and brief the salient properties of recycled
aggregates related to mechanical and durability.

ADVANTAGE OF USING RECYCLED CON-
CRETE PRODUCTS
1. Its an accepted source of aggregate into new con-
crete by ASTM (American Society for Testing and
Materials) and AASHTO (American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials).
2. Its currently being used in concrete and asphalt
products with better performance over comparable
virgin aggregates.
3. It provides superior compaction and constructabil-
ity.
4. Its higher yield recycled aggregates are lighter
weight per unit of volume, which means less weight
per cubic yard, resulting in reduced material costs,
haul costs, and overall project costs.
5. It weighs 10-15% less than comparable virgin quar-
ry products (concrete).
6. It offers a way to reduce landfill waste streams.

WORK DONE ABROAD ON RECYCLE AGRE-
GATE
Ajdukiewicz & Kliszczewicz (2002) reported that
properties of the original concrete influence the me-
chanical properties of recycled aggregate concrete and
it is possible to obtain recycled concrete with higher
compressive strength than the original one. The mix
design of recycled concrete is similar to the proce-
dures for concrete with natural aggregate. Corrections
to water content are necessary to obtain proper wor-
kability, but the changes in the water/cement (w/c)
ratio may be relatively small.
Pooneal (2002) in their study, used recycled aggre-
gates from construction and demolition (C&D) wastes
sourced from the two public filling areas. The mixes
were varied by replacement of natural coarse and fine
aggregate by recycled aggregates up to 100% by
weight, with or without the incorporation of fly ash.
The test results showed that the replacement of coarse
and fine natural aggregates by recycled aggregates at
the levels of 25 and 50% had little effect on the com-
pressive strength of bricks and blocks, but higher le-
vels of replacement reduced the compressive strength.
Olorunsogo & Padayachee (2002) studied durability
indexes such as the chloride conductivity, oxygen
permeability and water absorptivity; of three different
concrete mixes containing 0, 50 and 100%, RA moni-
tored at ages 3, 7, 28 and 365 days. They reported that
overall, durability quality of RA concrete reduced
with increases in the quantities of recycled aggregates
that were included in a mix and the quality improved
with the age of curing. They explained this phenome-
non by the fact that cracks and fissures created in re-
cycled aggregates during processing render the aggre-
gate susceptible to ease of permeation, diffusion and
absorption of fluids.

TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE THE PROPER-
TIES OF RECYCLED AGGREGATES BY PRE-
SOAKING TREATMENTS
Vivian W.Y. Tama et al. (2006), have conducted an
experiment using three acidic solvents namely hy-
drochloric acid (HCL), sulphuric acid (H
2
SO
4
) and
phosphoric acid(H
3
PO
4
) with concentration of 0.1
mole [if concentrated acid is used, dilute it with distill
water with concentration of about 0.1 mole].
After the pre-soaking treatments, concrete specimens
made from the treated RA in the forms of 100mm
sized cube, 100mm500mm beam, and 100mm di-
ameter cylinder according to British Standard and
ASTM Standard (ASTM C293-00, 2001; BS 1881:
Part 116, 1983, BS 1881: Part 121, 1983) are prepared
to assess their compressive strength, flexural strength
and static modulus of elasticity. Table 1 shows the test
result for compressive strength, flexural strength and
static modulus of elasticity for various proportions
recycle aggregate in concrete.

The mechanical properties of recycled aggregate con-
crete have recorded marked improvements after the
pre-treatments. The above table shows that 21.84%
improvement with 20% RA (Recycle Aggregate)
substitution is recorded for compressive strength at 7
days curing, 22.90% improvement with 25% RA
substitution recorded for flexural strength at 14 days
curing, and 20.48% improvement with 30% RA subs-
titution for modulus of elasticity when using the HCl
approach.


Table 1: Pre-Soaking Treatments Method (Days of Curing)
Properties of recycled
aggregate concrete
Mortar HCl MortarH
2
SO
4
MortarH
3
PO
4

7 14 28 7 14 28 7 14 28
Compressive strength (MPa)
5% 4.11 1.49 3.25 17.11 6.52 6.71 5.88 3.6 3.21
10% 0.08 0.66 0.66 2.43 8 3.39 8.45 4.86 3.15
15% 4.81 3.89 2.36 5.94 3.67 2.97 4.05 1.16 7.84
20% 21.84 5.2 10.08 1.99 9.4 10.9 2.44 0.4 0.07
25% 0.18 1.94 6.67 1.49 2.03 12.79 0.47 2.83 14.01
30% 16.51 3.11 5.17 13.19 2.36 1.33 8.6 2.89 1.26
Flexural strength (MPa)
5% 12.35 7.92 4.35 11.76 6.2 2.68 18.82 12.74 3.51
10% 16.03 8.37 2 11.81 7.77 5.1 10.55 17.13 18.58
15% 9.41 0.18 1.15 12.69 3.33 1.48 12.47 8.5 1.64
20% 5.42 10.84 1.24 2.01 4.94 1.77 3.41 7.79 4.61
25% 5.07 22.9 4.44 8.46 13.66 0.82 2.11 17.44 1.64
30% 3.07 7.71 2.61 6.56 15.21 0.98 3.48 10.75 0.33
Static modulus of elasticity (N mm2)1
5% 5.68 4.85 7.7
10% 3.05 15.37 7.41
15% 4.19 2.42 1.28
20% 7.33 7.96 9.09
25% 2 0.06 5.85
30% 20.48 9.78 10.82

Fig. 2 Interfacial zone (after pre-soaking in HCL solu-
tion)
Interfacial Zone between Cement Paste and Re-
cycled Aggregate after Presoaking Treatment
The pre-soaking treatment approach should be consi-
dered as cost effective as it can directly remove weak
links of recycled aggregate and the old cement mortar
attached with at a relatively low cost. The improve-
ment of interfacial zone between cement paste and
recycle aggregate after adopting this method has been
shown in the Figures 2, 3 & 4. Although it needs in-
vestment to implement these pre-soaking approaches,
the overall quality for RA is greatly improved and be
as competitive as the normal aggregate.

Fig. 3 Interfacial zone [after pre-soaking in H
2
SO
4

solution]

Fig. 4 Interfacial zone (after pre-soaking in H
3
PO
4

solution)

Fig. 5 Poorer new interfacial zone for normal ap-
proach (without pre-soaking treatment)

The only limitation is that since the major composi-
tions of cement mortar includes calcium oxide (CaO),
silicon dioxide (SiO
2
), aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and
iron oxide (Fe2O3). The reaction under the acidic envi-
ronment (HCl,H2SO4andH3PO4) produces
Ca3(PO4)23H2O and CaHPO4,2Fe(PO4)3H2O and
FeHPO4generated from CaO and Fe2O3 with H
3
PO4,
are unable to clean up the most cement mortar at-
tached and limit the benefits gained from the pre-
treatment approach with an optimal strength im-
provement of 14.01% (with 25% RA substitutions at
28 days curing), 18.82% (with 5% RA substitutions at
7 days curing) and 10.82% (with 30% RA substitu-
tions) for compressive strength, flexural strength and
the static modulus of elasticity, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the literature review, the following conclu-
sions have been drawn:
Use of recycled aggregates from demolished con-
crete wastes has been considered as an effective
method for saving the limited landfill spaces and
natural resources.
Laboratory test results showed that the replacement
of coarse and fine natural aggregates by recycled
aggregates at the levels of 25 and 50% had little ef-
fect on the compressive strength of bricks and
blocks, but higher levels of replacement reduced the
compressive strength.
Its higher yield recycled aggregates are lighter
weight per unit of volume, which means less weight
per cubic yard, resulting in reduced material costs,
haul costs, and overall project costs.
Pre-soaking treatment on recycled aggregates in
hydrochloric acid (HCL), sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
and phosphoric acid (H3PO4) solutions have record-
ed marked improvements in mechanical & durabili-
ty properties of concrete.
Based on the scanning electron microscopy
study, strong interfacial zone exhibits between
presoaked aggregate and hydrated cement paste.

REFERENCES
Alexander MG, 1996. The effects of ageing on the in
ter facial zone in concrete. Interfacial transition
zone in concrete: state-of-the-art report 1996, p.
15074.
ASTM C293-00.Standard test method for flexural
strength of concrete (using simple beam with cen-
ter-
point loading). American Society for Testing and Mate-
rials, United States, 2001.
Barra, M, Vazquez, E. Properties of concretes with re-
cycled aggregates: influence of properties of the ag-
gregates and their interpretation, Sustainable con-
struction: use of recycled concrete aggregate: pro-
ceedings of the international symposium organized
by the concrete technology unit, University of Dun-
dee and held at the D epartment of Trade and Indus-
try Conference Centre, Lo ndon, UK on 1112 No-
vember 1998, London: Thomas Telford; 1998. p.
1930.
Building Contractors Society of Japan. Study on re-
cycled aggregate and recycled aggregate concrete,
BuildingConstruction Society of Japan, Committee
on Disposal and Reuse of Concrete Construction-
Waste, Summary in Concrete Journal,
1978;16(7):1831.
Mindess S, Young F, Darwin D. Concrete 2003:1664.
Poon CS, Kou SC, Lam L. Use of recycled aggregates in
molded concrete bricks and blocks. Construction
Building Mater 2002; 16:2819.
Rao A., Experimental Investigation on Use of Recycled
Aggregates in Mortar and Concrete. Thesis submit-
ted to the Department of Civil Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Kanpur; 2005.
RILEM 121-DRG-Specifications for concrete with re-
cycled aggregates, Mater Struct. 1994; 27:557559.
Sharma, P.C., Singh, S.K. and Nagraj, N. (1998), Fu
ture of Recycled Aggregate Concrete in India, Na-
tional Seminar on New Materials and Technology in
Building Industry, July 24-25, Vigyan Bhawan,New
Delhi, pp. IV-197-IV- 205.
Singh, S. K. and P. C. Sharma (1998)Recycling and Re
use of Building Waste in Constructions- A Review,
All India Seminar on Concrete for Infrastructural
Development, Roorkee, pp 317-329.
Singh, S.K., Sharma, P.C., and Nagraj, N. (1997),
State- of-Art Report on Recycled Aggregate
Concrete, SERC Report, Ghaziabad.
Tam CM, Deng ZM, Zeng SX. Evaluation of construc-
tion methods and performance for high rise public
housing construction in Hong Kong. Build Environ
2002; 37:983 91.
Vivian W.Y. Tama, C.M. Tam and K.N. Le Received 21
November 2005; received in revised form 26 May
2006; accepted 31 May 2006
Web Site:www.acpa-southwest.org/environ.htm
Use of recycled concrete and advantage of recycled
concrete aggregate materials
Website:www.nbmcw.com/.../concrete/.../576-use-of-
recycled-aggregates-in S. K. Singh, Scientist, Struc-
tural Engineering Division, Central Building Re-
search Institute, Roorkee and P. C. Sharma.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

EFFECT OF LOADING FREQUENCY ON PERFORMANCE OF RC
BEAM-COLUMN CONNECTIONS

C. Marthong
Post-graduate Student, IIT Guwahati, Pin-781039, Assam, India, Email: commarthong@gmail.com
A. Dutta
Professor, Civil Engineering Department, IIT Guwahati, Pin-781039, Assam, India, Email: adutta@iitg.ernet.in
S.K. Deb
Professor, Civil Engineering Department, IIT Guwahati, Pin-781039, Assam, India, Email:skdeb@iitg.ernet.in

ABSTRACT: This paper reports an experimental programme aiming to explore the performance of deficient
RC beam-column connections subjected to excitations of different frequencies. Scaled exterior beam-column
connections with typical deficiencies namely: (1) beam weak in flexure (2) beam weak in shear and (3) column
weak in shear were considered. Altogether, six tests were conducted where specimen corresponding to each
deficiency type were subjected to a cyclic displacement histories with two excitation frequencies of 0.025 Hz
and 1.0 Hz. Important parameters related to seismic capacity such as ultimate strength, stiffness degradation,
energy dissipation, ductility of the connections were evaluated. The performances of the connections under two
different loading frequencies were compared in term of the above parameters. The analysis of results revealed
that the above parameters considered for the study exhibited slightly higher values with higher loading
frequency, which is attributed due to strain rate effect. Further, the damage patterns and failure of the
connections showed greater damage during higher loading frequency compared to those for lower loading
frequency.
Keywords: Beam-column connections, deficiency type, excitation frequency, seismic parameters, inertial
effect.

INTRODUCTION
Connections are defined as a common point of
intersection of columns and beams and provide
resistance to the applied external loads due to the
bending moment encountered at the joints. Therefore,
connections play an important part in structures. In
the past, numerous reinforced concrete frame
structures collapsed due to severe earthquake. Post-
earthquake investigations into damaged structures
generally showed that in many cases, damages of RC
frame structure were localized in beam-column
connections (Ghobarah et al.,1997) which might have
led to partial or total collapse of the building. Further,
it was observed that the exterior connection which is
confined by only two or three framing beams had
suffered more in comparison to the interior ones.
Several experimental studies have been carried out to
evaluate the behavior of connections under cyclic
loading (Murty et al. 2003). However, no record
could be found where the comparative studies
covering various deficiencies like beam-column
connections with beam weak in flexure, beam weak in
shear and column weak in shear were addressed
altogether. Thus, a holistic approach was initiated to
cover different deficient cases of the connections so as
to gather a comprehensive knowledge about the
behaviour of these connections.
Most of the RC beam-column connection tests
conducted in the past are of quasi-static nature
[Hakuto et al., (2000), Shiohara (2001)]. Obviously, it
is advantageous because the quasi-static cyclic testing
allows a careful monitoring of the specimen
behaviour during the test and the strain-rate effects do
not affect the material behaviour. However, these
frequencies are substantially lower than those
corresponding to the frequencies of actual seismic
excitation. Very few studies on dynamic test of RC
beam-column connections may be seen in the
literature [Agbabian et al.,(1994) and Dhakal et al.,
(2005)]. Aiming to narrow this gap, the study targeted
to explore the performances of RC exterior beam-
column connections subjected to excitations of higher
frequency. This study become more important in
moderate and low seismicity region where some
structures may not have been designed for lateral
loads and high frequency excitations such as severe
earthquake, explosion and construction induced
vibrations may pose more threat than the low-
frequency seismic actions. The scope of this
experimental study is limited to testing of six two-
third scale exterior connections with three typical
deficiencies. Out of six specimens, each three
specimens were subjected with two loading
frequencies (0.025 Hz and 1.0 Hz) respectively.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Selection of specimens
Figure 1a shows the deflected nature of a frame under
the influence of lateral loading. The points of contra-
flexure lie at the mid-points of beams and columns for
such frame. A free body diagram of an isolated beam-
column assembly in its deformed position is shown in
Figure 1b. A typical full scale residential building
with floor to floor height as 3.3 meters and the beam
of 3.0 meters effective span was considered. The
connection was scaled down to two-third size for
experimental investigation. This study was


concentrated on a sub-structure consisting of an
external beam-column connection.

(a) (b)
Fig.1 Frame under lateral loading for (a) Deflected
shape and (b) Isolated exterior connection
Description of specimens
In the present study, two-third size exterior RC beam-
column connections with three typical deficiencies
namely: (1) beam weak in flexure (BWF) (2) beam
weak in shear (BWS) and (3) column weak in shear
(CWS) were considered.
The detailing of all specimens considered in this study
are shown in Figure 2. The beam for BWF specimen
was designed as under reinforced section following
the provisions of standard codal provisions and
guidelines [IS 456 (2000), IS 1893 (I)(2002), Jain et
al. (2006)]. Strong column-weak beam principle was
adopted for the design of the connection. The cross
section of the column was 200 mm x 200 mm and that
of the beam was 200 mm x 240 mm. BWS specimen
was exactly similar in all respects to that of BWF
except the shear reinforcement provided in beam were
reduced to make the beam weak in shear. Target cube
strength of 30 N/mm
2
was used for both BWF and
BWS specimens. For CWS specimen, the cross
section of the column was reduced than earlier cases
while the cross section of beam was increased to
make the beam-column as a strong beam-weak
column. The main reinforcements in column were
maintained similar to those of earlier cases, while
same was increased in beam. In order to ensure the
shear weakness of the specimens, spacing of lateral
ties in the column was increased. Concrete of
comparatively weaker grade than earlier cases (target
cube strength of 25 N/mm
2
) was used.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 2 Reinforcement detailing for (a) BWF (b) BWS
and (c) CWS specimens

Test set-up and loading procedures
Test set-up as shown in Figure 3 was used for the
testing, where column was placed in horizontal
position and beam in vertical position. Both ends of
the column were placed on fabricated roller supports
in order to simulate the appropriate boundary
condition. Constant axial load of 10% of gross
capacity of column was applied to the column end
abutting against an A frame. The lateral load was
applied on the beam tip by a displacement-control
loading system through a 250 kN capacity dynamic
actuator having a maximum displacement range of
125mm. The displacement amplitudes were increased
with one loading cycle at every amplitude of
displacement history. A displacement history is
shown in Figure 4.

Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of test set up


(a)

(b)
Fig. 4 Loading history for (a) Lower frequency
(b) Higher frequency

TEST RESULTS AND COMPARISONS

General behaviour
Crack initiation and propagation were monitored as
closely as possible in all the specimens.
Cracks for BWF specimens were widely distributed at
the joint region for specimens under cyclic
displacement of lower loading frequency. In contrast,
specimens under cyclic displacement of higher
frequency, the major damages were localized at the
beam-column joint interface. This indicates that the
loading frequency is related to the transfer of forces
between the reinforcing bars and the concrete.
Further, hairlines cracking were developed during the
initial stages of loading both at the joint region and at
the joint interface of specimens in both loading cases.
However, because of more efficient load-transfer
occurring at the lower loading frequency test,
additional cracking progressively developed at the
joint region (Fig. 5).
BWS specimens under cyclic displacement of higher
frequency also showed different failure pattern in
comparison to those specimens under cyclic
displacement of lower frequency (Fig. 6). Cracks
were distributed both at joint region and beam part for
specimens subjected with displacement of lower
frequency. This behaviour was also attributed to the
efficient load-transfer occurring at the lower loading
frequency test. However for specimens under cyclic
displacement of higher frequency, the damaged were
localized at the weakest shear zone. Severe crushing
of concrete and necking of main reinforcement were
observed. The joint region was practically
undamaged. This is because the damage was mostly
concentrated on the beam part without transferring to
the relatively stronger joint region.

CWS specimen under both loading types exhibited
similar extent of damage (Fig. 7). However, because
of efficient load-transfer occurring at cyclic
displacement of lower frequency, the cracks on
specimens are well propagated toward the weakest
shear zone in the column region.

(a) (b)
Fig. 5 Failure modes of BWF specimen under (a)
Lower and (b) Higher loading frequency

(a) (b)
Fig. 6 Failure modes of BWS specimen under (a)

(a) (b)
Fig. 7 Failure modes of CWS specimen under (a)

-75
-50
-25
0
25
50
75
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
Time (Sec)
-75
-50
-25
0
25
50
75
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
Time (Sec)


Hysteretic response

Fig. 8 Hysteretic responses at (a) lower and (b) higher
loading frequency test
Hysteretic responses of all the connection were
plotted from the recorded data. Figure 8 show one of
the typical responses. The hysteretic response under a
higher loading frequency test is not as smooth as
compared with the loops obtained from lower loading
frequency test. This behaviour may be attributed to
the development of acceleration in the direction
opposite to that of the displacement being applied
(Dhakal et al., 2003). This opposite inertia force
renders the load cell reading to drop sharply around
the peaks of the displacement cycles. Important
parameter related to seismic capacity such as ultimate
strength, stiffness degradation, energy dissipation,
ductility etc. were evaluated from these responses.
Comparisons of the above parameters with those
obtained from lower loading frequency test were
made.

Response cycles and peak loads
The envelope curves of hysteresis loops for all
specimen types under lower and higher loading
frequencies were plotted. These plots are shown in
Figure 9. Comparing the curves at each displacement
level, a similar trend in attaining the loading carrying
capacities were observed in both loading cases.
However, the envelope of hysteresis loops of
specimens under higher loading frequency show
slightly higher load carrying capacity in both push and
pull directions. Table 1 summarized the load carrying
capacities of all the specimens. The maximum load
obtained by averaging the peak push and pull load
was considered as ultimate load carrying capacity.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 9 Envelope of hysteresis loops for (a) BWF
(b) BWS and (c) CWS specimens

Stiffness degradation
Stiffness is calculated as the slope of the line joining
the peak of positive and negative loads at a given
cycle (Naeim and Kelly, 1999). The plots of stiffness
variation versus drift angle for all specimens are
shown in Figure 10. Drift angle is defined as the ratio
of beam tip displacement to the length of the beam.
Comparing all the curves, the trend of degradation
was very similar in all cases studied. At the beginning
of the test, specimens under cyclic displacement of
higher frequency show slightly higher stiffness values
than those of lower loading frequency test. This
behaviour may be attributed due to strain rate effect.
However, at the end of the test stiffness attained by
specimens in both loading cases are well comparable.
The percent reductions in stiffness in both loading
-70-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 70
-50
-40
-20
0
20
40
50
Beam tip displacement (mm)
B
e
a
m

t
i
p

l
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
(a) BWF (f = 0.025 Hz)
-70-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 70
-50
-40
-20
0
20
40
50
B
e
a
m

t
i
p

l
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
(b) BWF (f=1.0 Hz)
-50
-30
-10
10
30
50
-70 -50 -30 -10 10 30 50 70
B
e
a
m

t
i
p

l
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Higer
frequency
-50
-30
-10
10
30
50
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
B
e
a
m

t
i
p

l
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Higher
frequency
Lower
frequency
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
B
e
a
m

t
i
p

l
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Higher
frequency
Lower
frequency


cases in all specimens types were evaluated.
Comparing drift by drift levels, it has been observed
that the stiffness degradation rate of specimens under
higher loading frequency with increase in lateral
movement is little higher as compared to those of the
lower loading frequency.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 10 Stiffness variation versus drift angle for (a)
BWF (b) BWS and (c) CWS specimens
3.1.1 Energy dissipation
The ability of a structural element to resist an
earthquake load depends to a large extent on its
capacity to dissipate its energy. The plots of energy
dissipations versus drift angle are shown in Figure 11.
The plot shows that higher amounts of energy were
dissipated by specimens under cyclic displacement of
higher frequency. The energy dissipated by each
specimen at the ultimate drift level are presented in
Table 1. BWF specimen under higher loading
frequency test dissipated its energy about 2 times
higher than that of specimen under lower frequency
test. Similarly, BWS and CWS specimens under
higher loading frequency dissipated their energy about
1.6 and 1.3 times higher than that of specimen under
lower frequency test.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 11 Cumulative energy dissipation for (a) BWF
(b) BWS and (c) CWS specimens

Displacement ductility
Displacement ductility for all specimens were
calculated from the respective envelope curves
(Shannag et al., 2002) which can be explained in
Figure 12. For computation, the ultimate displacement
(d
u
) was set at a displacement corresponding to 20 %
drop of peak load. A relatively comparable ductility
values were achieved by the specimens both under
lower and higher loading frequency (Table 1).
0
3
6
9
12
15
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
S
t
i
f
f
n
e
s
s

(
k
N
/
m
m
)
Drift angle (%)
Higher frequency test
Lower frequency test
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 1 2 3 4 5
S
t
i
f
f
n
e
s
s

(
k
N
/
m
m
)
Drift angle (%)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 1 2 3 4
S
t
i
f
f
n
e
s
s

(
k
N
/
m
m
)
Drift angle (%)
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

e
n
e
r
g
y

d
i
s
s
i
p
a
t
e
d

(
k
N
-
m
)
Drift angle (%)
Higher frequency
Lower frequency
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

e
n
e
r
g
y

d
i
s
s
i
p
a
t
e
d

(
k
N
-
m
)
Drift angle (%)
Higher frequency
Lower frequency
0
1
2
3
4
0 1 2 3 4
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

e
n
e
r
g
y

d
i
s
s
i
p
a
t
e
d

(
k
N
-
m
)
Drift angle (%)
Higher frequency
Lower frequency


Fig. 12 Procedures for ductility calculation
Table 1 Capacity comparisons
Specimens
with loading
frequency
Control Specimens
Load
capacity
(kN)
Energy
dissipation
(kN-m)
Ductility
(d
u
/d
y
)
BWF: Low 35.995 12.34 9.4
BWF: High 40.755 24.67 9.4
BWS: Low 37.080 10.14 8.33
BWS: High 41.070 16.51 7.69
CWS: Low 31.230 2.45 6.67
CWS: High 35.905 3.21 7.25
Note, low= lower loading frequency, high= higher
loading frequency and
y
= yield displacement

CONCLUSIONS
Six scale RC exterior beam-column connections with
three typical deficiencies were tested. The two
displacement histories were characterized by two
loading frequencies. On the basis of their comparison
it was found that (i) seismic parameter viz. ultimate
strength, energy dissipation, stiffness etc. exhibited
slightly higher values with higher loading frequency
in all specimens types, which is attributed due to
strain rate effect (ii) the higher loading frequency test
cause greater damaged and produced fewer and more
localized cracks on the specimens than those observed
at the lower frequency test. This indicates that the
applied loading frequency influence transfer of forces
between reinforcing bars and concrete (iii) the load
cell reading at the loading point would be affected by
inertial forces associated with high-speed cyclic test
(iv) among all deficient specimens, BWS specimens
showed a poor performance during high speed cyclic
test.
REFERENCES
Agbabian, M.S., Higazy, E. M., Abdel-gaffar, A. M.,
and Elnashai, A. S. (1994). Experimental
observations on the seismic shear performance of
RC beam-column connections subjected to varying
axial column force. Earthquake Engineering and
Structural Dynamics, 23, 859-876.
Dhakal, R. P., and Pan, T. C. (2003). Characteristic
of high-speed cyclic test of beam-column joint.
ACI, Structural journals 100(2), 188-196.
Dhakal, R. P., Pan, T. C., Irawan, P., Tsai, K. C.,
Lin, K. C., and Chen, C. H. (2005). Experimental
study on the dynamic response of gravity-designed
reinforced concrete connections. Engineering
Structures, Elsevier 27, 75-87.
Ghobarah, A., Aziz, A., and Biddah, T.S (1997).
Rehabilitation of reinforced concrete frame
connections using corrugated steel jacketing, ACI
Structural Journal, 4(3), 283294.
Hakuto, H., Park, R. and Tanaka, H. (2000). Seismic
load tests on interior and exterior beam-column
joints with substandard reinforcing details. ACI
Structural Journal, 97(1), 11-25
IS 456 (2000), Plain and reinforced concrete - Code of
Practice, Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi.
IS 1893 (I) (2002), Criteria for earthquake resistant
design of structures - Part 1: General provisions
and buildings, Bureau of Indian Standard, New
Delhi.
Jain, S.K. and. Murty, C.V.R (2006). Proposed draft
provision and commentary on ductile detailing of
RC structures subjected to seismic forces,
Document No.:: IITK-GSDMA-EQ11-V-3.0
::IITK- GSDMA-EQ16- V2.0.
Murty, C.V.R., Rai, D.C., Bajpai, K.K., and Jain, S.K.
(2003). Effectiveness of reinforcement details in
exterior reinforced concrete beam-column joints
for earthquake resistance. ACI structural journal,
100 (2), 149-156.
Naeim, F. and Kelly, J.M (1999). Design of seismic
isolated structures from theory to practice, John
Willey & sons, Inc.
Shannag, M.J., Barakat, S. and Abdul-Kareem, M.
(2002). Cyclic behavior of HPFRC-repaired
reinforced concrete interior beam-column joints,
Materials and Structures, 35(6), 348-356.
Shiohara, H. (2001). New model for shear failure of
RC interior beam-column connections. Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE, 127 (2), 152-160.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

STUDIES ON THE TREATMENT OF VEGETABLE WASTE WITH HIGH
SOLID ANAEROBIC DIGESTERS

S. Venkatesh
Assistant Professor (Science and Humanities-Chemistry, Vel Tech High Tech Dr.Rangarajan and Dr.Sakunthala Engineering
College, Avadi, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India, E-mail: venkateshsrinivasamurthy@yahoo.com, venkat_iomau@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT- Solid waste constitutes a major environmental pollution in urban and semi-urban areas of industrially
advanced as well as developing countries of the world. Anaerobic digestion of biodegradable solid wastes is being
considered as an effective method of both management of solid wastes and as a renewable source of energy in the
form of biogas. Anaerobic digestion is the bacterial fermentation of organic wastes ion the absence of free oxygen.
Since the vegetable waste forms the major portion of organic waste and generation of biogas seem to be a viable
waste management option. The present study focuses, on the anaerobic digestion of vegetable waste using high solid
digestion (HSD) of different design. The performance of three types of HSD operated with vegetable waste as
substrate was evaluated. The first type digester was with solid and liquid phase within the digester unit. The second
type was a single unit without any phase separation. The third type of digester was with a separate solid and liquid
phase units. Two laboratory scale digesters of each type (volume -1.1 litres) were fabricated using 2 inch diameter
PVC pipe. In the first type, each digester unit was divided into two chambers using PVC perforated disc of 6mm
diameter. The first type digester was with solid and liquid phase within the digester unit. The second type was a
single unit without any phase separation. The third type of digester was with a separate solid and liquid phase units.
Two laboratory scale digesters of each type (volume -1.1 litres) were fabricated using 2 inch diameter PVC pipe. In
the first type, each digester unit was divided into two chambers using PVC perforated disc of 6mm diameter. The
digested cow dung slurry (250 ml) from the biogas plant was used as inoculum. Initially, during the start up period
there was a steady rise in biogas yield in irregular fashion in all the digesters (1056-1606 L kg
-1
VS/d) from 2
nd
to 7
th

week of operation. This increase in gas production rates may be mainly due to favorable temperature and production
of CO
2
during the initial stages of operation. However the gas yield decreased during the 8
th
week and steadily
increased from 9
th
week onwards in all the digesters. The digesters from the 8
th
week were fed with 100.8 g fresh
weight once in every week throughout the period of study. The performance of type 1 digester in terms of biogas
yield (782.47 L kg
-1
VS/d 9
th
week) is better than type II digester (561.8 L kg
-1
VS/d) but lesser than type III
(801.02 L kg
-1
VS/d) digester. The performance of type III digester was 8.9% higher than type 1 and 23.1% more
than type II digester. The highest biogas yield in type III digester was found to be statistically significant at 99%
confidential level.

Key Words: Anaerobic digestion, High solid digestion, Multiphase digestion, Solid waste management

INTRODUCTION
Anaerobic fermentation is one of the frontiers of
environmental engineering which has witnessed great
breakthrough in the recent years. Anaerobic digestion
is bacterial fermentation of organic wastes in the
absence of free oxygen. The fermentation when
carried out for producing energy, leads to the
breakdown of complex biodegradable organics in a
four stage process to form an end product called
biogas which can be used a fuel or can be converted
to electricity with the help of suitable generators
(Figure 1). Three physiological groups of bacteria are
involved in the anaerobic conversion of organic
materials. The first group of hydrolyzing and
fermenting bacteria converts complex organic
materials such as carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
to fatty acids, alcohols, carbon dioxide, ammonia and
hydrogen. The second group of acetogenic bacteria
converts the product of the first group into hydrogen,
carbon dioxide, and acetic acid. The third group
consists of two physiologically different groups of
methane forming bacteria, one converting hydrogen
and carbon dioxide to methane and the other forming
methane from decarboxylation of acetate [1, 2, 3].

Rapid urbanization all over the world has created a
serious problem of solid waste disposal. Solid wastes
constitute a major environmental pollution problem
in urban and semi-urban areas of industrially
advanced as well as developing countries of the
world. Anaerobic digestion of biodegradable solid
wastes is being as an effective method of both
management of solid wastes and as a renewable
source of energy in the form of biogas [4]. Anaerobic
bioconversion of organic feed stocks, such as


municipal solid wastes (MSW), aquatic biomass etc.,
has the potential of producing considerable energy
and a high-grade fertilizer/ soil conditioner.
Historically, research on high solid anaerobic
fermentation has focused on the single charge
(batch), non mixed reactor concept, with recirculation
of effluent [5]. In these designs, gas production
occurs either in a single stage or leached acids may
be circulated to a second methanogenic stage. With
non mixed systems, rates of gas production are
generally much slower then in liquid, mixed systems
[6].

In India, the main problematic solid wastes, besides
MSW originate from food processing industries,
agro-industrial and agricultural residues. As
conventional biogas plant fail to treat such wastes
efficiently the high solid digestion technology is
being tried to solve the solid waste management
problems since early eighties. One approach which
holds great promise in solving the technical problems
associated with the anaerobic digestion is phase
separation or multi-stage digestion. The concept of
phase separation involves operating the anaerobic
digestion process in distinct phases. This is also
termed as three phase or triphasic process. In some
cases the first and the second phase are operated
together while the methane phase is run separately,
such processes are called two-stage or diphasic
process. The most notable aspect of multiphase
process is its overall speed. For example, in
conventional digester it takes 15-20 days for 60-70%
conversion of biomass into methane, in multi phase
digestion the same result is achieved in less than half
of this time, since hydraulic retention has direct
bearing on the digester size and consequently on the
process economics [5]. The reduction in conversion
time in multi phase digestion leads to a cost
advantage. This is also most suitable and efficient
process for phytomass digestion. In the present study,
the anaerobic digestion of vegetable waste using high
solid digestion (HSD) of different design was
observed.

Figure 1: Different phases involved in anaerobic
digestion

MATERIALS

a) Vegetable waste
The vegetable waste was chopped manually using
knife to approximately 2-3 cm pieces for charging the
digesters. The uniformly chopped vegetable waste
were analyzed for total solids, volatile solids,
moisture content, carbon and nitrogen (Table 1)

b) Inocula
In high solid digesters, the effluent slurry form a
natural biogas digester was used as inocula. The
slurry was mixed with double distilled water (1:4
ratio), stirred well, allowed to settle for about four
hours, decanted and filtered through cloth. These
inocula were used to feed the digesters [7]. The
inocula were analyzed for total solids, volatile solids,
COD (Table 2)

Table 1: Characteristics Of Vegetable Waste Used As Feed
Parameters Results
Total solids 7.93%
Volatile solids 6.74%
Moisture content 92.07%
Nitrogen 336 mg/Kg dry wt.
Carbon 0.506%

Simple Organics

Higher Organic
acids
Hydrogen
and Carbon
dioxide
Acetic acid
Methane
Stage 1
(Hydrolysis
Phase)
Stage 2 & 3
(Acid Phase)
Stage 4 (Methane
Phase)
Biomass and
Organic wastes


Table 2: Chemical Analysis Of Inocula Used For Seeding
Inocula Total solids Volatile solids C.O.D
Digested cow dung slurry 4700 mg/L 3600 mg/L 11200 mg/L

c) Reactors
(i) Digester with phase separation within the single
unit
Two laboratory scale digesters of each type (volume -
1.1 litres) were fabricated using 2 inch diameter PVC
pipe (Figure 2a). Each digester unit was divided into
two chambers using PVC perforated disc of 6mm
diameter. The perforations were made for the
movement of the leacheate from the solid bed to the
liquid phase during recycling process. The upper
chamber was used as solid phase and the lower
portion was used as liquid phase. The volume of solid
phase compartment was 800 ml, while the volume of
the liquid phase chamber was kept as 300 ml
respectively. The biogas production from solid phase
and liquid phase chambers were measured
individually. All the digesters were sealed airtight to
prevent the escape of gas.

(ii) Digestion without any phase separation
pipe (Figure 2b). Unlike the above kind of HSDs
there was no compartmentalization in the reactor
unit.

(iii) Digestion with separate solid and liquid phase
unit
pipe (Figure 2c). The volume of solid phase
compartment was 800 ml, while the volume of the
liquid phase chamber was kept as 300 ml
respectively. Both the units were connected by a
rubber tube with flow regulator valve.

METHODOLOGY
Digester Operation
In all the digester types vegetable wastes was used as
a substrate. Uniformity in operational parameters
such as loading rate, temperature, recycling of
bioleacheate was maintained in all the digester types.
The digesters were charged initially with 25 g of
spent material and 6.3 g fresh weight of freshly
chopped vegetable waste (0.5 g dry weight). The
digesters were fed subsequently with 6.3 g (fresh
weight), once weekly for first three weeks prior to
start. After 3 weeks, the digester was charged with
50.8 g (fresh weight) and left for acclimation for the
next 21 days. On the 21
st
day they were fed with
100.8 g (fresh weight) once weekly which was
continued throughout the period of study. The
digested cow dung slurry (250 ml) from the biogas
plant was used as inoculum. The bioleacheate was
circulated over the solid bed in all the types of
digesters using electrically operated peristaltic pump
for 20 minutes twice daily at constant flow rates. In
all the above digester the bioleacheate drawn from
the bottom (liquid phase) was sprinkled over the top
of the solid bed using electrically operated peristaltic
pump. The liquid was sprinkled with the help of glass
sprayer with four arms for spraying. The digester was
operated in a batch mode. Once the digester was
filled up the n the digested phytomass equivalent to
one third volume of the reactor was removed from
the bottom portion of the digester. The single feed
outlet was provided at the side to remove the digested
waste. All the digesters were connected to a gas
collecting system with rubber tubing. The gas
produced was measured by the graduated plastic
cylinders. The gas produced was measured twice a
day at twelve hour interval. The gas collecting system
was filled with acidified water (pH- 2) in order to
prevent the absorption of CO
2
and H
2
S from the
biogas.


Fig. 2 Different High Solid Digester Unit

The results of the digester performance in terms of
biogas yield are given in Table 3. Initially, during the
start up period there was a steady rise in biogas yield
in irregular fashion in all the digesters (1056-1606 L
kg
-1
VS/d) from 2
nd
to 7
th
week of operation. This
increase in gas production rates may be mainly due to
favorable temperature and production of CO
2
during
the initial stages of operation. Also during the initial
periods the population of acidogens is expected to be
higher in proportion than the methanogens favouring
CO
2
production. Secondly during the initial periods
the availability of empty head space filled with air
and the air trapped in between the feed material
might encourage the growth of the facultative
fermenting and acetogenic bacteria other than
methanogens results in high production of CO
2
[7,8].
However the gas yield decreased during the 8
th
week
and steadily increased from 9
th
week onwards in all
the digesters. The digesters from the 8
th
week were
fed with 100.8 g fresh weight once in every week
throughout the period of study. There was a slight
drip in biogas yield on the 13
th
week in all the three
digester types due to the partial removal of the
digester contents from the digester unit.

The type II digester without phase separation was
found to perform with lowest efficiency interms of
biogas yield. This could be due the fact that both
acidogens and methanogens grow in a consortium
within the single unit. As the concept of phase
separation clearly indicates that both acidogens and
methanogens vary in their requirements namely pH,
type of feed, temperature etc. The methanogens are
very sensitive to the above mentioned factors while
the acidogens are hardier [9,10].The growth rate of
acidogens may be higher while that of the
methanogens may be poorer in a single digester unit
without any phase separation resulting in poor biogas
yield (Figure 3) than digester with phase separation.
This is further evident from the fact that digester with
phase separation within the single digester unit (type
I) performed better than digester without phase
separation (type 2) while the digester with separate
solid and liquid phase (type 3) performed better than
all the digester type interms of biogas yield.

Table 3: Performance of Different High Solid Digester with Vegetable Waste as Feed

Period
(Days)
Fresh
wt.
(g/d)

Loading rate
(g/d)
Type I digester Type II
digester
Type III digester
Biogas yield* (L Kg
-1

VS/d)
Total
gas
yield
Biogas yield (L Kg
-1
VS/d)
Total
.Solids
Volatile
Solids
Solid
phase
Liquid
phase
Total Solid
phase
Liquid
phase
Total
1-7 4.47 0.35 0.29 224.13 210.34 434.47 431.03 245.1 220.34 465.44
8-14 0.9 0.071 0.06 750 666.66 1416.66 1250 767 684.6 1452.66
15-21 0.9 0.071 0.06 833.3 683.33 1516.63 1183 840 697.65 1537.65
22-28 0.9 0.071 0.06 850 716.66 1566.66 1316.6 867 740.66 1607.66
29-35 2.4 0.19 0.16 687.5 593.75 1281.25 1031.2 717 615.05 1332.05
36-42 2.4 0.19 0.16 781.25 687.5 1468.75 1231.25 797 699.5 1496.5
43-49 2.4 0.19 0.16 818.75 756.25 1575 1281.25 829.75 777.2 1606.95
50-56 14.4 1.142 0.97 345.36 335.05 680.41 500 361.85 351.54 713.39
57-63 14.4 1.142 0.97 376.28 365.97 742.25 513 396.9 376.28 773.18
64-70 14.4 1.142 0.97 400 382.47 782.47 561.8 409.27 391.75 801.02
71-77 14.4 1.142 0.97 403.09 387.62 790.71 585.56 411.34 402.06 813.4
78-84 14.4 1.142 0.97 415.46 396.9 812.36 617.52 448.45 423.71 872.16
85-91 14.4 1.142 0.97 409.71 388.65 798.36 622.26 434.02 422.68 856.7
92-99 14.4 1.142 0.97 423.71 407.21 830.92 685.56 479.39 448.98 927.83
100-105 14.4 1.142 0.97 441.23 413.4 854.63 680.41 484.53 453.6 938.13
*The biogas yield is presented as an average of seven days


Figure 3: Biogas Yield From High Solid Digester As
A Function Of Time

The performance of type III digester was 8.9% higher
than type 1 and 23.1% more than type II digester.
Therefore separating the solid and liquid phase in a
high solid digester does improve the performance of
the digester interms of biogas yield. The phase
separation perhaps helps in providing optimal
conditions for the respective bacterial groups there by
enhancing their growth and activity. Moreover, by
separating the phases as separate entities or units
(type 3) digester, the flow rate, concentration of
volatile fatty acid (VFA) in the bioleacheate can be
controlled in order to facilitate the growth of
methanogens. Additionally by providing inert support
media or by stirring the contents of the liquid phase
the activity of methanogens in the liquid phase can be
enhanced which in turn increase the biogas yield.
The concept of phase separation was clearly stressed
in our studies as both acidogens and methanogens
vary in their requirements namely pH, type of feed,
temperature etc. The methanogens are very sensitive
to the above mentioned factors while the acidogens
are hardier [9, 10]. Therefore separating the solid and
liquid phase in a high solid digester does improve the
performance of the digester interms of biogas yield
because the growth rate of acidogens may be higher
while that of the methanogens may be poorer in a
single digester unit without any phase separation and
may result in poor biogas yield . The another
advantage of phase separation is that the liquid
effluent would be lesser in VFA content and when
recycled into the solid phase using peristaltic pump
will not alter the VFA content of the solid phase
digester. Hence the pH level within the solid phase
digester unit will be quite stable. The stable pH or
less altered ph is quite advantageous for the
facultative anaerobes and acidogens present in the
digester to perform well in terms of biogas yield.

The statistically significant data of biogas yield were
assessed by using students t-test for all the three
types of digesters. The digester with separate solid
and liquid phase was found to be performing better
than all the other types of digester (Table 4).The
highest biogas yield was found to be statistically
significant at 99% confidence level.
The removed spent phytomass from the digester were
analyzed for organic nitrogen. The organic nitrogen
was found to be 25% more than that of the organic
nitrogen content originally present in the feed (Figure
4).
The increase in the organic nitrogen can be attributed
to the microbial action and the digested material has
good fertilizer value. The spent feed with high
organic nitrogen content thus can be further used as
fertilizer.

CONCLUSION
Thus, our studies on anaerobic digestion of
vegetable waste indicate that high solid
digestion coupled with the concept of phase
separation is the better option rather viable and
efficient option for phytomass treatment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author thanks the Centre for Pollution
Control and Energy Technology (CPCET-
Pondicherry University) for their support in the
research activity.

Table 4: Comparison of Performance of Different Types Of HSDs In Terms of Biogas Yield
Loading rate (g/d) Days Biogas yield (L Kg
-1
VS/d) t value S
*
/NS
**

0.97 20 Type I- 860.12 Type II- 679.19 80.78 S
0.97 20 Type I- 860.12 Type III- 937.72 -39.08 S
0.97 20 Type II- 679.19 Type III- 937.72 -104.33 S

Bi ogas yi el d as a function of ti me
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
0
-7
1
5
-
2
1
2
9
-
3
5
4
3
-
4
9
5
7
-
6
3
7
1
-
7
7
8
5
-
9
1
1
0
0
-1
0
5
Days
B
i
o
g
a
s

y
i
e
l
d

(
L

K
g
-1

V
S

d
a
y
-1
)
Digester without phase
seperat ion
Digester with phase
seperat ion within single unit
Digester with separate solid


Fig 4: Comparison of Organic Nitrogen Content
Present In Fresh And Spent Phytomass

REFERENCES
[1] M.P.Bryant, M.J. Wolin, and R.S. woife,
Methanobacillus omlianskii, a symbiotic
association of two species of bacteria.
Archives Microbiology, Vol. 59, 20-31, 1967.
[2] R.A. Mah, D.M.Ward, L. Baresi, and T.L.
Glass, Biogenesis of methane. Ann. Rev.
Microbiology, Vol.31, 309-34, 1977.
[3] B.R. Nagar, and C.Tietjan, A status report on
the use of biogas technology for increasing fuel
and soil productivity. Journal of Scientific
and Industrial Research, Vol. 37, 445-448,
1978.
[4] R.M. Shasikant, and K.U. Abande, Anaerobic
digestion of vegetable solid waste as a method
of solid waste management Journal of the
IPHE, Vol. 1, 92-99, 1995.
[5] S. Ghosh, Solid phase digestion of low
moisture feeds Biotechnol. Bioengg. Suppl.
Vol. 14, 365-376, 1984.
[6] J.L. Gaddy, and E.C. Clausen, Solar energy
research Institute (SERI), pp-231-269, 1985.
[7] H.N. Chanakya, Sushma Borgaonkar, G.
Meena, and K.S. Jagadish, Solid phase biogas
production with garbage or water hyacinth
Bioresource technology, Vol. 46, 227-
231,1993.
[8] M. Shyam, and P.K. Sharma, Solid-state
anaerobic digestion of cattle dung and agro-
residues in small capacity field digesters
Bioresource technology, Vol.48, 203-207,
1994.
[9] S.A. Abbasi, and E.V. Ramasamy, Utilization
of biowaste solids by extracting volatile fatty
acids with subsequent conversion to methane
and manure In proceeding of the twelfth
International Conference on Solid waste
Technology and Management, Philadelphia,
USA, Nov 17-20, 4C1-4C8, 1996.
[10] S.A. Abbasi, and E.V. Ramasamy,
Biotechnological pollution control systems:
the technologies most appropriate for the third
world countries University press Ltd.,
Hyderabad, 1997.

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Fresh phytomass spent phytomass
N
i
t
r
o
g
e
n

c
o
n
t
e
n
t
(
m
g

k
g
-1

d
r
y

w
t
)

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

PROTOTYPE DEVELOPMENT FOR A BUS ARRIVAL TIME
PREDICTION SYSTEM UNDER INDIAN TRAFFIC CONDITIONS

Akhilesh Koppineni, Krishna Chaithanya
Under graduate student, Dept. of Civil Engg., IIT Madras
K. Sidharth
Under graduate student, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Madras
Lelitha Vanajakshi, (Corresponding Author),
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg., IIT Madras, Chennai 36. Ph. 44 2257 4291, email: lelitha@iitm.ac.in

ABSTRACT: This study focuses on developing a prototype for a robust real time bus arrival prediction
system, which can be used under Indian traffic conditions. A prediction algorithm reported to be performing
accurately under Indian traffic conditions using a model based approach is modified and tested for identifying
the best prediction technique to be adopted for the prototype development. The algorithm uses Kalman Filtering
Technique for the estimation of bus arrival time and was tested for varying traffic conditions during different
times of the day. The system uses real time data from the GPS units installed in public transport buses and
predicts the arrival time of buses. The results were compared with the actual observations from the field. The
development of prototypes for field implementation and field demonstrations involved integration of the output
from the real time algorithm with the information display systems. Prototypes were developed for a regular
variable message sign at bus stops, web based information system and Kiosk applications at bus stops. This
information can also be conveyed to registered users through SMS. The issues to be tackled included reliability,
security, scalability and transferability. For example, the system developed should not have restrictions on the
number of buses, and bus-stops along the route. The application should also be transferable to any route with
varying lengths. All these were tackled and prototypes were developed and demonstrated which can be used for
field implementation of bus arrival time prediction system under Indian traffic conditions.

INTRODUCTION
India, on its way to economic growth, is facing drastic
changes in urban transportation. Increase in vehicle
ownership, and inefficient public mode of transport
are leading to severe traffic congestion in most of the
urban areas. There are several approaches that can be
adopted to tackle this problem. Construction of more
infrastructures is one of the basic solutions, which
may not be always possible. Also, there is limitation
to increase infrastructure and it may never be able to
meet the vehicular growth rate. Various traffic
management measures can be another option and
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) is one of the
advanced options under this category. The major
objective of ITS is to evaluate, develop, analyse and
integrate new technologies and concepts to achieve
traffic efficiency, improve environmental quality, save
energy, conserve time, and enhance safety and
comfort for drivers, pedestrians, and other traffic
groups. One functional area of ITS namely Advanced
Public Transportation Systems (APTS) concentrate on
making the public transport system more attractive by
using more advanced technologies. One such
application is the provision of bus arrival time
information to the passengers to make their journey
more efficient. Providing reliable bus arrival
information to passengers will definitely be an
incentive to shift from private to public mode of
transport, which will help in relieving congestion.

Numerous algorithms for bus arrival time prediction
exist varying from model based, data driven,
statistical and empirical methods (Hoffman & Janko
1990; Thakuriah et al. 1992; VanLint et al. 2002;
Jeong & Rilett 2005; Vanajakshi & Rilett 2004; Kwon
et al. 2000; Sen et al. 1991; Ishak & Al-Deek 2002),
most of which are developed for homogeneous traffic
conditions and may not perform efficiently under
Indian traffic conditions. There are not many studies
reported under heterogeneous traffic conditions for
short-term travel time prediction (Ramakrishna et al.
2006; Vanajakshi et al. 2008) and none of them
carried out field implementation. Also, the limited
existing bus arrival prediction systems implemented
in Indian cities as pilot studies (Wikipedia) are not
based on any accurate prediction methods and hence
are not able to provide accurate and reliable
information. The present study will be an attempt in
this direction for the prototype development of a bus
arrival prediction system that is quick in processing
and results in accurate prediction and is presented
with associated customization issues.

The major objective of the study is to develop
prototypes for the field implementation of a passenger
information system which will provide real time bus
arrival time information both pre trip and at bus stops
under Indian traffic conditions. The specific
objectives include:
1) Application Development: An algorithm proposed
by Vanajakshi et al. (2008) will be modified for
integrating with real time data and information display
for field implementation. A robust application would
be coded in Python to implement the arrival time
prediction algorithm for field application. The
application needs to be highly scalable in order to


ensure that it can be easily expanded to include new
routes and buses as and when required.
2) Application testing: The application will be tested
for its accuracy during different scenarios that can
happen in the field such as normal flow, congestion,
incidents etc. to verify the reliability of the
application.
3) Prototype development: A display board prototype
shall be developed for the display of information
related to predicted bus arrivals and other details like
current bus location for various bus-stops via a Kiosk
application. Same information will be made available
through a web site for users to access it pre-trip. Also,
a map application will be developed to show the
current location of the buses in a map. Demonstration
of the above three will be carried out using data from
5C route in Chennai.

STUDY ROUTE AND DATA COLLECTION
Data for this project is being collected using
GPS/GPRS units installed in the buses. Data from
these units are sent to a dedicated server once in every
10 seconds as 2 packets of 5 sec each. This data
packet when received by the server is appended to a
.csv (comma separated value) file. Data from each bus
for the day is stored in a different file. The file names
are of the format DDMON-BusID eg: 10Nov-
iit07, and are stored in a separate folder for every
year. Files are archived daily and new files are created
to store the incoming data everyday at 00:00:00. The
real-time data received in the server is immediately
used in order to make a real-time prediction of the
arrival time of the bus. The raw data contains
information on deviceID, Clock time, latitude
and longitude. From this data, the information of
interest in the present study namely travel time can be
easily estimated.

The 5C bus route between Taramani - Broadway was
the routes selected for the project. The 5C route is
about 16.8 kilometers; and takes about 60 to 70
minutes for the bus to travel from one terminus to the
other in each direction. There are 7 buses in 5C route
with headway of around 30 minutes and there are 10
bus-stops along the route.

Data Filtration and Analysis
All the data that is received at the server is not
necessary for the bus Arrival Time Prediction (ATP).
Hence, this raw data needs to be filtered in order to
input only the required data into the algorithms. The
unfiltered data consists of the location details of the
bus for the entire duration for which it is being
monitored. For example, we do not need to keep track
of the data being sent by the bus while it is parked in
the bus depot at night, or while it is kept waiting at the
terminus during lunch etc. Such data needs to be
filtered out and only the essential data has to be fed
into the algorithm in order to get the required results.
A program is developed for automating this filtering
process. The data after filtering can be used for the
application. In the present study, the selected
approach is a model based prediction algorithm which
uses Kalman filtering technique. In this algorithm,
data from two previous buses, PV1 and PV2 are used
as input to predict the arrival time of the current bus,
which is called test vehicle, TV. Thus, the real time
data received from three consecutive buses are used
for the bus arrival time prediction (ATP). PV1, PV2
for a selected TV should be from the same date folder,
and should have the same routeID. Also since the
ATP has to be made for the next bus-stop to which
TV shall be arriving next, it is necessary that both
PV1 and PV2 should have already crossed this bus-
stop. If this condition is not satisfied then previous
trips are considered. Once the three datasets of PV1,
PV2 and TV have been identified, they are fed into
the ATP algorithm which is discussed in the next
section

METHODOLOGY
The prediction algorithm adopted in the present study
is based on the algorithm developed by Vanajakshi et
al. (2008). The base algorithm is discussed first
followed by the possible modifications.

Base Prediction Method
The base algorithm predicts the arrival time/travel
time of the vehicle of interest, called as Test Vehicle
(TV), using data from two previous buses traveling in
the same route, which are called as Probe Vehicle1
(PV1), and Probe Vehicle 2 (PV2). To start with, the
route under consideration is divided into N
subsections and it is assumed that the evolution of
travel time of two consecutive subsections is related
as
), ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 ( k w k x k a k x (1)
where, x(k) is the travel time for covering the k
th

subsection, a(k) is a parameter which relates the travel
time taken in the (k+1)
th
subsection to the travel time
taken in the k
th
subsection and w(k) is the process
disturbance associated with the k
th
subsection. The
measurement process is assumes to be given by
), ( ) ( ) ( k v k x k z (2)
where, z(k) is the measured travel time of the k
th

subsection and v(k) is the measurement noise. It is
assumed that both w(k) and v(k) are Gaussian zero
mean white noise signals. The prediction scheme
consists of the following steps:
1) The parameter a(k) is calculated for each
subsection using the travel time data for PV1
thorough
a(k) = x
pv1
(k+1)/x
pv1
(k), (3)
where, x
pv1
(k) is the travel time taken by PV1 to cover
the k
th
subsection.
2) The Kalman filter based recursive algorithm is then
used for predicting the travel time of the test vehicle.


This base method assumes the process disturbance co-
variance Q and measurement co-variance R to be
constant throughout the simulation; however the
values of Q and R can be made to vary to reflect the
accuracy and reliability of data obtained from PV1
and PV2 as in the next method.

Simple Adaptive Prediction Method
The simple Adaptive Prediction Method presented in
this subsection computes the value of Q and R at
every step by utilizing the travel time information
from previous subsections. For this, equation (1) and
(2) can be rearranged as

) ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) ( k x k a k x k w
tv tv
, (4)
) ( ) ( ) (
2
k x k x k v
pv tv
, (5)
where, ) (k x
tv
is the travel time for the test vehicle in
the k
th
subsection

Then one may compute Q(k) and R(k) as:

k
S k i
k w i w
S
k Q
2
) ( ) (
1
) ( , (6)
where,
S
i w
k w
S
S k i
) (
) ( , (7)
and S is a predetermined constant number.

Similarly, R(k) can be estimated using

k
S k i
k v i v
S
k R
2
) ( ) (
1
) ( , (8)
This approach was explored in the present study and
the performance is compared with the base method.

Enhanced Base Prediction Method
Another modification that was explored in the present
study for better prediction performance was the use of
weights for travel time values. This is called as
Enhanced Base Prediction Method. The method takes
a weighted average of the travel times of PV1 and
PV2 as the measured travel time for that subsection.
The weights are estimated based on the relative travel
time values of PV1 and PV2. We define ) (k v as,
) ( ) ( ) (
2 1
k x k x k v
pv pv
, (9)
If v > d, then subsection k belongs to Group 1
If -d v d, then subsection k belongs to Group 2
If v < -d, then subsection k belongs to Group 3
where, d is a predetermined threshold value. In the
present study, the value of d is taken as
N
i x
N
i x
d
N
i
pv
N
i
pv

1
2
1
1
) ( ) (
, (10)
which is the sum of the means of the travel times of
PV1 and PV2. By studying the prediction method for
Group 1 and Group 3 one can see that in cases where
the difference between the travel times of PV1 and
PV2 exceeding d in a particular subsection the
prediction is carried out solely based on the data
provided by the vehicle having the lower travel time
of the two.

Once the initial conditions have been assumed, similar
steps as in base method are applied recursively for
subsections k =2 to N, with a(k) as :
) 1 (
) (
) 1 (
) 1 (
) (
) 1 (
2
2
1
1

k x
k x
k x
k x
k a
pv
pv
pv
pv
,
(11)

The value of for these three different cases is: Group
1: =0,Group 2: =0.5,Group 3: =1.

The scheme was implemented and compared with the
base method and the results are discussed in the next
section.

IMPLEMENTATION AND RESULTS
In this section implementation of the algorithms
discussed in the previous section are discussed and a
comparison of the performance is carried out to
choose the one that can be used for the real time field
implementation. Following this, the selected
algorithm will be used for the development of the
complete application that can be used for automated
real time field implementation.

Implementation
Implementation of base, adaptive and enhanced base
method is carried out and is detailed in this section.
While implementing, once the TV starts from a
terminus, it is assigned a route and its arrival
prediction started, provided two previous buses are
already in the route or covered the route. Thus, the
corresponding PV1 and PV2 datasets for the
current TV trip need to be identified as discussed
below.

PV1, and PV2 for a selected TV should be from the
same date folder, and should have the same routeID.
Hence, if TVs tripID is t then PV1 and PV2 are so
selected that their tripIDs are t-1 and t-2
respectively. Also since the ATP has to be made for
the bus-stop to which TV shall be arriving next, it is
necessary that both PV1 and PV2 should have already
crossed this bus-stop. If this condition is not satisfied
then previous trips are considered. Once the three
datasets PV1, PV2 and TV have been identified, they
are fed into the algorithm.

The performance of three algorithms discussed in the
earlier section was compared to select the most
suitable algorithm for real time bus arrival time
prediction. Accuracy of these methods is compared


during different times of the day namely; the morning
peak period, afternoon off-peak period and evening
peak period. One weeks data from 6
th
March to 12
th

March, 2011 from the 5C route is used for
comparison.
It was found that there are two distinct peak periods
during the day, one in the morning from around 7:30
AM - 10:30 AM and another in the evening from
around 4:30 PM 9:00 PM. Also it was observed that
during afternoons the travel times are relatively low
and also consistent. Hence, the time period between
10:30 AM 4:30 PM is considered as off-peak period
for this study. The algorithm requires at least two
buses (for PV1 and PV2) to have traversed the same
route before TV. Based on this and other constraints,
the first TV is usually taken after 7:30 AM and the
last trip before 9:30 PM. Hence, the ATP algorithm
was ran for trips between 7:30 AM and 9 PM.
The accuracy of the prediction of the algorithms is
separately analyzed for the above mentioned three
time periods. This would help in identifying the better
predictor during each of these time periods.The
accuracy of the prediction schemes are quantified
using the Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE)
given by
MAPE =
N
k x
k x k x
N
tvm
ii
tvm

1
100 *
) (
) ( ) (
, (12)
where, x
tvm
(k) is the measured travel time of the test
vehicle in the k
th
subsection, and N is the total number
of subsections.

The implementation was carried out by dividing the
entire route into subsections of 200m each and MAPE
in predicted travel times is calculated for each of this
sub sections. Results obtained using all three
prediction methods are discussed below. The MAPE
values for 200 m subsections for the Base and Simple
Adaptive methods during morning peak are given in
Table 1. Similar results were obtained for off peak
and evening peak. As can be seen from the Table 1,
by using the Simple Adaptive method, no significant
reduction in the MAPE values was observed.
Table 1: MAPE for Base and Simple Adaptive
methods for 200 m subsections During Morning Peak
Period
Date
Base Method
MAPE
Simple
Adaptive
Method MAPE
6th Mar, 2011 32.00 31.83
7th Mar, 2011 23.71 23.15
8th Mar, 2011 25.56 25.47
9th Mar, 2011 31.06 28.65
10th Mar, 2011 27.56 27.70
11th Mar, 2011 34.62 35.78
12th Mar, 2011 26.68 26.90
Table 2: MAPE for Base and Enhanced Base
methods for 200 m subsections During Evening Peak
Period
Date
Base Method
MAPE
Enhanced Base
Method MAPE
6th Mar, 2011
25.90 24.88
7th Mar, 2011
27.10 25.81
8th Mar, 2011
28.92 30.34
9th Mar, 2011
35.22 33.17
10th Mar, 2011
39.24 38.20
11th Mar, 2011
36.19 38.22
12th Mar, 2011
31.66 32.08

A similar comparison was carried out using the
Enhanced Base Prediction method too.The MAPE
values for 200 m subsections for the Base and
Enhanced Base method during evening peak are given
in Table 2. Similar results were obtained for off peak
and morning peak. It can be seen that even in case of
Enhanced Base Prediction method the reduction in the
MAPE value is not very significant. In fact in some
cases the Enhanced Base Method gives higher
MAPEs when compared to Base method. One
possible explanation could be that the choice of =
0.5 might not be suitable for this study. It is possible
that value of might be different for each route,
depending on the characteristics of the route. A route
specific optimized value may increase the
performance. Further studies need to be carried out to
investigate the route characteristics which can affect
the optimum value of .

It was concluded from the results that out of the three
model based algorithms, there is no significant
improvement in the prediction performance due to the
modifications and hence the Base Prediction Method
will be adopted in this study. The development of the
prototype application using this method is discussed
in the following section.

PROTOTYPE DEVELOPMENT
Based on the comparison of performance of the base
algorithm and the modified algorithms presented in
the previous chapter, the base method was selected for
final implementation due to its simplicity and
relatively comparable performance with the modified
versions. The algorithm was modified for real time
processing and issues were addressed to get the
desired output in real-time. The present study also
studied various information dissemination options.
Mainly three different methods were found to be
suitable for the present application, namely Bus-Stop
Variable Message Signs (VMS), Kiosk at bus stops
and Web Based information system. Prototype for
each are tested so that it can be directly used for field
implementation and are discussed below.


Bus Stop Variable Message Signs (VMS)
VMS are the most popularly adopted means for
passenger information systems. These display units
are available in various sizes and has enough
flexibility in terms of display messages since they can
be controlled remotely through GPRS. These display
units have an in-built GPRS module, which can
receive information from the server in real time.
Information is transmitted from the server at regular
intervals (usually in less than a minute) and this
information is displayed at the bus-stop. Usually the
LED matrix only displays numerical and text
messages. The display can be made in any languages.

Most of the metropolitan transport corporations which
are trying bus arrival information system are using
these display units. Many of them shows the current
time, route number of the bus, type of the bus (deluxe
in this case) and also the final destination of the bus
route along with the expected arrival time of the next
bus. Fig. 1 shows one such sample.

Fig. 1: MTCs display format

The format of display suggested in the present study
is slightly different to make it more simple and
informative. In order to keep the information provided
short and simple, a modified format is suggested as
shown in Fig. 2.

Route
Number
Expected Time of
Arrival
Time Now
5C Within 15 mins 04:42 PM

Fig. 2: Modified display format

Kiosk at Bus Stops
A computer kiosk houses a computer terminal that
often employs custom kiosk software designed to
function flawlessly while preventing users from
accessing system functions. Computerized kiosks may
store data locally, or retrieve it from a computer
network. Interactive kiosks can be used at bus-stops to
provide commuters with useful information. The user
needs to enter the particulars of the information he/she
is seeking. Suppose a commuter wants to know the
arrival time of a particular bus number at the bus-stop,
then he/she would be required to enter the route
number and the bus-stop of interest. Once this is done,
the kiosk fetches the required information from the
central server. All this is done in real time and hence
each query gives the latest available information.
They are interactive and more personalised when
compared to the bus-stop display units. As a part of
the present study, a similar Information Dissemination
Unit (IDU) was developed. The IDU is a suitably
customized simple computer unit which can either be
used as a display board at the bus-stops or can be used
as an interactive kiosk unit as per the requirement.
Each IDU consists of a simple low-end computer with
a GPRS module attached to it for data transfer. The
GPRS module acts as a client to the central server
where all the data is processed and sent to the IDU.
The application running on the IDU runs a separate
instance for each bus-stop and queries the central
server for updated bus-stop data, every 10 seconds.

The IDU can be placed at any bus stops and can be
used for showing the current location of the bus.
Another option for IDU is to make it interactive and
dynamic, where map application can be run. The main
idea here is to display the dynamic location of the bus
on a map. In Fig. 3 such a Map Display Bus-Stop IDU
application is shown. This application shows the
current location of different buses in the vicinity of
the bus-stop and their arrival times at the bus-stop.
This information is updated once every 10 seconds.

Fig. 3: Map Display Bus-Stop IDU application

Web Based Information Service
Apart from the above mentioned two methods,
providing bus arrival details through a website is also
a popular way of information dissemination to the
commuters. Usually it is in the form of an interactive
website where one can select the desired route and bus
stop to get the real-time bus arrival and location
details. Through the website a commuter can check
the arrival details from the comfort of ones office or
home, and can reach the bus-stop close to the
predicted arrival time. Once this information is
available to the commuter, it saves a great deal of time
for the commuter, who can spend the intermediate
time in a more productive way than waiting at the
bus-stop. Figure 3 shows one such example of a web
service.
Similar application was also developed in the present
study which will inform the commuters on their
expected wait time at the bus stops through a web site.


However, it will be more advantageous if this
information can be provided to them before they start
the trip to avoid the wait time at bus stops. A web
based application was developed for this purpose,
which can be used by commuters to check the
expected arrival time of the route of choice in the bus
stop they are interested. The web site is interactive
and provides the users with the current location of the
bus and its ETA at any chosen bus-stop. A Google
Maps based website was developed for this for easy
access to information for the commuter. Fig. 4 below
shows a screenshot of the same. The website provides
the flexibility of choosing the bus-stop at which the
user wishes to board the bus. Unlike kiosk display the
website provides the estimated arrival time at the bus-
stop even when the ETA is greater than 15 minutes.
This change was incorporated to help the user decide
when she/he needs to go to the bus-stop to board the
desired bus.

Fig. 4: Google Maps based web application

The expected arrival time of the selected route for the
selected bus stop for chosen time of the day can also
be provided to users through SMS. For this kind of a
service the users are required to subscribe beforehand.
Once registered, users get regular SMS during
different times of the day as per their choice.

One of the major factors responsible for the success or
failure of any public transport service is its reliability.
One way of improving the reliability of service is to
provide the passengers with accurate information
regarding the service. In case of the bus service,
information regarding current bus location, arrival
time at bus stops, etc. will help to reduce the
uncertainty and waiting time involved in the use of
bus service system. This may help in attracting more
passengers to the public transport, which in turn will
help to reduce congestion in the road network. Hence,
techniques for accurate forecasting of bus arrival
times have become a major area of research in recent
years.

A majority of the studies in the area of bus travel
time/arrival time prediction are from homogeneous
traffic conditions. The traffic conditions in countries
like India are different with its heterogeneity and lack
of lane discipline and hence predicting the bus arrival
time is much more challenging. Only a limited
number of studies have been reported for such traffic
conditions and none of them carried out field
implementation. Also, a few transportation agencies
in India have already tried to implement the bus
arrival prediction systems in the country. However, all
of them mainly concentrated on the technology
demonstration of feasibility rather than the reliability
of the information being provided. In most cases the
accuracy of arrival time prediction is poor, and the
primary reason for this may be that the algorithms
used for prediction were not the best one. In most of
the cases, the prediction algorithm details are not
available since it was implemented by an outside
agency. Most of the above implementations were
outsourced and used methodologies developed for
western countries which have homogenous traffic, and
may not be suitable in the heterogeneous Indian traffic
conditions. The present study was an attempt in this
area of developing an accurate real time bus arrival
prediction system under Indian traffic conditions.
GPS data collected from buses running in route
numbers 5C in Chennai, India were used. In order to
have a real time automated application, it was
required to develop an automated data collection
filtration and analysis system without manual
intervention. A model based prediction scheme was
used and the Kalman Filtering Technique was adapted
to estimate and predict the travel time of buses. Three
prediction schemes were tested and the best one was
used for implementation in the real-time application.
Numerous issues were identified and addressed during
the implementation of the model in real-time. Issues
such as effect of traffic jams, overtaking among the
buses on the same route, bus breakdown, abrupt
changes in bus routes, etc. which are specific to Indian
conditions are taken into consideration.

The project also developed prototype systems for
information dissemination which can be readily used
for field implementation. Prototypes for three
different information dissemination modes were
developed namely, bus stop VMS display, Kiosk
display at bus stops and web based application. A
more advanced kiosk system was also developed
considering specific requirements of users. It is more
economical and provides greater information in a
cognitively ergonomic format to aid the commuters
decision making skills. This information on
predicted bus arrival time will be useful to the
commuters to make the trips more efficient. For the
transit authorities such information will be useful for
planning the routing and scheduling activities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the support for this study as
part of the project CIE/10-11/168/IITM/LELI by


Ministry of Urban Development, Government of
India, through letter No. N-11025/30/2008-UCD.

REFERENCES
Hoffman C., Janko J. (1990), Travel Time As A Basis
Of The LISB Guidance Strategy, Proc. IEEE
Road Traffic Control Conf., 1990.
Http://En.Wikipedia.Org/Wiki/Ahmedabad_Brts.
Http://En.Wikipedia.Org/Wiki/Delhi_Bus_Rapid_Tra
nsit_System.
Ishak S., Al-Deek H. (2002), Performance Evaluation
Of Short Term Time Series Traffic Prediction
Model, ASCE J. Transp. Eng., 128, 6, 490-499.
Jeong R., Rilett L.R. (2005), Bus Arrival Time
Prediction Model for Real-Time Applications,
Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council, Washington, D.C.
Kwon J., Coifman B., Bickel P. (2000), Day-To-Day
Travel Time Trends and Travel Time Prediction
from Loop Detector Data, Transportation
Research Board, National Research Council,
Washington, D.C.
Ramakrishna, Y., Ramakrishna P, Sivanandan R
(2006), Bus Travel Time Prediction Using Gps
Data, Map India.
Sen A., Liu N., Thakuriah P., Li J. (1991), Short-
Term Forecasting Of Link Travel Times: A
Preliminary Proposal. ADVANCE. Working
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Thakuriah P., Sen A., Li J., Liu N., Koppelman F.S.,
Bhat C. (1992), Data Needs For Short Term
Link Travel Time Prediction, Urban
Transportation Center, University Of Illinois,
Chicago.
Van Lint J.W.C., Hoogendoorn S.P., Van Zuylen H.J.
(2002), Freeway Travel Time Prediction with
State Space Neural Networks. Transportation
Research Board, National Research Council,
Washington, D.C.
Vanajakshi L., Rilett L.R. (2004), A Comparison Of
The Performance Of Artificial Neural Networks
And Support Vector Machines For The
Prediction Of Vehicle Speed, IEEE Intelligent
Vehicles Symposium, Parma, Italy.

Vanajakshi L., Subramanian S.C., Sivanandan, R.
(2008), Travel Time Prediction Under
Heterogeneous Traffic Conditions Using Global
Positioning System Data From Buses. IET
Intelligent Transport Systems, 3(1), 19.

ISBN 978- 81- 921121-0-7

CORROSION MONITORING TECHNIQUES FOR EVALUATION OF
PERFORMANCE OF STEEL IN CONCRETE STRUCTURE
Jitu Kujur
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi, New Delhi-110016, Email: jk08ranchi@gmail.com
B. Bhattacharjee
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi, New Delhi-110016, Email: bishwa@civil.iitd.ernet.in

ABSTRACT: Corrosion of steel in concrete is an electrochemical process. Electrochemical techniques have
now become important tools for study of rebar corrosion in laboratories together with their application to real
life structures. The reason for the frequent use of electrochemical techniques in practice is the increase number
of structures requiring an assessment of their residual health condition due to the premature deterioration caused
by reinforcement corrosion. In addition it is necessary to evaluate the short-term performance of different
structures to know their early age behavior by performing various corrosion tests at initial periods, for prognosis
of possible deterioration so as to estimate the projected service life. When the information regarding the
performance of RC structures against chloride or carbonation induced corrosion has to be obtained within a
restricted time, the application of various electrochemical tests has now become an important aspect of
durability studies in concrete. The commonly used techniques are potential measurement, polarization resistant
measurement, electrochemical impedance measurement etc.
Keywords: Corrosion, Potential, Polarization, Impedance

INTRODUCTION
Concrete is the mostly used construction material in
the world due to its specially property such as lower
life cycle cost, mould ability , robustness and can be
designed for a desired quality. Once concrete is used
in construction, it must show a minimum performance
level when exposed to the environment over a
specified period of time, but it is not maintenance free
and requires regular maintenance. Corrosion of
reinforcement is one of the main durability problems
in RC structure which occurs due to carbonation or
presence of chloride at rebar level [1]. Passive layer
formed on steel surface due to high alkalinity of the
concrete is destroyed due to presence of chloride at
rebar level or decrease in pH of concrete due to
carbonation, the atmospheric carbon dioxide reacts
with hydration product of the cement forming calcium
carbonate then lowering of pH takes place. Once
passive layer is destroyed corrosion of reinforcement
takes places. Product of corrosion occupy greater
volume than original material thereby exerting
pressure on surrounding concrete resulting in
cracking, spalling and delamination in RC structures
[1-3]. Durable and cost effective repairs can be
performed only on reliable information on the level
and rate of deterioration. Half cell potential
measurement is a powerful rapid and non destructive
technique both in condition assessment and in repair
work. Once information regarding the indication of
corrosion occurrence is obtained, the rate of corrosion
may be measured through the electrochemical
technique such as linear polarization technique and
AC Impedance spectroscopy.

CORROSION MONITORING TECHNIQUES:
Half cell potential measurement
Half cell potential measurement is commonly used
method for the routine inspection of corrosion activity
in reinforced concrete structures [4].However
quantification and reliable prediction of the corrosion
rate requires the use of other electrochemical
techniques. The experimental set up for half cell
potential measurement is shown in the fig. 1. Couple
of anodic and cathodic reaction takes places on the
surface of the same corroding bar and there is a flow
of current from cathodic to anodic site within the bar.
Corrosion activity and Half cell potential
measurement guideline are given in ASTM C 876 [5].
The half-cell potential is measure of electrode
potential, represents the potential difference between
the steel and the adjacent concrete electrolyte and thus
a property of the steel/concrete interface.

Fig. 1 Half-cell potential measurement

The half cell potential value is measured with
reference to standard reference electrode. As per the
ASTM C 876, the probability of corrosion in terms of

potential with reference to coppercopper sulfate
electrode (Cu/CuSO4) is given as follows;
If the potentials over an area are more positive than -
200mV, then there is a greater than 90% probability
that no rebar corrosion is occurring in that area.
If the potential over an area are in the range of -
200mV to -350mV, then the corrosion activity of the
steel reinforcement in that area is uncertain.
If the potentials over an area are more negative than -
350mV, then there is a greater than 90% probability
that reinforcing steel corrosion is occurring in that
area.
Measurement of half-cell potential is comparatively
simple. A reference electrode (e.g. saturated calomel
electrode) is used in measurement of half cell
potential. ACM field machine is connected between
the corroding rebar and the reference electrode kept
on the concrete surface as shown in fig 1. The factors
affecting potential measurements are reference
electrode position, Temperature, moisture content,
presence of cracks, high resistive layers of concrete
and stray currents etc [6].

Linear polarization resistance technique (LPR)
Time taken after corrosion initiation to reach the
defined serviceability limit is commonly termed as
propagation time. This propagation period mainly
depend on the rate of corrosion of reinforcement in
concrete where as the availability of moisture and
oxygen at the surface of the steel in concrete support
the corrosion process. The Linear Polarization
Resistance (LPR) technique introduced by Stern and
Geary (1957) is very popular method of monitoring
corrosion rate in laboratory as well as field application
and mainly field applications are based on this
technique. In this technique, a three electrode
configuration along with sensor electrode is used to
determine the polarization resistance, Rp, and hence
the corrosion rate. In LPR measurement, the
reinforcing steel is polarized by the application of a
small perturbation from the equilibrium potential
through an auxiliary electrode. Polarization resistant
(Rp) value is related to I
corr
by means of a constant,
known as Stern Geary constant.
Therefore

P
corr
R
B
I = --
(1)
Using B = 26 mV, the maximum error is 2.
Uncertainty in B value can involve in the Stern
formula [7].

Fig. 2 Experimental setup for LPR measurement

Linear polarization technique test with IR
compensation is done with guard ring arrangement on
the carbonated concrete prism specimen.
Experimental set up for LPR measurement is shown
in fig. 2. Concrete prism specimen is prepared as per
the guideline given in ASTM G109 [8], the size of
the concrete prism specimen is kept as
300x30x150mm with two steel specimens embedded
at bottom with cover of 25mm and one steel specimen
centrally at top with clear cover depth of 5mm.
Conditioning and preparation of steel specimen is
done as per the guideline given in ASTM 109. The
polarized surface area of the reinforcing steel is taken
to be that area lying under the circle intersecting the
midpoint between the two sensor electrodes [6]. Here
the confinement of the current is achieved to fixed
area of the reinforcing steel by the use of a second
auxiliary guard ring electrode surrounding the inner
auxiliary electrode. For linear polarization resistance
measurement, the working electrode i.e. the steel
reinforcement in the prism was polarized to 20mV
from the equilibrium potential at a scan rate of 0.1mV
per second. Before performing the test, the conducting
sponge was wetted with soap solution and place on
the surface of the prism specimen to have proper
electrical contact with the guard ring. Assembly of
guard ring electrode, auxiliary electrode and reference
electrode is then placed above the wetted sponge. The
electrical connection necessary are made for working
electrode and guard ring to ACM field machine. The
instrument is capable of processing the data and
plotting the output automatically as supported by
software connected to PC. However the guard rings
technique nowadays is well recognized and a number
of commercial devices are available in the market.

AC Impedance technique
AC impedance spectroscopy also sometimes known
as the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy.
The principle involved in this technique is that an
electrochemical interface can be viewed as a
combination of passive electrical circuit elements
namely resistance and capacitance as shown in figure
3. The AC impedance technique has been widely used
for determination of corrosion rate of the steel
reinforcement in concrete [9, 10, and 11]. The AC

impedance technique involves the application of a
small-amplitude sinusoidal potential to the working
electrode at a number of discrete frequencies. At each
one of these frequencies, the resulting current
waveform will exhibit a sinusoidal response that is out
of phase with the applied potential signal by a certain
amount and has current amplitude that is inversely
proportional to the impedance of the interface.
ASTM G106 and ASTM G 3 explain about AC
Impedance measurement technique. Let Z1 be the
interface impedance.

c p
X
j
R Z
+ =
1 1
1
---- (2)
R
p
, X
c
, and C are polarization resistant, capacitance
and double layer capacitance respectively and X
c

=1/c
Then Impedance of the above electrical equivalent
circuit is given by the following expression;
) 1 ( ) 1 (
) (
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
p
p
p
p
c
R C
CR
j
R C
R
R Z
+
+ =
-(3)

P c
R R Z + =
) (
0

-- (4)

c
R Z =

) (
-- (5)

2
) (
p
R
a Z =
-- (6)

Fig: 3 Equivalent circuits
AC Impedance test is done on the carbonated concrete
prism specimen who is used in LPR test. Conditioning
of concrete specimen and experimental arrangement
are similar to the LPR test as shown in fig.2. The
difference is the technique used; a sinusoidal voltage
of amplitude 5mV was applied in the frequency range
of 0.01HZ to 30000 Hz is applied to all the
specimens. The impedance behavior of an electrode
may be expressed in Nyquist plots of Z ()
(imaginary component) as a function of Z () (real
component) or in Bode plots of impedance and
(phase angle) versus log (). The Nyquist plot shows
a semicircle with frequency increasing in a
counterclockwise direction. At very high frequency,
the imaginary component Z () disappears, leaving
only the concrete resistance, R
c
. At very low
frequency, Z () again disappears leaving a sum of
R
c
and R
p
. Thus the radius of the semi circle is R
p
/2.
A typical experimentally obtained Nyquist plot for
RC made with Portland Pozzolana cement, w/c
ratio=0.45, and TMT tempcore steel is shown in fig.
4.

Fig.4 Nyquist plot for PPC/0.45/TMT Tempcore
steel

A guard ring electrode is used which consists of
auxiliary electrode, reference electrode, guard ring
and sensor electrode
Due to sophistication in measurement, AC impedance
spectroscopy technique is more frequently used in
laboratory studied rather than in field surveys. Further
often it is used as a powerful tool to understand the
behavior of the steel/concrete interface and provides
information about the mechanism of corrosion
reaction at the steel/concrete interface and the rebar
corrosion kinetics etc [9, 11]. In AC impedance
spectroscopy, not only is the equipment more
expensive and sophisticated, but the time needed to
obtain an R
p
value is much longer than in the case of
DC techniques. This is due to, in the case of low
corrosion rates, the necessity to reach frequencies in
the range of 10
-5
Hz or lower, which means a period
of several hours for obtaining a single value [63].

Tafel plot
In this technique, a potential scan is applied to the
working electrode starting from the open circuit
potential (corrosion potential E
corr
and extending to
few milli volts (250mV) either in anodic or cathodic
direction [12]. The applied potential forces the
specimen to assume a potential other than E
corr
. The
current measured in this case is the difference
between the anodic and cathodic currents and is a
non-zero quantity. The potential is plotted against the
measured current, and the resulting potential current
diagram is referred to as the Tafel plot as shown in
fig.5. This plot exhibits a linear region of the plot with
E
corr
gives I
corr
. Tafel constants are not required for
corrosion rate calculations in this technique, but these
can be used in the linear polarization technique for

determination of the corrosion rate. This method may
damage the reinforcing steel/concrete interface since a
large over potential is applied.

Fig: 5 Polarization curve showing Tafel slope

In Tafel slop method, corrosion rate is determined by
substitution of Tafel slope values (
a
and
c
) into
Butler Volmer equation given as;

)
`
=
c
c
a
a
corr
i i
303 . 2
exp
303 . 2
exp -
- (7)
Main disadvantage of using Tafels extrapolation
technique is that it is an electrochemically destructive
technique, as application of external activation
(voltage or current) may alter the electrochemical
behavior of the system significantly. Rebar condition
can be interpreted on the basis of corrosion current
density, and following guidelines have been suggested
as in table 1 and are widely accepted for the rebar
condition assessment.

Gravimetric mass loss method
This technique is a destructive method, which consists
in weighing the specimen bars before and after being
introduced in the concrete to be tested .The detail test
procedures of preparing, cleaning, and evaluating
corrosion test specimens are described in ASTM G1-
03 [14]. In simple way it is the difference in weight
(gravimetric loss) is a quantitative average of the
attack. The average corrosion rate may be obtained as
follows:

Corrosion rate =
D T A
W K
. .
.
--- (8)
Where K is a constant, T is the exposure time, A is the
surface area, W is the mass loss, and D is the density
of the corroding metal. No instantaneous corrosion
rates can be measured in this technique, but only a
mean during the period of test. Obviously, the
gravimetric method is the most accurate method to
quantify corrosion attack in laboratory experiments.
Although this method is very time-consuming and
only applicable to the laboratory studies, it is a useful
tool to check the accuracy of the electrochemical
techniques that are able to measure the corrosion rate
quantitatively, such as the Linear Polarization and AC
Impedance techniques.For the purpose of comparison,
using Faradays law, the corrosion rate in mm/year
obtained from gravimetric (mass loss) measurement
was converted to corrosion current density (A/cm
2
)
by assuming uniform corrosion occurred over the
steel surface by the following equation [6]

Corrosion rotc _
mm
ycor
]
=
0.00327 o I
Co
n
( 9)

Where I
corr
= corrosion current density in A/cm
2
, a =
atomic weight of iron, i.e. 55.84 amu, n = no. of
electrons exchanged in corrosion reaction, i.e. 2 for
iron, D = density of steel as above.
Gravimetric (mass loss) measurement is used as a
destructive test, generally conducted in laboratory.
However it serves as the most reliable reference
method. It is a simple, although time consuming
technique for determination of corrosion rate.
Corrosion rate obtained by different non-destructive
electrochemical techniques and instruments differs
from each other [15]. According to Soleymani &
Ismail (2004) the corrosion rates by LPR technique
are 10-30% higher than those by Tafel plot technique.
In another study, on the comparison of the corrosion
rate obtained by AC impedance with previously
reported results by linear polarization and Tafel plot
technique, Ismail & Ohtsu (2006) observed that the
values obtained by AC impedance technique are
lower than Tafel technique by 5-20% while the values
obtained by linear polarization technique are 20-30%
higher than those by Tafel plot technique. The
corrosion rates determined by LPR with guard ring
can be around one-seventh of those measured by LPR
without guard ring [15]. Pradhan &Bhattacharjee
(2009) have observed that the average variation in the
values of corrosion rate obtained by linear
polarization resistance (LPR) technique with guard
ring arrangement with those obtained by gravimetric
method is about 6% and with those obtained by AC

impedance spectroscopy is 9%. Thus most reliable
method for corrosion rate is the gravimetric
measurement and to improve upon the reliability of
non-destructive electrochemical tests which are
simple and repetitive, their results must be compared
with those obtained through the gravimetric
measurement.

CONCLUSION
Half-cell potential is suitable for routine inspection of
rebar corrosion initiation. LPR technique is simple
and most widely used in laboratory as well as in field
application for measurement of rate of corrosion of
steel in concrete. AC Impedance is sophisticated
technique and time consuming although it gives
reliable result. Tafels extrapolation technique is an
electrochemically destructive technique, as
application of external activation (voltage or current)
may alter the electrochemical behavior of the system
significantly therefore special care is taken in
adopting this technique. Corrosion rate obtained by
different non-destructive electrochemical techniques
and instruments differs from each other. Gravimetric
techniques serves as the most reliable method can be
used as reference method to study the performance of
steel in concrete.

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environments, American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1999.
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subjected to chloride attack by AC impedance
spectroscopy, Construction and Building
Materials, 20(7), 458469.
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Construction and Building Materials, 10(5),
315-328.
Gu, G. P.; Beaudoin, J. J.; and Ramachandran, V. S.,
(2001), Techniques for corrosion investigation
in reinforced concrete, Handbook of Analytical
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441-504.
Gelany, M. A. E. (2001). Short-term corrosion rate
measurement of OPC and HPC reinforced
concrete specimens by electrochemical
techniques, Materials and Structures, V.34(241),
426-432.
Revie, R. W. and Uhlig, H. H. (1985). Corrosion and
corrosion control, third edition, John Wiley &
Sons, New York.
ASTM G1-03. (2003). Standard Practice for
Preparing, Cleaning, and Evaluating Corrosion
Test Specimens, American Society for Testing
and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
Liu, Y. and. Weyers, R. E. (2003). Comparison of
guarded and unguarded linear polarization CCD
devices with weight loss measurements, Cement
and Concrete Research, 33(7), 10931101.
Ismail, M. E. and Soleymani, H. R. (2004).
Comparing corrosion measurement methods to
assess the corrosion activity of laboratory OPC
and HPC concrete specimens, Cement and
Concrete Research, 34(11), 20372044.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

ASSESSMENT OF CONCRETE STRENGTH USING FLYASH AND
RICE HUSK ASH

Satish D. Kene
Research Scholar, Dept. of Civil Engg., YCCE, Nagpur-10, Maharashtra, Email: satishkene2285@gmail.com
Pravin V. Domke
Research Scholar, Dept. of Civil Engg., YCCE, Nagpur-10, Maharashtra, Email: pravindomke@rediffmail.com
Sandesh D. Deshmukh
Research Scholar, Dept. of Civil Engg., YCCE, Nagpur-10, Maharashtra,
Email:sandesh_deshmukh31@rediffmail.com
R.S.Deotale

Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg., YCCE, Nagpur-10, Maharashtra, Email: rsdeotale1@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT:In the ancient period, construction work was mostly carried out with help of mudstone from
industry. Fly ash is a by-product of burned coal from power station and rice husk ash is the by product of
burned rice husk at higher temperature from paper plant. Considerable efforts are being taken worldwide to
utilise natural waste and bye product as supplementary cementing materials to improve the properties of
cement concrete. Rice husk ash (RHA) and Fly ash (FA) is such materials. RHA is bye-product of paddy
industry. Rice husk ash is a highly reactive pozzolanic material produced by controlled burning of rice husk. FA
is finely divided produced by coal-fired power station. Fly ash possesses pozzolonic properties similar to
naturally occurring pozzolonic material. The detailed experimental investigation done to study the effect of
partial replacement of cement with RHA and FA on concrete. In this paperI started proportion form 30% FA and
0% RHA mix together in concrete by replacement of cement ,last proportion taken 0% FA and 30% RHA, with
gradual increase of RHA by 1% and simultaneously gradual decrease of FA by 1%. It is observed that though
the strength of RHA concrete goes on decreasing after the 15% addition of RHA, the composition of 10% RHA
+ 20% FA gives maximum strength results as well as shows the potential to be used as useful material for
different building materials
Keywords Admixture, Concrete, Compressive Strength, Fly Ash, Multiple Regression Analysis, Rice husk
Ash.
INTRODUCTION
Concrete as is well known is a heterogeneous mix of
cement, water and aggregates. The admixtures may
be added in concrete in order to enhance some of the
properties desired specially. In its simplest form,
concrete is a mixture of paste and aggregates. Various
materials are added such as fly ash, rice husk,
admixture to obtain concrete of desired property. The
character of the concrete is determined by quality of
the paste. The key to achieving a strong, durable
concrete rests in the careful proportioning, mixing and
compacting of the ingredients. The detailed
experimental investigation done to study the effect of
partial replacement of cement with RHA and FA on
cement. In this project I started proportion form 30%
FA and 0% RHA mix together in concrete by
replacement of cement ,last proportion taken 0%FA
and 30% RHA. Numerous tests are performed on wet
concrete such as workability tests such as compaction
factor test and slump test. The tests on hardened
concrete are destructive test while the destructive test
includes compressive test on concrete cube for size
(150 x 150 x 150) mm, Flexural strength on concrete
beam (500 x 100 x100) and split tensile strength on
concrete cylinder (150 mm x 300mm) as per IS: 516
1959, IS: 5816 1999 and IS: 516 1959
respectively.In actual practice, test on workability of
wet concrete are carried out to ensure uniform quality
concrete only. Strength is not a measurable at that
stage with the available technology. Therefore the
concrete samples are to be cured for 28 days in
normal method to arrive at the compressive strength
and for necessary follow up action. It is not only
difficult to dismantle the suspected portion of
concrete at such a stage but also expensive in terms of
time and money. Predicting the strength at the
manufacturing stage, however, is yet to receive due
attention of engineers. Hence, any new approach that
is capable of predicting reliably the compressive
strength of hardened concrete based on the properties
of the ingredients and the wet concrete will be helpful
to practicing engineers. Besides, such tests could be
performed with the same ease as the workability tests.
RHA has two roles in concrete manufacture, as a
substitute for cement, reducing the cost and weight of
concrete in the production of low cost building
blocks. The workability of RHA concrete has been
found to decrease but FA increases the workability of
concrete so RHA and FA mix together in concrete to
improve the workability of concrete. The work
presented in thispaper reports an investigation on the
behavior of concrete produced from blending cement
with FA and RHA.


Regression analysis method for predicting the
7,14,28,90 days compressive strength of concrete is
presented in this project. The proposed method is
aimed at establishing a predictive relationship
between properties and proportions of ingredients of
concrete, compaction factor, weight of concrete cubes
and strength of concrete
The objectives and scope of present study are.
To find the optimum mix design with regards to
the amount of water, RHA, FA and cement ratio.
To investigate the physical properties of the RHA
and FA density (lightweight), strength (bending
and compression), water absorption and moisture
content.
To study the relative strength development with
age of (RHA + FA) concrete with control
concrete.
Use of industrial waste in a useful manner.
To conduct compression test on (RHA+FA) and
control concrete on standard IS specimen size
(150 x 150 x 150) mm.
To conduct Flexural test on (RHA+FA) and
(100 x 100 x 500) mm.
To conduct split tensile test on (RHA+FA) and
(150 mm x 300mm) mm.
To provide economical construction material.
Provide safeguard to the environment by utilizing
waste properly.

Materials and Methods
The work presented in this paper reports an
investigation on the behaviour of concrete produced
from blending cement with RHA and FA. The
physical and chemical properties of RHA, FA and
OPC were first investigated. Mixture proportioning
was performed to produce high workability concrete
(200- 240 mm slump) with target strength of 32.1
Mpa (M25) for the control mixture. The effect of
RHA on concrete properties was studied by means of
the fresh properties of concrete and the mechanical
properties. I.e. Compressive strength, tensile splitting
strength, flexural test was studied as the time
dependent property.
A. Cement
The cement used was Ordinary Portland cement (43
Grade) with a specific gravity of 3.15. Initial and final
setting time of the cement was 50 min and 365 min,
respectively. Its chemical composition is given in
Table 1.

Table 1: Following are the Chemical properties of cement (OPC), Fly ash and Rice husk ash

Materials SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO LOI SO3 K2O Na2O3
Cement 19.71 5.20 3.73 62.91 2.54 0.96 2.72 0.90 0.25
Fly ash 40 25 6 20 3.71 3.0 1.74 0.80 0.96
Rice husk
ash
78.21 (SiO2+ Al2O3+ Fe2O3)
=82.64
0.99 4.89 -------- -------- --------- ---------

B. Rice Husk Ash
Rice husk ash used was obtained from Ellora Paper
Plant located in Tumsar Bhandara .The Specific
gravity of rice husk ash is 2.10 and bulk density is
0.781 g/cc RHA, produced after burning of Rice husk
(RH) has high reactivity and pozzolanic property.
Indian Standard code of practice for plain and
reinforced concrete, IS 456- 2000, recommends use of
RHA in concrete but does not specify quantities.
Chemical compositions of RHA are affected due to
burning process and temperature. Silica content in the
ash increases with higher the burning temperature. As
per study by Houston, D. F. (1972) RHA produced by
burning rice husk between 600 and 700C
temperatures for 2 hours, contains 90-95% SiO
2
, 1-
3% K
2
O and < 5% unburnt carbon. Under controlled
burning condition in industrial furnace, Studies have
shown that RHA resulting from the burning of rice
husks at control temperatures have physical and
chemical properties that meet ASTM (American
Society for Testing and Materials).Standard C 618-
94a. Studies have shown that to obtain the required
particle size, the RHA needs to be grown to size 45
m 10 m.
C. Fly Ash
Fly ash used was obtained Koradi Power Plant
Nagpur. Fly ash is one of the residues generated in the
combustion of coal. Fly ash is generally captured
from the chimneys of power generation facilities,
whereas bottom ash is, as the name suggests, removed
from the bottom of the furnace.

In the past, fly ash was generally released into the
atmosphere via the smoke stack, but pollution control
equipment mandated in recent decades now require
that it be captured prior to release. It is generally
stored on site at most US electric power generation
facilities. Depending upon the source and makeup of
the coal being burned, the components of the fly ash
produced vary considerably, but all fly ash includes
substantial amounts of silica (silicon dioxide, SiO
2
)
(both amorphous and crystalline) and lime (calcium
oxide, (CaO). Fly ash is commonly used to
supplement Portland cement in concrete production,
where it can bring both technological and economic
benefits, and is increasingly finding use in synthesis
of geopolymers and zeolites.
D. Aggregate
Good quality river sand was used as a fine aggregate.
The fineness modulus, specific gravity and dry
density are 2.32, 2.68 and 1690 kg/m3. Coarse
aggregate passing through 20mm and retained 10mm
sieve was used.Its specific gravity and dry density
was 2.7 and 1550 kg/m3.
E. Chemical Admixture
A commercial AC- Green Slump-GS-02 black cat
Chemical Limited and Glenium- AG-30 JP BASF
Const. Chemical Limited type hyper plasticizer was
used to maintain the workability of fresh concrete.
The dosage of hyper plasticizer was kept constant in
mass basis; it was 1%-1.6% of cement weight. The
aim of keeping the amount of plasticizer constant is to
neglect, if any, the influence of plasticizer on the
properties of hardened concrete.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
Experimental programme comprises of test on
cement, RHA, FA, cement concrete with partial
replacement of cement with RHA and FA.
A. RICE HUSK ASH
1) Normal Consistency = 17%
2) Initial and Final Setting time = 195min.
and 265min.
3) Compressive Strength = 11 N/mm
2
4) Specific Gravity = 2.09
B. ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT
OPC 43 grade cement is used for this whole
experimental study. The physical test results on OPC
are as follows.
1) Normal consistency = 22%
2) Initial Setting time = 30 min.
3) Final Setting Time = 10 hrs.
4) Specific Gravity = 3.15
C. TEST ON CONCRETE
An M25 mix is designed as per guidelines in IS
10262, 1982 based on the preliminary studies
conducted in the constituent materials. Tests on fresh
concrete are obtained as follows.
1) Slump Test=55mm
2) Vee-Bee = 13sec.
3) Compaction factor =0.95
4) Flow Test =78 %.

D. Mixture Proportioning
The mixture proportioning was done according the
Indian Standard Recommended Method IS 10262-
1982.The target mean strength was 32.1 Mpa for the
OPC control mixture, the total binder content was
435.45 kg/m ,fine aggregate is taken 476kg/m and
coarse aggregate is taken 1242.62kg/m the water to
binder ratio was kept constant as 0.44, the
Superplasticizer content was varied to maintain a
slump of (200-240 mm) for all mixtures. The total
mixing time was 5 minutes, the samples were then
casted and left for 24 hrs before demoulding They
were then placed in the curing tank until the day of
testing Cement, sand, Fly ash, Rice husk ash and fine
and coarse aggregate were properly mixed together in
accordance with British Standard Code of Practice
(BS 8110)19 in the ratio 1:1.1:2.85 by weight before
water was added and was properly mixed together to
achieve homogenous material. Water absorption
capacity and moisture content were taken into
consideration and appropriately subtracted from the
water/cement ratio used for mixing. Muthadhi et al. 9
reported the blending of rice husk ash (RHA) in
cement is recommended in most international building
codes now. Hence, cement was replaced in
percentages of 0, 1,2,3,4, 5 up to 30% with rice husk
ash and fly ash and 150 150 150mm3, Beam and
Cylinder moulds were used for casting. Compaction
of concrete in three layers with 25 strokes of 16 mm
rod was carried out for each layer. The concrete was
left in the mould and allowed to set for 24 hours
before the cubes were de moulded and placed in
curing tank. The concrete cubes were cured in the
tank for 7, 14, 28 and 90 days.
E. Testing methods
Testing is done as per following IS code. The testing
done for compressive strength of cubes as per IS :
516 1959 ,the testing done for flexural strength of
beam as per IS : 5816 - 1999 and the testing done for
split tensile strength of cylinder as per IS : 516
1959.


Table No. 2 Table for compressive strength, Flexural strength, Split tensile strength
MIX STRENGTH AFTER CURING IN DAYS in N/mm2
SR.
NO.
MIX PROPORTION
7DAYS
14
DAYS
28 DAYS 90 DAYS
FLEXUR
AL
STRENGT
H N/mm
SPLIT
TENSILE
STRENGT
H N/mm
FLYASH BY
% CEMENT
RICE H. ASH
BY
%CEMENT
1 Control mix 24.56 26.78 40.52
45.21 10.58 6.5
2 30 0 19.11 24.52 36
40.44 10.58 3.4
3 29 1 30.66 35.86 33.77
36.00
10 3.25
4 28 2 20 25.66 37.77
42.67
11 3.39
5 27 3 22.22 26.32 36
40.89
11.25 3.67
6 26 4 35.11 43.55 44
48.89
12 3.67
7 25 5 43.55 44 45
53.33
13.75 3.53
8 24 6 42.66 44 44
49.78
12.5 3.4
9 23 7 35.55 42.22 44.44
53.33 11.25 3.53
10 22 8 40.44 42.66 44.03
51.56
10.98 3.58
11 21 9 33.77 40.88 42.66
52.44
8.5 3.67
12 20 10 26.66 28.44 28.88
35.11
9.2 3.25
13 19 11 25.77 35.11 35.55
40.89
8.32 3.11
14 18 12 26.22 35.55 36
40.89
7.5 3.53
15 17 13 28.44 32 35.55
43.11
7.0 3.25
16 16 14 33.33 36 40
42.22 6.3 3.21
17 15 15 31.11 33.77 34.22
39.56
6.2 3.11
18 14 16 25.77 28 32
39.56 5.8 2.82
19 13 17 27.11 29.33 33.33
43.56
5.7 2.68
20 12 18 26.66 29.33 29.77
34.67
5.4 2.97
21 11 19 25.77 28.88 31.11
36.00
5.5 2.94
22 10 20 27.11 29.77 30.66
33.78
5.25 2.91
23 9 21 25.33 27.55 28.88
34.67
4.25 2.85
24 8 22 28.44 32 37.77
38.62
4.12 2.68
25 7 23 26.22 28.88 29.77
33.78 4.08 2.82
26 6 24 24.88 27.55 30.22
34.67
5.0 2.81
27 5 25 23.55 24.88 25.33
30.67
4.36 2.81
28 4 26 24.88 26.22 29.33
31.56
4.08 2.82
29 3 27 29.33 31.55 32.44
38.22
3.85 2.68
30 2 28 18.22 20.44 23.11
26.22
3.65 2.54
31 1 29 19.55 20.44 21.33
25.78
3.65 2.54
32 0 30 18.33 20 20.44
25.78
3.45 2.26


Fig. 1 Compressive Strength of Cubes at 90 Day


Fig. 5 Flexural Strength of Beams at 28 Day

Fig. 7 Relation between Workability of concrete and %
of (FA+ RHA)

Fig.2 Compressive Strength of Cubes at 28 Day


Fig. 6 Split Tensile Strength of Cylinders at 28 Days

Fig.8 Relation between Deflection in mm and
% of (FA+ RHA)

METHODOLOGY OF INVESTIGATION
The data of 30 trials of mixes are used for the
analysis. From the data of 30 trials with adding
plasticizer equations are developed Multiple
Regression and correlation Analysis was applied to
derive the equations. In Multiple Regression Analysis,
various formulae were developed, by varying the
input parameters to predict the 7, 14, 28 and 90 days
strength of concrete cube. Selection of following
equations with different inputs, which would help the
user to predict the strength of concrete cube with
available data / input parameters, is based on the
results of analysis and the validation of formula.
Equation with plasticizer
1) 28 Days Strength Using Four Variables: (Sample
No. 1-15)
STR28 = -0.170 x RHA + 74.364 x AD.WT. 0.617
x AD.QU. 1.202 x STR7 + 2.192 x STR14...... (1)
2) 28 Days Strength Using Four Variables: (Sample
No. 16-31)
STR14 = -0.111 x RHA + 2.245 x 10-3 x AD.QU. +
0.642 x STR7 + 0.453 x STR28...... (2)
Table 3 Summary of actual strength, predicted
strength with superplasticizer 28 days strength using
four variables.
SR
NO
PREDICTED
STRENGTH
in N/mm2
ACTUAL
STRENGTH
in N/mm2
DIFF.
1 32.67 34.22 -1.55
2 27.56 32 -4.44
3 28.23 33.33 -5.1
4 28.40 29.77 -1.37
5 28.06 31.11 -3.05
6 28.60 30.66 -2.06
7 27.41 28.88 -1.47
8 33.28 37.77 -4.49
9 28.14 29.77 -1.63
10 27.31 30.22 -2.91
11 25.42 25.33 0.09
12 26.13 29.33 -3.2
13 30.55 32.44 -1.89
14 22.67 23.11 -0.44
15 22.37 21.33 1.04
16 22.11 20.44 1.67
Table 4: Summary of actual strength, predicted
strength with superplasticizer 28 days strength using
four variables

SR
NO
PREDICTED
STRENGTH
in N/mm2
ACTUAL
STRENGT
H
in N/mm2
DIFF.
1 30.77 36 -5.23
2 41.75 39.77 1.98
3 32.20 37.77 -5.57
4 33.15 36 -2.85
5 44.26 44 0.26
6 40.12 45 -4.88
7 38.50 44 -5.5
8 40.30 44.44 -4.14
9 36.22 44 -7.78
10 39.16 44 -4.84
11 27.29 28.88 -1.59
12 34.62 35.55 -0.93
13 35.88 40 -4.12
14 31.26 35.55 -4.29
15 32.98 36 -3.02

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results presented above, the
following conclusions can be drawn:
1) Compressive strength increases with the
increase in the percentage of Fly ash and
Rice Husk Ash up to replacement (21%FA
and 9% RHA) of Cement in Concrete for
different mix proportions.
2) Concrete requires approximate increase in
water cement ratio due to increase in
percentage of RHA. Because RHA is highly
porous material.
3) The workability of RHA concrete has been
found to decrease with increase in RHA
replacement.
4) It was found that rice husk when burned
produced amount of silica (more than 80%).
For this reason it provides excellent thermal
insulation.

5) Rice husk ash contains more silica, and
hence we prefer rice husk ash use in concrete
than silica fume to increase the strength.
6) Through Rice husk ash is harmful for human
being, but the cost of rice husk ash is zero
and thus we prefer RHA use in concrete as
compared to silica fumes.
7) The workability of RHA concrete has been
found to decrease but FA increases the
workability of concrete so RHA and FA mix
together in concrete to improve the
workability of concrete.
8) Rice Husk Ash can be used with admixtures,
plasticizers, and super plasticizers, for
increasing the strength of concrete with
partial replacement of cement.
9) In the presented work many factors are
considered, which are believed to affect
strength of concrete. MULTIPLE
REGRESSION ANALYSIS is effectively
used as a predictive tool.
10) Regression analysis as is well-known, gives
explicit formula, which we can be directly
used to predict the strength of concrete.
Prediction of strength of concrete cube with
regression analysis is easy and handy. The
formulae can predict only 7 days, 14 days, 28
days and 90 days strength of the same
concrete cube.
11) Present work is aimed at developing
predictive tool with respect to normal density
aggregate and normal weight concrete.
However, the work can be extended to the
concrete of light weight and heavy density
12) The maximum 90 days compressive strength
was obtained with 23% fly ash 7% rice husk
ash mix.
13) The maximum 28 days split tensile strength
was obtained with 25% fly ash 5% rice husk
ash mix.
14) The maximum 28 days flexural strength was
obtained again with 25% fly ash and 5% rice
husk ash mix.
15) The transition zone gets improved and
densified with the use of ternary mix
concretes containing rice husk ash and fly
ash.
16) Due to the high specific surface area of the
RHA, the dosage of superplasticizer had to
be increased along with RHA fineness to
maintain the desired workability.
17) The mechanical properties in terms of
flexural and tensile strength have been
significantly improved with the addition of
RHA.
18) Rate analysis shows that as the percentage of
RHA and FA added on the concrete the cost
goes decrease up to 29%.
19) RHA when added in the concrete reduces the
weight of the concrete up to 15% after 90
days of curing.
REFERENCES
D.V. Reddy, Ph. D, P.E. Professor and Director of
the Centre for Marine Structures &
Geotechnique P.E, Department of Civil
Engineering, Florida Atlantic University and
Marcelina Alvarez, B.S. Structural Engineer,
URS Corporation, Boca Raton developed
Marine Durability Characteristics of Rice
Husk Ash Modified Reinforced Concrete.
Rice Husk Ash Properties and its Uses: A
Review by A. Muthadhi, R. Anita and Dr. S.
Kothandaraman .
G. A. Habeeb, M. M. Fayyadh Department of Civil
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University
of Malaya, Malaysia developed Rice Husk
Ash Concrete: the Effect of RHA Average
Particle Size on Mechanical Properties and
Drying Shrinkage.
International Conference, Waste and Byproducts as
Secondary Resources for Building Materials,
13-16 April, 1999, New Delhi, India.
IS 10262 -1981 IS Method of Mix Design, Bureau
of Indian Standards, New Delhi
IS 516 -1959 Methods of Tests for strength of
concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi
IS 456 -2000 Code of Practice for Plain and
Reinforced Concrete, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi.
Shetty M. S. "Concrete Technology" S. Chand & Co.Ltd,
1997.
Alireza Naji Givi , Suraya Abdul Rashid , Farah Nora
A. Aziz , Mohamad Amran Mohd Salleh
developed Contribution of Rice Husk Ash to
the Properties of Mortar and Concrete:A
Review.
Badorul Hisham Abu Bakar, Ramadhansyah
PutrajayaC and Hamidi Abdulaziz developed
Malaysian Rice Husk Ash Improving the
Durabilityand Corrosion Resistance of Concrete:
Pre-review.
A dimensional analysis method for predicting the 28-
day compressive strength of 53-grade cements is
presented in the paper by Dr. D. R. Pathak, N. P.
Deshpande (J. Mat. in Civ. Engrg.
(November/December 2005).
Dao Van Dong- Doctor, Pham Duy Huu- Professor,
Nguyen Ngoc Lan- Engineer developed Effect
of rice husk ash on properties of high strength
concrete.
Dr Kedar Mohan Paturkar developed Effect of
cement replacement by silica fume and fly ash
Books
M. S. Shetty, Concrete Technology, 5th ed., S.Chand
& Co.Ltd, 2002.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

PILE FOUNDATIONS DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

M. Sujan
Junior Engineer (Civil), Engineering section, The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad 500 007,
Email:sujan_be@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT: When a good bearing stratum is not available near the ground surface or at relatively shallow
depths, the loads of super structures have to be 'transmitted" to firm strata capable or catering such loads though
may be at much depth. Such foundations made are called Deep foundations. Thus deep foundations are those
foundations where the soil support is found at appreciable depth below the main structure. The deep foundations
may be Pile foundations or wells and caissons. A pile is relatively small diameter shaft which is driven into the
ground or otherwise introduced into the soil by suitable means so as to support all the loads. Wells and caissons
are usually installed by excavation of sub-soil. Thus in case of wells and caissons, visual inspection of the firm
stratum on which they rest, may be made.

INTRODUCTION
A shallow foundation is usually provided when the
soil at a shallow depth has adequate capacity to
support the load of the superstructure. However, in
situations where the soil at shallow depths is poor, in
order to transmit the load safely, the depth of
foundation has to be increased till a suitable soil
stratum is met. In view of increased depth, such
foundations are called deep foundations. The deep
foundation is recognized has pile foundation. pile
foundations are usually adopted for the multi-storeyed
building or for bridges across drains, etc. where
moderate to heavy loading are expected.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Necessity of Pile Foundatio
a) The pile foundation is used in the following
conditions:
b) When the strata at or just below the ground
surface is highly compressible and very week to
support the load transmitted by the structure.
c) Pile foundation is required for the transmission of
the structural loads through deep water to a firm
stratum.
d) Pile foundation is required when the soil
condition are such that a wash out, erosion or
scour of soil may occur from the underneath a
shallow foundation.
e) Piles are used for the foundation of some
structures, such as transmission towers, off-shore
plate forms, which are subjected to uplifts.
f) Piles are used in the case of the expansive soils
such as black cotton soils, which swell and shrink
as the water content changes piles are used to
tenser the load below the active zone.
Functions of Piles:-
The function of the piles is to transmit that load to the
soil of higher shearing strength at sufficient depth and
act as compression or tension members when the
structure is subjected to the wind and wave forces in
addition to vertical direct thrust.

METHODOLOGY
Classification of Piles
Piles may be classified in a number of ways based on
different criteria:
a) Function or action
b) Composition and material
c) Instillation

Classification Based On Function or Action
a) End-Bearing Piles: used to transfer the pile
tip to a suitable bearing stratum, passing soft
soil.
b) Frication piles: Used to transfer loads to a
depth in a frictional material by means of
skin friction along the surface area of the
pile.
c) Tension: uplift piles are used to anchor
structure subjected to uplift due to
hydrostatic pressure or to overturning
moment due to horizontal forces.
d) Compaction piles: used to compact loose
granular soils in order to increase the bearing
capacity. Since they are not required to carry
any load, the material may not be required to
be strong. The pile tube, drive to compact the
soil, is gradually taken out and sand is filled
in its place thus forming a sand pile.
e) Anchor piles: used to provide anchorage
against horizontal pull from sheet piling or
water.
f) Fender piles: used to protect water front
structure against impact from ships or other
floating objects.
g) Sheet Piles: Commonly used as bulkheads, or
cut-offs to reduce seepage and uplift in
hydraulic structures.

Classification Based On Material and Composition
a) Timber Piles: - These are made of timber of
sound quality. Length may be up to about 8
m; spacing is adopted for greater lengths.
Diameter may be from 30to 40cm. Timer
piles perform well either in fully dry

condition or submerged condition. Maximum
design load is about 250 KN.
b) Steel Piles: - Steel Piles are generally either
in the form of thick pipe or rolled steel H-
sections. Pipe steel are driven into the ground
with their ends open or closed. Piles are
provided with a driving point or shoe at the
lower end.
c) Concrete Piles: - Cement Concrete is used in
the construction of the Concrete piles.
Concrete piles are either precast or cast in
situ.
d) Composite Piles: - Composite piles are made
of two materials. Composite pile may consist
of the lower portion of steel and upper
portion of cast in situ concrete. As it is
difficult to provide joint between two
dissimilar materials, composite piles are
rarely used in practice.
Classification Based on Instillation

1. Driven Piles: - Timber, steel or precast
concrete piles may be driven into portion
either vertically or at an inclination. Pile
hammers and piles driving equipment are
used for the driving piles.
2. Cast in situ piles: - Only concrete piles can
be cast in situ. Holes are drilled and these are
filled with the concrete. They may be straight
bored piles or may be under reamed with one
or more bulbs at intervals.
3. Driven and cast in situ piles: - These piles are
formed by driving a casing with a closed
bottom end into soil. The casing is later filled
with concrete. The casing may or may not be
withdrawn.

Use of Piles
The important ways in which piles are used are as
follows;

a) To carry the vertical compressive load,
b) To resist uplift or tension forces,
c) To resist horizontal or inclined loads.

1
Fig 1.0:- Uses of piles

Table:
2
1.0 Typical Lengths and Capacities of various
Pile Types
Pile Type
Pile Length(M)
Approximate
design load (KN)
Usual
range
Maximum
Usual
range
Maximum
Timber 10-18 30
150-
200
300
Driven
Recast
Concrete
10-15 30
300-
600
900
Driven
prestressed
Concrete
20-30 60
500-
600
900
Cast in
situ
Concrete
15-25 40
300-
750
900
Concrete
cast in situ
bulb piles
15-25
45
Large dia
600-
3000
9000
Composite 20-40 60
300-
900
2000
Steel Pile 20-40 Unlimited
300-
1000
2500-
10000

3.3 Pile Driving

The operation of forcing a pile into the ground is
known as pile driving. The oldest method and the

1
Source: C.Venkatramaiah,Geotechical Engineering, New Age
International Publishers, New Delhi 2008, P.654
2
Gopal Ranjan., A.S.R.Rao, Basic and Applied soil Mechanics, New
Age International (p) Limited, Publishers, Page.553.


most widely used even today are by means of a
hammer. The equipment used to lift the hammer and
allow falling on to the head of the pile is known as the
pile driven. The pile hammers are the following types.

a) Drop hammer
b) Single acting hammer (steam or pneumatic)
c) Double acting hammer (steam or pneumatic)
d) Diesel hammer (internal combustion)
e) Vibratory hammer

3
Fig 2.0:- Setup of Pile Driver

Data required for the Pile Design

a) Soil exploration data: - An extensive filed
test should out before taking up the pile
construction on the site. There should be
sufficient bore holes made on site to study of
the soil properties on site. The laboratory
tests should also be carried out to study the
permeability, shear test and cohesive
properties of the soil.
b) Depth of water table: -The location of the
water table should be carefully studied and
possible variations in the water table during
the rainy and dry seasons should be
considered in the design the pile length.
c) Chemical properties of soil: - The ingredients
of the soil should be studied. The chemical
Properties of soil be evaluated and studied so
that there is no loss to piles after construction
of them

3
Source: C.Venkatramaiah,Geotechical Engineering, New Age
International Publishers, New Delhi 2008, P.655
d) Nature of expansive soil: - The expansive
nature of the soil should be checked. This
can be checked by the differential free swell
test
Table: 2.0 Degree of Expansiveness

Piles in Sand

The driven pile into sand derives most of its load
carrying capacity by bearing. A typical load
settlement curve for a pile embedded in sand is as
show in Figure-3.0. The settlement load is therefore
based on settlement value rather than from
considerations of shearing failure.

Fig 3.0:- Load settlement curve in sand

Piles in Clay

The allowable load taken by a single pile in clay can
be determined by a static load test. The load
settlement curve is show in figure4.0. The failure of
the soil occurs at points x. the allowable load Qa is
obtained by applying a factor of safety to the failure
load Qd.
Qd =Qa/F.S

A rough estimate of the load carrying capacity Qd of a
frication pile may be obtained from the following
relationship.
Q
Where B = Diameter of the pile
L = Embedded Length of the pile
C = Unit cohesion of the soil
For a single pile, C should be replaced by Ca
Where Ca = m*c
The value of m ranges from 0.40 for stiff clays to 1.0
for the soft clays

Degree of
Expansiveness
DFS9%)
Low < 20
Moderate 20 -3705
High 37.5-50
Very high 50

Figure 4.0:- Load Settlement curve of a pile in clay

CONCLUSION
a) A pile is a relatively small diameter shaft
which is driven or installed into the ground.
b) Piles are useful to transferring the load
through the poor soil or water to a suitable
bearing stratum by means of end bearing.
c) Piles are used to resist horizontal loads as in
the case of foundation for retaining walls,
bridge abutments and wharves.
d) Piles sometimes use to resist the uplift loads.

REFERENCES
C.Venkatramaiah,Geotechnical Engineering, New
International Publishers, Delhi Page No.651-656
Dr.K.R.Arora.Soil Mechanics and foundation
Engineering:, Standard Publishers Distributors.,
PageNo.671-675.
Dr.B.C.Pumia., Ashok Kumar Jain., Arun Kumar
Jain, Soil Mechanics and Foundations, Laxmi
Publicayions (p) LTD.
Gopal Ranjan., A.S.R.Rao, Basic and Applied soil
Mechanics, New Age International (p) Limited,
Publishers, Page No.546-552.
Karuna Moy Ghosh.Foundation Design in Pratice,
PHI Learning Private Limited PageNo.136-140.
Satyendra Mittal, Pile foundations design and
construction, CBS Publishers & Distributors
PVT.LTD, Page No.1-26.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


MODELING QUEUING & DISCHARGE BEHAVIOUR OF
HETEROGENEOUS TRAFFIC AT MANUALLY CONTROLLED
URBAN INTERSECTION

Ghadiyali G.A.
Highway/Traffic Engineer, SAI Consulting Engineers Pvt.Ltd., Ahmedabad-380054, Email: ghadiyaligaurang@gmail.com
Shah M.K.
Senior Engineer, MaRS Planning & Engineering Services Pvt. Ltd., Ahmedabad-380054, Email: shah.megha16@yahoo.com
Dr. Katti B.K.
Professor Emeritus, Department of Civil Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, India

ABSTRACT: Industrialisation has enormously built pressure on urban agglomerations as it is one of the basic
roots of urbanisation. Urban areas are the worst sufferers wherein urban intersections as a part of the
transportation system have become most vulnerable nodes to affect traffic quality under heterogeneous
conditions. The traffic on urban roads in Indian metropolitan cities consists of motorized as well as non-
motorized vehicles. This traffic being heterogeneous in nature, the static and dynamic behaviour of each vehicle
is different. Also their interaction between each other at an intersection is quite different compared to that at a
midblock section. This has a significant influence on the performance of the intersection in terms of vehicle
handling capacity and discharge capacity. Owing to the fact that effect of mixed traffic at an urban intersection
is an important measure to assess the performance of the intersection, an attempt has been made in this paper to
analyse the queuing and discharge behaviour of traffic at a 4-legged urban intersection of Surat city. Vehicle
queuing analysis along with macro and micro level observations of discharge of vehicles has been done at an
approach with video graphic technique. Further, discharge rate of mixed traffic has been modelled which takes
into consideration different attributes such as share of 2-wheelers and 4-wheelers in total traffic, red time at an
approach and queued vehicles during red period. Also the formation and dissipation of vehicle queue during red
and green period has been respectively noted which reveals the behaviour of mixed traffic at an urban
intersection. From the analysis, it gets revealed that the effect of share of 2-wheelers in the queue at the
intersection is quite contradictory compared to that share of 4-wheelers. The influence of queued vehicles at an
approach during red period in the traffic is also quite noteworthy which is reflected in the model itself. This
forms a significant base for the development of discharge rate model. With increase in percentage 2-wheelers,
the discharge rates are expected to increase and thereby the consumption of green time of queued vehicles is
expected to decrease. In view of this, discharge modification factor regression model has been developed. The
methodology and model so developed forms a strong foundation in designing a signal system with varied
composition of traffic and different lane configurations.

INTRODUCTION
Most of the metropolitan cities in India are facing
serious traffic problems such as congestion,
bottlenecks, reduction in speed, higher travel time,
increased pollution levels, etc. The developing cities
are sufferers of these problems as they possess
diversified traffic characteristics. The characteristics
of traffic flow include speed of vehicles, their
concentration, and density of flow and these are
governed by a variety of factors attributable to road
features, the vehicle performance characteristics and
road user behaviour. Traffic phenomena are complex
and nonlinear, depending on the interactions of a large
number of vehicles. Due to the individual reactions of
human drivers, vehicles do not interact simply
following the laws of mechanics, but rather show
phenomena of cluster formation and shock wave
propagation,[citation needed] both forward and
backward, depending on vehicle density in a given
area. Most of the Indian cities (Metropolitan cities)
comprise of heterogeneous traffic composition, with
two-wheeler and four-wheeler as the leading
percentages. Heterogeneity not only exists in terms of
vehicles but also in case of road users and pedestrians.

Intersections are an important part of an urban
roadway and they have a significant effect on the
operation and performance of the traffic system.
Urban intersections are the most important nodes as
they connect various transport linkages in any urban
transportation system. These linkages contribute
traffic to intersections from different agglomerations
of the city wherein traffic gets accumulated at a single
spot. As a result, delay in travel time is experienced
by vehicle users due to inefficient performance of the
intersection, lack of traffic discipline, heterogeneity of
traffic, inter-modal interaction of traffic, etc. Even the
discharge rates and the clearance rates of each traffic
mode vary according to their acceleration rates. This
in turn increases the interaction between different
modes at the intersection and imparts delay to the
overall traffic accumulated at an approach.

Urbanization is a determinant as well as result of
economic development. It is a natural consequence of


economic changes that take place as a country
develops.

An effort has been made in this paper to develop a
generalized model for discharge rate of traffic under
heterogeneous traffic environment to have a clear
understanding of the behaviour of each mode in the
traffic and its influence on the overall discharge rate.

NEED OF THE RESEARCH STUDY
It is necessary to understand the behavioural pattern
of each traffic mode as well as the mixed traffic at an
intersection, as the effect of each modes behaviour on
mixed traffic is quite diverse & noteworthy. The
models regarding mixed traffic discharge rate
developed in the western countries are based on
homogeneity of traffic. PCU factors have been
developed for Indian conditions, but they only deal
with static characteristics of the vehicles. These
factors only convert different types of vehicles into an
equivalent passenger car unit, which does not deal
with the dynamic behaviour of the vehicle in the
traffic stream. Also, earlier studies do not take into
account the discharging pattern and the queue
building & dissipation pattern of mixed traffic at the
intersection.

Considering the above issues, an effort for developing
a discharge rate model based on heterogeneity of
traffic conditions at the intersection is indispensable
which encompasses most of the attributes representing
mixed traffic in a better way.

OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH STUDY
The main objectives of the research study are as
follows;

- To understand the queuing phenomenon and
discharge behaviour of mixed traffic at the
intersection &
- To develop a model of discharge rate at a
manually controlled urban intersection under
Indian heterogeneous traffic conditions.

STUDY AREA
Surat city has seen an unprecedented growth in last
four decades recording one of the highest growth rates
in the country and a 10-fold population rise. There are
about 125 intersections in Surat, out of which 35
intersections are provided with traffic signals and 90
intersections are uncontrolled. Before selecting the
study location, a brief observation of various urban
intersections was done in which some intersections
were provided with traffic signals and some were
controlled by traffic police.

Ghod-dod intersection of Surat city has been selected
as the study intersection which is operated by police
during morning and evening peak hours. It is a 4-
legged urban intersection falling in the South-West
zone of Surat and its approaches lead to major
commercial and residential zones. Considerable
delays and substantial formation of queue takes place
at two major approaches of the intersection during
morning peak and evening peak.

Fig 1 shows the bird view of intersection under study
and Table 1 describes the geometric features of
approaches of Ghod-dod intersection.

GHODDOD INTERSECTION

Fig 1 Bird View of Ghod-dod Intersection

Table 1 Approach Geometric Features of Ghod-dod
intersection
Approach Geometric Features
Parle Point
Approach
4-lane divided with 9.15 m
carriageway width on both side and 1
m wide median.
Bhatar
Approach
4-lane divided 8.5 m carriageway
width on both side and 1 m wide
median.
Athwa
Approach
2 Lane undivided, 8.5 m carriageway
width.
Joggers
Park
Approach
4-lane divided 9 m carriageway width
on both side with 1.2 m wide median.

DATA COLLECTION & ANALYSIS
Study of traffic volume, traffic composition, turning
traffic, discharge rate of mixed traffic in different
phases of successive cycles at an approach, STOP &
GO time observations, etc. was done through video-
graphic technique in morning and evening peak
periods. Macro as well as micro level discharge rate
study and queuing phenomenon behavioural study has
been done to have a correct idea about the discharge
rate of mixed traffic at the intersection.

Following Fig 2 shows the volume of traffic on all the
approaches of Ghod-dod intersection. The volume
from Bhatar approach during morning as well as
evening peak periods dominates with a range of 1450-


1500 vph. Least traffic volume is recorded on Athwa
Approach.

The percentage of 2W is dominating with a range of
50-55 % on each approach, followed by 4W with 20-
30 % and 3W with 15-20 % contribution to the traffic.
The contribution of other modes of transport is almost
negligible. This can be seen in Table 2 below.

0
200
400
600
800
10 00
12 00
14 00
16 00
Bhat ar Par l e Jo gger s Par k At hwa
V
o
l
u
m
e

(
v
e
h
i
c
l
e
s

p
e
r

5

m
i
n
)
Ti me (m in)
Tot al Traf f ic Volume M o r n i ng Per i od
Eveni n g Per i od

Fig 2 Traffic Volume Scenario at Ghod-dod
Intersection

Table 2 Summary of Traffic Composition at Ghod-
dod Intersection
Morning Peak %
Approach 2W 3W 4W LCV
Mini/Std.
Bus
NMT
Bhatar 51.61 18.25 21.34 0.20 0.13 8.40
Parle Point 54.22 17.31 25.83 0.59 0.59 1.47
Joggers
Park
54.79 16.70 26.56 0.29 0.29 1.37
Athwa 51.98 14.88 31.45 0.00 0.38 1.32
Evening Peak %
Approach 2W 3W 4W LCV
Mini/Std.
Bus
NMT
Bhatar 50.37 19.18 23.97 0.20 0.54 5.54
Parle Point 51.93 23.02 20.89 0.19 0.48 3.19
Joggers
Park
52.98 17.90 27.67 0.41 0.00 1.03
Athwa 52.29 15.17 26.70 0.47 0.16 5.06

The turning movement survey at the site depicts that
the majority of traffic flow is towards the Bhatar
approach during morning and evening period. This is
observed for the reason that most of the commercial
activities are concentrated on the ring road and also
Bhatar being part of old walled city, residential
pockets are also located.

Following Fig 3 & Fig 4 provide the intersection
traffic flow during morning and evening peak hour at
Ghod-Dod intersection.

Fig 3 Morning Intersection Traffic Flow

Fig 4 Evening Intersection Traffic Flow

VEHICLE QUEUING ANALYSIS
Vehicle queuing at an approach is a function of red
time given to that approach as well as the arrival rate.
Generally queuing of vehicles is a common
phenomenon observed at any urban intersection, but it
is a complex problem to analyse. It is of core
importance to study the building of queue at the
intersection and the dissipation of queue thereafter.
The building of queue leads to formation of queue
length which ultimately results in increase of delay at
the intersection. So, queuing phenomenon plays a
major role in deciding the efficiency of an
intersection.

Queue Building Phenomenon
Fig 5 indicates the number of vehicles queued in a red
period of 40 seconds. The red period is divided in
slots of 3 seconds and the number of vehicles joining
the queue is determined from video graphic data. It
can be seen that the number of vehicles joining the
queue is almost uniform.


4
7
11
13
17
19
22
29
32
34
35
3 8
40 40
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

n
o
.

o
f

v
e
h
i
c
l
e
s

q
u
e
u
e
d
Red Time Slo t s ( sec)
Queue Bui ldi ng

Fig 5 Queue Building Phenomenon

Queue Decay Phenomenon
Queuing decay is a phenomenon in which the number
of queued vehicles dissipates with respect to time. It is
a general phenomenon that the queued vehicles start
clearing off the approach as soon as the green is
indicated. The number of queued vehicles starts
clearing off in green period. Not the entire green
period is utilized by the queued vehicles, provided the
approach volume is less. If the flow reaches the
saturation flow, the green time is not sufficient to
clear off the queued vehicles and hence queue builds
up in an increasing manner. Following graphical
representation Fig 6 represents the decay of queued
vehicles for a given number of queued vehicles of 40
and green time of 18 seconds. It is observed that the
vehicles which are queued during red period clear off
the approach within 11 seconds, whereas the rest of
the green period is utilized by vehicles which are
joining later. The maximum decay rate is of 4.67 per 3
seconds during 6-9 seconds. Queue decay rate varies
from 2.33 to 3. Average queue decay rate is 3 veh./sec
for 2 lanes.

Fig 6 Queue Decay Phenomenon
VEHICLE DISCHARGE STUDY

Macro Level Observations
Discharge rate is an important factor which plays a
vital role in deciding the overall efficiency of any
urban intersection. It has a major impact on the cycle
length, delay and the formation of queue on the
approach therein. The number of vehicles discharged
from an approach in the respective green times
provided is noted and the average discharge rate of the
mixed traffic is determined thereafter. This is done
through the extraction of data from the video-graphic
footage. The number of vehicles discharged from the
Bhatar approach is taken under consideration to find
the average mixed traffic discharge rate.
Table 3 describes the green time, the traffic
discharged during that green time and the computed
discharge rate of Bhatar approach.

Table 3 Bhatar Approach Discharge Rate
Calculations
Cycle
(No)
Green
Time
(sec)
Traffic
discharged
during green
(sec)
Discharge
Rate
(veh/sec)
1 18 58 3.22
2 19 53 2.79
3 16 61 3.81
4 18 63 3.5
5 20 79 3.95
6 29 86 2.97
7 18 68 3.78
8 18 55 3.06
9 20 67 3.35
10 14 43 3.07

Fig 7 Discharge Rate scenario on Bhatar Approach


The maximum and minimum discharge rates observed
on this approach are 3.95 and 2.79 vehicles per second
respectively. This discharge rate is calculated for an
effective width of 8.5 m. It can be seen that the
average discharge rate being 3.35 vehicles per second
and the overall discharge rate lies within the range of
2.80 to 4.00 vehicles per second.

Micro Level Observations
Also the discharge of vehicles is observed for three
different values of green time. For this purpose out of
the ten cycles on the Bhatar approach, three cycles
namely the maximum green time, minimum green
time and an intermediate green time is selected to
observe the behaviour of discharged traffic.
Fig 8 depicts the number of vehicles discharging in
every three seconds time for a green time of 18
seconds. It is observed that the maximum number of
vehicles discharging is 14 whether the minimum
number of vehicles discharging is 5.
7
1 0
1 4
1 3
9
5
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
0 -3 3-6 6- 9 9 -12 12- 15 1 5-18
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

o
f

V
e
h
i
c
l
e
s

D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e
d
Gr een Time - Slo t s o f 3 sec
Dischar ge d Ve hicles f or G = 1 8 se c
M i ni m um Gr een Ti m e

Fig 8 Discharged vehicles in slots of 3 seconds for G
= 18 seconds
It can be clearly seen that the number of vehicles
discharged increases gradually from the initiation of
green time up to a certain period. Then after it
stabilizes and the number of discharging vehicles
drops at the end of green time.
Similarly, Fig 9 states the number of vehicles
discharged for a green time of 20 seconds. It can be
seen that the maximum and minimum number of
vehicles discharged in a time of 3 seconds is 15 and 3
respectively.

In Fig 10 it can be seen that during the slot of 6-9
seconds the discharged traffic suddenly drops. This is
because of the influence of a standard bus in the
traffic during that time slot. The bus takes a longer
time to clear off the stop line, which in turn affected
the vehicles queued behind it.

11
14
15
11
8
5
3
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
0-3 3- 6 6-9 9- 12 12- 15 15 -18 18- 20
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

o
f

V
e
h
i
c
l
e
s

D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e
d
Gr een Ti me- Slo t s of 3 sec
Discharged Vehicles f or G = 20 sec
Int er m edi at e Gr een Ti m e

= 20 seconds

8
1 2
7
1 0
1 3
1 0 10
8
5
3
0
2
4
6
8
1 0
1 2
1 4
0 - 3 3 -6 6 -9 9 -1 2 1 2- 1 5 1 5 -1 8 1 8 -2 1 21 - 2 4 2 4 -2 7 2 7 -2 9
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

o
f

v
e
h
i
c
l
e
s

d
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e
d
Gr een Ti me - Sl ot s of 3 sec
Dischar ged Vehicles f or G = 29 sec
M axi m um Gr een Ti m e

= 29 seconds

MODELING OF MIXED TRAFFIC
DISCHARGE RATE
Based on the data collected, a discharge rate model
has been developed considering effect of various
attributes on the mixed traffic discharge rate.
Regression modeling technique is used to develop this
model. Various attributes like the arrival rate of
vehicles, the red time given to an approach and the
percentage of two wheelers and four wheelers are
found to have a significant effect on the mixed traffic
discharge rate. Bhatar approach is selected to develop
the model, wherein ten cycle timings are taken and
corresponding to these cycles, the vehicles discharged
in the green time, the red time and the vehicles queued
during this red are noted.

Following is the discharge rate regression model
developed.

Y=1.111+0.009x
1
0.0077x
2
+0.015x
3
0.0264x
4

(1)


R
2
= 0.812
where,
Y = Mixed Traffic Discharge Rate (veh/sec/lane)
x
1
= Share of two wheelers in mixed traffic (%)
x
2
= Queued vehicles during red time
x
3
= Red Time (sec)
x
4
= Share of four wheelers in mixed traffic (%)

The model is developed for a particular range of
composition of traffic modes and lane configuration.
The composition of two wheelers varies between 50-
60 %, that of four wheelers between 20-30 %, that of
three wheelers between 15-25 %, and the rest of the
share of traffic mode is composed of six wheelers and
NMT. Also the model is developed based on the lane
configuration of Bhatar approach, i.e. it is two lane
roads with effective carriageway width of 8.5 meters.

It can be interpreted from the above discharge rate
model that the discharge rate of mixed traffic
increases with increase in the percentage of two
wheelers in the composition, while discharge rate
decreases with rise in the share of four wheelers.
Increase in discharge rate because of two wheelers is
due to higher acceleration rates and smaller
dimensions. On the other hand, four wheelers posses
lower acceleration rates compared to two wheelers
which thereby reduce the overall discharge rate of
mixed traffic. As the number of queued vehicles
increases, vehicles find difficult to clear the approach
in specific time due to one to one interaction in the
queue. Due to this vehicles consume more time to
discharge from the approach, thereby reducing the
overall discharge rate of mixed traffic. As red time
increases, queued vehicles increase. With increase in
queued vehicles, the joining vehicles in the queue also
increase. Because of rise in the joining queue vehicles
the discharge rate goes up.

The Coefficient of determination (R
2
) value of the
model is 0.812 (d
f
= 9, = 0.95), which indicates a
strong relation between the attributes and the
independent variable. Also the correlation between the
dependent attributes is developed and it proves that
there is a very less relationship amongst them. The
discharge rate model developed is further utilized to
calculate the delay at the intersection. Based on this
delay, various delay models for have been developed
for different lane configurations and different volume
levels. The discharge rate model so developed has
been further amended for different composition of
traffic, lane configurations and right turning traffic by
developing discharge modification factor.

CONCLUSION
It has been a common practice to convert mixed
traffic volume into homogenous traffic adopting
certain PCU conversion factors at the intersection.
These factors only take into account the static
behaviour of traffic mode, but do not encounter
dynamic effect of traffic mode and its individual
effect into the traffic mix at the intersection. Also one
to one interaction of each traffic mode with the other
in the traffic mass is not reflected if mixed traffic is
converted into homogeneous traffic.
Owing to these conditions, the discharge rate model
so presented in this paper takes into account the effect
of traffic heterogeneity and fluctuations in traffic
composition. The independent variables such as
composition of two and four wheelers in mixed
traffic, red period and vehicles queued in respective
red times have a significant influence on mixed traffic
discharge rate. This model can be applied to urban
intersections of developing cities possessing
heterogeneous traffic.
The discharge rate model for mixed traffic so
developed can be further utilized to develop delay
model as a measure of performance of any urban
intersection. It can also form a strong base for
determination of optimum signal cycle lengths at
intersections.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am grateful to my post graduate research guide Dr.
B.K. Katti for his invaluable contributions towards
this publication.

REFERENCES
Allsop R. E. (1971). Delay-Minimizing Settings for
Fixed-Time Traffic Signals at a Single Road
Junction, J. Inst, Maths; Appl. 8, 164-185.
D S Reddy, Dr C S R K Prasad, (August 2008).
Design and Evaluation of Isolated Traffic Signal
using New Minimum Delay Cycle Length
Equation, IE (I) Journal; CV Vol. 89.
Ghadiyali G.A. & Dr. B.K. Katti, (July 2010).
Development of Fixed Time Signal Design Model
Under Heterogeneous Traffic Conditions. A
dissertation submitted to SVNIT, Surat.
Sam Yagar, (1975). Minimizing Delay at a Signalized
Intersection for Time-Invariant Demand Rates,
Transportation Research; Volume 9, 129-141,
Pergamon press (Great Britain).
L.R. Kadiyali, Traffic Engineering & Transport
Planning, Khanna Publishers.
Greenshields B. D., Shapiro D. and Ericksen E. L.
(1947). Traffic Performance at Urban Street
Intersections. Technical Report-1, Yale Bureau of
Highway.
M. Hossain, (Nov. 2000). Estimation of Saturation
Flow at Signalised Intersections of Developing
Cities: A Micro-Simulation Modeling Approach,
Transportation Research Part A: Policy & Practice,
Volume 35, Issue 2, Pages 123-141.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION RESPONSES

Prishati Raychowdhury
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, India, 208016, Email:
prishati@iitk.ac.in
Sumit Jindal
Former Graduate student, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, India, 208016, Email:
jndlsmt@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: The responses of shallow foundation largely depend on the selection of soil and model
parameters. Since the response of foundation significantly controls the behavior of the overall structure
supported by it; and consequently several design decisions, it is extremely important to identify and characterize
the relevant parameters. Furthermore, it is also important to identify the sources and extent of uncertainty of soil
and model input parameters, along with the effect of their uncertainty on the shallow foundation response. This
work intends to investigate the effect of soil and model parameter uncertainty on the response of shallow
foundation-structure systems resting on dry dense sand. The soil-foundation-structure interface (SFSI) in this
study is modeled using Beam-on-Nonlinear-Winkler-Foundation (BNWF) concept, where the SFSI is assumed
to be an assembly of discrete, nonlinear elements composed of springs, dashpots and gap elements. The
sensitivity of both soil and model input parameters on shallow foundation responses, such as moment, shear,
settlement and rotation are investigated using First-Order Second-Moment (FOSM) analysis and Monte Carlo
simulation through Latin hypercube sampling technique. It is observed that soil and model parameters have
significant effect on the footing responses. The force demands (moment and shear) are largely sensitive to
friction angle (~60% relative variance); whereas the settlement is sensitive to friction angle, shear modulus and
Poisson's ratio (~30% relative variance for each parameter).

INTRODUCTION
Uncertainty refers to situations in which the outcome
of an event or the value of a parameter may differ
from true value of that parameter. Uncertainty plays
an important role in response of the soil-foundation
systems. These uncertainties may arise from
geotechnical and structural material properties, input
loadings and modeling methods. For a structure with
substantial soil-foundation-structure-interaction
(SFSI) effects, geotechnical uncertainties may play
crucial role in predicting the overall system response.

Most soils are naturally formed in many different
depositional environments; therefore it shows
variation in their physical properties from point to
point. The soil properties exhibit variations even
within an apparently homogeneous soil profile. Basic
soil parameters that control the strength and stiffness
of the soil-foundation system are cohesion, friction
angle, unit weight, shear modulus and Poissons ratio
of soil. These soil parameters can be delineated using
deterministic or probabilistic models. Deterministic
models use a single discrete descriptor for the
parameter of interest, whereas probabilistic models
define parameters by using discrete statistical
descriptor or probability distribution (density)
function. Uncertainty in soil properties can be
formally grouped into aleatory and epistemic
uncertainty (Lacasse and Nadim, 1996) Aleatory
uncertainty represents the natural randomness of a
property and is a function of spatial variability of the
soil property. This type of uncertainty is inherent to
the variable and cannot be reduced or eliminated by
additional information. Epistemic uncertainty results
from lack of information and shortcomings in
measurements and calculations Lacasse and Nadim
(1996). Epistemic uncertainty can usually be reduced
by acquisition of more information or improvements
in measuring methods.

LITERATURE REVIEW
In last few decades, significant research has been
carried out for proper understanding the behavior of
structure due to uncertainty in soil parameters. In an
early work, Lumb (1966) showed that the soil
parameters can be modeled as random variables
confirming to the Gaussian distribution within the
framework of probability theory. Ronold and Bjerager
(1992) observed that the model uncertainties are an
important in reliability analysis for prediction of
stresses, capacities, deformation etc., in structure and
foundation systems. Chakraborty and Dey (1996)
studied the stochastic structural responses considering
uncertainty in structural properties, soil properties and
loadings using Monte Carlo simulation technique.
Lutes et al. (2000) evaluated the response of a
seismically excited structural system with uncertain
soil and structural properties. Ray Chaudhuri S, Gupta
(2002) investigated the variability in seismic response
of secondary systems due to uncertain soil properties
through a mode acceleration method. Foye et al.
(2006) described a thorough study for assessment of
variable uncertainties by defining the probability
density functions for uncertain design variables in
load resistance factor design (LRFD). Na et al. (2008)
investigated the effect of uncertainties of geotechnical


parameters on gravity type quay-wall in liquefiable
condition using tornado diagram and First-Order
Second-Moment (FOSM) analysis. Raychowdhury
(2009) studied the effect of soil parameter uncertainty
on seismic demand of low-rise steel building
supported by shallow foundations on dense silty sand
with considering a set of 20 ground motions.
Raychowdhury and Hutchinson (2010) carried out the
sensitivity analysis of shallow foundation response to
uncertain input parameters using simplified FOSM
and Tornado Diagram methods.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This article focuses on studying the effect of
uncertainty in soil and model parameters on the
response of shallow foundation supported shearwall
building. To incorporate the nonlinearity at the soil-
foundation interface, a Beam-on-Nonlinear-Winkler-
Foundation (BNWF) approach is adopted. The
uncertainty analysis is carried out using simplified
First-Order Second-Moment method and Latin
hypercube sampling technique.

MODELING OF SFSI
In this paper, a Beam-on-Nonlinear-Winkler-
Foundation (BNWF) approach is used to model the
nonlinear soil-structure-interaction of shallow
foundations subjected to lateral loads. The BNWF
model includes a system of closely spaced
independent, mechanistic vertical and lateral elements
consisting of nonlinear springs, dashpots and gap
elements (Fig. 1). The vertical springs (q-z elements)
are intended to capture the axial and rotational
behavior of the footing, whereas the lateral springs, t-
x element and p-x element are intended to capture the
sliding and passive resistance, respectively. The
meterial models were originally developed by
Boulanger et al. (1999) and modified by
Raychowdhury and Hutchinson (2008). This model is
capable of reasonably capturing the experimentally
observed behavior for various shallow foundation
conditions. For more details regarding the BNWF
modeling, one can look into Raychowdhury and
Hutchinson (2008).

The backbone curves are thus characterized by a
linear elastic region, then an increasingly growing
nonlinear region (Fig. 2). For q-z material, ultimate
vertical capacity q
ult
is calculated based on general
bearing capacity equation given by Terzaghi (1943):

(1)

where q
ult
is the ultimate vertical bearing capacity per
unit area of footing, c the cohesion, the unit weight
of soil, D
f
is the depth of embedment, B the width of
footing, and N
c
, N
q
, N
are bearing capacity factors

calculated after Mayerhof (1963). For the p-x
material, the passive resistance p
ult
is calculated as:

p
ult
= 0.5K
p
D
f
2
(2)

where p
ult
is the passive earth pressure per unit length
of footing and K
p
the passive earth pressure
coefficient. For the t-x material, the sliding resistance
t
ult
is determined using classical Mohr-Coulomb
failure criteria:

t
ult
= W
g
tan + cA
f
(3)

where t
ult
is the frictional resistance per unit area of
foundation, W
g
the weight on the foundation from the
structure, the angle of friction between foundation
and soil, which typically varies from 1/3 to 2/3 ,
A
f
the surface area of the foundation.

The vertical and lateral stiffness, K
v
and K
h
are
calculated using expressions given by Gazetas (1991)
as follows:

(4)
(5)
In order to investigate the effect of uncertain input
parameters on the shallow foundation response, a
single shearwall structure supported by strip footing
resting on dense dry sand of relative density 80% is
considered for this study. The dimensions of footing
are 1.0 m wide, 0.25 m in height and depth of
embedment is 0.5 m. Shearwall dimensions are 0.5m
in length, 0.2 m in width and the height of wall is 5.0
m. A monotonic loading is applied at the top of the
structure and responses are evaluated in terms of
maximum absolute values of moment, shear, rotation
and settlement demands.

It is evident from the above discussion that the
strength and stiffness of the spring elements of a
particular size of footing are functions of basic soil
properties such as friction angle, shear modulus,
Poisson's ratio and unit weight. Therefore, these soil
properties are expected to influence the response of
the footing-structure system. However, in addition to
these soil properties, few model
parameters such as spring spacing, ratio of spring
stiffness along the length etc. (as shown in Fig. 3)
may also alter the foundation responses.


Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of structure with BNWF
model for shallow foundations

Fig. 2 Behavior of material models: (a) q-z element
(b) p-y element and (c) t-z element

Fig. 3 Vertical spring distribution along the footing
length

SELECTION OF UNCERTAIN PARAMETERS
Based on the discussion provided in the previous
section the parameters shown in Table 1 are chosen
for the uncertainty analysis. Table 2 provides the
range of values of the parameters for dense dry sand
of relative density 80%. These values are based on
EPRI (1990) and Harden et al. (2005). It is assumed
that all uncertain input parameters are random
variables with a Gaussian distribution, having no
negative values. The upper and lower limits of the
random variables are assumed to be in 95th and 5th
percentile of its probability distribution. The
corresponding mean () and standard deviation ()
can be calculated as

where L
L
and L
U
are the lower and upper limits
respectively and k depends on the probability level
(e.g. k=1.645 for a probability of exceedance = 5%).
The assumed correlations among the uncertain
parameters are provided in Table 3.

Table 1 Uncertain parameters considered in this study

Table 2 Detail of the uncertain parameters

Table 3 Correlation matrix of the parameters

UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
In order to perform uncertainty analysis, two different
techniques are adopted: First-Order-Second-Moment
(FOSM) Method and Latin hypercube method. Below
is a brief description of both methods.

First-Order-Second-Moment (FOSM) Method
The FOSM method is used to perform simplified
sensitivity analysis to evaluate the effect of variability
of input variables on each response variable. This
method uses a Taylor series expansion of the function
to be evaluated and expansion is truncated after the
linear first order term. It is assumed that the
relationship between the response variables and the
uncertain input parameters are assumed to be linear or
low-to-moderately nonlinear.

The response of the foundation is considered as a
random variable Q, which has been expressed as a
function of the input random variables, P
i
(for
i=1,...,N ) denoting uncertain parameters and Q given
by,

P
i
has been characterized by its mean
p
, and variance
p
2
. Now, Q can be expanded using a Taylor series as
follows:

Considering only the first order terms of Equation 7,
and ignoring higher order terms, Q can be
approximated
as:

Taking expectation of both sides of Equation 6., the
mean of Q can be expressed as:

Utilizing the second order moment of Q as expressed
in Equation 7, the variance of Q can be derived as:

and
(6)
(7)
(9)


where
Pi,Pj
denotes correlation coefficient for random
variables P
i
and P
j
. The partial derivative of h(P
1
,
P
2
,..,P
N
) with respect to P
i
has been calculated
numerically using the finite difference method
(central) as follows:

Latin hypercube method
For probabilistic analysis of engineering structures
having uncertain input variables, Monte Carlo
Simulation (MCS) technique is widely used, as it is an
accurate approach to generate a number of equally
likely random realizations. In order to decrease the
number of realizations required to provide reliable
results in MCS, Latin hypercube sampling (LHS)
technique is used in this study. LHS is a type of
stratified MCS and has been widely used in the recent
past to carry out sensitivity and uncertainty analysis
(Iman and Conover, 1982). It provides a very efficient
way of sampling parameters from their multivariate
distributions for estimating mean and standard
deviations of response variables. It follows a general
idea of a Latin square in which there is only one
sample in each row and each column. In Latin
hypercube sampling method, in order to generate a
sample of size k from n variables, the probability
distribution of each variable is divided into segments
with equal probability. Then the samples are chosen
randomly in such a way that each interval contains
one sample. The value of each parameter is combined
with the other parameter in such a way that all
possible combinations of segments are sampled.
Finally we get m samples, where the samples cover
the n intervals for all variables. Thus the sampling
scheme does not require more samples for more
dimensions (variables).

In this study, to find out the uncertainty in the
response from the uncertainty in the input is studied
by generating a sample for input variables with Stein's
(1987) approach. Stein (1987) introduced a method
for describing a Latin hypercube sample from
dependent variables. The procedure for generating
LHS realization is as follows: For sample of size N
and K variables, obtain an independent and identically
distributed sample S
1
,...,S
N
such that each Si has the
correct joint distribution (F) when N is large. Now,
define M the matrix with K columns and N rows. Let
qj be the vector with the ranks of S
j
for j = 1,...,K,
now replace each elements of j
th
column of M by q
ij

(assume that each component of S is continuous so
that there are no ties) where i = 1,...,N, draw an N x K
matrix containing ranks corresponding to the target
covariance matrix. The Latin hypercube sample P
ij
(i
= 1,...,N; j = 1,...,K) by

where F
-1
j
is the inverse cumulative distribution
function of variable j. This method is based on the
rank correlations among the input variables defined by
Iman and Conover (1982) which is based on Cholesky
decomposition of the covariance matrix. Latin
hypercube sampling in this study has been done by
using MATLAB software, for that covariance matrix
is calculated by using standard deviation (Table 2)
and correlation coeffcient (Table 3) between the any
two input parameters. The above-defined simple
shearwall structure is considered for this analysis. The
response of this soil-foundation structure system is
dependent on the six independent input, normal
distributed variables defined in Table 1 and Table 2.

In order to find out the correct sample size pushover
analysis are carried out using 10, 20,...,100, 200 and
300 number of samples. Figure 4 shows the plot
sample size versus the mean responses normalized by
value corresponding to a sample size of 300. From
Figure 4, it can observed that the mean of the
responses tend to converge as the sample size
increases. At the sample size of 100 the response of
the system has almost converged. Therefore, for six
independent and normally distributed variables, a
sample size of 100 is used.

0.9 8
1
1.0 2
1.0 4
1.0 6
0 50 1 00 1 50 2 00 2 50 3 00 3 5 0
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
s
e
d

m
e
a
n

r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
Sam pl e si ze
m om ent
Shear
Rot at i on
Set t l em ent

Fig. 4 Convergence test for Latin hypercube sampling
method

In order to evaluate the effect of soil and model
parameter uncertainty on the response of the shallow
foundation, four response parameters are chosen:
absolute maximum moment |M
max
|, absolute
maximum shear |V
max
|, absolute maximum rotation
|
max
| and absolute maximum settlement |S
max
|. A
monotonic loading is applied at the top of the
structure and responses are and forces and
displacements are obtained. The analysis is done
using finite element software OpenSees (Open System
for Earthquake Engineering Simulation). Figure 5
shows a typical response of the system in terms of
shear-drift and moment-rotation behavior for two
(12)
(11)


extreme values of friction angle. It can be observed
that friction angle has effect on the post-yield
behavior and the peak response. However, the initial
stiffness remains unchanged.

Similarly, the analysis is carried out for varying each
parameter at a time while keeping other parameters
fixed at their mean values, and FOSM analysis is
carried out to find out the sensitivity of each
parameter on the responses. Figure 6 to 10 show the
results of FOSM analysis for moment, shear, rotation
and settlement, respectively. It can be observed that
for moment and shear, friction angle is most
important parameter (60% relative variance).
Poisson's ratio and shear modulus are moderately
important (about 23% and 16%, respectiely), and
model parameters have negligible effect (less than
5%). However, model parameter stiffness intensity
ratio, R
k
seems to have great effect on the rotational
demand (~67%). Settlement is observed to be affected
by all three soil parameters (friction angle, shear
modulus and Poisson's ratio) almost equally (~30%)
for each parameter. Model parameters does not affect
this response much.

Table 4 shows the result obtained from Latin
hypercube method. The response is presented in term
of the mean and coefficient of variation (C
v
) of each
demand parameters. It can be observed from this table
that with 3%, 16%, 15%, 54%, 48% and 30% C
v
of
friction angle, Poisson's ratio, shear modulus, end
length ratio, stiffness intensity ratio and spring
spacing input parameters, respectively can result in
moderate variation in demand parameters with C
v
as
16%, 16%, 22% and 24% for the absolute maximum
moment, shear, rotation and settlement demands,
respectively. Note that all responses are more
sensitive to the soil parameters than the model
parameters. Friction angle is the most sensitive
amongst all input parameter; as with a 3% C
v
results
in significant variation in the response variables.

Fig. 5 Response of shearwall-footing system

0 .001
0.004
0.00 4
0.15 5
0.23 4
0.6 03
0.0 0.1 0.2 0 .3 0.4 0.5 0 .6 0.7 0.8 0 .9 1.0
Rel at i ve var i ance of moment
P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
s
' (deg)
v
Gs (M pa)
Re (%)
Rk
Ss (%)

Fig. 6 Results of FOSM analysis: relative variance for
moment
0 .00 1
0.0 04
0.0 04
0 .15 5
0 .23 4
0 .60 3
0 .0 0.1 0 .2 0 .3 0.4 0 .5 0 .6 0.7 0.8 0 .9 1.0
Relat i ve var i an ce of shear
P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
s
' (deg)
v
Gs (M pa)
Re (%)
Rk
Ss (%)

shear

0 .13 6
0 .66 3
0 .00 1
0 .0 34
0 .0 50
0 .1 1 7
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 .5 0 .6 0 .7 0 .8 0 .9 1 .0
Rel at ive varian ce of ro t at ion
P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
s
' (deg)
v
Gs (M pa)
Re (%)
Rk
Ss (%)

rotation

0. 00 2
0 .0 2 1
0 .1 10
0 .2 9 6
0 .3 0 7
0. 26 4
0 .0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0.5 0.6 0. 7 0 .8 0 .9 1 .0
Rel at i ve vari ance o f set t lemen t
P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
s
' (deg)
v
Gs (M pa)
Re (%)
Rk
Ss (%)

settlement


Table 4 Variability of response parameters

CONCLUSIONS
The effect of uncertainty in soil and model parameters
on the soil-foundation system response has been
studied in this article. The soil-foundation system has
been modeled using BNWF concept and the
uncertainty analyses are carried out using FOSM and
Latin hypercube method. It has been observed that for
moment and shear, friction angle is most important
parameter (60% relative variance); Poisson's ratio and
shear modulus are moderately important (about 23%
and 16%, respectively); and model parameters have
negligible effect (less than 5%). The rotational
demand (~67%) is largely dependent on stiffness
intensity ratio. The settlement demand is almost
equally sensitive to friction angle, shear modulus and
Poisson's ratio (~30% variance for each parameter).
The results from Latin hypercube method indicate that
a coefficient of variation of 3% in friction angle
results in 16%, 16%, 22% and 24% for the absolute
maximum moment, shear, rotation and settlement
demands, respectively, indicating that this parameters
have great effect on each response variables. It can
finally be concluded that soil parameters such as
friction angle, shear modulus and Poisson's ratio may
have significant effect on the response of foundation.
Therefore, selection of these parameters should be
considered critically when designing a structure with
significant soil-structure interaction effect.

REFERENCES
Boulanger, R. W., Curras, C. J., Kutter, B. L.,
Wilson, D. W., and Abghari, A. (1999). Seismic
soil-pile-structure interaction experiments and
analyses, Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 125(9), 750-759.
Chakraborty, S. and Dey, S. S. (1996). Stochastic
finite-element simulation of random structure on
uncertain foundation under random loading,
International Journal of Mechanical Sciences,
38(11), 1209-1218.
EPRI (1990). Manual on Estimating Soil Properties
for Foundation Design. Electric Power Research
Institute, Palo Alto, California.
Foye, K. C., Salgado, R., and Scott, B. (2006).
Assessment of variable uncertainties for
reliability based design of foundations, Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenviornmental
Engineering, 132(9), 1197-1207.
Gazetas, G. (1991). Foundation Engineering
Handbook, Fang, H.Y. (Ed). Van Nostrand
Rienhold.
Harden, C. W., Hutchinson, T. C., Martin, G. R.,
and Kutter, B. L. (2005). Numerical modeling of
the nonlinear cyclic response of shallow
foundations, Technical Report 2005/04, Pacific
Earthquake Engineering Research Center.
Iman, R. L. and Conover, W. J. (1982). A
distribution free approach to including rank
correlation among input variables. Bulletin of the
Seismic Society of America, 11(3), 311-334.
Jindal S. (2011). Shallow foundation response
analysis: a parametric study, Masters Thesis,
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, India.
Lacasse, S. and Nadim, F. (1996). Uncertainties in
characterizing soil properties. Uncertainty in the
Geologic Environment: From Theory to Practice,
Proceedings of Uncertainty 96, Madison,
Wisconsin, July 31-August 3, 1996, New York,
USA, ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication
No. 58; 49-75.
Lumb, P. (1966) The variability of natural soils.
Engineering Structures, 3, 74-97.
Ronold, K. O. and Bjerager, P. (1992) Model
uncertainty representation in geotechnical
reliability analyses, Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, 118(3), 363-376.
McKay, M. D., Beckman, R. J., and Conover, W. J.
(1969). A comparison of three methods for
selecting values of input variables in the analysis
of output from a computer code, Technometrics,
21(2), 239-245.
Meyerhof, G. G. (1963). Some recent research on
the bearing capacity of foundations, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 1(1), 16-26.
Na, U. J., Ray Chaudhuri, S., and Shinozuka, M.
(2008) Probabilistic assessment for seismic
performance of port structures, Soil Dynamics
and Earthquake Engineering, 28, 147-158.
Raychowdhury, P., and Hutchinson, T. C. (2008).
Nonlinear material models for winkler-based
shallow foundation response evaluation,
GeoCongress 2008, Characterization,
Monitoring, and Modeling of GeoSystems, March
9-12, New Orleans, LA, ASCE Geotechnical
Special Publication No. 179, 686693.
Ray Chaudhuri, S. and Gupta, V. K. (2002)
Variability in seismic response of secondary
systems due to uncertain soil properties,
Engineering Structures, 24(12), 1601-1613.
Raychowdhury, P. (2009). Effect of soil parameter
uncertainty on seismic demand of low-rise steel
buildings on dense sand, Soil Dynamics and
Earthquake Engineering, 29, 1367-1378.
Raychowdhury, P. and Hutchinson, T. C. (2010)
Sensitivity of shallow foundation response to
model input parameters, Journal of Geotechnical
and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 136(3), 538-
541.
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simulations using latin hypercube sampling.
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Wiley, New York.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7
DUST DEPOSITION CAPACITY OF CERTAIN ROADSIDE PLANTS
IN AIZAWL, MIZORAM: IMPLICATIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
GEOMAGNETIC STUDIES
Prabhat Kumar Rai
Senior Assistant Professor, Department of Environmental Science,School of Earth Science and Natural Resource
Management, Mizoram University, Tanhril, Aizawl-796004, Mizoram, Email: prabhatrai24@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Particulate pollution poses serious threat to environment as well as human health particularly in
urban areas. Present research work, performed during the period of 2010-11, investigated the seasonal variation
in dust /particulate deposition capacity for certain roadside plant leaves in a peri-urban area of Aizawl,
Mizoram. Leaves from roadside trees form natural, widely distributed collection surfaces for pollutants. The
recorded plants were Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Psidium guajava, Mikania micrantha, Eupatorium odoratum,
Mangifera indica and Bougainvillea spectabilis. Apart from vehicular dust generation other anthropogenic
sources are soil erosion, mining and stone quarrying activities prevailing particularly in peri-urban and rural
regions of Aizawl. The dust deposition capacity was recorded maximum during the winter season followed by
summer and least in rainy season. Among different pants investigated the decreasing order of dust deposition
capacity was Mangifera indica> Psidium guajava> Eupatorium odoratum> Hibiscus rosa-sinensis>
Bougainvillea spectabilis> Mikania micrantha, which may be attributed to morphology, physiology and
biochemistry of plant leaves tolerance to dust/particulates. Since dust deposited on plant leaves may be derived
from iron impurities in fuels or rock dust with magnetite, aforesaid results may be further studied by performing
environmental geomagnetic studies of plant leaves and an overview of the concept is presented in this paper. In
nutshell, biomagnetic monitoring of particulate pollution may biomonitor the extent of dust/particulate pollution
in an effective and systematic way.
INTRODUCTION
Besides social and economic problems, the
development model of the so-called Third World has
caused serious environmental degradation and
challenges in the field of civil engineering. It is well
known that air pollution represents a threat to both the
environment and human health, and it is estimated
that millions of tons of toxic pollutants are released
into the air each year. Rapid pace of industrialization
and urbanization has given birth to dust/particulate
matter pollution, impact of which may be correlated
with urban planning as well as topography of the
particular region. Further, the implication of the
intake of dust particles with high concentration of
heavy metals poses potentially deleterious effects on
the health of human beings (Faiz et al., 2009).
Particulate matter/dust pollution
Solid matter, which is composed of soil,
anthropogenic metallic constituents, and natural
biogenic materials, is called dust (Ferreira-Baptista &
DeMiguel, 2005). The particulates belong to the class
of poorly soluble particles that also encompasses
carbon black, coal mine dust, and titanium dioxide
(Borm et al., 2005; Moller et al., 2008).
Measurements of the particulate matter in ambient air
are usually reported as the mass of particles with an
aerodynamic diameter that is less than 2.5 m (PM
2.5
)
or 10 m (PM
10
) (Zhu et al., 2006). Aforesaid particle
sizes are emphasized in view of their pertinent health
impacts.
The particles of dust that deposit from the atmosphere
and accumulate along roadsides are called road dust
particles and originate from the interaction of solid,
liquid and gaseous metals (Akhter & Madany, 1993;
Faiz et al., 2009). Dust pollution in the atmosphere,
particularly of pollutant particles below 10 mm
(PM
10
), is of current concern worldwide due to
adverse health effects associated with their inhalation
(Calderon-Garciduenas et al., 2004; Morris et al.,
1995; Oberdorster, 2000; Pope et al., 2004; Faiz et al.,
2009). Indeed, particulate matter in dust is thought to
be the most harmful pollution component widely
present in the environment, with no known level at
which adverse health effects occur (Bealey et al.,
2007).
Sources of particulate pollution
Sources of particulate pollution may be natural or
anthropogenic in nature. Emission sources may
include natural processes such as wildfires, volcano
eruption and dust storms. Man-made pollutions
encompass combustion processes used for heating,
power production, industry, and traffic vehicles.
HUMAN HEALTH IMPACTS OF
PARTICULATE POLLUTANTS
In general, particulate matter comprises polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), which may have deleterious
impact on human health. Associations between urban
pollutants and respiratory and cardiovascular
problems, and still a greater incidence of certain
cancer types have already been established (Lester &
Seskin, 1970; Saldiva et al., 2002; Lin et al., 2003).
Constituents of particulate pollutants emanating from
vehicular emissions have been demonstrated to cause
genotoxicological impact on plants as well as humans.
For instance, although polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) are relatively chemically inert
compounds, however, through metabolic activation to
electrophilic derivatives (e.g. diolepoxides, quinones,
conjugated hydroxyalkyl derivatives) these are
capable of covalent interaction with nucleophilic
centres of DNA (Schoket, 1999). These adducts of
PAH to DNA cause base pair substitutions, frameshift
mutations, deletions, S-phase arrest, strand breakage
and a variety of chromosomal alterations. (Schoket,
1999).
In an integrated way, PAH and VOCs lead to the
formation of bulky DNA adducts (Moller et al.,
2008). The genotoxic effect of pollutants on the
ecosystem, including the build-up of resistant species,
is also of considerable concern (Ma et al., 1994;
Grant, 1998). The potential genotoxic effects on
human health by such vapor phase chemicals include
malignant cell formation, the accumulation of
heritable abnormal genes within the population, heart
disease, aging and cataracts (Grant, 1998). The effects
of toxic compounds, and the subsequent genotoxic
effects on plants, are of particular importance as
plants comprise a large portion of our biosphere and
constitute a vital link in the food chain (Grant, 1998;
Rajput & Agrawal, 2005). Estimating air genotoxicity
is therefore crucial to evaluating risk to the
environment and public health.
Particulate matters also consist of heavy metals,
carbon core and pollen, which further interacts with
gaseous pollutant resulting in the formation of DNA
lesions. There has been considerable concern on the
pulmonary effects of particulates less than 2.5 m
(PM
2.5
) or 10 m (PM
10
), as they can reach the alveoli
and translocate to the circulation, whereas particles of
larger size deposit mainly in the upper airways and
can be cleared by the mucociliary system (Oberdo
rster et al., 2005; Moller et al., 2008). Further, it has
increasingly being realized that generation of reactive
oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress is an
important toxicological mechanism of particle
induced lung cancer (Knaapen et al., 2004; Risom et
al., 2005). The fraction of particulate matter contains
a number of constituents that may increase the
generation of ROS by a variety of reactions such as
transition metal catalyses, metabolism, redoxcycling
of quinones, and inflammation. Particulate matter,
thus, can generate oxidative damage to DNA,
including guanine oxidation, which is mutagenic
(Kasai, 1997; Moller et al., 2008).
In view of the abovementioned deleterious impacts of
particulate matters, it is quite obvious to investigate
the feasible and eco-sustainable control technologies.
MONITORING AND ECO-SUSTAINABLE
MANAGEMENT OF PARTICULATES
Dust particles can be removed from the atmosphere
by dry, wet or occult deposition (NEGTAP, 2001).
Dry deposition is the removal of pollutants by
sedimentation under gravity, diffusion processes (i.e.,
Brownian motion) or by turbulent transfer resulting in
impaction and interception (Beckett et al., 2004).
However, existing technologies for abatement of
particulates are not cost-effective.
Biomonitoring of particulates
Environmental contamination and human exposure
with respect to dust pollution have dramatically
increased during the past ten years (Faiz et al., 2009).
Internationally, the quantification and valuation of
pertinent ecosystem services have drawn much
attention since the last decade (Nowak, 1994; Taha,
1996, 1997; Beckett et al., 1998; McPherson et al.,
1997, 1998, 1999; Nowak et al., 1998, 2000, 2002,
2006; Rosenfeld et al., 1998; Scott et al., 1998;
Akbari et al., 2001; Akbari, 2002).
Besides the application of advanced technologies in
prevention and amelioration, the option of employing
natural mechanisms to effect ecological abatement is
occasionally adopted by design but commonly
contributes by default. Although, there are many
conventional (physical and chemical) devices for
assessment of air pollution, however, plant systems
allow the direct assessment of the of air stressors.
Biomonitoring of dust pollution and its biochemical
impact has drawn attention of both national and
international scientific community. The main
advantage of the plants use as bio-monitor is that
plants are wide-spread providing a high density of
sampling points (Moreno et al., 2003). Moreover, the
most economical and reasonable method for
biomonitoring heavy metal levels in the atmosphere is
using plants (elik et al., 2005). Among trees,
evergreen species are better traps for particles than
deciduous ones because of their longer leaf longevity,
which can accumulate pollutants throughout the year
(Gratani & Varone, 2006, 2007).
In this regard, the air cleansing capacity of urban trees
presents an alternative approach to foster an
integrated approach to the sustainable management of
urban ecosystems (Nowak et al., 2002, 2006;
Randolph, 2004). Biological monitors are organisms
that provide quantitative information on some aspects
of their environment, such as how much of a pollutant
is present (Martin & Coughtrey, 1982). Moreover, in
urban area higher plants are mostly suitable for
monitoring dust pollution as lichens and mosses are
often missing (Al Alawi & Mandiwana, 2007).
Therefore, vegetation is an efficient sink for dust
originating from diverse sources (Fowler et al., 1989).
Dust particles from the air are mainly adhered to the
outside of plants. This is in contrast to air polluting
gases and very small particles (<0.1m) which are
assimilated for an important part via the stomata into
the leaves (Fowler et al., 1989). The use of different
plant materials as biomonitors of anthropogenic
contamination is discussed in detail in Markert
(1993).
Likewise, in the past decade there has been increased
interest, in many parts of the world, in the study of
tree leaves as bio-accumulators of trace elements/
metals present in dust, in the surroundings of
industrial facilities (Helmisaari et al., 1995; Nieminen
& Helmisaari, 1996; Bussotti et al., 1997; Giertych et
al., 1997; Miieta & Murn, 1998; Rautio et al., 1998
a,b,c,d) and in urban environments (Alfani et al.,
1995, 1996a,b, 1997; Monaci & Bargagli, 1997;
Monaci et al., 2000), although few studies have been
made of rural and background areas (Loppi et al.,
1997; Ukonmaanaho et al., 1998; C eburnis &
Steinnes, 2000). Leaves are potentially efficient
receptors and biomonitors of particulate pollution, as
they provide a large total surface for particle
collection, numbers of samples and sample sites can
be high (i.e. hundreds), and, in pollution contexts, the
leaves themselves are insignificantly magnetic.
Further, tree leaves also preclude sampling problems
associated with the use of artificial particle collectors
(including power requirements).
BIOMAGNETIC MONITORING WITH
ROADSIDE PLANT LEAVES
A new approach, biomagnetic monitoring, may
provide a robust means to achieve measurement and
sourcing of PM
10
at unprecedented levels of spatial
resolution and is applicable all around the world
(Maher, 2009) (e.g. Shu et al., 2001, in China;
Gautam et al., 2005, in Nepal; Pandey et al., 2005, in
India; Chaparro et al., 2006, in Argentina; Kim et al.,
2007, in Korea; Sznyi et al., 2008, in Europe).
Henceforth, in view of aforesaid, present proposed
paper provides an overview on biomagnetic
monitoring of roadside plant leaves as an integral part
of the present work.
Further, magnetic biomonitoring studies of
plant leaves may act as proxy of ambient particulate
pollution. Magnetic biomonitoring of pollutants by
measurements taken from roadside tree leaves is
potentially efficient, as samples are abundant and
hundreds of samples can be collected and analyzed
within few days. In Singrauli Industrial region
(Pandey et al., 2005) and hilly areas of Nepal
(Gautam et al., 2005), magnetic biomonitoring studies
of roadside plant leaves were performed, in addition
to a series of work, cited above related with European
countries (Matzka & Maher, 1999; Maher, 2009).
Magnetic minerals derived from vehicular combustion
are mainly maghemite and metallic iron grains having
a size range of 0.10.7 m (Pandey et al., 2005;
Maher, 2009). This grain size is particularly
dangerous to humans because of its ability to be
inhaled into the lungs. Iron often occurs as an
impurity in fossil fuels during industrial, domestic, or
vehicle combustion; carbon and organic material are
lost by oxidation and the iron forms a non-volatile
residue, often comprising glassy spherules (due to
melting). These spherules are magnetic, with easily
measurable magnetization levels. Also, combustion-
related particles in vehicles, via exhaust emissions and
abrasion/ corrosion of engine and/or vehicle body
material can generate nonspherical magnetite particles
(Pandey et al., 2005; Maher, 2009).
Magnetic biomonitoring (Matzka & Maher, 1999;
Maher, 2009) seems to be a valuable means both to
gain significantly enhanced spatial resolution for
pollutant data, and test proposed particulate
source/health linkages. The deposition of pollution
particles on tree leaf surfaces has been shown to result
in easily measurable magnetic properties, including
magnetic remanence (i.e. the magnetisation remaining
after a sample has been placed in and then removed
from an applied dc field) and magnetic susceptibility
(the magnetisation induced when the sample is placed
in a small twice the Earths magnetic field-ac field).
Magnetic properties of leaves (Muxworthy et al.,
2002; Moreno et al., 2003; Urbat et al., 2004; Pandey
et al., 2005; Maher et al., 2008; Mitchell & Maher,
2009; Maher, 2009) have been used to identify the
spread of pollution derived from vehicular emission.
Leaves with large surface areas per unit of weight,
favourable surface properties (a waxy coating), and a
long lifespan, such as conifer needles or evergreen
tree leaves, are considered to be good accumulators of
particulate matter from the atmosphere (Freer-Smith
et al., 1997; Alfani et al., 2000).
Methodology used in studying the magnetic
properties of roadside plant leaves
For geomagnetic studies, leaf samples are magnetised
(at room temperature) with incremental, pulsed dc
fields of 20, 50, 100 and 300 milliTesla (mT) and 1
Tesla (T), using a magnetometer (molspin pulse
magnetiser). The resultant isothermal (i.e. room
temperature) magnetic remanences (IRMs) are
generally measured using a cryogenic/other applicable
magnetometer. Figure 1, explains the concise
methodology for studying the magnetic properties of
tree leaves. The 2D magnetization values of plant
leaves may be correlated with the dust content and
other constituents of dust (e.g. heavy metals), hence,
act as an indicator/proxy of particulate pollution.
In India, Indian Institute of Geomagnetism and its
regional centers are providing different categories of
magnetometers (Molspin MINISPIN Spinner, AGICO
JR-6 high sensitivity dual speed Spinner and Molspin
Vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) for hysteresis
loop) in order to investigate the different phenomenon
linked with environmental geomagnetism (Figure 2).

Fig. 1 Diagrammatic representation of methodology
used in studying the magnetic properties of dust
loaded roadside plant leaves (Source: Mitchell and
Maher, 2009; Maher, 2009).
BIOMONITORING OF DUST/PARTICULTES
WITH CERTAIN ROADSIDE PLANTS IN
AIZAWL, MIZORAM: A CASE STUDY
In Indian cities airborne particulate matter seems to be
a very serious problem (Agarwal et al., 1999).
Vegetation is an important tool to remove particulates
from the atmosphere (Simonich and Hites, 1994).
Several studies also revealed that leaves are sensitive
and highly exposed parts of a plant and may act as
persistent absorbers of dust in a polluted environment
(Maiti, 1993; Samal & Santra, 2002). They act as
pollution receptors and reduce dust concentration of
the air (Maiti, 1993; Nowak, 1994; Singh, 2000;
Samal & Santra, 2002). The capacity of leaves as dust
receptors depends upon their surface geometry,
phyllotaxy, epidermal and cuticular features, leaf
pubescence, and height and canopy of trees (Nowak,
1994; Singh, 2000; Singh et al., 2002). However,
many plants are very sensitive to air pollutants, and
pollutants can damage their leaves, impair plant
growth, and limit primary productivity (Ulrich, 1984).
Henceforth, assessment of biochemical parameters is
extremely relevant in order to identify tolerant plants.
The most obvious damage occurs in
the leaves and associated biochemical parameters.
Growth and reproduction in some plants may be
impaired and the population of sensitive species is
reduced while tolerant species can thrive and
dominate the vegetation
Likewise, a number of studies have been done on the
pollution effects on different aspects of plant life such
as overall growth and development (Gupta & Ghouse,
1987; Saquib et al. 1992; Misra & Behera, 1994;
Pandey et al., 1999; Prusty et al., 2005), foliar
morphology (Gupta & Mishra, 1994; Trivedi and
Singh, 1995; Somashekar et al., 1999; Singh and
Sthapak, 1999; Farooq et al., 2000; Pal et al., 2000;
Shrivastava & Joshi, 2002), anatomy (Zafar, 1985;
Arjunan et al., 1993; Garg et al., 2000; Singh, 2000),
and biochemical changes (Balsberg-Pahlsson, 1989;
Pandey & Sinha, 1991; Vyas et al., 1991; Budharaja
& Agrawal, 1992; Tiwari & Patel, 1993;
Krishnamurthy et al., 1994; Senapati & Misra, 1996;
Joshi et al., 1997; Pandey et al., 1999; Garty et al.,
2001; Mashitha & Pise, 2001; Gavali et al., 2002).
Pollution effects have been found to link the
physiological response of plants to acceleration in the
process of senescence (Lee et al., 1981; Kohert et al.,
1986). One of the overt manifestations of plant
senescence is gradual disappearance of chlorophyll
and associated yellowing of leaves that may be linked
with a consequent decline in the capacity for
photosynthesis (Mandal & Mukherji, 2000).
Study area
The Aizawl district (21
0
58 -24
0
35 N Latitude and
92
0
15 -93
0
29 E Longitude; 850 meters above mean
sea level), capital of Mizoram, is heavily entrapped
with heavy vehicles load (Mizoram State Transport
data, 2006) resulting in increased quantity of
vehicular emission particularly dust/particulates in
urban areas. Rapid urbanization and continuously
expanding population has been the major cause of
increase in the number of vehicles and hence
particulates. Sampling sites were taken at Ramrikawn
area (2km stretch connecting Mizoram University).
Samplings were conducted quarterly (2010-11) i.e.
during rainy, winter and summer season.
Mizoram Pollution Control Board (2005)
data also demonstrated the increasing level of
particulates. One preliminary study in Aizawl
(Lalrinpuii & Lalramnghinglova, 2008) recorded the
level of suspended particulate matter (SPM) and
respirable particulate matter (RPM) above permissible
limit of National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS). Moreover, following a gap of 15 years, the
Ministry of Environment and Forests {(MoEn), Press
release, 18
th
November} has announced the
notification of the Revised National Ambient Air
Quality Standards 2009 in the official Gazette.
Therefore, in present context of new standard
PM
2.5,
it is pertinent to characterize the air quality of
ecologically sensitive regions like Aizawl, Mizoram.
Also, Aizawl city is not well-planned (Lalrinpuii &
Lalramnghinglova, 2008) which may further increase
the air pollutants concentration due to lack of space
required for their dispersal.
In the light of abovementioned, it was quite
obvious for me to extensively monitor and examine
the extent of dust deposition on roadside plant leaves.
Table 1 Seasonal variation in dust deposition capacity for certain roadside plants in Aizawl, Mizoram
.

Methodology
The recorded plants were Hibiscus rosa-sinensis,
Psidium guajava, Mikania micrantha, Eupatorium
odoratum, Mangifera indica and Bougainvillea
spectabilis. From each plant at least 6-12 young
leaves (in triplicate) was selected for the study. The
upper dorsal surface of all these leaves was cleaned
using a fine brush (in-situ). The leaf selected as
control was covered with a transparent polythene bag
having perforations to facilitate evapo-transpiration.
All the leaves were left for specific period to allow
dust to accumulate on their surface. After completion
of the allotted period, the surface of all these
previously selected leaves were cleaned using a fine
brush and the dust will be collected in preweighed
tracing paper with maximum care. The leaves were
cut from the petiole for further analysis in laboratory.
The individual leaf area (in cm
2
) was calculated by
graph paper.
The dust samples was weighed using an electrical
balance and the amount of dust was calculated using
the equation

Where, W is dust content (mg/cm
2
),
w
1
is initial weight of tracing paper,
w
2
is final weight of tracing paper with dust, and
a is total area of the leaf (cm
2
) (Prusty et al., 2005).
Results
The dust deposition capacity was recorded maximum
during the winter season followed by summer and
least in rainy season. Among different pants

investigated the decreasing order of dust deposition
capacity was Mangifera indica> Psidium guajava>
Eupatorium odoratum> Hibiscus rosa-sinensis>
Bougainvillea spectabilis> Mikania micrantha, which
may be attributed to morphology, physiology and
biochemistry of plant leaves tolerance to
dust/particulates.
a)

b)
Fig. 2 Magnetometers a) Molspin MINISPIN Spinner
b) AGICO JR-6 high sensitivity dual speed Spinner at
Indian Institute of Geomagnetism

Season
Dust deposition capacity {(mg/cm
2
) ; average of three values}
Hibiscus
rosa-
sinensis
Psidium
guajava
Mikania
micrantha
Eupatorium
odoratum
Mangifera
indica
Bougainvillea
spectabilis
Rainy 0.0022 0.042 0.017 0.014 0.057 0.011
Winter 0.184 0.362 0.151 0.209 0.407 0.162
Summer 0.092 0.286 0.089 0.131 0.296 0.087
CONCLUSION
Since dust deposited on plant leaves may be derived
from iron impurities in fuels or rock dust with
magnetite, aforesaid results may be further studied by
performing environmental geomagnetic studies of
plant leaves and an overview of the concept is
presented earlier in this paper. The 2D magnetization
values of plant leaves may be correlated with the dust
content and other constituents of dust (e.g. heavy
metals). Thus, the investigation of magnetic properties
of roadside plant leaves act as an indicator or proxy
for particulate matter pollution. Henceforth,
biomagnetic monitoring of particulate pollution may
biomonitor the extent of dust/particulate pollution in
an effective and systematic way.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is thankful to Department of
Biotechnology (DBT), Ministry of Science &
Technology, Government of India for financial
assistance wide research project BT/PR-
11889/BCE/08/730/2009 to Prabhat Kumar Rai.
Further, thanks are due to Dr. Onkar Nath Tiwari for
kind cooperation in this regard. The author is thankful
to Lalita L.S. Panda (DST-inspire fellow) and Miss
Malsawmthangi Pachuau for their assistance in data
collections mentioned in the case study.
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ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

DISASTER MITIGATION AND MANAGEMENT FOR FLOOD
CONTROL USING GEOINFORMATICAL TOOLS

M.B.Kumthekar
Professor and Head, Civil Engineering Department, Government College of Engineering, Karad
P.K.Deshpande
Asst. Professor, Geology Department, Walchand College of Engineering, Sangli
R.D.Padhye
Lecturer, Applied Mech. Deptt. Walchand College of Engineering, Sangli
S.B.Thalange
P.G.Student,Civil Engineering Department, Government College of Engineering, Karad

ABSTRACT: The aim of this work is to provide the necessary disaster mitigation and management plans along
the banks of river for the flood management and mitigation. The area has seasonal monsoon rain which causes
flood and spread of water and affect the same settlement area along the bank length, hence there is need of better
management and mitigation. Sustainable developments and management of the area is influenced by topography
of the area and geomorphologic features. The flood spread and its effect to affected area can be studied out by
using Geoinformatical tools by which we can generate the flood effecting area layers and can propose or suggest
the required sustainable infrastructure along the effecting area. The manual estimation of geomorphic
parameters is tedious and cumbersome process. However through this attempt of work, it has been found that
integration of RS and GIS allows reliable, most accurate and updated database tool for handling special data,
very useful in deriving geomorphometric parameters which are essential for planning of future infrastructural
constructions, suggested here, for sustainable development, mitigation and management. In the present study
gemorphometric analysis has been carried out and the RS Data have been interpreted. The Geoinformatic tools
are to be used as valuable and powerful decision support system for effective national planning, efficient
resource allocation and infrastructure development planning and management. The future scope of this work is
to develop the sustainable structure which will direct helps in controlling, mitigating and managing the flood.
The effect has been to suggest the flood related construction activity that may mitigate the frequent flood hazard
condition along the banks of Koyana river near Sangamnagar, in district Satara of Western Maharashtra.
INTRODUCTION
Flood is a natural disaster in this country. However
human activities in many circumstances change flood
behavior. Activities in the flood plain and catchment
such as land clearing for urbanization and agriculture.
At present, one of the ways to study and to
understand the flood behavior, is by generating the
flood extent or flood risk map. However, to analysis a
river system requires tremendous amount of data such
as rainfall distribution, river properties and most
important the flood plain topography. Geoinformatic
tools are avaible to handle the processing of such
problem as and also for generating flood layers for
various scenarios. Further analysis such as flood
damage assessment can be carried out for mitigation,
infrastructural planning and management by making
suggestive proposals for sustainable infrastructural
development in flood hazard zones.

FLOOD MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Geoinformatic Tools
Advancements in the Remote Sensing technology and
the Geographic Information Systems (GIS) help in
real time monitoring, early warning and quick damage
assessment of flood disasters. A Geographic
Information System is a tool that can assist floodplain
managers in identifying flood prone areas in their
community. With a GIS, geographical information is
stored in a database that can be queried and
graphically displayed for analysis. By overlaying or
intersecting different geographical layers, flood prone
areas can be identified and targeted for mitigation or
stricter floodplain management practices.
Remote Sensing can be very effective for flood
management in the following ways as
Detailed mapping that is required for the production
of hazard assessment maps and for input to various
types of hydrological models.
Developing a larger scale view of the general flood
situation within a river basin with the aim of
identifying areas at greatest risk and in the need of
immediate assistance.
Remote sensing and GIS technique has successfully
established its application in following areas of flood
management such as flood inundation mapping, flood
plain zoning and river morphological studies.
Morphology Study
River morphology is concerned with the
structure and form of rivers including channel
configuration, channel geometry, bed form and profile
characteristics. Various flood control structural
measures such as construction of embankments,
gabion wall, retaining wall, raising of villages,
selective dredging etc. have been implemented in past
to reduce the impact of the flood disaster on human
life and property. It is essential to monitor the
embankments regularly to identify the vulnerable

reaches. Conventional method of river surveying is
time consuming during flood condition and
expensive. Most of the flood prone rivers in India
change their course after every flood wave eroding
river banks. Satellite remote sensing based
morphological studies are quite useful in following
aspects:
To identify the changes in river course over a time
period.
To identify the erosion prone areas along the river
course.
To study the efficacy of flood management
structures.
The river configuration and flood control
works maps can be effectively used to identify the
vulnerable river reaches and status of the flood control
embankments/spurs so that necessary measures can be
taken accordingly avoid disaster. The bank erosion
maps can be used for planning bank protection works.
The study of river configuration will be useful to
understand the behavior of the river and can be used
for laying physical models.

FLOOD MANAGEMENT
Providing absolute protection to all flood prone areas
for all magnitude of floods of different probabilities of
occurrence is neither practically possible nor
economically viable. Hence, a practical approach in
flood management is to provide a reasonable degree
of protection, against flood damage at economic costs
through a combination of structural and non-structural
measures.
Structural Measures
The main thrust of flood protection programme
undertaken in India so far has been in the nature of
structural measures like:
(i) Embankment, flood walls,
(ii) Gabion wall,
(iii) Retaining wall,
(iv) Dams and reservoirs
(v) Diversion of flood waters.
Non-Structural Measures
Flood plain zoning
Flood proofing
Flood plain zoning aims at disseminating
information on a wider basis so as to regulate
indiscriminate and unplanned development in flood
plains and is relevant both for unprotected as well as
protected area. At present the watershed development
and management programmers are being implemented
under centrally sponsored schemes of Ministry of
Agriculture, Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment
& Ministry of Forests. Flood proofing measures help
greatly in mitigation of distress and provide
immediate relief to the population.

CASE STUDY
ost of the part of Western Maharashtra that is
best known to be the Deccan volcanic province as a
typical Geographical location, Climatic condition,
Geomorphologic and Geotechnical setup. It is known
to be the worst affected area by the several natural
calamities like flood, drought, disastrous seismicity;
in chronological past and affected by severe monsoon
which have caused many injuries, diseases, epidemics
even the mass casualties, those adding to loss of
health, economy and social burden on the
development of Maharashtra.

The Koyana Hydropower project which is associated
with Koyana Dam and a typical Shivajisagar
Reservoir having about 70 Km North-South
orientation in its catchment sited on the forehead of
Western Ghats. This project is also called as
Bhagyalaxmi of Maharashtra state as its water is
being used not only for electric power generation but
also for irrigation and water supply.

During the South-West monsoon Koyana catchment
receives very heavy precipitation. Its typical North-
South orientation allows the heavy over land flow
collection in the catchment area. Its results in very
rapid inflow and increase in the rate of filling of
reservoir. And that is why in early monsoon period;
even water level is much as below the HFL there is
need of water discharge from dam, several time. It
always results in the flood situation on banks of
Koyana River. In the settlement like Sangamnagar
and Karad and in continuation affects area of Sangli
and Kolhapur District.

Geoinformatics or Remote Sensing and GIS technique
has now emerged as a very fast, accurate and reliable
tool to develop the sustainable infrastructure and
plans for the disaster mitigation and management
programmes. There is need now of judicious
construction management that will help the new
infrastructural development based on the RS and GIS
for disaster mitigation and management plan. The
generated spatial and nonspatial data and information
regarding river basin, population, existing
infrastructure, inundation and damage assessment etc.
will prove to be useful in future planning. The work
of increasing the height of bridges, construction of
Gabion wall to avoid erosion and water spread.
Rehabilitation of flood prone population etc. can be
planned and may be proposed on the basis of present
study. This will help to the civil engineers working in
Krishna river basin down stream to the confluence of
rivers Krishna and Koyana at Karad.

Sangamnagar Bridge is located at latlon 17
0
2105.9
N to 73
0
4610.18 E. Here at Sangamnagar, the bridge
is old and submersible type as shown in figure 01.
When there is discharge of more then 25000 cusecs
bridge under goes the water. On right side and on
upstream side of bridge the Kajoli Nadi meets to
Koyana River and there is a large deposit of fine to
course unsorted Pleistocene deposit on right bank of
Koyana and also downstream and upstream of bridge

as shown in figure 02 and figure 03. The
Sagamnagar bridge which is next to Helwak, on left
bank of Koyana river, it has precipitous slope and
state highway-78 passing. The Sagamnagar bridge
connects nearly 60-65 villages on right bank, if the
bridge goes under water it breaks the communication
with nearly all 60-65 villages; the important villages
are like Kadoli, Chafer, Nirgam, Rohine, Mirgaon,
etc. The transportation through boat is the only way to
go on left bank side of Koyana River during flood
condition. The boat facility is available at Maneri
only. The rejuvenation deposits are found in river
channel and along the banks. The farming is done on
right bank by locals, but large area of farm lands has
been washed away during the flood of 2005 along the
bank. As the ground on right banks has gently slope
there is sudden spread of flood water. The population
of 20000 to 25000 is been affected during the flood.
The building shown in figure 04 has been collapsed
due to water pressure, it is located on left side bank of
river. The bridge is too old and height is also less
which is submerged many time when discharge more
then 25,000 cusecs. The road bed and pier foots have
eroded during the flood and bridge rail has been
broken along some length of bridge. There is need of
proposing the new bridge parallel to old bridge with
sufficient height of length 250 meter because during
flood the local people on right bank have to go Maneri
village for travelling towards left bank by the boat and
thus the new bridge is proposed. The ground slope is
level slope to precipitous slope on right bank of
Koyana river which have the chances of water spread
and soil erosion. Therefore to avoid this situation
there is a need of proposing the sustainable gabion
structure along bank length. Artificial Pond is
proposed at Kajoli River by blocking the water at the
confluence of Kajoli River and Koyana River which
will create the seasonal business of fresh fish and
create revenue for local community. Thus, there is a
sufficient scope of pisciculture at this particular
stretch of Koyana river.
The Gabion wall is the Sustainable structure which
prevents water to spread as well as from soil erosion
and washout of farm land on right bank of Koyana
river is being proposed which help for flood
mitigation and management. The height of gabion
wall should be six meter and its length 220 meter on
upstream side and 500 on downstream side of bridge.

Fig. 01

Fig.02

Fig.03

Fig.04

METHODOLOGY OF GENERATING LAYERS
The Software ILWIS, develop by ITC Netherlands
has been used in present study. After proper
Geocoding and Georeferancing of IRS 1D PAN Data
the sub-map consisting of the study area was
extracted. With reference to flood hazard zonation
map provided by the Koyana dam authority the flood
hazard zonation map has been digitized in value
domain for 2,55,000 cusecs. Similarly the segment for
the minimum discharge of 2,200 cusecs have also
been digitized.
After interpolation this segment layer the flood hazard
zonation map was ready that was further sliced into
8 different flood hazard zones as shown in Figure
07. Using the ASTER GDEM as the DTM the
steropair of PAN imagery have been developed which
is viewed as Anaglyph Figure 06. After adding
layer, of flood zones, over the Anaglyph the
assessment about the inundation area, vulnerability

assessment of the flood inundated may possible that
has be carried out.
LANDSAT seven TM Data has also been used for the
supervised classification of flood hazard zone. Band-
4, Band-3, and Band-2 where used to develop the
standard FCC of study area. Also the by using a Band
rationing technique the area was classified into water,
vegetation and barrier land Figure 08. This layer can
be studied along with the flood zonation map and the
Elevation Data derived from ASTER GDEM Figure
09. Finally Slope Aspect Sliced Map and Youngs
Slope Classification was done for detail study as
shown in figure 10 and figure 11.
After the brain storming on the generated Remote
Sensing and GIS layers the further construction
activities were digitized and quantified in software
environment. After considering various layer
combinations it is observed that there is a need of
application of flood management and mitigation
techniques. That will not only reduce the flood hazard
but also support the sustainable infrastructure
development along the river bank. The suggested new
bridge and Gabion wall as shown in Figure 12 will
help in infrastructural development along with flood
management and mitigation plans. Suggesting gabion
wall help to resist the sever soil erosion and protect
the agriculture land along side river near
Sangamnager along with acting as barriers for the
spread of water for mitigation.

Fig.05

Fig.06

Fig.07

Fig. 08

Fig. 09

Fig. 10

Fig. 11

Fig. 12
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
For the disaster mitigating and management which is
most important activity for sustainable development is
easily possible with the help of Geoinformatical tools.
Integration of Remote Sensing along with
Geographical Information System (GIS) allows most
reliable, accurate and updated database for
infrastructure development. It has really been
emerged as a very powerful tool helpful in
formulation of proposals of Sustainable infrastructural
planning, mitigating and management for
development in various types of land areas.
ILIWS (Intergrated Land and Water Information
System) is related the very effective software that is
able handle the Remote sensing Data as well as
various GIS segment and polygons. In the present
study the flood hazard zonation map has been
correlated with the 3D Anaglyph of PAN Data and
other layers derived from ASTER Data.
On the bases of these study the infrastructure
development plan and flood related management and
mitigation activity have been proposed. It is, thus,
concluded that infrastructural plans and mitigation
activities can be done with the help of Geoinformatic
tools which is a very useful, efficiency and effective
Data Base for planning engineer.

REFERENCES:
A.M. Zende, P.K. Deshpande, M.B. Kumthekar, K .S.
Wagh, Sustainable Developments Proposed In
Kerala River Watershed Of Western
Maharashtra, Based On Morphometric Analysis
& Remote Sensing Data Interpretation, In GIS
Environment FACE 08, 2nd National
Conference on Focusing on Advances in Civil
Engineering, TKM College of Engineering,
Kollam, Kerala, India.21 23rd February 2008.
Deshpande P.K., Kumthekar M.B. (2004)
Geomorphometric analysis for sustainable
water resources planning and management using
R.S. & GIS. PUBSWRPM, BITS Pilani.Oct-30,
pp. 199-208.
R.K.Khanna, C.K.Agrawal, Pravin Kumar, Remote
Sensing And GIS Applications In
FloodManagement Central Water
Commission,New Delhi.
www.astergdem.com.
www.itc.nl.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF LAMINATED COMPOSITE FOLDED PLATE
FOR DIFFERENT BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Sourav Chandra
PG student,Department of Civil Engineering,Jadavpur University, Kol-32, e-mail: chandra.sourav2009@gmail.com
Sreyashi Das
Asst. Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,Jadavpur University , Kol-32,e-mail: palsreyashi@gmail.com
A. Guha Niyogi
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,Jadavpur University, Kol-32, e-mail: agn_ju@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT: A 9-noded Lagrangian plate bending finite element that incorporates first-order transverse shear
deformation and rotary inertia is used to predict the free and forced vibration response of laminated composite folded
plate structures. A 6 x 6 transformation matrix is applied to transform the system element matrices before assembly. An
additional drilling degree of freedom is appended with the usual five degrees-of-freedom per node to use the
transformation. The finite element results presented here show good agreement with the available semi-analytical
solutions and finite element results. Parametric studies are presented for free and forced vibration response for
laminated composite folded plates, with reference to crank angle and different boundary conditions.
INTRODUCTION
To civil engineers laminated composite folded plate
structures are of particular interest as roofing material due
to their light weight and extensive roof-spanning
capability as compared to flat plates. Folded plates are
implemented in cladding factory roofs also. Sometimes
the structure may have to resist high wind or seismic load
too. The conventional concrete roofs provide necessary
strength and stability but the weight is high. Low cost
laminated composites comprising of epoxy matrix are
very efficient in withstanding the dynamic loads due to
their superior weight-specific strength and stiffness.They
are non-biodegradable and hence, maintenance cost is
low. Published works on composite folded plates are
scanty, and hence this research.
In the present analysis the first order shear deformation
theory (FSDT) is adopted to analyze the laminated
composite folded plates. A shear correction factor 5/6 has
been applied to take account of non uniform distribution
of transverse shear strain along the thickness of the
laminate. In the free vibration analysis, the subspace
iteration technique [1] is adopted for extraction of the
eigen pairs. In the forced vibration analysis, the damping
is neglected. Newmarks explicit integration technique [1]
is adopted for the transient analysis.
Research on dynamic analysis of laminated composite
folded plate structures are reported by Guha Niyogi et al
[2] using FSDT. Lee et al. [3] made use of third order
plate deformation theories to solve the laminated plate
problems. S. Pal and A. Guha Niyogi [4] studied the
effect of free vibration and transient response for
cantilever stiffened laminated composite and sandwich
folded plate with different arrangements of stiffeners
using folded plate formulation. The review of literature
reveals that dynamic behavior of laminated folded plate
for free and transient vibration for various boundary
conditions has not been investigated until now and hence
this study is carried out.

THEORETICAL FORMULATIONS:
The displacement field for FSDT can be expressed as

u(x,y,z) = u
0
(x,y)+z
x
(x,y)
v(x,y,z) = v
0
(x,y)+z
y
(x,y)
w(x,y,z) = w
0
(x,y)
and
x
= w,
x
+
x

y
= w,
y
+
y
(1)

Where u, v and w are the displacements of a general point in
the x, y and z directions, respectively. The parameter u
0
, v
0
are
the in plane displacements and w
0
is the displacement of a
point on the middle plane along z direction.
x
and
y
are the
total rotations of the normal about y and x axis respectively,
whereas
x
and
y
are the constant average shear
deformations about y- and x-axes.

FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION:
In this study, nine noded Lagrangian rectangular plate
elements having five degrees of freedom per node are used
for the finite element solution of the laminated folded plates.
The interpolation function of the displacement field () is
defined as
o =
u
o
:
o
w
0
x
0
= N

o
n
=`1
(2)
Where, N
i
are the Lagrangeian interpolation functions[1],
i
is
the nodal displacement u
0i
, v
0i
, w
oi
,
xi
, and
yi
and n is the
total number of nodes per element.

The stiffness matrix of the plate element assumes the form
| | | | | || |dA B D B K
T
A
e
e
}
= (3)
Where,
{ } | |{ }
i
B = . (4)
{} being the strain vector, and {
i
} the nodal displacement
vector. [B] is the strain-displacement matrix, and [D] is the
stiffness matrix given by
| |
(
(
(
=
lm
ij ij
ij ij
A
D B
B A
D
0 0
0
0
(5)
Where,
( ) 6 , 2 , 1 , , ) , , 1 ( , ,
2
1
1
= =

}
=

j i dz z z Q D B A
k
N
k
z
z
ij ij ij ij
k
k
(6a)
and, 6 / 5 , 5 , 4 , , ) (
1
1
= = =

}
=

m l dz Q A
k
N
k
lm
z
z
km
k
k
(6b)
Here, Q
ij
are the elements of off-axis stress-strain
relations. Q
ij
k
relates stresses and strains in kth layer by
the relation,
i
k
= Q
ij
k
j
k
. i,j=1,2,6.
1
,
2
, and
6
denote
x
,
y
and
xy
respectively

and
1
,
2
,
and
6
denote

x
,
y
and
xy
, respectively.
Whereas,
l
k
= Q
lm
k
m
k
, l, m = 4,5 and is the shear correction
factor taken as 5/6.
The mass matrix of the plate element is given by
| | | | | || |dA N N M
e A
T
e }
=
(7)
[] being the density matrix functions. The integration in
every case is carried out over the area of the plate
element. Generally, a 3-point Gauss quadrature is adopted
to compute the bending stiffness of the elements, whereas
a 2-point integration is applied to calculate the shear
stiffness and mass matrix.

FINITE ELEMENT TRANSFORMATION:
A transformation [2] is prepared to relate local
displacement u, v, w,
x
,
y
,
z
and global displacement u,
v, w,
x
,
y
,
z
with positive direction of displacements
and rotations, shown in Figures 1 and 2
{ u} = [ I] { u
} (8)

Figure 1: Transformation of translations from local (x) to
global (x) axes

The element matrices are expressed in global coordinate
system from local coordinate using transformation matrix
as
[K]
e
= [T]
T
[K]
e
[T],
[M]
e
= [T]
T
[M]
e
[T],
{ P}
c
= [ I]
1
{ P}
c
(9)
Before applying the transformation, the 4545 stiffness
and mass matrices are expanded to 5454 by inserting
z
drilling degree of freedom at each node of a finite
element. In mass matrix the off-diagonal terms
corresponding to the
z
terms are set to zero, while a very
small positive number, about 1000 times smaller than the
smallest leading diagonal, is introduced in the stiffness matrix
at the corresponding leading diagonal term [1]. Similarly
451 load vector is expanded to 541 by inserting zero at
corresponding locations.
Governing equation for undamped free and forced vibration
are summarized as follows
[ H] |o
| + [ K] { o} = 0
and
[ H] |o
| + [ K] { o} = [ P] (10)

NUMERICAL RESULTS AND DISSCUSSIONS:
A computer program in FORTRAN, based on the finite
element model described in the earlier section, is used to get
the dynamic solution of laminated composite folded plate
structures. Free and forced vibration responses are shown for
variation in crank angle and different boundary conditions.
Symmetric and anti-symmetric cross ply laminate is used for
the analysis. The validation of the code developed and the
mesh convergence study has been provided elsewhere [4].

Case study 1: Effect of Crank Angle and boundary
conditions on Free Vibration of Folded Plate
Free vibration analysis of a single fold plate structure, made
up of E-glass Epoxy composite has been carried out for
variation in crank angle and boundary conditions. The
property of the E-glass Epoxy material is given below.
E
1
=60.7 10
9
Nm
-2,
E
2
=24.810
9
Nm
-2
, G
12
= G
13
=
G
23
=12.010
9
Nm
-2
,
12
=
21
=0.23, =1300Kgm
-3
The length of the plate is taken as 1.8 m, each inclined side
being 1.2m [Figure 3].

The thickness used in the analysis is 0.02 m. The crank angle
is varied as 90
o
, 120
o
and 150
o
. (0
o
/90
o
/0
o
/90
o
) fibre angle is
used for this study. Four different boundary conditions used
for the analysis are as follows,

1. All four edges are clamped (CCCC)
2. One inclined edge clamped and others three edges
free (CFFF)
3. Two straight edges clamped and two inclined edges
free (CCFF)
4. Two inclined edges clamped and two straight edges
free (FFCC).

First five natural frequencies of single folded plate structure
for crank angle = 90, 120 and 150 with four boundary
conditions are tabulated in Table 1.

1.8 m
1.2 m

1.2 m
Figure 3: Geometry of ONE fold plate structure
y,
y

x,
x

z,
z

z,
z

y,
y

x,
x

y,v
x,u
z,w
y,v

z,w
Figure 2: Transformation of rotations from local (x) to
global (x) axes


Case study 2: Effect of Fibre Orientation on free
Vibration of Folded Plate
Table 2 shows the natural frequencies of one Fold plate
structure for symmetric cross ply laminate (0
o
/90
o
/90
o
/0
o
).
All other data remains same as case study 1. From the
table we can see that for cases CCCC or, CCFF, the
natural frequency decreases when compared to
(0
o
/90
o
/0
o
/90
o
), whereas, for other two cases, (FFCC and
CFFF), natural frequency increases for fibre angle
(0
o
/90
o
/90
o
/0
o
). Hence the dynamic response of laminated
composite folded plate does not only depend on the fibre
orientation, but also on the boundary conditions. Hence,
any generalized recommendation is very difficult without
undergoing numerical experiments.

Table 1. Natural frequencies (Hz) of single folded
composite plate with fiber orientation of (0/90/0/90)

Table 2. Natural frequencies (Hz) of single folded
composite plate with fibre orientation of (0/90/90/0)

Boundary
Conditions
Mode
No.
Crank Angle
90 120 150
CCCC 1 76.68 76.70 76.70
2 95.16 94.99 94.29
3 159.39 159.41 159.42
4 169.83 169.68 168.99
5 229.76 230.00 230.11
CFFF 1 11.08 11.09 11.09
2 16.56 16.53 16.37
3 47.07 47.08 47.09
4 50.98 50.93 50.67
5 56.05 56.11 56.13
CCFF 1 48.67 48.69 48.70
2 57.75 57.78 57.78
3 73.70 73.52 72.77
4 80.36 80.13 79.15
5 92.55 92.58 92.59
FFCC 1 45.85 45.85 45.85
2 47.75 47.74 47.68
3 82.99 83.01 83.02
4 102.40 102.12 100.73
5 132.67 132.67 132.68

Case study 3: Transient responses of ONE fold plate
structure for different boundary conditions Figure 5
represents comparison of transient response of the laminated
composite folded plate structure for a fixed crank angle =
120
o
at the center point of the ridge line under uniformly
applied step loading of intensity 1.0x10
5
N/m
2
, acting normal
to all the faces, outward and upward for various boundary
conditions. The fibre angle is taken as (0
o
/90
o
/0
o
/90
o
). From
the figure it is observed that, the deflection is higher for the
case where two straight edges are clamped. The cases CCCC
and CCFF show a periodical nature of displacement in the
graph. This periodical nature is not much pronounced for
other two cases.

CONCLUSION
This paper is concerned with the analysis of laminated
composite folded plate structures. For the numerical
simulation of the problem finite element technique has been
used. Various boundary configurations have been considered
in the present study. A set of new results for composite folded
plate structures with various crank angles and boundary
conditions are presented. The first order shear deformation
theory is found to work well for folded plates where the five
regular degrees of freedom are appended with a sixth drilling
degree of freedom. It has been shown that dynamic response
of laminated composite ONE fold plate structure largely
depends on the boundary condition. The crank angle does not
play any significant effect in free vibration analysis of ONE
fold plate structure. However, it is difficult to speculate mode
shapes without undergoing numerical experiments.

REFERENCES
Bathe, K. J., 1996, Finite Element Procedures, Prentice Hall
of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Guha Niyogi, A. Laha, M. K.and Sinha, P. K. (1999). Finite
Element Vibration Analysis of Laminated
Composite Folded Plate Structures, Shock and Vibration, 6:
273283.
Lee and Lee (1995). Vibration Analysis of Anisotropic Plates
with Eccentric Stiffeners, Comput. Struct, 57(1):
99105
Pal. S, Guha Niyogi. A, Application of folded plate
formulation in analysing stiffened laminated composite
and sandwich folded plate vibration, Journal of
Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 27(7), pp. 693-710,
2008.

Boundary
Conditions
Mode
No.
Crank Angle
90 120 150
CCCC 1 79.62 79.71 79.76
2 103.95 103.76 102.77
3 147.78 147.87 147.94
4 163.09 162.96 162.20
5 263.31 264.04 264.46
CFFF 1 10.48 10.48 10.49
2 17.54 17.49 17.27
3 43.14 43.15 43.17
4 47.24 47.20 47.02
5 62.86 62.99 63.06
CCFF 1 57.83 57.91 57.95
2 65.61 65.70 65.75
3 87.54 87.25 85.99
4 93.18 92.85 91.33
5 94.88 95.00 95.07
FFCC 1 40.13 40.13 40.13
2 42.95 42.93 42.88
3 85.75 85.85 85.90
4 110.22 109.84 107.81
5 114.97 114.97 114.98

Figure 5: Transient response of laminated composite folded plate(0/90/0/90) for various boundary conditions

M ODE 1
M ODE 2
M ODE 3
CCCC
CFFF
CCFF
FFCC
Figure 4: First three mode shape for laminated composite folded plate with crank angle =90
o
and fibre orientation =
(0/90/0/90) for different boundary conditions

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


CONCRETE BEAMS STRENGTHENED WITH NEAR SURFACE
MOUNTED AFRP RODS

V.G. Kalpana
Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Coimbatore Institute of Technology, Coimbatore-641014, Tamilnadu.
Email-kalpana@cit.edu.in
K. Subramanian
Professor and Head, Department of Civil Engineering, Coimbatore Institute of Technology Coimbatore-641014, Tamilnadu.
Email-hodcivil@cit.edu.in

ABSTRACT: Strengthening with fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites is a widely used method for
retrofitting or increasing load bearing capacity of structural members. FRP reinforcement is available in
different forms such as laminates, sheets, bars, strips, grids and prestressing tendons to serve a wide range of
purposes. This research work focuses on use of FRP bars as near surface mounted (NSM) reinforcement for
strengthening of concrete structures. Out of four steel reinforced concrete beams three beams were strengthened
with near surface mounted AFRP bars and one as control beam .All the beams were tested under monotonic
static two point loading. Three different diameters of 5.5mm, 7.5mm, and 10mm AFRP rods were used as NSM
rods. From the experimental results load deflection behavior and load carrying capacity of NSM strengthened
rods with that of control beams were investigated. The mode of failure and the pattern of cracks formed were
also observed and presented in this paper.

INTRODUCTION
The use of Near Surface Mounted (NSM) fibre
reinforced polymer rods is a promising technology for
increasing flexural and shear strength of deficient
reinforced concrete structures. Among the various
strengthening techniques that have been developed
and applied to strengthen deteriorated RC structures, a
number of applications using FRP reinforcements
have significantly increased recently. FRP
reinforcements are bonded to concrete surfaces by
adhesives, experience debonding failure at the
interface between FRP reinforcements and concrete.
Most research works focused on investigating the
strengthening effects and failure modes of Externally
Bonded Reinforcements (EBR) system. The problem
of premature failure of EBR system may be solved by
increasing the interface between FRP and concrete
which leads to the introduction of NSM technique.
The NSM system for concrete structure using steel
reinforcement already began in 1940s. However, the
corrosion of the steel reinforcement and the poor
bonding performance of the grouting material needs
alternate as NSM +FRP system.

RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
This paper reports the test results of an experimental
investigation carried out on reinforced concrete beams
strengthened in flexure using NSM AFRP Rods. This
study focused on evaluating the effect of NSM
reinforcements on strength gaining. The modes of
failure of strengthened beams and the load deflection
behaviour are also examined in this study.

EXPERIMENTAL OVERVIEW

Test specimens
Totally four RC beams listed in Table 1 were used in
this study, in which one as control beam and three are
strengthened with NSM AFRP rods on the tension
side surface. All the beams were of 1200mm in length
with a rectangular cross section of 150mm x 100 mm
as shown in Figure 1.
Fig. 1 Beam reinforcement and cross section details.
The beams consists of 2nos 8mm diameter
compression steel reinforcements, 2nos 10mm
diameter tension steel reinforcements and 2legged
8mm diameter steel stirrups of 80mm c/c spacing. The
flexural strengthening was done by making a groove
of width and depth equal to 1.5times the diameter of
NSM rod at the bottom of the beam .Then groove was
filled partially with epoxy resin and NSM AFRP rod
was mounted into the grooves as shown in Figure 2.
The remaining space is filled with resin and allowed
the beam for curing at room temperature for 7 days.
Three diameters such as 5.5mm, 7.5mm and 10mm
NSM AFRP rods were used in this study.

Table 1 Particulars of test specimens
Sl.
No
Beam ID Type of specimen
Strengthening
Pattern
1 CB Control beam -
2 AFRP5.5
AFRP rod 5.5mm
diameter 1no.
NSM
3 AFRP7.5
AFRP rod 7.5mm
diameter 1no.
NSM
4 AFRP10
AFRP rod 10mm
diameter 1no.
NSM


Fig.2 Beams strengthened with NSM rods

Materials for Concrete Beam
The Portland Pozzolana Cement conforming to IS:
4031 was used for the preparation of test specimens.
The fine
aggregate used in this experimental investigation was
natural river sand confirming to zone II of IS: 383
1970. Crushed granite aggregates particles passing
through 20mm and retained on 4.75mm I.S sieve was
used as natural aggregates which met the grading
requirement of IS: 383 1970. Fe415 TMT bars are
used for steel reinforcements. The mix proportion for
M30 grade of concrete is 1: 0.98: 2.38 with w/c ratio
of 0.385.The properties of AFRP rod which is used as
strengthening material is tabulated in Table 2.The
adhesive used to bond the AFRP rod to the beam is
epoxy and its properties are shown in Table 3.

Table 2 Properties of AFRP Rod
Diameter
(mm)
Ultimate
load
(kN)
Tensile
Elastic
modulus
(Gpa)
Tensile
strength
(Mpa)
5.5 28.47
60 1400 7.5 57.83
10 97.86

Table 3 Properties of Epoxy
Property, Unit Resin Hardener
Type
Araldite
GY 257
Aradur, 140
Commercial form Liquid Liquid
Quantity, (pbw) 100 50
Density at 25
o
C
(g/cm
3
)
1.15 0.98
Specific gravity 1.80 2.00

Experimental Setup
The flexural capacity of the RC Beam specimen was
obtained by means of two point bending test; beams
were being simply supported over a span of 1.2m.
The load was applied by means of a hydraulic jack
and distributed through steel I-section. The test setup
is shown in Figure.3. At each load increment the
observations such as deflection, crack development
and its propagation are recorded. The load at initial
crack, ultimate load, type of failure etc., were also
carefully observed and recorded.

Fig.3 Experimental setup

ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS
Experimental results presenting the relation load-
deflection at midspan of NSM reinforced beam and
control beam are given in Figure 4.It can be observed
that the maximum load achieved by NSM
5.5mm,7.5mm and 10 mm diameter AFRP were 81%,
105% and 69% higher than unstrengthened beam. The
stiffness of strengthened and control beams are same
until the formation of first crack. The failure occurred
due to splitting of epoxy resin and concrete as shown
in Figure 5.The comparison chart for ultimate loads of
four beams was shown in Figure 6.

Fig.4 Load deflection for control beam and NSM
AFRP strengthened beams

Fig.5 NSM failed beams


Fig.6 Ultimate load of tested beams

CONCLUSIONS
The present study was to determine the effect of NSM
strengthening technique for beams. Performance of
NSM technique was found to be very effective with
no occurrence of delamination, debonding or fracture
of FRP. It has been seen that NSM specimens utilized
the AFRP reinforcement more efficiently.

REFERENCES
De Lorenzis.L., Nanni.A., and La Tegola.A., (2000)
Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Structures
with Near Surface Mounted FRP Rods , bibl.
International Meeting on Composite Materials,
PLAST 2000, Milan, Italy, May 9-11.
Jung.W.T., Park.Y.H., Park.J.S., Kang.J.Y., and
You,Y.-J. (2005), Experimental Investigation on
Flexural Behavior of RC Beams Strengthened by
NSM CFRP Reinforcements, ACI special
publications, SP-230-46, 1, 795-806
Kishi.N., Mikami.H., Kurihashi.Y. and Sawada.S.,
(2005), Flexural Behavior of RC Beams
Reinforced with NSM AFRP rods, Proceedings of
the International Symposium on Bond Behaviour of
FRP in Structures, BBFS 2005, Chen and Teng
(eds) ,2005 International Institute for FRP in
Construction, 337-342.
Rankovi.S., Foli.R. and Marina
Mijalkovi.M.,(2010), Effects of RC Beams
Reinfocement using Near Surface Mounted
Reinforced FRP Composite, Facta Universitatis
Architecture and Civil Engineering, 8(2), 177
185.
Yost. J.R., Gross. S.P., Dinehart. D.W. and
Mildenberg. J.J., (2007), Flexural Behavior of
Concrete Beams Strengthened with Near-Surface-
Mounted CFRP Strips, ACI Structural Journal,
104(4), July-August, 430-437.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


DAMAGE ANALYSIS OF STEEL STRUCTURES

Pranav P. Pande
IV Sem, M.E. (CASDD),Ujjain Engineering college, Ujjain , Email-prof.pande@gmail.com

ABSTRACT:In the most general terms damage can be defined as changes introduced into a system that adversely
effect the current or future performance of that system. Implicit in this definitions is the concept that damages is not
meaningful without a comparison between two different states of the system one of which is assumed to represent
the initial and often undamaged state. This discussion is focused on the study of damage identification in structural
system and its effect or impact on the structure. The need for quantitative global damage detection methods that can
be applied to complex structures had led to the development and continued research of methods that examine change
in the vibration characteristics of the structure. such a system has also been referred as a NDE methodology. During
the past decade, a great deal of research has been conducted in the area of nondestructive damage evaluation of
structural systems via changes in their vibration characteristics. In many studies, the resonant frequencies were used
to identify damage and estimate the amount of damage i.e. size and impact on performance of structure. In the last
years several methods have been developed that use the changes in the modal shapes and vibration frequencies of
a structure as data to evaluate the damage in their structural elements. These methods have the advantage of not
requiring the direct exhibition of these elements and of being able to visualize the complete structure if it is properly
instrumented. In consequence, it is possible to obtain a reduction in the time and cost of the evaluation, as well as a
decrease in the impact of operation of the structure. For the localization and the calculation of the magnitude of the
structural damage, these methods require the analytical model of the structure. These methods are denominated
methods of detection of damage based on models.

INTRODUCTION
To detect the damages in the different types of steel
structures through computational analysis, different
types of site and laboratory model of different
structures are used. These analysis have been carried
out using different damage conditions. STAAD &
SAP software are used for this computational work.
The following details show the type of structure used
for the particular analysis.
Case study of Steel Bridge Model
Tower Model 220 KV s
Tower Model Lab
Steel Frame Lab
Case study of Steel Bridge Model
The Interstate 40 (I-40) Bridge over the Rio Grande
in Albuquerque, New York Mexico were scheduled
to be demolished as a part of a construction project
to widen the bridge for increased traffic flow prior to
this demolition damage was incrementally applied to
the bridge in a controlled manner. Vibration tests
were performed on the undamaged bridge and after
each level of damage had been introduced. The
primary purpose of these tests was to study the ability
to identify and locate damage in a large structure
based on changes in its measured dynamic response.
Test Structure Geometry
The I-40 Bridges formerly consisted of twin spans
made up of concrete deck supported by two welded
steel plate girders and three steel stringers. Loads
from the stringers were transferred to the plate
girders by floor beams located at 6.1m intervals.
Cross bracings was provided between the floor
beams. Cross section of the bridge is shown in figure
Bridge is made up of three identical section each
section have three span the end span have equal
length of 39.9m and the center span have 49.4m
length.

Fig-1 Elevation View of the I-40 Bridge that was
tested
Damage Scenarios
The damage that was introduced was intended to
simulate fatigue cracking that has been observed in
plate girder bridges. This type of cracking results
from out of plane bending of the plate girder web and
usually begins at welded attachment to the web such
as the seats supporting the floor beams.Four levels of
damage were introduced to the middle span of the
plate girder close to the seat supporting the floor
beam at mid span. Damage was introduced by
making various torch cuts in the web and flange of
the girder. A major drawback of introducing damage
in this manner is that the torch cuts produces crack
much wider tan an actual fatigue crack. Hence these

cracks do not open and close under the loading that
was applied during this study
The first level of damage designated E-1, consisted
of a 0.61m long,10mm wide cut through the web
centered at mid height of the web. Next this cut was
continued to the bottom of the web to produce a
second level of damage designated E-2. For the third
level of damage, E-3, the flange was then cut halfway
in from either side directly below the cut in the web.
Finally the flange to carry the load at this location.
The various levels of damage are shown in fig.
Transmission Line Tower 220 KV Site
Tower Geometry
Total Number of Members-260
Total Number of joints -81
Nine Different Type of section used
Height of Tower-38.517
Support assumed to be fixed

Fig-2 Tower Model site 220 KV

Table 1 Frequency in damage & undamaged state of
220 KV Tower site
Mode no Undamaged Frequency Damage Frequency
1 3.29 3.29
2 3.32 3.12
3 8.87 8.87
4 10.00 10.00
5 10.54 10.53
6 19.66 15.65
7 19.68 19.42
8 19.96 19.73
9 21.82 20.16
10 22.33 21.81
11 25.38 22.38
12 28.28 25.36

Fig 3 Comparison of Natural Frequency of 220
KV for Breakage Leg
The fig no 3 shows a variation in the natural
frequency which confirms that there is damage in the
Tower and for locating the member which is
damaged Damage Index method is used in which the
variation in the value of Zi clearly shows the damage
member.

EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
Introduction
For experimental results, fabricated one 220 KV D/C
Laboratory tower and tested in the laboratory. This
tower is 2.26 m high with 43 nodes and 137
members. To set the tower in to free vibration we
applied the impact by wooden hammer and measured
the response by using FFT Analyzer. Here are some
photo graphs of laboratory tower set up and testing.

Fig- 3 Lab Tower photograph

Damage Scenarios

i. Loosening of one of the Bolt
ii. Cut in the Bracing member.
iii. Missing of member.

Table 2 Frequency Analysis Result in Undamaged
state of Lab Tower

Mode
No.
Analytical Frequency in
Hz
Experimental
Frequency in Hz
1 141.948 142.20
2 197.313 188.45
3 229.101 222.52
4 250.42 247.89
5 252.521 252.30
6 272.04 271.54
Comparison in Experimental
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1 2 3 4 5 6
Mode no
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

i
n

H
z
Undamaged
Damaged
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Mode
F
r
e
q
u
e
c
y

i
n

H
z
Undamage
Damage in main
vertical member

Table 3 Frequency Analysis Result in Damaged state
of Lab Tower

Mode No. Analytical
Frequency
in Hz
Experimental
Frequency
in Hz
1 132.152 140.20
2 187.542 184.25
3 232.51 221.65
4 248.416 242.89
5 258.61 250.30
6 272.028 267.12

Table 4 Frequency Analysis Results Damaged state
of Lab Tower

Mode No. Analytical
Frequency in Hz
Experimental
Frequency in Hz
1 141.92 138.25
2 182.323 179.53
3 198.033 190.20
4 229.123 225.50
5 250.427 252.31
6 252.555 272.51

CONCLUSION

Computational
From computational analysis we can conclude
following statement
Analytical value gives a fairly good idea about any
type of damage in any steel structure that may be
either in frame or tower structure.
In some case like small damage or cut in the member
it is difficult to locate the exact damage member.
When a small amount of damage like loosening of
bolts in is introduced to a relatively large 3-D tower
structure, it is observed that the change in natural
frequency is not significant.
In some cases for locating the damage member by
using Damage Index method instead of deflections
rotational values are giving more clear idea of
damaged members.
It is not possible to model the loosening of bolts in
towers (3-D truss structures) as a semi rigid
connection. As the natural frequency change in case
of semi rigid joint varies between 0 to 1 % only.
Therefore loose joint is modeled as reduction in axial
stiffness of the particular member (i.e. reduction in
load carrying capacity of member.

Experimental
From experimental analysis we can conclude
following statement
It is not possible to measure the deflection values as
the large structure are complicated structures and
hence locating the damage member is not possible
unless deflection values can measure at each joint.

REFERENCES
Sooyong Park, Yeon-Bok Kim, (2002),
Nondestructive damage detection in large
structures via vibration monitoring, EJSE, pg.
59-75.
Pei-Ling Liu, (1995), Identification and damage
detection of trusses using modal data, Journal of
Structural Engineering, pg. 599-608.
G C Yao, K C Chang & G C Lee, (1992), Damage
diagnosis of steel frames using vibrational
signature analysis, Journal of Engineering
Mechanics, pg. 1949-1961.
H L Chen, C C Spyrakos & G Venkatesh, (1995),
Evaluating structural deterioration by dynamic
response, Journal of Structural
Engineering,pg.1197-1204.
John B Kosmatka & James M Ricles, (1999),
Damage detection in structures by modal
vibration characterization, Journal of Structural
Engineering, pg. 1384-1392.
Z Y Shi, S S Law & L M Zhang. (2000), Structural
damage detection from modal strain energy
change, Journal of Engineering Mechanics, pg.
1216-1223.
Jun Zhao & John T DeWolf, (1999), Sensitivity
study for vibrational parameters used in damage
detection, Journal of Structural Engineering, pg.
410-416.
Ronaldo C Battista, Rosangela S Rodrigues &
Michele S Pfeil, (2003), Dynamic behavior and
stability of Transmission line towers under wind
forces, Journal of Wind Engineering and
Industrial Aerodynamics, pg.1051-1061.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

STREAM FLOW MODELLING OF BEAS RIVER AT MANALI,
HIMACHAL PRADESH

S. K. Jain
National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee
S. P Rai
Rajeev S. Ahluwalia

ABSTRACT: Snow/Glacier melt monitoring is important for utilities and other purposes. In western Himalaya,
more than half annual runoff is because of snow/glacier melt. Snowmelt estimation is essential for the regional
planning of water resources. To achieve this objective, data such as the snow cover, rainfall, temperature,
evaporation and discharge data are necessary. For a period of five years (October 2004 to September 2009) the
total water budget of the basin at different sites (Manali, Bhunter-Beas, Bhunter-Parwati) was assessed; rainfall and
temperature and snowcover data is used to estimate the total runoff contributed by different component. In this
study river Beas upto Manali is taken for the estimation of snowmelt runoff. River Beas originating from Beas
Kund and Rohtag pass at the altitude of 3505 meters and 3977 meters respectively, both the stream meet to each
other Palchan, 10 km. above the Manali. The seasonal variations of discharge and snowmelt contribution at Manali
in Beas River have been studied. It was observed that snow and glacier melt runoff on average is more than 50% at
Manali.

INTRODUCTION
All the major South-Asian rivers originate in the
Himalayas and their upper catchments are covered with
snow and glaciers. The Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra
river systems, originating from the Himalayan region,
receive substantial amounts of snowmelt water and are
considered as the lifeline of the Indian sub-continent.
Few scientific evaluation is available for Himalayan
water resources, firstly, due to an insufficient network
of observations for both precipitation and stream
discharge measurements and secondly, Himalayan
terrain being most rugged and inaccessible.
Nevertheless, the available estimates show that the
water yield from high Himalayan basins is roughly
double that of an equivalent one located in Peninsular
India. This is mainly due to inputs from snow and ice
melt contributions. The perennial nature of Himalayan
Rivers and the suitable topographic setting of the
region provide a substantial exploitable hydropower
potential in this region.

The contribution of snow and glacier melt runoff to
the Himalayan rivers is significant and an estimation
of the amount is necessary for the development,
planning and management of water resources.
Snowmelt accounts for 50-60% of the annual stream
flow in many areas of the world, including the Sierra
Nevada, the Rockies, the Alps, the Andes and the
Himalayan Mountains (Ferris and Congalton, 1989).
Water in its frozen state accounts for more than 80
percent of the total freash water on the earth (Dozier
1989) and is the largest contributor to rivers over
major portion of the middle and high latitudes. About
30% of the Earths land surface is seasonally covered
by snow. Snowmelt accounts for 50 to 80 percent of
the annual stream flow in many mountainous areas of
world including Himalayas (Ferris and Congalton
1989).

Estimation of the volume of the water draining from
the snow is needed for efficient management of water
resources. The planning of new multi-purpose
projects on Himalayan Rivers further emphasizes the
need for reliable estimates of snow and glacier runoff
because this provide a more dependable flow. Despite
their well recognized importance and potential, no
attempts have been made to assess in detail the
contribution of snow and glacier in these rivers.
However, a few attempts have been made to carry out
for glacierized river basin in the western Himalayan
region to estimate the snow and glacier contribution
mainly on annual basis (Singh et al., 1995, 2005;
Singh & Kumar, 1997; Singh & Jain, 2003: Kumar et
al., 2005; Haritashya et al., 2006). Singh et al. (1994)
estimated about 28% as the average contribution of
snow-and glacier-melt in the annual flow of the
Ganga river at Devprayag. Singh et al. (1997)
estimated about 49% as the snow and glacier
contributed for the Chenab river at Akhnoor. Snow-
and glacier-melt contribution at Bhakra Dam site in
Satluj river was estimated to be 60% (Singh & Jain
2002). In a similar study of Beas river at Pandoh dam
site, the snow and glacier melt contribution was
estimated 35.1% (Kumar & Singh, 2007). However,
snow and glacier melt contribution for small scale
catchment and its seasonal variation are still not
studied. Therefore, near real time estimation of snow
cover is of utmost importance for effective
management of water resources and can serve as a
guideline for reservoir operations. Moreover, planning
of new hydroelectric projects on the Himalayan

Manali
Rivers emphasizes the need for reliable estimation of
snow and glacier runoff. Keeping in view the
importance and scope of such estimates, in this study
an attempt was made to estimate the snow-and glacier
melt contribution in Beas river at the head of Beas
basin at Manali in Himachal Pradesh, India.

Fig. 1: Location map of Beas Basin
.

THE STUDY AREA AND DATA USED
River Beas originating from Beas Kund and Rohtag
pass at the altitude of 3505 m and 3977 m
respectively, both the stream meet to each other
Palchan, 10 km. above the Manali.

Physiographical and hydro meteorological data are
required for estimation the snowmelt contribution
from the basin. Physiographical data represent
physical features of the basin, including its total area,
its altitudinal distribution through elevation zones and
the areas of these zones, and the altitude of
precipitation and temperature stations. Hydro
meteorological data include daily precipitation, mean
air temperature, snow-covered area and streamflow
data. Temperature,Rainfall, discharge have collected
from Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB). For
this study data have been used from 1996 to 2008 to
study the seasonal variation of discharge and snow
and glacier melt contribution.

Remote sensing data were used to obtain snow-
covered area data for the study period to prepare snow
cover depletion curves. MODIS (500-m resolution-8
days composite) for two years (2005/06 and 2008/09),
IRS data (LISS-III, 23.5-m resolution) for one year
(2008-09) were procured from the National Remote
Sensing Agency (NRSA), Hyderabad, India.

METHODOLOGY
There are several temperature index based snowmelt
models like SNOWMOD, the SSARR Model, the
HEC-1 and HEC-1F Models, the NWSRFS Model,
the PRMS Model, the SRM, the GAWSER Model.
The Snow Melt Runoff (SRM) model is widely used
for snowmelt modeling in Himalayan basin. The SRM
uses snow-covered area as input instead of snowfall
data, but it does not simulate the base flow component
of runoff. In other words, SRM does not consider the
contribution to the groundwater reservoir from
snowmelt or rainfall, nor its delayed contribution to
the stream flow in the form of base flow, which can
be an important component of runoff in the
Himalayan Rivers, and plays an important role in
making these rivers perennial. Almost all the stream
flow during winter, when no rainfall or snowmelt
occurs, is generated from the base flow (Singh and
Jain, 2003). The SNOWMOD model (Jain, 2001,
Singh and Jain, 2003) is unique in this aspect as it
simulates all components of runoff, i.e. snowmelt
runoff, rainfall-induced runoff and base flow, using
limited data.
The snowmelt model (SNOWMOD) is designed to
simulate daily streamflow for mountainous basins
having contribution from both snowmelt and rainfall.
The process of generation of streamflow from such
basins involves primarily the determination of the
input derived from snowmelt and rain, and its
transformation into runoff. For simulating the
streamflow, the basin is divided into a number of
elevation zones and various hydrological processes
relevant to snowmelt and rainfall runoff are evaluated
for each zone. The model deals with snowmelt and
rainfall runoff by performing the following three

operations at each time step: (a) available
meteorological data are extrapolated to the different
elevation zones, (b) rates of snowmelt and/or rainfall
are calculated at different points, and (c) snowmelt
runoff from SCA and rainfall runoff from SFA are
integrated, and these components are routed
separately with proper accounting of baseflow to the
outlet of the basin. The model optimizes the
parameters used in routing of the snowmelt runoff and
rainfall runoff.
The information on Snow cover area (SCA) is
determined from the satellite imageries/digital data.
The satellite data were processed using ERDAS
IMAGINE image processing software. First, snow
cover area maps were prepared for the study basin and
then the SCA for each elevation zone was estimated
and plotted against the elapsed time to construct the
depletion curves for the various elevation zones in the
basin. In order to simulate daily runoff, daily SCA for
each zone is required as input to the model. Daily
values of SCA were obtained by
interpolating/extrapolating the derived depletion
curves. Because the amount of snowfall/snow-covered
area and temperature conditions fluctuate from year to
year, snow-covered area and depletion trends also
vary from year to year.

Relationship of Discharge with Temperature
The runoff data have been analysed with temperature
of the Manali site for the year of 2006. It is found that
when the temperature is almost 5C in the month of
January, corresponding discharge is 100 m
3
/sec. This
runoff is almost constant up to mid of February
month. As the air temperature start to rise the
discharge also show increasing trend. In the month of
May, river runoff increases up to 2090 c m
3
/sec due to
increase in temperature upto 20-21C. As temperature
suddenly falls around 20
th
June, runoff shows
decreasing trend. Once again temperature start to rise
the corresponding discharge show increasing trend. In
monsoon season, when temperature is approximately
21C, and rainfall is around 62 mm the discharge is
going to increase and reaches up to 3159 m
3
/sec. This
relationship of temperature and discharge clearly
indicate the contribution from the melt is the major
component with minor contribution of rainfall and
runoff. However, the discharge increasing from 100
m
3
/sec in the month of January to 2090 m
3
/sec in the
month of May/June is only due to snow melt
contribution. As temperature decline from the month
of September, discharge also declines. This
relationship reveals that temperature is main
controlling factor for the variation in runoff of Beas
river at Manali.
Fig. 2: Relationship of temperature with discharge.
2006
0.0
1000.0
2000.0
3000.0
4000.0
5000.0
6000.0
7000.0
1
0
-
J
a
n
1
0
-
F
e
b
1
0
-
M
a
r
1
0
-
A
p
r
1
0
-
M
a
y
1
0
-
J
u
n
1
0
-
J
u
l
1
0
-
A
u
g
1
0
-
S
e
p
1
0
-
O
c
t
1
0
-
N
o
v
1
0
-
D
e
c
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Rainfall
Discharge
Temperature

Modeling of Streamflow of Beas River
The flow data for the year 2005-06 has been
considered for calibrating the model whereas the year
2006-07, 2007-08, 2008-09 have been considered for
validating the model. The efficiency of the model has
been computed based on the daily simulated and
observed flow values for four years. The values of the
model efficiencies are 82%, 81%, 83%, and 80%
respectively for the years 2005-06, 2006-07, 2007-08
and 2008-09.

The performance of the model in preserving the
runoff volume has been tested based on the criteria
computed as percentage difference in observed and
simulated runoff (D) during the entire years. Their
values computed for the year 2005-06 and 2008-09
are 6.52% and 5.16% respectively. The comparison of
the daily year is shown in Figure 3(a) and Figure 3
(b). The model has capability to separate out the
simulated and observed flow hydrographs for the all
contributions of rainfall, snow and glacier melt and
base flow from the simulated flows. From these
figures, it has been observed that the model has
simulated also the daily flows reasonably well
showing generally a good matching with the daily
observed flows. The trends and peaks of the daily
flow hydrographs for the entire period are very well
simulated by the model. Percentage difference in
volume, model efficiency and contributions of rain
snow and base flow computed by the model are
summarized in Table 1 for the two years. Most of the
high peaks observed in the daily flow hydrographs are
generly during the months of June and August. It
reflects the attribution to the glacier melt in the month
of June and due to rain also in the month of August.
Thus these months are considered as the peak melting
season in the western Himalayan region. However,
sometimes the flow resulting due to highly rainfall
also reflects the peaks in the daily flow hydrographs.
The simulation of baseflow indicates that the
baseflow contribution to the streamflow increases as
the season advances, being at maximum during the
peak season and then starts decreasing.

Table1. Difference in volume, model efficiency and
contributions of rain snow and base flow computed
by the model

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1 51 101 151 201 251 301 351
Observed Discharge
Estimated Discharge
Estimated Rain
Estimated Snow
Base Flow
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

i
n

C
u
m
e
c
s
Time (Daily Bases)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1 51 101 151 201 251 301 351
Observed Discharge
Estimated Discharge
Estimated rainfall
Estimated Snow
Base Flow
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

i
n

C
u
m
e
c
s
Time (Daily Bases)

Fig. (3a) : Observed and simulated daily streamflow for the Beas
River at Manali for the period 2005-2006.
Fig. (3b) : Observed and simulated daily streamflow
for the Beas River at Manali for the period 2008-
2009.

CONCLUSIONS
Maximum snowmelt contribution were found between
80% and 88% during July and August from
convection technique. On annual average snowmelt
contribution into Beas river at Manali was found,
48%, 48%, 50%, 50%, 52%, during the years 2002,
2003, 2006, 2007 and 2008 respectively.(rai et al
2011 ).

In the present study, an attempt was made through the
SNOWMOD model to calculate the contribution of
Snow and glacier melt in the annual flows of the Beas
river at Manali. Results for the contribution of the
snowmelt for the years 2005-06 2006-07, 2007-08
and 2008-09 are 54%, 55%, 54%, and 56% 56%
respectively. Results from above two techniques
validate the methodology for finding out the
snowmelt contribution.
However, this technique is used to study the
understand the variation of snowmelt contribution in
the river Beas. Further investigations are required for
more prcised quantification of snow and glacier
contribution in Beas river. The isotopic techniques
and modelling will be further used for more detailed
investigations.

Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to
Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB) for
providing the data used in this study. Authors are also
thankful to director NIH who gave the permission to
publish the paper in the workshop.

REFERENCES
Aizen, V., Aizen, E., Malack, J. and Martma, T.,
Isotopic measurements of precipitation on central
Asia laciers southestern Tibetan, northern
Himalayas (Central Tien shan), J.Geophys. Res.,
1996, 101, 9185-9196.
Fes A. De scally., Relative importance of snow
accumulation and monsson rainfall data for
estimating annual runoff, Jhelum basin, Pakistan.,
Hydrological Science-Journal des science
Hydrologiques., 39,3, June 1994.
Kumar Vijay, Singh Pratap, Singh Vivekanand., Snow
and glacier melt contribution in the Beas river at
Pandoh Dam, Himachal Pradesh, India.,
Hydrological Sciences-Journal-des Sciences
Hydrologiques, 52 (2) April 2007.
Nijampurkar, V.N., Rao, K., Sarin, M.and Gergan, J.,
Isotopic study on Dokrani Bamak glacier, Central
Himalayn: implications for climatic changes and
ice dynamics. J.Geol., 2002, 48,160.
Ramesh, R and Sarin, M.M., Stable isotopic study of
the ganga river system. J.Hydrol., 1992, 139,49-
62.
S.K.Jain, Pratap Singh, Naresh Kumar, Estimation of
snow and glacier-melt contribution to the Chenab
river, Western Himalaya., Mountain Research
and Development, Vol.17, No. 1, 1997, pp.-49-
56.
Sanjay K. Jain., Ajanta Goswami., A.K.Saraf., Role of
Elevation and Aspect in Snow Distribution in
Western Himalaya. Water Resour Manage
DoI10.1007/s11269-008-9265-5.
S.P.Rai, Bhism Kumar, and P., Singh., Estimation of
contribution of southwest monsoon rain to
Bhagirathi river near Gaumukh, western
Himalayas, using oxygen-18isotope., current
science, Vol. 97, no.2 2, 25 July2009.
Year Model Difference in
Volume
(%)
Model
Efficiency
(%)
Rain
(%)
Snow
(%)
Base
Flow
(%)
2005-06SNOWMOD 6.52 82 6 54 40
2006-07SNOWMOD 5.41 81 5.4 55 39.6
2007-08SNOWMOD 6.51 83 5.1 54 40.9
2008-09SNOWMOD 5.16 80 5 56 39

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE MEASUREMENT OF WETTING
SWCC

C. Malaya
Research Scholar, Civil Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Email:
m.chetia@iitg.ernet.in
S. Sreedeep
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Email:
srees@iitg.ernet.in

ABSTRACT: The unsaturated soil behavior is of prime importance in many of the geotechnical and
geoenvironmental applications. The characterization of the engineering behavior of unsaturated soil is entirely
dependent on the soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC), which is a graphical relationship between water
content (either gravimetric or volumetric) or degree of saturation and soil suction. For decades, experimental
studies are performed to investigate the relationship between the soil suction and volumetric water content
(SWCC). Most of the reported studies, discuss about drying SWCC due to the simplicity of its measurement. It
must be noted that wetting SWCC is equally important for situations like seepage through unsaturated soil. With
this in view, effort has been made in this paper to critically review the recent research outcomes in the
measurement of wetting SWCC. The advantages and limitations associated with different measurement
procedures are presented. This paper also describes a new approach for developing wetting SWCC with the help
of a column test set up. The methodology has been demonstrated by determining the wetting SWCC of a locally
available sandy soil.

INTRODUCTION
Soil suction (matric suction,
m
, or total suction, )
and its relationship with water content (or degree of
saturation), is termed as soil-water characteristic curve
(SWCC) and it plays a pivotal role in understanding
the behaviour of unsaturated soil (Fredlund &
Rahardjo 1993).

It can be noted that the drying and wetting SWCCs
are different for the same soil, which is attributed to
the phenomenon of hysteresis (Fredlund & Rahardjo
1993). It must also be noted that the use of wetting or
drying SWCC is case specific, depending on the
nature of study. Hysteresis information of soil helps to
select the appropriate SWCC equation to be used for
the SWCC parameter identification. Most of the
researchers have used pressure membrane apparatus
for obtaining wetting SWCC. However, this apparatus
is costly and it does not simulate the field condition.
Further, the boundary conditions cannot be controlled
fully. Gallage & Uchimura (2010) have used Tempe
cells for developing wetting SWCC of sand. But Yang
et al (2004) have found that Tempe cells are not
suitable for obtaining the wetting SWCC on coarse-
grained soils. This calls for the development of an
alternative technique that can be employed for
measuring wetting SWCC, which is cost-effective and
represents more realistic situation existing in the field.
The reported literature clearly highlights the use of
column testing devices used for measuring wetting
SWCC. Therefore, it is important to use column test
set up for developing wetting SWCC, which is more
realistic.

With this in view, the present study deals with a
review on similar type of column studies reported in
the literature. This paper also presents a column test
set up for studying the wetting behaviour of soil. The
test set up has been demonstrated by determining
drying and wetting SWCCs of a locally available
sandy soil. Details of the methodology adopted are
presented in this paper.

Theoretical Background
A typical drying (desorption) and wetting (adsorption)
SWCC is presented in Figure 1, which indicates a
continuous S shaped relationship which is
hysteretic, that is, for a given water content, higher
matric suction exists for drying than wetting process
(Birle et al. 2008).

Fig. 1 Idealized soil-water characteristics curves and
its details.

Following are some of the key points that are relevant
for SWCC:
1. The volumetric water content at saturation,
s
,
describes the water content at which the soil is


completely saturated. This depicts the initial state
of the drying path.
2. The air-entry value (AEV),
a
, is the suction at
which air first enters the largest pore present in
the soil sample during a drying process (Brooks
and Corey 1964).
3. Residual water content (
r
) is the minimum water
content below which there is no appreciable
change in with . Suction corresponding to
r
is
called residual soil suction,
r
(Yang et al. 2004).
4. The water-entry value,
w
, on the wetting SWCC,
is defined as the suction at which the water
content increase significantly during the wetting
process (Birle et al. 2008).

A REVIEW ON COLUMN TEST SET UP
Stauffer & Kinzelbach (2001) have used a column
device consisting of a 927 mm long vertical plexiglass
tube of diameter 53.5 mm for obtaining drying and
wetting SWCC of sand. Four tensiometers and two
gamma ray absorption probes were used to measure
suction and water content variations during wetting
and drying test performed in the column experiments.
For wetting experiment, the water content profile was
allowed to establish within seven days, controlled by
a constant head at the lower inlet of the column.

Yang et al. (2004) have determined drying and
wetting SWCCs for five sandy soils. The drying
SWCCs were obtained using Tempe pressure cell.
The wetting SWCCs could not be obtained using
Tempe pressure cell. The water was expected to flow
back into Tempe pressure cell, but this did not happen
because the ceramic disk offered a great resistance for
the water to flow into the soil sample. The wetting
SWCC was then obtained using a capillary rise open
tube (Fredlund & Rahardjo 1993). In this study, tubes
of 100 mm in diameter and 500 mm in length were
used to compact the soil in it. The equilibrium
conditions in capillary rise open tube were achieved
after allowing the soil samples to wet for 64 days. Soil
water content was determined by collecting soil
samples from various levels in the tube using oven
dried method. The height of a soil specimen above the
water table is assumed to be equal to the matric
suction head. These data were used to obtain wetting
SWCC of the soil.

Yang et al. (2004) have presented a column testing
device for infiltration study where tensiometer-
transducer system and time-domain reflectometry
(TDR) were placed at different depths to measure
suction and water content respectively. The size of the
soil column used in this study was 1 m high and 190
mm diameter. It can also be extended to 2 m or 3 m
high if necessary. The TDR was placed fully into the
soil column horizontally to measure the water content
more accurately. The SWRs during rain (wetting) and
after rain (drying) were obtained using the column
testing device.

Chapius et al. (2006) have developed a column test
set up to obtain SWR of coarse materials which have
rapidly decreasing water contents at suctions between
0 kPa and 10 kPa. The column was 1.83 m high and
103 mm in internal diameter. This column set up can
be used only for determining drying SWR. The
column has outlets (quick connects) to measure
suction values by placing tensiometers during the
drying test. Water content was determined at the end
of the drainage, by collecting soil samples after
removing the material progressively from the column,
starting from the top. The column test results were
found to be more reliable than Tempe cell. Chapius et
al. (2006) have mentioned that the duration of column
test to obtain drying SWR may be several weeks for a
column having a length of 1 m to 2 m. Columns that
exceed 2 m may take several months to reach
equilibrium.

Li et al. (2009) have developed a wetting front
advancing column testing device for the measurement
of unsaturated hydraulic conductivities of soil. A 120
mm diameter and 1000 mm high acrylic column cell
was used to hold the soil sample and suction/ water
content monitoring sensors at four different locations.
Four miniature-tip tensiometers and four ML2X theta-
probe soil moisture sensors were installed
horizontally along the column cell to monitor suction
and water content profiles during the infiltration and
capillary-rise process. The monitored water content
and suction values at each section was used to obtain
the unsaturated soil hydraulic conductivity of the soil.
The study indicates that a column length of 400-600
mm and only two water content and suction
measuring sections are sufficient for the wetting front
advancing method.

Lins et al. (2009) have obtained drying and wetting
SWCC of sandy soils from steady state and transient
state experiments under various flow rates performed
in a column testing device. A column of 780 mm high
and 305 mm in diameter was used to place a sandy
soil specimen of 540 mm high. Five tensiometers and
five 3-rod TDR sensors were installed horizontally
along the soil specimen for measuring suction and
water content respectively. A tensiometer and a TDR
sensor were installed at different depth. The AEV,
saturated water content and residual water content of
the sandy soil obtained from SWCC of steady state
column test were found to be similar with the
transient state column test for loose and dense sandy
specimens. This indicates that the dynamic flow does
not have significant influence on the SWCC of this
type of soil. SWCC parameters derived from sand
column testing device were compared with the SWCC
parameters obtained from modified pressure plate
apparatus. The comparison shows that independent of
the equipment and the test method, similar SWCC
parameters were obtained for each density.


Zaradava et al. (2009) have developed a column
testing device for performing drainage experiment to
establish suction-water content relationship for
defining the unsaturated soil hydraulic conductivity.
The column consists of a perspex cylinder with an
inner diameter of 260 mm and 1 m in height. Four
manometers were installed along the column length
for measuring soil suction during drainage
experiment. For water content determination, vertical
sand cores were removed using a copper tube
(Clayton & Siddique 1999).

It is noted that column set up was mostly used for
studying drainage properties of unsaturated soil. The
efficacy of the column device is not fully explored for
obtaining wetting SWCC. In this context it must be
noted that the wetting experiment performed in the
same soil sample at the end of the drying test would
represent better the hysteresis. Not many studies are
reported that deals with drying and wetting SWCC on
the same soil sample using column set up.

EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

Material Description
A locally available sandy soil was used in this study.
The soil is characterized for its specific gravity and
grain size distribution by following the guidelines
presented in the literature (relevant parts of IS 2720).
The details of the characterization are listed in Table
1.

Table 1 Physical properties of the sandy soil
considered in this study
Property Value
Particle size characteristics
Coarse sand (4.75-2mm) 0
Medium sand (2-0.425mm) 1
Fine sand (0.425-0.075mm) 93
Silt (0.075-0.002mm) 6
Clay (<0.002mm) 0

Equipment Description
A T5 tensiometer (UMS GmbH, Munich) and
ECH
2
O-TE volumetric water content sensor (Decagon
Inc., USA), was used to measure suction and
volumetric water content, respectively, of compacted
soil in the perspex mold. Sensors were secured in
place to ensure proper contact with the soil. The
tensiometer used in this study can measure matric
suction up to 100 kPa and characterized by very short
response time. The small dimension of the T5
tensiometer ensures minimal disturbance of the soil
sample during its insertion. The details of working
methodologies of these instruments are reported in the
literature (Malaya and Sreedeep 2010).

Description of the Column Testing Device
The experimental set up used in the present study, as
depicted in Figure 2, essentially consists of one
ECH
2
O-TE volumetric water content probe connected
to a data logger, one T5 tensiometer connected to a
data logger, one computer for collecting experimental
results, a flow regulator and a water reservoir, and the
main perspex column into which soil is compacted.
One more tensiometer was placed in the same soil
sample to check the internal consistency of suction
observations. In total the column is 250 mm high and
100 mm in diameter. The bottom part of the column
consists of a water reservoir. The water reservoir and
the soil sample is separated by a perforated plexiglass
plate. A filter paper was placed between the soil
specimen and the perforated plexiglass plate to avoid
flushing soil particles into the water reservoir.

Fig. 2 Set up of column testing device

One port along the column was used for the insertion
of the EC-TE probe. The T5s were placed vertically in
the soil sample. The EC-TE probe was installed
horizontally along the soil specimen and placed at the
same depth as the ceramic of the T5s. A flow
regulator was connected at the bottom of the column
to control the flow of water from the reservoir in to
column specimen while performing wetting test.

Drying and Wetting Water Retention Curves
Using Column Test Set up
The air-dried sandy soil was mixed with required
amount of distilled water and compacted into the
perspex column, by giving different number of blows
to achieve a certain water content (w) and dry unit
weight (
d
). The soil sample was then saturated by
ponding it with distilled water and further removing
the excess water on top. After saturating the soil
sample, EC-TE and T5 sensors were inserted into the
packed soil sample. The soil sample was then allowed
to air dry and the suction and volumetric water
content of the sample continuously recorded using the
respective data loggers. The data obtained from T5
and EC-TE measurements were then used to plot the
drying SWCC corresponding to the compaction state
of the soil. At the end of drying test performed, the
wetting process was simulated by operating the flow
valve to enter the water in to the soil sample gradually
To data logger
Soil
sample
T5
tensiomet
ECH2O-TE probe

Perspex
column
Water flow
regulator
To data logger
Water flow


at a very slow rate. The corresponding changes in
suction and water content were recorded by the
corresponding data loggers. When the specimen
reached zero matric suction in the wetting process, the
assembly was disconnected. The suction and
volumetric water content values recorded during
wetting process were used to obtain wetting SWCC.

The data obtained from the T5 and ECH
2
O-TE
measurements carried out in the column testing device
during drying and wetting process were used to plot
the SWCCs corresponding to a particular compaction
state for the sandy soil, as depicted in Figure 3. It can
be noted from the figure that the drying and wetting
SWCCs are different. The test results indicate that the
hysteresis effect is significant for the type of soil used
in this study. One of the advantages of this study over
those reported in the literature is that the volumetric
water contents are measured ones and not estimated.

10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25

m
(KPa)
Drying SWCC
Wetting SWCC

Fig. 3 Measured drying and wetting SWCCs

CONCLUSIONS
This study presents a comprehensive review of the
recent research outcomes in the measurement of
wetting SWCC. The study also presents the details of
a column test set up for determination of drying and
wetting soil-water characteristic curves (SWCCs).
The usefulness of the test set up has been
demonstrated by determining the drying and wetting
SWCCs of a locally available sandy soil. The main
advantage of the column set up used in this study is
that it simulates closely the wetting condition in the
field due to the movement of water.

REFERENCES
Birle, E., Heyer, D. and Vogt, N. (2008). Influence of
the initial water content and dry density on the soil-
water retention curve and the shrinkage behavior of
a compacted clay. Acta Geotechnica, Springer, 3,
191-200.
Brooks, R.H. and Corey, A.T. (1964). Hydraulic
properties of porous media. Hydrology paper no. 3,
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Colorado State Univ.,
Fort Collins, Colorado.
Chapius, R.P., Masse, I., Madinier, B. and Aubertin,
M. (2006). A drainage column test for determining
unsaturated properties of coarse materials.
Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, 30(2), Page
count: 7.
Clayton, C.R.I. and Siddique, A. (1999). Tube
sampling disturbance-forgotten truths and new
prospectives. Proceedings of institute of civil
engineering, 137, pp. 127- 135.
Decagon Devices (2006). Operators manual version
2 ECH
2
OTE/ECTM water content, ec and
temperature sensor manual, U.S.A.
Fredlund, D.G. and Rahardjo, H. (1993). Soil
mechanics for unsaturated soils. John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New York.
Gallage, C.P.K. and Uchimura, T. (2010). Effects of
dry density and grain size distribution on soil-water
characteristic curves of sandy soils. Soils and
Foundations, JGS, 50(1), 161-172.
IS: 2720: Part III: Sec 2: 1980 Indian Standard on
Test for Soils, Part III Determination of Specific
Gravity-Sec 2 : Fine, Medium and Coarse Grained
Soils, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
IS: 2720: Part 4: 1985 Indian Standard Methods of
Test for Soils, Part 4 Grain Size Analysis, Bureau
of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Li, J., Yang, Q., Li, P., and Yang, Q. (2009).
Experimental research on soil-water characteristic
curve of remolded residual soils. Electronic
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Page count:
12.
Lins, Y., Schanz, T. and Fredlund, D.G. (2009).
Modified pressure plate apparatus and column
testing device for measuring SWCC of sand.
Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, 32(5), 1-15.
Malaya, C. and Sreedeep, S. (2010). A study on the
influence of measuring procedures on suction-
water content relationship of a sandy soil. Journal
of Testing and Evaluation, ASTM, 38(6), Page
count: 9.
Stauffer, F. and Kinzelbach, W. (2001). Cyclic
hysteretic flow in porous medium column: model,
experiment and simulations. Journal of Hydrology,
Science Direct, 240, 264-275.
Yang, H., Rahardjo, H. and Fredlund, D.G. (2004).
Factors affecting drying and wetting soil-water
characteristic curves of sandy soils. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 41(5), 908-920.
Zaradava, K., Powrie, W. and White, J. (2009). The
determination of the moisture retention
characteristics of waste materials using vertical
drainage experiments. 3
rd
international workshop
on hydro-physico-mechanics of landfills,
Braunschweig, Germany, Page count: 12.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


CHANNEL AND CORED UNIT FOR ROOFING\FLOORING FOR LOW
COST HOUSING: A REVEIW

Harshit Jain
UG Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi- 221005
Email Id: hjair4617@gmail.com
Rajesh Kumar
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-
221005
S. B Dwivedi
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-
221005

ABSTRACT: In Developing countries like India infrastructure plays a very important role in development of
countries. There is need of adequate strategy for development of low cost Infrastructure techniques which are
sustainable as well as economic for satisfying future needs. This paper presents comparative study of precast
channel, cored unit for roofing/flooring for low cost housing. Channel Unit is a single span RCC unit, throng
shaped in section. Cored unit is also single span RCC unit. The cored units have the advantage of lighter dead
load, better insulation due to hollow core and saving in material & shuttering cost. Cost analysis is studies and it
is found that Channel unit cost less as comparison to cored unit. Channel Unit requires less amount of concrete
in comparison to Cored Unit which ensures less emission of Carbon dioxide in environment.

INTRODUCTION
Social housing is defined as housing for low income
person that is provided by housing institutions and
that excludes immediate individual ownership. It is
not an option for the very poor, but its very nature and
accessing accommodation for housing institution will
have to earn a secure income, formally or informally
to be able to afford the rental or other periodic
payment of accommodation to be (South African
Revised Draft 2003: 4).

To most individuals, housing represents the largest
single investment item of a lifetime. This is especially
true as family income increases and housing viewed
less as a basic consumption and more as a key to a
secure future. The majority of families in developing
countries like India, China, Pakistan, Malaysia etc., do
not have adequate housing and infrastructure facility.
Housing provision for all in any country is very
crucial in order to ensure social- economic stability
and to promote national development

In India, the policy of urban development and housing
has come a long way long from 1950s. The lack of
housing and basic services was very much evident in
1950s due immigration of large number of people
from Pakistan to Indian cities (National Urban
Housing and Urban Habitat Policy, 2007). Every
five year plan aims at to reduce the gap between
demand and supply of infrastructural services to low
income citizens of country. There is a great need to
develop economic and sustainable strategy to cope
with this problem of developing nations like India,
China, Pakistan, Malaysia etc., so that low income
families or poor families can have strong and
adequate housing facility. Beside institutional as well
as financial requirement, this issue also need modern
and improved housing techniques for various
components of building like flooring, roofing,
building materials so that sustainable and economic
solution can be provided to this problem. The need to
examine the cause of the problems associated with the
implementation of low or medium cost housing to
ensure the success of future housing policy in India.
This paper presents two roofing/flooring units for low
cost housing in terms of material consumption, cost,
carbon dioxide, structural specification need to be
provided in case of pre-cast channel and cored unit

PRECAST CHANNEL UNIT

Channel Units have been used in a number of
buildings all over the country. It is a full span precast
RCC unit, trough shaped in section (Fig. 1). It can be
used for floors and roofs supported on suitable
structures like brick/stone walls and RCC beams. It
does not require any intermediate temporary props or
supports, since the unit is strong enough to support the
load, for which it is designed. The outer sides of the
unit are corrugated and are grooved at the ends to
provide shear key action between adjacent units.

Nominal width of the unit is varies from 300 mm to
600 mm, its depth from 130 mm to 200 mm and a
minimum flange thickness of 30 mm. The length of
the unit may be adjusted to suit the span to be
covered, but the maximum length is restricted to 4.2
m from stiffness considerations (Clause 9.1.1, IS:
4326, 1993). Horizontal corrugations are provided on
the two longitudinal faces of the units so that the
structural roof/ floor acts monolithic after concrete
grouted in the joints between the units attains
strength.


Channel Unit. Figure 1(IS: 14201:1994)

PRECAST CORED UNIT
Cored Units developed by Central Building Research
Institute, Rooked have been used in a number of
buildings all over the country. The cored unit is full
span self-supporting precast RCC structural
component. It is possible to have a one-way slab over
walls/ beams with this system. As concrete near the
neutral axis does not contribute to its structural
strength, it is removed to get a lighter unit. The cored
units have the advantage of lighter dead load, better
insulation due to hollow core and saving in material
and shuttering cost.

It is a precast RCC structural component having circu-
lar hollow cores throughout its length (Fig 2). The
unit is structurally complete and does not require any
temporary support or propping during construction. It
provides a flush ceiling.

The nominal width of the unit is varies from 300 mm
to 600 mm with the actual as 295 mm and 595 mm
respectively. Though the depth (thickness) of the unit
will depend upon the span and loading conditions, a
depth of 130 mm can be taken for normal situations.
The weight of such a unit will be 46 kg per running
metre. These units can be easily handled manually. If
mechanical handling facilities are available, units
having nominal widths of 600 mm can also be used.
The minimum flange/ web thickness of the unit is
kept as 20 mm

CASTING AND CURING
The mould of channel and cored unit for
roofing/flooring can be made from well-seasoned
wood or steel, but for long life run steel should be
made for mould. Channel unit mould consists of two
parts outer frame and inner through frame. The mould
for cored unit consists of two longitudinal sections,
two end pieces and two galvanised iron pipes. The
inner side of the outer frame of both the mould must
be properly oiled and placed on levelled platform.

Cored Unit Figure 2 (IS 10297: 1982)

In case of Channel unit the trough frame is oiled and
placed in outer frame and concrete is levelled by
moving the mould to and fro manually or by machine.
U clamps are used for fixing the position of trough
frame with outer frame. Web portion is filled with M
20 grade of concrete and after one hour of casting U
clamps are removed. After 3 hour, outer frame is also
removed and the unit is left undisturbed for next 48
hours.

In Cored unit, GI pipes are introduced and concrete is
filled, vibrated and compacted. Pipes should be
rotated along their longitudinal axis so as to break the
bond between pipes and concrete. After one to two
hour, pipes are removed rapidly by rotating them
along their axis. The freshly cast units are kept
covered with wet gunny bags at the casting yard for
48 hours and afterwards the units are slightly pushed
to break bond with floor, lifted carefully from ends
and transported to the curing yard manually or in
trolley in their natural position, i.e. with main
reinforcement at the bottom.

ASSEMBLY OF FLOOR/ROOF
The top surface of wall or beam supports, as the case
may be, is levelled. The units are lifted one by one
manually or with the help of chain pulley block or
mechanically with a hoist and placed side by side
across the span to be covered. The units are then
aligned and levelled properly. Negative reinforcement
in the case of continuous floor/roof slab is placed in
position at support. The in-situ joint concrete is then
cured for 14 days by sprinkling water. In case of floor,
any flooring treatment such as I.P.S. or mosaic tiles or
in-situ mosaic may be laid. The flooring shall be laid
in bays with the bay lines in the direction of units
coinciding with some joints between units.


STRUCTURAL DESIGN
The channel units may be designed by limit state
method as per IS 456-2000. The units may be
designed either simply supported or continuous
depending on the end conditions. The channel units
are to be designed for two distinct stages of loading as
in case two way slab.

Stage I Loading (Just after Placing of In-situ
Concrete) (As per IS 456:2000)
At the time of laying the units, the load comprises of
following loading conditions:
self-weight of unit,
In-situ concrete in
the joint between the units and also the
incidental live load.

At this stage of loading, it is assumed that the in-situ
joint concrete has not attained any strength to ensure
monolithcity and continuity over the spans. Hence, at
this stage of loading, the following values of bending
moment and shear force should be taken:

Loading Conditions
B.M. in the middle of
interior span
= 1.5(w
c
/8 + w
i
/12 + w
d

/16) l
2

B.M. in the middle of
end span
= 1.5(w
c
/8 + w
i
/10 + w
d

/12) l
2

B.M. at support next to
end support
= 1.5(w
c
/8 + w
i
/10 + w
d

/12) l
2

B.M. at support next to
end support
= 1.5(w
i
/9 + w
d

/10) l
2

B.M. at any other interior
support
= 1.5(w
i
/9 + w
d

/12) l
2

S.F = 1.5(0.5 w
c
+ 0.5 w
i
+
0.6 w
d
) l

where,

w
d
= Dead load per unit length due to
flooring/roofing treatment etc. for nominal
width of channel unit (uniformly
distributed).

w
i
= Super-imposed live load per unit length for
nominal width of one channel unit (uniformly
distributed)

MATERIAL CONSUMPTION
Cement mixed with coarse and fine aggregate in
appropriate ratio in order to have appropriate mix
design characteristics which must be not leaner than
M 20 grade of concrete is used for its casting.
Channel unit need less amount of concrete as
compared to cored unit (Fig. 3). Amount of
reinforcement used in channel and cored unit is
depends upon loading condition, end conditions and
design requirement.

EMBODIED CARBON DIOXIDE
According to EPA, between 900 and 1100 kg (1984
and 2425 lbs.) of CO2 is emitted for every 1000 kg of
Portland cement produced in the U.S (Environmental
Protection Agency, 2005). Amount of carbon dioxide
released depends on the fuel type, raw ingredients
used and the energy efficiency of the cement plant
(NRMCA, June 2008). About 50% of CO
2
is released
as a result of calcination of raw material and
remaining part of it is as a result of burning of fossil
fuels in kiln to maintain the required temperature in
the kiln for clinker production. However concrete
produces very less amount of carbon dioxide which is
primarily a function of cement content in concrete
According to Gajda Johan, 2001, about 100 to 300 kg
of carbon dioxide is embodied for every one cubic
meter of concrete (2400 kg), depending upon mix
design.

The production of cement requires large amount of
fuel which releases large amount of carbon dioxide
into atmosphere. From production to casting to supply
at construction site require large amount of fossil
fuels. The burning of fossil fuels release large amount
of carbon dioxide into environment. Cored unit has
more embodied carbon dioxide than channel unit (Fig
2, Fig. 3).

Figure 4


Figure 5
COST ANALYSIS

Cost of providing and layering of roof/floor slab using
precast channel and cored unit with deck concrete
with nominal reinforcement as per design and
requirement with cement concrete of grade not leaner
than M 20 grade of concrete including casting,
staking, curing, erecting and placing the units in
position, cost of

mould, mould oil, casting platform, props,
scaffolding, centring and shuttering for haunches,
deck concrete etc. Both the techniques are economic
as compared to
cast in-situ roof/floor slab. The time taken to complete
the roofing/flooring using precast units is very less as

compared to cast in-situ reinforced cement concrete
roofing slab.

THE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

The system consists of precast channel units as
explained earlier. The depth of the unit in this case
will be 130 mm while the width will be 300 mm or
600 mm. A 35-40 mm thick layer of deck concrete
with a nominal reinforcement of 6 mm diameter bars
150 mm c/c at both ways is provided above the units.
This system is recommended for areas where the
rainfall is high or for areas prone to high seismicity.

SEISMIC RESISTANCE MEASURES (AS PER
IS 4326: 1993-SECOND REVISION)

All floors and roofs to be constructed with small
precast components shall be strengthened as specified
for various categories of buildings in following
Table2 and Table 3. The various specification for
strengthening measures are given in details in IS
4326: 1993.

CONCLUSION
Channel and cored Units for roofing/flooring can be
one of possible answer for improved roofing/flooring
techniques which can be used for developing low cosh
housing can be used by Social housing Institutions as
well as Government for improving better
infrastructural solutions to low income families.
Channel unit require very less amount of concrete as
compared to conventional slab. It also requires very
Building
Categories for
Earthquake
Resisting Features
(Clause 7.1.1)
No. of
Storeys
Strengthening to be
provided in Floor/
Roof with Channel
Units
B 1 to 3 a
4 a, c
C 1 & 2 a, b
3 & 4 a, b, c
D 1 to 4 a, b, c
E 1 to 3 a, b, c
Where
a = Tie beam as per i),
b = Reinforcing bars of channel unit and tied to tie
beam
reinforcement as per ii)
c = Reinforced deck concrete as per iii)
Table 2: Strengthening Measures for Floors/ Roofs
with Precast
Channel and Cored Unit (IS: 4326:1993)
Span

Building
Category
B
Building
Category
C
Building
Category
D
Building
Category
E
in m Nos. Dia
mm
Nos. Dia
mm
Nos. Dia
m
m
Nos. Dia
mm
5 or
less
2 8 2 8 2 8 2 10

NOTES
1. Span of wall will be
distance between centre lines of its cross walls or
buttresses.
2. The number and
diameter of bars given above pertain to high strength
deformed bars.
3. Width of RC band is
assumed same as the thickness of the wall. Wall
thickness shall be 200 mm minimum. A clear cover of 20
mm from face of wall will be maintained.
4. The vertical thickness
of RC band be kept 75 mm minimum, where two
longitudinal bars are specified, one on each face.
5. Concrete mix shall be
of grade M20 of IS 456:2000 or 1:1.5:3 by volume. (in
accordance with IS 456:2000)
6. The longitudinal steel
bars shall be held in position by steel links or stirrups 6
mm dia spaced at 150 mm apart.

Table 3: Recommended Longitudinal Steel in Reinforced
Concrete Bands
(IS: 4326:1993)


less amount of time for completion of work as the
units are precast. Channel and cored units cost of
lying their assembly is almost same and economic
than slab. Channel and cored require less amount of
concrete; hence release very less amount of carbon
dioxide content. Channel and cored units can also be
used in high seismic zones after some strengthening
measures.

REFERENCE
AP 42- Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission
Factors, Volume 1: Stationary Point and Area
Sources, Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC, 2005.
Building Research Note No. 52, Precast channel Unit
for floor/roof precast unit, CSIR-Central
Building Research Institute, 2010.
Concrete CO
2
Fact Sheet, NRMCA Publication
Number 2PCO2, June 2008.
Gajda and John(2001), Energy use of Single-Family
Houses With Various Exterior Walls, CD026,
Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 49
pages
Housing and Urban Policy in India, Ministry of Urban
Housing and Poverty Avieation, Government of
India, New Delhi, 2007
IS: 456-2000, Plain and Reinforced Concrete Code of
Practice (Fourth edition), Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi.
IS: 14201:1994, Precast Reinforced Concrete
Channel Units for Construction of Floors and
Roofs Specification, Bureau of Indian
Standard, New Delhi.
IS: 14215:1994, Design and Construction of Floors
and Roofs with Precast Reinforced Concrete
Channel Units- Code of Practice, Bureau of
Indian Standard New Delhi.
IS 10297: 1982, Code of Practice For Design and
Construction of Floors and Roofs Using Precast
Reinforced Pre-stressed Concrete Ribbed or
Cored Slab Units, Bureau of Indian Standard,
New Delhi.
IS: 4326:1993,Eartquake Resistant Design and
Construction of Building, Bureau of Indian
Standard, New Delhi, Clause 9.2.1.
South African Draft. South African Revised Draft
2003: 4

.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7
A STUDY ON DUCTILITY OF CONCRETE AND MORTAR WITH
THE ADDITION OF RUBBER POWDER

C. B. K. Rao
Professor, Deptt. of Civil Engg., National Institute of Technology, Warangal
R. Bhaskar
Graduate students, Deptt. of Civil Egng., National Institute of Technology, Warangal
V. Rajendra Prasad
Graduate students, Deptt. of Civil Engg., National Institute of Technology, Warangal

ABSTRACT: Concrete is a brittle material. Degree of brittleness increases with strength. Inclusion of fibre as
reinforcement has been found to be a good solution to improve ductility but it has its limitations. Now the
researchers have focused attention to modify the concrete at the matrix level. Thus engineered cement
composites or ductile concrete has been a subject of interest. Though there is breakthrough in the production of
ultra high strength ductile cement composite concrete, the state of art is still a patented one. Interest aroused all
over in engineered cement composites with a hope to improve ductility of concrete. In this work an attempt has
been made to modify the Portland cement adding rubber powder. Tests are conducted using servo UTM under
strain rate control with facility to record complete post peak behaviour. Rubber powder of size 600 m in 5%,
15% and 25% of weight of cement were used. Compressive strength, tensile strength and strain energy
absorption of the concrete specimens and cement mortar specimens using cement modified with rubber powder
(CMRP) were studied. Mechanical properties such as compressive strength, tensile strength of CMRP concrete
decreased when compared with normal concrete and but post peak energy absorption for CMRP concrete and
mortar specimens increased.

INTRODUCTION
Concrete is the largest man made material in the
world. Art of making is simple though science is
illusive to a common man and engineer alike.
Necessity of making high strength concrete increased
with the challenge of construction of high raise
structures. Art and Science of making high strength
concrete has become a reality with constant research
by cement chemistry scientists and engineers. It is
achieved by dense packing with finer secondary
hydration materials viz., mineral admixtures and low
water binder ratio. Cement concrete by nature is a
brittle material and the brittleness increases with
increase in strength. Failure of concrete is explosive
kind for very high strength concrete. Research to
improve ductility has become paramount interest.
Ductility may be defined in several ways. It may be
viewed broadly as structural ductility and material
ductility. Initially ductility problem is addressed by
confining concrete with lateral ties/ stirrups
(1)
.
However, there are practical issues of detailing and
limitation to volume of confining reinforcement.
Hence, it is desirable to improve deformability and
strength of concrete.
In the matter of mechanical behaviour of concrete,
the bond between aggregate and the matrix is a
matter of general interest. Hsu
(2)
et al observed
cracking of plain concrete in compression directly
with microscopic and x-ray techniques. Even prior to
loading, cracks were observed at the aggregate matrix
interface. Beyond 30 percent of ultimate strength, the
cracks began to grow under increasing load and after
50 percent of ultimate load, the bond cracks began to
extend through matrix and at about 75 percent of
ultimate, the matrix cracks began to form a much
more extensive net work. In the mechanics of micro-
cracking, the first stage can be addressed by
improving bond and the second stage is to be
addressed by bridging the cracks with reinforcement.
Extensive research on FRC has taken place. Addition
of fibers to concrete has given improvement to
strength as well as deformable capacity of concrete.
Abundant literature is available on all the above
aspects. Though the early works have used long
fibers, observation under SEM shows that arrest of
cracking has to be addressed at nano level. Current
age has entered the stage of engineered cementitious
composites.
Replacement of aggregate with light weight aggregate
and low modulus material has been experimented to
produce light weight concrete for low strength
structural applications. Utilization of rubber waste is
one such area
(3)
. Waste rubber was shredded into
pieces and used as aggregate. The rubber powder was
used in mortar in some of the investigations. Rubber
treated with alkaline material such as NaoH, NaCl
was studied
(4)
. Decrease in strength of concrete and
mortar with rubber was reported but increase in
deformability of concrete was noticed
(5)
. In the
present investigation, the authors used rubber powder
of 600 microns and down to study the deformability
of cement mortar and concrete with Cement Modified
with Rubber Powder (CMRP)
(6),(7)
.

SIGNIFICANCE OF WORK
One of the major environmental challenges facing
municipalities around the world is disposal of worn
out automobile tyres. Utilization of waste rubber will
address the problem to some extent. Improvement in
engineering properties of concrete may be reaped
simultaneously.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
It is proposed to add rubber powder finer than 600
microns to cement and study the mechanical
properties, energy absorption of cement mortar and
concrete.

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
Experimental programme consists of casting of
cement mortar and concrete cylinders of size 63 mm
dia and 126 mm height. Two mixes 1:3 and 1:1.5 are
used for cement mortar and two mixes 1:1.5:3 and
1:0.75:1.5 are used for cement concrete. Ordinary
Portland cement 53 grade confirming to IS 12269
1987 obtained in single consignment is used. Specific
gravity standard consistency, initial setting time and
final setting time are 3.11, 30 percent, 35 min. and
215 min respectively. Standard Ennore sand grades I,
II and III are mixed in three equal parts thoroughly
and used as fine aggregate. Coarse aggregate is
obtained from local quarry in a single consignment.
Aggregate passing through 10 mm sieve and retained
on 4.75 mm sieve is taken as coarse aggregate
specific gravity is 2.76. Rubber powder is made from
used tires by crushing and grinding under normal
temperature. It is finely ground tyre rubber from
which fabric and steel belt have been removed.
Rubber powder is added at 5%, 15% and 25% of
cement and thoroughly mixed with cement (CMRP).
Super plasticizer Conplast SP 337 is used for
workability while preparing cement mortar and
concrete cylinders.

There are 48 mixes for workability, 24 specimens for
compressive strength and 24 specimens for tensile
strength. Results are given in Table1 and 2 of the
experimental work.

WORKABILITY TEST
Cement concrete and mortar mixes are prepared as
per proposed proportions and the flow table test is
conducted on the standard flow table used for mortar
by giving 15 blows in 15 seconds. Average flow is
determined in percentage. The results are given in
table 1. It can be noticed from the results that
addition of rubber powder decreased the percentage
flow. There is no specific pattern in the change of
percentage flow. The mix became stiff when the
rubber powder of 15 percent is added. Water added to
the mix is based on the cement quantity (i.e based on
water cement ratio) only. Rubber powder is not a
cementitious material. The rubber powder does not
participate in hydration of cement. Amount of rubber
powder may be treated as fines in aggregate but in
the present contest, authors viewed it as non
pozzalanic admixture. Chemical admixture SP337 is
used for improving workability.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, TENSILE
STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY
Universal testing machine with servo controlled
actuator of 1000 kN capacity and stroke length of
80 mm supplied by BIS, Bangalore is used to conduct
compressive strength of cylinders for mortar and
concrete. The machine can be programmed to operate
at stress rate control or strain rate control. The test
has been conducted at the strain rate control of 0.002
mm per second. Force and displacements are
continuously recorded at a time interval of 0.1
second. There are 4000 to 6000 data points for the
specimens. The testing was continued till complete
failure. Load vs deflection curves are drawn and are
shown in fig. 1. An observation of the load
deformation curves shows that as load increased
deformation increased upto peak load and
deformation continued to increase but load decreased.
Deformation of specimen with rubber powder is more
than that in plain specimen. For each specimen total
area under the load deformation curve and area after
peak load are computed. Cylinders are tested for split
tensile strength. Results of both concrete and mortar
specimens are presented in table 2.
An examination of the results shows that compressive
strength split tensile strength decreased with addition
of rubber powder. For small dosage of 5 percent of
rubber powder the average decrease is around 20
percent of strength and for a dosage of 25 percent of
rubber powder the decrease in strength is more than
50 percent. Similar behaviour is noticed in split
tensile strength of concrete. Compressive strength and
split tensile strength decreased with addition of
rubber powder in cement mortar.
Earlier researches noted improvement in
deformability of concrete with the addition of rubber.
To examine the deformation capacity, total area and
area after peak, under load deformation diagram for
concrete specimens and mortar specimens are
computed and are given in table 2. An examination of
the results shows that for concrete 1:1.5:3 water
cement ratio 0.4 and 0.5, total area under the curve
increased but for the concrete 1:1.5:3 water cement
ration 0.6 total area decreased with increase in rubber
powder. However, for all the specimens with addition
of rubber load deformation response in the
descending portion is more than the ascending portion
for specimens with addition of rubber powder.
Similar exercise for mortar specimens shows that
deformation has not increased with addition of rubber
powder.
Obviously, low strength concrete deforms more than
high strength concrete. To examine whether there is
any beneficial effect due to addition of rubber powder
to concrete, results of concrete 1:1.5: 3 w/c ratio 0.5
of plain specimens whose compressive strength is
17.85 N / sqmm which is nearer to compressive
strength of concrete 1:1.5:3 w/c ratio 0.4 with 15%
rubber (whose compressive strength is 16.86
N/sqmm) is compared. Area under load- deformation
curve after peak load is greater for the specimens
with rubber powder (CMRP) than that without rubber
powder. It shows that deformable capacity of
concrete increases in the addition of rubber powder.
It is the view point that rubber powder may bridge
the crack at micro level. Study under SEM may
through some more light on the micro level
mechanisms of crack arrest.

CONCLUSIONS
Cement concrete and mortar mixes become stiff with
the addition of rubber powder. Compressive and split
tensile strength decreases with the addition of rubber
powder. Load deformation response shows that the
deformation capacity of cement concrete specimen
increased with the addition of rubber powder.

REFERENCES
(1) S.R, Iyyengar KT, P. Desai, Nagireddy, K, (1970)
Stress strain characteristics of concrete confined
in steel binders Magazine of Concrete Research
Vol.22, No.22, 173-184,
(2) Hsu, T.T.C., (1963), Microcracking of Plain
Concrete and the Shape of the Stress-Strain
Curve, Journal ACI, Vol. 60, 209-223.
(3) Z Li, F Li, J S L LI, (1998), Properities of
concrete incorporating rubber tyre particles
MCR,50, 297-304
(4) Aziz Abraham, Wisam Amer Aules, Salwa Hadi
Ahamad, (2010), Cement mortar
properitiescontain crumb Rubbertreated with
Alkaline material,. Modern Applied Science,
vol.4, n0.12.
(5) Morteza Khorrami, A Vafai, Ahmed A K, C S
Desai, M H M Ardakani, (2010), Experimental
Investigation on Mechanical Characteristics and
Environmental Effects on Rubber Concrete ,
International Journal of Concrete Structures and
materials, Vol.4, no.1,17-23.
(6) Bhaskar R, (2011), A study on Deformability of
Concrete with the addition of rubber powder,
Dissertation 091001, Structures Division, Dept.
of Civil Engineering, NITW.
(7) Rajendra Prasad V, (2011) A study on
Deformability of cement mortar with the
addition of rubber powder, Dissertation 091016,
Structures Division, Dept. of Civil Engineering,
NITW.

Table 1: Workability of Concrete and Mortar
% Rubber
powder
average flow (%)
Concrete 1:1.5:3 with w/c ratio Concrete 1:0.75:1.5 with w/c ratio
0.40 0.50 0.60 0.30 0.35 0.40
0% 3.5 24.75 54.25 14.5 26.5 54
5% 2.25 9.75 32.25 20 25.5 51.25
15% 2.5 3.75 14.75 5.75 3 21.5
25% 3.75 2 8.5 3.75 4.75 5.75
Mortar 1:3 with w/c ratio Mortar 1:1.5 with w/c ratio
0.40 0.50 0.60 0.30 0.35 0.40
0% 6.5 23 58.5 32 56 95
5% 6.0 20 42.5 20 32.5 76.25
15% 5.75 9.75 21.75 9 6.75 27.5
25% 1.75 4.25 14 1.75 7.5 8

Table 2: Strength and ductility of concrete and mortar

%
Rubber
Powder
Tensile
Strength
(N/sqmm)
Comp.
Strength
(N/sqmm)
Area under load
vs deformation
curve (kN-mm)
Tensile
Strength
(N/sqmm)
Comp.
Strength
(N/sqmm)
Area under load
vs deformation
curve (kN-mm)
Total after
peak
load
Total after
peak
load
C 1:1.5:3, W/C= 0.40 M 1:3, W/C= 0.4
0% 4.01 26.64 59.32 37.24 4.41 21.96 110.31 60.07
5% 3.61 20.75 77.51 41.24 3.21 15.33 84.55 32.61
15% 2.21 16.86 68.17 44.99 2.81 11.75 78.04 53.36
25% 2.20 10.39 52.02 35.04 2.21 10.29 52.78 20.11
C 1:1.5:3, W/C= 0.50 M 1:3, W/C= 0.5
0% 3.61 17.85 73.19 29.72 3.61 21.48 126.8 96.17
5% 3.21 12.31 58.05 43.27 3.01 18.49 71.62 41.28
15% 2.81 9.69 102.82 78.41 2.81 8.38 69.3 49.52
25% 2.21 9.35 76.18 61.47 2.41 7.56 54.82 30.83
C 1:1.5:3, W/C= 0.60 M 1:3, W/C= 0.6
0% 3.41 14.34 54.40 38.07 3.21 19.79 63.34 24.49
5% 2.61 10.08 44.90 26.39 2.81 13.27 35.69 16.29
15% 2.01 7.41 34.74 20.62 2.21 8.16 47.05 28.54
25% 2.0 6.95 45.37 29.44 2.01 6.5 32.08 18.41



Fig. 1 load vs Deformation curves for CMRP mortar and concrete specimens

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

EFFECTS OF AGGRESSIVE CHLORIDE ENVIRONMENT ON HIGH
PERFORMANCE STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE

Dhirendra Singhal
Coordinator, Department of Civil Engineering, GZS College of Engineering and Technology, Bathinda, 151 001
Singhald62@rediffmail.com

Bal Krishan
Associate Professor ,Department of Civil Engineering, GZS College of Engineering and Technology, Bathinda, 151001
bkbirdi1969@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT: Conventional concrete has very porous transition zone and numerous inherent micro-cracks. This
leads to its susceptibility when exposed to aggressive environment and further limits its ductility and tensile
strength. However, attempts made in the past have shown that the inclusion of silica fumes improves the transition
zone and the resultant concrete is less permeable. Further, the addition of steel fibres enhances the ductility and
tensile strength of concrete significantly. These additions lead to high performance steel fibre reinforced concrete
provided that the produced concrete also has significant improvement in workability. Improved workability can be
obtained by adding mineral and chemical admixtures. Therefore, it is required urgently to study the durability of
high performance steel fibre reinforced concrete with these inclusions.
For this purpose, high performance steel fibre reinforced concrete of M35 grade was exposed to aggressive chloride
solutions of sodium chloride containing chloride solutions 19 and 38 g/litre for the periods of 7 days, 1 month, 3
months and 9 months. In order to expedite the process of deterioration, cubes of 100mm size were submerged to half
of their depth. M35 grade of concrete was intentionally chosen as it had high cement content and high dose of super-
plasticizer.
Compressive strength and change in weights were measured at different ages which indicate that the produced high
performance steel fibre reinforced concrete was durable too.

INTRODUCTION
In this study, it was attempted to check the durability of
high performance steel fibre reinforced concrete
(HPSFRC) and as specified above that the same was
part of another study on design and analysis of high
performance steel fibre reinforced concrete. Since
HPSFRC included fly-ash, fibre and silica fumes, it is
necessary to discuss the differences which can occur
with these constituents. The permeability had been
found to decrease as much as 90% with the inclusions of
silica fumes and fibres (Ganesan and Saker 2005, Singh
et al 2002)

Cubes were exposed to aggressive chloride solutions.
Aggressive chloride solution chosen was of sodium
chloride (NaCl). NaCl was chosen as its concentration is
the maximum in sea-water. The solution of NaCl had
chloride salt concentration of 19g/litre and 38g/litre,
respectively. The chloride salt concentration was taken
based on the fact that 19g/litre is average sea-water salt
concentration (Singhal 1993). In order to observe
maximum damage and expedite the deterioration
process, solutions of double the average sea-water salt
concentration was also used. Further, the cubes were
submerged for half the depth so that oxygen is available
for the corrosion of steel fibres (Biczok 1985). The level
of the solutions was kept constant throughout the curing
period so as to maintain salt concentrations.
If concrete deteriorates in aggressive solutions, the
impact of deterioration can be best observed by the
weight of cube and loss in strength as exposure to
aggressive solutions leads to leaching and formation of
expansive salts known as Freidels salt. Hydrated
cement has calcium hydroxide which dissolves in
aggressive solutions and thus leaches out. This leaching
leaves porous concrete and thus weight reduction takes
place. If some expansive salt like Freidels salt forms,
the expansion leads to internal cracking in concrete.
This results in strength loss. Therefore, observations
were made on compressive strength and weight of cubes
after the ages of 7 days, 28 days, 3 months and 9
months.

Experimental Programme
Portland pozzolana cement confirming to IS: 1489-
1991, fine and coarse aggregates confirming to IS: 383-
1970 were used. Steel fibres corrugated in shape with
aspect ratio of 67 and length 30 mm were used. Cubes
of 100 mm in size were cast of M35 HPSFRC. The
details of mix proportions used are shown in Table 1
(Bal Krishan 2011). The cement content 450Kg/m
3

included 7.5% fly-ash and 12.5% silica fume. Super-
plasticizer used was viscocrete 10H of Sikka India
Private Limited. In order to attain 100mm slump with
1% fibre content the dosage of super-plasticizer was
found to be 5%. The cubes were cast of both the

concretes i.e. without fibres and with fibres. Since the
structural properties of SFRC were significantly
affected with the shapes of fibres, plain and corrugated
fibres were used. The fibre content 1% (by weight of
concrete) was found optimum as such in HPSFRC, 1%
fibre content was maintained. Optimum dosages of
super plasticizer were determined as explained by Basu
[1999] and considering high workability in terms of
Vee-Bee time (It is fundamentally established that
SFRC responds better to dynamic tests). This was done
to ensure high workability in the presence of fibres and
in order to satisfy one of the prime requirements of
HPSFRC. Therefore, the dose of super plasticizer for
HPSFRC was 5% for mix M35, as shown in Table 1.
Although concrete with M35 grade is supposed to be
much durable yet it was chosen considering that it
required higher doze of super-plasticizer. The concrete
with and without fibres which was cured in water served
as reference concrete. These cubes were cured in water
and in solutions of sodium chloride containing chloride
salt concentrations of 19 and 38 g/litre, respectively,
right after the stage of demoulding. Thereafter, the
weights of the cubes were taken at different intervals of
7 days, 28 days, 3 months and 9 months, respectively.
Also, the compressive strength of cubes was checked on
compression testing machine at these ages.

Table 1 Detail of Mix Proportions Used
Mix Water
(Kg/m
3
)
Cement
(Kg/m
3
)
Fine
Aggregate
(Kg/m
3
)
Coarse
Aggregate
(Kg/m
3
)
28 days
Compressive
Strength (MPa)
% Silica
Fumes
%
Fly
Ash
% Super
plasticizer
M35 164.59 360.12 399.22 1377.92 45.11 12.50 7.5 5.0

The results of compressive strength over cubes
obtained have been shown in Table 2 for high
performance concrete (HPC). Tables 3 and 4 show
the results of HPSFRC with plain and corrugated
fibres, respectively. The compressive strength which
appears in Tables 2, 3, 4 and Figures 1, 2 and 3 is the
average over five specimens.

Table 2 Results of Compressive Strength of HPC in Water and Different Salt Solutions
High Performance Concrete

Medium Doze of
Different
Salts
Compressive
Strength at 7 Days
(MPa)
Compressive
Strength at 28
Days (MPa)
Compressive
Strength at 3
Months (MPa)
Compressive
Strength at 9
Months (MPa)
Water -- 33.36 46.33 47.11 48.50
NaCl 19gm/l 30.57 43.67 48.54 54.27
NaCl 38gm/l 28.11 40.40 44.66 48.97

Table 3 Results of Compressive Strength of HPC with Plain Steel Fibres in Water and Different Salt Solutions
High Performance Concrete with Plain Steel Fibres
Medium Doze of
Different
Salts
Compressive
Strength at 7 Days
(MPa)
Compressive
Strength at 28
Days (MPa)
Compressive
Strength at 3
Months (MPa)
Compressive
Strength at 9
Months (MPa)
Water -- 33.56 46.00 49.60 52.67
NaCl 19gm/l 33.38 46.56 50.22 54.21
NaCl 38gm/l 30.41 42.89 49.24 53.01


Table 4 Results of Compressive Strength of HPC with Corrugated Steel Fibres in Water and Different Salt
Solutions
High Performance Concrete with Corrugated Steel Fibres
Medium Doze of
Different
Salts
Compressive
Strength at 7 Days
(MPa)
Compressive
Strength at 28
Days (MPa)
Compressive
Strength at 3
Months (MPa)
Compressive
Strength at 9
Months (MPa)
Water -- 35.18 49.34 50.89 52.96
NaCl 19gm/l 33.98 49.09 52.44 56.51
NaCl 38gm/l 33.21 48.61 52.21 54.28

Table 2 shows the results of compressive strength of
high performance concrete. It can be observed from
the table that high performance concrete when kept in
aggressive solutions had less compressive strength
initially up to the age of 28 days than the cubes cured
in water. However, the gain in compressive strength
for the cubes cured in aggressive solutions was
higher after the age of 28 days and it maintained
higher compressive strength in all the solutions till
the period of 9 months. The above results can also be
confirmed through Figure 1.
Tables 3 and 4 are with plain and corrugated fibres,
respectively. In case of plain fibres, the cubes have
maintained higher compressive strength at the age of
9 months when compared with high performance
concrete. These cubes suffered no deterioration as the
difference in strength with respect to the strength of
cubes cured in water remained insignificant after the
age of 28 days and the percentage loss in
compressive strength did not increase with the curing
ages. All the above facts can also be confirmed
through Figures 2 to 3.


Change in Weight of Cubes in Water and
Different Chloride Solutions: The observations
made over the weight of cubes appear in Tables 5 to
7. The weights shown in Tables are the average over
three specimens.

Table-5 Results of HPC Cube Weights in Water and Different Salt Solutions
Medium Weight
at 0
Day
(gms)
Weight
at 7
Days
(gms)
% age
Increase
in weight
Weight
at 28
Days
(gms)
% age
Increase
in weight
Weight
at 90
Days
(gms)
% age
Increase
in weight
Weight
at 270
Days
(gms)
% age
Increase
in weight
Water 2383 2436 2.22 2438 2.31 2441 2.43 2437 2.27

NaCl
19gm/l
2354 2428 3.14 2439 3.61 2439 3.61 2412 2.46
NaCl
38gm/l
2311 2386 3.25 2394 3.59 2398 3.77 2406 3.31

Table-6 Results of HPC with Plain Steel Fibres Cube Weights in Water and Different Salt Solutions
Medium Weight
at 0
Day
(gms)
Weight
at 7
Days
(gms)
% age
Increase
in weight
Weight
at 28
Days
(gms)
% age
Increase
in weight
Weight
at 90
Days
(gms)
% age
Increase
in weight
Weight
at 270
Days
(gms)
% age
Increase
in weight
Water 2305 2434 5.60 2435 5.64 2437 5.73 2430 5.42

NaCl
19gm/l
2259 2387 5.67 2392 5.89 2397 6.15 2398 6.15
NaCl
38gm/l
2340 2467 5.43 2472 5.64 2478 5.90 2477 5.86

Table-7 Results of HPC with Corrugated Steel Fibres Cube Weights in Water and Different Salt Solutions
Medium Weight
at 0 Day
(grams)
Weight
at 7
Days
(grams)
% age
Increase
in
weight
Weight
at 28
Days
(grams)
% age
Increase
in
weight
Weight
at 90
Days
(grams)
% age
Increase
in
weight
Weight
at 270
Days
(grams
% age
Increase
in
weight
Water 2304 2401 4.21 2404 4.34 2403 4.30 2405 4.38

NaCl
19gm/l
2257 2337 3.55 2340 3.68 2340 3.68 2339 3.63
NaCl
38gm/l
2251 2346 4.22 2351 4.44 2352 4.49 2365 5.06

From the Tables 5 to 7, it can be clearly observed that
the cubes, whether of HPC or of HPSFRC did not
suffer any loss of weight in any of the aggressive salt
solutions through-out the age of curing. This
confirmed that the leaching phenomenon in
aggressive environment which leaves porosity and
therefore, reduced strength did not take place. The
reason may be that shrinkage cracks are better
arrested in the presence of fibres (Mangat and Azari
1988). Further, high dose of super-plasticizer used
was not detrimental. It can therefore be concluded
from the discussions that the HPC or HPSFRC has
required strength, workability and durability and can
be confidently used for repair and rehabilitation
purposes.

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experimental programme undertaken
the following conclusions can be derived.
The high doze of super-plasticizer used for producing
high performance steel fibre reinforced concrete with
silica fumes and fly-ash is safe
High performance steel fibre reinforced concrete
maintains better durability in aggressive chloride
environment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are heartily thankful to Elkem India Private
Limited, Navi Mumbai for providing Micro Silica;
Associated Cement Company (ACC) for providing
cement; Stewols & Company, Nagpur for supplying
steel fibres; Sika India (Pvt) Limited, New Delhi and
Jaipur for providing super-plasticizer (Viscocrete)
free of cost.

REFERENCES
Ganesan N. and Sekar T. (2005), Permeability of
Steel Fibre Reinforced High Performance
Concrete Composites, Journal of Civil
Engineering Division, The Institution of
Engineers (India), 86, 8-11.
Imre Biczok (1985), Concrete Corrosion Concrete
Protection, Academial Kiado, Budapest.
Mangat P. S. and Azari M. M. (1988), Shrinkage of
Steel Fibre Reinforced Cement Composites,
Materials and Structures, 21, 163-171.
Singh A. P., Agrawal R. and Singhal D. (2002),
Permeability and Strength Characteristics of
Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete, Journal of
Ferro-cement, 32, 127-137.
Singhal D. (1993), An Investigation of Chloride and
Sulphate Attack on Steel Fibre Reinforced
Concrete, Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Civil
Engineering, Institute of Technology, BHU,
Varanasi.
Bal Krishan (2011), Design and Analysis of High
Performance Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete
Composites, Ph.D. Thesis, Punjab Technical
University, Jalandhar

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


THE INFLUENCE OF GEO-ENVIRONMENTAL PROPERTIES ON
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

Sunita Kumari
Research scholar, Department of civil Engg. ,IIT Roorkee
A.K. Nema
Associate Professor, Department of civil Engg. ,IIT Delhi
K.B. Ladhane
Research scholar, Department of civil Engg. ,IIT Roorkee

ABSTRACT: Landfilling is one of the most economic and feasible means of disposing municipal solid waste
(MSW) in India. Major portion of these wastes are disposed in landfills due to lack of other disposal
technologies like aerobic composting, vermiculture, incineration, pelletisation etc. About 5000mt of MSW is
generated every day in Delhi and it will increase about 12,750mt per day by 2015, a recent study done by the
National Environment Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur. Hence a large number of modern landfills are
required to dispose these MSW. Landfills are subjected to large amount of differential settlements as a result of
the biodegradation of MSW. The design and permitting of landfills requires performing comprehensive analysis
of geo-environment properties of waste materials, as the safety and cost of landfills are sensitive to variation in
these properties. Unfortunately, the geo-environment properties of waste materials can vary within broad
ranges, change significantly with time, and are not easily amenable to direct measurement, due to heterogeneity
and hard inclusions. Furthermore, published data is limited and the conditions under which the properties were
measured or back calculated are unclear. As a result, the probabilistic theory has been used to estimate the
landfills settlement (Tang et al.1994), mainly focusing on characterizing the waste material properties. The
objective of the present study is to correlate settlement rates of MSW with biodegradation process and
corresponding influencing factors. A review is presented for the geo-environment properties of MSW with the
available past records and their effect on the settlement of wastes with respect to time.

INTRODUCTION
The composition of municipal solid waste (MSW) in a
landfill is heterogeneous. Therefore, estimation of
settlement for MSW is difficult as the mechanism of
waste settlement is complex. These mechanisms can
be categorised to the following main processes:
1. Physical and mechanical processes: These
include the reorientation of particles, movement of the
fine materials into larger voids, and collapse of void
spaces.
2. Chemical Process: This includes corrosion,
combustion, and oxidation.
3. Dissolution Process: This consists of
dissolving soluble substances by percolating liquids
and then forming leachate.
4. Biological Decomposition: The organics in
the refuse will decompose with time specially
controlled by moisture content and percentage of
organics in the waste.
Since, the unit weight and void ratio vary with the
types of waste, composition, depth, method of
compaction, and rate of decomposition, among other
factors. The rate of decomposition is further
complicated by several factors, including the effects
of time, temperature, and environmental conditions
[e,g., Jesserberger and Kockel (1991)]. Thus, the
waste properties may be considered site-specific.

Theory of Landfills settlement and biodegradation
Numerous settlement estimation methods have been
proposed in the literature by Merz and Stone (1962),
Rao
et al. (1977), Sower (1973), Dodt et al (1987), Coduto
and Huitric (1990) and Edil et al (1990).

Estimate of the total settlement of a sanitary landfill
range from 25% to 50% of the landfills initial
thickness (Stearns 1987). Settlement mechanism in
refuse landfills are very complex and less understood
than in coarse or fine-grained soils (Edil et al. 1990).
This can be attributed in part to its homogenous
nature, large particle sizes, compression of waste
particles, and the loss of solids due to biodegradation.
Three main stages of settlement have been identified,
namely, initial settlement, primary settlement, and
secondary compression. In literature, initial
settlement and primary compression are sometimes
considered different phenomena, but in the framework
of the present study we will consider an overall
primary compression. Settlement occurs in essentially
two distinguished stages: (1) primary compression
(p) (2) secondary compression (s).
(t) = (p) + (s)
Primary compression includes physical compression
of particles (distortion, bending, crushing and particle
orientation) and consolidation (significant for
saturated waste bodies). In most waste, physical
compression will occur immediately on application of
load (i.e. in response to placement of overlying layers
of waste). Therefore, primary compression will occur
in a period of a few days to a few weeks and hence
can be considered to be short term.
Secondary compression includes all creep effects (i.e.
mechanical compression under constant stress) and
those relating to degradation (both chemical and


biological). Creep effects include time-dependent
particle distortion (i.e. bending, crushing), particle
reorientation and ravelling. Degradation includes
collapse of containers due to a change in strength (i.e.
corrosion) and degradation of organic compounds.
Degradation potential of components is discussed by
Landva and Clarke (1990) and is a key element of any
classification system. Many methods have been
proposed to characterise and predict secondary
compression. Biodegradation is the main component
of secondary compression in MSW landfills.
Secondary compression occurs throughout the active
life of the landfills and is usually the main component
of total settlement.

Primary compression
The initial waste settlement, also called settlements
under self-weight, due physical and mechanical
mechanisms typically occurs during 1 to 4 months
period of filling. This is followed by time-dependant
settlement (H) which can be expressed by the
following equation:

H = H (SW) = C (SW) H log ( t2/t1 )

Where, H (SW) is settlement at time t2 after fill
placement; t1 is the initial period (typically 1 to 4
months) of settlement, H is the thickness of refuse fill,
and C (SW) is coefficient of secondary compression
due to self-weight, typically C (SW) values range
between 0.1 and 0.4 (NAVFAC, 1983).

Fig. 1 The typical time-settlement data for a landfill
under a certain load. (From Grisolia & Napoleoni,
1995)
Secondary Compression
As discussed above, long term settlement is mainly
due to biodegradation and mechanical creep
compression. After initial period of primary
compression (typically up to 4 months) the time
dependent secondary compression occurs over a long
period of time. This settlement can be expressed by
the relationship similar to equation (1) and is
presented below:

H=H (EL) = C (EL) H log ( t2/t1 )

Where, H (EL) is settlement at time t2 after external
load application, t1 is the time for primary
compression most of which will occur as the load is
applied and may continue up to 4 months after
external load application, H is the thickness of refuse
fill, and C (EL) is the coefficient of secondary
compression. Literature review indicates that for
older refuse fills which have undergone
decomposition for some period of time (typically 10
to 15 years), C (EL) ranges between 0.01 and 0.07
(Sharma and Lewis, 1994).

Both C (sw) and C (EL) values depend on site
specific environmental conditions and organic content
of the waste fill. Higher compressibility, i.e., higher
C values for both cases, will indicate higher organic
content, higher humidity, and/or higher degree of
decomposition of the waste.

Table 1. Refuse compressibility parameters (Owesis
and Khera 1986)

Reference Primary Secondary
Sowers(1973) (for e0) 0.1-0.41 0.02-0.07
Zoino (1974) 0.15-0.33 0.013-0.03
Converse (1975) 0.25-0.3 0.07
Rao et al. (1977) 0.16-0.235 0.012-0.046
Landva et al. (1984) 0.2-0.5 0.0005-0.029
Oweis and Khera (1986) 0.08-0.217 -

Table 2. Secondary compression parameter for MSW
material (after Oweis and khera, 1998)

There is some field data obtained from long term
settlement monitoring studies to support this
approximation. Oweis and Khera (1998) published
values of C for a range of waste materials obtained
from the literature. Table 2 shows selected values
from their summary and demonstrates the problem of
trying to use one C values for the entire period of
secondary compression. As the rate of degradation is
unlikely to be constant with time, it is not surprising
that C is not a constant. Gourc et al. (1998) provide
Material

C

Ten year old landfill 0.02
Fifteen year old Landfill 0.24
Fifteen to twenty year old landfill 0.02
More than twenty year Old Landfill 0.04
Old Landfill with high soil content 0.001 - 0.005


a comprehensive review of available calculation
methods. Fassett et al. (1994) and Manassero et al.
(1996) both give useful summaries of secondary
compression data. Settlement prediction techniques
based on modelling the biodegradation process are
under development and appear promising (i.e
McDougall and Pyrah, 2001).

Biodegradation in Landfills
MSW landfill suffers a large amount of long term
settlement that is associated with volume reduction
due to decomposition of Organic solids. Wardwell
and Nelson (1981) illustrated that the observed
additional secondary strain due to the decomposition
increased as the amount of organic content increased;
for example, from 7% of strain for an organic content
of 70%. Based on the results, it is concluded that the
remaining additional long term strain due to the
decomposition is very dependent on the amount of
biodegradable organic solids. Settlement due to
biodegradation also depends upon the landfills age.
In a fresh landfill considerable amount of settlement
will occur due to presence of Organic matters. On the
other hand, an older MSW landfill no longer has such
organic matter for the decomposition to occur and the
remaining particles are relatively inert.
In MSW landfills, biodegradation is processed in four
stages in which solid organic particles are solubilised
and converted to methane and carbon dioxide through
methanogenesis. Once they are converted to a liquid
form, the intermediate decomposition products are
drained out of the landfill or are converted to methane
and carbon dioxide through methanogenesis.
Therefore, the decomposition step that is of concern
for geotechnical engineers is the conversion of refuse
organic solids to liquid. Detailed studies of the
degradation process indicate that polymer hydrolysis
is responsible for this solubilisation (Barlaz et al.
1990).

Fig. 2 Major degradative steps during the anaerobic
decomposition phase (El-Fadel, M., Shazbak, S.,
Saliby, E., & Leckie, J., 1999)
In the recent landfill, significant amount of readily
degradable soluble substrate are present, hence rate of
decomposition will be governed by methanogenesis.
But when the readily degradable soluble substrates are
exhausted, the overall process is controlled by
hydrolysis. The most abundant carbon sources i.e
cellulose and hemi cellulose present in waste are
insoluble; the majority of the decomposition process
is limited by hydrolysis( Halvadakis et al.1983). Most
of the researchers assume that cellulose hydrolysis
occurs by first order kinetics (Chen 1974; McGrowan
et al. 1988; El-Fadel et al. 1989; Young 1989) and if
this amount of solid material is converted into a liquid
form, it can be easily drained out of a landfill, results
a considerable amount of settlement.
The decomposition process results in decreasing the
volume of the MSW. The decomposition causes
larger voids to develop within the landfill. Therefore,
the balance between the voids and the self weight of
the landfill material may be upset due to the
decomposition.

Factors influencing biodegradation
Rate of municipal waste decomposition is
considerably dependent upon the decomposition
condition in MSW landfills. Different parameters
may be monitored to check the rate of decomposition
of waste.

Fig. 3 Factors affecting Stabilization in landfills (El-
Fadel, M., Shazbak, S., Saliby, E., & Leckie, J., 1999)

(1) Moisture Content The moisture content in
landfills is highly dependent on several interrelated
factors including: initial composition of the waste;
local climatic conditions; landfill operating procedure
(e.g, use and type of daily cover); effectiveness of any
leachate collection and removal system; amount of
moisture generated by biological processes within the
landfills; and amount of moisture removed with
landfill gases (Mitchell & Mitchell, 1992). The in situ
moisture content of MSW varies in between 25-45
percent in accordance with type of waste. Moisture
content is an important variable as it is associated
with the greatest effect on biodegradation processes
because it provides an aqueous environment that
facilitates the transport of nutrients and microbes
within the landfill. This transport mechanism dilutes
the concentration of inhibitors and enhances micro
organisms access to their substrates and hence
improves gas generation and stabilization.


(2) Initial Unit Weight & compaction effort at
placement

The unit weight of MSW varies within a broad range
because, by its very nature, its components are highly
variable, and placement procedures as well as
environmental conditions can greatly affect its unit
weight. Each landfill operator handles incoming
waste differently and achieves different levels of
compaction. Fassett et al. (1994) considered that the
following factors should be recorded along with
measured unit weights: MSW composition including
daily cover and moisture content; method and degree
of compaction; the depth at which the unit weight was
measured; and the age of the waste.

Like soil, the unit weight of MSW is also affected by
compaction effort and layer thickness, the depth of
burial (i.e. overburden load) and the amount of liquid
present (moisture content). Unlike soils, the unit
weight of MSW varies significantly because of waste
materials size and density, state of decomposition
and degree of control during placement ( such as
thickness of daily cover or its absence). It is believed
that initially the unit weight of waste is very much
dependent on waste composition, the daily cover, and
the degree of compaction during placement. But with
age of waste the unit weight becomes dependent on
the depth of burial, the degree of decomposition and
climatic conditions. Generally for design purpose
average unit weight is acceptable.

Degradation of MSW components with organic
content will result in a loss of mass, changes in size
and alteration of the mechanical properties (i.e.
compressibility and shear strength). It will also
change the density of the component. As a waste
body degrades, void ratio reduces and hence a volume
reduction occurs. It is generally believed that
degradation results in an increase in waste density,
and hence unit weight irrespective of presence of few
field measurements in degraded waste.

MSW is a particulate material, having high void ratio
and a high compressibility, compaction processes will
reduce the voids within an individual component as
well as voids between various components. The unit
weight of compacted waste will depend upon the
waste components, thickness of layer, weight, and
type of compaction plant and the number of times
equipment passes over the waste. Fassett et al. (1994)
conducted a detailed survey of bulk unit weight data
from the international literature. A statistical analysis
of the data is shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Statistical summaries of bulk unit weight
data for fresh waste (Fassett et al., 1994)

Poor
compaction
Moderate
compaction
Good
compaction
Range (kN/m
3
) 3.0-9.0 5.0-7.8 8.8-10.5
Average (kN/m
3
) 5.3 7.0 9.6
Standard
deviation(kN/m
3
)
2.5 0.5 0.8
Coefficient of
variation (%)
48 8 8

On exposure to water, constituent of MSW (i.e. food
waste, garden refuse, paper, textiles) absorbs water,
results an increase in unit weight of constituent.
These increases in individual particle unit weight are
added to the increase in bulk unit weight resulting
from increased leachate in the void spaces between
particles of waste to produce increases in the bulk unit
weight of waste mass. Therefore, older waste would
have higher bulk unit weight than fresh waste.

(3) pH In situ pH of MSW is variable, depend upon
waste compositions. When aerobic degradation
prevails, pH of leachate is maintained around neutral
whereas in case of anaerobic degradation pH is
maintained generally acidic side res. In aerobic
condition, the organic carbon is removed fast from the
waste by conversion to carbon dioxide, while acid
accumulation is less but in case of anaerobic condition
a small amount of organic carbon is removed while
acid accumulation is high.
(4) Waste composition Significant variation
occurs in waste composition from area to area. In
Delhi itself, a large amount of variation occurs in
different areas. The variation is brought out in the
Table 4.
Table 4. Zone wise MSW composition (in
percentage) at Delhi

MSW landfill suffers a large amount of long term
settlement that is associated with volume reduction


due to decomposition of Organic solids. Wardwell
and Nelson (1981) illustrated that the observed
additional secondary strain due to the decomposition
increased as the amount of organic content increased;
for example, from 7% of strain for an organic content
of 70%. Hence, decomposition is very much
dependent on the amount of biodegradable organic
solids. Based on results, it is concluded that if the
organic content of waste is higher, settlement due to
decomposition will be higher or vice-versa where as
for inert materials, settlement will be very less.
(5) Temperature The degradation of MSW is not
affected by change in atmospheric temperature. In
MSW landfills, the daily cover is made of soil and
waste is generally below 0.5m depth of daily cover,
hence effect of temperature is not significant.

FUTURE SCOPE OF STUDY
For efficient designing of landfills, following issues
must be explored for further research in developing
country like India:-
* Determination of Influence of each geo-
environmental properties of waste on other properties.
* Development of Universal classification system of
waste for the evaluation of mechanical properties.
* Development of Indian Standard code for designing
various components of Landfill.
* Integrated Model should be prepared to predict geo-
environmental properties of waste with respect to time
with known values of waste properties.

REFERENCES
Barlaz, M. A., Ham, R. K., and Schaefer, D.
M.(1989),Mass-balance analysis of anaerobically
decomposed refuse. J. Envir. Enrg., ASCE,
115(6), 1088-1102.
Chen, W.H. (1974). Time-settlement behaviour of
milled refuse. PhD dissertation, Dept. Of Civil
Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanton ,
III.
Coduto, D .P. and Huitric, R. (1990). Monitoring
landfill movements using precise instrument.
Geotechnics of waste fills theory and practices:
ASTM STP 1070. American Soc. For Testing
Materials, Philadelphia, Pa., 358-370.
Dixon, N., and Jones, D.R.V. (2005). Engineering
Properties of Municipal Solid Waste. Elsevier
Ltd, Journal of Geotextiles and Geomembranes,
Vol. 23, No. 3, 2005, pp. 205-233.
Dodt, M. E., Sweatman, M. B, and Bergstrom, W. R.
(1987). Field Measurement of Landfill surface
settlements. Geotechnical Practice for Waste
Disposal 87, Ann Arbor, Mich., 13, 406-418.
Edil, T.B.,Ranguette,V.J. & Wuellner, W.W. (1990)
Settlement of municipal municipal refuse. In:
Landva, A. & Knoeles, D. (eds) Geotechnics of
Waste Fill- Theory and Practice. ASTM STP
1070.
El-Fadel, M., Shazbak, S., Saliby, E., & Leckie, J.,
(1999) Comprative assessment of settlement
models for municipal solid waste landfill
applications. Sage Publication on behalf of
international solid waste Association, Journal of
Waste Management and Research 17, pp. 347-
368.
Fassett, J. B., Leonards, G. A., and Repetto, P.C.
(1994). Geotechnical Properties of Municipal
Solid Waste and their Use in Landfill Design. A
Special Project Report at Purdue University,
Fraklin.
Gourc, J. P., Thomas, S., Vuillemin, M., 1998.
Proposal of a waste settlement survey
methodology. Proceedings Environmental
Geotechnics, Seco e Pinto (Ed.), Balkema,
pp.195-200.
Halvadakis, C.P. (1983) Methanogenesis in solid
waste landfill bioreactors. PhD Thesis,
Department of Civil Engineering, Stanford
University, Stanford, CA, USA.
Jessberger, H. L., Kockel, R., 1993. Determination
and assessment of the mechanical properties of
waste: materials. Proceedings Sardinia 93,
Fourth International Landfill Symposium,
Cagliari, Italy, pp. 167-177.
Komilis, D. P., Ham, R. K. & Stegmann, R., (1999)
The effect of landfill design and operation
practices on waste degradation behaviour: a
review. Sage Publication on behalf of
Waste Management and Research 17, pp. 20-26.
Landva, A., Clark, J. I., 1990. Geotechnics of waste
fills. Geotechnics of Waste Fills Theory and
Practice, ASTM STP 1070, pp.86-106.
Ling, I. Hoe., Leshchinsky, Dov., Mohri, Yoshiyuki.,
and Kawabata, Toshinori., (1998) Estimation of
Municipal Solid Waste Landfill Settement
ASCE, Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, Volume 124,
Issue 1, pp. 21-28.
Manassero, M., Van Impe, W.F., Bouazza, A., 1996.
Waste disposal and containment. Proceedings
Second International Congress on Environmental
Geotechnics, Osaka, Vol. 3, pp. 193-242.
McDougall, J.R., Pyrah, I.C., 2001. Settlement in
landfilled waste: extending the geotechnical
approach. Proceedings Sardinia 01, Eight
International Waste Management and Landfill
Symposium, Cagliari, Italy, pp. 481-490
McGowan, K.C., Pohlald, F. G., Saunders, F.M., and
Williams, N.D. (1988). A microbial model of
landfill stabilization. Proc. 1988 Joint CSCE-
ASCE Nat. Conf., ASCE, New York, N.Y., 704-
711.
Merz, R.C., and Stone, R. (1962). Landfill
settlement rates J. Public works, 93(9), 103-106.
Mitchell, R. A. And Mitchell, J.K., Stability
Evaluation of Waste Landfills, Stability and
Performance of Slope and Embankments- II,
ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication No. 31,
1992.


NAVFAC, US Department of the Navy (1983), Soil
Mechanics Design Manual 7.3, Naval Facilities
Engineering Command, Alexandria, VA.
Oweis, I.S & Khera, R. (1986) Criteria for
geotechnical construction of sanitary landfills. In:
H. Y. Fang (ed.) International symposium on
Environmental Geotechnology. Bethlehem,
Pennsylvania, USA: Envo Publishing Company,
pp.205-222.
Park, I. H., and Lee, R.S., (2002) Long-term
settlement behaviour of MSW landfills with
various fill ages Sage Publication on behalf of
Waste Management and Research 20, pp. 259-
268.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA: American Society
of Testing and Materials, pp.225-239.
Rao,S.K., Moulton, L.K., and Seals, R.K.(1977).
Settlement of refuse landfills Geotechnical
practice for disposal of solid waste materials. Ann
Arbor, Mich., 574-599.
Sharma, D. H., (2000) Solid Waste Landfills
settlements and Post-closure perspective ASCE,
Journal of Environmental and Pipeline
Engineering , pp. 447-455.
Sharma, H.D., and Lewis, S.P. (1994), Waste
Containment Systems, Waste Stabilization and
Landfill. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York,
Page 588.
Sower, G.F. (1973) Settlement of Waste Disposal
Fills. Proceedings of the Eight International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering. Moscow, Russian Federation: pp
207-210.
Sterns, R.P. (1987). Settlement and gas control: Two
key post-closure concerns. Waste Age, 18(3), 55-
60.
Tang, W. H., Gilbert, R. B., Angulo, M. & Williams,
R.S. (1994) Probabilistic observation method for
settlement-based design of a landfill cover. In:
Yeung, A.T. & Felio, G.Y. (eds) Vertical and
Horizontal Deformations of Foundations and
Embankments. Geotechnical Special Publication
40. New York, USA: ASCE, pp. 1573-1589.
Wall, K. D., and Zeiss, Chris., (1995) Municipal
Landfill Biodegradation and settlement ASCE,
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, Volume 121, Issue 3, pp. 214-223.
Wardwell, R. E., & Nelson, J.D. (1981) Settlement of
Sludge Landfills with Fiber Decomposition.
Proceedings, Tenth International Conference for
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol.
2, Stockholm, Sweden, 397-401.
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E-Resources
http://www.envfor.nic.in/divisions/cpoll/delpolln.html
http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20070307/delhi
.html
.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


CEMENT AND POLYPROPYLENE FIBRES TO IMPROVE THE LOAD BEARING CAPACITY
OF PEAT

Behzad Kalantari
Dept of Civil Engg, University of Hormozgan, Bandar Abbas, Iran, Email: behzad996@yahoo.com
Arun Prasad
Dept of Civil Engg, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India, Email: prasada@bhu.ac.in

ABSRACT: This article describes the results of a laboratory study on the stabilization of peat using cement as
binding agent and polypropylene fibres as reinforcement. The samples of peat were observed to have very high
natural water content (>150%). Hence, the samples were cured in air at room temperature. The effectiveness of
cement and fibres in the stabilization of peat was evaluated by performing unconfined compression strength (UCS)
and California bearing ratio (CBR) tests. The stabilized samples were air cured for 28, 90, and 180 days for the UCS
test and 90 days for CBR (soaked and un-soaked) test. The amount of cement used to stabilize peat samples for UCS
test was 15, 30 and 50%. Similarly, the amount of cement used to stabilize peat samples for CBR test was 15, 25,
30, 40 and 50%. Further, the amount of fibres used to stabilize peat for CBR test was 0.1, 0.15, and 0.25%. It was
observed that as the curing time increased, the moisture content decreased and in turn, the water-cement ratio (w/c)
also reduced; thereby the samples hardened and gained strength. Also, the polypropylene fibres acted as
reinforcements, when added to peat with cement, and further increased the strength of peat.

INTRODUCTION
Peat is a soil that contains a significant amount of
organic materials. It is known to deform and fail under a
small surcharge load and is characterized by low shear
strength, high compressibility and high water content
(Huat, 2004). The different methods (Huat, 2007)
available to improve the load carrying capacity of poor
soils include; transfer the load to a more stable soil layer
without improving the properties of the in-situ soil;
remove the soft soil and replace it, fully or partially,
with better quality fill and; improve the in-situ soil
properties with different techniques of ground
improvement.
To improve the performance of soil with low bearing
capacity, cement has been used by many researchers
(Ismail et al. 2002; Baisha et al. 2005; Kasselouri et al.
2004; and Yetimoglu, and Inanir 2004). Some studies
have also been carried out by researchers (yetimoghlu
and Inanir 2004; Park and Tan 2005; Tang et al. 2007;
Sivakumar et al. 2008) to study the influence of fibre
inclusion on the mechanical behavior of cemented soil.
The reports in the literature show that randomly
distributed polypropylene fibres can be used to
overcome the drawback of using cement alone such as
high stiffness and brittle behavior of the stabilized soil.

In the present model study, peat soil is stabilized with
cement as binding agent and also reinforced with
polypropylene fibres as chemically non-active additive.
Air curing method as described by Kalantari and Huat
(2008) is adopted to cure the samples and to strengthen
the stabilized peat soil by keeping it in normal room air
temperature and humidity without adding water from
the outside.
This air curing method causes the high water content of
the stabilized peat soil to gradually decrease with time
because of the hydration process and resulting in an
increase in strength values.

TEST MATERIALS
Peat soil samples were collected as disturbed and
undisturbed according to AASHTO T86-70 and ASTM
D42069 from Kampung, Jawa on the western part of
Malaysia. Table 1 presents the properties of the in-situ
(field) peat soil, and Fig. 1 shows sieve analysis of the
peat used in the study as well.
Binding agent used for this study was ordinary Portland
cement, and polypropylene fibres (Fig. 2) was used as
non-chemically reactive additive to reinforce the
stabilized peat (Table 2).

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
In order to examine the effect of cement admixture and
polypropylene fibres on the load bearing capacity of
peat soil, index properties tests on the peat soil have
been conducted. The tests include: sieve analysis, water
content, liquid and plastic limits, organic content,
specific gravity, and fibre content. Strength tests used
for the study were UCS, and CBR tests. Peat soil used
for the stabilized samples of UCS, and CBR tests were
at their natural or field moisture contents, and therefore
no water was added or deducted from the peat soil
during the mixing process of peat, cement, and fibres.


Table 1 Properties of the peat
Properties Standard
Specifications
Values
Depth of sampling 5 to
100cm
Moisture content (%) ASTM D2216 198 - 417
In-situ bulk density
(kN/m
3
)
10.23
10.40
Specific gravity BS 1337 1.22
Classification/Von post H4 H5
Liquid Limit (%) BS 1337 160
Plastic Index (%) BS1337 N.P
Organic content (%) ASTM D2974 80.23
Unconfined Compression
Strength, Undisturbed (kPa)
ASTM 2166-66 28.5
California Bearing Ratio
(%), Undisturbed

ASTM D1883-73 0.782

Table 2 Polypropylene fibres specifications (Sika
fibres, 2005)
Property Specification
Base Polypropylene fibres with surface agent
Color Natural
Specific gravity 0.91 g/cm
3
Fibre Length 12 mm
Fibre Diameter 18 micron-nominal
Tensile Strength 300-440 (MPa)
Elastic Modulus 6000-9000 (N/mm
2
)
water absorption None
Softening point 160 C

Fig. 1 Grain size distribution curve

Fig. 2 Polypropylene fibers

Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)
Unconfined Compression Strength tests have been
conducted on the undisturbed peat soil as well as
stabilized peat soil with OPC and fibres. Disturbed
samples used for the stabilized peat soils UCS tests
were the peat soil samples at their natural (field)
moisture content. Specified amounts of OPC and
polypropylene fibres were added to peat soil, mixed
well for their homogeneity. Then the mixture has been
placed in three layers in UCS mould having inside
diameter of 38 mm and L/D of 2. Each layer was given
10 constant full thumb pressures of approximately 10
seconds as used in Sweden for compacting stabilized
peat soil samples in their mould described by Axelsson
et al. (2002), and trimmed at both ends, extracted by
extractor jack, and wrapped in plastic sleeves for the
curing period. Curing periods for the stabilized samples
were immediately after mixing, 28, 90, and 180 days.

California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
CBR tests have been conducted on the undisturbed peat
as well as stabilized peat with OPC and fibres. For the
stabilized peat with OPC (mixture of peat and cement)
the soil samples used were samples at their natural
(field) moisture content. Specified dosage of OPC and
polypropylene fibres were mixed well with the peat for
their uniformity and homogeneity, before placing them
in the CBR mold in five layers as stated by the ASTM
standard.
The prepared stabilized CBR peat soil samples with
OPC and fibres being at their relevant molds were then
kept in the curing condition. Curing period used for the
stabilized peat soil samples was 90 days, before
conducting the soaked as well as the un-soaked CBR
tests on the samples.

Curing Procedure
In-order to cure the stabilized peat soil samples with
OPC and fibres, air curing technique has been used. In
this technique the stabilized peat soil samples for UCS
and CBR tests were kept in normal air temperature of 30
2 C and out of reach of water intrusion (outside
source) during the curing period. Air curing technique is
used to strengthen the stabilized peat samples, instead of
the usual moist (water) curing technique or water
submergence method which has been a common
practice of past experiments for stabilized peat soil with
cement described by Axelsson et al. (2002), and
Duraisamy et al. (2006).
The principle of using air curing technique is that peat
when mixed with cement at its natural moisture content
has more than enough water (water content from198 to
417%) for complete curing process to take place.
Therefore the treated peat with cement samples do not
need more water (submerging the samples in water) for
the curing process to take place, and the already


contained moisture content of the stabilized peat with
cement can carry on the hydration process, thus
strengthening the samples without extra water.

Mixture Dosages
For UCS tests, each set of samples consist of peat soil
having natural moisture contents plus 15, 30, and 50%
of Ordinary Portland Cement(e.g. 15% cement means in
each 100 g of peat having natural (field) moisture
content, 15 g of ordinary Portland cement added), with
and without Polypropylene fibres. The fibre amount
used for the mixtures was 0.1, 0.15, and 0.25 % ( e.g.
0.15% fibre means for each 100 g of peat at its in-situ
(field) moisture content, 0.15 g fibres were added).
For CBR (un-soaked, and soaked) tests, each sample
consists of peat soil with natural moisture content plus
15, 25, 30, 40, and 50% of ordinary Portland cement
(e.g. 25% cement means for each 100 g of natural peat
at its in-situ moisture content 25 g of cement was
added), with and without additive ( polypropylene
fibres). The polypropylene fibres amount used for the
stabilized CBR samples was 0.15% (e.g. for each 100 g
of peat at its in-situ moisture content, 0.15 g fibres were
added).

Optimum Polypropylene Fibres Dosage
Determination Tests
Polypropylene fibres is usually used in concrete mixes
to control cracks in hardened concrete (Mulli et al.
2006).The usual dosage recommended for concrete
mixes differs from 0.6 to 0.9 kg/m
3
( Polypropylene
Fibres, 2005).
As for soil stabilization, fibres have been used to
stabilize clayey soil, and according to Nagu et al. (2008)
study on the strength of stabilized clayey soil reinforced
with nylon fibres. 0.4% of fibres would provide the
max. UCS values for the stabilized clayey soil.
For this study in order to find the optimum percentage
of fibre contents for the stabilized peat that would
provide the max. strength, peat samples at their natural
moisture contents mixed with different percentages of
OPC and fibres cured in air for a period of 180 days
before being tested for their CBR values.
The samples examined for this purpose consisted of
15% of ordinary Portland cement as well as 0.1, 0.15,
and 0.25% of polypropylene fibres. The sample which
showed the maximum strength value for CBR (soaked,
and un-soaked) was chosen as the optimum fibres
mixture dosage for further study of treated peat with
cement.

Soaking CBR Test Procedure
According to AASHTO T193-63,and ASTM D1883-73,
the soaking period of CBR samples for normal soil is 96
hours or four days (Bowles 1978).For this study, in-
order to investigate the CBR values of the soaked
stabilized peat soil, a set of CBR samples made of
different dosages of cement and fibres(15, 25, 40, and
50% OPC, with 0.15% of fibres) at soil natural moisture
content were cured in air for 90 days, and then soaked in
water for a period of five weeks. During these five
weeks of soaking, the soaked CBR soil samples tested
for weight increase until 100% or complete saturation is
revealed or obtained and therefore no weight increases
recorded then after.


Optimum Dosage Determination Tests of
Polypropylene Fibres
According to the results shown on Fig. 3, the mixture
consisting of peat, cement and 0.15% fibers gave
maximum CBR (un-soaked and soaked) values. Thus
this dosage rate of fibres was chosen to be the optimum
amount to be used during the study.

Fig. 3 CBR of stabilized samples

Soaking Duration Determination Tests
According to the result shown on Fig. 4, the least
contained OPC (15% of OPC) stabilized peat soil
sample reaches its 100% saturation and its constant
weight during the first 4 days and the sample with
highest amount of OPC (50%) reaches its constant
weight (100% saturation) within first 6 days of
saturation or soaking process. Based on the obtained
result of this test, all stabilized peat soil samples before
going under soaked CBR tests were submerged in water
for at least 6 days.

Fig. 4 Number of days for soaked CBR samples versus
percentage of weight increase.


Effect of Fibres and Curing technique on the UCS of
Treated samples
Results obtained from UCS tests shown on Fig. 5
indicate that, addition of OPC to peat soil will increase
the UCS values.

(a)
As the curing time for the stabilized peat soil samples
increases the UCS values increase as well. Also,
addition of polypropylene fibers will increase UCS
values further. Values of UCS increase considerably
after 28 day of curing period. The strength gain
continues through 180 days of curing.

(b)

(c)
Fig. 5 UCS versus curing periods of treated samples: (a)
15% OPC, (b) 30% OPC, and (c) 50% OPC with and
without polypropylene fibres.

Effect of Curing age and W/C on the UCS values of
Treated Samples
In general concrete that is made of cement and different
sizes of aggregates hardens by time and gains most of
its ultimate compressive strength at 28 days of age. One
of the principal factors affecting the compressive
strength of concrete is the w/c (weight of water /weight
of cement) of the fresh mixed concrete (Davis et al.
1983). Usually for normal concrete mixes a w/c of about
0.5 is suggested, and as w/c for fresh concrete increases
the compressive strength of concrete at 28 days will
decrease (Road note, 1975).
Therefore, it is possible to conclude that, for the
hardening process for concrete mixes to take place, not
more than an average W/C of 0.5 is required and as the
W/C is increased from 0.5 the compressive strength of
concrete decreases.
According to the results obtained in this study for w/c
versus curing time (age) shown on Fig. 6, w/c values
decrease with increasing curing time. And during 180
days of air curing, the w/c of the stabilized peat soils
never falls below 0.5. This suggests that the initial water
content of the natural peat soil is more than sufficient to
carry on the hydration process, and no need for any
external source of water, and this justifies use of air
curing technique over moist curing technique for
stabilizing peat.

Fig. 6 Water-cement ratio versus age of samples mixed
with cement for UCS tests.

UCS test results of 0 (immediately after mixing), 7, 28,
90, and 180 days for stabilized peat with OPC in Figure
7 show that, as W/C values are decreased through
curing process, the UCS values are increased.
Therefore, Air Curing process cause the stabilized peat
soil samples to gradually lose their moisture contents
and become drier and as the stabilized peat soil become
drier(water content is reduced) through air curing
process, the UCS values increase.

Fig. 7 Water-cement ratio versus UCS of treated peat
with different amount of cement.

Actually, a considerable strength gain of the stabilized
peat soil is after 28 days of being cured in air, and the
strength gain continues through 90 and 180 days of
curing.


Effect of Air curing technique on the CBR values of
Treated Samples
The result of CBR tests for stabilized peat samples with
OPC and fibers after being air cured for 90 days are
shown on Fig. 8. The results indicate that as cement
amount in the mixture is increased, the CBR values are
increased and addition of fibers content will increase the
CBR values further. Also CBR values are decreased for
soaked (saturated) samples compared with the unsoaked
samples. Fibers contribute more strength to the lower
dosage of OPC (15%) mixed with peat samples
compared with higher dosage of OPC (50%) in the mix.
The air curing technique as well as OPC and fibers
used for stabilized peat will increase the general rating
of the in-situ peat soil from very poor (CBR from 0 to
3%) to fair and good (CBR from 7 to above 20%).

Fig. 8 CBR values of undisturbed peat as well as
different percentage of OPC and polypropylene fibers
for the stabilized peat cured for 90 days.

Also, visual inspection of CBR samples depict that,
Polypropylene fibers not only increases the CBR values
rather contribute a considerable amount of uniformity
and intactness to the stabilized peat soil samples as well,
when compared with the soaked stabilized peat soil
samples having only Ordinary Portland Cement.

CONCLUSION
In this study, peat has been stabilized with OPC as a
binding agent alone, as well as with, OPC, and
Polypropylene fibers as none chemical additive. Air
curing technique used in the study will cause the
stabilized peat samples to gradually lose their moisture
content through curing period and become drier. The
binding agent and the additive as well as the curing
technique have proved to increase UCS values of the
stabilized peat soil samples at 28, 90, and 180 days.
The result of UCS tests for stabilized peat soil with OPC
with different percentage of polypropylene fibers show
that 0.15% is the optimum percentage to provide
maximum UCS values. Curing the stabilized peat soil
samples in air, will cause the w/c of the samples to
reduce. As the w/c for the stabilized peat soils are
reduced through curing period, the UCS and CBR
values increase. Peat at its natural state, when mixed
with OPC has high initial w/c (w/c > 0.5) and it
maintains enough w/c during the air curing process even
through 180 days of curing period for hardening process
to take place.
Air curing technique of stabilized peat during six
months with 15% of OPC (less than 190 kg/m
3
), will
increase the UCS of in-situ peat by over 13 folds (from
28.5 kPa. to 380 kPa.), and increases the UCS value of
in-situ peat by over 14 folds when 0.15% (less than 2
kg/m
3
) polypropylene fibers added to the mixture of
peat and OPC. Also air curing technique of three
months for the stabilized peat with 15% OPC with
addition of 0.15% of polypropylene fibers increase the
CBR values of in-situ peat by over 23 folds(from 0.8%
to 19%) for the un-soaked samples, and by over 8 folds
for the soaked samples as well.

REFERENCES
Axelsson, K., Johansson, S.E. and Anderson, R. (2002).
Stabilization of organic soils by cement and
puzzolanic reactions-feasibility study. Swedish Deep
Stabilization Research Centre, Report 3, English
translation, 15-16.
Black, A.J, Sivakumar, V., Madhav R.M., and Hamil A.
G. (2007). Reinforced stone column in weak deposit:
laboratory model study., Journal of Geotechnical
and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 133(9), 1154-
1161.
Baisha, E.A., Hashim, R., Mahmud, H.B. and
Muntobar, A.S. (2005). Stabilization of Residual
soil with rice husk ash and cement, Construction
and Building Materials. 19(6), 448-453.
Bowles, E.J. (1978). Engineering Properties of Soil and
Their Measurements, 2
nd
edition, McGraw-Hill,
USA.
British Standards Institution. (1990). Methods of Test
for Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes. London,
BS 1337.
Davis, E.H., Troxell, E.G., and Hoauk, F.W. G. (1982).
The Testing of Engineering Materials, 4
th
edition.
McGraw-Hill, USA
Design of Normal Concrete Mixes. (1975). Road note
No. 4, Department of the Environment, Building
Research Establishment, Her Majestys Stationary
Office, UK, 5-30.
Duraisamy, Y., Huat, B.B.K , Muniandy, R.,and Abdul
A.A. (2006). Effect of cement on the compressibility
of tropical peat soil.,GSM-IEM Oktober forum on
Engineering Geology and Geotechnical engineering
, Petalang Jaya, October 13, Malaysia.
Engineering and Design Laboratory Testing, Engineer.
(1980). No 11102-2-1906 Manual. Department of
the Army, USA.
Hebib, S., and Farrell, R. E. (2003). Some experiences
on the stabilization of Irish peats. Can. Geoteh J.,
40:107-120.
Huat, B.B.K. (2004). Organic and Peat Soils
Engineering, University Putra Malaysia Press,
Malaysia.


Huat, B.B.K., and Faisal, H.A. (2007). Ground
Improvement Technology, University Putra Malaysia
Press, Malaysia.
Ismail, M.A., Joer, H.A., Sim, W.H. and Randolph, M.
(2002). Effect of cement type on shear behavior of
cemented calcareous soil, Journal of Geotechnical
and Geoenvironmental Engineering. 128(6) , 520-
529.
Kalantari, B. and Huat, B.B.K. (2008). Peat soil
stabilization using ordinary portland cement,
polypropylene fibers and air curing technique, Elec.
J. Geotech. Eng., Bund. J., No. 13:1-13.
Kolias, S.V., Kasselouri, R. and Karahalios, A. (2005)
Stabilisation of clayey soils with high calcium fly
ash and cement, Cement and Concrete Composites,
27(2): 301-313.
doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2004.02.019
Mulli, K.A., Walia, P., and Sharma, N.S. (2006).
Application of polypropylene fiber reinforced
concrete (pfrc) with vacuum processing.Advances
in Bridge Engineering, Walia International Machines
Corp., New Delhi, India.
Nagu, P.S., Chandarkaran, S., and Sankar, N. (2008).
Behavior of lime stabilized clayey soil, reinforced
with nylon fibers. Proceedings of 08 International
Conference on Geotechnical and Highway
Engineering, Geotropika, Kuala Lumpar, Malaysia,
May.
Nevile, A.M. (2001). Properties of Concrete, 4
th
edition,
Longman, Malaysia.
Park, T. and Tan, S.A. (2004). Enhanced performance
of reinforced soil walls by the inclusion of short
fiber, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 23:348-361.
doi:10.1016/j.geotexmem.12.002
Sika Fibers, (2005). Technical Data Sheet, Version no.
0010 edition 3, Sika Fiber, Malaysia.
Tang, C.B., Shi, W. Gao, W., Chen, and Cai, Y. (2006).
Strength and mechanical behavior of short
polypropylene fiber reinforced and cement stabilized
clayey soil, Geotextiles and Geomembranes,
25(3):194-202. doi:10.1016/j.geotexmem.11.002
Yetimoglu, T., Inanir, M. and Inanir, O.E. (2004). A
study on bearing capacity of randomly distributed
fiber-reinforced sand fills overlying soft clay,
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 23:174-183,
doi:10.1016/j.geotexmem.09.004

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


EFFECT OF NaOH MOLARITY ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF
GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE IN AMBIENT CURING CONDITION

S. V. Joshi

Associate Professor, Shree Ramdeobaba Kamla Nehru Engineering College, Nagpur, Maharastra (India)
M. S. Kadu
Professor & Head, Shree Ramdeobaba Kamla Nehru Engineering College, Nagpur, Maharastra (India)

ABSTRACT: Conventional cement concrete usage around the world is second to water. Ordinary Portland cement
(OPC) is conventionally used as primary binder to produce conventional OPC concrete. The amount of carbon dioxide
released during the manufacture of OPC and the extent of energy required to produce OPC are the matters of
environmental concern and poor availability of power. The efforts are being made on various fronts to address these
issues. Fly-ash, abundantly available byproduct of coal fired thermal power stations, having no binding properties of its
own, is now being widely used as an additive binding material in manufacture of concrete .Fly-ash with alkali activators
can produce effective binding material, geo-polymer, through polymerization process which can be used to develop geo-
polymer concrete (GPC). The characteristics of alkali activator, decides the quality of geo-polymer and therefore affects
the important properties of plastic and hardened concrete. In the present work a mixture of sodium hydroxide solution
and sodium silicate solution is used as alkali activator. The present paper deals with exploring the possibility of using
locally available flyash, from thermal power plants in Nagpur region of the State of Maharashtra (India), to effectively
manufacture geo-polymer concrete and studying the effect of molar concentration of sodium hydroxide in alkaline
activator on compressive strength of Geo-polymer concrete. The laboratory investigations provides that under ambient
curing conditions, locally available low-calcium fly ash is suited for manufacture of geo-polymer concrete and the
compressive strength of geo-polymer concrete increases with increase in molar concentration of sodium hydroxide and
best suited molar concentration is 12 with respect to safety in handling and the cost effectivenessaswell
.
INTRODUCTION
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is conventionally used as
primary binder to produce concrete. Worldwide the
production of cement is increasing about 7% annually. The
environmental issues associated with the production of
OPC are well known. The extent of energy required to
produce OPC is only next to steel and aluminum. The
production of one ton of cement liberates about one ton of
CO
2
to the atmosphere, as the result of de-carbonation of
limestone in the kiln during manufacturing of cement and
the combustion of fossil fuels (Roy 1999). The contribution
of Portland cement production worldwide to the
greenhouse gas emission is estimated to be about 1.35
billion tons annually or about 7% of the total greenhouse
gas emissions to the earths atmosphere (Malhotra2002).
The global warming is being seriously considered at
national and international level. The greenhouse effect
created by the industrial emissions is increasing the global
temperature that is resulting in climate changes. Therefore,
any action or attempt made to reduce the effect should be
encouraged and given more attention. In order to produce
environmental-friendly concrete, Mehta (2002) suggested
the use of fewer natural resources, less energy, and
minimize carbon dioxide emissions. McCaffrey (2002)
suggested that the amount of carbon dioxide (CO
2
)
emissions by the cement industries can be reduced by
decreasing the amount of calcinated material in cement, by
decreasing the amount of cement in concrete, and by
decreasing the number of building elements using cement.
In Eastern part of Vidharbha region of the state of
Maharashtra (India), there are four major thermal power
plants established in the vicinity of Nagpur City and ill-
effects of disposal and storage of fly-ash are well known.
The relevance of the study lies in exploring the possibility
of using abundantly available fly-ash in the manufacture
of concrete as an alternative to cement in an attempt to
reduce the emission of greenhouse gases, reduction in
energy requirement and disposing off the byproducts in an
environment-friendly way. The present work is aimed at
evaluating the possibility of using locally available flyash,
and to study the suitability and effects of alkaline activator
parameter such as molar concentration of sodium
hydroxide solution, in ambient curing condition in
temperature range of 35-45 degree centigrade, on the
compressive strength of geo-polymer concrete.

GEOPOLYMERS
Geo-polymers are members of the family of inorganic
polymers. The chemical composition of the geo-polymer
material is similar to natural zeolitic materials, but the
microstructure is amorphous instead of crystalline (Palomo
et al. 1999; Xu and van Deventer 2000). Unlike ordinary
Portland / pozzolonic cements, geo-polymers do not form
calcium silicate-hydrates (C-S-H) for matrix formation,

but utilize the poly-condensation of silica and alumina
and a high alkali content to attain structural strength.
Therefore, geo-polymers are sometimes referred to as
alkali activated alumino silicate binders. Geo-
polymerization involves the chemical reaction of alumino-
silicate oxides (Si
2
O
5
, Al
2
O
2
) with alkali polysilicates
yielding polymeric Si-O-Al bonds. ( J. Davidovits- 1985).

Constituents of Geo-polymer

Source Materials
Any material that contains mostly Silicon (Si) and
Aluminum (Al) in amorphous form is a possible source
material for the manufacture of geo-polymer. Several
mineral and industrial by-product materials have been
investigated in the past. The calcinated source materials
such as fly ash, slag, calcinated kaolin, demonstrated a
higher final compressive strength when compared to those
made using non-calcinated materials. Among the by-
product materials, only fly ash and slag have been proved
to be the potential source materials for making geo-
polymers. Fly ash is considered to be advantageous due to
its high reactivity that comes from its finer particle size
than slag. Moreover, low-calcium fly ash is more desirable
than slag for geo-polymer feedstock material.
Fly Ash
Fly ash, an abundantly available byproduct of thermal
power stations, particles are typically spherical and finer
than portland cement and lime. The diameter ranges from
1 micron to 150micron. Fly ash does not have any
cementing properties by itself. In general, the reactivity of
flyash depends upon chemical composition, fineness and
percentage of amorphous or reactive silica present. It also
depends on quality of coal used as fuel. The types and
relative amount of incombustible matter in the coal
determine the chemical composition of fly ash. Fly ash that
results from burning sub-bituminous coals is referred as
ASTM Class C fly ash or high-calcium fly ash. It is
typically contains more than 20 percent of CaO .On the
other hand, fly ash from the bituminous and anthracite
coals is referred as ASTM Class F fly ash or low-calcium
fly ash. It consists of mainly an aluminosilicate glass and
has less than 10 percent of CaO. The colour of fly ash can
be tan to dark grey depending upon the chemical and
mineral constituents (Malhotra and Ramezanianpour
1994). The loss on ignition (LOI) is a measure of unburnt
carbon remaining in the ash. Fineness of fly ash mostly
depends on the operating conditions of coal crushers and
the grinding process of the coal itself. Finer gradation
generally results in a more reactive ash and contains less
carbon. Low-calcium (ASTM Class F) fly ash is preferred
as a source material than high-calcium (ASTM Class C)
fly ash. The presence of calcium in high amount may
interfere with the polymerization process and alter the
microstructure ( Gourley 2003). The spherical shape of fly
ash often helps to improve the workability of the fresh
concrete. Its small size particle acts as filler of voids in the
concrete to produce dense and durable concrete.
Devodovits et.al.(2005)claimed that to produce optimal
binding properties, the low-calcium fly ash should have the
percentage of unburned material (LOI) less than 5%,
Fe
2
O
3
content should not exceed 10%, and, reactive silica
should be between 40 50%, and 80 90% of particles
should be smaller than 45 m. Bagchi,etal.(2005)provided
characterization of fly ash from one of the prominent
thermal powers Plant Koradi Thermal Power Station
(KTPS) in Vidharbha region (Maharashtra/India). It is
suggested that particles of fly ash under 10 microns
(regardless of the type of fly ash) are the ones that
contribute to 7 and 28 day strengths. Particles between 10
to 45 microns are the ones that slowly react between 28
days and about one year. The particles above 45 microns
are considered as inert, as that do not participate in
pozzolonic reactions even after one year, and behave like
sand. Particles below 10 microns decide the fly ash
reactivity.
Alkaline activators
Alkaline liquid plays an important role in the
polymerization process (Palomo et al.1999). Reactions
occur at a high rate when the alkaline liquid contains
soluble silicate, either sodium or potassium silicate,
compared to the use of only sodium hydroxides (Xu and
Van Deventer, 2000). Addition of sodium silicate solution
to the sodium hydroxide solution to prepare the alkaline
liquid enhanced the reaction between the source material
and the solution. In general the NaOH solution caused a
higher extent of dissolution of minerals than the KOH
solution (Palomo et al. 1999) .The compressive strength
and the workability of geo-polymer concrete are influenced
by the proportions and properties of the constituent
materials that make the geo-polymer paste.
Water to Geo-polymer solid ratio by mass also plays
important role in development of concrete. It is the ratio of
the total mass of water to the total mass of geo polymer
solids. The total mass of water is the sum of mass of water
contained in the sodium silicate liquid, the mass of water
in the sodium hydroxide liquid and the mass of extra
water, if any added to the mixture. The total mass of geo-
polymer solid is the sum of mass of solids in the sodium
silicate solution (i.e. the mass of Na2O and SiO2), the
mass of sodium hydroxide solids and the mass of fly ash.

METHODOLOGY
The laboratory investigation was focused at studying the
effect of molar concentration of sodium hydroxide liquid
on compressive strength of concrete.The methodology
adopted for the present study is summarized in the
following steps.

(1) Design of reference cement concrete mix for M25
grade OPC concrete using IS code method. (IS: 10262-
1982)
As of now, no standard mix design procedure is
available for geo-polymer concrete, however, same
codes and procedures used for design of OPC concrete
can be used for geo-polymer concrete (Rangan 2005).
Therefore, for M25 grade OPC concrete, reference mix
is designed using IS code method (IS:10262-1982)
and it is followed for determining the % of mass of
combined aggregate in a reference geo-polymer mix.
For M-25 Grade, quantity of material required for 1
cum OPC concrete are as follows

(2) Computation of ingredients of geo-polymer
concrete

Aggregate
Geologically, major portion of the Vidharbha region of
Maharashtra is covered with black basalt. Therefore,
coarse aggregates (CA) derived from basalt are used.
Experimental trials suggested that CA of the size of 14 mm
and less can produce a cohesive mix. A combination of 14
mm (40 %), 10 mm (30 %) and 7 mm (30 %) is proposed
in the present work. The fineness modulus of CA is 5.20.
Locally available good quality sand having fineness
modulus 2.46 is used as fine aggregate (FA). The mass of
combined aggregates ( CA + FA) is taken as 71% of mass
of concrete in the proportion of 65 : 35 as worked out from
the mix design.

Alkaline Liquid
Further,for the laboratory investigations alkaline liquid is
prepared using commercially available sodium silicate
liquid and 8 to16 molar concentration sodium hydroxide
liquid. .Sodium silicate liquid content Na
2
O = 15.22 %,
SiO
2
= 28.53 % and water = 56.25 %. In alkaline liquid,
ratio by mass of sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide is
maintained as 2.5, ratio of alkaline liquid to fly-ash by
mass is maintained as 0.35, and water to Geo-polymer
solid ratio by mass is 0.252.

Flyash
Flyash is procured from Koradi Thermal Power Station (KTPS)--
Nagpur in Vidharbha region (Maharashtra/India). The Table 1
provides the comparison of chemical composition of the fly ash
used in the present study and fly ash used in Australia for
geopolymer concrete (Rangan B.V. 2005)

Table 1: Comparison of Chemical composition of Fly
Ash
Composition Rangan et al
(2005)
Batch I
flyash for
present work
SiO
2
53.36 58.59
Al
2
0
3
26.49 35.55
Fe
2
0
3
10.86 1.27
CaO 1.34 1.66
MgO 0.77 0.34
SO
3
1.70 0.36
Na
2
O 0.37 0.28
K
2
O 0.80 0.62
TiO
2
1.47 1.82
P
2
O
5
1.43 0.60
LOI 1.39 0.58

While preparing workable mix in laboratory, it was observed that,
higher water to Geo solids ratio is required to develop workable
geo-polymer concrete. It is almost in the range of 0.23 to 0.30
which is higher than that recommended range of 0.16 to 0.24
(Rangan 2005). It may be due to high percentage of SiO2 and
AI2O3, and Low percentage of Fe2O3 available in the KTPS flyash.
Super plasticizer
As ,water to geosolid ratio adversely affect the
compressive strength of geo-polymer concrete, , appropriate
plasticizers were suggested to be used for improving its
workability. The plasticizer suitability-compatibility study is
undertaken on different types of plasticizers . It revealed that
among the plasticizers tested, sulphonate naphthalene based
plasticizer complying with IS-9103-1999 and BS 5075 part 3 and
ASTM-C-494 type 6 ,BASF Rheobuild817 is suitable and used
as 1% of mass of flyash in the present study.
Sample calculation: For M-25 Grade Geo polymer
concrete (1cum) using fly-ash and alkaline liquid,
materials are calculated considering mass density of Geo-
polymer concrete as 2400 kg/cum, ratio of alkaline liquid to fly
ash as 0.35, and ratio of sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide as
2.5 as follows,
Mass of combined aggregate (CA+FA) =1115+600= 1715 kg,
(same as M25 grade OPC)
Mass of alkaline liquid and fly-ash = 2400 1715 =685 kg
Mass of fly-ash = 685/1.35 = 507 kg,
Mass of alkaline liquid = 685 507 = 178 kg .
Mass of sodium hydroxide liquid = 178/(1 +2.5) = 50.85 kg
Mass of sodium silicate liquid = 178 0.85 = 127.15 kg,
% of mass of combined aggregate = (1715/2400) x100 = 71.46,
% of mass of coarse aggregate = 1115/1715) x100 =65,
% of mass of fine aggregate = (600/1715) x100 = 35,
Therefore CA: FA as 65 : 35.

Content Wat
er
Ceme
nt
F.A. C.A.
Kg 186 422 600 1115
Ratio 0.44 1 1.42 2.64

Table 2: Determination of quantities of ingredients of geo-
polymer concrete
Ratio of
alkaline
liquid
to
fly ash
Mass of
Alkaline
liquid
in Kg
Mass
of
NaOH
Liquid
In Kg
Mass of
Sodium
silicate
liquid
in Kg.
Mass
of
Flyash
in Kg.
Fine
agg.
in
Kg.
Coarse
Agg.
in Kg.
1%
Super
plasticizer
in Kg.
0.35 178 50.85 127.15 507 600 1115 5.07

(3) 150 x 150 mm size casting and testing of cubes.
In order to study the effect of molar concentration of NaOH liquid
in alkaline liquid, on compressive strength of geo-polymer
concrete, cubes of size 150x150 mm are casted for various
combinations of mix. The specimens are cured in ambient
condition where temperature varies in the range of 35 - 45 degree
centigrade. Specimens are tested after 14 days and 28 days.. A
test samples of three specimens is considered to calculate
average compressive strength of GPC.

TEST RESULTS
In line with the objectives of the present work, concrete cubes are
casted and tested under ambient curing conditions as per IS -456
and the test results are presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Effect of NaOH Molar Concentration on
Compressive Strength.

CONCLUSIONS
From the laboratory investigation, following conclusion are
drawn:
(1) The density of geo-polymer concrete varies in the range of
2275 -2350 Kg /cum.
(2) As the molar concentration increased from 8 molar to 16
molar the 14 days and 28 days compressive strength of Geo-
polymer concrete is increased.
(3) The rate of increase in compressive strength with increase in
molar concentration was slow for 8 to 12 molar concentration and
was substancially steep beyond 12 molar concentration.
(4) It is observed that increase in strength from 14 to 28 days for
various molar concentration of NaOH are in range of 50 % to
85%, it is maximum for 12molar concentration.
(5) A detailed investigation is required to decide quality of most
suitable sodium silicate liquid to prepare alkaline liquid with
various molar concentrations of sodium hydroxide liquid. So that
the alkaline liquid can be preserved for 3-4 days in unavoidable
situations.

(6) Alkaline liquid gets solidified on account of formation of
sodium meta silicate. It is observed that the chances of
solidification are more in lower ratios of sodium silicate to
sodium hydroxide i.e. upto 2.0. Therefore ratio of sodium
silicate to sodium hydroxide is recommended as 2.5.
(7) For higher molar concentration of NaOH liquid from
12 to 16 M, chances of solidification are more. Therefore
12 M or even less concentration of NaOH liquid is
recommend even though the corresponding compressive
strength is slightly less.
(8) Higher molar NaOH liquid is costly and equally dangerous
to handle in laboratory. Even if a drop of higher molar
concentration sodium hydroxide liquid (i.e.12 M 16 M) comes
in contact with body it immediately burns the skin. Therefore all
sorts of precautionary measures needs to be taken while handling
liquid, with higher molar concentration.
( 9) It can be concluded from the work carried out that the fly ash
collected from KTPS, located close to Nagpur, a second capital
of Maharashtra, where construction activity is on the hype, can be
effectively used as geo-polymer source material.

SCOPE OF FUTURE RESEARCH
Further research with respect to the effect of water to geo-
polymer solids ratio, sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide
ratio by mass, and alkaline liquid to fly ash ratio by mass
on important properties of GPC need to be done in detail.
Also detailed investigation is required to decide the
quality of most suitable sodium silicate liquid to prepare
alkaline liquid with various molar concentration of sodium
hydroxide liquid.

REFERENCES
Bagchi S.S. and Jadhav R.T. et al., (2005).
Characterization of fly ash from Koradi Thermal Power
Plant for its use as a Pozzolona. Journal IAEM, Vol.
32(3), 181183.
Davidovits, J. (1994a). High-Alkali Cements for 21st
Century Concretes. Paper presented at the V. Mohan
Malhotra Symposium on Concrete Technology: Past,
Present And Future, University of California, Berkeley.
Gourley, J. T. (2003). Geopolymers; Opportunities for
Environmentally Friendly Construction Materials. Paper
presented at the Materials 2003 Conference: Adaptive
Materials for a Modern Society, Sydney.
Hardjito D. and Rangan B. V., (2005). Development and
Properties of Low-Calcium fly ash-based Geopolymer
Concrete. Research Report GC 1 Faculty of
Engineering Curtin University of Technology Perth,
Australia.
Malhotra, V. M. (1999). Making Concrete "Greener" With
Fly Ash. ACI Concrete International, 21(5), 61-66.
Malhotra, V. M., & Mehta, P. K. (2002). High-
NaO
H
mola
r
conc
entra
tion
14 days
Compressive
Strength
28 days Compressive
Strength
% increase
in
compressive
Strength
from 14-28
days
Avg.Den
sity in
Kg/m
3

Avg.
Comp
Streng
th in
MPa
Avg
.Density
in Kg/m
3

Avg.
Comp
Strength in
MPa
8 2274 4.75 2307 8.55 80
10 2276 6.32 2310 9.70 53.48
12 2281 7.95 2316 14.78 85.92
14 2312 13.08 2348.6 19.70
50.61
16 2314 14.54 2351 21.60 48.56

Performance, High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete: Materials,
Mixture Proportioning, Properties, Construction Practice,
and Case Histories. Ottawa: Supplementary Cementing
Materials for Sustainable Development Inc.
McCaffrey, R. (2002). Climate Change and the Cement
Industry. Global Cement and Lime Magazine
(Environmental Special Issue), 15-19.
Palomo, A., M.W.Grutzeck, & M.T.Blanco. (1999).
Alkali-activated fly ashes A cement for the future.
Cement And Concrete Research, 29(8), 1323-1329.
Rangan B.V. (2008). Mix design and production of fly
ash based Geopolymer, Indian concrete journal may
2008, 7 14.
Roy, D. M. (1999). Alkali-activated cements Opportunities
and Challenges. Cement & Concrete Research, 29(2),
249-254.
Xu, H., & Deventer, J. S. J. V. (2000). The geopolymerisation of
alumino-silicate minerals. International Journal of Mineral
Processing, 59(3), 247-266.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


ECONOMICS AND STUDY UNDER BORDER IRRIGATION ON
GROUNDNUT CROP AT VARIOUS WATER APPLICATION LEVELS
A.B. Rathod
Department of Water Resources Management,Civil Engineering, L. D. College of Engineering
Ahmedabad
,
E-mail: anilrathod_222399@yahoo.com
B.Jigar Parekh
Department of Water Resources Management,Civil Engineering, L. D. College of Engineering
Ahmedabad . E-mail:shaileshatrivedi@yahoo.co.in

ABSTRACT: The field experiments were conducted for consecutive three years to assess the crop
performance and economics of Border Irrigation system for groundnut (GG-2) during summer season (Feb. to
May). Total Six treatments having different water application levels based on IW/CPE like 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0
and 1.2 were selected. The lowest pod yield of 1278 kg/ha and highest pod yield of 2125 kg/ha could be
obtained at the IW/CPE of 0.6 and 1.0 respectively requiring 531 and 884 ha.mm/ha of irrigation water
respectively. The treatment of IW/CPE of 0.9 was found statistically better one having the highest water use
efficiency of 2.52 kg/ha/mm. The IW/CPE of 0.9 was found most economical water application level. Also, in
case of excess water supply (IW/CPE=1.2) and deficit water conditions (0.6), the border was not that profitable.

INTRODUCTION
During the summer season, there is a higher yield
potential of groundnut in Saurashtra and Kutch region
of Gujarat State. However, the biggest constraint is
the limited water resources. One of the critical
challenges to water resources management is to shift
from the extensive supply oriented approach to the
one focusing upon deficit applications There are
several ways of increasing efficiency in irrigation.
One way is changing from surface to pressurized
methods of irrigation and second is to apply deficit
water. The extent to second is to apply deficit
irrigation is to increase the water use efficiency of a
crop by eliminating irrigations that have little impact
of yield. The resulting yield reduction may be small
compared with the benefits gained through diverting
the saved water to irrigate additional area or other
crops for which water would normally be insufficient
under traditional practices. Before implementing a
deficit irrigation programme, it is necessary to know
crop yield responses to water applications.

MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY
Field Experiment : The experiment was carried out at
Junagadh Agricultural University campus farm,
Junagadh, Gujarat, India to assess the groundnut crop
performance under border system at various water
application levels during summer season (Feb to May)
for consecutive 3 years. The GG-2 variety of
groundnut crop recommended for this area was
selected. The row spacing, seed and fertilizer rate
were kept as 0.45m, 100 kg/ha and 25:50:00 (N:P:K)
kg/ha as per agronomic recommendations for this
region. Total six treatments having different water
application levels

(IW/CPE of 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 and 1.2) were
replicated 4 times.The water meters were used to
measure the volume of water applications. For the
border irrigation, the border slope was 0.7%. The
width of the border was kept as 1.8 m so that total 4
rows of the crop can be in one border. The parshal
flume was installed in the supply channel to measure
the discharge.

Economics
The cost of cultivation excluding cost of irrigation (C
c
)
included cost of various inputs like cost towards land
preparation, seeds, seed treatment, fertilizer, sowing,
agro chemicals, weeding, inter culturing, harvesting,
threshing, cleaning and packing etc. The cost of seeds,
fertilizer and agro chemicals were taken following the
recommended package of agronomic practices. The
cost of irrigation (C
i
) includes the cost of labour,
electricity and maintenance required for the irrigation
application. The fixed cost (C
t
) included the cost of
pumping/delivery and irrigation system. It was
assumed that the 7.5 HP pumping system can serve 6
ha area (4ha/season, 2 season/year) for 15 years. Also,
it was assumed that the irrigation system could be
useful for 2 seasons per year. The life of the border
irrigation system was taken as 10 years. The
following expressions were used for assessing the
economics.

C
t
= C
c
+ C
i
in which, C
i
= C
v
+ C
t

C
t
=

B/C = NB/C
t
or B/C = GB/C
t
in which GB =
Yp X Pp + Y
f
X P
f
and NB = GB - C
t
;
Where,
C
t
= Total Cost of cultivation (Rs./season/ha);

C
c
= cost of cultivation excluding cost of irrigation
(Rs./ha/season);
C
i
= cost of irrigation (Rs./ha/season); C
c
= Cost of
cultivation excluding cost of irrigation (Rs./ha/season);
C
i
= Cost of irrigation (Rs./has/season); C
f
= Fixed
cost of the irrigation (Rs./ha/season); C
v
= variable
cost of irrigation water applications (Rs/ha/season); P
1

= Cost of pumping and delivery system, Rs; M = Life
of the pumping system, years; P
2
= cost of irrigation
system, Rs/ha; N = Life of the irrigation system, years;
I = prevailing rate of interest, fraction.

CROP PERFORMANCE
Pod Yield
The data as presented in Table-1 indicated that,
during the first year, the highest yield of
1982 kg/ha was under treatment of MST
5
(1.0) using
seasonal water of 884 mm. The treatments MST
4
(0.9),
MST
5
(1.0) and MST
6
(1.2) were statistically at par.
However, during the second year, the highest pod
yield of 2332 kg/ha was observed in the treatment
having IW/CPE of 1.0. The lowest pod yield of 1621
kg/ha was found in the MST
1
(0.6) treatment requiring
seasonal water application of 523 ha.mm/ha. The first
and second highest treatments MST
4
(0.9) and
MST
3
(0.7) and MST
3
(0.8) treatments. During the
third year of experimentation, significant differences
in the pod yields were found among the treatments
having IW/CPE of 0.6, 0.7 and 0.8. However, the
treatments having IW/CPE of 0.8 and 0.9 were found
statistically at par.

The 3 years pooled data showed that the significant
differences were observed among the pod yields data
of treatments having IW/CPE of 0.6, 0.7 and 0.8.. The
treatments having IW/CPE of 0.8 and 0.9 were found
statistically at par. The IW/CPE of 1.0 was taken as
statistically better one. It was found that the pod yield
was decreased for the IW/CPE higher that 0.9. The
pod yield increased with decreasing rate from the
IW/CPE of 0.6 to 0.9. The observed pod yields at
various seasonal irrigation depths are presented The
optimal water requirements were founds as 884 mm
giving maximized pod yield of 2125 kg/has using the
best fitted curve.

Fodder Yield
The pooled data of three years (Table-1) showed that
fodder yield was increased with increased with
increase in the water application level from IW/CPE
of 0.6 to 1.2. The yield under the IW/CPE of 0.6, 0.7,
0.8 and 0.9 differed significantly. However, the
difference between the fodder yield under IW/CPE of
0.9 and 1.0 as well as 1.0 and 1.2 were insignificant. It
could be seen that the fodder productions increased
with increases in irrigation water inputs. However, the
rate of increase was low at higher water application
levels indicating the lower water use efficiency. The
best fitted curve gave the maximum fodder yield of
4667 kg/ha having the optimal water inputs of 1071
mm.

Economics
The Table-2 showed that the total cost of cultivation
of summer groundnut crop under border irrigation
increases with increase in water application levels.
The gross income increased from 20711 Rs./ha in
IW/CPE of 0.6 to 34381 Rs/ha in IW/CPE of 1.0 and
it decreased up to 33378 Rs./ha in IW/CPE of 1.2.
The highest benefits cost ratio (gross income to total
cost) was found to be 1.63 at IW/PE of 1.0. It
increased from 1.13 in IW/PE of 0.6 to 1.63 in
IW/CPE of 1.2. After that, it decreased for the
IW/CPE higher that 1.0. The highest return of 13309
Rs./has was found at IW/CPE of 1.0. The net return
from water saving over base IW/CPE (1.0) were
accounted as Rs. 2463, 5200, 8160 and 11822
respectively in the IW/CPE of 0.6, 0.7, 0.8 and 0.9
respectively.
CONCLUSIONS
(a) The optimal irrigation scheduling for the summer
groundnut under border should be based on IW/CPE
of 0.9. (b) The highest possible water use efficiency
under border irrigation for summer groundnut crop
can be 2.52 kg/ha.mm in this zone. (c) The yield
response to irrigation water for summer groundnut
crop can be described well by quadratic from (d) The
highest internal rate of return (IRR) for investments
made in growing the summer groundnut using border
was found to be 1.63 at IW/CPE of 1.0 (e) The border
irrigation is not economically viable for deficit and
high water application.

REFERENCES
Anoynmous (2003). Final Report of ICAR Adhoc
Project on Studies on Techno-Economic
Feasibilities of Drip Irrigation for Summer
Groundnut Crop and its Comparison with Micro
Sprinkler and Border Irrigation,Junagadh.
English, M.J. et al. (1990). ASAE Monograph, St.
Joseph, MIchigan pp 631-666.
Febeiro, C. et al. (2003). Agric. Water Mgmt. 59 :
155-167.
Hewitt, T.D. et. al. (1980). Proc. Soil and Crop Sc.
Soc., Fla, 39 : 135 - 140.
Hexem, R.W. and Heady, E.O. (1978). Water
Production Functions for Irrigated Agriculture,
IOWA State University Press, Ames, IOWA,
USA.
Kirda, C.P. et. al. (1999) Crop Yield Response to
Deficit Irrigation, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
London.
Rank, H.D. et. al. (2003). Proc. Int. Sem for
downsizing tech. for rural devpt. RRL
Bhubneshwar 1: 254-257.

Stegman, E.C. et. al. (1980). Design and Operation of
Farm Irrig. Systems, ASAE, Washigton.
USDA (1959). SCS National Engg. Handbook,
Washigton, D.C. pp. 8-1 to 8.15.
Wanjura, F.D., et al. (2002). Agic Water Manage,
55:217:237
.

Table 1: Total water applied (ha.mm/ha), pod yield (kg/ha) and fodder yield (kg/ha) obtained under border
irrigation during different years

IW/CPE First year Second year Third year Pooled
Total
water
Applied
(mm)
Pod
Yield
(Kg/ha)
Fodder
Yield
(kg/ha)
Total
water
Applied
(mm)
Pod
Yield
(Kg/ha)
Fodder
Yield
(kg/ha)
Total
water
Applied
(mm)
Pod
Yield
(Kg/ha)
Fodder
Yield
(kg/ha)
Total
water
Applied
(mm)
Pod
Yield
(Kg/ha)
Fodder
Yield
(kg/ha)
0.6 545 977 2333 523 1621 3406 525 1237 2455 531 1278 2731
0.7 625 1153 2929 631 1817 3848 619 1479 3129 629 1483 3302
0.8 713 1407 3611 729 2042 4218 705 1658 3698 716 1702 3841
0.9 784 1837 3961 786 2212 4533 788 1916 4035 786 1988 4177
1.0 884 1982 4554 893 2332 4809 876 2061 4150 884 2125 4504
1.2 1055 1952 4841 1073 2156 4952 1085 1981 4210 1071 2029 4667
SEM - 79.4 110.5 - 57.34 90.8 - 53.01 88.41 - 63.25 96.57
CD - 226.4 315.0 - 163.4 258.9 - 151.1 251.99 - 180.3 275.2
Cv - 14.75 8.83 - 8.19 6.18 - 8.39 7.14 - 10.44 7.38

Table : 2 Cost Benefits (Per Season) Of The Cultivation Of Summer Groundnut Crop Under Border Irrigation
Treatment
(IW/CPE)
Total
Cost
(Rs./ha)
Gross
Income
(Rs./ha)
Net
Return
(Rs./ha)
Total Net Return (With
Return of Water Saving)
Additional
Cost of
System
Over Control
Addi.Benefits of
System over
Better treatment
B/C
ratio of
System
Adoption
0.6 18248 20711 2463 4113 1650 353 1.13
0.7 19032 24232 5200 7332 2132 255 1.27
0.8 19728 27888 8160 10118 1958 168 1.41
0.9 20288 32110 11822 13369 1547 98 1.58
1.0 21072 34381 13309 13309 As base Nil 1.63
1.2 22568 33378 10810 10810 N.A. N.A. 1.47
.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

PETROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION OF CORROSION INHIBITORS
ADMIXED CONCRETE

B.N. Singh
Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Email: bnsgranite@yahoo.co.in
S.K. Singh
Ex.M.Tech Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
V. Kumar
Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
M.A. Quraishi
Department of Applied Chemistry, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi

ABSTRACT: The present paper addresses the petrographic examination of concrete with and without addition of
various dosages of calcium palmitate and calcium nitrite generally used as corrosion inhibitors. Mineralogically and
texturally, these concretes are quite distinct. The concrete samples without corrosion inhibitors are characterized by
the occurrences of microcracks, large-to medium-sized voids and carbonations generally responsible for lowering
the strength and durability of concrete. However, these features are less abundant in the concrete with calcium
palmitate and its mixture with calcium nitrite. The microcracks and voids are infilled with cementitious materials
and C-S-H gel when these corrosion inhibitors are admixed with cement. Further, the formation of thick and thin
rims of hydration and small-to medium-sized grains of calcium hydroxide were observed only in two concrete
samples (PN2 & PN6).

INTRODUCTION
Petrography is an important aspect of geology and
generally dealt with the identification of mineral
constituents and textures of the rocks under petrological
microscope. However, the application of petrological
microscope in the study of concrete and related
materials has a much shorter history. Petrographic
examination of hardened concrete is a quick and well
suited method of diagnosing reason for lack of concrete
durability (Jepsen and Christensen, 1989; John et al.
1998). It is well known that stone pieces (i.e. coarse
aggregate) and sand (i.e. fine aggregate) are the most
important component of concrete. Petrographic
examination plays an important role in identification of
mineral constituents of coarse and fine aggregates as
well as the nature of the binding between cement paste
and aggregates of the hardened concrete. Many workers
were studied hardened concrete and related building
materials under petrological microscope to observe the
microstructures (e.g. microcracks, voids etc.), formation
of gel and extent of carbonation (John et al. 1998; Jana,
2005; Singh et al. 2007, 2009; G.D. Ransinchung et al.
2008; Lukschova et al. 2008 etc.). Petrography also
plays an important role in the identification of alkali
reactive and non-reactive aggregates, formation of
reaction rims in the expanded/ distressed and
deteriorated cores (Sims and Nixon, 2003; Bhatt and
Kumar, 2005).
The present paper deals with the microstructural
behaviours (e.g. presence or absence of microcracks
and voids), formation of gels and rims and the extent of
carbonation in the ordinary portland cement concrete
with and without corrosion inhibitors (i.e. calcium
palmitate and its mixture with calcium nitrite). These
corrosion inhibitors are generally used to lower the
corrosion rate of steel reinforcement in chloride
environment (Singh, 2009). The available published
works reveal that no detailed petrographic study has
been carried out on the concrete with admixture of
corrosion inhibitors used in the present investigation.
However, Singh et al. (2009) were carried out detailed
petrographic study on the concrete admixed with
calcium stearate corrosion inhibitor.

MATERIALS USED
Coarse and Fine Aggregates: Well graded aggregates
of 10mm & 20mm sized crushed Dalastone and natural
sand of Sone River from Chopan, District Sonebhadra
were used. The fineness modulus of the sand was 2.64,
and 6.15 and 7.30 were for 10 mm & 20 mm coarse
aggregates respectively. The physical properties of the
aggregates were obtained as per Indian Standards IS:
383 (1970).
Cement: It was ordinary Portland cement of 43 grade
conforming to IS: 456 (2000).
Calcium Palmitate and Calcium Nitrate Corrosion
Inhibitors:
Calcium palmitate is a compound of calcium with
palmitic acid. Palmitic acid is a common 16- carbon
saturated fat that represents 10-20% of the normal
dietary fat intakes. Calcium palmitate is one of the
major components of the gallstones. It is supplied as
crystalline solids. It is soluble in the organic solvent
chloroform to a concentration of approximately 0.3

mg/ml. Calcium palmitate was prepared in the
laboratory of the Applied Chemistry, I.T., B.H.U.
However, calcium nitrite is commercially available.
Water: Potable tap water was used for preparing
mortar.

METHODOLOGY
The concrete cubes (150 x 150 x 150 mm size) were
prepared in the Structural Engineering Laboratory,
Dept. of Civil Engg., I.T., B.H.U. by using above
mentioned materials as per IS: 456 (2000) mix design
for studying the petrographic features and engineering
properties. The properties of coarse and fine aggregates
were determined as per IS: 383 (1970).
Ten types of concrete cubes [i.e. one Blank sample B;
3 samples (i.e. CP2, CP3 & CP4 with 2%, 3% and 4%
calcium palmitate by weight of cement); and 6 samples
(i.e. PN1, PN2, PN3, PN4, PN5 & PN6) with various
dosages of calcium palmitate and calcium nitrite
mixtures (1% calcium palmitate + 1% calcium nitrite;
2% calcium palmitate + 1% calcium nitrite; 1% calcium
palmitate + 2% calcium nitrite; 1.5% calcium palmitate
+ 1.5% calcium nitrite; 3% calcium palmitate + 1.5%
calcium nitrite ; and 1.5% calcium palmitate + 3%
calcium nitrite by weight of cement) ] were prepared as
per IS:456 (2000). These concrete cubes were cured for
60 and 90 days. After that concrete cubes were dried
properly for thin section preparation. Thin sections
were prepared from broken chips / pieces of these
concrete cubes for petrographic examinations.
Petrographic studies were carried out under the LEICA
DM LP optical microscope available in the Applied
Geology Lab of the Civil Engg. department, I.T., BHU.

PETROGRAPHY
Petrography generally deals with the megascopic and
microscopic examinations of rocks and concrete
samples. The concrete cubes were broken for studying
its megascopic characters. It is observed that coarse
aggregates are angular to sub-angular, triangular and
sub-rounded in shape and enclosed tightly within the
dark-grey coloured groundmass of cementing materials.
Microscopically, the concrete samples with and without
corrosion inhibitors show that coarse aggregates (i.e.
Dalastone), and medium-to coarse-grained minerals
(mostly quartz and feldspars) of fine aggregate are
enclosed within the dark coloured groundmass of
cementing materials. The coarse aggregate constitute
small sized dolomite mineral that interlocked with each
other in comparison to other minerals (e.g. quartz and
feldspar) present in the cementatious groundmass.
Quartz is the most dominating mineral of the fine
aggregate present in the groundmass. Quartz grains are
generally medium- to coarse - grained, anhedral to
subhedral and rounded to sub-rounded in shape.

Fig.1 : Photomicrograph showing microcracks are
running along the periphery of coarse aggregates and
mineral aggregates in the blank sample (cement;90
days). O.L. 2.5 X.

Fig. 2 : Photomicrograph showing large sized voids
present within the groundmass of the blank sample.
Carbonation is also noticed. O.L. 5 X.

Further, it is observed that the microcracks, voids and
carbonation are more prominent in the blank samples B
(Figs.1 & 2) in comparison to concrete samples with
corrosion inhibitors. The blank sample comprises large-
to medium-sized voids (Fig. 2). However, the sizes of
voids are considerably smaller and infilled (partially
and fully) with cementitious materials in the samples of
concrete with corrosion inhibitors (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 : Photomicrograph of sample no. PN1 (cement +
1% calcium palmitate + 1% calcium nitride; 90days)
showing small sized voids, partially infilled, voids and
infilled microcracks. O.L. 5 X.


On the other hand, the microcracks in the blank samples
are developed at the periphery of the coarse aggregates
and running across the groundmass (Fig. 1). While
microcracks are generally infilled partially and fully
with cementitious materials in the concrete samples
with corrosion inhibitors (Figs. 4 & 5).

2% calcium palmitate + 1% calcium nitrite; 60
days)showing thick and thin rims around the coarse
aggregate and mineral grains. Picture also showing
partially infilled microcracks running within the
groundmass.
O.L. 5 X.

1% calcium palmitate + 2% calcium nitite; 90 days)
showing microcracks infilled with C-S-H gel on the
periphery of the coarse aggregate. Small size voids are
also present. Aggregate and most of the quartz grains
showing sharp contact with cementitious materials.
O.L. 2.5 X.

2% calcium palmitate + 1% calcium nitrite; 60 days)
showing rims around the quartz grains. Large to
medium size grey colored grains are also notice.
Infilled and partially infilled voids are also present.
O.L. 2.5 X.

Fig. 7: Photomicrograph of sample no. PN6 (cement +
1.5% calcium palmitate + 3% calcium nitrite; 60 days)
showing partially infilled voids and formation of C-S-H
gel. Picture also show thick and thin rims around the
mineral grains and the periphery of coarse aggregate.
O.L. 2.5 X.

It is important to mention that rims were formed around
the course aggregate and minerals present only in the
groundmass of PN2 and PN6 concrete samples (Figs. 4,
6 & 7).
Further, the grey-colored, rounded to sub-rounded,
angular to rectangular, small- to large-sized grains are
frequently observed only within the groundmass of the
PN2 and PN6 concrete samples (Figs. 4, 6 & 7). The
rims and grey colored grains present within the
groundmass of the sample Nos. PN2 and PN6 are very
much similar to the thick and thin rims of hydration and
small- to large-sized grains of calcium hydroxide

reported by Jana (2006; Fig. 4). However, these
features were not observed in the blank sample and rest
of the concrete samples with corrosion inhibitors.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Petrographic study deals with the mineral constituents
and microstructure / texture of the rocks and concrete
specimens. In the present investigation, concrete with
and without corrosion inhibitors (i.e. calcium palmitate
and its mixture with calcium nitrite) have been studied
under petrological microscope to observe the
microcracks, voids, formation of gels, and carbonation.
The mineral constituents and texture (i.e. size, shape
and arrangement of mineral constitutents within the
groundmass) for both types of concrete samples (i.e.
concrete with and without corrosion inhibitors) are
largely similar. However, microstructurally they are
quite distinct.
Microscopic observations reveal that microcracks and
large to small-sized voids are frequently observed
within the blank sample (Figs 1 & 2). The presence of
more microcracks and voids reduce the strength and
durability of concretes (John et al. 1998; Jana, 2005).
On the other hand, the sizes of voids are considerably
smaller and infilled partially and fully with
cementitious materials in the concrete samples with
corrosion inhibitors (Fig. 3). Microcracks, if present, in
the concrete samples with corrosion inhibitors are
infilled partially and fully with cementitious materials
and calcium silicate hydrates (C-H-S) gel (Figs. 4 & 5)
were formed most probably due to the addition of
corrosion inhibitors in the ordinary Portland cement
concrete.
Further, it is also observed that intensive carbonation
has taken place more frequently in the blank sample
than the concrete samples containing various dosages of
corrosion inhibitors. Carbonation has been noticed
around the voids of blank sample (Fig. 2). It reveals that
blank sample would be more porous in comparison to
concrete with corrosion inhibitors. Porosity generally
affect the durability properties of concrete. Carbonation
most commonly takes place due to the reaction of both
calcium hydroxide and cement hydrates with
atmospheric carbon dioxide (John et al. 1998).
Further, the formation of rims of hydration and grains
of calcium hydroxide observed only in the sample Nos.
PN2 and PN6 (Figs 4, 6, & 7) may be due to addition of
slightly higher dosages of calcium palmitate. Otherwise
these rims and grains must also be present in all
concrete samples with corrosion inhibitors (i.e. mixture
of calcium palmitate and calcium nitrite). These
features of PN2 and PN6 are very much similar to the
rims of hydration and grains of calcium hydroxide
discussed by Jana (2006).
On the basis of present investigation, it is concluded
that these corrosion inhibitors may be used in the
concrete due to better microstructures, formation of
additional C-S-H gel and infilling of pores and
microcracks.

REFERENCES
Bhatt, S.C. and Kumar, R. (2005) Relation between
mineralogical and physical properties of coarse
and fine aggregates and influence of textural,
chemical and dimensional differences on strength
of mortar and concrete Manali (H.P). In : P.S.
Saklani (ed.), Himalaya (Geological Aspects),
Satish Serial Publishing House, New Delhi, V.3,
pp. 101-134.
G.D. Ransinchung, R.N., Singh, B.N., Kumar, B. and
Kumar, V. (2008) Microstructural behaviour of
wollastonite and microsilica admixed concrete for
rigid pavements. Jour. Highway Research
Bulletin, V.1, pp. 13-20.
IS: 383(1970) Specifications for coarse and fine
aggregates from natural resources for concrete.
Indian Standard Institution, New Delhi.
IS: 456 (2000) Plain and reinforced concrete code of
practice. Indian Standard Institution, New Delhi.
Jana, D. (2005) Concrete petrography past, present
and future. In: J.J. Hughes, A.B. Leslie, J.A.
Walsh (eds.), Proceeding of the 10
th
Euroseminar
on Microscopy Applied to Building Materials-
Extended Abstract and CD-ROM, Paisley, U.K.,
University of Paisley, on CD-ROM, 22p.
Jana, D.(2006) Delayed setting of concrete A
petrographic and chemical investigation. In:
Proceedings of the Twenty-Eighth Conference on
Cement Microscopy, Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.,
April 30-May 4, 2006, pp. 141-149.
Jepsen, B.B. and Christensen, P. (1989) Petrographic
examination of hardened concrete. Bulletin of the
International Association of Engineering Geology,
N
0
39 Paris, pp. 99-103.
John St., D.A. Polle, A.B. and Sims, I. (1998) Concrete
Petrography, A hand book of investigative
techniques, published by John Wiley and Sons
Inc. New York, Toranto, 474p.
Lukschova, S., Prikryl, R. and Pertold, Z. (2008)
Petrographic indentification of alkali- silica
reactive aggregates in concrete from 20
th
Century
Bridges. Jour. Construction and Building
Materials, V. 23, pp. 734-741.
Sims, I. and Nixon, P. (2003) RILEM Recommended
Test Method AAR -1 : Detection of potential
alkali-reactivity of aggregates- Petrography
Method. Jour. Materials and Structures, V. 36, pp.
480-496.

Singh, B.N., Kumari Asha and Kumar, V. (2007)
Petrographic study of concrete with and without
microsilica. The Researcher, V.1 (No. 2), pp. 55-
57.
Singh B.N., Abhilash, P.P., Kumar, V. and Quraishi,
M.A. (2009) Microscopic Examination of
concrete with and without corrosion inhibitor. e-
Journal Earth Science India, V.2 (II), pp. 94-100.
Singh, S.K. (2009) Experimental studies on effect of
calcium palmitate, mixture of calcium palmitate
and calcium nitrite, and microsilica as corrosion
inhibitor in concrete. Unpubl. M.Tech.
Dissertation, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Institute
of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, 83 p.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


DETECTION OF ACTIVE LANDSLIDE AREAS IN HIMALAYAS
USING SMALL BASELINE SUBSET INTERFEROMETRY

A. Bhattacharya
Research Scholar, Earthquake Engineering /IIT Roorkee, Roorkee247667, Email: atanudeq@gmail.com
Manoj. K. Arora
Professor, Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee -247667, Email: manoj.arora@gmail.com
Mukat. L. Sharma
Professor, Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee -247667, Email: sharmamukat@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Himalayas, one of the youngest mountain ranges in the world are tectonically and seismically
very active. The crustal movements along the longitudinal thrusts and transverse faults give rise to earthquakes
and in turn the landslides. The study of landslides has drawn global attention mainly due to increasing
awareness of its socio-economic impact as well as increasing pressure of urbanization on mountain regions.
Therefore, identification and demarcation of landslide active areas is necessary for prevention and proper
planning to mitigate the future damage. However, traditional monitoring techniques are expensive and time
consuming. Differential synthetic aperture radar interferometric (DInSAR) is a newly developed remote sensing
technique, which is useful to measure the displacements at high accuracy due to natural calamities. Improved
access to time series of satellite data has led to the development of several innovative multi-temporal
interferometric algorithms. Among them Small baseline subset (SBAS) algorithm is gaining importance to
measure land displacement with a high degree of accuracy. In this paper, preliminary results of SBAS to identify
potential landslide area in Garhwal and Kumaon Himalayan regions of India have been presented. The field
verifications showed significant landslide activity at position in agreement with SBAS interferometric results.

INTRODUCTION
Landslides are a large threat to the population of the
India Himalayas. Many villages and vital transport
routes are endangered by landslides and losses of lives
and important infrastructure are not uncommon. The
landslide incidences in a region have been of serious
concern to the society due to loss of life, natural
resources, infrastructural facilities, etc. Therefore a
detailed mapping of potential landslides is an
important task. However, due to the enormous size of
landslide prone areas, this task cannot be carried out
by ground based methods. Most ground based surface
displacement measurement techniques provide
displacement information on point basis only. As a
result, spatial distribution of displacements in a region
is not possible. Further, the field based techniques are
time consuming, cumbersome and costly. This
hampers the planning and monitoring processes.
In recent years, availability of interferometric
Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) data from a variety
of satellite and airborne remote sensing sensors has
gained momentum, as an alternative technique to
yield accurate height and surface displacement
information at very high accuracies. InSAR derived
displacement measurements are not only feasible but
also moderate in their costs compared to many
ground-based methods. With an increasing number of
SAR satellites the coverage of the earth's land masses
is also improving, especially with ESA's Sentinel
satellites which will be launched in about a year's
time. One of the main applications of synthetic
aperture radar (SAR) interferometry (InSAR) is the
monitoring of natural hazards, in particular of those

phenomena producing ground displacements. Several
examples prove the effectiveness of differential SAR
interferometry from satellite platforms for measuring
ground displacements over wide areas due to different
causes. Satellite-borne Earth observation is a useful
tool for assessing the stability of mountain slopes and
hazard zone mapping. Optical satellite imagery
integrated with synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data
(Singhroy et al. 1998) has been used to map
geomorphologic and topographic characteristics that
are of relevance for landslide inventory and risk
assessment.
First InSAR applications to measure slope motion
were reported by Fruneau et al. (1996) for a landslide
(Saint-Etienne-de-Tinee) in southern France with
displacement rates of 12 cm per day.
Similarly, Rott et al. (1999) also reported
displacement of a landslide above a reservoir in the
Austrian Alps with motion of several centimeters per
year. Rizo and Tesauro (2000) demonstrated the
potential of DInSAR technology to measure the
displacement due to landslide of Randazzo, from the
InSAR data in the month of March and April, 1996. A
displacement rate of 1 cm per day was reported.
Nagler et al. (2002) used DInSAR for detecting and
monitoring slow movements of mountain slopes on
the order of centimeters per year were investigated in
the Austrian and Swiss Alps, using SAR images from
the European ERS -1 and ERS -2 satellites. Squarzoni
et al. (2003) applied DInSAR to detect ground surface
displacement caused by La Valette landslide located
in the Ubaye valley, southern French Alps. Fifteen
differential interferograms realized from ERS-1/2
satellite radar images acquired between 1991 and


1999 were used. Displacement values of the landslide
have been deduced from the SAR interferometric
products interpretation and compared with ground
laser measurements. The average daily velocity of the
landslide between 1991 and 1999 derived by
interferometric analysis was decreased from 1 to 0.4
cm per day. A peak velocity of around 2 cm per day
was observed in 1996. This site was already
investigated with the same technique by Vietmeier et
al. (1999). The data set processed by Vietmeier et al.
(1999) consisted in three tandem pairs acquired from
August 1995 to March 1996 using the technique of
three-pass interferometry. An average daily velocity
of 1.2 cm was reported.
These studies sufficiently demonstrate the potential of
DInSAR for the measurement of land surface
displacement due to landslide at spatial levels.
Though it looks promising as a technique to monitor
slope motion, several researchers (Klees and
Massonnet 1999; McKean and Roering 2004)
highlight some constraints, such as temporal
decorelation, geometrical decorelation and
atmospheric inhomogeneities, present in conventional
SAR technique.
These decorelation effects can be reduced by
combining multiple SAR observations using
multitemporal InSAR techniques. Using more than
two SAR scenes leads to redundant measurements,
which can be utilized for more advanced time series
methods (Lauknes et al. 2010). Time series InSAR
algorithm can be briefly classified into Persistent
Scatterer (PS) and Small Baseline Subset (SBAS).
PS algorithm identify stable image pixels, which are
coherent over long time intervals, in a stack of
interferograms generated with the same master image
(Ferretti et al. 2000; Hooper et al. 2004; Kampes
2006). On the contrary, SBAS algorithm use SAR
image combinations with a short spatial and temporal
baseline to reduce the effects of spatial and temporal
decorelation (Berardino et al. 2002; Hooper 2008;
Lanari et al. 2007; Schmidt & Brgmann 2003). Each
of these algorithms has its advantages and limitations,
and they have both proved to be effective in
successfully estimating deformation time series in
various regions (e.g., Hilley et al. 2004; Hooper et al.
2007; Lauknes et al. 2010).
SBAS method, which is used in this study, is
optimized for the distributed scattering mechanism,
which is very common in natural terrain, where
several adjacent resolution cells represent the same
physical deformation phenomenon. Given a data stack
of multiple SAR images, the distributed scattering
method will give best results when exploiting
interferometric pairs with as small spatial baseline as
possible. The idea behind the SBAS method is to
combine interferograms with a short spatial baseline,
in order to minimize spatial decorelation.
The main aim of this research work was to investigate
the potential of SBAS in estimating the temporal
behavior of land deformation in the Garhwal and
Kumaon Himalayan regions due to earthquake and
landslides. Moreover, future landslide prone areas
were identified with SBAS interferometric technique
by exploiting the previous SAR images.

STUDY AREA
Himalayan region is geo-dynamically very active.
Being the youngest mountain system of the world, it
constitutes fragile ecosystem of unstable slopes giving
rise to frequent geo-hazards including landslides. The
problem is acute in certain regions of the Garhwal
Himalayas. The present research focuses towards an
active landslide area, Mansadevi, Uttarakhand, in
Garhwal and Kumaon Himalayan regions of India.
The Mansa Devi landslide is located above the city of
Haridwar. Mansa Devi hill is spread out the area of
approximately 2 km. from Mansa Devi main gate to at
the end of Bhemgoda road. The Mansa Devi Hill is
one of the landslide prone areas in Uttarakhand.
However, it became active only a decade ago and
threatens the larger part of the city of Haridwar and a
stretch of about 300m of the Haridwar bypass road. It
has been found that there are many, small as well as
large, landslides along the slopes of the Mansa hill
and ominous for highly built-up areas and populations
that has been developed along the foot hills and
adjoining areas near Mansa hill specifically along the
Bhemgoda road, Haridwar. The built-up areas are in
danger zone due to landslide in Mansa hill towards
the loss of human properties and human being
himself. The Figure 1 shows the Mansadevi study
area.

DATASET
A total of 21 ERS SAR raw data sets from descending
satellite track 291 and frame 2997 were received from
ESA, covering the Mansadevi region. The SAR
images covered the time period between May 1992
and June 1999. Among the images, 15 were from the
ERS-1 sensor and 6 from ERS-2. Among the 21
images, 19 images were effectively used in the SBAS
processing. Two images, acquired on May 1999 and
June 1999, were excluded from the dataset because of
very low coherence. Apart from SAR images, an a
priori available SRTM DEMs version3 in geographic
latitude and longitude coordinate were used to remove
the topographic phase. These DEMs had a grid size
of 9090 m and a height standard deviation of 16
meters in plane terrain.


Fig. 1: Mansadevi Study Area

SBAS ALGORITHM
The mathematical concept of SBAS algorithm
assumed N+1 coregistered single look complex (SLC)
SAR images relative to the same area or same satellite
track and acquired in ordered time (t
0
.t
N
). One
can also assumed that each SAR acquisition should
interfered at least another image so that each small
baseline (SB) subset is composed of at least two SAR
acquisitions.
The differential phase ) (
j
o| for a generic coherent
pixel of range and azimuth coordinate (r, a), in
interferogram j, generated by combining SAR
acquisitions at times t
B
and t
A
is given in Equation (1)
(Berardino et al. 2002).
( ) ( ) ( ) a r t a r t a r
A B j
, , , , , =
(1)
( ) ( ) | |
| |
j A atm B atm
j perp
A B
n a r t a r t
z
r
B
4
a r t d a r t d
4
A + +
A
u
t
+
t
~
) , , ( ) , , (
sin
, , , ,
,

(2)
where is the transmitted radar wavelength,
) , , ( a r t
B
| and ) , , ( a r t
A
| are the phases
corresponding to the times t
B
and t
A
, whereas
) , , ( a r t d
B
and
) , , ( a r t d
A
are the radar LOS
projection of the cumulative deformation referenced
to the first scene (i.e. implying
) (
0
t |
).
Ignoring the different error terms, the above Equation
(1) can be organized in a matrix form
j j
A =
(3)
A is an MN matrix where
1 IS j A
j
= ) , (
if
0 IS
j
=
and
1 IE j A
j
+ = ) , (
if
0 IE
j
=
and zero
otherwise. So, A can be considered as an incidence
like matrix which depends on the set of interferogram
generated from the available dataset. The inversion of
the A matrix is depend upon on the number of subset
available from the dataset. If all the dataset belong to
a single small baseline subset one can easily inverse A
matrix and the solution of Equation (3) can be
obtained in least square sense. However, the dataset
belong to a single subset is exceptional in most of the
practical situation. A simple solution for inverting the
Equation (3) is provided by singular value
decomposition (SVD) method. This allows one to
evaluate the pseudo-inverse of the matrix A that
gives the minimum norm least square solution of
the Equation (3).

DEM Error and Low Pass Displacement Signal
Estimation
Next step of SBAS algorithm is to find out the
error of topographic phase due to the a priori
DEM used in the processing. In order to separate
the DEM error term from Equation (2) one can
apply a displacement model to estimate the DEM
errors and low pass deformation signal. A cubic
deformation model given by Berardino et al. (2002),
as given in Equation (4), can be used

(4)
where, v , a and a A are the mean velocity, mean
acceleration and mean acceleration variation
respectively. The unknown parameter vector x can be
written as follows
| | a a v x
T
A = , , (5)
Now one can express the Equation (3) as a linear
system with M equations, corresponding to the
unwrapped phase value of o, and three unknowns as
| |
j
x AM = (6)
Berardino et al. (2002) jointly estimate the DEM error
and low pass component of deformation signal via the
least square solution. One can easily linearly combine
the DEM error term in the Equation (6).
| |
j
x C AM = ,
(7)
where, C is an M1 vector proportional to the DEM
error and shown in Equation (8).
(
u
t
u
t
=
M M
M perp
1 1
1 perp T
r
B
4
r
B
4
C
sin
..., ,.........
sin
, ,

(8)
Now the unknown parameter vector x is a
combination of low pass deformation component of
the unwrapped signal and DEM error.
| | z a a v x
T
A A = , , , (9)

Cumulative Phase Estimation
The estimated DEM error term can be subtracted from
the unwrapped phase, forming the following linear
system
j j
A ' =
(10)
where,
C z
j j
. A = '
is the phase with DEM
error contribution subtracted. In order to reach a
physically sound solution Berardino et al. (2002)
manipulate the Equation (10) in such a way to replace
the unknown parameters with the mean phase velocity
between time adjacent acquisitions. Now the
unknown parameter vector can be written as
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3
0 i
2
0 i 0 i i
t t a
6
1
t t a
2
1
t t v t A + + = . . .


( ) ( ) ( )
(
= =
1 N N
1 N N
N
0 1
1
1
T
t t
t t
v
t t
t
v v ,....

(11)
Incorporating the new unknown parameter vector,
shown in Equation (11), in place of Equation (1) one
can get the following expression
( )
+ =

' =
j
j
IE
IS k
j k k k
v t t
1
1

(12)
The Equation (12) can be organized in a matrix form
and finally leads to the following expression
j
Bv ' =
(13)
The matrix B is an MN and (j, k) element of B
matrix is
k k
t t k j B =
+1
) , (
for
j j
IE k IS s s + 1
and
0 ) , ( = k j B
elsewhere.
However, now the singular value decomposition is
applied to the matrix B. A trivial integration step is
needed to achieve the final solution.

Removal of Atmospheric Effect
The undesired atmospheric signal can be estimated as
follows (Lauknes et al. 2010):
i) The low pass deformation signal from Equation
(4) is removed from the estimated deformation
time series.
ii) Following this, the residual phase signal is
detected as the result of first a temporal high pass
filter with respect to the time variable then a
spatial low pass filter on the residuals. The
estimated atmospheric phase signal is then
subtracted from the deformation phase signal and
then multiplied a factor; the final deformation
signal can be achieved.

SBAS PROCESSING RESULTS
In this section the preliminary results of SBAS
processing are discussed. All the processing including
focusing, coregistration were performed in Norut
GSAR processor (Larsen et al. 2005) and SBAS
processing was performed on ENVI/IDL on Linux
platform. The overall processing was performed by
applying a complex multi-look operation taking two
looks in range and eight looks in azimuth, produced
pixels with ground range dimensions of about 40 m in
range and 30 m in azimuth direction. A total of 42
interferograms were constructed from 19 scenes using
perpendicular baseline threshold of 250 m and 4 years
temporal baseline threshold. The different
combinations of interferograms are shown in Figure 2.
It can be observed from Figure 2b, due to the
threshold method being used, two other images (May
22, 1992 and December 18, 1992) with extreme
baselines were excluded, reducing the number of
unique images being used in the study from 19 to 17.
Out of 42 interferograms 20 good quality
interferograms were effectively used in SBAS
algorithm. Remaining interferograms, which were
connected with long temporal baseline, were removed
from the dataset because those were more susceptible
to unwrapping errors. For each complex
interferogram, a best fitting linear phase ramp due to
imprecise orbit knowledge was estimated and
removed. Two complex interferograms having smaller
perpendicular baseline (9 m) and larger perpendicular
baseline (-230 m) are shown in Figure 3a and Figure
3b respectively. Further, to facilitate the phase
unwrapping pixel thresholding criteria was used.
Interferometric correlation coefficient or coherence
was used as a threshold to select the coherent pixels.
The pixels which exhibited an estimated coherence
value larger than 0.3 in at least 30% of the
interferograms were selected for further processing.
Total 284763 pixels were identified through
thresholding technique. The mean coherence image of
Mansadevi study area is shown in Figure 4. In order
to link all the sparse coherent patches, a Delauny
triangulation and interpolation were performed for all
images, based on the selected pixels. Pixels occurring
in low coherence areas are just filled in via an
interpolation step (implemented via a Delauny
triangulation) starting from data located in high
coherent pixels. The phase unwrapping operation was
carried out using SNAPHU software (Chen and
Zebker 2001). The phase unwrapping algorithm was
only applied to the pixels that exhibit an estimated
coherence value above the chosen coherence
threshold. After the phase unwrapping, the phase
values of all pixels were calibrated with respect to the
phase value of a particular pixel in an assumed stable
area. In order to select a pixel in stable area a priori
deformation knowledge is needed. However, in this
study a priori information about deformation was not
available. Therefore, the stable pixel was taken in an
area having very high coherence. The phase value of
stable pixel was taken as the mean of the phase values
located within a 33 neighborhood in that high
coherence area After phase unwrapping, DEM errors
and LP deformation component were estimated as
described above. Following this operation, the
estimated LP deformation component and DEM error
were subtracted from each input interferogram in
order to reduce the fringe rate density. A new phase
unwrapping algorithm was then applied to the residual
wrapped phase patterns. Final refined unwrapped


DInSAR phase patterns were achieved by adding back
the subtracted LP phase component. Figure 5a and
Figure 5b shows two unwrapped interferograms of the
study area corresponding to the same complex
interferogram shown in Figure 3 (a-b). Relatively
smooth unwrapped image was obtained in
interferogram having lower perpendicular baseline
value whereas, sudden (more than 2) phase jump
was observed in interferogram having higher
perpendicular baseline value. Based on good quality
unwrapped interferograms, SBAS algorithm,
described in section 4, was used. Final mean velocity
was estimated by inverting the Equation (13) using
L
2
-norm based singular value decomposition method
(Berardino et al. 2002). Twenty unwrapped
interferograms were used in SBAS inversion
algorithm for this area. Figures 6 shows the estimated
mean LOS velocity (mm/year) of Mansadevi study
area. The mean velocity maps are superimposed over
the corresponding grayscale SAR intensity images
and for better understanding. In the color scale of the
velocity image zero valued pixels are not shown
because of better visibility of the actual area of
interest. Based upon velocity, displacement maps and
landslide point of view, areas of interest were
identified. These areas were further investigated by
generating displacement time series of some selected
points inside these areas.

Fig. 2: Interferograms of small baseline in Mansadevi
Area
Fig. 3: Measured interferometric phase: (a) measured
phase 930226-930402, B
Perp
= 9 m, (b) measured
phase 970224-980209, B
perp
= 230 m

Fig. 4: Mean Coherence Image of Mansadevi Area
Fig. 5: Unwrapped phase: (a) measured phase
930226-930402, B
Perp
= 9 m, (b) measured phase
970224-980209, B
perp
= 230 m
Fig. 6: Mean Velocity map Supper Imposed on Mean
Intensity Map of the Study Area
DISCUSSIONS
The deformation time series and mean velocity maps can be
used to highlight various types of phenomena occurring on
the terrain. The perfect linear trend of the deformation time
series is not observed for both the study areas. These can
probably be attributed to the contribution of number of
interferogram combinations of each SAR scene. It can be
expected that if few interferograms are computed with
respect to a particular SAR scene, the SVD inversion will be
less robust for this point, and the noise level will be higher.
Another reason may be due to the irregular sampling of the
data set perfect linear trend cannot be achieved.
Three points were selected from the assumed vulnerable
landslide prone area. In mean velocity image a strong
topographic effect was observed may be attributed to error
associated with the external DEM. The deformation time
series of three selected points are shown in Figure 7 (a-c). A
clearly different mean velocity signal was observed between
these three points. A strong uplift signal was observed on
point 3. The uplifting throughout the Himalayan range can
be expected due to the collision of Indian subcontinent with
Eurasia. The amount of convergence rate between India and
Asia was estimated by several researchers (Molnar 1990;
Jackson and Bilham 1994) using different techniques.
However, convergence rate is not uniform and is absorbed
over a large region of central Asia. Due to this horizontal
convergence the vertical uplift of Himalayan range also can
be expected. Molnar (1990) suggested that the vertical
velocity of rocks in the Himalaya varies both across the
range and along the arc. Therefore, it was more reasonable
to study relative LOS deformations of selected points. The
relative LOS deformation of points 1 and 2 with respect to
point 3 are shown in Figure 8 (a-b). A small amount of
negative deformation in LOS direction can be observed
from the Figure 8. Unfortunately, validation of this
deformation was not possible due to the lack of available
ground based deformation measurement data. However, the
field photograph (Figure 9) taken on early 2011 clearly
indicate massive landslides at position in agreement with
SBAS results. Slow surface movements relative to
neighboring area can be noticed during 1992 to 1998 and it
may be assumed that todays landslide is a cumulative effect
of those slow surface movements.

Fig.7: Displacement time Series (A) Point 1 (B) Point 2 and
(C) point 3 of Mansadevi area

1.0
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
Mansadevi
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
9 9 9 9
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
9 9 9 9
A B
C


Fig. 8: Displacement time Series with respect to Point 3 (A)
Point 1 (B) Point 2 of Mansadevi area

Fig.
9:
Field picture of the selected points (taken February-2011) of
the study area

CONCLUSIONS
This study demonstrated the capability of InSAR technique
to identify the relative movement of land surface in spatial
level with high degree of accuracy. However, a clearly
irregular sampling of the dataset significantly affects the
deformation estimation. The quality of the results can
significantly improve using regular sampling dataset.
Further, the number of interferogram combinations also
plays an important role in SBAS technique. Increasing the
higher temporal and spatial baseline thresholds the number
of used images can be increased, which in turn decrease the
number of different subsets and increase the robustness of
SVD inversion technique. However, this condition also
increases the baseline decorrelation phenomenon. The
limiting factor is the ability to unwrap the interferograms,
and still have a significant contribution from distributed
targets. Further study would have to be done in order to test
the use of larger baselines. Another important factor is the
DEM accuracy. In this study SRTM DEMs with spatial
resolution of 90 meters and height standard deviation of
16 meters in plane terrain were used. However, SBAS
method is less sensitive to the DEM accuracy, since this
method estimate the error in the topography contribution for
each pixel, still 90 meters spatial resolution DEM can
poorly estimate the DEM error term spatially strong
topography like Himalayas.
In spite of the several limitations SBAS technique provides
a relatively new and unprecedented technique to determine
potential future landslide prone area. The direct linkage of
InSAR data to structural geology and sliding processes is a
relatively new and novel approach in landslide research and
will prove to be a critical tool in future landslide mitigation.
Although InSAR cannot be considered a replacement for
ground based monitoring of active landslides but it can
provide an important complementary dataset.

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ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

TIME PERIOD ANALYSIS OF LIQUID FILLED CYLINDRICAL
CONTAINER DURING SLOSHING

P. R. Maiti
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, Email:
prmaiti.civ@itbhu.ac.in
Abhinav Srivastava
M. Tech., Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, Email:
abhinavsrivastava@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Sloshing or the movement of free surface of liquid in cylindrical liquid-filled containers under external
excitation is a well studied phenomenon. Various design rules exist for liquid storage tanks to sustain the corresponding
liquid pressure due to external excitation and to take into account the necessary freeboard. A partially liquid filled tank
having a free surface wave produces a subsequent sloshing of liquid due to the rigid body acceleration of the tank. In
the present study an attempt has been made to determine the impulsive and convective time period of a cylindrical
liquid filled container under base excitation considering fluid structure interaction. For analysis of motion of liquid, the
liquid is assumed as inviscid, and motion of liquid is irrotational. Finite element analysis of sloshing in rigid container is
presented. Convective and impulsive time period for cylindrical tank is determined by using different codal provision.
Stress analysis of the tank wall is done by using ANSYS software and the results are presented for base excitation of a
cylindrical tank during sloshing.

Keywords: Sloshing, Convective time period, Impulsive time period, Rigid container.

INTRODUCTION
Sloshing means any motion of the free liquid surface
inside its container. It is caused by any disturbance to
partially filled liquid containers. Depending on the type of
disturbance and container shape, the free liquid surface
can experience different types of motion including simple
planar, non-planar, rotational, irregular beating,
symmetric, asymmetric, quasi-periodic and chaotic. When
interacting with its elastic container, or its support
structure, the free liquid surface can exhibit fascinating
types of motion in the form of energy exchange between
interacting modes. Modulated free surface occurs when
the free-liquid-surface motion interacts with the elastic
support structural dynamics in the neighborhood of
internal resonance conditions (Akyildiz and Unal 2005).
Under low gravity field, the surface tension is dominant
and the liquid may be oriented randomly within the tank
depending essentially upon the wetting characteristics of
the tank wall.
Earthquake-induced as well as sea-wave-induced liquid
motion in a container is of great concern in civil and ship
engineering. Extensive research has been carried out in
the past two decades using analytical, numerical and
experimental methods for evaluating sloshing responses
in rigid containers. However, usually the sloshing
phenomenon is studied considering that the container is a
rigid one and is subjected to base excitation.
Sloshing is the displacement of free surface of liquid in
vertical liquid-filled container under external excitation.
The dynamic load acting over a tank structure as a result
of the fluid motion with free surface confined inside a
tank. The sloshing behaviour is of important concern in
the design of liquid containers. The clear understanding of
sloshing characteristics is essential for the determination
of the required freeboard to prevent overflow of the
contaminated cooling water, and for the estimation of
hydrodynamic pressure on the pool and submerged
components such as racks and fuel assemblies. The
sloshing motion can affect the stability of the free-
standing spent fuels during earthquakes. The sloshing
characteristics in a storage pool may vary considerably
depending on the size and location of the stored spent
fuel. There have been numerous studies done for dynamic
behaviour of fluid containers; most of them are concerned
with cylindrical tanks.
The basic problem of liquid sloshing involves the
estimation of hydrodynamic pressure distribution, forces,
moments and natural frequencies of the free-liquid
surface. These parameters have a direct effect on the
dynamic stability and performance of moving containers.
Generally, the hydrodynamic pressure of liquids in
moving rigid containers has two distinct components. One
component is directly proportional to the acceleration of
the tank. This component is caused by the part of the fluid
moving with the same tank velocity. The second is known
as convective pressure and represents the free-surface-
liquid motion. Mechanical models such as mass-spring-
dashpot or pendulum systems are usually used to model
the sloshing part. A liquids motion inside its container
has an infinite number of natural frequencies, but it is the
lowest few modes that are most likely to be excited by the
motion of a vehicle. Most studies have therefore
concentrated on investigating forced harmonic
oscillations near the lowest natural frequencies, predicted
by the fluid field linear equations. However, nonlinear
effects result in the frequency of maximum response
being slightly different from the linear natural frequency
and dependent on amplitude. Nonlinear effects include
amplitude jump, parametric resonance, chaotic liquid
surface motion, and nonlinear sloshing mode interaction
due to the occurrence of internal resonance among the
liquid sloshing modes. The nonlinearities associated with


free-surface motion inside moving containers are different
from those nonlinear water waves in ocean and canals.
Seismic analysis of liquid storage tanks requires special
considerations. These special considerations account for
the hydrodynamic forces exerted by the fluid on tank
wall. Knowledge of these hydrodynamic forces is
essential in the seismic design of tanks. Evaluation of
hydrodynamic forces requires suitable modeling and
dynamic analysis of tank liquid system, which is rather
complex. However, availability of mechanical models
(analogues) of tanks has considerably simplified the
analysis. These mechanical models, convert the tank-
liquid system into an equivalent spring mass system.
Design codes use these mechanical models to evaluate
seismic response of tanks. While using such an approach,
various other parameters also get associated with the
analysis. Some of these parameters are: Pressure
distribution on tank wall due to lateral and vertical base
excitation, time period of tank in lateral and vertical
mode, effect of soil-structure interaction and maximum
sloshing wave height. Design Codes have provisions with
varying degree of details to suitably evaluate these
parameters. Babu and Bhattacharya (1996) presented a
finite element numerical scheme to predict sloshing
displacements and hydrodynamic pressures in thin walled
liquid retaining structure due to external excitations. The
displacement of the tank wall due to the developed
pressure considering coupled fluid structure interaction
problem was solved. Biswal et al. (2003) evaluated the
natural frequencies of liquid in a liquid-filled cylindrical
rigid tank considering with and without baffles. The
authors used an annular plate as a baffle, which was fitted
to the inner periphery of a cylindrical tank. Finite element
technique was used to discretize both the liquid and the
structural domain. The slosh frequencies of liquid were
computed for different dimensions, thicknesses and
positions of baffles, both rigid and flexible considering
the circumferential wave number as one. The coupled
vibration frequencies of the tank-flexible-baffle system
were computed considering the effect of sloshing of
liquid.
An attempt has been taken to study the stress distribution
on the tank wall due to base excitation of a liquid filled
tank. The slosh characteristic of a partially liquid filled
cylindrical tank is studied. In this study, provisions given
in various codes on seismic analysis of tanks are
reviewed. Codes considered are: ACI 350.3, AWWA D-
110, AWWA D-115, Eurocode 8 and New Zealand
National Society for Earthquake Engineering (NZSEE)
guidelines.

MATHEMATICAL FORMULATIONS
The motion of liquid is assumed as inviscid and
irrotational, it may be expressed by Laplace equation in
liquid domain .

2
0 V = (1)
Where, ( , , , ) r z t =
A circular cylinder of radius R is filled with
incompressible liquid of density as shown in Figure 1.

Laplace equation (1) may be written for cylindrical
container

2 2 2
2 2 2 2
1 1
0
r r r r z

c c c c
+ + + =
c c c c
(2)

Boundary condition
Velocity of liquid normal to the tank wall is zero which
gives the no-penetration boundary condition at tank wall
1
I
0
n
c
=
c
(3)
Free surface boundary condition
2
I

2
2
1
. 0
g t z
c c
+ =
c c
(4)
Thus slosh displacement at free surface may be written as

1
g t
c
=
c
(5)
Pressure ( , , , ) P r z t in terms of sloshing displacement
may be written as

1 P
g
g t
c
=
c
(6)
Where g is the acceleration due to gravity force.

Possible solution of equation (2) with the tank wall
boundary condition is given by
| |
0 0
( , , , ) ( ) cos( ) ( )sin( )
cosh[ ( )
( )
cosh( )
mn mn
m n
mn
mn mn
mn
r z t A t m B t m
z H
J R
H

= =
= +
+
(7)

Z
X
Y
R
H

Fig. 1: Cylindrical tank filled with liquid of
depth H


Where
mn
A and
mn
B are time dependent can be
determined from free surface boundary condition and
(.)
m
J is the Bessel function of first kind of order m and
mn
mn
R
= is the root of 0
m mn
r R
J
r
=
c
=
c

The natural frequency of slosh may be written as

2
tanh( )
mn mn
mn
g H
R R

= (8)

Finite element model
The finite element model is based on Galerkin weighted
residual method. The potential function may be
approximated as field variable

1
( , , ) ( )
N
i i
i
N x y z t
=
=

(9)
Where
i
N is the shape function. Applying divergence
theorem to the residual form of governing differential
equation (1) for the liquid and minimizing the energy
function one may write

1 2
1 2
1
i i i i i i
i i i
i i i i
N N N N N N
d
x x y y z z
N N d N nd
g

O
I I
( c c c c c c
+ + O
(
c c c c c c

+ I = I

}
} }

(10)
The equation (10) may be written as
| | [ ] 0 M K + =
(11)
The fluid stiffness matrix [K] is formed by direct
summation of element stiffness matrix and element
stiffness matrix is given by
| |
T
e
A
K RB BdA =
}
(12)
B is the derivative of N and dA is the area of the element.
And mass matrix of the system is found by direct
summation of

1
1
[ ]
n
m
m
M M
g
=
=

(13)
Element mass matrix is given by
| |
T
m
e
M N N d = I
}
(14)
Where n is the total number of element.

DIFFERENT CODES PROVISION

In mechanical model of tank liquid system i.e. spring
mass system is considered in different codes to simplify
the determination of convective and impulsive time
period of tank liquid system. In these mechanical models
it is recognized that vibrating fluid inside the container
has two components, one that moves in unison with the
tank called impulsive component and another one which
undergoes sloshing motion called convective component.

Response to lateral excitation of tank

Impulsive modes refer to lateral mode of tank-liquid
system. Lateral seismic force on tank depends on the
impulsive mode time period. Time period of tank-liquid
system depends on the flexibility of support also. It may
be noted that time period of tank liquid system depends
on mass of wall as well as liquid. However, recognizing
the fact that mass of the wall is usually quite small as
compared to liquid mass, certain approximation made and
mass of the wall is neglected.

Expression for impulsive time period of fixed base
circular tank is stipulated in different codes is shown in
Table 1.

Table 1: Impulsive time period T
i
for cylindrical container

Response to vertical excitation of tank

Under the influence of vertical excitation, liquid exerts
axis-symmetric hydrodynamic pressure on tank wall.
Knowledge of this pressure is essential in properly
assessing the safety and strength of tank wall against
buckling. Response to vertical excitation is mainly
governed by the time period of fundamental breathing
mode or axis-symmetric mode of vibration of tank-liquid
Refer Code Impulsive Time Period T
i
(s)

ACI 350.3

0.628
c
i
w
h
E
T
t
C
R
=
c
w
is a coefficient given as function of h/R

NZSEE
Guidelines
5.61
i
h
h
E
T
K
=
K
h
is function of h/R and t/R

EUROCODE
8
2
i
i
R h
T
C Et
=
2
0.01675( / ) 0.15( / )
0.46
i
C h R h R =
+

Where
c
= Mass density of tank wall
= Mass density of liquid
E = Modulus of elasticity of tank wall
t = Thickness of tank wall
R = Radius of tank
h = Depth of liquid


system. Distribution of hydrodynamic pressure due to
vertical excitation also gets influenced by wall flexibility.
Expression for convective time period T
v
given in various
code is stipulated in Table 2.

Table 2: Convective Time period (T
v
) for cylindrical
container

RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS

Impulsive time period of cylindrical tank for radius R=
2m and R=4m is presented in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3. The
variation of impulsive time period (T
i
) is presented with
the help of EUROCODE 8 and ACI 350.3 for different
liquid depth to radius ratio.

From Fig. 2 and 3, it is observed that as the H/R ratio
increases the time period also increases and this increase
is attributed to the fact that mass of the system also
increases (as time period is directly proportional to mass
of the system). Moreover, it is observed that both
EUROCODE and ACI350.3 codes gave similar results.

Fig. 3: Variation of impulsive time period for radius
R=4m

Fig. 2: Variation of impulsive time period with H/R
ratio for radius R=2m
Refer code Convective time period T
v

ACI 350.3
2
v
T h
E t
R
| |
| |
|
=
|
| |
|\ .
\ .

NZSEE
Guidelines
5.61
v
v
h
T
K E

| |
=
|
|
\ .

K
v
is a function of h/R and t/R

EUROCODE
8
2
0
1
8(1 ) ( )
( / )( / ) ( )
v
I
T h
t R h R I E

| |
= |
|
\ .

0 1
, I I are respectively modified Bessel
function of order 0 and 1 and
2
R
h
=
Where
h = depth of liquid
= Mass density of liquid
E = Modulus of elasticity of tank wall
t = Average thickness of tank wall

Fig. 4: Variation of Convective time period with H/R
ratio of the tank for radius R=2m

Fig. 5: Variation of Convective time period with H/R
ratio of the tank for radius R=4m


Convective time period for vertical mode of vibration is
presented in Fig. 4 and 5. It is observed from figure that
the variation of convective time period is linearly varied
with increasing the H/R ratio of the tank,

STRESS ANALYSIS

A cylindrical tank of radius 2m and height 4m is analyzed
under external excitation. Material properties of tank wall
are chosen for the analysis is as below. Modulus of
elasticity E=2.2 x10
10
N/m
2
, Poissons ratio 0.15 and
density 24 kN/m
3
.

The normal stress distribution of the tank wall is
performed by using ANSYS software and presented in
Figure 6-7.

The shear stress variation of the tank wall is analyzed for
a partially water filled tank and presented in Fig. 8 and 9.

CONCLUSIONS
Time period analysis of liquid filled tank is important as it
decides the natural frequency of the tank liquid system. If
external excitation frequency closes to one of the natural
frequency of the tank liquid system resonance occurs.
Presence of hydrodynamic forces requires special
considerations in the seismic analysis of liquid storage
tanks under vibration. Invariably all the codes use
mechanical models (analogues) to evaluate hydrodynamic
forces. These mechanical models evaluate impulsive and
convective masses, time period of impulsive and
convective modes of vibrations, hydrodynamic pressure
distribution and sloshing wave height. It is noted that
separate mechanical models are available for tanks with
rigid and flexible walls. Rigid tank models are much
simpler than flexible tank models. As far as evaluation of
impulsive and convective mass is concerned, there is no
significant difference in the values obtained from rigid
and flexible tank models. Time period of tank-fluid

Fig. 6: Stress distribution at tank wall in X-
direction

Fig. 7: Stress distribution at tank wall in Y-direction

Fig. 8: Shear Stress distribution at tank wall in X-Y
direction

Fig. 9: Shear Stress distribution at tank wall in X-Z
direction


system, for which close form expressions are available,
depends on tank flexibility. Such an approach makes
these American codes much simpler as compared to
Eurocode 8 and NZSEE guidelines. The type of base on
which tank is resting influences the time period of tank.
Some of the codes deal with tanks with different types of
base supports. NZSEE guidelines suggest consideration
of higher convective mode while evaluating sloshing
wave heights. All other codes consider only first sloshing
mode. Eurocode 8 and ACI 350.3 mention higher values
of sloshing wave height. Although different codes use
different explicit formulae for finding various parameters
of seismic analysis of liquid storage tank but on
evaluation the results and the nature of the graphs show
distinct similarities thereby suggesting that all codes have
similar design consideration for liquid storage tanks.

REFERENCES
ACI 350.3, (2001) Seismic design of liquid containing
concrete structures, An American Concrete Institute
Standard.
ACI 371 (1998) Guide for the analysis, design and
construction of concrete pedestal water towers, An
American Concrete Institute Standard.
Akyildiz, H and Unal, E. (2005) Experimental
investigation of pressure distribution on a rectangular
tank due to the liquid sloshing, Ocean Engineering
32(11-12) 1503-1516
API 650 (1998) Welded storage tanks for oil storage,
American Petroleum Institute Standard, Washington
D. C.
Aslam, M., Godden, W. G., Scalise, D. T. (1979)
Earthquake Sloshing in Annular and Cylindrical
Tanks, Journal of Engineering Mechanics ASME, 105,
pp.371-389
AWWA D-100, (1996) Welded steel tanks for water
storage, American Water Works Association,
Colorado
AWWA D-103, (1997) Factory-coated bolted steel tanks
for water storage, American Water Works
Association, Colorado
Biswal, K. C, Bhattacharyya, S. K., Sinha, P. K. (2003)
Free Vibration Analysis of Liquid-Filled Tank with
Baffles, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 259(1),
pp.177-192
Eurocode 8, (1998), Design provisions for earthquake
resistance of structures, Part 1- General rules and Part
4 Silos, tanks and pipelines, European committee for
Standardization, Brussels.
FEMA 368, (2000), NEHRP recommended provisions for
seismic regulations for new buildings and other
structures, Building seismic safety council, National
Institute of Building Sciences.
Babu S. S and Bhattacharyya S. K. (1996) Finite element
analysis of fluid-structure interactions effects on liquid
retaining structures due to sloshing, computer
structure, 59(6), 1165-1171
Bauer, H. F. and Chiba, M. (2005), Axis-symmetric
oscillation of a viscous liquid covered by an elastic
structure, Journal of Sound & Vibration, 281, 835-
847.
Ikeda, T., and Ibrahim, R. A. (2005). Nonlinear random
responses of a structure parametrically coupled with
liquid sloshing in a cylindrical tank, Journal of sound
and Vibration, 284, 75-102.
Jain, S. K. and Medhekar, P. S., (1993) Proposed
provisions for a seismic design of liquid storage tanks:
Part I Codal provisions, Journal of Structural
Engineering, 20(3), 119-128.
Liu, D. and Lin P., (2008) A numerical study of three
dimensional liquid sloshing in tanks, Journal of
computational Physics 227(8), 3921-3939
Malhotra, P. K., Wenk, T., and Wieland, M., (2000)
Simple procedure for seismic analysis of liquid storage
tanks, Structural Engineering, IABSE, 10 (3), 197-201
NZS 3106, 1986, Code of practice for concrete structures
for the storage of liquids, Standards Association of
New Zealand, Wellington.
Priestley, M. J. N. (1986) Seismic design of storage tanks,
Recommendations of a study group of the New
Zealand National Society for Earthquake Engineering.
Srivastava, Abhinav (2011), Study of sloshing and
hydrodynamic pressure in cylindrical tank, M. Tech
Dissertation submitted to Department of Civil
Engineering, IT BHU, Varanasi
Veletsos, A. S., (1984) Seismic response and design of
liquid storage tanks, Guidelines for Seismic design of
oil & gas pipelines system, ASCE, NY, 255-370.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7
AVERAGE P-T ESTIMATES AND MINERAL CHEMISTRY OF THE
TWO PYROXENE BEARING GRANULITES FROM SONAPAHAR,
WEST KHASI HILLS DISTRICT, MEGHALAYA

S.B.Dwivedi
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, BHU, Varanasi-221005, Email:
sbd.civ@itbhu.ac.in
K.Theunuo
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, BHU, Varanasi-221005, Email:
ktheunuo@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: The two-pyroxene granulite of the Sonapahar belongs to Shillong-Meghalaya-Gneissic complex
and includes orthopyroxene-clinopyroxene-hornblende-plagioclase quartz as a common stable assemblage
during thermal peak of metamorphism. The detailed petrography and mineral chemistry on the basis of EPMA
data of the coexisting phases reveal that the basic granulite represents single events of metamorphism. The
average temperature, average pressure and average P-T condition of metamorphism suggest a thermal peak of
metamorphism at 1029 62
0
C / 7.6 1.7 kbar. The calculation of P-T phase diagram in NCKFMASH system
afford seven stable invariant or intersection points at 780 249
0
C/ 10.43 1.9kbar, 917 239
0
C /8.07 3.9
kbar, 1073 390
0
C /9..392.5kbar,1149 472
0
C /5.13 6.2 kbar, 796 256
0
C / 6.57 5.6 kbar, 1005 415
0
C /
9.64 2.5kbar and 923245
0
C /4.276.8kbar.
Keywords: Two-Pyroxene, Petrography, Mineral Chemistry, Phases and P-T conditions

INTRODUCTION
Granulite represents the middle to lower crustal rock
and play a major role to discuss the geodynamic
evolution of the crust and upper mantle. Coexisting
pyroxene believed to be interesting and important
rock forming mineral which provide physico-
chemical information about the mafic component of
the regionally metamorphosed high grade crustal
rock. Two pyroxene granulites occur in several
localities in India such as Southern Granulite belt,
Eastern Ghat granulite belt as well as in Chhotanagpur
Granite-Gneiss complex. The occurrences of Two-
pyroxene granulites are rare in Shillong-Meghalaya
gneissic complex (SMGC). The investigated area
consists essentially of rocks of upper amphibolite to
granulite facies ( Mazumdar,1976 Lal et al. 1978,
Chatterjee et al.,2007and Dwivedi and Theunuo ,2011
and references therein), flanked on the east by
greenschist facies rocks belonging to the Shillong
series of Precambrian age and to the south by
sedimentary rocks and basic volcanics of Cretaceous
age. Chatterjee et. al. (2007) reported the mineral
dates at Sonapahar tightly clustered at 500 Ma ( pan-
African) of the SMGC which corresponds with the
880-480 Ma Rb-Sr dates of prophyritic granites
(Ghosh et al.,2005and references therein) that
predominantly intruded the east-central part of
SMGC. Chatterjee et al. (2007) also proposed that the
progressively eastward dominance of Cambro-
Ordovician ages in the SMGC indicates a Pan-African
final amalgamation of the Indian plate with the
Australo-Antarctic plate and a northward extension of
the Prydz Bay suture through the SMGC, with the
west boundary of the suture possibly located between
the Garo Golapara, 50 km WSW of Sonapahar. Lal et
al. (1978) established that the metamorphic conditions
of the Sonapahar granulites including the corundum-
spinel-sapphirine metapelites that occur as enclaves
within granite-granodiorite suit were 750
0
C and 5
kbar. However no detailed mineralogical and
petrological studied have been carried out on the two
pyroxene granulite of the Sonapahar. The main
purpose of the present investigation is (a) to discuss
the petrology and mineral chemistry of the two
pyroxene granulite and (b) to calculate the average P-
T condition of metamorphism of the two-pyroxene
granulite and their P-T projection with stable
intersections.

GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The area around Sonapahar ( longitude 25
o
40
N and
latitude 91
o
05
E ) belongs to the Shillong-Meghalaya-

gneissic complex (SMGC) and consists essentially of
rocks of upper amphibolite to granulite facies (Lal et
al. 1978, Chatterjee et al.2007, Dwivedi and Theunuo
,2011) unconfomably overlain by the Shillong Group
of greenschist facies intra cratonic sandy and clayey
rocks (Ahmed,1983,Nandy,2001). We investigated
the area around Sonapahar and prepared the
geological map of the area (Fig.1).

Fig.1 Geological map of the area around Sonapahar of
SMGC.
The basement rocks of the area around Sonapahar
include (i) cordierite-bearing granulites, (ii) basic
granulites (iii) quartz sillimanite schist and (iv)
granite gneisses. The Mineral assemblages suggest
regional metamorphism in granulite facies condition
and the rocks are affected by doubly plunging E-W
trending folds (F
1
) superposed by northerly striking
later folds (F
2
) formed during the D
1
and D
2
phases of
deformation respectively. Time relations between the
two phases of deformation and metamorphic
crystallization, as revealed by S
i
/S
e
relationships of the
porphyroblastic minerals, with the matrix foliation,
indicates that the regional metamorphism which
initiated with the D
1
and finally outlasted the D
2

deformation, represents a single events of
metamorphism including both prograde and
retrograde metamorphic sequences . Four thick bands
of two-pyroxene granulites are exposed towards the
south of the Sonapahar along east and west of the
Village Nogmaweit (Fig.1). These are dark colored
rocks and contain orthopyroxene-clinopyroxene-
hornblende and plagioclase as major constituents.

PETROGRAPHY AND MINERAL CHEMISTRY
Petrography
Two-pyroxene granulite of the investigated area is
dark grey to dark greenish grey in color and is
medium to coarsegrained. It has granulitic texture
/fabric with granular mosaics of the pyroxenes,
hornblende and feldspar (Fig.2a &b).

Fig.2(a) Textural relations in the two pyroxene
granulite of the area around Sonapahar
photomicrograph of coexisting mineral phases under
plane polarized light Mineral abbreviations are Opx:
orthopyroxene; Cpx: clinopyroxene; Hbl:
hornblende; Plag: plagioclase and Qz; quartz

Fig.2 (b) BSE image of coexisting minerals for the
EPMA analyses..

Weak foliation is sometimes present which is defined
by parallel orientation of hornblende, biotite and on
the odd occasion pyroxene and plagioclase. It appears
that during the regional metamorphism
recrystallization or annealing of the oriented fabric
has taken place to varying degree, as commonly seen
in the different granulite facies terrains. The two-
pyroxene granulite of the area around Sonapahar
contains the following minerals: - Orthopyroxene is
feebly to strongly pleochroic and occurs as
subidioblastic grains. It shows inclusion of
hornblende and quartz (Fig.2a) which provide the
evidence of prograde reaction such as Hbl + Qz =
Opx + Cpx + Plag + H
2
O (i). Orthopyroxene is also
partly rimmed by hornblende and suggesting the
evidence of reversal of reaction (i). Clinopyroxene
occurs as subidioblastic prism (Fig.2a &b) and
contain inclusion of hornblende and plagioclase which
also provide the evidence of reaction given above.
Some of the crystals of orthopyroxene show
exsolution patches of colorless clinopyroxene and
vice versa has also been noted. Hornblende is present
in intermittent amounts and occurs as armored relic
within the pyroxene (Fig.2a&b). Hornblende is
commonly present in significant amount (a) as rims
around pyroxene, (b) as coarse poikiloblast and (c) as
subidioblastic prisms in textural equilibrium with the
pyroxene. Plagioclase An-content ranges from (An
40

to An
55
) and occurs as granular aggregates or coarse
lath-shaped subidioblastic prophyroblast Myrmekitic
intergrowth of plagioclase and the pyroxene are seen
in the grain contact of plagioclase and pyroxene. In a
few sections the polysynthetic twin lamellae are
slightly deformed indicating post-crystalline
deformation. Quartz occurs as xenoblasts in
association with plagioclase, and also along the
itergranular space between prisms of pyroxene. In
Fig.2a the quartz grains occurs as inclusion within the
pyroxene along with hornblende and providing the
evidence of prograde reaction (i).

(a)
( b)
Mineral Chemistry
Detailed petrographic studies of the rocks of the area
have revealed the presence of a number of minerals
given above. The coexisting mineral phases have been
analyzed by the EPMA and BSE image of the mineral
phase is shown in Fig.2b.

ANALYTICAL METHOD
Chemical composition of minerals were determined
by CAMECA SX51 EPMA installed at Indian
Institute of Technology, Kharagpur with the
accelerating voltage 15kV and a beam current of 15
nA. X-Ray Lines used for analyses are K for Si, Al,
Na, Mg, Fe, Mn, Cr, Zn, Ba, P, K, Ca and Ti with
standard zedite, orthoclase, Al
2
O
3
, MgO, Fe
2
O
3
, Zns,
BaSO
4
Apatite, wollastonite and rutile.
Pyroxenes The microprobe analyses and structural
formula of the pyroxenes are calculated and the
pyroxenes are plotted in a triangular end member
CasiO
3
-MgSiO
3
Fe
2+
SiO
3
diagram (Fig.3).

Fig.3 Plot of EPMA data of pyroxene shown in part
of triangular diagram CaSiO
3
-MgSiO
3
-FeSiO
3
. The
clinopyroxene coexisting with orthopyroxene is
joined by a line.
The orthopyroxene plot lies between enstatite and
ferrosilite join at En53-57 and contain up to 0.024 to
0.028 Ca per formula unit based on 6 oxygen. The
Al
VI
of the orthopyroxene varies between 0.01 to
0.031 p.f.u. while Al
IV
varies between 0.008 and
0.023.The X
Mg
ranges between 0.56 to 0.57 and
corresponds to hyhersthene. The hypersthene from
basic granulites of the Sonapahar contains 0.59 to
0.99 wt% Al
2
O
3
which is significantly lower from the
basic granulites of

other terrains. The coexisting
clinopyroxene plot lies in the field of salite (Fig.3).
The X
Mg
of clinopyroxene ranges between 0.72 to
0.75. The clinopyroxenes have higher X
Mg
and Al-
content in comparisons to orthopyroxene.
Hornblende: The analyse of hornblende shows
significant amount of Fe
2
O
3
wt% which varies from
1.63 to 3.07Wt%. The Al
IV
and Al
VI
content of
hornblende varies from 1.374 to 1.493 and 0.01 to
0.031 per formula unit at 23oxygen basis
respectively. The X
Mg
of hornblende varies from 0.56
to 0.57 which does not show the significant change of
the X
Mg
values of the hornblende. The Ti content of
the hornblende varies between 0.187 and 0.209 p.f.u
and wt% of TiO
2
varies from 1.66 to 1.83wt%. The ca
content of the hornblende varies from 1.828 to 1.893
p.f.u. suggesting the presence of clacic amphibole.
The tschermakite and edenite composition of the
hormblende of the investigated area are plotted after
Raase et al, .1986 (Fig.4).

Fig.4 Plot of tschermakite against edenite components
expressed as 0.5[Al
VI
-(Na +K)
A
] and (Na + K)
A
atom
per formula unit respectively of calcic amphibole of
the study area.
The plot clearly suggest that the all the hornblende of
the study area lies in the field of granulite facies
(Raase et al.,1986) and indicates that these hornblende
have crystallized near the thermal peak of
metamorphism under granulite facies metamorphism.
Plagioclase: The microprobe and structural formula
of plagioclase shows that Ca/ (Ca +Na +K) ratio of
plagioclase from the study area are 0.49 to 0.51 (i.e.
andesine to labradorite). The Fe is present as Fe
3+
as
minor constituent in plagioclase it may be due to Al
3+
substitution or may be due to extremely fine inclusion
of opaque in plagioclase.

PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE (P-T)
CONDITION OF METAMORPHISM
The P-T condition of metamorphism of two pyroxene
granulites has been deliberated through
orthopyroxene-clinopyroxene solves and exchanges
conventional geothermobarmeters as well as
internally consistent dataset (Thermocalc ver. 3.1).
The temperature estimates at 7 kbar by conventional
geothermometers are given in Table.1

Table.1 Temperature estimates of the two-pyroxene
granulite from solves and exchange conventional
geothermometer at assume pressure
Opx-Cpx
Geothermometers
Temp in
0
C
(Core)
Temp in
0
C (Rim)
Wood& Banno
(1973)
833 766
Wells (1977) 867 769
Powell (1978) 843 796
Average 84817 777 16
The temperature estimate of coexisting
orthopyroxene-clinopyroxene from the basic
granulites of the area around Sonapahar vary in the
range of 833 to 867
0
C for core and 766 to 796
0
C for
rim at 7 kbar. The average pressure (Pav), average
temperature (Tav) and average P-T conditions of
metamorphism (P -T av) are estimated through
average temperature calculation, average pressure
calculation and average P-T calculation of
Thermocalc v.3.1 with EPMA data of phases
involving orthopyroxene , clinopyroxene,
hornblende and plagioclase of domain 1/1.the
calculations are given in table2.

Table.2 The average temperature and average
pressure and average P-T condition estimate through
internally consistent dataset (THERMOCALC v3.1)
where mineral abbreviations are di= diopside,
hed=hedenbergite, cats=Ca-Tschermak pyroxene,
en=enstatite, fs=ferrosilite, mgts= Mg-Tschermak
pyroxene tr=tremolite ,fact=ferroactinolite, ts=
tschermakite, parg=pargasite, an=anorthite, ab=albite,
q=quartz and H
2
O=water fluid.

Reactions used to calculate average temperature(Tav) {for x(H2O) = 0.3}
Independent set of reaction Tem
p in
0
C
Sd(
T)
lnK
1) 2tr = 4di + 3en + 2q + 2H2O
959.1
63
0.612
2) 2di + fs = 2hed + en
917.5
481 -
0.780
3) 3cats + 2tr = 7di + 3mgts + 2q + 2H2O 905.3 139 -
0.889
4) 4mgts + 2tr + 2q = 7en + 4an + 2H2O 972.2
121

12.68
8
5) 5di + fact = 5hed + tr 610.0
493
1.108
6) hed + 2fs + ts = di + 2mgts + fact 1166.
6
677 -
3.009
7) 3tr + parg = 7di + cats + 6en + ab + 4H2O 996.3 59 -
1.373
T av sd fit
Average Temp(
0
C) 1021 51 1.02
Reactions used to calculate Average(Pav) pressure{for x(H2O) = 1.0}
Independent set of reaction P
(Kba
r)
Sd
(P)
lnK
8) cats + q = an 10.4 1.83 2.519
9) di + mgts + q = en + an 8.9 3.97 3.019
10) 5hed + 5mgts + tr + 5q = 5en + fact + 5an 9.8 4.10 13.98
11) 5hed + 3mgts + ts + 5q = 3en + fact + 5an 6.0 4.36 13.64
12) 4cats + en + ts + ab = mgts + parg + 4an 6.9 5.60 12.83
P av sd fit
Average Pressure in Kbar 8.45 1.52 1.08

Single end member diagnostic information of (P-Tav) {for x(H2O) = 0.3}

End
member
P in
kbar
Sd
(P)
Temp
in
0
C
Sd(T) Core Fit
di 7.64 1.66 1032 66 0.219 0.91
hed 7.65 1.67 1030 63 0.249 0.92
cats 6.15 2.21 1005 66 0.394 0.79
en 7.53 1.68 1048 79 0.073 0.90
fs 7.74 1.66 1033 62 0.238 0.86
mgts 7.71 1.73 1031 64 0.285 0.91
tr 8.15 1.72 1069 72 0.326 0.77
fact 7.61 1.66 1022 63 0.233 0.83
ts 7.75 1.66 1026 62 0.225 0.86
parg 8.34 1.85 1005 68 0.001 0.84
an 7.60 1.78 1029 62 0.237 0.91
ab 7.68 1.67 1028 62 0.219 0.91
q 7.64 1.66 1029 62 0.232 0.92
H2O 7.64 1.66 1029 62 0.232 0.92
Average 7.6 1.7 1029 62 0.232 0.92

The calculation of the Tav, Pav has been performed
on the basis of concerning end member reactions
(Table.2). The obtained average temperature
(independent set of reactions 1 to 7) and average
pressure (independent set of reactions 8 to12) are
1021 51
0
C and 8.45 1.52 kbar respectively. The
average P-T condition (P-T av) is estimated on the
source of end member diagnostic information of
pyroxene, hornblende and plagioclase linking
diopside, hedenbergite, Ca-Tschermak pyroxene,
enstatite, ferrosilite, Mg-Tschermak pyroxene
tremolite, ferroactinolite, tschermakite, pargasite,
anorthite, albite, quartz and water fluid. The estimated
average P-T condition of metamorphism is 1029
62
0
C / 7.6 1.7 kbar (table.3) which is within the
limit of ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) of regional
metamorphism in which crustal rocks are subjected to
temperature of 900-1100
0
C at moderate pressure of 7-
13 kbar (Harley,1998). The P-T phase diagram has
been also calculated for the two-pyroxene granulite
from the Thermocalc ver3.1 of the same domain
involving all above mentioned end member phases in
NCKFMASH system and the P-T projection is given
in Fig.5. Fifty-four (54) reactions and 22 intersections
have been obtained out of which only seven
intersections are stable at definite P-T conditions
(Fig.5). The intersection or invariant point (1)
involving phases di, hed, cats, fs,,mgts ,an,q located at
780249
0
C /10.431.9kbar from which four
univariant reactions are diverging, point(2) involving
phases di, hed, en, fs, mgts, an, q at 917239
0
C
/8.073.9 kbar from which five univariant reactions
are diverging, Point(3) involving phases hed, cats, fs,
mgts, fact ,ts, an, q at 1073390
0
C /9..39 2.5 kbar
from which 3 univariant reactions are diverging,
point(4) involving phases hed en, fs, mgts, fact ,ts, an,
q at 1149472
0
C /5.136.2 kbar from which five
univariant rections are diverging, point (5) involving
phases di, hed, cats, fsmgts, ts ,parg, an, ab at
796256
0
C /6.575.6 kbar, point(6) involving phases
cats, fs, mgts, fact ,ts, an, H
2
O at 1005415
0
C
/9.642.5 kbar and finally invariant point(7) involving
phases di, hed, an, fs ,mgts ,ts ,parg, an, ab at
923245
0
C /4.276.8 kbar (Fig.5)

Fig.5 P-T projection in NCKFMASH system plot
showing the seven stable intersections. Where mineral
abbreviatins are di= diopside, hed=hedenbergite,
cats=Ca-Tschermak pyroxene, en=enstatite,
fs=ferrosilite, mgts= Mg-Tschermak pyroxene
tr=tremolite ,fact=ferroactinolite, ts= tschermakite,
parg=pargasite, an=anorthite, ab=albite, q=quartz and
H
2
O=water fluid.
Pressure, temperature, parameters of the minerals at
the invariant points in the NCKFMASH system is
given in Fig.5 and helpful to know the P-T history of
the rock at given mineralogical data (Yang & Powell,
2006)

CONCLUSION
The two pyroxene granulite of the area around
Sonapahar is located towards the south of the
Sonapahar along east and west of the Village
Nogmaweit and contains the mineral phases
orthopyroxene-clinopyroxene-hornblende-plagioclase
quartz. The pyroxene appears in the basic granulite
through the prograde reaction Horblende + quartz=
orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene + plagioclase + vapor.
The reversal of this reaction is also observed which
result in the formation of hornblende wrapping the
orthopyroxene. Textural relations between the two
phases of deformation and metamorphic
crystallization represent single events of
metamorphism including both prograde and
retrograde metamorphic sequences. The mineral
chemistry of the pyroxene, hornblende and
plagioclase and BSE image provide the evidence of
occurrence of the two-pyroxene granulite and also
show the variation of cations within the granulite
facies rocks. The average temperature, average
pressure and average P-T conditions of
metamorphism are 1021 51
0
C, 8.45 1.52 kbar and
1029 62
0
C / 7.6 1.7 kbar respectively. The P-T
condition indicate the thermal peak of the
metamorphism of two-pyroxene granulite at 1029
62
0
C / 7.6 1.7 kbar which support the idea of
ultrahigh-temperature of metamorphism. The seven
stable intersections or invariant points have been
observed in NCKFMAS system with phases involving
di, hed, cats, en, fs, mgts, tr, fact, ts, parg, an ab and q,
H
2
O as excess phases at 780249
0
C /10.431.9 kbar,
917239
0
C /8.073.9 kbar, 1073390
0
C / 9..39 2.5
kbar, 1149472
0
C /5.136.2 kbar, 796256
0
C
/6.575.6 kbar, 1005415
0
C /9.642.5 kbar and
923245
0
C /4.276.8 kbar.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to Prof.R.K.Lal for his valuable
suggestion to give the framework of the manuscript.
This work has been possible through a DST (DCS)
sponsored project (ESS/16/304/2005). We are also
thankful to Head, Department of Civil Engineering,
IT, BHU for providing the infrastructure. K.. Theunuo
would like to thank UGC for financial support as JRF.

REFERENCES

Ahmed, M. (1983) Depositional environment of the
basal conglomerate of the Barapani Formation,
Shillong Group, KhasiHills, Meghalaya. Quart. J.
Geol. Miner. Metal. Soc. India v. 55 pp. 6268.
Chatterjee, N., Mazumdar,A.C.,Bhattacharya,A.,
Saikia,R.R. (2007) Mesoproterozoic granulites of
the Shillong-Meghalaya Plateau: evidence of
westward continuation of the Prydz Bay Pan-
african suture into northeastern India. Precamb.
Res. v.152.pp.1-26.
Dwivedi, S.B and Theunuo, K. (2011). Two pyroxene
mafic granulites from Patharkhang, Shillong-
Meghalaya Gneissic Complex. Curr. Science v.100
pp.100-105.
Ghosh, S., Fallick, A.E., Paul, D.K., Potts, P.J. (
2005) Geochemistryand origin of Neoproterozoic
granitoids of Meghalaya, Northeast India:
Implications for linkage with amalgamation of
GondwanaSupercontinent. Gond. Res. v.8. pp.
421432.
Harley, S.L.( 1998) On the occurrence and
characterization of ultrahigh temperature crustal
metamorphism. In:
Treloar,P.J.,O.Brien,P.J.(Eds.), What drives
metamorphism and metamorphic reactions. Geol.
Soc. London, Special publication v.138 pp81-107.
Holland,T.J.B.,Powell,R.(1998) An internally
consistent thermodynamic dataset for phases of
pertological interest. J.Met.Geol. v.16. pp 309-344.
Lal, R.K., Ackermand, D., Seifert, F., Haldar, S.K..
(1978) Chemographicrelationships in sapphirine-
bearing rocks from Sonapahar,Assam, India.
Contrib. Miner. Petrol. V. 67. pp 169187.
Mazumdar, S.K.(1976) A summary of the
Precambrian Geology of Khasi Hills, Meghalaya.
Geol. Ind. Misc. Publ.v.23 (2) . pp. 311334.
Nandy, D.R. ( 2001) Geodynamics of the
Northeastern India and theAdjoining Region. Acb.
Publ, 209 p.
Powell, R.(1978) Thermodynamics of pyroxene
geotherms. Royal Soc.(London) Phil. Trans..
v.288A. pp.457-469.
Raase,P., Raith.,M., Ackermand,D. and Lal, R.K.
(1986) Progressive metamorphism of mafic rocks
from greenschist to granulite facies in the
Dharwar Craton of South India. J.Geol.
V.94.pp.261-282.
Wells,P.R.A. (1977) Pyroxene thermometry in simple
and complex system.Contrib.Mineral.Petrol. v.62.
pp.129-139.
Wood,B..J. and Banno,S. (1973) Garnet-Opx and
Opx-Cpx relationship in simple and complex
systems. Contrib. Mineral.Petrol. v.42. pp.109-
124.
Yang.J.J. and Powell,R. (2006) Calculated phase
relatins in the system Na
2
O-CaO-K
2
O-FeO-MgO-
Al
2
O
3
-SiO
2
-H
2
O with application to UHP
eclogites and whiteschists. J.Petrol.v.47 pp.2047-
2071.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


CRACK SENSING CAPABILITIES OF SMART CANTILEVER
STRUCTURES
Nilanjan Mallik
Senior Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, Pin-221005, UP, India, e-mail: get_nilu@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT: A theoretical analysis is presented to predict crack sensing capabilities of smart sensors on
cantilever type beam structures under static loading conditions. Smart sensors are made of piezoelectric
materials and their composites. A single sensor is bonded on the top surface of a cantilever beam structure. The
sensor output is modeled with respect to strain developed in the structure due to mechanical point loading. The
effect of crack location, crack size, sensor location, sensor size and sensor properties are studied on the sensor
output.
Keywords: SHM; Structural Health Monitoring; Piezoelectric Sensors; Smart Structures; Smart Sensing;
Intelligent Structures; Cantilever Beam Structures.

INTRODUCTION
Beams are common structures used in machines and
civil structures to carry and transfer high loads.
Cracks are the main cause of failure for such
structures. Sudden failure during high load operation
can be disastrous due to the presence of crack. Thus
early crack detection is a must for structural
components. At present real challenges arising for the
control, maintenance and retrofitting of existing
structures and machineries concern the diagnostic
identification of damages. Non-destructive techniques
(NDT) are of great interest for this purpose.
Conventional methods of NDT include visual
inspection, radiography i. e. X-ray technique, thermal
analysis and ultrasonic testing. However, these
methods require overhauling and too long time for
inspecting every part of structures and are not
practical for real time or online health monitoring.
Moreover, in the case of conventional NDT
techniques, additional hardware is required for
excitation of structures and collection of vibration
data. Of late effective properties of piezoelectric
composites has been obtained by Mallik et. Al. [1].
Smart sensors made of materials like piezoelectric
materials, piezoelectric composites, rheological fluids
i.e. magnetorheological and electrorheological fluids,
shape memory alloys, carbon nanotubes etc. exploits
damage detection online. The piezoelectric materials
are one of the most common smart materials used in
structural health monitoring (SHM). These sensors
also offer the capability of actuation. Crawley et. al.
[2] demonstrated that the combined features of
sensing and actuation of piezoelectric materials can be
used to diagnose structures and generate corrective
measures to provide safety and increase life. Such
structures are called intelligent structures when they
are coupled with piezoelectric sensors and/or
actuators. Egashira and Shinya [3], Zhang et al [4],
Yin et al [5], Shiozawa et al [6] and Rees et al [7]
reported strain based method for structural health
monitoring. Egashira and Shinya [3] and Rees et al
[7] examined metallic materials coated with
piezoelectric coating. Zhang et al [4] and Yin et al [5]
examined the damage detection in composites coated
with PVDF films. Several researchers [8, 9] presented
impedance based method for structural health
monitoring. Park et. al. [8] introduced a damage
detection methodology based on impedance change
with high frequency excitation. Several researchers
[10-13] investigated structural damage detection using
distributed sensors. Okafor et al [9] collected the
modal data through built-in piezosensors. They
detected delaminations by analyzing the data through
a neural network. Fukunaga et al [10] proposed a two-
stage damage identification scheme using a limited
number of piezoelectric sensors. Castillo et al [11]
focused on the use of small embedded or surface
bonded piezoelectric patches for monitoring the
integrity. Schulz et al [14] reported a method based on
the transmittance function. It required deployment of
multiple sensors termed as structural neural network
(SNS). Several researchers [15-19] also demonstrated
use of carbon nanotubes as strain sensors of
structures. Several researchers [20-23] also
demonstrated crack detection technique by using
piezoelectric patches on beam structures. Detailed
parametric study of crack detection by detecting strain
with the help of smart sensors on beam like structures
has not yet been explored much. This provides the
main motivation for the present study. The present
study theoretically demonstrates a strain-based
approach to determine crack in a cantilever beam like
structure using piezoelectric composite sensors. A
series connected sensor system is considered to
develop the mathematical modeling. Detailed
parametric study is illustrated for a single sensor case
and demonstrated its effectiveness for crack sensing.

MODELING
Sensor Modeling
Figure 1 shows n sensors bonded on the top surface
of a cantilever beam structure and connected in series


to a measuring device. Each sensor has electrodes at
its top and bottom surfaces as shown in Fig. 2. It is
assumed that the bonding between sensor patch and
beam structure is perfect. The voltage current
relationship of the series connected sensor circuit can
be given as

0
3 2 1
= + + + + + IR V ....... V V V
n
(1)

In concise form Eq. (1) can be written as

Fig. 1 Cantilever beam with crack mounted with
piezoelectric sensor patches

Fig. 2 A piezoelectric sensor patch

0
1
= +
=
IR V
n
i
i
(2)

where,
i
V is the voltage across the
th
i sensor, R is
the resistance of the measuring device and I is the
current in the circuit. Differentiating both sides of Eq.
(2) w.r.t time, following relationship is obtained

0
1
= +
=
R I V
n
i
i

(3)

where, V
and I
are the time rate of change of

voltage and current, respectively. For a piezoelectric
sensor capacitance ( C ) is related to dielectric
constant ( c ) as

p
h
A
C
c
= (4)

where, A is the cross sectional area of the electrode
surface of the sensor and
p
h is the thickness of the
sensor. Again, electric displacement ( D ) of a
piezoelectric sensor is related with piezoelectric stress
coefficient ( e ) through constitutive equation as

E e D c + e = (5)

where, e and E are mechanical strain and electric
field, respectively. Electric displacement is defined as
the electric charge per unit cross section thus, electric
charge ( Q ) of a piezoelectric sensor can be obtained
from Eq. (5) as

AE eA Q c + e = (6)

Using Eq. (4) and the relationship between electric
field and voltage,
p
h
V
E = , Eq. (6) can be rewritten as

CV eA Q + e = (7)

Current (time rate of charge) through sensor can be
obtained by differentiating Eq. (7) w.r.t. time. Thus,

V C eA Q I

+ e = = (8)

The relationship between voltage and current of a
piezoelectric sensor can thus be written by rewriting
Eq. (8) as

e =
C
eA
C
I
V (9)

For n sensors connected in series Eq. (9) becomes

= =
e =
n
i
n
i
i
C
eA
C
nI
V
1 1

(10)

Substituting Eq. (10) into Eq. (3) current equation for
the sensor is obtained as

=
e = +
n
i
RC
eA
RC
nI
I
1
(11)
Taking Laplace transform of Eq. (11) following
equation in Laplace domain is obtained

=
e = +
n
i
i
) s (
RC
eAs
RC
) s ( nI
) s ( sI
1
(12)

Thus current through the sensors connected in series
is given by
L
P
h
p
h
p

w


=
e
+
=
n
i
i
) s (
n RCs
eAs
) s ( I
1
(13)

And voltage across series connected sensors ( V) can
be obtained from the relation IR V = as

=
e
+
=
n
i
i
) s (
n RCs
eARs
) s ( V
1
(14)

Also voltage across
th
i sensor can be obtained from
the relation
s
i i
IR V = as

=
e
+
=
n
i
i
s
i
i
) s (
n RCs
s eAR
) s ( V
1
(15)

where,
s
i
R is the resistance of the
th
i sensor.
Substituting Eq. (4) into Eq. (14) and (15), voltage
across series connected sensors and across
th
i sensor
can be obtained respectively as

=
e
+ c
=
n
i
i
p
p
) s (
nh As R
s eARh
) s ( V
1

(16)

=
e
+ c
=
n
i
i
p
p
s
i
i
) s (
nh As R
s h eAR
) s ( V
1

(17)

The voltage strain relationship for a single sensor
mounted on the structure and connected to a
measuring device can be obtained from Eq. 16) by
substituting 1 = n as

) s (
h As R
s eARh
) s ( V
p
p
gle sin
e
+ c
=
(18)

For series connection the transfer function of the
sensor assembly is given by

1
1
1
b s
s a
nh As R
s eARh
) s (
) s ( V
) s ( G
p
p
n
i
i
series
+
=
+ c
=
e
=
=
(19)

where,
c
=
p
eh
a
1
and
A R
nh
b
p
c
=
1
. The transfer
function relating sensor output to strain input in case of
a single sensor mounted on the structure and connected
to a measuring device is given by

3
1
b s
s a
h As R
s eARh
) s (
) s ( V
) s ( G
p
p
gle sin
gle sin
+
=
+ c
=
e
= (20)

where,
c
=
p
eh
a
1
and
A R
h
b
p
c
=
3
. For step input
with magnitude as strain
s
) s (
e
= e and
s s
) s (
sum
n
i
i
n
i
i
e
=
e
= e

=
=
1
1
, the time responses of the
sensor for series connection and for single sensor
mounted on the structure are respectively given by

t b
sum
series
e a ) t ( v
1
1

=e (21)

t b gle sin
e a ) t ( v
3
1
=e (22)

The exponential frequency ( a ) or the initial rate of
change of response, the time constant ( T), rise time
(
r
T ) and settling time (
s
T ) for these two cases are
respectively given by
A R
neh
b a | a |
sum p
sum
series
2
2
1 1
c
e
= e = ,
A R
eh
b a | a |
p gle sin
2
2
3 1
c
e
e= = ,
sum p
series
series
neh
A R
| a |
| T |
e
c
= =
2
2
1
,
e
c
= =
2
2
1
p
gle sin
gle sin
eh
A R
| a |
| T | ,
sum p
series
series
r
neh
A R .
| a |
.
T
e
c
= =
2
2
2 2 2 2
,
e
c
= =
2
2
2 2 2 2
p
gle sin
gle sin
r
eh
A R .
| a |
.
T ,
sum p
series
series
s
neh
A R
| a |
T
e
c
= =
2
2
4 4
,
e
c
= =
2
2
4 4
p
gle sin
gle sin
s
eh
A R
| a |
T . The steady state error


for the two cases are given as
sum
series
) ( v =e and
=e ) ( v
gle sin
. The d. c. gain or open loop gain for
the two cases are given as
sum
series
eAR g e = and
e = eAR g
gle sin
. The frequency response of the
sensor when the structure is strained for the two cases
are respectively given by

1 1
1
1
B j A
j b
a
) j ( v
sum series
e =
e +
e
= e (23)

4 4
3
1
B j A
j b
a
) j ( v
gle sin
e =
e +
=e e (24)

where,
2 2 2 2 2 2
2
1
A R h n
neRAh
A
p
sum p
c e +
e
= ,
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
1
A R h n
h A R e
B
p
sum p
c e +
e ce
= ,
2 2 2 2 2
2
4
A R h
eRAh
A
p
p
c e +
e
= ,
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
4
A R h
h A R e
B
p
p
c e +
e ce
= . The magnitude and phase
of frequency response for the two cases are given by
2 2 2 2 2 2
R A h n
AR eh
M
p
sum p
series
c e +
e
= ,
2 2 2 2 2
R A h
AR eh
M
p
p
gle sin
c e +
e
= ,
p
series
nh
AR ec
= | ,
p
gle sin
h
AR ec
= | .

NUMERICAL RESULTS
Numerical results are obtained for a single crack
mounted on a cantilever beam subjected to static load.
Smart sensor used is a piezoelectric composite whose
material properties are obtained from Ref. [1]. Both
time response and frequency response of sensor
output is obtained.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
x 10
-7
Non-dimensional parameter for sensor location
S
t
r
a
i
n

a
t

s
e
n
s
o
r

l
o
c
a
t
i
o
n
Bending strain w/o crack
Strain due to crack
Total strain

Fig. 3 Strain at sensor location with non-dimensional
sensor location parameter

-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
x 10
-7
Non-dimensional parameter for relative position of sensor and crack
S
t
r
a
i
n

a
t

s
e
n
s
o
r

l
o
c
a
t
i
o
n
Bending strain w/o crack
Strain due to crack
Total strain
Sensor to the
left of Crack
Sensor to the
right of Crack

Fig. 4 Strain at sensor location with non-dimensional
parameter of relative location of sensor and crack

A non-dimensional parameter for sensor location is
defined which is ratio of distance of sensor from fixed
end to lotal length of beam. Another non-dimensional
parameter is defined as ratio of distance between
sensor and crack to total length of the beam. It is
found that sensor placed to the left of crack or sensor
placed between fixed end and crack is much more
sensitive than when it is placed to the right of the
crack. Frequency response parameters are also
obtained which are not shown here.

CONCLUSIONS
The present work demonstrates capability of a single
sensor to predict location and size of crack in a
cantilever beam structure. The results show that a
single sensor can locate a crack and predict the size of
crack with very low margins of response. However,
better results can be obtained by using multiple
sensors results of which are not shown in this work.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author acknowledges the funding of Department
of Science and Technology (DST), India vide sanction


order no. SR/FTP/ETA-086/2009 dated 25
th
February,
2010 under Fast Track Scheme.

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(558560).
Zhang H., Galea S., Chiu W. and Lam Y. (1993). An
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strain-measuring and damage monitoring devices.
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Yin L., Wang X. and Shen Y. (1996). Damage
monitoring in composite laminates by
piezoelectric films. Computers and Structures,
59, (623630).
Shiozawa D., Kubo S. and Sakagami T. (2002).
Passive electric potential CT method using
piezoelectric material for crack identification. 4th
International Conference on Inverse Problems
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Rees D., Chiu W. and Jones R. (1992). A numerical
study of crack monitoring in patched structures
using a piezoelectric sensor. Smart Materials and
Structures, 1, (202205).
Park G., Sohn H. and Farrar C. R. (2003). Overview
of piezoelectric impedance based health
monitoring and path forward. The shock and
Vibration Digest, 35(6), (451-463).
Zagrai A. N. and Giurgiutiu V. (2001). Electro-
mechanical impedance method for crack
detection in thin wall structures. 3
rd
International
Workshop of Structural Health Monitoring,
September 12-14, 2001, Stanford University, (1-
10).
Schulz M., Pai P. and Inman D. (1999). Health
monitoring and active control of composite
structures using piezoceramic patches.
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Okafor A., Chandrashekhara K. and Jiang Y. (1996).
Delamination prediction in composite beams with
built-in piezoelectric devices using modal
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Fukunaga H., Hu N. and Chang F. (2002). Structural
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34, (393418).
Castillo D., Pardo de Vera C. and Guemes J. (1999).
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Kirikera G. R., Shinde V., Schulz M. J., Ghosal A.,
Sundaresan M. and Allemang R. (2007). Damage
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using a structural neural system and simulated
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Inpil K., Schulz M. J., Kim J. H., Shhanov V. and Shi
D. (2006). A carbon nanotube strain sensor for
structural health monitoring. Smart Materials and
Structures, 15, (737- 748).
Xiaojun W. and Chung D. D. L. (1995). Short-carbon
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ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


ESTIMATION OF GUST EFFECTIVE FACTOR USING IS 875
(PART 3) 1987 AND MODIFICATIONS PROPOSED BY PREM
KRISHNA (2002)

Deepak Kumar
Senior Engineer, Tata Consulting Engineers Limited, Mumbai, 400083, Email deepakk@tce.co.in
S. Mandal
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, BHU, Varanasi, 221005, Email:
smandal.civ@itbhu.ac.in

ABSTRACT: There are various approaches to estimate the equivalent Static Wind Load on structures.
They are primarily of three types, viz., Displacement based Gust Loading Factor (DGLF), which is
traditionally adopted in the various national codes, Moment based Gust Loading Factor (MGLF), and Shear
based Gust Loading Factor (SGLF). The turbulent random flow field characterized by proper (divergent
infinite types) boundary conditions will give always varying different values of wind pressure as well as
force on any typical building. Thus the design value prescribed for any particular building will be function
of many varying parameters mostly influenced by terrain category, other buildings interfering/ shielding the
turbulence characteristics and flow pattern influenced by boundary conditions [Ojha et al. (2001)]. IS 875
(Part 3) 1987 is based on DGLF, whereas Prem Krishna (2002) presented more versatile methods based
on MGLF, which considers the wind structure interaction in better way [Holmes (2002); Kim et al. (2005),
Deepak et al. (2007)]. This is a recently published document based on recent research publications carried
out globally. The results from these two approaches produce a different set of values for Gust Effective
Factor as well as ESWL.

INTRODUCTION
In addition to the effect of mode combinations,
six basic parameters, viz., g
f
(peak factor), r
(roughness factor), B (Background factor),
(damping coefficient), U (wind speed)
significantly affect estimation of equivalent static
wind load (ESWL). The resonant ESWL
(RESWL) can be expressed in terms of the
inertial load in each structural mode, which
depends on the mass distribution and mode
shape. The background ESWL (BESWL)
depends on the external wind load characteristics
(Davenport, 1985). The present code IS 875 (Part
3) 1987 for calculation of wind loads is based
on displacement based gust loading factor taking
the fundamental mode or first mode of vibration
into consideration. This approach often gives
overestimated background response as well as
higher ESWL. The effect of height, terrain
category and materials of construction (steel or
concrete) on background and resonant
components as well as Gust Effective Factor, (ii)
Relative magnitude of GEF from both the codes
and their variation along the height are
presented. Zhou and Kareem (2003) have
compared the DGLF and MGLF methods and
concluded that MGLF determines that ESWL in
more realistic way that the Traditional DGLF. It
has been also noted in recent researches that
higher modes of vibration may result into locally
higher values of wind loads [Huang & Chen

(2007)]. However, wind turbulence modeling
aspects should be taken care while finally
prescribing a set of comprehensive mathematical
equations [Ojha et al. (2001), Deepak et al.
(2007), Mandal et al. (2001), Mandal et al.
(2005)] for gust effective factor.

GOVERNING EQUATIONS
The IS 875 (part3) 1987 procedure is available
in detail in the published code. In this section,
only the modified procedure as proposed by
Prem Krishna (2002) is outlined.
The Equivalent Static Wind Load (ESWL) or the
wind force (F) is given
F = C
f
A
e
P
d

(1)

where, C
f
= Force Coefficient, A
e
= Effective
Area, P
d
= Design wind pressure, which is given
by (Prem Krishna, 2002)
P
d
= P
z
K
d
K
a

(2)

where, P
z
= 0.6
2
z
V , and V
z
is the velocity of
wind at height Z which is given by K
d
= wind
directionally factor, K
a
= area averaging factor,
and design wind speed is given by a modified
expression, where cyclone factor (k
4
) is
introduced as

V
z
= V
b
k
1
k
2
k
3
k
4

(3)


where k
1
= risk factor, k
2
= terrain category
factor, k
3
= topography factor, k
4
= cyclone
factor (this factor has been introduced newly in
the proposed draft to take care of cyclonic wind
in coastal area). The Gust Factor is expressed as

z v
R s
s v h
I g
SE g h
B g I
G
2 1
2 1
2
2
+
+ +
=

(4)

where, I
h
= turbulence intensity of the wind, h
s
=
average roof of a structure above the ground, g
v

= peak factor for upwind velocity fluctuations
which shall be taken as 3.5, B
s
= background
Factor, which is measure of the slowly varying
background component of the fluctuating
response, caused by low frequency wind speed
variations, given as follows
( ) | |
h
sh
s
L
b s h
B
2
64 36
1
1
5 . 0
2 2
+
+
= (5)
s = height of the level at which wind effects are
calculated for a structure, b
sh
= average breadth
of the structure between heights s and h, L
h
=
measure of the integral turbulence length scale at
height h =
25 . 0
10
100 |
.
|
\
|
h
, g
R
= peak factor for
resonant response (one hour period) given by

( ) | |
o e R
f g 3600 log 2 = (6)
where, f
o
= first mode natural frequency of
vibration of structure in the along wind direction
in hertz, h = total height of a structure, S = size
reduction factor given as follows

( ) ( )
(
+
+
+
(
+
+
=
h v
h v oh o
h
h v o
I g
I g b f
V
I g h f
S
1
1 4
1
65 . 0
1 4
1
1
(7)
b
oh
= average breadth of the structure between
heights 0 and h., I
h
= turbulence intensity,
E = (/4) times the spectrum of turbulence in the
approaching wind stream, given as
( )
6 / 5
2
70 1 N
N
E
+
=

(8)
where,
N= Reduced frequency, expressed as
N =
( ) { }
h
h v h o
V
I g L f
65 . 0
1+
(9)
V
h
= design 3-sec gust wind speed at height h
= ratio of structural damping to critical
damping of a structure, as given in Table 1.

The expression for gust factor as per IS 875 (part
3)-1987 is given by.
( )

SE
B r g G
f
+ + + =
2
1 1 (10)
This expression is valid for all load effects (Such
as BM, SF and top displacement) and this
expression is specifically applied to the slender
and flexible structure.
It can be appreciated that the turbulence
intensity is maximum in terrain category as it is
the category having numerous high closely
spaced obstructions. For across wind response,
Prem Krishna (2002) has given equations, which
was not provided in the IS 875 (Part3) 1987.
EXAMPLE STRUCTURE
A typical framing plan for the example buildings
has been shown in Fig. 1. This same RC
commercial building located in Mumbai coast
has been analysed by Bhandari et al. (2006).
The detailed results and discussion are presented
in Deepak (2008). The study has been done by
varying aspect ratio b/a as 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 as
shown in Fig. 1b. In this Figure, the dimension
b perpendicular to the direction of wind flow
has been varied from 12 m to 48 m, and the other
dimension a, along the flow direction has been
kept constant at 24 m. Floor to floor height
considered here is 3 m.
All the studies in this paper have been done in
respect of the middle frame shown by hatched
lines. The basic wind speed adopted in the
present paper is 44 m/s (as per Fig. 1 of IS 875
(part 3) 1987) for Mumbai.
For the above exanple building, several
parametric studies on gust effective factors were
carried out varying plan aspect ratio, total height
of building, terrain category of building where
they are located, steel building vs concrete
building (Deepak, 2008) as per data and
guidelines given in IS 875 (Part 3) 1987, Prem
Krishna (2002) & AS 1170.2 1989. The salient

results from the above studies are presented and
discussed here.
Variation of BESWL and RESWL
Fig. 2 shows a typical variation of background
and resonant factor along the heights of a 32
storeyed steel framed building using the methods
of Prem Krishna (2002) and present code. Back
ground factor is much higher than resonant
component for this building. Also, the values of
these parameters are higher in case of Prem
Krishna (2002) and increases with height unlike
the IS 875 (part 3) values, which are constant
along the height.

Effect of plan aspect ratio
Fig. 3 presents the resonant and background
components B and R calculated as per Prem
Krishna (2002) with varying plan aspect ratio.
The width of building along the wind flow is
kept fixed at 24 m and width normal to flow is
increased from 12 m to 48 m. It can be seen that
resonant factor is maximum for a square
building, thus it will result into highest GEF
value. Eimani-Kalehsar et al. (2006) also
concluded that buildings square in plan are
subjected to more gust induced forces, and
across wind forces in such cases may be more
than long wind forces.

Effect of height of building
It is seen that in 60 storey building resonant
response is greater than background response,
contrary to 22 storey RC building. In other
words, for other parameters remaining identical,
rigidity of structural system decreases
exponentially with height (Vihwal and Mandal,
2004). Also resonant response is directly
increasing with total height (resulting from
higher flexibility of the structure) of a building
leading to higher value of resonant component
compared to background response. Fig. 4 shows
the variation of GEF for terrain category 1 with
varying height. As expected, GEF is maximum
for the tallest building. The study of GEF values
for steel framed vs RC framed buildings showed
that the steel frame building have higher GEF
values. This is so mainly due to the higher
damping coefficient () of RC structures than
that of steel structures.
Effect of terrain category
In the present code, GEF values are gradually
increasing when terrain category changes from
TC1 through TC4 (refer Figs. 5 & 6) according
to Prem Krishna (2002) & IS 875 (Part 3) 1987
respectively. Using Prem Krishna (2002), GEF
values (noted at the tip of each building) are
gradually decreasing (unlike present code) from
TC1 through TC4.
ESWL values from IS 875 (Part 3), Australian
AS 1170.2 -1989 & Prem Krishna (2002) are
aslso compared in Fig. 7. Several similar graphs
are generated in the present study for different
aspect ratio of building and varying total height.
On the basis of these Figures, it is concluded that
the ESWL values calculated as per IS 875 (part
3) are most conservative.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the present study on regarding
variation of GEF, it can concluded that
1. As total height of a building increases gust
factor value at the tip of the building (i.e.
maximum GEF for that building) increases.
2. Using present code, GEF remains constant
throughout height of the building for any
particular terrain category.
3. Using present code, values GEF (which is
constant throughout the height) obtained for
varying total height of the building shows a
slightly decreasing trend for all categories.
4. Buildings square in plan provides maximum
value of background response.
5. GEF value is higher in case of steel building
when compared with similar reinforced
concrete which is due to low damping
coefficient.
The recent research trend in gust effective factor
may look into modeling of fatigue effect of tall
structures, shielding/ interference effect, across
wind GEF for buildings symmetric on plan.

REFERENCES
AS/NZ1170.2 (2002) Australian/New Zealand
Standard, Structural design actions, Part 2:
wind actions, Standards Australia & Standards
New Zealand.
Bhandari, N. M., Kumar, K., and Krishna, P.
(2006). IS: 875(Part3): Wind Loads on
Buildings and Structures -Proposed Draft &
Commentary. IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0,
Dept. of Civil Engg., IIT-Roorkee, Roorkee.
Davenport, A. G. (1985). The representation of
the dynamics effects of turbulent wind by
equivalent static effects of turbulent wind by
equivalent static wind loads. Engineering
Structures, 16, 287-292.

Deepak Kumar (2008). Estimation of equivalent
static wind load on tall structures. M. Tech.
Thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, IT BHU,
Varanasi, India.
Deepak Kumar, Mandal, S. and Kumar, V.
(2007). Some Aspects in Estimation of
Equivalent Static Wind Load on Tall
Buildings. Proc. Fourth National Conference
on Wind Engineering, SERC Chennai, 30 Oct.
1
st
Nov., 373 380.
Eimani-Kalehsar, H., Kumar, K., and Godbole,
P. N. (2006). Acrosswind loading of tall
rectangular buildings. J. Wind & Engineering,
ISWE, Vol. 3, 32-37.
Holmes, J. D. (2002). Effective Static Load
Distribution in Wind Engineering. Journal of
Wind Engineering and Industrial aerodynamic,
90, 91-109.
Huang, G., and Chen, X. (2007). Wind load
effects and equivalent Static wind loads of tall
building based on Synchronous pressure
measurements. Engineering Structures, 29,
2641-2653.
IS: 875 (part 3)-1987. Indian standard code of
practice for design loads (other than
earthquake) for buildings and structures, part
3-wind loads. Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi, 1989.
Kim, D. Y., Kim, J. Y., Lee, M. H., & Kim, S.
D., (2004). A study on the Evaluation
Methods of Equivalent Design Wind Loads for
tall buildings. Proceeding of the CTBUH
2004 Seoul Conference, Oct 10-13, Seoul,
Korea, II, 1080-1087.
Mandal, S., Ojha, C. S. P., and Bhargava, P.
(2001). Significance of correlation coefficient
in evaluating Reynolds Stresses. J. Wind
Engineering, Japanese Association for Wind
Engineering, 89(10), 317-320.
Mandal, S., Ojha, C. S. P., and Bhargava, P.
(2005). Wind Turbulence modeling at near
wall zone using k- model: A review. J.
Wind & Engineering, Indian Society for Wind
Engineering, Vol. 2, 52-59.
Ojha, C. S. P., Mandal, S., and Bhargava, P.
(2001). Aspects of Inlet boundary prescription
for a turbulent flow field. J. Hydraulic
Prem Krishna (2002) Proposed Modification to
IS:875 (Part 3)-1987. Distributed during
National Conference on Wind Engineering, IIT
Roorkee.
Vihwal, V. and Mandal, S. (2004). A
Parametric Study on frame Shear Wall
Interaction under Wind Load., Proceedings of
Second National Conference on Wind
Engineering (NCWE- 04), Nagpur, India.
Zhou Y., Ming G., and Xiang H. (1999). Along
wind static equivalent wind loads and response
of tall buildings. Part I: Unfavorable
distributions of static equivalent wind loads.
Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
Aerodynamics, 79,135-150.

(a) b = 12 m, a = 24 m (b) b = 24 m, a = 24 m
(c) b = 36 m, a = 24 m (d) b = 48 m, a = 24 m

Fig. 1a : Plan dimensions of the building
analyzed
Fig. 1b : Framing plan of the example building

Fig. 2 : Background and Resonant responses for
32 SSB


0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Factor
Resonant
Background
H
e
i
g
h
t

(
m
)
12B
12R
24B
24R
36B
36R
48B
48R

Fig. 3 : Resonant & background responses for 22
SRCB (Prem Krishna, 2002)

0 2 0 4 0 60 8 0 1 0 0 1 2 0 14 0 1 6 0 1 8 0
0 .8 5
0 .9 0
0 .9 5
1 .0 0
1 .0 5
T e r r a i n C a te g o r y 1
G
u
s
t

F
a
c
t
o
r
H e ig h t ( m )
1 2 S t o r e y
1 7 S t o r e y
2 2 S t o r e y
2 7 S t o r e y
3 2 S t o r e y
3 7 S t o r e y
4 2 S t o r e y
6 0 S t o r e y
Fig. 4 : GEF for RC building in TC1

Fig. 5 : GEF in different Terrain Category for a
60 SRCB (Prem Krishna, 2002)

Fig. 6 : GEF for RC building as per IS 875 (Part
3)-1987

Fig. 7 : ESWL from IS 875, Australian code
AS 1170.2 -1989 & Prem Krishna (2002)

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

ANALYSIS OF SKEW SLAB DECK USING ANALYTICAL METHODS
Rajesh Kumar
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engg., I.T. BHU, Varanasi
rkumar.civ@itbhu.ac.in
Veerendra Kumar

Professor, Department of Civil Engg., I.T. BHU, Varanasi
Bikram Kesharee Patra
M.Tech. Student, Department of Civil Engg., I.T. BHU, Varanasi

ABSTRACT: Bridges and culverts form important parts of a rail or road or any other type of communication
network and the major part of the project of the cost of the project goes into the construction of these structures. In
order to cater to high speeds and more safety requirements of the traffic, modern highways are to be straight as far as
possible and this has required the provision of increasing number of skew bridges. In brief the study includes the
behavior of skew slab bridges with respect to support reaction and deflection of the slab under standard IRC 70R
wheeled loading. The modeling of the slab is done by using both Finite element method (FEM) and Grillage method
and results are compared.
Key words: Bridge, Skew, Concrete slabs, Finite element method, Grillage analogy method, Highway, slab culvert.
INTRODUCTION
Considerable amount of research work has been
reported in the literature on the analysis of skew
bridges under different load combinations. However,
less attention has been paid for exploration of
suitable analysis technique for highly skewed decks.
Since bridges are an important structural element
today, efficient methodology to accurately predict the
behavior of skew bridges assume importance.
Bridges and culverts form important parts of a rail or
road or any other type of communication network
and the major part of the project of the cost of the
project goes into the construction of these structures.
The ideal bridge crossing of any obstacle is a square
crossing, which ensures minimum span, deck area
and support pier lengths, with attendant economies
and it also the easiest structure to design and detail.
In order to cater to high speeds and more safety
requirements of the traffic, modern highways are to
be straight as far as possible and this has required the
provision of increasing number of skew bridges. The
inclination of the centre line of traffic to the normal
to the centre line of the river in case of a river bridge
or other corresponding obstruction is called the skew
angle. For bridges in which the plan form is a
parallelogram is shown in Fig. 1, the angle obtained
by subtracting the acute angle of the parallelogram
from 90 is termed the skew angle of the bridge.

Fig.1 Different components of skew bridge

REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK
A lot of research works have already been done on
the behavior of skew slabs [Victor (1991)
Raina(1990)]. Kennedy (1983) presented an
experimental study on the structural response of
reinforced concrete skew bridges of (a) orthogonally,
(b) non orthogonally shaped waffle slab construction
and (c) of solid slab construction .The response is
examined under elastic and ultimate load condition.
Bakht (1988)

analysed some skew bridges as right
bridges for angle of skew less than 20, It is shown
that the errors in analyzing skew slab on girder
bridges as right bridges are not characterized by the
angle of skew but by two dimensionless parameters,
which depend upon the angle of skew, the spacing
and span of girders, and their flexural rigidities
relative to the flexural rigidity of the deck slab.
Bishara and Elmir (1990) presented a three
dimensional finite element algorithm for computing
internal forces in intermediate and end cross frames

of multi beam composite steel bridges. Bishara and
Elmir (1990) have shown the interaction between
cross frames and girders of bridges. Girder moments
in continuous skew composite bridges have been
found by Ebeiodo and Kennedy (1996). The
developed algorithm was applied to four medium
span simply supported multi girder tangent four lane
bridges, With x-type intermediate cross frames and
end cross frames of the warren truss with vertical
type. The methods which are listed above have not
been consistently explored for high skew angle and
for different aspect ratio of the slab. Therefore, a
consistent and an efficient method are required to
know the behavior of skew deck slab under dead load
and live load. In present study, Grillage Analogy and
Finite Element Method have been chosen for analysis
and compared to each other.

CASE STUDY
A study on the behavior of Skew slab culverts under
standard IRC-70R wheeled loading is presented and
it is based on the analytical modeling of slab culverts
by Grillage Analogy and Finite element method.
Effects of support reactions, deflection for different
spans and skew angle have been studied. The analysis
provides the useful information about the variation of
support reactions, deflection, with respect to change
in skew angle and aspect ratio. The analysis is done
for slabs with different spans and skew angles using
STAAD-v8i software.
The clear roadway between the krebs is taken as 7.5
m for important roads to suit two lane traffic. Krebs
of minimum width 500 mm is desirable. Hence for all
the analysis, clear carriage way distance is kept
constant at 8.5m. To study the effect of aspect ratio
on the behavior of deck slab, different cases have
been studied by taking right span as 3m, 4.5m, 6m,
and 7.5m with skew angle varying from 0-75. Here
the right span is kept constant but the skew span is
varying. Here the study is carried out for, two lane
slab bridge for 3m,4.5m,6m and7.5m right spans for
0,15,30,45,60,75 skew angles. Grillage
Analogy and Finite Element Method have been used
for the analysis of the deck.
APPLICATION OF LOADS ON DECK
The loads consisting of dead load, live load (IRC
70R) and impact load acting on the bridge
superstructure are appropriately distributed to the
nodes of the grillage and FEM. The dead load
comprises of self-weight, wearing coat, parapet, kerb
etc. which are of permanent stationary nature. These
dead loads are customarily considered to be borne by
the longitudinal grid members giving rise to
distributed loads on them. This distributed load is
idealized into equivalent nodal loads. If the dead load
is uniformly distributed load but its centre is non-
coincident with the longitudinal grid line then it is
substituted by a vertical udl together with a torsional
udl. The self-weight of cross-beams is given taking
the total weight of all the cross-beams per span and
equally dividing it in the form of distributed loads to
various longitudinal members of the grillage. The
dead weight of railings, kerbs, footpaths etc. is
lumped on the edge longitudinal grid lines. For the
analysis using STAAD-V8i, in each case the slab is
discritized in grid of interconnected beams in case of
Grillage analogy and grid of interconnected
connected plates in Finite element analysis. For the
sake of convenience in analysis and also for
comparison of results the grid pattern are kept same
in both methods. For analysis purpose both dead and
live load considered simultaneously.

GRID PATTERNS USED FOR MODELING
The following grid patterns as shown in figures
(Figures 2 to 3) are used in the modeling for different
slabs with different skew angle and different aspect
ratio. The selection of a particular grid pattern for
modeling mainly depends upon the availability of
right and skew region and convergence of the results.

Fig. 2 Grid pattern for skew angle 30, 45, 60,
75 (With higher right region and lesser skew
region)

Fig. 3 Grid pattern for skew angle 30, 45, 60,
75 (With lesser right region and higher skew
region)
SUPPORT CONDITION AND SLAB USED FOR
ANALYSIS
To simulate the actual field condition of slab
abutment joint with neoprene rubber bearing, it is
assumed that one edge of the slab has been supported
on hinge and another edge on the roller support. Thus
the deck slab is analyzed as simply supported on the
two edges. There are four different types of slab used
in the analysis procedure which are shown in table 1,
notation like F.P1, G.P1. and F.P115,G.P115 ,
F.P230 the first suffix indicates the Method used i.e.
F for FEM and G for Grillage, and the middle one
indicates P1,P2 indicates the plate size, and last
suffix indicates angle of skew. For right slab third
suffix is employed.
Table 1 Four different type of slab
Right Cross
section (m)
Slab
thickness(mm)
Notation used
in Graph
8.5x3.0 400 P1
8.5x4.5 500 P2
8.5x6.0 600 P3
8.5x7.5 700 P4

Reaction at the Supports due to Edge Loading:
Reaction at the supports has been found for different
skew angles using both the methods and plotted in
the figures (4). For right slab the reaction found
under the wheel is highest and reduces gradually
towards acute angled corner. For Slabs with skew
15-30, the maximum and minimum support
reaction varies from 40% to 51% i.e. decreases near
acute corner and increase near obtuse angle corner.
Then for 45-60 skew, the reaction near acute angle
corner starts negative which increase with increase in
skew angle and aspect ratio and there is heavy
reaction built up at the node near to obtuse angle
corner. As soon as the skew angle reaches 75 there
is a heavy negative reaction built up near the obtuse
angle corner due high amount of torsion and the joint
becomes unstable. The variation in the results of
FEM and grillage method is 20% to 30%. This is due
to the different approaches of analysis in both the
methods.

Fig. 4 Reaction curve for slab, having skew 0-75,
due to edge loading (Combined Grillage & F.E.M)
Reaction at supports due to central loading:
For right slab the reaction found under the wheel is
highest and reduces gradually towards both sides of
centre. For slabs with skew 15 to 30 (Fig.5), the
maximum and minimum support reaction varies from
40% to 51% i.e. decreases near acute corner and
increase near obtuse angle corner. Then for 45 to
60, the reaction near acute angle corner starts
negative which increase with increase in skew angle
and aspect ratio and there is heavy reaction built up at
the node near to obtuse angle corner. As soon as the
skew angle reaches 75 there is a heavy negative
reaction built up near the obtuse angle corner due
high amount of torsion and the joint becomes
unstable. Again the variation in the results of FEM
and grillage method is 20% to 30%. This is due to
the different approaches of analysis in both the
methods

Fig. 5 Reaction curve for slab, having skew 0-75,
due to central loading (Combined Grillage &
F.E.M)
Out Plane Deflection due to Edge and Central
Loading:
For skew angle 0-15 (Fig. 6, for edge loading), the
maximum deflection point remains at mid location.
Maximum deflection is increasing with increase of
skew angle for different aspect ratio. It has also been
observed that maximum deflection point shifting
away from the mid location. Out of plane deflection
for central loading has also been shown in the fig.7.
The nature of the graphs is almost same as due edge
loading. The deflection value in grillage method is
about 20-30% lower than FEM.

Fig. 6 Deflection curve for slab, having skew 0-
75, due to edge loading (Combined Grillage &
F.E.M)

Fig. 7 Deflection curve for slab, having skew 0-
75, due to central loading(Combined Grillage &
F.E.M)
Conclusions
1. In analysis of skew slab bridge both
grillage and finite element method can
be effectively applied. Both methods
are easy to use and versatile.
2. The results of both methods are
matching at a particular grid
spacing(generally 8-12 grid spacing).
Appropriate modelling of the slabs
must be choosen based on aspect ratio
and skew angle.
3. Skew effect on support reaction and on
deflection is less upto skew angle 30.
4. The slab becomes unstable at and above
60 under central and edge loading.
Also the varition in deflection and in
support reaction is very high.
5. The behaviour of skew slab is also
governed by aspect ratio, at lower
aspect ratio the skew effect is more as
compared to higher aspect ratio at a
higher skew angle.
6. The skew effect should be taken into
acccount properly for analysis and
design for skew angle ranging from
30to 60.


REFERENCES
VICTOR, D.J., ESSENTIALS OF BRIDGE
ENGINEERING, OXFORD & IBH PUBLISHING CO.
PVT. LTD., 1991.
RAINA V.K., CONCRETE BRIDGE PRACTICES, TMH
PUBLISHING COMPANY LIMITED, 1990.
KENNEDY, J.B (1983), ORIENTATION OF RIBS IN
WAFFLE SLAB SKEW BRIDGES JOURNAL OF
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING, VOL.
109,NO.3,PP.811-816
BAKHT, B. (1988), ANALYSIS OF SOME SKEW
BRIDGES AS RIGHT BRIDGES, JOURNAL OF
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING, VOL. 114, NO.10,
PP.2307-2322.
BISHARA, A.G.,ELMIR,W.E.(1990), INTERACTION
BETWEEN CROSS FRAMES AND GIRDERS
,JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING,VOL
116,NO.5,PP.1319-1333
EBEIDO, T., AND KENNEDY, J.B. (1996), GIRDER
MOMENTS IN CONTINUOUS SKEW COMPOSITE
BRIDGES, JOURNAL OF BRIDGE ENGINEERIN G,
VOL.1, NO.1, PP 37-45.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

REMOVAL MECHANISM OF Cr (VI) AND Fe (III) METAL IONS FROM
EXPANSIVE SOIL BY ELECTROKINETIC EXTRACTION

Ch. Ramakrishna
Department of Environmental studies, Gitam University, Visakhapatnam -530045
B. S. Nagendra Prakash
Department of Civil Engineering, University Visvesvaraya College of Engineering, Bangalore University Bangalore-560056.
P.V. Sivapullaiah
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-560012, Email: siva@civil.iisc.ernet.in

ABSTRACT: Laboratory studies are conducted to understand mechanisms of removal of different heavy metals in
expansive soils containing montmorillonite clay minerals by electrokinetic process while passing water, acetic acid and
EDTA solution with varying voltage. The permeability of soil, which is low, increases in the presence of contaminants.
The permeability of soil increases further due to osmotic permeability. Only Chromium and Iron are removed from
Black Cotton Soil by electrokinetic processes. Their removal rate of chromium is higher by flushing the soil with water.
Electro kinetics assists the removal of Iron by enhanced flow through the soil as well as by desorption of Iron from soil.

INTRODUCTION
Contamination of subsurface and ground water
subsequently occurs due to leachate migration from
landfills, industrial activities and other sources. Soils
often get contaminated with heavy metals due to improper
disposal of sludges and waste water, from rinsing
operations at electro plating and metal finishing plants.
Decontamination of fine-grained soils from ionic
pollutants by conventional methods is not only costly but
also mostly ineffective because of their low hydraulic
conductivity, low biodiversity and strong adsorption on
their surface (Li & Li, 2000). The demand for innovative
and cost effective in situ remediation stimulated the effort
to employ conduction phenomena in soils under an
electrical field to remove chemical species from soils
(Sellers, 1998). This method called Electrokinetic
Remediation increases flow through soils and desorbs
ions from soil surfaces (Acar & Alshawabkeh, 1993). The
method seems to have met with varying degree of success
depending on contaminants from soils containing
different clay minerals. Several factors such as CEC of
soil, adsorption capacity of contaminant ion ectc.,
responsible for this. The ions, which are sorbed strongly
on the clay particles, are not removed by enhanced flow
alone but by the capacity of applied voltage to desorb and
make them mobile. Also the ions which form stable
hydroxides are not removed unless the pH is efficiently
controlled. The rate of neutralisation of alkalinity by
acetic acid depends on the rate of passing the solution.
The removal of ions from soil by electro kinetic
extraction method is by i) enhanced flow of water by
electrolysis of water and ii) desorption of metal ions form
the surface of the clay particles by ionic migration
(Shapiro & Probstein 1993; Pamukcu & White, 1992). It
is proposed to examine the relative importance of these
processes for their removal. The above aspects for soil
containing heavy metals viz., chromium, nickel,
cadmium, lead, zinc and iron as individual contaminating
ions are studied.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
Black Cotton Soil
Black Cotton Soil used in this study was obtained from
Davanagere, Karnataka state, India. The soil was
collected by open excavation from a depth of one meter
from the natural ground. The soil was dried and passed
through the IS sieve size of 425 microns. The soil so
obtained has clay content of 35%. The clay content
consisted predominantly of Montmorillonite mineral. The
cation exchange capacity of the black cotton soil was
about 29.0 meq/100gms. Compaction characteristics
required for remoulding soil are also determined.
Properties of Soil are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1 Properties of Soils used
Property B C Soil
Specific Gravity 2.74
Liquid Limit (%) 56
Plastic Limit (%) 23
Shrinkage Limit (%) 10.34
Clay Content (%) 35
Max Dry Density (kN/m
3
) 15.1
Optimum Moisture Content (%) 27.76
Cation Exchange Capacity,
(meq/100g)
29

Chemicals Used
The chemicals, Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7), ,
Ferric chloride (FeCl3) used to prepare contaminated soils
with Chromium, and Ferric ions, were obtained from
standard suppliers.

ELECTRO-KINETIC APPARATUS
An apparatus designed, fabricated and assembled for
carrying out the studies. The Electro-kinetic cell was
fabricated using nylon material for the body, which is a
non-conductor of electricity, corrosive resistant, not


affected by acid or alkali and can withstand a pressure of
100 kPa. The electrokinetic cell consists of two end caps
and a specimen cylinder made up of nylon. The test
sample was 80mm in diameter and 300 mm long. Ten
electrical measurement nodes have been installed on the
specimen cylinder at 25 mm intervals so that the electrical
voltage distribution along the sample can be monitored
continuously during the test. The end caps house the
graphite plate electrodes, inflow and outflow tubings.

Fig 1 Electro Kinetic cell

As porous graphite is extremely expensive and fabrication
of porous graphite electrodes is very labour intensive,
normal grade graphite plates were used in this study.
Holes of 1mm dia were drilled through the graphite plate
electrode to facilitate water transport during electro-
osmosis. Details of electrokinetic cell are shown in Fig.1.
The required electrical circuit has been designed,
connected and assembled. The circuit is designed to
facilitate future automation of the experiment by means of
computerized data acquisition system. Provision has been
made to pass water through the soil compacted in the cell.
The hydraulic pressure of inlet is controlled
independently by Self Compensating Mercury Control
"device (Page & Page, 2002).

Sample Preparation
The oven dried soils were mixed with water containing
specific known amount of chemical contaminants
thoroughly to ensure homogeneous distribution of
contaminants and kept in a polythene bag and placed in a
humid desiccator overnight to achieve uniform moisture
content. The soil is then compacted in the cylinder to
bring it to 90% of maximum dry density on dry of
optimum on the compaction curve. The soil is divided
into three equal parts by weight and then each part is
emplaced into the specimen cylinder and compacted one
by one using a screw jack to ensure uniform compaction
for the entire specimen.
After compaction, the perforated electrodes were
covered with the filter papers and the end caps were
closed. Fluid in-let and out let tubes was connected to the
cell. TA low constant hydraulic head has been applied
using the self-compensating mercury control device and
the sample saturated.

Sequential Extraction of Contaminants
The trends of removal of contaminants under different
processes considered are:

Flushing with water
When water flows under hydraulic gradient, soluble
contaminant is removed along with hydraulic flow. Since
hydraulic gradient is applied from anode to cathode
leachate containing soluble contaminant is collected at the
cathode.

Removal by enhanced flow due to electro-osmosis and
ion migration
To enhance the flow of water and to make the
contaminant desorb from the surface of clay, DC voltage
is applied across the soil. The cumulative volume of flow
and the concentration of contaminants in the leachate are
monitored. The increase in pH due to electrolysis of water
is also monitored and plotted.

By catholytic neutralisation and removal of
contaminants
The increase in pH at the cathode due to electrolysis of
water precipitates the metallic cationic contaminant at
cathode leading to reduction in flow and removal of
contaminants from the soil. Acetic acid is passed along
with water to neutralize the alkalinity. The enhanced or
continued removal of contaminant after passing acetic
acid is monitored (Rodsand et. al 1995).

Electro-osmosis while passing acetic acid to enhance
flow and removal
To further enhance the extraction of the contaminant
electrical potential has been applied across the specimen
while passing acetic acid under 1Volt/cm and 2 Volts/cm.

Use of complexing agent to enhance removal
It is known that EDTA, which is a good chelating agent
and can form complexes with many metallic ions under
suitable pH condition. Thus 0.03 M solution of EDTA
solution was passed to desorb ions from clay surface by
its ability to form complexes and carry along with
hydraulic flow (Ugaz et.al 1992).
Electro-osmosis while passing EDTA solution to
enhance flow and removal
To further enhance the extraction of the contaminant, use
of electrical potential across the specimen while passing


EDTA solution has also been adopted under 1 Volt/cm
and 2 Volts/cm.

Electrokinetic flow
In electro kinetic flow, the flow is driven by both by
hydraulic gradient and electric gradient occurs. Attempt
has been made to separate and calculate the flow due to
electric gradient for different types of clays.
Electro-osmotic fluid volume flow rate is described by an
equation analogous to Darcys law

Q = k
e
I
e
A Eq. (1)

where Q = increased fluid volume rate on application of
voltage (m
3
/s);
K
e
= coefficient of electro-osmotic conductivity
(m
2
/ V-s);
I
e
= electric field strength (V/m);
A = total cross sectional area perpendicular to the
direction of fluid flow.


To understand the rate of removal of contaminants it is
necessary to know the
Variation of Flow through Soil with and without
Contaminants during Different Phases of electrokinetic
extraction as brought out earlier.

VARIATION OF FLOW THROUGH BLACK
COTTON SOIL
The importance of rate of flow of flow by electro kinetic
extraction has been very clearly brought out. The flow
through soils varies considerably depending on many
factors like the clay mineral present, particle size
distribution, porosity, soil fabric and the nature of pore
fluid etc. As brought in previous chapters, the rate of flow
to any specific fluid can vary depending on the type of
contaminant present. How the rate of flow through Black
Cotton Soil varies with different contaminants and fluids
has been studied in this chapter. For the sake of
comparing the effect of passing fluids it is necessary to
know the rate of flow rate to water not only for Black
Cotton Soil without contaminants but also for soil with
different contaminants (Yeung,1994). As explained the
fluids that are employed in this other than water are acetic
acid and EDTA solutions. Then for each of these fluids
the effect of employing voltage on the rate of flow has
been studied.
The effect of applied voltage on flow rate while
passing water is monitored. Since acetic acid is normally
used to remove the effect of precipitation, the effect of
applied voltage is studied while passing acetic acid. With
a view to enhance decontamination by passing EDTA
different levels of voltage across the soil has been applied.
The effect of voltage while passing EDTA has also been
investigated
The above studies are conducted on Black
Cotton Soil with Chromium, Nickel, Cadmium, Lead,
Zinc and Iron as individual contaminating ions

Flow through Black Cotton Soil without any
Contaminant

The rate of flow of water through Black Cotton Soil
without any contaminant is about 0.7 ml/hr.
Considerable increase in the rate of flow occurs in on
application of voltage of 30V. The rate of flow through
soil is tripled to 2.1 ml/hr. The increased flow is
predominantly due to osmotic flow induced by ion
migration. For Black Cotton Soil with high cation
exchange capacity the effect of ion migration is
considerable and hence the increased flow. Increasing
the voltage to 60V, however, decreases the rate of flow
to 0.9 ml/hr, as seen from Table 2 and Fig. 2.

Table 2 Hydraulic Permeability and Osmotic
Permeability of Black Cotton soil with water

Fig 2 Variation of effluent flow with cumulative time in
Black Cotton soil (without pollutant)

The decrease in flow is due to increased pH as seen in
Fig. 3. To reduce the alkalinity at the cathode and
accelerate the flow, acetic acid is passed through the soil.
As seen from Table 2 and Fig. 2, Flow through the soil
to acetic acid, which is almost stopped slowly, observed
at rate of about 0.8 ml/hr on application of 30V. With
application of voltage (60V) the rate of flow decreases to
0.5 ml/hr. To enhance the removal of contaminants
EDTA solution is passed through the soil. Even though
passing of EDTA solution is not expected to remove any
contaminants with soil alone, to enable comparisons
later while conducting experiments with the soil
Contaminant
Hydraulic
Conductivity,
k
h
cm/s.
Osmotic Permeability, K
o

cm
2
/V-s.
30 V 60V
NIL 1.24E-07 7.69E-06 2.18E-06
Cr(VI) 2.41E-07 -4.60E-06 5.08E-05
Fe(III) 3.30E-07 -2.50E-05 2.30E-04


containing contaminants EDTA is passed with and
without current. The rate of flow, which reduces to 0.2
ml/hr. to EDTA solution, increases on application of
voltage to 1.2 ml/hr.

Fig 3 Variation of effluent pH cumulative in Black Cotton
soil (without pollutant)

Flow through Black Cotton Soil with Chromium ions
To maintain uniformity, hydraulic flow is maintained
towards the cathode in the Black Cotton Soil containing
Cr (VI) ions also. But ion migration under the influence
of voltage is towards the anode. Though not very
efficiently, Cr (VI) may move along with water in the
direction of cathode. The effect of these processes namely
ionic movement and other flows being in the opposite
direction only the overall flow rate and osmotic flow have
been considered.
The rate of flow of water through Black Cotton
Soil containing Chromium is higher at 1.5 ml/hr. under
application of constant hydraulic pressure of 100 kPa. It is
well known that in the presence of higher valency ions,
cation exchange takes place Leading to suppression of
diffused double layer of clay particles. This in turn
increases the rate of flow through the soil. Application of
voltage (30V) decreases the flow rate. This can be
attributed to opposite directions of flow of water due to
the influences of water hydraulic head and Chromium ion
migration. It has been earlier brought that Chromium ions
in Oxidation State VI are stable as anion and hence move
towards the anode. The decrease in flow on application of
voltage indicates that the ion still carries hydrated water
with it. Increase in voltage (60V) increases the rate of
flow considerably, as seen from Table 2 and Fig 4.

Fig 4 Variation of effluent (Cr) pH with cumulative time
in Black Cotton soil

This possibly is the counteraction of other ions over that
of Chromium. The increase in pH as seen in Fig. 5 after
applying 60 V cannot precipitate Chromium (VI) and
hence cannot decrease the flow. For the sake of
uniformity acetic acid is passed through the soil to reduce
the pH at the cathode. It is to be observed from Table 2
and Fig. 4 that passing of acetic acid without voltage the
flow rate is considerably reduced to about 2 ml/hr.
Application of voltage decreases the rate of flow. The rate
of flow to EDTA solution without current is less at about
0.3 ml/hr. which, increases on application of voltage.

Fig 5 Variation of effluent (Cr) flow with cumulative time

Flow through Black Cotton Soil with Iron ions
Presence of Iron ions has increased the rate of flow in soil
to about 2 ml/hr, as seen Table 2. Application of voltage
of 30V increases the rate of flow considerably to 13 ml/hr
inspite of increase in pH (Fig. 6). Thus for Black Cotton
Soil, application of voltage is more effective to enhance
the flow than replacement of exchangeable ions. However
with increase in voltage (60V) there is a reduction in the
flow rate though pH is almost unaffected as seen from the
Table 2 and Fig. 7.

Fig 6 Variation of effluent (Fe) flow with cumulative time

Passing of acetic acid solution increases the rate of flow
to 12.7 ml/hr. This indicates that possible dissolution of
Iron precipitated as hydroxide during passing current


earlier. As will be seen later Iron is removed by passing
acetic acid. Application of voltage of 30 V reduces the
rate of flow probably due to precipitation of Iron. With
increase in voltage there is significant increase in flow to
33.5 ml/hr. Passing EDTA solution reduces the rate of
flow without or with voltage without changing the pH as
seen from the Table 2.

Fig 7 Variation of mixed effluent (Fe) pH with
cumulative time in Black Cotton soil

Variation of Hydraulic Permeability and Osmotic
Permeability of Black Cotton Soil without
Contaminant
The hydraulic conductivity of Black Cotton Soil without
contaminant is in the range of 1.2 X 10
-7
cm/s to water,
and 3.8 X 10
-8
cm/s to EDTA solution. No flow through
the soil could be observed for long time while acetic acid
solution was allowed to enter from the reservoir under a
pressure 100 kPa after stopping passing of water under
60V. Thus the hydraulic conductivity of Black Cotton
Soil to both acetic acid solution and EDTA solution is
significantly lower than to water. As explained earlier, the
initial condition of the soil while passing water, acetic
acid and EDTA solutions is not the same. Acetic acid
solution is passed after applying voltage and possible
precipitation of hydroxides. EDTA solution is passed after
passing of acetic acid without and with application of
voltage across the soil. Thus before passing EDTA
solution, the hydroxide formed must have precipitated.
But as seen from pH of the effluent, often the pH is high
sometimes due to electrolysis during application of
current even while passing acetic acid. While considering
the effects on hydraulic conductivity due to the nature of
the fluid, one has to bear in mind these differences in
initial soil condition (Yeung et. al 1996).
On application of voltage, the flow through the
soil under the same hydraulic head has increased while
passing any fluid. The electro osmotic permeability of
Black Cotton Soil at (30V) is about 7.7 X 10
-6
cm
2
/V-s to
water; 4.6 X 10
-6
cm
2
/V-s to acetic acid solution and 5.2
X 10
-6
cm
2
/V-s to EDTA solution (Table 3 & 4). The
osmotic flow rates are 1.3 ml/hr, 0.8 ml/hr and 0.9 ml/hr
respectively (Table 2). Thus the osmotic flow in Black
Cotton Soil is much higher than hydraulic flow. The
hydraulic flow rates as seen earlier were 0.7 ml/hr, 0 and
0.2 ml/hr to water, acetic acid and EDTA solutions. The
osmotic permeability of soil under application 60V was
2.2 X 10
-6
cm
2
/V-s to water; 5.2 X 10
-6
cm
2
/V-s to acetic
acid solution and 1.1 X 10
-5
cm
2
/V-s to EDTA solution
(Table 3). Thus application of higher voltage is increases
flow to all fluids. While the increase in flow is not
proportional to increase in voltage for water it is almost
proportional to acetic acid and is more than proportional
to EDTA solution.

Permeability of Black Cotton soil with EDTA solution

Permeability of Black Cotton soil with acetic acid

Permeability of Black Cotton Soil with Chromium
The hydraulic conductivity of Black Cotton Soil with
Chromium as contaminant to water is 2.4 X 10
-7
cm/s 3.3
X 10
-7
cm/s to acetic acid solution and 5.2 X 10
-8
cm/s to
EDTA solution. Thus the hydraulic conductivity of the
soil to water and acetic acid is higher than to EDTA
solution. It has been observed earlier for soil without
contaminants that the flow to water is higher than to
acetic acid and EDTA solutions. The effect of reduced
amount of Chromium by the time fluid is changed might
have a predominant effect. It will be observed later that a
large percent of Chromium is removed with passing of
water and acetic acid solution and hence the amount of
Chromium present while passing EDTA solution is less.
The flow through the soil on application of voltage while
passing water and acetic acid solution has actually
reduced. Consequently, the electro osmotic permeability
has become negative. This may be due to migration of
water along with Cr (VI) towards anode rather than
cathode. With increased voltage to 60V, the osmotic flow
to water was 5.1 X 10
-5
cm
2
/V-s. With increased voltage
to 60V, the osmotic flow to acetic has become negative.
Thus the flow which is less at 30V in water has increased
on increasing voltage but unable to increase in acetic acid
Contaminant
Hydraulic
Conductivity,
k
h
cm/s.
Osmotic Permeability,
K
o
cm
2
/V-s.
30 V 60V
NIL
3.77E-08
5.24E-06 1.05E-05
Cr(VI)
5.22E-08
2.08E-06 1.42E-05
Fe(III)
1.12E-06 -1.20E-05 -2.20E-05
Contaminant
Hydraulic
Conductivity,
k
h
cm/s.
Osmotic Permeability,
K
o
cm
2
/V-s.
30 V 60V
NIL 0 4.61E-06 5.20E-06
Cr(VI) 3.25E-07 -2.30E-06 -1.70E-05
Fe(III) 2.11E-07 -2.50E-05 8.23E-03


solution on increasing voltage. Application of voltage of
30V while passing of EDTA solution has increased the
rate of flow and the osmotic permeability is 2.1 X 10
-6
cm
2
/V-s. Though osmotic flow is observed at 60V, it is
not proportional to applied voltage.

Permeability of Black Cotton Soil with Iron
The hydraulic conductivity of Black Cotton Soil with Iron
as contaminant is in about 3.3 X 10
-7
cm/s with water, 2.1
X 10
-6
cm/s with acetic acid solution and 1.1 X 10
-6
cm/s
with EDTA solution. Thus the hydraulic conductivity of
Black Cotton Soil has increased with the acetic acid and
EDTA solutions.
Application of voltage (30V or 60V) increases
the flow of water through the soil. The osmotic
permeability values are 6 X 10
-5
cm
2
/V-s with 30 volts
and 8.2 X 10
-5
cm
2
/V-s with 60 volts. Thus the osmotic
permeability increases with increase in voltage. The
osmotic permeability in the soil with Iron to acetic acid
solution is observed only with the application of 60V
only, which is about 2.3 X 10
-4
cm
2
/V-s, which is very
high. This may be due to dissolution of Iron hydroxide
while passing acetic acid. As will be seen in next section
Iron is removed from the soil by passing acetic acid.
However with EDTA solution there is no osmotic
permeability

ELECTRO-KINETIC EXTRACTION OF METAL
IONS FROM BLACK COTTON SOIL

It has been shown that the efficiency of removal of ions
from soils by electro kinetic extraction method makes use
of
i) enhanced rate of flow of water due to electro
osmosis,
ii) desorption of metal ions from the surface of the
clay particles by ionic migration, and
iii) use of enhancing agents such as EDTA to
complex with contaminating ion and remove
them,
varies greatly depending on contaminant ions and applied
voltage etc. The effects of ion migration and osmosis on
the rate of flow through Black Cotton Soil with different
contaminants have already been presented. The effect of
precipitation of ions as hydroxide and the role of acetic
acid to neutralize the alkalinity on the flow rate have been
brought out. To efficiently apply this method to remove
ions from soils, it is necessary to know the trends of
removal by passing water with application of current
under a given hydraulic head and the role of other fluids
to enhance the rate of removal (Reddy & Chintamreddy,
1999).

Electro Kinetic Extraction of Chromium VI
The efficiency of the Electro kinetic extraction method to
remove Chromium VI from Black Cotton Soil containing
known amount of Chromium VI has been tested.
Initially, Chromium removed with number of cumulative
pore volumes of water while continuous passing with
water under a constant hydraulic head was monitored and
the results are presented in Fig. 8. It can be seen from the
figure that about 18 % of Chromium VI present in soil is
removed by passing 0.15 pore volumes of water. The rate
of removal has not enhanced on application of 30V of DC
current. About 12% of Chromium is removed by passing
another 0.15 pore volumes of water. It has been noted
earlier that the rate of flow in Black Cotton Soil
containing Chromium has enhanced on application of
voltage. Thus the rate of removal with respect to time is
enhanced. At higher voltage the removal of Chromium is
not observed. Passing acetic acid solution without or with
voltage is not able to revive the removal of Chromium
(Reddy & Parupudi ,1997). Passing EDTA solution
without or with voltage is also unable to remove
Chromium even at a slower rate.

Fig 8 Chromium removed with cumulative pore volume
from Black Cotton soil

The removal trends of Chromium from Black Cotton Soil
shows that it is best by soil flushing. Application of lower
Voltage can remove Chromium at a faster rate.

Electro Kinetic Extraction of Iron
The only success of electro kinetic extraction method for
the removal of heavy metals from Black Cotton Soil,
other than Chromium, is Iron. The Iron removed with
cumulative pore volume of water after continuous
washing with water passed under a constant hydraulic
head was monitored and shown in the initial portion of
Fig 9. Only a small amount of Iron of about 5% is flushed
out without application of voltage by passing about 0.5
pore volumes of water. Passing about 0.5 pore volume
water under 30V could not remove any Iron. But about
20% of Iron could be extracted by passing of about 0.5
pore volume of water under 60V. This indicates that the
ionic mobility of Iron is less. By passing 0.5 pore volume
of acetic acid another 8% of Iron could be removed. Thus
the rate of removal of Iron is not high with acetic acid.
With 0.5 pore volume of acetic acid solution another 5 %
of Iron is removed under application of 30V. Thus again
the rate of removal is not good. Increased voltage has not
further effected any removal. Passing EDTA solution is
able to remove Iron from Black Cotton Soil even without


application of voltage. Application of Voltage has not
enhanced the rate of removal while passing EDTA
solution as seen from Fig 9.

Fig 9 Iron removed with cumulative pore volume from
Black Cotton soil

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results presented in this paper, the following
conclusions are drawn:.

2. Osmotic permeability of soil to water on application of
30V of voltage is observed with all the contaminants
other than Chromium.
The osmotic permeability with contaminants vary in the
order
Zn
2+
Fe
2+
Cd
2+
Pb
2+
Ni
2+
4. Both Chromium and Iron are removed from Black
Cotton Soil. Their removal rate is higher by flushing the
soil with water.
5. Electro kinetics assists the removal of Iron by enhanced
flow through the soil as well as by desorption of Iron
from soil.

REFERENCES
Acar, Y.B. and Alshawabkeh, A.N. (1993) Principles
of electro-kinetic remediation, Environmental
Science and Technology, Vol.27, pp.2638-2647.
Sellers, K. (1998) Fundamentals of hazardous waste
site remediation, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton.
Li, Y.L. and Li, R.L. (2000) Enhancement of
electrokinetic extraction from lead- spiked soils,
Journal of Environmental Engineering, ASCE,
Vol.126, pp.849-857.
Page, M.M. and Page, C.L. (2002)
Electroremediation of contaminated soils, Journal of
Environmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol.128, No.3,
pp. 208-219.
Pamukcu, S. and White, J.K. (1992) Electro-kinetic
removal of selected heavy metals from soil, Journal
of Hazardous Materials, Vol.55, pp.203-220.
Reddy, K.R. and Chinthamreddy, S. (1999)
Electrokinetic remediation of heavy metal-
contaminated soils under reducing environments,
Waste Management, Vol.19, pp.269-282.
Reddy, K.R. and Parupudi, U.S. (1997) Removal of
Chromium, Nickel and Cadmium from Clays by In-
Situ Electrokinetic Remediation, Journal of Soil
Contamination, Vol.64, pp.391-407.
Rodsand, T., Acar, Y.B. and Breedveld, G. (1995)
Electro-kinetic extraction of lead from spiked
Norwegian marine clay, Characterization,
containment, remediation, and performance in
environmental geo-techniques, Geotechnical Special
Publication No.46, ASCE, pp.1518 - 1534.
Shapiro, A.P. and Probstein, R.F. (1993) Removal of
contaminants from saturated clay by electro-
osomosis, Environmental Science and Technology,
Vol.27, pp.283-291.
Ugaz, A., Puppala, S., Gale, R.J. and Acar, Y.B.
(1992) Complicating features of electro-kinetic
remediation of soils and slurries: saturation effects
and the role of the cathode electrolysis, Department
of Chemistry and Civil Engineering, Louisiana State
University, 31p.
Yeung, A.T., Hsu, C. and Menon, R.M. (1996)
EDTA-enhanced electro-kinetic extraction of lead,
Journal Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol.122,
No.8, pp.666-673.
Yeung, A. (1994) Effects of electro-kinetic coupling
on the measurement of hydraulic conductivity,
Hydraulic Conductivity and Waste Contaminant
Transport in Soil, ASTM STP 1142, Eds. Daniel, D.
E. and Trautwein. P., pp.569-585.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7
APPLICATION OF ISOTOPIC TECHNIQUES IN HYDROLOGY OF
MOUNTAINOUS REGION

S. P. Rai
Scientist E1, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee-247667, Email:spr@nih.ernet.in
Bhishn Kumar
Scientist F and Head, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee-247667, Email:bk@nih.ernet.in
Y.S. Rawat
S.R.F., National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee- 247 667, Email: yadhvir2007@rediffmail.com
P. Purushothaman
Research Associate, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee- 247 667, Email: purus26@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: A large part of earth surface is covered by mountains and are rich in water sources. There is a lack of
detailed information about the hydrology of mountains due to the inaccessible and difficult terrain. The application of
conventional methods cannot be implemented. The usage of advanced techniques, which are simple and easier to use, will
help in understanding the hydrology of mountainous region. Isotopic tracer methods is one such can be used in the
mountainous and terrains where usage of conventional method is difficult. In this article we present case studied of some
of the isotopic studies which were used to address various hydrological issues in the Himalayas range. The article gives a
picture on the usage of isotopic techniques in discharge measurement, hydrograph calculation, identification of leakage
and seepage in dams and reservoirs, estimation of water balance in lakes and sedimentation rate of lakes.

INTORDUCTION
Mountainous region occupies more than 25% of the
earth surface (Kapos et al. 2000). The mountains are
rich is water sources and provide plenty of water to the
society. Their significance, however, is due not only to
the impact of the area they occupy but also to the fact
that they are an essential constituent of regional and
supra regional climate systems. Changes in temperature
and precipitation have in recent years led to the retreat
of glaciers. Climatic changes do not only affect glaciers
or the nival zone; a change in climatic conditions also
has an impact on the entire hydrological and biogenous
system of mountainous environments (Hermann and
Schroder 2004). Most of the major rivers in the world
originate in the mountains. The Himalayan range act as
the source of some of the major river system in the
world such as: the Indus, the Ganges and the
Brahmaputra. These three river system receive
significant contribution from snow and glacier melt
water. The mountains also host the springs, lakes which
also provide fresh water and play very important role in
regional and local hydrological cycle. In spite of the
above said importance very less hydrological
information of the mountainous river is available.
Extremely difficult terrain, the harsh environment,
sparse settlements, and the need for a special design of
instruments are major problems in the understanding of
mountain hydrologyproperly and closely. Similarly,
naturally occurring lakes in the Himalayan region are
being used as a source of water for drinking, irrigation,
pisciculture and recreation. However, the lakes area and
volume is reducing at alarming rate and water quality
also degrading rapidly. Likewise, springs are drying up
in the Himalayan region. Therefore, there is an urgent
need for hydrological studies of lakes/reservoir and
springs etc in mountainous region.
Due to unavailability of hydrological data of
inaccessible and difficult mountainous terrain of India,
the application of conventional technique is limited.
Therefore, an advance technology such as isotopic
techniques play major role to explore the hydrological
fact of river catchment, lakes, spring and reservoir
located in mountainous area. Thus isotopic technique is
the viable alternative method is to understand the
hydrological processes of mountainous region. This
paper presents few case studies carried out by National
Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee to solve the field
problems using isotopic techniques.

STUDIES CARRIED OUT USING ISOTOPE
TECHNIQUES
Discharge Measurement
Two streams Lachen Chu and Lachung Chu meet at
Chungthang (at the height of 1600 metres) forms the
Teesta river. From the point of confluence onwards the
resulting stream is known as Teesta which is a perennial
river with substantial flow even in lean season. It is the
major river of Sikkim that flows North-South along the
state. River Teesta is an ideal source of hydropower
generation because of enormous fall of the order of
3600 metres over a river stretch of 175 kilometers.
Although data for high flow flood discharge are very
important, the low flow observations are also equally
important for the estimation of firm power draft for
hydel power projects. The float method is mostly used
for the measurement of discharge by Sikkim
Investigation Division (SID) of Central Water
Commission (CWC). Hence the chances of erroneous
results of discharge are very high. SID of CWC
therefore proposed National Institute of Hydrology
(NIH), Roorkee for taking up the work of flow
measurement of Teesta river using the radio-isotopes.
The study was carried out by Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre (BARC), Mumbai and NIH, Roorkee jointly.
Four sites (Chungthang, Sanklang, Dikchu, Sirwani)
have been selected in the river Teesta to install the
microhydels. The trace method was used to calculate the
discharge of the river at these locations using tritium

(
3
H) and bromine (
82
Br) and inactive Iodide isotopes.
The tracer was injected at a constant rate using a
constant head device and a peristaltic pump. The re-
producibility of tracer injection rate was better than
0.5% in repeated measurements. In chungthang site
82
Br
tracer was used to check the mixing length. This was
followed with
3
H and inactive iodide tracers. The
tritium and iodide tracer methods were used to xalculate
the discharge in the selected locations. In sankalong
only tritium tracer was used. In chungthang, dikchu and
sirwani both tritium as well as iodide tracers were used.
The study shows that the isotopic tracer methods
calculate discharge more precisely than the conventional
float method.

Table 1 Comparative details of the discharge of the four
sites in m
3
/s.
Site By Float Method
Dilution Method
Tritium Iodide
Chungthang 35 28.5 28.2
Sankalang 70 44.3
Dikchu 85 55.2 54
Sirwani 110 98.0

Hydrograph Separation
The flow characteristics of head water streams are of
much interest to the hydrologists as they give insight to
the basic hydrologic processes involved. Stable isotopes
are useful in understanding the processes by aiding in
hydrograph separation. Pearce et al. (1986) suggested
three main components in lower order stream generation
process in head water catchments. viz. partial overland
flow, saturation over land flow and subsurface flow.
However, in most of the studies, investigators use two
component mixing models. The terms new water and
old water, which are relevant in head water catchment
studies, are generally used to denote the two main
components in the stream flow process. The old water is
defined as the water that existed in the catchment prior
to a given precipitation event or snowmelt, and includes
groundwater, soil water and surface detentions. The new
water is defined as the water that is added to the stream
as a consequence of a given precipitation or snow melt.
Sklash et al. (1976) and Pearce et al. (1986) reported
that in humid, temperate climates the old water is the
dominant component. The study on the role of
groundwater in storm runoff by Sklash and Farvolden
(1979) revealed that groundwater plays a more
significant role in the storm and snowmelt runoff
processes.
The contributions of the surface-runoff to the total
runoff in small catchment areas can be determined by
the so-called hydrograph separation, for which
hydrochemical and especially isotope data are usefully
employed. The approach is often related to two-
component separation of total (stream) hydrographs into
surface/rainfall contribution and subsurface
(groundwater)/ snowmelt for individual storm events. If
the solute (conservative chemical constituent or isotope)
concentrations of the components are significantly
different during an individual storm event in
comparison to the pre-event runoff, the mixing ratios of
the two components during that event can be estimated
by hydraulic continuity and simple mass balance
equations.
To evaluate the runoff hydrograph, the following
balance equations are used:
Q
t
= Q
S
+ Q
0
and
t
Q
t
=
S
Q
S
+
0
Q
0
(1)
where Q
t
denotes the total runoff, Q
S
(Q
0
) the surface
runoff (base flow) component, and
t
is derived from the
individual isotope (
i
) and run-off (Q
i
) values measured

during the event, by the relationship:
i
i i
t
Q
Q

(2)
The hydrograph of Bhagirathi River at Gaumukh site
comprises of multiple peaks (Fig. 1). The variation in
discharge occurs due to variations in climatic conditions
which affects the contribution of different components
to river discharge. To separate out the rainfall
contribution in Bhagirathi river, the isotopic
composition of river water and observed rainfall were
studied. The
18
O of river was found isotopically
different during pre and post event of rainfall. The pre-
event river
18
O represents the combined signature of
snow and glacier melt while post event river represents
mixed signatures of rain, snow and glacier components.
The significant variation in
18
O of river due to south-
west monsoon rains was observed occurred during July
and September 2005 (Fig. 1). The isotopic composition
of pre-event river (-14 to -16) was found sharply
depleted to -20 due to much depleted rain of -30.3
The proportion of the two components in total discharge
can be separated out using two components model. The
water mass balance equation can be written as:
r sm t
Q Q Q (3)
Where Q is discharge component and subscripts t, sm
and r represent total river flow, snow/ice melt and rain
contribution, respectively. Similarly, the isotopic mass
balance equation can be written as
r r sm sm t t
Q Q Q (4)
Where
3
10 * ] 1 ) / [(
std sample
R R
By substituting
sm t r
Q Q Q

and rearranging
Equation (4), one gets
) /( ) (
r sm r t t sm
Q Q (5)
Using the Equation (3), the runoff component can be
separated out.

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
5
/
1
/0
5
5
/
1
5
/
0
5
5
/
2
9
/
0
5
6
/
1
2
/
0
5
6
/
2
6
/
0
5
7
/
1
0
/
0
5
7
/
2
4
/
0
5
8
/
7
/0
5
8
/
2
1
/
0
5
9
/
4
/0
5
9
/
1
8
/
0
5
1
0
/
2
/
0
5
1
0
/
1
6
/0
5
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

(
m
3
/
S
e
c
)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
R
a
i
n
f
a
l
l

(
m
m
)
Rainfall
Discharge
Rain Contribution

Fig. 1 Hydrograph of river Bhagirathi River at
Gaumukh during ablation period of the year 2005

In order to separate out rainfall generated runoff
component, different events of precipitation were
selected during the years 2004 and 2005. In the month
of August 2004, large variation in isotopic composition
of river was recorded at the time of rainfall. The
maximum rainfall contribution to the tune of 40% was
computed for the rain occurred in the month of July, up
to 30% in case of rainfall occurred in the third week of
September while up to 40% in case of rainfall occurred
during the last week of September. The rain
contribution was in the order of 14% to 15% of the total
river discharge for each storm. the rainfall contribution
of all the rain events occurred during ablation period of
the year 2005 was computed, which comes out to be an
aggregate of 3% of the total discharge of river.

IDENTIFYING LEAKAGES FROM DAMS AND
RESERVOIRS
This simple tool is of great practical importance for
studies focusing on leakages from dams and surface
reservoirs. Springs and leakages occurring downstream
of dams always present a potential thread for these big
engineering constructions. In this context the question is
asked whether the given leakage (spring) carries water
from the reservoir behind the dam or whether it is
simply a manifestation of the local hydrological system.
Identification of the first possibility often means very
costly engineering measures to detect the leaking part of
the construction.
Source Identification of Seepage in Drainage
Galleries of Tehri Dam
During the filling of reservoir, quantum of seepage
water through various drainage galleries is being
regularly observed in Tehri Dam. However, in two
drainage galleries (i.e., AGR3 and AGIR) relatively
high seepage discharge has been observed during the
monsoon period at few locations. Therefore, it becomes
necessary to identify the source of leakage in the two
drainage galleries of the reservoir. Thus, this study was
initiated with the objective to identify the source of
seepage of the drainage galleries using environmental
isotopes.
The D and
18
O relationship of reservoir and leakage
water has been studied on seasonal basis in order to
identify the source of leakage. Fig. 2 represents the
relationship between D and
18
O for reservoir and
leakage water for the monsoon and post monsoon
months. The seasonal variation in isotopic composition
reveals that isotopic values fall under different
categories in different seasons. Reservoir surface water
is isotopically enriched during summer months and gets
gradually depleted in monsoon period and maximum
depletion is observed during the winter months. Based
on isotopic composition, seepage and reservoir water
fall under two groups (Fig. 2). During monsoon months
the isotopic values (D and
18
O) of reservoir and
leakage water fall in the same region. This clearly
indicates that the source of leakage water in the two
galleries is reservoir during monsoon months. During
this period reservoir level rises above 770m.When the
reservoir level raises above 770m a similar variation in
isotopic composition of reservoir and leakage water is
observed during the monsoon period. However, a varied
isotopic composition during summer months is observed
when the reservoir level falls below 770m. This
indicates that the fracture zones responsible for leakage
lie above 770m in the reservoir. During the winter
months, segregation of isotopic values (D and
18
O) of
the reservoir and leakage sites start and isotopic values
(D and
18
O) of reservoir and leakage water falls under
different groups. This is due to the change in isotopic
composition of seepage water as reservoir level declines
after the month of October. During the summer months
isotopic composition becomes entirely different. Thus,
the D and
18
O relationship of reservoir and seepage
water confirms the connectivity of D5, D6, D7, D10 and
D11 water with the reservoir. The isotopic values of D
and
18
O of D9 always remains in another group which
clearly reveals that leakage source for D9 is not
connected with the reservoir.


-85
-80
-75
-70
-65
-60
-55
-50
-12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7
D
(
18
O()
April-June-08
HP Reservior D9 D10 D11 Linear (PPT)
D11
Reservoir
D9 & D10
-85
-80
-75
-70
-65
-60
-55
-50
-12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7
D
(
18
O()
August-September-08
D9
Leakage & Reservoir
-85
-80
-75
-70
-65
-60
-55
-50
-12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7
D
(
18
O()
October-November-08
Seepage
Reservoir
D9 & HP
-85
-80
-75
-70
-65
-60
-55
-50
-12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7
D
(
18
O()
December-08-Feburary-09
Leakage
Reservoir
D9 & HP

Fig. 2 Seasonal variation of D vs
18
O in Groundwater,
Reservoir surface water and leakage galleries of AGR-3
AGIR

WATER BALANCE STUDY OF LAKE
Nainital Lake located in the Kumaun Lesser Himalaya
is the main drinking water source to the people living in
and around the lake basin. Isotopic investigations have
been carried out in order to understand the surface water
and groundwater interaction and to throw some light on
the present sedimentation status to estimate the expected
useful life of the lake. The investigations were aimed to
aid the Lake Development Authority in adopting
appropriate management strategy. Increase in
population pressure has resulted in the deterioration of
the environment of Lake Nainital. The conventional
methods, either using discharge-sediment concentration
or periodic bathymetric surveys usually provide
adequate information required for computation of lake
sedimentation rates and water balance of the lake.
Isotope Mass Balance Method
Isotope mass balance of a lake may be written as
V=(
P
P
I
+
Si
S
I
+
Di
D
I
+
g
SS
I
)-(
E
E
O
+
So
S
O
+
L
SS
O
) (6)
Equation (6) can be rearranged to get sub-surface terms:
g
SS
I
-
L
SS
O
=(
E
E
O
+
So
S
O
"
L
V)-(
P
P
I
+
Si
S
I
+
Di
D
I
) (7)
Where, SS
I
, SS
O
, E
O
, S
O
, P
I
, S
I
, D
I
and V,
g,
Go,
E,
So
,
P,
Si
,
Di
and
L
are the corresponding isotopic
values. Rearranging equation (7) we get equation (8).
The equation (8) used to determine the sub-surface
outflow component of the lake, which in turn is used to
estimate groundwater inflow to the lake by the
following relation given in equation (9).
) - (
)] S - D - P - V E + S ( - ) P - D - S - V E + S ( [
= SS
G L
I S I D I P L O E O L I I I O O G
O

(8)
SS
I
= [(E
O
+ S
O
-V)-(P
I
+ D
I
+ S
I
)]+ SS
O

(9)

This method of estimation does not require prior
estimation of the outflow from the lake through springs
and pumping wells. Isotope mass balance has been
attempted for the period between February, 1994 and
February 1995. Since in the month of February, the lake
remains well mixed and homogeneous, it eliminates the
stratification effects on the calculation. The results
indicate that sub-surface components are dominant over
other components. The SS
I and
SS
O account
for 51% and
56% of total inflow and total outflow respectively.
The results presented in table 2 shows that the estimates
of sub-surface inflow to the lake and outflow from the
lake, obtained through isotopic and chemical balance,
compare well with those obtained through conventional
water balance method.

Table 2 SS
I
and SS
O
data estimated by isotopic,
chemical and conventional mass balance methods.
Method of
estimation
18
O () Chloride Conventional
SS
I
SS
O
SS
I
SS
O
SS
I
SS
O

Volume
(x 10
3
m
3
) 2269 2618 2777 3140 2234 2416
% to total
inflow or
outflow 51 56 55 59 50 54
Lake WRT -
Year * 1.93 1.77 1.92
* Lake water retention time has been calculated,
assuming mean depth of the lake as 18.52 m. Time
difference between the dates of sampling considered
was 380 days. Appropriate corrections have been made
to calculate the total inflow in 365 days.

Estimation of Sedimentation Rate
Radiometric Dating Method
The sedimentation rates have been estimated at different
locations in the lake employing Cesium-137 (Cs-137)
and Lead-210 (Pb-210) radiometric dating techniques of
sediments. Radiometric dating techniques have been

proved as reliable tools for estimation of lake
sedimentation rate and are being used the world over.
Although several radioisotopes are useful in
geochronological studies of lake sediments,
210
Pb and
137
Cs find wider application.
210
Pb dating technique was
initiated by Goldberg (1963) and the technique was
established for dating of lake sediments by
Krishnaswamy et al. (1971). Since then numerous
studies on the use of
210
Pb and
137
Cs both in the research
and application fronts of lake sediment dating have been
reported (Krishnaswamy and Lal 1978, Ritchie and
McHenry 1985, Walling and He 1993).
Sedimentation rate of the Nainital, Bhimtal, Naukchiatal
and Sattal in Uttaranchal, Dal and Mansar in Jammu
were determined using the radiometric dating
techniques
137
Cs and
210
Pb. Activities of
137
Cs and
210
Pb
in sediment samples were measured at National Institute
of Hydrology, Roorkee.
The sedimentation rate in the Nainital Lake is higher
(1.350.05 cm/yr) in the intermediate portions located
just adjacent to the bank zones while comparatively
moderate (0.640.18 cm/yr) in steeper bank zones. The
deeper portions away from the bank of the lake, receive
sediment at lower rate (0.480.04 cm/yr). In Bhimtal
Lake, highest rate of sedimentation (1.500.03 cm/yr) at
the debouching point of the major inflow drain and
minimum (0.430.04 cm/yr) in deepest and central part
of the lake. Similarly, the highest rate of sedimentation
of 0.950.04 cm/y is observed in the eastern part of the
Naukuchiatal lake closer to the debauching point of a
major inflow stream. In the northern part of the lake, the
rate of sedimentation is about 0.59 cm/y and at the
central portion the rate of sedimentation is lowest (0.38
cm/y). Therefore, it appears that the sedimentation
pattern within all the Kumaun lakes is more or less
similar.
The current sedimentation rate different sub-basin of
Dal lake determined by
137
Cs dating technique varies
between 0.140.03 to 1.600.13 cm/yr. In the Hazratbal
basin varies 0.400.05 to 1.600.13 cm/yr, in Bod-Dal
basin from 0.390.05 to 0.610.06 cm/yr, Gagribal
basin from0.140.03 to 0.220.05 cm/yr and in Nagin
basin from 0.260.04 to 1.060.10 cm/yr. The results
show that Rate of sedimentation is comparatively higher
in Hazaratbal sub basin of Dal Lake. The Mansar lake
represents the condition of the Siwalik Himalayas of
Jammu and Kashmir lakes where sedimentation rate
varied from 0.14 0.03 to 0.37 0.03 cm/y. The
minimum rate of sedimentation is in central and deepest
part of the lake and maximum closer to the debauching
point of an inflow stream very similar to the Kumaun
lakes.

REFERENCES
Goldberg, E. D. (1963). Geochronology with
210
Pb In:
Radioactive dating. International Atomic Energy
Agency, Vienna, Austria
Krishnaswamy, S. and Lal, D. (1978). Radionuclide
limnochronology. In: A. Lerman (Ed.) Lakes:
Chemistry, Geology, Physics, Springer-verlag.
Krishnaswamy, S., Lal, D., Martin, J. M. and Meybeck,
M. (1971). Geochronology of lake sediments. Earth
Planetary and Science Letters, 11, 407-414.
Pearce, A. J., Stewart, M. K. and Sklash, M. G. (1986).
Storm runoff generation in humid headwater
catchments, I, Where does the water come from?
Water Resources Research, 22, 1263-1272.
Ritchie, J. C. and McHenry, J. R. (1985). A comparison
of three methods for measuring recent rates of
sediment accumulation. Water Resources Bulletin,
21, 99-103.
Sklash, M. G. and Farvolden, R.N. (1979). The role of
groundwater in stream runoff. Journal of Hydrology,
43, 45-65.
Sklash, M. G., Farvolden, R. N. and Fritz, P. (1976). A
conceptual model of watershed response to rainfall,
developed through the use of oxygen-18 as a natural
tracer. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 13, 271-
283.
Walling, D. E. and He, Q. (1993). Towards improved
interpretation of
137
Cs profiles in lake sediments.
In: J. Mamanus and Duck R.W. (Eds.)
Geomorphology and Sedimentology, Wiley.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


GROUND WATER ZONES AROUND JHANSI TOWN USING SATELLITE
REMOTE SENSING DATA IN THE GRANITIC TERRAIN OF
BUNDELKHAND

S.P. Singh
Department of Geology, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi-284128, spsinghbu@rediffmail.com
Yamini Singh
Geologist, MSPL, Badota Road, Hospet, Karnataka,
ABSTRACT: The geologically area around Jhansi town represents a rocky terrain of several varieties of granitoids and
quartz reef. These rocks have received ductile to brittle conditions deformations which are mainly responsible for the E-
W, NE-SW and NW-SE trending shear zones, fractures and joints into these granitoids. The NW-SE trending regional
/crustal scale reactivated fault passing from the Jhansi area mainly responsible for the development of present
topography. This tectonism is also responsible for the thin to thick soil cover on the fractured grantoids in the different
parts of Jhansi and causes the development of braded channels and river shifting of Betwa river and drainage system.
The integrated approaches based on the pattern of fractures and shear zones, joints, soil, drainage system vegetations
and forest demarcates the low, moderate and high potential areas for the subsurface water conditions around the Jhansi
town.

INTRODUCTION
Groundwater is the primary source of drinking water and
perhaps is the safest and most reliable resource for fresh
water in the country. More than 80% of the Indian
population living in small town and rural areas still
depend on this water. Only 3% of the earths freshwater is
located in the streams, lakes, reservoirs and rest 97% of
freshwater is available to underground. Groundwater is a
natural stored water which occurs in the several
formations of saturated/weathered rocks, sand, gravel and
soil and some times in the fracture zones. Unlike surface
water, the groundwater does not show much flow in a
series of lake and river. The availability and quality of
groundwater varies widely across the India. Generally,
the well yield ranges from less than 3 gallon per minute in
western and central parts of country to thousands of
gallons per minute well in aquifers beneath and adjacent
to major rivers of India. In Bundelkhand region, the
ground water usually available between 32 feet and 65
feet depth in the rocky terrains where the chances of
aquifer conditions are very limited. The ground water in
Bundelkhand is usually meager and some places are
excessively hard where the presence of dissolved salts of
calcium, magnesium, manganese and iron are enriched.
The population of Jhansi city is rapidly increasing due to
rapid migration of people from its rural areas owing to
premium centre for education, transportation, industries
and business centre in Bundelkhand since last two
decades. The Jhansi is the biggest town in Bundelkhand
which is situated in the northern part of the granite terrain
where four major multipurpose reservoirs were
constructed before the independence. However the
pressure on the requirement of water to common people
of Jhansi has been increasing in the multitudes and the
present condition is inadequate to fulfill the requirement
of demand. The water crisis around Jhansi town has
initiated in the end of last century mainly due to the
myopic exploration of groundwater to fulfill the need of
drinking and multifarious domestic requirements. More
than 60% area around the Jhansi town is occupied by
merely fractured and sheared granites, fractured quartz
reefs and thin soil cover.
The comparison of satellite imaginary of months of
November and March reveals that most of the major
reservoir constructed around Jhansi town becomes dry
in summer season and check dams becomes cultivated
land for Rabi crops. Due to rapid increase of demand of
water for man and animal and vegetation owing to
industrialization, urbanization modernization and expand
of agricultural land around Jhansi. It has been realized
that people should also depend on several mitigations and
find out the possible solution for the sources of water
potential around the Jhansi town. The present study is
aimed to analysis and evaluates the groundwater potential
zones around Jhansi with the help of remote sensing and
geological data.

GEOMORPHOLOGY
The Bundelkhand craton is delineated from Indo -
Gangetic plain by NW-SE trending Yamuna fault in the
north and separated from southern India shield by E-W
trending Son Narmada faults. The western part of craton
is separated from NE-SW trending Aravalli Mountains by
Great Boundary fault (Singh et al. 2008). Thus
Bundelkhand terrain has developed a triangular shaped
Precambrian land mass in the northern part of Indian
shield where several faults on regional /crustal scale are
passes (Fig 1) and controlling the geomorphology of
entire Bundelkhand terrain (Singh and Basu 2011).
Geomorphologically, the northern part of craton has low
elevation compare to southern part. As a result of this all
the major and moderate type rivers of Bundelkhand
terrain are originated in south and followed the NE
direction along the trend quartz reefs. The major rivers of
Bundelkhand ultimately become parallel in Zone I near
the Yamuna fault before their mergence into the river
Yamuna (Fig.1).
The Bundelkhand terrain has been divided into four
geomorphic zones based on the geological and

geomorphological and some other factors like soil cover,
drainage, linear fabrics, hydrogeological constraints along
with input from the computation of remote sensing data
(Fig.1). Zone I of this terrain is characterized by thick
alluvium deposits with rare occurrences of hard rocks
like granite, quartz reef etc. The area is dominated by
agricultural flat land topography. Variation in land use
and land cover, thickness of forest and shrubs and ravine
type topology has been observed along the tectonically
active zones. Zone II is characterized by mainly the rocky
terrain with thin soil cover. The zone III consists the
massive granite of the central part. The NE-SW, E-W and
NW-SE linear fabrics have been noted from the massif
part but E-W and NE-SW linear fabrics were not found to
continue in the Proterozoic rocks (Bijawar, Gwalior and
Vindhyan).The zone IV is dominated by thin rocky soil
and plateau type mountains.
Fig 1: The map shows the major river basin of
Bundelkhand (Chambal, Betwa and Ken) and their
relation with Gangetic basin. The NW-SE trending
Yammuna fault is major dislocation identified from
satellite imagery deleneates the Varanasi alluvium (VA)
and Banda alluvium (BA). The Kabrai fault, Panna
Gwalior Fault, Shahgarh Babina fault, Narhat fault
parallel to yamunna fault showing normal step fault.
Zone-I : Dominated by thick alluvium Zone-II: Thin
alluvium and granite rock, Zone-III: Granite and rarely
alluvium, Zone-IV: Gneissis, with thick alluvium, Zone-
V: Sandstone.Terrain have been demarcated by Remote
sensing Data of IRS-ID. The study area Jhansi is part of
Zone-II, shown in the square.
The geomorphologic studies based on different techniques
of remote sensing indicate them as normal step faults that
are related to recent movements and stress development in
the peripheral part of Gangetic plain and massif part.
Three such faults/lineaments have been identified (Fig 1)
that are mainly responsible for major geomorphologic and
topographical changes in Bundelkhand terrain. The NW-
SE trending Kabrai-Jigni- Behat fault/lineament, Panna
Gwalior fault/lineaments and Shahgarh-Babina
faults/lineaments were analyzed from the satellite data,
which are more or less, parallel to each other. Jigni- Behat
fault lineament passes from the central part of the
Bundelkhand that demarcates the rocky terrain dominated
area in the south and peripheral of Ganga basin alluvium
deposits in the north while thePanna-Gwalior lineament
passes from Jhansi that demarcates the boundary of rocky
terrain to the terrain of thin soil cover in the massif part.

GEOLOGY AND ROCK TYPE
The area around Jhansi town is mainly dominated by
massive hard and compact, pinkish grey coloured coarse
grained granite that is also called Jhansi granite (Jhigaran
1958, Sharma 1982). The western part of the area is
covered by Pahuj water shade, a tributary of Kali-Sindh of
Chambal basin while the eastern part is the part of Betwa
basin (Fig.1). The Jhansi town is situated in the central
part of study area and is bounded by two prominent quartz
reefs trending in NE-SW and N70E-S70E directions (Fig
2). The northeast part of the study area is characterized by
recent sedimentary covers where signatures of
paleochannels and meanders of river Betwa are still well
preserved (Fig 2).
Fig 2: Geological map of the study area. The porphyritic
pinkish grey granite is the major rock type around Jhansi
town.
Since more than 60% of the proposed study belongs to
rock terrain therefore, a detailed geological mapping
have been carried out to establish the relationship
between ground water conditions, and to locate recharge
areas with geological structures and rock types. The
geological map of Jhansi town ( Fig.2) points that terrain
mainly comprises hornblende- biotite- bearing coarse
grained granite, biotite granite, leuco granite pink granite,
grey granite, quartz reef, dolerite dyke. These rocks have
been mapped and their outcrop pattern were further
correlated with structural data vis a vis satellite imagery
of IRS-ID.
Pink granite is medium to coarse - grained, usually
massive and devoid of any major structure. The rock is
very hard and compact. The orthoclase, microcline and
quartz are the major mineral constituent. Beside these,
magnetite and flakes of biotite and occasionally needles
of hornblende minerals also found to be embedded in the
massive rock. The pink granite is mainly exposed in the
southern and northern parts of the Jhansi town. The small

patches of pink granites have been found as intrusive
around Jhansi town near Konchha bhawar, Parichha and
many other places. These granitoids are intrusive into
grey granite as well as biotite granite and hornblende-
biotite granite in Jhansi. The fractures and joints were
very common in pink granite, exposed at Barwasagar.
Gray granite is widely exposed to the southern part of
Jhansi mainly around Pratappura, north of Bijauli,
Konchha Bhanwar, Bhagwantpur and Raksha villages
(Fig 2). Small patches of gray granitoids are found around
south west of Ambabai. They are usually medium to
coarse grained, hard and very compact. In the local
language this rock is called Teliya pathar. Patches of
gneisses and migmatite are also noticed with this granite.
The E-W shearing is prominent in the gray granites. The
north part of gray granite sometimes consist enclaves of
gneisses. The biotite-hornblende granite is common
intrusion in the southern and northern part of grey
granites respectively.
Hornblende biotite granite (Jhansi granite) is most
dominating granite in the area. It is pink gray to brownish
grey in colour, very hard, compact and massive in nature.
Due to subsequent deformations, the lineation and
fracture has been observed at several places. The coarse
grained hornblende and porphyritic feldspar is the
character of this rock. Besides this, clustered of
magnetite, epidote and biotite are also present. This
granite is mainly exposed in the central part of study
area and is also called Jhansi granite (Jhingaran 1958).
The plagioclase, quartz, orthoclase, hornblende and
biotite are the major mineral composition.
Biotite granite is medium grained light grey to light pink
in colour. Biotite is usually small in size, streaky in
texture and defines the flow direction of magma. The
massive biotite granite expose mainly near village Bijauli,
Ambabai and Simardha villages. The small hillocks of
biotite granite are also exposed at Jhansi fort, Pichor and
Garhmau areas. The Joint and fractures are frquent
Quartz reef is elongated, linear and detached hillocks,
characterized by hog back structures and teeth like hill
tops of Bundelkhand massif. These hillocks are elevated
hundred too few hundred feet from its surrounding and
consists very course crystals of quartz and feldspar.
Surface of quartz reef is usually highly weathered and
fractured. The boulders and gravels of quartz reef are
frequent on both side of the slope. The quartz reef is
found in detached hillocks, trending in NE-SW direction.
These hillocks are some time displaced and traversed by
basic dykes or shear zones which has been used as the
linear fabrics for the identification of underground water
locations. There are four major quartz reefs has been
mapped in the study area. The Jhansi town is bounded of
two NE-SW quartz reefs. The reef passes through
Lahargird to Palar is infact a water divider for two major
basins viz. Betwa basin and Chambal basin in the study
area.
Dolerite dyke is usually exposes as smaller outcrop of
boulders of dark grey to black coloured rock that
commonly occurs at low land areas. However, hillock of
dolerite has been also found at Bijauli. The weathered
surface zones and surrounding soils are characterized by
red colour texture. The width of individual out crop varies
from 50 to 100m. There are four basic dykes in the area
and each trend in NW-SE direction. The contact of basic
dykes with quartz reef is one of the favorable conditions
for ground water.

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
The polyphase deformations for the rocks of Bundelkhand
have been suggested by many workers (Singh et al 2005,
Basu 2007). Three phases of deformation have been
identified for the granitoids of central and northern part of
Bundelkhand (Singh et al. 2007). The E-W trending
vertical shear zone has been considered as oldest
deformation while NW- SE trending shears and faults are
youngest phase of development (Singh and Bhattacharya
2010). The study suggests three E-W trending shear zones
from Jhansi viz. (1) E-W trending vertical shear zone
passes through Ambabai Karari to Isagar to Palar, in
the north of Jhansi town (2) Bijauli Orachha Barwa
sagar shear zone passes to the north of pink granitoid
in the south of Jhansi and (3). The Rajapur-Raksha shear
which occurs in the central part, passes through Jhansi
town to Konchha Bhawar to Baghat (Fig 3 ).
These E-W shear zones are few meter to 100 meter in
width and individual crop never exceed more than 300
meter in length usually, they are vertical sheet like
mylonite and sometimes fine grained granite observed
along Raksha- Rajapur Pichhor shear zone. The NE-
SW trending shear zone is also prominent in the study
area which is confined mainly at Konchha bhawar,
Shivgarh, and Simardha and Bijauli villages (Fig 3). The
NE-SW trending shear are found to be parallel to quartz
reef near Badol and Karguwan (Baghat) villages. The
NE -SW shears are ductile to brittle ductile in nature and
displaced the E-W trending sheared granitoids at many
places. The NW-SW trending shears and fractures are
very prominent in the east of Jhansi town and also near
Bijauli and Barawa sagar (Fig 3). The patches of NW-SE
trending shear zone also noted in SE of Raksha and
Shivagarh villages. These shear and fault zones are
sometimes more or less parallel to basic dykes. The NW-
SE shears displace the quartz reef hillocks, biotite
granite and E-W trending shear zone at many places.
These are brittle to brittle in nature, solidifications and
presence of pegmatites and quartz veins are very
common several faults trending NW-SE have been noted
which has displaced the quartz reef from meter to
500/600 meters. Besides this N 15
0
W and N 15
0
E
trending lineament, fault and fine granite have been
identified to the west and east of Jhansi town (Fig 3.).
These decibed shear zones are also responsible for
changes in the geomorphology and land use and land
cover of the study area. The Jhansi town is bounded by
two quartz reefs viz. N70
0
E S70
0
W trending Palar -
Lahargird quartz reef and Bijauli- Garhmau quartz reef.
The N-S trending two fault causes the uplift of the area
around east of Jhansi city. The continuous reactivation of
E-W shear zone and PannaGwalior fault causes the
braded channels in Betwa river and subsequent change

in the elevation due to upliftment of block of Jhansi
causes the river meandering. Not only this, the presence
of shifted paleochannel around Barata (east of Jhansi
town Fig 2) may be due to change in river course of
Betwa may also be considered the part of reactivation
of these fault in Bundelkhand craton (Singh and Basu
2011).
Fig 3: Lineament map of the study area around Jhansi
town based on visual interpretation of IRS-ID data.

DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Betwa, Dhasan, Ken, Pahunj and Sindh are the major
rivers of Bundelkhand, which are originated at south and
proceed to northward and finally merge into river
Yamuna or its tributaries. These rivers have followed the
various geological constraints and geological structures
on local and regional scale (Fig.1). The Betwa River is the
most powerful river of Bundelkhand that consists various
tributaries. The major part of investigated area lies in the
Chambal basin though river Betwa passes from Orachha
to Parichha in east. The river Pahunj, tributary of Sindh is
originated about 45km SW of Jhansi and followed the
north ward upto simardha village and then its turns to
eastward along shear and further turns to west and finally
merges in the Sindh at very close to confluence of
Chambal and Yamuna (Fig 4). The changes in the
direction from east to west for the Pahuj river to tne east
of Jhansi is related toNw-SE tectonic structure.
Drainage and slope elevation study around Jhansi
suggests that Jhansi town is situated at higher elevation
than its surrounding. The changes in direction of streams
have been noticed at many places which are related to
local geology (Fig 4). All the drainage start from the
central part and has followed the structure of the area. The
urban part of jhansi is bounded by two river viz. Betwa in
the east and Pahuj in the western part. Besides these, there
are several small water channels and nalas ( Fig. 3 and 4).
Kumhara and Mathhrapura are two major nalas to the
west of Betwa that run from west to east and controlled
by the E-W trending shear zone. Among all the Angora
nala is the most prominent nala which originated from
heart of Jhansi town and fallows the NE trend. The
drainage pattern around Jhansi is mostly in the dendrite
pattern. However, some of them develop in the linear
pattern. The lineament and drainage pattern around Jhansi
clearly indicate their structural and geological controlled.

FOREST AND AGRICULTURAL LAND
The general trend of slope in the investigated area is
towards northeast; however, the area has been divided
into three parts on the basis of NE-SW trending quartz
reef, which occurs as moderated to highly elevated hills.
Thick vegetations including shrub have been found to
develop along these quartz reefs. The dense forestation
has been encountered along the river Betwa (Fig. 4). It is
noted that dense forests are more frequent on pink granite
terrain while least on grey-granite terrain. The shrubs are
mostly around Jhansi town and are confined on the
hornblende- biotite bearing pinkish grey granite (Jhansi
granite). Thick soil has been found along old fracture
zones, especially along E-W trending shears. At the north
east of Jhansi and north of upstream of Betwa at
Baragaon, a wide fertile land has been encountered. The
land has been possibly developed due to recent
sedimentation owing to signature of change in river
course and meandering of Betwa. The paleochannels and
menders are well preserved in satellite imagery. The small
patches of agricultural land has also encountered around
Barawasgar. The small patches of agriculture land on
local scale have been found throughout the study area.
Fig 4: The map shows the forest, agriculture land and
water bodies/ reservoirs with drainage system in the study
area.

SURFACE WATER AND RAINFALL
The Bundelkhand region comes under the arid type
climate where more than 8 months are characterized by
bright sun and hot temperature. The average rainfall is at
Jhansi is about 835 mm that encounters only for 70 days
two months (from 25
th
June to 25 th Sept). Most of the
rainfall (more than 80%) has been covered under these
two months only. Since more than 80% area of Jhansi
and adjoining part consists igneous plutonic acidic rock
or rocky terrain with thin soil cover, therefore heavy rain
fall causes the rapid runoff and fast erosion. On the other
hand the temperature in Bundelkhand is high, more than
30C in eight months of year and low humidity through
all season that causes high rate of evaporation. Thus the
adverse geological conditions for water retentions viz.
granite rocky terrain and harsh climatic conditions cause
the poor chances for sustaining the conditions of aquifer
in this region. The people of this region has realized since
M. P.
U. P.

the beginning that construction of reservoir for the
storage of rain water, is the only solution for the
survival of man , animals and environment in this area.
Therefore, different size of storage type reservoirs were
constructed time to time as per there requirement. There
are six major reservoirs for storing the surface water with
in the 15 km circle of Jhansi town (Fig 4). Three major
dams viz. Parichha, Sukua Dukwa and Pahuj have been
constructed for minimize the water scarcity. Besides
these, various check dams of as small reservoir covering
few sq. meters were also constructed to store the water for
agricultural works. The geological study point that some
of these check dams are loaded on the recharge zone and
dam at Parichha is very close to the recharge zone of
Jhansi.

SUB SURFACE WATER
The ground water condition in entire rocky terrain of
Bundelkhand is more or less perched water conditions.
The ground water usually accumulates in weathered zone
or sometime in the fractured zone of granites. The stored
ground water has been presently explored from the depth
of 45 to 60 feet around Jhansi. The high LMP areas
mostly confined around the Barata, Miyanpur and
Baragon areas (Fig 3.). The underground water is also
pumped from the depth below 100 feet at some places in
Barata basin. The shallow water conditions have been
recorded from few areas of Jhansi, Baragaon and Barawa
sagar. The geological and field study suggest that
moderate to good potential zones of ground water are
mainly confined around Chopra, north of Pichore,
Baragaon, Barwa sagar and also nearby area of Laxmital
and Nayatal. The Bijauli, Raksa, Bijaur areas have been
considered as low to poor for underground. The water
level rises in month of July and August and gradually
goes down ward from month of October and by the end in
month of April most of the wells and hand pumps
becomes dry due to myopic exploration of ground water.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Jhansi town of Bundelkhand region is bounded by NE-
SW and ENE WSW trending two important quartz reefs
which are further traversed by the crustal scale NW-SE
trending Panna-Gwalior fault. Both the structures were
developed after the emplacement of the granitoids and are
encountered from all the rocks. Therefore, these structures
and small faults associated with them causes fractures
and crushing into granitoids. As a result series of shears,
fractures and linear fabrics developed in the different
rocks of Jhansi. Such fractures and associated joints are
very prominent at the contact zones of pink granite and
grey granite possibly due to geological parameters. The
peripheral parts of biotite-granites are also found to be
more sheared and fractured than core part. The core parts
of pink granite, biotite granite, pinkish-grey granite and
gray granite contain the poorly developed joints than rim
part. All these features and joints suggest the development
of secondary fracture zones in the granitoids of Jhansi and
their density vary from place to place.

Fig 5: Map showing the possible moderate to high
occurrences of groundwater potential zones around Jhansi
with the different parameters discussed in the text. Thick
line represents the quartz reefs.
The slope and topography study reveals that general slope
of study area corresponds to the general slope of
Bundelkhand terrain with few exceptions. The southern
part of Betwa has characters of braided channels. The
river Jamini diverted from the confluence and develops a
very enlarged and elongated area of confluence with
Betwa at south of Orachha (Fig 4). The presence of
braided structure and development of various NE-SW
trending shear and fault suggests that this part have been
active (Singh and Basu 2011). This view is also supported
by the presence of various paleochanels and signatures
meanders of river Betwa to the north of Orachha (Fig 2).
Along the thick sheared and fractured zones, the crust
rocks promoted soil formation and increases the
vegetation and forestation. The presence of E-W trending
Kumharra and Masthhapura nala along E-W fault is an
evidence of the reactivation of Blocks (Fig 3). Series of
NW-SE trending fracture zones parallel to Panna-Gwalior
fault have been identified from study area. It is the fact
that possibilities to explore the favorable ground water
condition in granite terrain are always a difficult task. The
presence of fractures, joints and some faults and some
time shears zones from the granitic terrain of Jhansi has
encouraged the possibility of ground water in the
secondary structural zone in some extent around Jhansi
Town (Fig 5). The thin to thick soil cover and vegetations
have been noted all around the Jhansi town. Such fracture
zone promoted the surface water percolation through
fractures and joints of granites and perhaps becomes the
potential zone for storing the ground water in the
weathered zone of granite and some times in the
secondary fracture zone.
The study suggests that eastern part of the study have
highly fractured rocks with thick soil cover. The moderate
to dense vegetation and thick soil cover and dominance of
forest has been also encountered from these areas
compared to the other parts of Jhansi indicate the
presence of high soil moisture content and subsurface
water. The geophysical exploration and water pumping
station around Jhansi point the presence of perched
water conditions at depth of 25 to 45 feet around Laximi
tal, 25 to 60 feet around Barwa sagar and 30 to 100m
around Barata and Garhmau areas. Low to moderate LMP
of ground water has been also identified around Bijauli,

Pahuj Tal and Ambabi areas. Thus on basis of geological,
structural, geomorphology and evaluation of Remote
sensing data, the ground water potential zones around
Jhansi town has been broadly categorized into (1) Good
(2) Moderate (3) Poor. The eastern and north eastern part
and some part of south of Jhansi has been considered in
the first category while western and south western are
considered under the third category and rest of area is
under the second category. The construction of major
dams and their linkage with smaller dams on one side and
strengthening the recharge system into the thick soil cover
area may minimize the water scarcity for continuous
myopic exploitation of water.

REFERENCES
Basu, A.K. (1986). Geology of parts of the Bundelkhand
Granite Massif, Central India. Rec. Geol. Sur Ind., 117
Basu,A.K.(2007). Role of the Bundelkhand Granite
Massif and the Son-Narmada megafault in Precambrian
crustal evolution and tectonism in Central and Western
India. J. Geol. Society India. 70: 745-770.
Jhingran, A.G. (1958). The problem of Bundelkhand Granites
and Gneisses. Presidential Address, Section Geology and
Geography. 45
th
Ind. Sc. Cong., Madras.
Sharma,R.P, (1982). Lithostratigraphy, structure and
petrology of the Bundelkhand group. In. Valdia, K.S.,
Bhatia, S.B. & Gaur K. Eds. Geology of Vindhyanchal,
30-46
Singh and Basu (2011). Giant Ground Fissures from the
South of Ganga Basin: Evidences of Neotectonism in
Northern Part of Bundelkhand Craton. Proceeding
Neotectonism in edited Dhruv Sen Singh and N.L.
Chhabra in Geological process and climatic changes.
Macmillan Publisher New Delhi pp235-250
Singh S.P. Hemraj, Shukla, R.S. Shrivastva, S.K. and
NambiarK.V. (2008). Granite collapse Breccias in
Precambrian Terrainof Bundelkhand Craton. Jour.
Economic Geology and mineral resource management
Vol 5, 36-52.
Singh, M. M., Singh, S. P. and Srivastava, G. S. (2005).
Crustal evolution in Bundelkhand massif Central India.
Abstract, International conf on PCGT, Bundelkhand
University, Jhansi, India. 242-243.
Singh S.P., Singh M.M., Srivastava G.S, and Basu A.K.
(2007). Crustal evolution in Bundelkhand area, Central
India. Jour. Himalayan Geol., 28, pp.79-101.
Singh S.P. and Bhattacharya A.R. 2010. Signatures of
Archaean EW CrustalScale Shears in the Bundelkhand
Massif, Central India: An Example of Vertical Ductile
Shearing. Journal Earth Science India, Vol. 3 (IV),
October, 2010, pp. 217-225.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

INFLUENCE OF CRUSHABILITY AND MIGRATION OF MOISTURE ON
CBR CHARACTERISTICS OF POND ASH

M.V.S.Sreedhar, Research Scholar & Asst. Professor, Osmania University, email: mvs_sreedhar@yahoo.com
G.Venkatappa Rao, Former Professor, IIT Delhi & Hon. Professor, Osmania University, email: gvrao.19@google.com
R.Ramesh Reddy, Professor, Osmania University, Hyderabad-500007, email: rameshreddy@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT: The pond ash being a non-plastic cohesion-less medium with relatively better CBR value, it has high
potential for being used as an overlay material on soft sub-grades of the pavements. On the other hand the CBR value is
considered to be an important parameter in the design of pavement structures. It is therefore necessary to understand the
CBR characteristics of pond ash more systematically. It was noticed that, in general, there is significant difference in the
CBR value of the same pond ash sample when it was tested both on top and bottom faces, which happened to be
marginal in respect of natural inorganic soils. When the difference is considerable, it invites attention as to which value
is to be adopted in the design. In this research, efforts are made to understand the mechanism in a greater detail. Based
on the investigations it is concluded that, there is considerable amount of crushing of coarse and medium sand sized
pond ash particles when compacted leading to a differential dry densities at the top and bottom faces which is
responsible for the difference in CBR values. This study suggests adoption of CBR value of the face that remains at the
top during compaction in the design as it resembles the field condition appropriately.

INTRODUCTION
One of the environment related challenges faced by
mankind in the present century is utilization of the Coal
Ashes. While fly ash with pozzolanic property is finding
considerable utilization, there is utmost necessity to
increase the bulk utilization of Pond Ash.

Pond Ash being a non-plastic cohesionless medium has
great potential to be used as an overlay on soft soil sub-
grades. The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) value of the
pond ash overlay will govern the pavement design. In this
context, a phenomenal considerable difference in the CBR
value of the pond ash tested on top and bottom faces is
identified against the marginal difference in inorganic
soils. As per clause 4.3.3.2 of the IS:2720 (Part 16)-1979,
after compaction, the sample is inverted due to which the
bottom face during compaction (denoted at CB) will
become the top face. Many a times, the penetration test is
conducted on the CB face only and its validity is not
checked for the reverse end of the sample, as suggested in
clause 5.2.1. of the said code. Though it may not make
much difference in normal inorganic soils, it is bringing
huge difference in respect of pond ash. This reduces the
factor of safety and thus performance of the pavement. It
is therefore necessary to investigate the mechanism
involved. Efforts are made in this direction in this project.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Several studies are carried out on the CBR characteristics
of natural soils and it was concluded that, marginal
difference was noticed between the CBR values of bottom
and top faces during compaction, named CB, CT
respectively. It was reported that, the CBR for CB face
was marginally higher than that of CT face. Though,
studies on CBR characteristics of pond ash were carried
out, this aspect was not thoroughly investigated.

METHODOLOGY
The methodology includes collection of Pond Ash and its
characterization. Conducting CBR tests in soaked and un-
soaked conditions on both CB and CT faces. To
understand the difference, after the CBR test is carried out
on both faces, the sample is carefully divided in to top and
bottom halves and tests are performed to determine the
moisture content, dry density, gradation of the soil sample,
separately for the two halves. The effect of compaction
energy on crushability of pond ash is also investigated.

Characterisation of pond ash
The Pond Ash was collected from National Thermal
Power station, Ramagundam in Andhra Pradesh. The Pond
Ash was collected from a near the discharge point that is
about 3m from the bank, at a depth of 2m below the then
ash level in April-2010. The index and engineering
properties of the Pond Ash used in this project are as given
in Table 1. The photograph of the Pond Ash is shown in
Fig. 1.

Table 1 Geotechnical characteristics of Pond Ash
Parameter Value units

Particle Size distribution
Gravel Size particles
Sand Size particles
Silt size particles

7.20 %
80.60 %
12.20 %
Consistency Non-Plastic
Coefficient of uniformity, Cu
Coefficient of curvature, Cc
IS Heavy Compaction test results
4.65
0.84
Maximum Dry Density 1.17 g/cc
Optimum Moisture content 28.90 %
Classification as per IS:1498-1970 SP


Test set up
The experimental test set up is shown in Fig 1. The CBR
tests are conducted strictly as per IS:2720 (Part 16)-1979.
A surcharge of 5.0 kg is used to simulated the overburden
due to upper pavement layers.

Fig. 1 The test set up

RESULTS
About 32 sets of CBR tests are performed on the pond ash.
The difference between the CBR value of CB, CT faces
was noticed. One set of such typical penetration curves are
shown in fig. 2-3.

Fig. 2 CBR plot for unsoaked condition

Fig. 3 CBR plot for four day soaked condition

OBSERVATIONS
Based on the CBR plots shown in fig. 2-3, the CBR value
corresponding to 5.00mm penetration, which happened to
be higher even after repetition, duly applying correction
for initial upward concave curvature, as shown in table-2.
These CBR values appears to be un-realistic. But even
after three repetitions with three different proving rings,
the results are established almost same. This is attributed
to the greater interlocking between the pond ash particles.

Table -2. Difference in CBR value
CBR value (%) for Un-soaked Soaked
CB face 50.20 49.75
CT face 35.90 36.20
Percentage
Difference of CB
face over that of CT
face
39.83 37.43

As it can be seen from table-2, the difference is very huge.
In field conditions, the pond ash is compacted and the
CBR of compacted top face influences its behaviour.
Accordingly, the true CBR value should have been that of
CT face. However, if CBR value of CT face is not
determined and that of CB face is adopted, it leads to
under performance of the pavement.

After having understood that, the difference is huge, it is
necessary to investigate the reasons behind this difference.
In line with this, the corresponding samples are placed on
the dummies that are placed in a clean and dry tray and
pushed gently downwards, such that the sample is ejected
out and the spilled out ash is collected in to the tray. When
the ejection is up to half thickness of the sample, the
surface is trimmed. Knowing the weight of one half, the
bulk density is computed. Similarly for the remaining half.
From the so collected pond ash, samples for water content
and particle size distribution are considered. The results
are as shown below. The samples consists of (-)4.75mm
size particles only.


Table -3 Difference in dry density and moisture
content values
Un-soaked Soaked
Overall moulding bulk
desnity (g/cc)
1.27 1.49
Overall Moisture content
after the test (%)
29.62 33.97
Overall moulding dry
density (g/cc)
1.123 1.119
On CB face
Moisture content 30.335 37.115
Dry density 1.151 1.148
On CT face
Moisture content 28.905 30.82
Dry density 1.095 1.09

The variation in particle size is as shown in fig. 4-5.

Fig. 4 Variation in particle size distribution
of un-soaked CBR sample

Fig. 5 Variation in particle size distribution
of soaked CBR sample

Fig. 6 Effect of compaction energy on crushability of
pond ash

Fig. 7 Effect of compaction energy on crushability of
medium sand size pond ash particles

Fig. 8 Magnified (373x) view of Pond Ash particles
(Curtesy: A.Bhoominathan et.al.)


Based on the results, the following observations can be
made

1 From fig. 4-5, it is evident that, the coarse and
medium sand size particles in un-compacted pond
ash are being crushed significantly and thus
increasing the fraction of fine sand sized and silt
sized particles which in turn may be contributing to
relatively better dry density.

2. This phenomena of crushing is more pronounced in
CB face than in CT face for the reason that, the
pond ash in bottom most layer has the opportunity
of receiving more compaction energy than the
upper most layer. This is evidenced by fig. 6-7.

3. Further, the globule like structure of the coarse
pond ash as shown in fig. 8, when crushed results in
a fraction with high angularity. This not only helps
in modifying the gradation to well graded state and
thus dandifying the medium, but also helps in
imparting significant structural and frictional
contribution to its shear strength. This may be the
reason why the CBR of CB face is significantly
higher than that of CT face.

4. As seen from the table, the moisture content of the
CB face is slightly higher than the OMC and that on
the CT face is lower than OMC. This may be due to
the fact that, the moisture held inside the cavity of
coarser pond ash particles may have flown out
when it is crushed and under the impact of blows, it
migrated downwards in to the CB face. This is
justified by the fact that, in the compaction test,
when moisture is added more than OMC, bleeding
of water is observed from the base plate. This
increase in moisture content has apparently no
influence on the CBR value as the medium is non-
plastic.

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the investigations carried out in this project, the
following conclusions are made
1 The pond ash consisting of clinker like particles
with intra cavities, is subjected to high degree of
crushability which amounts to variation in
density levels within a compacted sample.
2 There is considerable variation with in the CBR
value of a pond ash sample when tested on
compaction bottom face and compaction top face.
3. Though migration of water downwards is
noticed, it has no significant influence on CBR
value of the sample as the pond ash is non-
plastic.
4. It is therefore advisable to consider the CBR
value of compaction top face in the design as it
resembles the field condition effectively.
5. Subject to feasibility, the pond ash possessing
relatively higher CBR value and being non-
plastic has great potential to be an overlay on soft
sub-grades.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first author acknowledge the support provided under
TEQIP phase-I and Research Infrastructure fund of UGC.

REFERENCES
1. Bhoominathan, A and S.Hari (2002), Liquefaction
strength of fly ash reinforced with randomly
distributed fibers, Soil Dynamics and Earthquake
Engineering, 22 (2002) 10271033.
2. Datta M (1998) Engineering properties of coal ash,
Proceedings of Indian geotechnical conference, Delhi,
2, pp 4146
3. Datta M, Singh A, Kaniraj R (1996) Spatial variation
of ash characteristics in an ash pond, Narosa
Publishers, Delhi, pp 111119.
4. Goutham Kumar Pothal & G.V.Rao (2008),Model
studies on Geosynthetic reinforced Pond Ash,
JGE,Vol. 13, Bund. H
5. IS:2720 (Part-16)-1979, Laboratory Determination of
CBR, (first revision), Bureau of Indian Standards.
6. Jakka RS, Datta M, Ramana GV (2010) Shear
Behaviour of Loose and Compacted Pond Ash,
Geotech Geol Eng (2010) 28:763778
7. Kim B, Prezzi M, Salgado R (2005) Geotechnical
properties of fly and bottom ash mixtures for use in
highway embankments, J Geotech Geoenviron Eng-
ASCE 131(7):914924
8. Pandian NS, Sridharan A, Chittibabu G (2001) Shear
strengthof coal ashes for geotechnical applications.
In: Proceedingsof the Indian geotechnical conference,
Indore, India, pp 466469
9. Sridharan A, Pandian NS, Rajasekhar C (1996)
Geotechnical characterization of pond ash, Narosa
Publishers, Delhi, pp. 97110.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

PERFORMANCE HISTORY OF WARM MIX ASPHALT
Rajan Choudhary
Assistant Professor, IIT Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Email: rajandce@iitg.ernet.in
Eleena Gao
M. Tech Student, IIT Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Email:elena@iitg.ernet.in;eleena.gao@gmail.com
Ashok Julaganti
PhD Student, IIT Guwahati, Guwahati-781039, Email: j.ashok@iitg.ernet.in

ABSTRACT: With immense rise in the human activity, the composition of the atmosphere started changing and as a
result of this authorities in various countries are creating legislation and incentives to reduce global warming. The
increase in environmental awareness and strict regulations on emissions compelled the Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA)
industry also to reduce emissions during HMA production. Warm mix Asphalt (WMA) is an asphalt mix which is
mixed and compacted at lower temperatures compared to that of HMA. Lowering of about 20 to 55 C in mixing and
compaction temperatures can be achieved with warm mix asphalt. The potential benefits such as improved compaction,
extended haul distances, reduced energy consumptions and emissions etc. have created an interest of researchers in the
WMA. WMA is been gaining popularity in the recent years. A number of technologies for producing WMA have been
developed and many test sections have also been constructed in some countries. Based on the data collected from these
test sections, the performance of WMA mixes is found comparable with HMA. This paper describes the data of some
test sections of WMA constructed in different countries.

INTRODUCTION
Construction sector is the second largest employer in
India after agriculture. Road and infrastructure
construction is wheel of Indian economic growth. Road
transport completely dominates the transport sector in
India with a share of 4.6 percent in Indias Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) in 2007-2008 as per the data
released by the Central Statistical Organisation (CSO). In
India 95% of road network is occupied by bituminous*
pavement only (https://globaljournals.org). Hot Mix
Asphalt (HMA) mainly used as a paving material in India
consists of aggregate and asphalt binder which are heated
and mixed together. HMA is generally produced by batch
or drum mix plants at a discharge temperature of 138
o
C to
160
o
C. During construction, the temperature must be high
enough to heat the aggregate and bitumen for proper
coating and to achieve desired workability. Due to the
need of high temperature for the production of HMA, cost
of the energy is significantly large because high demand
of fuel is needed for heating the aggregate and asphalt.
Even higher temperatures are used for HMA mixtures
containing polymer-modified asphalt binders and crumb
rubber modified asphalt binders. Moreover, emissions
from the HMA plants itself are very high. The
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that,
the production of 2 lakh tons of asphalt mix in a drum
mix asphalt plant in a year would emit about 13 tons of
carbon monoxide (CO), 5 tons of volatile organic
compounds (VOC), 0.4 tons of sulfur oxides, 2.9 tons of
nitrogen oxides and about 0.65 tons of total Hazardous
Air Pollutants (HAP) during that period (US EPA Report,
2000).

With the rise of human activity, the composition of the
atmosphere started to change. The need of conservation
of non- renewable resources and energy, environmental
pollution and poor working environment are becoming
the global issues. With increasing concerns of global
warming, the Kyoto protocol was signed in 1992 to
reduce the emission of greenhouse gases. These had
influenced the road building and production industry too.
Asphalt industry is trying to lower its emissions by
reducing the mixing and compaction temperatures of the
asphalt mixtures without affecting the properties of the
mix. The technologies to decrease the energy
consumption and emissions associated with conventional
hot mix asphalt production have created an interest of
researchers in the Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA).

Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) refers to technologies that
allow for a significant reduction of mixing and a
compaction temperature of asphalt mixes. These
technologies tend to reduce the viscosity of the asphalt
and provide complete aggregate coating at lower
temperatures. WMA is generally produced at
temperatures 20 to 55
C lower than typical HMA.

Reduced mix production and paving temperatures
decreases the energy needed to produce HMA, reduces
emissions and odours from plants, and provide better
working environment at the plant and paving site.
Manufacturers and material suppliers have reported that
the cost of energy can be reduced by 30% and also carbon
dioxide emissions by 30% (You and Goh, 2008). The
decrease in emissions from the asphalt production plant
facilitates the asphalt plant to be located in and around the
non-attainment areas. Lower production temperatures for
asphalt paving mixtures will decrease the aging of the
asphalt binder associated with HMA production. This
decrease in aging can improve thermal and fatigue
cracking resistance.
Todays versions of WMA are the brainchild of the
Bitumen Forum of Germany in 1997 (Zettler, 2006).
European interest in reducing the emission of green house
gases was mainly a result of the Kyoto agreement.
Europeans started using these technologies to lower
mixing/paving temperatures, and the results are also


promising (Barthe and Von Devivere, 2003). Warm mix
asphalt was introduced to the United States (U.S) when
the National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA)
sponsored an industry scanning tour to Europe for the
asphalt paving contractors in 2002. In U.S., these
technologies were tried as an attempt to see the potential
benefits (Kuennen, 2004).

PERFORMANCE HISTORY OF WARM MIX
ASPHALT
Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) is gaining popularity in the
recent years. Recent interest in WMA has lead to several
countries hosting WMA field demonstrations. Most of
these projects are evaluating different aspects of this new
technology. Many researchers and users are interested in
the long term performance of WMA. The result obtained
from some WMA trial section shows equal or better
performance than HMA. However, there is still a
significant challenge ahead to move WMA from trial
projects to main stream pavement products. Some of the
field performances of different projects of Warm Mix
Asphalt are described below:

The first pavements incorporating WMA additives were
constructed in Europe in 1997. In 2007, the FHWA
International Scanning Tour team collected laboratory and
short-term field performance data from some of the oldest
WMA pavements in Europe. The scan team viewed six
WAM-Foam pavement sections in Norway with average
daily traffic ranging from 3,500 to 25,000 vehicles.
Performance of the sections has been mixed. Where poor
performance occurred, it was attributed to factors other
than the use of WAM-Foam. WAM-Foam sections
appeared to perform similarly to previous HMA overlay.
Also, good performance was achieved for a section with
15 percent RAP.

Eurovia constructed test sections with WMA mixes using
Aspha-Min (Zeolite) and HMA control sections in
Europe. Barthel et al. (2004) reported that 3 years after
construction of the first WMA test section using zeolite
measurements indicated no significant changes in the
surface characteristics.

In the year 2006, three WMA trial sections were
constructed in various locations in Virginia. Two WMA
sections were constructed using Sasobit and the third
section was produced using Evotherm ET. The sections
were evaluated over a period of 2 years to assess the
initial performance of the WMA and compare it with that
of hot-mix asphalt (HMA) control sections constructed at
the same time. Visual inspections and coring were
performed during the initial construction. It was observed
that there were no significant distresses in either the
WMA or HMA sections during the first 2 years in service.
The air-void contents of the core indicated that the air
void contents for the WMA and HMA were not
significantly different in each trial. Performance grading
of the recovered binder suggested that the WMA
produced using Sasobit aged at a slightly reduced rate
than the HMA, as indicated by decreased stiffening. It
was found that there was no difference in performance
grade between the HMA and WMA produced using the
Evotherm emulsion.

WMA with the addition of Aspha-min, a synthetic zeolite
successfully incorporates with a higher percentage of
RAP materials than HMA does. Aspha-min was added to
a Superpave mixture containing 20% RAP during a
demonstration project in Orlando, Florida. It was
designed for 3 to 10 million (equivalent single axle loads
(ESALs) with an N
design
of 75 gyrations. The addition of
Aspha-min was able to reduce the production and
compaction temperatures by 36C, while yielding the
same in-place density. According to Hurley and Prowell
(2005a), no distress was observed in the section. It was
also found that there was no difference in moisture
damage resistance between the WMA and the control
mix.

Alabama Department of Transportation in 2007 hosted a
warm mix asphalt field demonstration in Tarrant City.
This field demonstration was evaluated by the National
Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT). The mixes used
in the study consist of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement
(RAP) and the WMA additive used was EvothermTM
Dispersed Asphalt Technology (DAT). Two mixes, WMA
and HMA, were produced for demonstration. Based on
the study, they concluded that the WMA was more
susceptible to rutting than the HMA but show acceptable
rut depths for low volume roads. They also concluded that
the WMA was more moisture susceptible and less stiff
than HMA. The creep compliance testing showed that the
WMA is less resistant to load-induced damage than the
HMA. The site revisits indicated that both the HMA and
WMA showed segregation. After one year, it was found
that the indirect tensile strengths of the WMA and HMA
were similar. It was observed that the bond between
pavement lifts is not affected by the use of WMA.

The Nebraska Department of Roads (NDOR) initiated the
WMA field trial in 2007 using different amounts of a
wax-type WMA additive called Sasobit. In 2008, NDOR
paved four trial sections, installing two WMA pavements
(Evotherm WMA and Advera zeolite WMA) and their
control HMA sections in Antelope County, Nebraska. The
field performance data indicated that, for the two-year
public service after placement the rut depth and
International Roughness Index (IRI) of both the WMA
and HMA sections were insignificant, compared to the
typical failure criteria. Both WMA and HMA trial
sections showed similar good performance without raising
any major concerns.

Washington State Department of Transportation
(WSDOT) in 2008 rehabilitated a pavement on Interstate
90 between the Columbia River and George town.
Rehabilitation was done by grinding the existing
pavement to a depth of 0.25 feet and inlaying with the
same depth of HMA or WMA. Both the mix design for


the HMA and WMA were same except the addition of
Sasobit in the WMA. The RAP was recovered from the
grinding of 0.25 feet of the existing pavement. The results
indicated that density with WMA is same as HMA even at
lower compaction temperatures. It was also reported that
the stiffening affect of Sasobit was similar to stiffening
observed on other projects.

Prowell et al. (2007) reported findings from accelerated
loading tests on WMA sections containing Evotherm at
the NCAT Test Track. The Test Track was constructed in
Opelika, Alabama near Auburn University in 2000. This
test track is a 2.7 km oval track consisting of 45 different
flexible pavement sections. Evotherm was placed on three
test sections (each section 61 m in length) for
rehabilitation of NCAT Test Track. Fig 1 shows a section
view of the layers. Sections N1 and N2 were milled to a
depth of 127 mm to complete the structural rehabilitation
of those sections. Two lifts of 19.0-mm Nominal
Maximum Aggregate Size (NMAS) WMA were placed in
Sections N1 and N2. The binder for the 9.5-mm nominal
maximum aggregate size surface mix was varied for each
section. An HMA control containing a PG 67-22 binder
(similar to AC-30) was placed in section N2. The binder
for section N1 was the Evotherm emulsion produced
using the same PG 67-22 base asphalt as used in Section
N2 plus 3 percent, by weight of binder residue, latex. All
mixtures contained a blend of granite, limestone, and
coarse sand. The surface mix for section E9 was the
Evotherm emulsion produced using the same PG 67-22
base asphalt as used in Section N2.

Fig 1: Section View of Evotherm Layers at NCAT Test
Track (Prowell et al., 2007).

Before opening the sections to traffic, three cores were
taken from sections N2 and E9 and four cores from
section N1. It was reported that in-place densities of the
WMA surface layers were equal to or better than the
corresponding HMA test sections, even though
compaction temperatures were reduced by 8 to 42C. The
Asphalt Pavement Analyzer (APA) results indicated
similar performance for the WMA and HMA surface
mixtures which contained PG 67-22 base asphalt. The two
WMA sections and corresponding HMA section
demonstrated excellent field performance in terms of
rutting after the application of 515,333 ESALs in a 43-day
period. One of the WMA sections showed good rutting
performance even though traffic was returned to the
sections less than 2 hours after paving commenced.
However, laboratory tests indicated an increased potential
for moisture damage with the WMA mixtures.

In late 2009, it was estimated that over 1 million tons of
WMA had been placed and another 1 million tons were
under contract in Texas. The Texas Department of
Transportation has used so much WMA that it no longer
tracks quantities and now routinely allows the use of
WMA as a contractor option. The Double Barrel Green
additive was used to produce the WMA. The mix
production temperature of 132C was about 28C lower
than that used with conventional HMA and resulted in 18
percent savings in burner fuel costs. Placement
temperatures ranged between 105C and 122C. Results
from this project were also positive.

From the studies discussed in this paper the main
advantages found of using WMA are:
Low production temperature will lower fuel
usage and decrease emissions. This would also
result in improved working conditions at plant
and paving site.
Producing WMA at HMA temperatures will
permit an extension in the hauling time and
compaction. This also extends the paving season.
With lower mixing temperature, the short term
aging of the binder will be significantly reduced.
Use of WMA is beneficial for stiff mixes, RAP
mixes and low-temperature paving.
WMA mixes have comparable performance with
HMA mixes.

WARM MIX ASPHALT IN INDIA
Due to the potential benefits of WMA technologies, many
researchers in India are interested to study on these
technologies on Indian perspectives. Few trial sections
have been constructed in some parts of India. In one of
the field trial section, Evotherm warm asphalt technology
was used on a 400m stretch of three lanes on National
Highway 10 near Rohtak, Haryana. It was found that the
mixing and compaction temperatures were reduced by
about 30C relative to the conventional hot-mix asphalt.
WMA were able to compact to a density equivalent to the
conventional hot-mix asphalt at lower production and lay-
down temperatures. At another trial conducted near
Chandanagar, West Bengal, Evotherm warm mix
produced at 120
o
C was used and no fumes were observed,
thus giving a more pleasant work environment with a
reduced impact on surrounding communities.

Despite the promising benefits, the industry and many
researchers have been concerned to implement WMA
techniques into actual practice. Moisture susceptibility
has been a primary concern for some WMA approaches.
This is because lower temperatures in the process of
mixing and compaction could result in incomplete drying


of the aggregate, compromising the bond between asphalt
and aggregate.

CONCLUSIONS
Warm mix asphalt is a promising approach to production
and placement of paving materials. The technologies to
decrease the energy consumption and emissions
associated with conventional hot mix asphalt production
have made an interest in the warm mix asphalt. The
WMA revolution is sweeping across the world. Research
work worldwide is evidently demonstrating that WMA
systems are providing significant benefits with regards to
the environment, in facilitating paving practices and, with
regards to field performance. However, there is still a
significant challenge ahead to move WMA from trial
projects to main stream pavement products.

REFERENCES
Barthel, W., Marchand, J., and Von Devivere, M.,
Warm Asphalt Mixes by Adding a Synthetic
Zeolite. 3rd Eurasphalt and Eurobitume
Congress, Vienna, 2004.
Button, J.W., C. Estakhri, and A. Wimsatt, A
Synthesis of Warm-Mix Asphalt, Report
FHWA/TX-07/0-5597-1, Texas Transportation
Institute, Texas A&M University, College
Station, Texas, 2007.
D Angelo, J.,Warm Mix Asphalt European
Practice. Report No. FHWA-PL-08- 007,
Washington DC, February 2008.
Diefenderfer, S.D., and Hearon, A.J., Performance
of Virginias Warm Mix Asphalt Trial Sections
, VTRC 10-R17, Virginia Transportation
Research Council, Charlottesville, Virginia,
February 2010
Hurley, Graham C. and Prowell, Brian D.,
Evaluation of Aspha-Min Zeolite for Use in
Warm Mix Asphalt, National Center for
Asphalt Technology, NCAT Report 05-04, June
2005.
Evaluation of Sasobit for Use in Warm Mix
Asphalt, National Center for Asphalt
Technology, NCAT Report 05-06, June 2005.
Evaluation of Evotherm for Use in Warm Mix
Asphalt, National Center for Asphalt
Technology, NCAT Report 06-02, June 2006.
Hurley, G. and Prowell, B., Evaluation of Potential
Processes for Use in Warm Asphalt Mixes,
Journal of the Association of Asphalt Paving
Technologists, Vol. 75, 2006.
Khandhal, P.S., Warm Mix Asphalt Technologies:
An Overview, Journal of the Indian Road
Congress, Paper No. 561, Vol. 71-2, 2010.
Kim, Y.R., Zhang, J., and Ban, H., Implementation
of Warm-Mix Asphalt Mixtures in Nebraska
Pavements, MPM-02, University of Nebraska-
Lincoln, Lincoln, November 2010.

Kuennen, T., Warm Mixes are a Hot Topic, Better
Roads, James Informational Media, Inc., Des
Plaines, Illinois, June 2004.
Kvasnak, A. and Prowell, B., Warm Mix Asphalt
Field Study: Final Report, National Center for
Asphalt Technology, Report 10-XX, May 2010
Newcomb, D., An Introduction to Warm Mix
Asphalt, National Asphalt Pavement
Association, Lanham, Maryland, 2006.
Prowell, Brian D. and Hurley, Graham C., Warm-
Mix Asphalt: Best Practices, Quality
Improvement Series 125 (QIP-125), National
Asphalt Pavement Association, December 2007.
Prowell, B., Hurley, G., and Crews, E., Field
Performance of Warm Mix Asphalt at the NCAT
Test Track, Presented at the 86th Annual
Meeting of the Transportation Research Board,
Washington, DC, January 2007.
United States Environmental Protection Agency,
(2000), Hot Mix Asphalt Plants Emissions
Assessment Report, Emissions Monitoring and
Analysis Division, Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards, United States
Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park, NC, December 2000.
You, Z. And Goh Shu W., Laboratory Evaluation
of Warm Mix Asphalt: A Preliminary Study,
International Journal of Pavement Research and
Technology, Vol.1 No.1, January 2008
Zettler, R., Warm Mix Stands Up to Its Trials,
Better Roads, James Informational Media, Inc.,
Des Plaines, Illinois, February 2006.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

DETERIORATION OF GROUND QUALITY DUE TO OPENCAST
COAL MINES AND OTHER RELATED INDUSTRIES IN SINGRAULI
AREA
Raj K. Sharma, Department of Mining Engineering, IT-BHU, Varanasi
C.S. Singh, Department of Mining Engineering, IT, BHU-Varanasi.

ABSTRACT: Opencast mining and related industries have significant impact on the ground water quality. The
total suspended solids is a common pollutant in the most of the streams after mixing with the mine and different
industries effluents. The concentration of toxic heavy metals in concentration due to industrial activities is much
higher than the permissible limits in the study area This contamination is much dangerous for the human health
and our environment also.
INTRODUCTION
During the process of opencast mining, a variety of
rock types with different composition are exposed
to atmospheric condition and undergo accelerated
weathering. The different mineralogical component
of the rocks chemically decomposes and under
varying conditions would produce alkanity or
acidity. The development of natural resources is a
compulsion for any progress- oriented society. The
mining activity provides raw materials for all the
metallurgical industries and help to generate
revenue by giving export items etc. Increase in
mining activities is therefore, stepping stone in the
development process of any nation (Ghosh, 1993).
Mining is second after agriculture as the worlds
oldest and the most important industry. Mining
industry has a long history in India. Even during
Vedic times, a great importance has been attached
to this industry as a source of revenue (Rao, 1993).
The independence of primitive societies upon
mined products is illustrated by the nomenclature
of different epochs like stone age and iron age, a
sequence that also reflects the increasing
complexity of relationship of society with mining
activities (Desai, 1993)

It is well known that mineral resources
development results in environmental degradation.
The mining activities lead down to serve
contamination of all the three meso-environmental,
i.e., atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere
around the mining areas. It starts from the mineral
exploration stage when forests are cleared, roads
are built and drilling is commenced. It continues
through the exploration, beneficiation and the
utilization stages. Mining operation has made rapid
strides in the last fifty years and brought economic
gains of the country, but side-by-side also led to the
pollution of the environment including
contamination of the water sources, rendering
harmful effects of human health, plant life,
microorganisms, flora and fauna in aquatic life.
Thus stepped up mining activities for
industrialization and consequent pollution may be
treated as the two sides of the same coin. In broad
prospective Pollution means such contamination
of water or such alteration of the physical,
chemical, biological properties of water or such
discharge of domestic sewage or industrial
effluents or of any other liquid, gaseous or solid
substances into the water as major is likely to
create a nuisance or render such water harmful or
injurious to public health or safety, or to domestic,
commercial, industrial, agriculture or other
legitimate uses, or to life or health of animals or
plant or of aquatic organisms. (Govt. of India 1974)
Keeping above facts in mind the present study has
been conducted in Singrauli coal field area which is
one of the biggest opencast coal mining complex in
the world to determine impact of opencast coal
mining on surface and ground water quality.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE OF
SINGRAULI (U.P.) AREA
Singrauli- The problem area, as far as identified
industries are concerned, lies in the state of Uttar
Pradesh. On the east, the area has its boundaries
with the Bihar State, while it shares its southern
border with M.P.State. The area comprises a part
of erstwhile district of Mirzapur in south east of

Uttar Pradesh. It encompasses a vast geographical
area extending from Obra in the north to Anpara in
district Sonebhadra and further south to Bina
collieries. On geographical consideration, the area
lies between 200
o
10 240 30 North latitude and
820
0
47 830
0
15 East longitude. Although the
area is characterized by an uneven topography, the
average altitude in the area is 270-280 m. above
MSL. However, it ranges between 262 m to 474 m
above MSL. The area witnesses a semiarid climate
with annual rainfall ranging between 760-1300
mm. The area is characterized by proven natural
resources of coal, limestone and building stone.
Predominantly hard-rock topography and limited
water resources in the area have ultimately resulted
into the situation wherein 40 percent of the total
geographical area lies under forest cover, while
only 20-30% of the total area is under cultivation.
From the water resource point of view, the area has
river Sone as a major surface water body on the
northern fringe. Besides, there are five medium
sized streams namely Belan, Karamnasa,
Chandraprabha, Rihand and Kanhar, which, swell
considerably during the rainy season and shrink to
near insignificant flow during summer. These
streams are mainly flowing in NE -SW direction.
For raw water requirement, the area more or less
depends on Rihand reservoir across river Renu, or
on river Son and its subsidiaries besides tapping
sub-surface water resources.

GEOLOGY & GROUNDWATER
The area is largely covered by hard rock formations
belonging to Vindhyan and Precambrian groups,
which have comparatively low groundwater
potential in general. The groundwater utilisation
and development in the district is rather poor.
Groundwater in alluvial area generally occurs
under unconfined and semi confined conditions. In
deeper aquifers, groundwater occurs under highly
confined conditions. From the point of view of
groundwater occurrences, the lithological units
within the area are broadly classified into five
groups, comprising - Granites - Gneisses; Phyllites-
Shales; Limestones; Quartizite Sandstone and
alluvium. Groundwater occurs in the pore spaces of
the unconfined alluvial / weathered (in hard rock
terrain) material. The near surface sediments
comprise fine to medium sands with inter-layered
pockets of clayey material. This top un-confined
aquifer supports large number of dug wells and
other shallow groundwater structures. In hard rock
formations like granites, phyllites and quartzites
etc. groundwater occurrence is limited to weathered
zones and plains of foliation or weak fracture
zones. The depth to water table ranges from 2 to 24
m. On the whole, these formations have moderate
to low groundwater potential with an exception in
case of quartizites and sandstone which
occasionally form good aquifers (unconfined) in
the area and rank next to alluvial formations, in
terms of groundwater potential. In general, the
depth of water table ranges between 4 and 6 m.
below ground level (BGL). Rainfall is the main
source of groundwater recharge, apart from seepage
from the surface water bodies. The general
hydraulic gradient prevailing in the area is towards
River Sone or locally towards the subsidiary
surface water bodies. More or less, the flow of
groundwater is in conformity to the surface
topography.

SOURCES OF POLLUTION IN SINGRAULI
AREA
As a point source of groundwater pollution in
Singrauli problem area, cement industries, stone
crushers and thermal power plants are insignificant,
however during the coal mining operation, the
water may be contaminated by coal slurry, and
other metallic and non-metallic proportions, is
liable to disturb the aquatic ecosystem of the
surrounding areas, if enough precautions towards
treatment of the effluent and reclamation activities
are not taken. The discharge of effluent from
aluminum industries and chemical industries act as
a potential source of pollution of sub-surface water
on account of mercury, fluoride, titanium, iron,
aluminum and pesticides. Besides, the problem
associated with disposal of red mud, mercury
sludge and such other refuse also carry a significant
potential of surface and groundwater pollution. One
important factor worth mentioning is the presence
of Rihand reservoir, a fresh water resource for the
entire area, which has become a waste disposal site.
Besides ensuring the availability, almost stagnant
water body of the reservoir, with very high
hydraulic gradient, pose a major threat in
significantly increasing the salinity of the top soil
as well as groundwater in semi confined,
unconfined and perched aquifer conditions. In the
areas where critical safe balance between draft and
recharge is not maintained (groundwater mining),
chances of reservoir water contaminating the
nearby groundwater cannot be ruled out.

Major industries in Singrauli Area
S.no. Name of Industry Major environmental issue(s)
1. HINDALCO
Industries, Renukoot
Air and water pollution due to
fluoride and disposal of red mud
2. Kanoria Chemical
Industries, Renukoot
Water pollution due to
pesticides, chlorine and mercury
in wastewater and sludge
3. Hi-Tech Carbon,
Renukoot
Air dispersion of carbon ;oil &
grease in wastewater
4. Northern Coal Fields
Ltd., Site, Bina
Mine water discharge, oil &
grease from workshop, Air
pollution
Ltd., Site , Kakri

pollution
Ltd., Site , Khadia
pollution
Ltd.,
Site : Dudhichua
pollution -
8. Rihand Super
Thermal Power Plant
(NTPC)
Air Pollution; Ash Pond
Overflow
9. Renusagar Power Co.
Anpara
(Captive unit for
HINDALCO)
Air pollution; Disposal of fly
ash
10. U.P.State Cement
Corporation, Churk
- Currently started
11. U.P.State Cement
Corporation, Dala
- Currently started
12. U.P.State Electricity
Corporation, Obra
Air Pollution;Ash Pond
Overflow
13. Anpara Thermal
Power Station
Air Pollution; Ash Pond
Overflow
14. Singrauli Super
Thermal Power Plant
Air Pollution Ash Pond
Overflow
15. Stone Crushers
cluster of appx 150
nos.
Air Pollution & water pollution

WATER QUALITY AND ITS
DETERIORATION
Water quality is defined in terms of many
parameters, which can be classified broadly as
physical, chemical, bacteriological and
radiological. These parameters must first be
analysed to identify their right source and later,
need to be continuously monitored at the source at
the end of the production and supply line. Settling
of water quality standards and regulations alone
cannot help to achieve the water quality, but what
is required is a limited time regulations within
which the changes envisaged must be implemented.
If the worlds water supply were compared to one
litre of fresh water would make about 31.05
mililitres or about 3.1% of the total volume which
is readily accessible fresh water. It makes less than
one drop (Miller, 1998). Human beings already put
approximately 54% of all accessible surface water
to use, which is expected to increase to 70% by
2025 (Postel Daily & Enrich,1996). The total
quantity of fresh water on earth can satisfy all the
needs of human population, if it would have been
evenly distributed and was easily accessible. Out of
worlds fresh water resource about 75% is held
within ice sheets and glaciers, nearly 24.5% in
ground water and the remaining small quantity
occurs in rivers (0.03%), in lakes (0.3%) and in the
atmosphere (0.06%). (Parivesh News Letter, 1995).

GLOBAL FRESH WATER
DISTRIBUTION(TODD, 1970)
Location Volume
(x10
2
m
3)
% of total
volume on
Globe
Fresh water lakes 125 0.009
Rivers 1.25 0.0001
Soil moisture 67 0.005
Ground water
(Average Depth
of 4000m)
8350 0.61
Ice caps &
Glaciers
29200 2.14
Total on land
area
37743.25 2.7641
Atmosphere 13 0.001
Total in all
locations
37756.25 2.7651

MATERIALS AND METHOD
The ground water samples have been collected
from in and around Singrauli area during summer,
rainy season and winter 2010. Samples are
collected in clean and clear plastic bottles having
air tight caps. The measurements of p
H
, TDS,
Salinity, Dissolve oxygen, are taken with the help
of water analysis instrument kit. Other parameters
like Carbonate, Bicarbonate, Chloride, Sulphate,
Nitrate, Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium,
iron are determined in the laboratory.

RESULT
The mining and other industrial activities have
affected the water quality which may impact the
physiochemical characteristics of soil and the
plants cellular structures & functions particularly in
vicinity of the emission sources. The herbs with
medicinal values are also being destroyed due to
water pollution. The results of water analysis have
been summarised as given below.
The physiochemical quality of ground water in
Singrauli coal field area:
Para
meter
s
Away from mines
related area
Near mining areas
Mg/l Sum
mer
Rai
ny
Wi
nte
r
Sum
mer
Rai
ny
Wi
nter
P
H
7.31
7.86
7.3
4
6.37
-
8.36
6.8
6-
8.94
6.09
-
7.92
TDS 186.
0
15
9.0
153
.20
102.
64-
908.
16
11
2.61
-
1512
110.
82-
161
2.16

.16
Carbo
nate
12.0 12.
1
01.
0
23.0 23.
12
24.0
Bicarb
onate
121.
01
12
2.08
108
.70
423.
12
42
8.13
492.
10
Chlori
de
46.0 48.
0
35.
0
176.
1
18
7.12
191.
20
Sulph
ate
4.8 4.9 11.
5
231.
70
27
2.12
282.
02
Nitrat
e
2.9 3.0 2.7 117.
0
10
2.70
109.
60
Calciu
m
25.7
2
26.
12
20.
25
64.2 74.
20
82.3
6
Magn
esium
16.8
9
16.
01
12.
01
69.2 65.
21
64.2
5
Sodiu
m
21.0
9
21.
79
17.
89
117.
0
15
8.23
165.
21
Potass
ium
2.91 2.6
9
2.1
7
36.4
0
34.
02
30.0
8
Iron 0.19 0.2
0
0.1
6
6.09 6.9
2
8.09
Total
hardne
ss
138.
25
12
9.16
108
.96
81.0
-
364.
91
82.
23-
423.
89
84.9
3-
453.
29
It is evident from the water analysis that p
H
of
water away from mining area is varies from neutral
to basic whereas in mining areas it varies from
acidic to basic. Similarly, TDS & Carbonate,
Bicarbonate, Chloride, Sulphate, Nitrate, Calcium,
Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Iron, is much less
in water samples collected from away areas as
compared to near mining areas.
CONCLUSION
It is observed that the quality of water in the stream
flowing through the mining regions is quite good
before confluence with the effluent, but after
mixing the mine water stream in the downstream
side have been found affected by p
H
and total
suspended solids. The ground water in the mining
areas is having higher concentration of Carbonate,
Bicarbonate, Chloride, Sulphate, Nitrate, Calcium,
Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Iron, as compared
to ground water away from the mining areas. In the
present study the mining activity significantly
changes the water quality of the area.
The mining and related industry professionals need
to urgently find the ways of carrying out the
operations with the minimum possible adverse
impact on the environment. If such damage remains
inevitable steps should be taken to reclaim the land
and afforest the areas as early as possible after
mining is over to avoid the erosion of soil, silting,
or nearby reservoir and to arrest faster movement
of trace inorganics from mine dumps to surface
water sources.
REFERENCES
Central Pollution Control Board Report 1996, pp
261-264
Desai M (1993) Environmental impact of mining in
the Himalayas- a study on Sikkim Himalayas in
Envirnmental issue in mineral resources
development.
Govt of India(1974) The Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act.
Ghosh (1993) Damage to natural sources in jharia
coal field through half of the century up to
1974. In environmental issues in mineral
resources development.
Miller GT (1998) Living the environment 10
th

Edition Wardsworth publishers, Belmont
Calofornia.
Postel Daily & Enrich (1996) Human appropriation
of renewable fresh water science Vol 271, pp
785-788
Privesh news letter (1985) Assessment and
development study of river basin. Editorial
central pollution control board. Vol 1 pp4
Todd DK (1970) The water Encyclopedia Water
information centre post Washington, NewYork.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

STABLE ISOTOPIC CHARACTERISATION OF GROUNDWATERS IN
BIST- DOAB REGION, PUNJAB

P. Purushothaman
Research Associate, H.I.D., National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee- 247 667, Email: purus26@gmail.com
M.S. Rao
Scientist E1, H.I.D., National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee- 247 667, Email: somesh@nih.ernet.in
B. Kumar
Scientist F & Head, H.I.D., National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee- 247 667, Email: bk@nih.ernet.in
Y.S. Rawat
S.R.F., H.I.D., National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee- 247 667, Email: yadhvir2007@rediffmail.com
Gopal Krishan
Res. Scientist, H.I.D., National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee- 247 667, Email: dr.gopalkrishan@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: A study was conducted to characterize groundwaters (shallow and deep) in the Bist- Doab region of
Punjab using stable isotopes. The Bist- Doab region is very complex with varied geomorphology and drainage
system and hence is necessary to characterize the groundwater for better understanding of the recharge sources.
Samples for analysis were collected from the shallow and deep groundwater from the Bist- Doab region. The
isotopic composition
18
O of shallow and deep groundwater varied from -4.13 to -8.93 and -26.03 to
61.11 (shallow) and -5.72 to -12.12 and -38.06 to -84.07 (deep aquifer) in
18
O and D respectively.
The study shows that shallow groundwater gets recharged from precipitation at northwestern and central part of the
study area. The locations adjoining the Bist- doab canal (from R. Satluj) and R. Beas & Kandi canal (R. Beas) show
similar composition showing significant contributions from these sources to the groundwater recharge. The Deep
groundwater show isotopic composition similar to that of the precipitation.
Key words: Stable Isotope, Groundwater, Isotopic characterisation, Bist- Doab, Punjab

INTRODUCTION
As an alternative to a purely hydrodynamic approach,
geochemical and isotopic investigations of aquifer
systems have often proven to be quite successful in
determining groundwater recharge and flow paths
(Allison and Hughes 1978, Chandrasekharan et al.
1988, Edmunds and Gaye 1994, Adar and Leibundgut
1995, Van Warmerdam et al. 1995, Singh et al. 1996,
Sukhija et al. 1996, Kaplan et al. 1997, Hunkeler et al.
2004, Schmidt et al. 2004). Isotope measurements
complement hydrogeologic observations by providing
direct evidence for groundwater sources and transport
rates. This has been demonstrated for many simple
groundwater flow systems (e.g., Stute et al. 1992,
Ekwurzel et al. 1994).
The Bist- Doab region is an interfluve region between
R. Sutlaj and Beas (Doab: local word for interfluves)
occupying northwest region of Punjab. It is
experiencing high amount of groundwater depletion
despite input from two perennial rivers. Due to
increasing agricultural activity, water demand in the
region is increasing day by day putting more pressure
on groundwater causing groundwater mining and
exploitation. The irrigation activity in this region is
done through canal systems and groundwater. But there
has been decrease of over 35% in the use of canal
system in the state for irrigation purpose with increase
in usage of groundwater (Tiwana et al. 2007). Due to
these intense usage of groundwater the groundwater in
all the blocks of the districts in the Bist- Doab region
has been experiencing high groundwater draft and have
resulted in overexploitation with high groundwater stage
in the region has gone up to 300% with almost 80% of
the region showing the stage exceeding 100 % (CGWB
2007). The high amount of over exploitation of
groundwater in this region has raised an alarming
situation for the identification of groundwater recharge
sources in the region. The present study is aims to
characterize groundwater by stable isotopes for
understanding the source of recharge.

STUDY AREA
The Bist- Doab is a triangular region covering an area of
9060 sq.km lies between 30 51 and 30 04 N latitude
and 74 57 and 76 40 E longitude (Fig. 1). It
comprises of the districts Jalandhar, Kapurthala,
Nawanshahar, and Hoshiarpur of Punjab State. The
region is bounded by Siwaliks (360- 900m amsl) all
along its NE-SE portion, the river Beas in the north and
west direction and the river Satluj in SE and southern
boundary. The two rivers coalesce at Harike. The area is
drained by the river Satluj and Beas, with dense
drainage density at the NE strip bordering Siwaliks and
moderate to low in the rest of the area with sub-parallel
and sub-dendritic patterns. The region experiences an
average of 715 mm annual rainfall with a maximum at
Siwaliks (Kandi) (Chopra and Sharma 1993).

Jalandhar
Nawanshahr
Kapurthala
Hoshiarpur
R. Satl uj
Ropar
Har ike
PUNJAB
INDIA

Fig. 1 Location map of the study region

Geological Setting
Geomorphologically the region is divided into three
zones: the Siwaliks, Kandi watershed, and flood plain
area (Bowen 1985). The area, part of Indo- Gangetic
plain, receives huge pile of sediments of Pleistocenece
to recent age due to erosion in the mountains and
deposited by the rivers Satluj, Beas and other streams
draining the area. The relevant lithologies and
sequences are as follows:
- Surface deposits (Recent).
- Sirowal sediments and occasional gravels to the
northeast with Kandi coarse clastics including red clay
beds to the southwest (Holocene).
- Boulder beds with interbedded clays (Pleistocene).

SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS
The water samples were collected randomly from the
entire study area to avoid any biasness in the analysis.
The groundwater from the hand pump and peizometers
(shallow aquifer (<30m)) and tube well and peizometers
(deep aquifer (>80m)) were collected during year 2009
and 2010 (Fig. 2). The isotopic analyses (
18
O and D)
of collected water samples were done by standard
equilibration method in which water samples are
equilibrated with CO
2
and H
2
(Epstein and Mayeda
1953, Brenninkmeijer and Morrison 1987). The samples
were analysed using a Continuous Flow Isotpe Ratio
Mass Spectrrometer (CF-IRMS) to measure oxygen
(
18
O/
16
O) and Dual Inlet Isotope Ratio Mass
Spectrometer (DI-IRMS) to measure D/H ratio and
computed the
18
O and D using a triple point
calibration equation with Vienna standard mean ocean
water (V-SMOW), Greenland ice sheet precipitation
(GISP) and Standard light Antarctic precipitation
(SLAP) standards. The results were expressed by
convention as parts per thousand deviations from the V-
SMOW the calculation is as follows:
sample
= (R
sample
-R
V-SMOW
/R
V-SMOW
)x1000
Where, R is the ratio of D/H or
18
O/
16
O in sampled
water (R
sample
) or in VSAMOW (R
SMOW
). The
reproducibility of measurements was better than 0.1
for
18
O and better than 1 for D. Isotopic Analyses
of samples were done at the National Institute of
Hydrology, Roorkee, India.

(a)
(b)

Fig. 2 Sampling sites in Bist- Doab region a: Shallow
groundwater, b: Deep groundwater

Results and Discussion
The stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen are
generally considered to be transported conservatively in
shallow aquifer settings, i.e. low temperature (<80C),
prevalence of high waterrock ratios and an absence of
significant evaporation (Kim et al. 2003). The isotopic
composition of groundwater in both shallow and deep
aquifer shows much variation with the values ranging
from -4.13 to -8.93 and -26.03 to 61.11
(shallow) and -5.72 to -12.12 and -38.06 to -
84.07 (deep aquifer) in
18
O and D respectively. The
spatial distribution (Fig. 3) of stable isotopic
composition (
18
O) of shallow and deep groundwater in
the study area shows enriched character in northwestern
region of the study area compared to that of the other
parts of the region. The stable isotopic composition of
deep groundwater shows that the groundwater in the
study region flows from Kandi belt to towards the
confluence of Rivers at Harike.

-9 -8.5 -8 -7.5 -7 -6.5 -6 -5.5 -5 -4.5 ()
-8.5 -8 -7.5 -7 -6.5 -6 -5.5 ()
Shallow GW
Deep GW

Fig. 3 Spatial Distribution of
18
O in groundwaters in
Bist- Doab region.

To characterise the isotopic composition of groundwater
and understand recharge source the local meteoric water
line and river water lines (for both R. Satluj and R.
Beas) were made using the isotopic composition of
precipitation in the study area and river water samples.
The slope of regression equation (eq. 1) derived for the
precipitation in the study area is above IMWL- North
(D = 8.15 x
18
O + 9.55) and less than GMWL (D =
8.17 x
18
O + 11.27) and change in intercept indicates
change of source or the rain out process. The regression
lines derived for the river water shows that both the
rivers show evaporation effect with R. Satluj showing
higher evaporation effect than R. Beas (eq. 2 and Eq.3
respectively; Fig. 4).

LMWL: D = 8.13 x
18
O + 7.63; R
2
= 0.95 (eq. 1)
RWL Satluj: D = 7.05 x
18
O + 0.51; R
2
= 0.92 (eq. 2)
RWL Beas: D = 7.44 x
18
O + 7.53; R
2
= 0.93 (eq. 3)

D = 7.05 x
18
O + 0.51; R = 0.94 (R. Satluj)
D= 7.44 x
18
O+ 7.53; R = 0.93 (R. Beas)
D = 8.13 x
18
O + 7.63; R = 0.96 (Precipitation)
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
-15 -10 -5 0 5
D
(
18
O( )
Linear (R. Satluj)
Linear (R. Beas)
Linear (Precipitation)

Fig. 4 Regression line of the
18
O- D bi plot of
Precipitation; R. Satluj and River Beas in the Bist- Doab
region

The
18
O- D bi plot (Fig. 5a) of shallow groundwater
shows lesser slope and intercept (eq. 4) than that of
precipitation, RWL Beas and RWL Satluj. The low
intercept of shallow groundwater (-0.91) shows
significant evaporation effect of groundwater during
infiltration. The shallow groundwater near the
tributaries of Bist- Doab canal that is draining from R.
Satluj in the Jalandhar, Nawanshahr and parts of
kapurthala districts show enriched isotopic composition
than that of R. Satluj and depleted than isotopic
composition of precipitation shows possible recharge of
groundwater from these tributaries (canal) which have
suffered evaporation due to agricultural activities. The
groundwater at locations near R. Beas, and Kandi canal
draining from R. Beas (pong dam) at upper reach of the
study area shows isotopic composition lying between
the LMWL and RWL Beas line shows possible recharge
from the R. Beas. The other locations at the study area
especially locations at the north western part and central
part of the study area show isotopic composition similar
to that of precipitation showing significant recharge
through precipitation. The locations at the north western
part of the study area show high evaporation effect due
to the presence of salt encrustation in these part. The
isotopic composition of deep groundwater show lesser
slope than that of LMWL but higher slope than the river
lines (RWL Beas and Satluj) with lower intercept than
the precipitation and R. Beas (eq. 5). The slope and
intercept of the deep groundwater show possible
recharge through precipitation (Fig. 5b). A detailed
isotopic study of the shallow and deep groundwater will
help to understand major source of groundwater that is
contributing to the recharge of these aquifers.

Shallow GW: D = 6.83 x
18
O - 0.91; R
2
= 0.90 (eq. 4)
Deep GW: D = 7.97 x
18
O + 7.1; R
2
= 0.96 (eq. 5)

D= 7.44 x
18
O + 7.53 (R. Beas)
D= 8.13 x
18
O + 7.63 (LMWL)
D = 6.83 x
18
O - 0.91; R = 0.90 (GW Shallow)
D = 7.05 x
18
O + 0.51 (R. Satluj)
-80
-70
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
D

(
18
O ()
GW(Shallow)
Linear (Beas)
Linear (LMWL)
Linear (GW(Shallow))
Linear (Satluj)
D = 7.44 x
18
O + 7.53 (R. Beas)
D = 8.13 x
18
O + 7.63 (LMWL)
D = 7.97 x
18
O + 7.1;R = 0.96 (GW-Deep)
D = 7.05 x 18O + 0.51(R. Satluj)
-80
-70
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
D

(
18
O ()
GW(Deep)
Linear (Beas)
Linear (LMWL)
Linear (GW(Deep))
Linear (Satluj)
(a)
(b)

Fig. 5
18
O- D bi plot of a) shallow and b) deep
groundwater in the Bist- Doab region.

CONLCUSION
The groundwater in the Bist- Doab region is over-
exploited due to increase in usage of groundwater for
agricultural and industrial activities. The stable isotopic
composition of oxygen and hydrogen is used to
characterize and understand the recharge source of
groundwater in Bist- Doab region. The study shows that
the shallow groundwater in northwestern and central
part of the region is significantly recharged from
precipitation. The Bist- Doab canal drained from R.
Satluj recharges few places where the canal network is
present i.e. in the Nawanshahr and Jalandhar districts.
The locations which are near R. Beas and the Kandi
canal (at upper reach of the study area) gets recharged
from R. Beas. The northwestern part of the study region
show significant evaporation effect during infiltration
process. The deep groundwater in the study regions
shows similar character to that of precipitation
indicating possible recharge from the precipitation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The present work is part of the research project funded
by the World Bank under Purpose Driven Study of HP
II, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India,
(GoI), initiated by the Hydrological Investigations
Division of NIH, Roorkee, India. Hence, the financial
support from the World Bank is acknowledged.

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Compound-specific stable isotope analysis of organic
contaminants in natural environments: A critical
review of the state of the art, prospects, and future
challenges. Analytical Bioanalytical Chemistry, 378,
926-931
Singh, D., Singh, Y.P., Bairwa, S.P., Porwal, C.P. and
Mathur, K.M. (1996). Isotopic and hydrochemical
study of groundwater in Shahgarh Bulge area of
Jaisalmer. Journal of Applied Hydrology, 9, 84-87.
Stute, M., Schlosser, P., Clark, J.F. and Broecker, W.S.
(1992). Paleotemperatures in the southwestern
United States derived from noble gases in
groundwater. Science, 256, 1000-1003.
Sukhija, B.S., Nagabhushanam, P. and Reddy, D.V.
(1996). Groundwater recharge in semi-arid regions of
India; an overview of results obtained using tracers.
Hydrogeology Journal, 4, 50-71.
Tiwana, N.S., Jeerat, N., Ladhar, S.S., Singh, G., Paul,
R., Dua, D.K. and Parwana, H.K. (2007). State of
Environment: Punjab- 2007. Punjab state council for
science and technology, pp- 243.
Van Warmerdam, E.M., Frape, S.K., Aravena, R.,
Drimmie, R.J., Flatt, H. and Cherry J.A. (1995).
Stable chlorine and carbon isotope measurements of
selected organic solvents. Applied Geochemistry, 10,
547552

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

LINEAR AND NON LINEAR ANALYSIS OF SQUARE PLATE
Ashish Johri
M.Tech. Student, Department of Civil Engg., IT-BHU, Varanasi
Rajesh Kumar
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engg., IT-BHU, Varanasi
Veerendra Kumar
Professor, Department of Civil Engg., IT-BHU, Varanasi

ABSTRACT: The behaviour of four elements namely shell 63, shell 93, shell 143 and shell 181 (of ANSYS
software) has been studied in this paper and their convergence pattern has been found out separately for simply
supported and fixed square plates for different combinations of edge lengths, thickness and load. Shell 93 and shell
63 perform closest to classical result for simply supported and fixed square plates respectively. These two elements
are used for comparing results of linear and non linear analysis of both simply supported and fixed square plates.
The conclusion thus obtained is used to establish a relationship between central deflection (classical) and variation
between linear and non linear results for a square plate.

INTRODUCTION
In the linear analysis, the displacements and strains
developed in the structure are small. That is, the
geometry of the structure assumed remains
unchanged during the loading process and linear
strain approximations can be used. However, the
geometry of the structure changes continuously
during the loading process, and this fact is taken into
account in the geometrically nonlinear analysis
[Timoshenko and Woinowsky (1959)]. Finite
element method is quite important for analysis of thin
plates [Krishnamoorthy (2005)]. Large deflection
analysis of plates using finite element method and
other approximate methods has been done by many
researchers [Savithri and Vardan (1993), Rao et
al.(1993), Luo (2000) and Little (1987)]. Simply
supported and square plates have been taken for
analysis in this study.

SIMPLY SUPPORTED SQUARE PLATE
Simply supported square plate under a uniformly
distributed load is analyzed for varying plate
thickness using classical, linear and non linear
approach. Linear and non linear analysis have been
done using ANSYS (Finite Element based) software.
Three edge lengths namely 0.4 m, 2 m and 4 m are
used. In following examples a is edge length, q is
uniformly distributed load, E is Youngs modulus
of elasticity, is Poissons ratio, w
mux
is
maximum out plane displacement and D is flexural
rigidity of plate. The linear and non linear analysis is
done using the software ANSYS 10.0

Fig. 1: Central Deflections of Simply Supported
Square Plate (0.4mx0.4m) for different plate
thickness (a=0.4m, q = 10 KN/m
2
, E = 2.07*1
11

N/m
2
, = 0.3, w
max
=
.41qa
4
D
, Element used =
shell 93, Mesh density = 128x128)

2
, E = 2.07*1
11

N/m
2
, = 0.3, w
max
=
.41qa
4
D
, Element used =
0
2
4
6
8
0 10 20
c
e
n
t
r
a
l

d
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
t hickness (mm)
cl assi cal
l i near
non l i near
0
10
20
30
40
0 50
c
e
n
t
r
a
l

d
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
t hickness (mm)
cl assi cal
l i near
non l i near


2
, E = 2.07*1
11

N/m
2
, = 0.3, w
max
=
.41qa
4
D
, Element used =
FIXED SQUARE PLATE
Fixed square plate under a uniformly distributed load
is analyzed for varying plate thickness using
classical, linear and non linear approach. Three edge
lengths namely 0.4m, 2m and 4m are used. The linear
and non linear analysis is done using the software
ANSYS 10.0.

Fig. 4: Central Deflections of fixed Square Plate
for different plate (0.4mx0.4m)thickness (a=0.4m,
q = 10 KN/m
2
, E = 2.07*1
11
N/m
2
, = 0.3,
w
max
=
.12qa
4
D
, Element used = shell 63, Mesh
density = 128x128)

for different plate (2.0mx2.0m) thickness (a=2.0m,
q = 10 KN/m
2
, E = 2.07*1
11
N/m
2
, = 0.3,
w
max
=
.12qa
4
D
density = 128x128)

for different plate (4.0mx4.0m) thickness (a=4.0m,
q = 10 KN/m
2
, E = 2.07*1
11
N/m
2
, = 0.3,
w
max
=
.12qa
4
D
density = 128x128)

Fig 7: Graph showing relation between central
deflection (classical) and variation between linear
and non linear results for a square plate.
0
20
40
60
80
0 50 100 c
e
n
t
r
a
l

d
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
t hickness (mm)
cl assi cal
l i near
non l i near
0
5
10
15
20
0 10 20
c
e
n
t
r
a
l

d
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
t hickness (mm)
cl assi cal
l i near
non l i near
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 20 40
c
e
n
t
r
a
l

d
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
t hickness (mm)
cl assi cal
l i near
non l i near
0
50
100
150
200
0 50 100
c
e
n
t
r
a
l

d
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
t hickness (mm)
cl assi cal
l i near
non l i near
0
20
40
60
80
0 100 200 300 400
%

v
a
r
i
a
t
i
o
n

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

l
i
n
e
a
r

a
n
d

n
o
n

l
i
n
e
a
r

r
e
s
u
l
t
cent ral deflect ion (classical) as % of
si mpl y
suppor t ed
squar e
pl at e
f i xed
squar e
pl at e


A relation between central deflection (classical) and
variation between linear and non linear results is
obtained using above results and plotted on a graph
for both simply supported and fixed boundary
conditions separately. This graph is shown in Fig. 7
and it is true for any uniformly distributed load, any
edge length and any thickness of the square plate. In
both the plates variation between linear and non
linear results increases with decrease of thickness of
plate. This is may be due to the higher value of
membrane stress in thin plate as compare to thick
plate.

CONCLUSIONS
Out of different elements shell 93 and Shell 63 are
suitable for simply supported and fixed plate
respectively. The maximum difference between the
results of linear and non linear analysis is 66.9% for
simply supported square plate and 55.5% for fixed
square plate. In both the plates variation between
linear and non linear results increases with decrease
of thickness of plate.

REFERENCES
Timoshenko, S.P. and Woinowsky-Krieger, S.,
Theory of plates and Shells, New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1959.
Krishnamoorthy, C.S., Finite Element Analysis,
2nd ed. New Delhi: McGraw-Hill, 2005.
Savithri, S. and Vardan, T.K., (1993), Large
deflection analysis of laminated composite
plates, International Journal of Non Linear
Mechanics, 28(1), 1-12.
Rao, D.V., Sheikh , A.H. and Mukhopadhyay,(1993),
A finite element large displacement analysis of
stiffened plates, Computers and Structures,
47(6), 987-993.
Luo, A.C.J.,(2000), An approximate theory for
geometrically non linear thin plates, International
Journal of Solids and Structures, 37(51), 7655-
7670.
Little, G.H., (1987), Efficient large deflection
analysis of rectangular orthotropic plates by direct
energy minimization, Computer and Structures,
26, 871-884.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

LOCAL STRATEGIC PLANNING PROCESSES AND SUSTAINAB-
ILITY TRANSITIONS IN INFRASTRUCTURE SECTORS

Rajesh Singh
Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, IT-BHU, Varanasi (U.P.) INDIA
rajeshsingh_sms@rediffmail.com
P.K.S. Dikshit
Professor , Department of Civil Engineering, IT-BHU, Varanasi (U.P.) INDIA
pk_sd@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT: Sustainability transitions have repeatedly been demanded in various economic sectors to confront
global environmental problems. The present paper analyses the role of strategic planning processes for
improving the prospects of achieving sustainable transitions in infrastructure sectors. Current planning
approaches in these sectors tend to perpetuate the established socio-technical configurations by neglecting
context uncertainties, by ignoring radical system alternatives and by focusing on narrow value considerations. In
order to improve the prospects for sustainable transitions, more reflexive and discursive strategic planning
methods are needed. We present the 'Regional Infrastructure Foresight' methodology as a specific procedural
proposal and analyze results from its application to a case study in the Sanitation Sector Uttar Pradesh.

INTRODUCTION
Local Planning Processes and Sustainability
Transitions in Infrastructure Sectors
Interdependencies (Markard and Truffer 2006).
Regarding sustainability issues, however,
infrastructure sectors take a central position in modern
production and consumption (Konrad et al. 2008).
The long life span of its material components
(transmission lines, underground piping systems,
centralized treatment and generation facilities, etc.)
puts strategic planning processes on a central stage
when analyzing possibilities for sustainable sector
reforms. Strategic decisions taken at the beginning of
a life cycle of key components determine the
characteristics of the systems for much extended time
periods (usually 25-50 years). The way these strategic
planning processes are currently carried out tends to
narrow the evaluation space away from potentially
more sustainable alternatives: it tends to
systematically downplay context uncertainties, tends
to ignore radical system alternatives and tends to
focus on a narrow subset of possible value
considerations (Dominguez et al. 2010, Dyner and
Larsen 2001). As a consequence, radically different
and potentially more sustainable alternatives will be
systematically undervalued. Infrastructure sectors
therefore have a tendency to be locked-in to
unsustainable states for long periods. The present
paper aims to elaborate on how strategic planning
should be designed to enhance the prospects for
sustainable transitions in infrastructure sectors. The
proposed approach integrates insights from the
sustainability transitions literature with lessons from
environmental decision-making and strategic
planning. Essentially, it argues for a more reflexive
and participatory planning approach that allows
considering a broader range of context conditions,
options and value positions. We demonstrate the
virtues of such an approach by applying it to cases
from the sanitation sector, a domain that is exposed to
increasing sustainability pressures in most regions of
the world. Urban water management has long been
considered a largely non-controversial economic
sector. Therefore, a strong socio-technical regime
developed, which is prevalent in most industrialized
nations in the world today. The material basis of the
sanitation regime follows a civil engineering logic
consisting of concrete sewerage pipes and centralized
waste water treatment plants. The key technological
components (generation and treatment plants) exhibit
strong economics of size, which leads to a strong
drive for centralization and compulsory connection of
captured users. Given the long material life times,
institutional conditions have to remain stable over
long periods. As a consequence, these sectors were
largely organized as public services run by public
authorities (Dominguez et al. 2009). In the 1960s and
1970s, when this socio-technical regime was
implemented countrywide, there were constant growth
rates in service demand, the technological paradigm
remained largely unchallenged and the goals on which
system performance was assessed remained
uncontested (elimination of nutrients, un-
discriminated with uncertainties related to future
context conditions. Therefore, we understand
sustainability transitions less in a substantive way
(predicting how a sustainable sector structure will
ultimately look like) but rather propose a procedural
approach that allows us to reflect on path-
dependencies and by this improve the implementation
potential for radical system alternatives with better
sustainability performance. Considering these
requirements, the 'regional infrastructure foresight
(RIF)' method has recently been put forward as a
specific approach to sustainability orientated strategic
planning (Stormer et al. 2009). Stormer and Truffer
2009). It involves local decision-makers as well as
broader stakeholder representatives in a highly
structured elaboration and discourse process.
Participants explore a broad range of possible future

system configurations and evaluate the performance
of these options for a diverse set of regional context
scenarios. Evaluation is based on an encompassing list
of sustainability goals and is carried out relative to
(assumed) preference profiles of key future
stakeholder groups. In particular, RIF supports
investments in the capabilities of local decision-
makers (see also Harmaakorpi and Uotila 2006) that
form a precondition for more encompassing
sustainable transformation processes.

The paper is structured as follows. In the next section
we outline the theoretical background of sustainability
transitions and strategic planning on which the RIF
method builds. We then introduce the methodology of
the RIF approach. The following section presents the
major results of a case study run in the Swiss
sanitation sector, where the advantages of the RIF
method compared with a conventional planning
approach are well illustrated. We conclude by coming
back to the question of how strategic planning can
enhance the prospects for sustainability transitions in
infrastructure sectors. In particular, we discuss how
this local planning process should be embedded in
more encompassing multi-level governance structures
aiming at sustainability transitions.

SUSTAINABILITY TRANSITIONS AND
STRATEGIC PLANNING IN
INFRASTRUCTURE
As expounded above, the urban water management
sector (in line with many other infrastructure sectors)
exhibits strong path dependencies. Strong material
and institutional interdependencies have been built up,
in order to guarantee a proper working of these
systems. Conceptually these configurations may be
understood as socio-technical systems in which
material and institutional characteristics are tightly
intertwined in order to establish 'configurations that
work' (Rip and Kemp 1998). As a consequence,
incremental innovations are mostly preferred to
radical system reconfigurations (Markard and Truffer
2006). Leaps in environmental performance may only
be achieved Alternative socio-technical configurations
can establish their own matching structures. If these
new configurations gain dominance in a sector, we
may call it a socio-technical transition. If the new
system shows a substantially higher performance with
regard to sustainability indicators, these are termed
'sustainability transitions' (Geels 2006b). Below we
present some core tenets of the sustainability
transitions literature. In a second step, we will - based
on the recent literature on environmental decision-
making and strategic planning - elaborate on how
strategic planning could enhance the potential for
sustainability transitions in infrastructure sectors.

Infrastructures as Socio-technical Regimes
Infrastructure-based sectors have long received
considerable attention from scholars of innovation
studies. One of the earliest and most prominent
examples is Hughes (1987, 1993), who provided an
analysis of the social and technological determinants
of the growth and diffusion of the electricity system in
the US. He coined the concept of Large Technical
Systems (LTS), which are characterized by a strong
interrelationship between their material and
institutional structures. More recently, research on
socio-technical transitions was developed based on
historical case studies of specific sectors (Rip and
Kemp 1998, Konnola et al. 2006). Coherent socio-
technical configurations have been epitomized as
socio-technical regimes. Over extended time periods,
specific regimes may dominate the provision of
certain services. These stable periods are interspersed
by phases of transition that often are associated with
substantial leaps in performance (Krausmann et al.
2008, Elzen et al. 2004). Such transitions are often
triggered by mounting pressures from context
conditions ('socio-technical landscape forces'; see
Geels and Schot 2007) to which the established
regime has problems to adapt. Additionally,
established regimes may be challenged by upcoming
alternatives ('technological niches') that can take
advantage by better fitting the upcoming context
pressures (Hoogma et al. 2002). The potential for
sustainability transitions may therefore be assessed by
analyzing

Local Planning Processes and Sustainability
Transitions in Infrastructure Sectors
The interplay between dominant sector structures,
changing landscape pressures and the prospects of
technological niches (see Geels 2002). Compared
with a conventional market-based account of sector
transformations, socio-technical systems emphasize
the need to develop matching configurations between
technology and institutions and therefore allow us to
account for resistance to change and path dependency
more explicitly.
The analysis of socio-technical regime changes has
been undertaken with a view on policy implications.
Originally, 'constructive' approaches to technology
assessment have been developed (Rip et al 1995,
Schot 1999, 2001). Here, the role of early learning
and decision-making processes in technology
development was emphasized, as well as the need to
encompass experimentation and social learning to
improve success for sustainability transitions
(Hoogma et al. 2002). More recently, the approach of
transition management has been formulated, which
aims to establish a long-term policy perspective on
sustainability transitions consisting of the
development of broadly shared visions on sustainable
futures, experimentation with radical system
alternatives and involvement of stakeholders in
participatory decision contexts (Voss et al. 2009,
Loorbach 2007). By its very origins, transition
management had a strong technology policy
orientation. More recently, the decision-making

processes of firms and other societal actors have been
incorporated by drawing on foresight and sustainable
assessment approaches (e.g. Truffer et al. 2008,
Eriksson and Weber 2008, Smith et al. 2005).

Strategic Planning for Sustainable Urban Water
Infrastructures
Water infrastructures in general and sanitation in
particular have been the object of analysis in a
number of empirical transition studies. Geels (2005,
2006a), for instance, has carried out a multi-level
analysis of historical transformations of urban water
management in the Netherlands. The role of
technological niches for the sustainable
transformation of this sector has been analyzed by
Hegger et al. (2007), among others, and Hiessl et al.
(2003) have carried out detailed sustainability
assessments for alternative socio-technical system
configurations in urban water management. In the
transitions terminology, the sanitation sector may be
described as a specific socio-technical regime, which
is characterized by sewage systems connected to
centralized wastewater treatment plants, a
professional culture of civil engineering,
organizational structures which are (often) highly
localized and thus spatially fragmented, strong state
regulation or even state-run service organizations, and
an almost total invisibility for end-users (here actually
waste-water generators). From these characteristics,
we may deduce that strong path dependencies exist
due to resistance to technical, institutional and user-
related reforms of the predominant regime. Planning
and decision procedures have explicitly been tailored
to maintain and perpetuate these regime
characteristics. Urban water treatment systems are
locally planned, decision-making is dominated by
technical experts, and evaluation of alternatives is
based on rather narrow ranges of alternatives and
value considerations (dominguez et al 2010).
Therefore, radically new (and potentially more
sustainable) alternatives have difficulty in gaining a
foothold in these contexts and there are well-
developed barriers set up by incumbent actors to
exclude potential rivals (Hegger et al. 2007).
In the past few years, however, criticism has increased
to challenge the long-term optimality of this
established socio-technical regime (Daigger 2007,
Wilderer 2004, Larsen and Gujer 1997), based on
three lines of argument. First, increasingly uncertain
context conditions, or landscape forces under which
these systems have to operate, call for more flexible
system configurations: population dynamics,
shrinking regions, industrial transformations, new
contaminants and pollutants, risk of terrorism and
reduced capacities of local communities to run the
established institutional structures (OECD 2007).
Second, new treatment alternatives based on
membrane and telecommunication technology (socio-
technical niches) exhibit fundamentally different
economies-of-scale characteristics that would allow
for substantially different technological system
configurations with a grossly enhanced performance
with regard to sustainability indicators (Daigger
2007). Third, evaluation criteria for assessing system
alternatives have become more diversified. For
instance, economic and institutional performance
characteristics have gained increased public attention
in the course of recent liberalization and privatization
debates worldwide. An important driver for this
development was a reduced financial capacity of
many local communities and nation states, which have
questioned the established overcapacity paradigm for
handling uncertainties. The increasing focus on
economic efficiency has in turn also raised concerns
about environmental and social goals of infrastructure
management in many parts of the world (Dominguez
et al. 2009).
In order to respond to these new challenges, strategic
planning has to explicitly address the increased
uncertainties in context conditions, options and
evaluation criteria. Decision-makers would have to
respond proactively to emerging opportunities. An
incremental improvement of existing planning
practices will probably not be sufficient (Dominguez
et al. forthcoming). A number of recent proposals for
environmental decision-making may be instructive to
find better suited procedures.
Thereby, shared orientation is the outcome of strategic
planning rather than mere optimization within a
predefined choice set. Decision-makers have, in
particular, to develop strategic capabilities to better
confront ambivalent choices and manage open-ended
development processes rather than to make optimal
one-short choices (Harmaakorpi and Uotila 2006).
The implementation will then follow some variant of
adaptive management involving experimental action
and reflexive monitoring and adaptation (see Gregory
et al. 2006). An increasing number of such approaches
to strategic planning for sustainable infrastructure
development have been formulated recently: sectoral
foresight for sustainable infrastructure transformations
have been reported in Germany (Truffer et al. 2008)
and more specifically strategic planning in individual
sectors has been carried out such as in urban water
management (Dominguez et al. 2009, Stormer et al.
2009), Lienert et al. 2006), electricity (Dyner and
Larsen 2001), transportation (Bartholomew 2007,
Zegras et al. 2004), waste management (Scholz et al.
2009, Shmelev and Powell 2006) and regional
planning (Gamboa 2006).
Summarizing, strategic planning aiming to support
sustainability transitions should more explicitly deal
with uncertainties and consider the interrelated
character of socio-technical systems. As a
consequence, decision-making processes should be
participative (respecting different knowledge
perspectives and value positions), open to
experimentation and learning (to enhance prospects
for alternative system configurations), flexible
(relative to changing context conditions) and reflexive

(with regard to value considerations of different
stakeholder groups and the long-term orientation of a
sustainable sector future). Given the strong localized
nature of water infrastructures such a planning
approach has to be implementable at the community
level. We maintain that if these conditions are
fulfilled, innovations with a higher performance on
the overall set of sustainability dimensions will have a
better chance of being implemented and as a
consequence sustainability transitions will become
more likely.

The Regional Infrastructure Foresight Approach
Based on this analysis, we provide a methodological
approach to strategic decision-making, the RIF
process. Based on the above analysis, RIF is designed
to fulfill the following goals. (1) To consider possible
context conditions in the time horizon of 25-50 years.
In particular, it will address uncertainties explicitly
and prevent decision-makers from closing down the
range of possible developments prematurely. Future
context conditions are integrated into context
scenarios using a discursive and deliberative
approach. This allows us to elucidate expectations of
the involved stakeholders and to create a shared
understanding of different development paths (Holden
2008, Truffer et al. 2008). (2) The choice set of socio-
technical system alternatives will be broadened to
include radical system alternatives. Risks and
opportunities associated with these options will be
assessed considering the requirements following from
the different context scenarios. In particular,
established system boundaries are questioned both
thematically (e.g. in order to consider options of
integrated infrastructure service management) and
spatially (e.g. in order to consider catchment-level
integration of urban water management). (3)
Decision-making will involve a broad range of
perspectives and vale positions and thus tap into
broader resources of knowledge and value positions.
Different value positions will be analyzed by
systematically considering the different sustainability
dimensions (e.g. by applying a systematic
sustainability value tree) and by involving a broad set
of influential and affected stakeholders. Stakeholder
involvement is organized in three levels of intensity in
participation: the lion's share of the analysis will be
carried out by a 'core team' of delegated local
decision-makers (in the project they were
complemented by members of the project team). For
key steps of the analysis, workshops with additional
stakeholder representatives have to be undertaken.
The third level of involvement relates to the formal
decision-making institution in the region. They
commission the strategic planning processes and
receive the recommendations elaborated during the
RIF process. In the corresponding research project,
the procedure was run in three Swiss regions:
Klettgau, a rural region in northern Switzerland;
Kiesenthal, a peri-urban region in the Berne area; and
Dubendorf, a suburban region in the Zurich area).
Each of the three planning processes ran over 9-12
months and involved about 25-30 stakeholders. The
processes were organized as follows. A core team
consisting of 4-7 local decision-makers was formed
together with (about 3-5) members from the research
team. This team analyzed the local system
characteristics and prepared inputs for the stakeholder
workshops in the course of 7-8 half-day workshops.
The core team identified key context factors
potentially impacting the future of their sanitation
system and assessed the scope of uncertainties of their
future development. Compared with the conventional
planning approach, the RIF method represents a rather
radical break with standard procedures. It increases
transparency, reflexivity and communication
substantially. The process will also deliver a different
set of outputs: the processes will not deliver an
undisputed set of optimal solutions; rather, it will
provide a broader argumentative structure, which
allows us to explore possible courses of development,
elaborate arguments in favor and against a departure
from the established regime structures, and identify
potential conflicts lines and sustainability deficits (e.g.
as in Gamboa 2006). The outcome of the process will
thus not present 'the' sustainable solution but rather a
mapping of the many trade-offs that have to be
confronted to develop 'more sustainable' sector
structures (more extensively, see Stormer et al. 2009).
And finally, RIF does not supplant conventional
planning; rather, it sets an encompassing framework,
which enables decision-makers to run subsequent
planning processes in a more reflexive way.

Results of the RIF process in the Klettgau Region
To illustrate the potential contribution of the RIF
approach to ease sustainability transitions, we present
the results of one case in more detail. In the Klettgau
region, a conventional strategic planning process had
been completed shortly before the start of the RIF
process. It therefore represents a very good case to
discuss the specific performance of the RIF method
compared with more conventional approaches.
The Klettgau region is located in the canton
Schaffhausen in the northernmost part of Switzerland,
bordering Germany. The sanitation system in the
Klettgau encompasses 10 communities, nine of which
are organized in an association of convenience
running a wastewater treatment plant in Hallau, a
community located downstream of the river
Halbbach, which subsequently crosses the German
border. Sewerage is owned and operated by each
individual community. The Klettgau region is
representative of peripheral, rural regions in
Switzerland with a strong proportion of agriculture
(here mostly viniculture) and only little industry. It is
somewhat distant from the local urban centre
Schaffhausen. The wastewater treatment plant
(WWTP) in Hallau was built in 1976 and is now in
urgent need of renewal. The decision body of the

organization commissioned a first strategic planning
study to the local planning engineer. He
recommended two options: either refurbishing the
existing WWTP or build a new structure in its
immediate vicinity. Local policy-makers were
dissatisfied with these proposals. They complained
that these options merely represented an incremental
optimization of the solution they had inherited. Given
that they had to live for another 30-40 years with the
new solution they wanted to have 'real strategic
alternatives'. This pre-project history illustrates nicely
how the conventional approach to planning produced
a strongly reduced set of options and how
uncertainties in the context conditions were not
addressed in an adequate form.
When the project team issued a call for participation
among the Swiss wastewater organizations, Klettgau
representatives showed keen interest and gained
approval for the first pilot study to run and test the
method. The core team encompassed a member of the
local decision body (and at the same time a member
of the board of one of the communities), the operator
of the WWTP, a (newly commissioned) planning
engineer and the official from the canton responsible
for regulating sanitation in Schaffhausen. A contract
was set up between the project team and planning
commission to carry out the RIF process. The process
ran from November 2006 to September 2007. The
core and project teams met for eight sessions of 3-4 h
each. Two workshops were held with 16
representatives (including the core group) from
different stakeholder groups in March and June 2007.
The final recommendation was presented to the
planning commission and the participants of the
workshop in September 2007. Since then, the results
of the RIF process have been used as a basis for more
detailed planning activities. Overall, the process ran
very smoothly and participants were highly
committed. After completion, they expressed high
levels of satisfaction with the process and the results.

Scenarios, Options and Goal Trees
The extended core team chose a time frame of 25-30
years (i.e. about the life time of a newly built
WWTP). For that period, major challenges were
identified that could impact the Klettgau region and
its sanitation infrastructure. Furthermore, about 10
interviews with experts in the region were carried out
and the results analyzed. About 15 context factors
were derived that might have a substantial impact on
the suitability of any chosen option. These factors
encompassed population structure, the kind and
number of industry workplaces, impacts from global
change, connection to the highway system, etc. The
different factors were evaluated with regard to
importance and uncertainty. From this, nine were
selected as inputs into the first scenario process,
where the list was discussed, and it was
complemented by additional factors; finally, five
context factors were chosen to construct four
scenarios. The scenarios may be characterized based
on a combination of high versus low growth and
strong versus weak role of environmental demands
placed on the sanitation system. The two growth
scenarios have been labeled 'Blooming Growth' when
combined with high levels of importance citizens put
on healthy environmental conditions and 'Critical
Growth' when increasing environmental problems are
combined with a generally low levels of
environmental consciousness. The two economic
downturn scenarios were labeled 'Strong
Globalization', describing a world with high pressures
on environmental resources but a low level of public
finances, and 'Diet Region' for a continuation and
reinforcement of the peripheral status of the Klettgau
region (implying a very high share of elderly people
with little financial resources).
Socio-technical system alternatives were elaborated in
the core team between the first and the second
stakeholder workshops. To this end, basic
technological and organizational characteristics of
future sanitation systems were identified, which were
then combined into four coherent system alternatives.
These alternatives, which might be interpreted as
alternative future regime configurations, had not been
selected because they ere considered a priori as the
best options. Rather, they represent cornerstones of a
continuum of feasible alternative systems. The first
option aimed at a thematic expansion of the current
organizational competence range by encompassing
several infrastructures in the region (multi-utility). In
a first step, this would include the management and
maintenance of the sewerage in order to better run the
WWTP. Later, water provision or waste management
could be added to the activity portfolio of the
organization. A second option (WWTP light) foresaw
a radical cost reduction of the WWTP organization.
To this end, industry would be compelled to treat its
waste water separately, and new investments into the
WWTP would be kept at an absolute minimum. In the
long run, operation of the WWTP could be outsourced
to some private company or one of the neighboring
sanitation organizations. The third option
(decentralization) would prepare for a radically
decentralized structure of wastewater treatment in the
region. Building on household scale, WWTPs would
allow investments in sewerage to be reduced and, in
the long run, render the existing plant obsolete. This
option depends on the timely and cost-competitive
availability of decentralized treatment technology as
well as the guarantee that these plants may be
operated and controlled safely. The fourth option
(decommissioning) describes the removal of the
current WWTP and delegation of the service to one of
the larger neighboring organizations, near
Schaffhausen or even downstream to one of the larger
German communities.
As a third element, an encompassing sustainability
value tree was elaborated along which the options
could be assessed. Starting from the three core values

of sustainable development (environmental, economic
and social goal) and a fourth dimension relating to the
political autonomy of the community, more specific
goals were elaborated upon and corresponding
evaluation criteria were derived. Context scenarios,
strategic options and the value tree represented the
inputs to the second workshop in which the
assessment of the options in the different scenarios
was carried out.

Evaluation of Options and Ranking of Sustainable
Alternatives
This elaboration of arguments with regard to the
different preference orders (of future citizens, industry
and a more balanced consideration of the
sustainability value tree) and with regard to a wide
range of context conditions enabled participants to
assess the four alternatives in detail. Figure I gives a
synthetic representation of these assessments by
posting each alternative in each scenario in a two-
dimensional diagram. They y-aix gives the average
ranking attributed by citizens and industry (an
indicator of the future social preference for the
respective option) and the x-axis indicates the likely
conflict potential that a specific option would entail
under the respective scenario (measured by the
difference between the assessments of citizens and
industry). Each polygon connects the assessments
attributes to one option, the corners being defined by
the different scenarios. Size and position of each
polygon may be interpreted as a measure of the
dependence of the assessment relative to context
conditions and stakeholder perspectives: the larger the
surface of the polygon, the higher the context
sensitivity, and the more its location is in the right
corner, the higher disagreements between
stakeholders (for more detail see Stormer et al. 2009).
When comparing the different polygons, the diagram
shows that option 'decommissioning' generally
outranks the others. However, under the 'Critical
Growth' and 'Blooming Growth' scenarios, the multi-
utility option would also fare quite well. In the 'Diet
Region' and 'Strong Globalization' scenarios this
option would not be well suited. The 'decentralized'
and 'WWTP light' option reveal a more problematic
pattern, the latter because it was perceived as not
responding to most of the challenges identified in the
scenarios and the former because of many
uncertainties related to the timely availability of these
radical system alternatives.
After the second workshop, the sum of all discussion
transcripts and assessments was analyzed by the core
team and synthesized into recommendations for the
official planning commission of the Klettgau region.
The report was presented to the commission and the
workshop participants in a final meeting in September
2007. The recommendations foresee that the
'decommissioning' option, which implies a connection
with other larger WWTPs, should be given priority.
As a next step, conditions for its implementation will
be elaborated and evaluated in more details, especially
regarding feasibility, cost, time of realization, etc. In
parallel, the 'multi-utility' option should be specified,
as well. The 'WWTP light' option was considered to
be associated with too many risks and would quickly
lead to open conflict between the communities and
industry (especially if growth conditions in the region
proved to be meager). The 'decentralization' option
was initially judged as utterly unrealistic by the core
team. At the end of the process, however, positive
aspects of this option appeared under several
scenarios. Given the relatively high pressure for
action in the region and the considerable uncertainties
associated with the future development of
decentralized technologies, this option was dismissed
as a fully fledged alternative. However, in the context
of the 'multi-utility' option, a caveat was formulated
that dependent on the maturing of these technologies;
implementing services for decentralized wastewater
appliances should be actively considered.

The Contribution of RIFs to Sustainability
Transitions
How far can we now claim that RIF procedure will be
supportive for sustainability transitions in the
sanitation sector? From the Klettgau case, we may
conclude that the initially postulated characteristics of
a more sustainability orientated strategic planning
approach were fulfilled: a broad set of stakeholders
assessed different system configurations considering a
wide spectrum of future regional context conditions.
Evaluations took into account a systematic
sustainability value tree and rankings considered
potential preference profiles of relevant future
stakeholder groups. Emphasis was less on ultimate
ranking scores but rather on trade-offs between
different goals and different preferences. We may
therefore assume that the reported case is well suited
to demonstrate the contribution of the RIF method to
sustainability transitions.
The effectiveness of the RIF exercise can be
determined by comparing the result with
recommendations from a conventional planning
exercise conducted shortly before the RIF project
started: the strategies proposed in the conventional
planning approach represented a typical case of
incremental improvement of the prevailing socio-
technical regime. Context uncertainties were not
explicitly addressed. For example, the development
path of the Klettgau region was assumed to continue
as previously. Options were to consider only minor
variations of the current layout of the WWTP,
respecting the current spatial boundaries of the
organization. Finally, value considerations were
mostly reduced to investment cost and partially to
political feasibility.
The broadening of the decision space resulted in
substantially different strategic recommendations: the
recommendation of the conventional planning
exercise is close to the 'WWTP light' option

developed in the RIF process. This option received,
however, very low scores in the RIF exercise because
it did not respond to most challenges identified in the
scenarios. Instead, the 'decommissioning' option was
favored by all stakeholders and under most future
context conditions. In the conventional strategic
planning process, this option was not mentioned as a
legitimate course of action, essentially because it
extended the system boundaries beyond the national
borders to Germany. The RIF process produced a
radically different result. It opened up the highly
entrenched modes of thinking of the regime actors,
furthered a balanced consideration of long-term
implications of the different options and their likely
conflict potential, and increased willingness to
consider radically different system configurations. All
these points were also explicitly acknowledged by the
local decision-makers in the final feedback
questionnaires.
We therefore consider that our approach was effective
in reaching our stated procedural goals. Still, the
preferred option should not be interpreted as the
single best (or ultimately sustainable) solution for the
region. The different system alternatives were judged
based on rather general and qualitative assessments
and many impacts were associated with high degrees
of uncertainty. For instance, costs of the different
system alternatives were not assessed in detail.
Additionally, although representatives of the
neighboring German communities participated in the
workshops, no feasibility study for the
'decommissioning' option had been carried out. The
final recommendation of RIF team therefore
comprised a series of more specific feasibility studies
and cost estimates. Based on these results, preference
rankings of the options could change considerably.
However, as was mentioned by most of the
participants, the broadening of the analysis brought a
more reflexive consideration of system alternative and
future conditions and so decision-makers felt better
prepared to respond to different situations. This was
nicely corroborated in the final presentation of the
report to the planning commission, where the
participants argued strongly in favor of decentralized
technologies that had been very critical at the outset
of the process.
With regard to broader concerns of sustainability
transitions for the whole sanitation sector in
Switzerland (or even beyond), even if the RIF process
does provide supportive conditions for radical system
alternatives, it is not sufficient to lead to radical
transformations of the sectoral regime. The preferred
regime. The preferred option, namely removing the
regional WWTP and connection the sewers to a larger
plant in Germany, would not challenge the core of the
existing socio-technical regime but rather reinforce it.
Also, with regard to the promotion of technological
niches, decentralization was a potentially radical but
still immature system system alternative and was
therefore only considered as an option for the future.
However, when compared with the initial attitudes of
decision-makers, decentralized technologies were in
the end evaluated far more favorably. We may
therefore conclude that the RIF process did not
directly lead to a radical system transformation but
prepared decision-makers to consider a broader range
of options and arguments and by this weakened the
path dependencies of the dominant regime
considerably.
How could a sustainability transition in the Swiss
sanitation sector look like? Running a few isolated
strategic planning processes at the local level would
not be sufficient to create enough momentum for
sustainability transitions. These local decision
processes would have to be embedded within broader
concepts of sustainability-orientations. These local
decision processes would have to be embedded within
broader concepts of sustainability-orientated reforms
at the regional and national level (Turffer 2008). This
was taken into account in the RIF processes by
involving cantonal policy-makers. In the final project
evaluation, they expressed a strong interest in scaling-
up these experiences to the cantonal level (the state
level in Switzerland), so that lessons could be
transferred from one region to another. If several
contons developed similar strategies this would
ultimately also create a basis for sector reform for
federal government to discuss and implement
radically new system configurations in sanitation. In
this way, a multi-level governance structure could
emerge to promote bottom-up learning processes that
are able to overcome path dependencies of established
socio-technical regimes. This would radically reverse
the logic of the governance structure initially
established to build up the Swiss sanitation sector. In
the1960s and the 1990s, implementation of the (in
those times) 'new' socio-technical regime was
prescribed by national law (elaborated by expert
committees) and subsidized top-down from the
confederation to the cantons. This delegated the
implementation to individual communities. As in
recent years, federal subsidies and support have
decreased substantially, and there is little room left to
steer the system in a top-down manner. A coordinated
set of local strategic planning processes could thus
create momentum for reforming the whole sector
from the bottom up and open up the decision-making
process to newly emerging technological options. In
that sense, methods such as RIF could become an
essential element of a new type of adaptive
management in infrastructure sectors orientated at
supporting sustainability transitions.


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ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


ENVIRONMENTAL CAPACITY CONCEPT IN NOISE POLLUTION
ANALYSIS OF A ROADWAY

Kanakabandi Shalini
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Transportation Engineering Group (TEG), Department of Civil Engineering,Institute of
Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
Brind Kumar
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology,Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Email:
kumar_brind.civ@itbhu.ac.in

INTRODUCTION
Road traffic noise is established as a highly
fluctuating source of noise. Noise pollution has
already reached alarming proportions along busy
highway corridors and most of the metropolitan
cities of our country. It is steadily increasing its
domain and engulfing many more areas under its
umbrella. Noise pollution due to traffic flow is fast
becoming a major source of annoyance to people.
Being an integral component of the ecosystem, its
containment within the specified limits prescribed
by the environment monitoring agencies is of vital
importance for maintenance of the ecological
balance. In fact, for ensuring the homeostasis of the
ecosystem, none of the environmental
factors/parameters can be allowed to escalate
beyond control [Odum and Barrett (2006)].
Apart from the plain areas, the hilly areas are also
gradually beginning to witness the surge of
population and industrial activities. People living
therein were unaccustomed to any form of
pollution. Now, they are suddenly exposed to the
ills of air, water and noise pollution leading to
various forms of physiological and psychological
damages to the individuals as is reported from
many recent studies. So it may be stated that,
factors similar to plain areas are available on hills
for generating noise pollution. Additionally, the
vehicles are required to perform under prohibitive
geometric conditions generating more noise.
Leonovich and Kashevskaja (1993) have reported
that modification of the road scheme (slope,
curvature etc.) has a vital impact on noise
contamination. Also, the noise emission is irregular
through the whole slope in the road scheme. The
longitudinal gradient of the highway was stated to
be linearly proportional to the
eq
L under fixed road
traffic conditions. Wilson (1989) states that, on a
level road the noise level varies slightly with
increase in payload because of the increase in
engine noise to overcome the rolling resistance. A
major change in noise level may be expected due to
increased payload on an uphill grade where an
increased torque is required to counteract the
increased component of the vehicular weight.
Planning of a environmentally competent road
alignment is a highly demanding job. Therefore it
may be stated that, in contemporary times roads
should not only fulfil the engineering, safety and
economy requirements, but also the stipulations for
environmental safeguard. Conducting
Environmental Impact Assessment [IRC:104
(1988)] is order of the day for road projects in
developed nations. Such countries have the
predominance of segregated traffic flow.
Unfortunately, there seems to be a lack of enough
know-how with regards to mixed traffic flow in
order to describe road traffic noise on plains and
hills (alignment is predominantly on gradient and
curvature). Consideration of noise pollution at
planning stage of highway projects is essential, but
there is lack of building blocks for noise analysis
for mixed traffic which may simplify the
formulation of prediction methodologies.
Krishnaveni et al. (1994) mentions that, there is a
need to evolve an acceptable categorisation of
vehicles and develop simplified predictor of noise
identical to Passenger Car Unit for the context of
mixed traffic flow. Such a measure should help to
simulate the traffic with vehicles of different noise
emissions. Towards this goal, the consideration of
environmental capacity in noise pollution analysis
of a roadway is of prime importance.

STATEMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL
CAPACITY
Different classes of vehicles use the same right-of-
way without segregation on roads where mixed
traffic flow is prevalent. This unrestricted mixing
of different vehicle types forms a heterogeneous
traffic flow, which is required to be converted to a
single arguable unit from the point of view of noise
pollution analysis [Srivastava (1994)]. In the age of
environmental alertness, two types of highway
capacity are defined conventional capacity
(related to movement and parking of vehicles) and
the environmental capacity (aims to restrain the
traffic volume to maintain environmental
standards). Environmental capacity for restraining
traffic noise pollution may be defined as the
environmental threshold which will ensure that
traffic does not dominate so much as to cause noise
pollution. Environmental threshold is the weighted

traffic flow (
w
Q ) or the Equivalent Passenger Car
Noise Equivalence ( / EPCNE hour ) which will
cause noise level to exceed the acceptable limits.
This implies that environmental capacity will be
possible for many permutations and combinations
of traffic volume composition. The environmental
threshold will always ride over all such possible
combinations of traffic volume composition as a
limiting value. Thus, a convenient model for
management of traffic noise could be arrived at by
using this concept.
The environmental threshold may be alternately
described by the weighted traffic flow or the
equivalent passenger car noise equivalence, which
seeks to direct the whole discussion of restraining
traffic volume for noise containment using
passenger car as the standard unit for all possible
vehicle types.
Weighted traffic flow may be defined as the total
number of passenger cars (representing the
equivalence of various vehicle types) that traverses
a given section of the roadway in an hourly
duration so that the environmental threshold of
noise is not violated. It may be obtained by
multiplying the number of all participating vehicle
types in the traffic stream with their corresponding
Passenger Car Noise Equivalence (PCNE) factors
and summing them up.
PCNE is defined as that number of passenger cars
which will generate same intensity of noise along
the road-side to that of a particular category of
vehicle under same operating and traffic flow
conditions. Therefore PCNE factor becomes a
simple ratio of noise intensity generated by a class
of particular vehicle type to that of a class of
passenger cars, both traversing under similar
operating and traffic flow conditions.

MATHEMATICAL DERIVATIONS AND
PAST STUDIES

Weighted flow
The vehicle types on roads representing a typical
mixed flow condition may be classified as follows:
2-wheelers (2W): representing motorised 2-
wheelers
3-wheelers (3W): representing all forms of
commercial 3-wheelers (passenger and freight)
Cars (C): representing all forms of passenger cars
(private and commercial)
Jeeps (J): representing all forms of jeeps (private
and commercial)
Tractors (Tr): representing all forms of tractors
(laden and unladen)
LCVs (LCV): representing all forms of LCVs
(laden and unladen) Buses (B): representing all
forms of passenger buses (laden and unladen)
Trucks (T): representing all forms of commercial
trucks (laden and unladen)
Rickshaws(R):representing non-motorised
rickshaw-cycles
Cycles(Cy):representing non-motorised bi-cycles
Others(O):representing non-motorised hand drawn
tri-cycles and other forms of hand drawn vehicles

The weighted traffic flow may be represented as:
2 3 w C W W J Tr LCV B T R Cy o
Q N aN bN cN dN eN fN gN hN iN jN
(1)
where, N
c
, N
2-W
, N
3-W
, N
J
, N
Tr
, N
LCV
, N
B
, N
T
, N
R
,
N
Cy
, and N
O
= Number of Cars, 2-Wheelers, 3-
Wheelers, Jeeps, Tractors, LCVs, Buses, Trucks,
Rickshaws, Cycles and Others vehicle types
passing the point of observation, respectively.
a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, and j = PCNE factors of the
respective vehicle types.

PCNE factor
The noise intensity ( I ) generated by a vehicle is
related to the sound pressure level ( L ) in dB(A) by
the relationship:
( /10)
0
10
L
I I (2)
where
o
I = reference noise intensity.
For a car producing noise level,
C
L in dB(A), the
intensity (
C
I ) is given by,

( /10)
0
10
C
L
C
I I (3)

For any particular vehicle type producing noise
level,
x
L in dB(A), the intensity (
x
I ) is given by,

( /10)
0
10
x
L
x
I I (4)
By definition, PCNE factor is the intensity of noise
generated by those many passenger cars which
becomes equal to one unit of a particular vehicle
type. Alternately, it is the total noise intensity due
to n number of cars which is equal to the noise
intensity due to one particular vehicle type under
similar operating and traffic flow conditions. We
may state that,
x C
I n I (5)
where, n = PCNE factor of any particular
vehicle type whose characteristic noise level is
x
L
in dB(A).
or,
/10 /10
10 10
x C
L L
o o
I n I
So,
( )/10
10
x C
L L
n

(6)

Past studies
Joyce et al. (1975), has evaluated the conversion
factors for some vehicle types in U.K. which is
summarised below:

Car = 1
Bus = 7

Motorcycle = 2
Heavy Commercial Vehicle = 15
Light Commercial Vehicle = 2
Gangil (1979) has worked out the following
conversion factors for SH-45 at Roorkee in 1979:
Car = 1
Bus = 7
Rickshaw = 0.025
Scooter = 1.5
Truck = 15
Cycle = 0.04
Motorcycle = 5
Tonga = 0.4
Kumar (1997) has obtained the following PCNE
factors for Delhi in 1997:
Car = 1
3-Wheeler = 7.08
Truck = 2.00
2-Wheeler = 1.26
Bus = 7.08
Rickshaw = 0.08

METHODOLOGY FOR EVALUATING PCNE
FACTORS
Firstly, the categorisation of vehicles pertinent to
the geographical area under study should be made
such that it is representative of most vehicle types.
In this, the engine-less vehicles (non-motorised and
hand drawn) should also be included since they
have the effect of reducing the traffic speed,
thereby, higher levels of vehicular noise. The event
of passage of a singular vehicle at the point of
observation is recorded with respect to its sound
level, traversing speed, roadway geometrics and
road surface characteristics. The point of
observation should be such that it is at a fixed
distance from pavement edge and is devoid of any
absorbent material between source and receiver.
The roadway geometrics considered may be
gradient, degree of curve etc. Presence of any hill-
side wall and box type deep open-trench cutting
along the right-of-way, which may reflect the
sound signals may also be observed and
considered. The type of road surfacing available
which may affect the noise profile due to jerking
and bouncing of vehicles should also be
considered. Large number of single vehicles under
each vehicular category may be observed to
evaluate PCNE factors.
From the noise level data obtained, the cumulative
frequency distribution curve for each vehicle type
is developed and the 50 percentile time exceeding
noise level (
50
L ) is obtained. The PCNE factors
are then computed using Eq. (6).
For every operating condition, it may be expected
that the PCNE factors will increase with the
increasing axle load capacity of vehicles. Since the
noise polluting potential of the vehicles is more,
their PCNE factors will also be higher. It has
already been established in many past studies that
the percentage of heavy vehicles in the traffic
stream is of vital importance towards the evaluation
of noise pollution [Kumar (2000)].

CONCLUSIONS
Environmental capacity concept should be applied
for quantification of noise pollution due to
operation of traffic. Environmental capacity for
restraining traffic noise pollution may be defined as
the environmental threshold which will ensure that
traffic does not dominate so much as to cause noise
pollution. Environmental threshold is the weighted
traffic flow (
w
Q ) or the Equivalent Passenger Car
Noise Equivalence ( / EPCNE hour ) which will
cause noise level to exceed the acceptable limits.
Weighted traffic flow may be defined as the total
number of passenger cars that traverses a given
section of the roadway in an hourly duration so that
the environmental threshold of noise is not
violated. It may be obtained by multiplying the
number of all participating vehicle types in the
traffic stream with their corresponding Passenger
Car Noise Equivalence (PCNE) factors and
summing them up.
PCNE is defined as that number of passenger cars
which will generate same intensity of noise along
the road-side to that of a particular category of
vehicle under same operating and traffic flow
conditions.
PCNE may be obtained by mapping the event of
single vehicle passage of every category of vehicle
and applying statistical analysis to obtain
50
L .

REFERENCES
Odum, E.P. and Barrett, G.W., Fundamentals of
Ecology, Thomson Brooks/Cole, Thomson
Business Information India Pvt. Ltd., ISBN: 81-
315-0020-9, Fifth Edition, 2006.
Leonovich, I., and Kashevskaja, E., Technical
Solutions on Environmental Control from Traffic
Noise and Their Effects, Proceedings, The East-
West European Road Conference, Warsaw, Poland,
Vol. 2, pp. 363-365, September 22-24, 1993.
Wilson, C.E., Highway and Other Surface
Transportation Noise: Prediction and Control,
Noise Control Measurement, Analysis and
Control of Sound and Vibration, Harper and Row
Publishers, New York, pp. 368-393, 1989.
IRC: 104-1988, Guidelines for Environmental
Impact Assessment of Highway Projects, The
Indian Roads Congress, Jamnagar House, New
Delhi, 1989.
Krishnaveni, Mrs. P.I., and Balagopal, Dr. T.S.
Prabhu, A Review of Traffic Noise Studies
Related to Environmental Planning, Indian
Highways, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 27-35, February
1994.
Srivastava, J.B., Traffic Flow and Environmental
Impact Analysis of a Highway Corridor, Ph.D.

Thesis (Unpublished), Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Roorkee, Roorkee,
April 1994.
Joyce, F.E., Williams, H.E., and Johnson, D.M.,
The Environmental Effects of Urban Road Traffic,
2. Evaluating Alternative Transport Proposals,
Traffic Engineering and Control, Vol. 16, No. 4,
pp. 198-171, April 1975.
Gangil, N.L., Relationship between Vehicular Noise
and Stream Flow Parameters, M.E. Dissertation,
Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Roorkee, Roorkee, 1979.
Kumar, V., Analysis of Urban Traffic Noise, M.E.
Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Roorkee, Roorkee, 1997.
Kumar, B., Noise Pollution Analysis for a Hill Road
Corridor (NH-52A in Arunachal Pradesh), Ph.D.
Thesis (Unpublished), Department of Civil
Engineering, M.M.M. Engineering College, DDU
Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur, January 2000.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

ESTIMATION OF SCOUR DEPTH AROUND BRIDGE PIERS BY
USING HEC-RAS

Dilip Kumar
Assistant Professor, Civil Engg. Dept., G.B.Pant Engg. College, Pauri, Uttarakhand (India); jhadilip@sify.com
Hira Lal Yadav
Assistant Professor, Civil Engg. Dept., G.B.Pant Engg. College, Pauri, Uttarakhand (India); hiralalyd@gmail.com
Sushil Kumar Himanshu
PG Student, Deptt. of Hydrology,IIT Roorkee, Uttarakhand (India).

ABSTRACT: Scour is the formation of a scour hole around the bridge pier due to erosion of soil by
flowing water which is responsible for the bridge failure without warning. The depth of scour below the
riverbed level around the bridge piers in alluvial stream varies depending on the depth of flow, shape of
pier, size of the pier, angle of attack of flow and sediment characteristics. 86% of the 577,000 bridges in
the national bridge registry are built over waterways in which more than 26,000 of these bridges are
reported to be scoured critical. Excessive scour affects the stability of the bridge foundation by the
removal of the bed material. The foundation of bridge piers have to be taken deeper and to provide
sufficient anchorage length required for stability of the foundation. Experimental study was performed to
understand sensitive parameters influencing the determination of scour depth. The scour evaluation for a
proposed bridge site highly depends upon the accuracy and analysis of the hydrologic and hydraulic data.
In this Paper, one-dimensional hydraulic model such as HEC-RAS (Corps of Engineers) model is used
for developing the water surface profiles for the experimental data around bridge pier. Estimation of
scour depth during the design is able to reduce considerable cost in the construction of bridge
foundations. Therefore, there is a need of the estimation of scour for innovative, effective and
economical countermeasures to be considered for the design of new bridges and for replacing existing
bridges.
Key words: - Scour, Bridge pier, Scour Estimation, HEC-RAS
INTRODUCTION
Scour at a bridge pier is the formation of a hole
around the pier due to erosion of soil by
flowing water. It means lowering of the
riverbed level by water erosions such that there
is a tendency to expose the foundations of a
bridge. Such a process reduces confinement of
foundation and the pier, there by affecting its
load carrying capacity. The depth of scour
below the riverbed level around the bridge
elements in alluvial stream can vary depending
on the depth of flow, shape of pier, size of the
pier, angle of attack and sediment
characteristics. The scour evaluation for a
proposed bridge site highly depends upon the
accuracy and analysis of the hydrologic and
hydraulic data. In this study, one-dimensional
hydraulic model such as HEC-RAS (Corps of
Engineers) model is commonly used for
developing the water surface profiles for each
reach of the river. Scouring of bed material
from around bridge foundation is a common
cause of bridge failure. Reduction of the flow
area causes an increase in the average velocity
for the same discharge, as well as increase in
the shear stress over the stream bed. Therefore,
it is important to estimate the probable scour
depth so that bridge foundations can be
designed to support the structural load safely
below the probable scour depth.
The present paper is concerned with the
numerical simulations for the local scour
around a bridge pier. The objective of this paper
is to verify scouring depth around bridge piers
by applying the computer software package
HEC-RAS and empirical equations.

METHODOLOGY

River Flow Modeling
In order to determine the scour depth near the
bridge structure, the flow profile near the
structure is very important. Since exact
measurements of hydraulic parameters are not
measured, river flow modeling will provide the
required details for the determination of scour
depth near the bridge structure. Two types of
modeling, namely steady and unsteady
modeling are possible, which are explained in
the following sub sections.

Steady Flow Modeling
Steady flow consists of flow regime, boundary
conditions and peak discharge information.
Flow regime consists of sub-critical, super-
critical, and mixed flow. In subcritical flow the
boundary conditions are necessary at the
downstream end of the river, for supercritical
flow the boundary conditions are necessary at
the upstream of the river, and for mixed regime
condition the boundary conditions are necessary
at the upstream and downstream of the river.
Boundary conditions are required to establish
the water surface at the ends of the river system.
Discharge and energy equation is required to
compute the water surface profile. For
computing the water surface profiles the
upstream and downstream discharge data of the
river is necessary. Water surface profiles are
computed from one cross-section to the next
cross-section by solving the energy equation
with iterative procedure called standard step
method (Chow, 1988). Whenever the water
surface passes through critical depth, the energy
equation is not applicable. The energy equation
is applicable for gradually varied flow
situations, and the transition from subcritical to
super critical or supercritical to sub-critical flow
condition. In HEC-RAS the momentum
equation can be applied where the occurrence
of a hydraulic jump, low flow hydraulics at
bridge, and stream junctions (HEC 18 Manual,
2001). Momentum equation is derived from the
Newtons second law of motion. In this
modeling, flow is assumed to be steady because
time-dependent terms are not included in the
energy equation. Flow is assumed to be
gradually varied because energy equation is
based on the hydrostatic pressure distribution at
the cross-section. When the flow is rapidly
varied, the program switches to the momentum
equation. Flow is assumed to be one
dimensional because total energy head is same
for all points in a cross-section.

Unsteady Flow Modeling
In unsteady flow some of the boundary
conditions like flow hydrograph, stage
hydrograph, stage and flow hydrograph, and
rating curve are used. Upstream end of the
river system is modeled by using flow
hydrograph, stage hydrograph, and flow and
stage hydrograph as boundary conditions, and
downstream ends of the river is modelled by
using rating curve, normal depth, stage
hydrograph, flow hydrograph, and stage and
flow hydrograph as boundary conditions. In
unsteady flow model the principle of
conservation of mass (continuity) and the
principle of conservation of momentum
(momentum) equations are used.

Determination of Scour Depth
Numerous equations have been proposed to
predict scour at piers, mostly developed from
laboratory data. Some of the commonly used
scour depth equations can be summarized as
follows:
d
s
= 1.3b
0.7
y
0.3 (1)
Where d
s
is the maximum predicted local scour
depth, b is the width of the pier and y is
the depth of flow.

Description of HEC-RAS
HEC-RAS is a computer program designed by
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. This
program incorporates the standard step method
for computing the water surface profiles. HEC-
RAS is an integrated system of software,
designed for interactive use in a multi-tasking
environment. HEC-RAS is designed to perform
one-dimensional hydraulic calculations for a
full network of natural and constructed
channels. This software allows performing one-
dimensional steady flow and unsteady flow
calculations. The function of the HEC-RAS
program is to determine water surface
elevations at all locations of interest. The data
needed to perform these computations are
separated into geometric data and steady flow
data (boundary conditions).

Details of the Study Area
This study is carried out in the laboratory. The
experiments were carried out in a 12 m long,
0.52 m wide, and 0.45 m deep flume. The
flume is provided with centrifugal pump to
recirculate the water from under ground tank to
feed the flume with the required flow discharge.
Upstream the flume, a rectangular weir is
installed to measure the flow discharge. Figure
(1) shows the overview of the experimental set
up. The bottom of the flume was covered with
0.14 m sand stratum with d
50
=0.47mm,
g
=2.19. The flow discharge was .06m
3
/s, the
range of the flow depths were between (6.0 to
8.0) cm. The control of water depth during
experimental work was achieved by using a tail
gate located downstream the flume. The water
depths upstream the piers were measured by the
point gauge of the flume. The data obtained is
used in HEC-RAS model to sudy the sour
depth.

Fig. 1 Schematic representation of the experimental flume.

1)- Centrifugal pump 9)- Pier model
2)- First head tank 10)- Sand trap
3)- Second head tank 11)- Tail gate
4)- Flow measuring weir 12)- Collecting tank
5)- Approach basin 13)- Graduated tank
6)- Inlet screen 14)- Laboratory sump
7)- Sand bed 15)- Side walk
8)- Wood bracing 16)- Rails for point gague
The river flow modeling has been carried out using
HEC-RAS. Steady flow component in HEC-RAS
is capable of modeling sub-critical, super-critical,
and mixed flow regime water surface profiles. The
effect of obstructions due to the presence of bridge
has been incorporated at the relevant location. The
flow profile was plotted as shown in the figure
given below.

-3
-2
-1
0
1
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
X / Wo
Z

/

W
o
(G/Lo) =1.0
(G/Lo) =2.0
(G/Lo) =3.0
(G/Lo) =4.0

n Wn

Lo
G
Wo
o
.

G
n
Ln
Wn
.

Wo
Wn
G
n
o
a) W
n
/ W
o
=0. 5
Ln Lo

Fig. 2 Scour profile along (C ) of the pier, (L
n
/L
o
=1), (F=0.254).

Fig.3 Relationship between observed values of (S
o
/y) and predicted ones
CONCLUSIONS
In the present study total scour depth is analyzed
using HEC-RAS model. Scour depth values
obtained from the empirical equations and HEC-
RAS. Different formulas for estimating total scour
depth have been checked for their over or under
prediction. Laceys method is commonly used in
India for estimation of scour depth around bridge
piers placed in alluvial rivers, recommended by
the Indian Road Congress and Indian Railways.
This method is basically empirical and essentially
gives total scour below HFL in flood plain sandy
material, and also used for estimation of the scour
depth at abutments and guide banks. Scour depth
estimated from this formula is independent of
hydraulic parameters and dimensions of the
bridge. It was concluded that local scour depth
reduces as pier inclination angle increases, critical
velocity and scour depth increases with particle
size and bed roughness respectively.

-3
-2
-1
0
1
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
X / Wo
Z

/

W
o
(G/Lo) =1.0
(G/Lo) =2.0
(G/Lo) =3.0
(G/Lo) =4.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Predicted values of (S
o
/ y).
O
b
s
e
r
v
e
d

v
a
l
u
e
s

o
f

(
S
o

/

y
)
.

Wn Wo
G
n
Ln Lo


REFERENCES
Bateman, A., and Torres, A., "Experimental study on Local Scour at Accompanied Pier Systems". RCEM -River,
Coastal and Estuarine Morphodynamics, UPC, (2003).
Chiew, Y. M.,: " Scour Protection at Bridge Piers", Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 118, no. 9,
(September, 1992), pp. 1260-1269.
Jones, J.S., and Sheppard, D. M., " Local Scour at Complex Pier Geometries" Water Resources, Joint Conference on
Water Resource Engineering and Water Resources Planning and Management, (2000).
Kumar,Dilip, " Dam break analysis-using HEC-RAS." Lambert Publication. Faculty of Eng. G.B.Pant Engg.
College,Pauri, (2011), pp. 61-70.
Melville, B. W., and Raudkivi, A.J., "Effects of Foundation Geometry on Bridge Pier Scour" Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 122 , Issue 4 , (April , 1996), pp. 203-209.
Melville, B.W., and Sutherland , A.J., : "Design Method for Local Scour at Bridge Piers", Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering, ASCE, Vol.114, No.10 , (October, 1988), pp.1210-1226.
Parola, C.A., "Effect of Rectangular Foundation Geometry on Local pier Scour" Journal of Hydraulic Engineering,
ASCE, Vol.122, Issue 1, (January, 1996), pp. 35-40
Yahaya, A.S., and Ghani, A.A., "Acomparative Study of Models for Predicting Local Bridge Pier Scour Depth ",
[River Engineering And Urban Drainage Research Center] (REDAC), Malaysia, (2005).

NOTATION
The following symbols are used in this technical note:
d
50
= mean particle size diameter,
F = Froude number,
G = separate distance length between piers,
L
n
= length of the new pier,
L
o
= length of the old pier,
S
o
= old pier maximum scour depth,
W
n
= new pier width,
W
o
= old pier width,
g
= geometric standard deviation of particles
Y=Dept h of appr oach f l ow

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF BUILDING WITH COMPOSITE AND
RCC STRUCTURE

A.K. Chitkeshwar
P.G. Student (M.Tech- Structure), Y.C.C.E., Nagpur -441110, Email: anupchitkeshwar@rediffmail.com
V.G. Meshram
Associate professor, Dept of Civil Engineering,Y.C.C.E., Nagpur -441110, Email: meshramvg@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Steel-concrete composite members are an interesting option for structural designers, but the
reliability of design procedures both in the case of gravity and seismic loads is in continuous development.
composite steel concrete design provide a significant economy through reduced materials and faster
construction, such system make use of each type of member in the most efficient manner to maximize the
structural and economic benefits. Except in certain structures such as towers, portal frames, industrial structures
covered with trusses and purlins, cranes, etc., steel work exist with reinforced concrete. In many places, the
properties of reinforced concrete (strong in compression, greater rigidity) can be advantageously combined with
those of structural steel. Such composite construction includes (a) concrete-encased steel column (b) concrete-
filled steel column (c) concrete-encased steel beam and (d) steel beam supporting concrete slabs. In contrast to
ordinary structural steel design, which considers only the strength of steel, composite design assumes that the
steel and concrete works together in resisting the loads.
In this paper the comparative study of composite and RCC building is done. The building selected is G+10
made up of composite and RCC. The building is analysis by using Response spectra method in Staad Pro
software. The comparison is done in the parameters like axial force, moments, lateral deflection, story drift and
size of foundation. From this analysis it was observed that the moments on the columns are more than RCC
column but due to the more flexural stiffness the size of composite column is not increase, the lateral
displacement of composite building is more as compare to RCC building and from this result the story drift is
comes more than the RCC building, dead weight of structure is found to be much lesser than (16 to 20%) that of
RCC building due to that the size of foundation is reduced as compare to RCC building.
Key words: composite structure, concrete-encased steel column, steel beam supporting concrete slabs, flexural
stiffness.

INTRODUCTION
The most important and most frequently encountered
combination of construction materials is that of steel
and concrete, with applications in multistory
commercial buildings and factories as well as in
bridges. The basic principal underlying composite
construction is that certain materials may be used
more effectively in certain types of stressed
conditions; thus, the combination of a material strong
in compression with one strong in tension makes a
very economical union for its use in structures. With
basic materials such as concrete, steel, masonry
materials, wood, and timber, a number of successful
combinations can be used. These essentially different
materials are completely compatible and
complementary to each other; they have almost the
same thermal expansion; they have an ideal
combination of strengths with the concrete efficient in
compression and steel in tension; concrete also gives
corrosion protection and thermal insulation to the
steel at the elevated temperatures and additionally can
restrain slender steel sections from local or lateral
buckling.
In multistory building, structural steel work
is typically used together with concrete; for example,
steel beams with concrete floors slabs. The same
applies to the road bridges, where concrete decks are
normally preferred. It is fact, however, that engineers
are increasingly designing composite and mixed
building systems of structural steel and reinforced
concrete to produce more efficient structures when
compared to designs using either material alone.
It should be noted that the
combination of concrete cores, steel frames and
composite floor construction has become the standard
construction method for multistory commercial
buildings. The structural steel/reinforced concrete
frame is the standard system for tall building, the
main reason for this preference is that the sections and
members are best suited to resist repeated earthquake
loadings which requires high amount of resistance and
ductility.
A further more important consideration is
that the use of rolled steel sections, profiled metal
decking and/or prefabricated composite members
speeds up execution. And also composite floor
construction is highly competitive if spans are
increased to 12 to 15m or even 20m. There is, of
course, a demand for larger column-free spans in
buildings to facilitate open planning or greater
flexibility.


FUNDAMENTALS AND OVERVIEW OF
COMPOSITE ACTION IN STRUCTURES:-

A typical form of composite construction consists of a
slab connected to a series of parallel steel members.
The structural system is therefore essentially a series
of interconnected T-beams with wide, thin concrete
flanges, In such system, the flange width may not be
fully effective in resisting compression due to shear
lag this phenomenon will takes into account by the
well known approach effective width of composite
structures.
Instead of an insitu concrete slab, pre-cast
concrete floors or decks are also to be used. Careful
detailing and construction practice are needed to
ensure adequate containment for connectors.
COMPOSITE COLUMN:-
Three different types of composite columns are
principally in use
Concrete encased steel columns (a)
Concrete filled steel tubes (b&d)
Rolled section columns partly encased in
concrete (c)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig 1.1 Typical composite columns
In calculating the strength of such
columns full composite interaction without any
slip at the steel-concrete-interface, geometrical and
physical non-linearity of the different materials should
be observed. It is only possible, however, to meet
these requirements by using comprehensive numerical
methods of analysis and computer software. The
assumed complete interaction enables definition of
section properties, stiffness and slenderness ratio for
whole inhomogeneous cross-section this information
is necessary to determine the load carrying resistance,
including slenderness or P-delta effects. Eurocode4
gives simplified design methods for practical use.
Instead of more precise buckling curves, Eurocode4
has adopted the European buckling curves a, b and c
which was originally established for bare steel
columns.
The complete interaction must be
ensured by means of mechanical connections. The
connections have to be provided at least at the column
ends and where loads or forces are acting. They
should be distributed over the whole cross-section.
Such connectors can be headed studs, top and bottom
plates, suitable brackets, vertical gusset plates, shear
heads or other structural means.

COMPSITE VS. NONCOMPOSITE ACTION:-
1. Concrete filled steel tubes and cased rolled shapes
possess higher strength than the reinforced concrete
column of comparable size. (Research as reported by
Furlong (1968), Gander and Jacobson (1967), and
Stevens (1965)).
2. Encasing steel sections in reinforced concrete is
particularly beneficial for earthquake resistant
design.(Okamoto(1973)).
3. From the point of structural advantage
i. Depth of steel beam is reduced to support a given
load.
ii. Composite columns helps to reduce the effective
slenderness ratio of a steel column, thus
increasing its buckling load. Furthermore; the
concrete encasement also carries its share of loading
according to the actual behavior of composite
columns under load.
iii. For a given load, a reduction in dead loads and
construction depth reduces.
iv. Composite construction is amenable to fast-
track construction because of using rolled steel and
pre-fabricated components, rather than cast-in-situ
concrete.
v. Encased steel beam sections have improved fire
resistance and corrosion.
The following assumptions are normally
utilized for the formulation of the basic composite
plane frame analysis (Vallenilla, 1987). It is
emphasized that nonlinear analysis techniques, such
as those used to evaluate pure steel frame and
reinforced concrete frame behavior, can be applied to
composite frames as well.
1. The building is a rectangular grid pattern. Story
height may vary arbitrarily, as may the bay widths in
each direction. However, it is assumed that the
columns extend continuously from base to top and the
girders from side to side.
2. The members are straight, prismatic and symmetric
about the plane of the frame.
3. Loads are applied in the plane of the frame, and
only at the end of the elements.
4. Only in plane deformations are considered.
5.Only half of the concrete cross section remains
uncracked after the composite columns are
loaded.
6. The steel has a linearly elastic-perfectly plastic
stress-strain relationship.
7. Slip does not occur between steel and concrete.
8. Lateral Torsional buckling does not occur.

SALIENT FEATURES OF THE EURO CODE 4
Euro codes are the European standards for the
structural design. Euro codes will come in a number
of parts, covering a range of applications.
Table 3.1 Structural Euro codes currently under
preparation


Euro
code
Subject
1 Common unified rules for different types of
construction and materials
2 Design of concrete structures
3 Design of steel structures
4 Design of composite steel and concrete structures
5 Design of timber structures
6 Design of masonry structures
7 Geotechnical Design
8 Design of structures for earthquake Resistance
9 Design of Aluminum Structures
It is foreseen that Eurocode 4 will consists of three
parts:
Part 1 - General Rules and Rules for building
Part 2 - Bridges
Part 10 - Fire Resistance
Part 1 of Eurocode 4 gives a general basis for the
design of composite slabs, beams, columns and
frames detailed rules which are mainly applicable to
ordinary buildings subjected to predominant static
loading, except that subjects mainly for bridges
(fatigue, Prestressing and precambering of beams)
have been excluded.
3.1.1: Safety Concept
All Eurocodes are written in a limit state design
format. The limit state conditions are expressed as
those of the ultimate limit state, thus:

S
d
R
d

Where: S = solicitation (action or action effect)
R = resistance
d = design
This means that the action effects shall be less than or
equal to the resistance capacity. The action effect
result from structural analysis with the loads and the
respective partial safety factors according to Eurocode
2, 3 and 4.
PROBLEM DEFINITION AND LOADING
CONSIDERATIONS
For comparison of composite column and
R.C.C. column a G+10 storied building is considered.
It is analyzed using STAAD pro software.
3.1 Description of the structure:-
The architectural plan of building is as
shown in figure 4.2. The plan dimensions of the
building are 26.2 m X 15.00 m (X x Z). It consists of
2 bhk flats at each floor and one staircase. The height
of the building is 34.2 m.
3.2 Loadings considered on structure:-
The basic loadings on both R.C.C. and
composite type of structures are kept same. The
following are the basic loading considered on the
building. Dead load and live loads have been taken
according to IS 875-1987 (Part 1, and 2 respectively)
A) Dead loads:-
1) Floor load
a) Assume slab thickness 130 mm
Load = 0.130 x 1 x 25 =3.250
KN/m
b) Floor finish = 1 KN/m
Total floor load = 4.125
KN/m
2) Wall load (Assume wall thickness =150
mm)
a) Wall load = (3-0.6) x 0.15 x19.5 =7.02
KN/m
b) Plaster = 3 x 2 x 0.025 x20 = 3 KN/m
Total wall load =10 KN/ m
3) Parapet load -
a) Wall load = 1.2 x 0.15 x19.5 =3.5 KN/ m
b) Plaster =1.2 x 2 x 0.025 x20 =1.2 KN/ m
Total Parapet load = 6 KN/ m (considered)
4) Balcony wall load - 5 KN/ m

5) Staircase load - 20 KN/ m
B) Live load:- 2 KN/m
2
from IS 875-1987( part 2)
C) Wind load:-
Wind load is taken as per IS 875-1987 (Part 3).
For Nagpur region basic wind speed is 39m/s and the
values of wind pressure at various heights are
calculated for assigning wind load to STAAD pro.
The basic wind speed is given by:-
V
z
= V
b
K
1
K
2
K
3

Where,
V
z
= Designed wind speed at any height z in
m/s.
K
1
= Probability factor
K
2
= Terrain height and structure Size factor
K
3
= Topography factor
Wind speed is calculated as:-
V
z
= V
b
K
1
K
2
K
3

V
b
= 39 m/s, Class = B
K
1
= 1 (IS 875-1987 part 3)
K
3
= 1 (IS 875-1987 part 3)
K
2
= as given in table below (IS 875-1987
part 3)
Table 3.1 : Wind pressure values P
z
for different
heights

Height(in
M)
K
2

value
V
z
(m/s)=
V
b
K
1
K
2
K
3

P
z
(N/m)
=0.6 V
z

0 1.03 40.17 968.17
10 1.03 40.17 968.17
15 1.07 41.73 1044.83
20 1.10 42.9 1104.24
30 1.13 44.07 1165.29
34.2 1.132 44.14 1169.00
50 1.18 46.02 1270.7


Wind pressure Pz(KN/m) vs Height(m)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
0 10 15 20 30 34.2 50
Height(m)
W
i
n
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

K
N
/
m

Wind
pressure
Pz(KN/m)

Graph 3.1:- Graph of wind pressure(KN/m) vs.
story height (m) for building
D) Earthquake load
The earthquake loading is as per IS
1893-2002. The building is considered to be in zone
3. The damping for R.C.C. structure is 5% and for
steel structure is 3%. Design horizontal seismic
coefficient is calculated for assigning earthquake load
to STAAD pro.
From IS 1893-2002
Z = 0.16 (Zone -3)
I = 1 (Importance factor)
R = 5 (Response reduction factor)
Design horizontal seismic coefficient is given as-

g
S
R
I Z
A
a
h
2

In X- direction: -
For rocky or hard soil

d
h
T
09 . 0

15
2 . 34 09 . 0
T = 0.79
S
a
/g = 1/T =1/0.79 =1.26
26 . 1
5
1
2
16 . 0

h
A = 0.207

Similarly in Z-direction

2 . 26
2 . 34 09 . 0
T =0.6
S
a
/g = 1/T =1/0.60 =1.67

67 . 1
5
1
2
16 . 0

h
A =0.0267

R.C.C. column structure:-
The analysis for R.C.C. structure is done as a 3D-
framed structure using STAAD Pro. Beams and
columns are modeled as beam elements. The slab is
modeled as beam element to carry the live load as
distributed pressure load. The material used for the
whole structure is reinforced concrete. The design
follows IS 456 -2000 code.
There are many analysis procedures for
earthquake forces coming on the building. In analysis,
the loading cases considered are according to IS 1893
-2002.

2) Material properties:-
Grade of Concrete: - M 30
Steel: - Fe 415
Density of concrete: - 25000 N/m
3
Damping for R.C.C. structure:-5%
Damping for steel structure:-3%

3) Analysis of R.C.C. building:-
After assigning the above loads cases and
material properties in STAAD pro, analysis of
building is done.

4) Design data of R.C.C. columns:-
The force based on 3D analysis for
various column members i.e. axial forces in x
direction and moments in y and z directions are
taken from the extract of STAAD pro for design
calculation.

Composite column structure :-
The analysis of composite structure is
done as 3D framed structure same as that of R.C.C.
model by using STAAD pro. In STAAD pro
software there is no provision for composite
sections. For this purpose the composite sections
are converted in equivalent steel section. The
section is then assigned as prismatic general and the
analysis is done.

Fig 4.1 :- Architectural plan of complete
building


1) Analysis of composite structure:-
After assigning the above loading cases and
material properties in STAAD pro, analysis of
building is done.

2) Design data for composite columns:-
The data based on 3D analysis for various
columns members in composite frame i.e. axial forces
in x-direction and moments in y and z -directions are
taken from the extract of the STAAD pro.

Figure 3.2: - 3-D view of building (STAAD pro)

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF R.C.C. BUILDING

Analysis and design results of STAAD pro for
R.C.C. column building:-
Analysis of building is done using
STAAD pro for loads and load combinations given in
chapter 4. Then design of columns is been carried out
manually for the worst loading conditions as per the
STAAD pro output extract.
After the analysis and design of the
structure following results are obtained as extract of
STAAD pro output.

Table 4.1:- Frequency and time period for R.C.C.
building

2) Self weight R.C.C. building :-
Center of gravity of the structure is located at:-
x = 12.24 m, y = 13.05 m , z = 7.54 m
total self weight = 14088.43 kN

3)Table 4.2:- Max nodal displacements for R.C.C.
column building (summery)
From above max nodal displacements for node 1229
is 25.40 mm

4) Table4.3:Max support reactions for R.C.C.
column building (summery)

From above max support reactions for node 987 is
3856 kN

5) Table 4.4: Eleventh floor storey drift for
R.C.C. column building

Mode Frequency(cycles/sec) Period(sec)
1 0.463 2.15861
2 0.565 1.77066
3 0.692 1.44449


6) Analysis results for column group(5)
Table 4.5: Axial load, shear force and
bending moment for R.C.C. columns group
(5)

7) Analysis results of R.C.C. column no 16,25-
Table 4.6:- Output extract from STAAD pro
for R.C.C. column no 16,25

5.0Analysis and design results of STAAD pro
for composite column building
The properties of composite columns
designed in chapter-6 are input to STAAD pro
investigate the changed behavior of the structure.
Loads and load combination in chapter 4 are input to
STAAD pro. The analysis and design results are
tabulated to compare with R.C.C. column building.
After the analysis and design of the structure
following results are obtained as extract of STAAD
pro output.
1) Table 5.1:- Frequency and time period of
composite building
Mode Frequency(cycles/sec) Period
1 0.639 1.56573
2 0.723 1.38315
3 0.896 1.11569
2) Self weight of composite building:-
Center of gravity of the structure is located at:
x = 12.24 m, y = 14.03 m, z = 7.54 m
Total self weight = 8457.034 KN

3)Table 5.2:- Max nodal displacements for
composite column building (summery)

From above max nodal displacements for node 1229
is 24.866 mm

4)Table 5.3:-Max support reactions for composite
column building( summery)

From above max support reactions for node 987 is
3522.2 KN

5) Table 5.4:- Eleventh floor storey drift for
composite column building

6)Analysis results for column group(5):-
Table 5.5 : Axial load, shear force and bending
moment for composite columns group(5)

7) Analysis results for composite column no 16,25:-
Table 5.6:- Output extract from STAAD pro for
composite column no 16,25


RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION
The analysis and design results of both the types of
building, composite and R.C.C. column buildings are
being given in chapter. The comparison of columns
on basis of axial force, shear force, bending moment,
frequency, storey drift and time period is carried out
as fallow.
Table 6.1:- Comparison of composite column and
R.C.C. column buildings

Table 6.2:- Comparison of composite column and
R.C.C. column no 16,25
CONCLUSION
Analysis and design results of G+10 storied
building with composite columns and R.C.C. columns
are given in chapters 5, 6 and 7. The comparison of
results of composite column building and R.C.C.
column building shows that:-
1) The frequency of the composite column building
is increased by 30% to 35% than that of the
R.C.C. column building.
2) Storey drift of composite columns reduce by 15%
to 30% than that of R.C.C. columns.
3) In composite columns, axial loads reduce by 3%
to 5% whereas shear force and bending moments
increase by 30% to 50% and 30% to 65%
respectively than that R.C.C. columns.
4) Cross-section dimension of composite columns
are lesser than that of R.C.C. columns by 5% to
25%.
5) Load and moment carrying capacity are increased
by 5% to 20% and 30% to 70% respectively than
that of R.C.C. columns.
6) Good fire resistance and corrosion protection are
achieved due to increased concrete cover in
composite columns than that of R.C.C. columns.

REFERENCES
1) A. Braconi1, W. Salvatore1, R Tremblay2 , and,
O.Bursi3, (Mar.2002), Behavior and modeling of
partial-strength beam to column composite joints for
seismic applications, Journal of structural engg, vol.
120, ASCE, ISSN 0733 -9445-O697
2) C.C. Weng, S.I. Yen, (June 2002), Comparisons
of concrete-encased composite column strength
provisions of ACI code and AISC specification,
Journal of structural engg, vol 127, no 23, ASCE,
ISSN 0733 -9445-1190
3)C.C. Weng, l S.I yen, 2 and C.C.Chen2, (Oct.2001),
Shear strength of concrete- encased composite
structural members, Journal of structural engg,.vol.
127, no 1, ASCE ,ISSN 0733 -9445-1190.
4)Euro code 3, Design of composite steel and
concrete structures, European committee for
standardization committee European de normalization
europaisches committee fur normung.
5) Euro code 4 , Design of composite steel and
concrete structure, European committee for
standardization committee European de normalization
europaisches committee fur normung.
6)F. Chung Beng, PhD DIC & R. Narayanan , MSc
(Engg.) PhD, FICC, Composite column design to
Euro code 4,
7)IS: 456(2000), Indian Standard Code of Practice
for Plan and Reinforcement concrete (Fourth
Revisions), Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), New
Delhi.
8) IS 800(1984), Indian Standards Code of Practice
for General Construction in Steel (First Revisions) ,
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), New Delhi.
9) IS 875(1987-Part 1), code of practice for design
loads (other than earthquake) for buildings and
structures ,Dead loads, Bureau of Indian standards
(BIS), New Delhi.
10) IS 875(1987-Part2), code of practice for live
loads, Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), New Delhi.
11)IS 2062(1999) , Steel for General structural
purposes specification, Bureau of Indian Standards
(BIS), New Delhi.
12) IS11384 (1985), Code of Practice for Design of
Composite Structure, Bureau of Indian Standards
(BIS), New Delhi.
13)R.P. Johnson, MA, MICE, Composite Structure
of Steel and Concrete, (Vol-1, Blackwell, scientific
publication, UK 1987
14)R.P. Johnson, MA, MICE, Composite Structure
of Steel and Concrete(Vol-II Blackwell, scientific
publication, UK, 1987
15)Dr. R. Narayannas ,Teaching resources material
for structural steel Design, volume 1, 2, & 3,
INSDAG publication prepared by IIT, Chennai, Anna
University & Structure Engineering Research Centre,
Madras under Dr. R. Narayannas Leadership.
16)Thierry chicoine; 1 Robert trmblay2; Bruno
Massicotte3; James M. Ricies4; and Le-Wu Lu5
,(Mar.2002) Behavior and Strength of partially
Encased Composite Columns With built up sections ,
Journal of structural engg,vol 126, n0 9, ASCE.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


SHEAR STRENGTH OF ORGANIC SOIL TREATED WITH CEMENT
GROUT AND MODIFIED WITH ADDITIVES

SinaKazemian
Dept.. of Civil Engineering, Bojnourd Branch, Islamic Azad University, Bojnourd, Iran, Corresponding Author Email:
sina.kazemian@gmail.com
Arun Prasad
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India, Email: prasada@bhu.ac.in

ABSTRACT: The varieties of additives used in grouting are many including cement. Calcium chloride is also
added as an accelerator in a grout. It decreases the setting time of grout and also has a minor effect on fresh
grout properties. Kaolinite or some other fine mineral soils are used as filler in the grout to reduce the cost of
grout. In this study, the effect of calcium chloride and kaolinite on shear strength of soil, treated by cement grout
was investigated. Samples were prepared by mixing specific amounts of cement, water, and organic soil with
different ratios of calcium chloride and kaolinite. Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of the treated soil
was evaluated after curing for 3 and 30 days. The results showed that kaolinite has positive effect on the shear
strength of treated soil. By increasing the kaolinite content in the grout, the shear strength of samples increased.
On the other hand, calcium chloride seemed to have different effects on the shear strength of samples.

INTRODUCTION
Soil improvement methods are classified to following
principles: (i) consolidation (e.g. prefabricated
vertical drains & surcharge, vacuum consolidation,
stone columns), (ii) chemical modification (e.g. deep
soil mixing, jet grouting, injection grouting), (iii)
densification (e.g. vibro-compaction, dynamic
compaction, compaction grouting), and (iv)
reinforcement (e.g. stone columns, geosynthetic
reinforcement) (Raju, 2009).
The demand for improving and stabilizing land for
different purposes is expected to increase in the future
and the best way to fulfill it is by using DMM. The
main advantage of these methods is long term
increase in strength, especially for some of the
binders used. Pozzolanic reaction can continue for
months or even years after mixing, resulting in the
increase in strength of cement stabilized clay with the
increase in curing time (Bergado, 1996; Roslan and
Shahidul, 2008).
Majority of the companies which are working in these
fields agree that the DMM can be divided into three
common techniques (Andromalos et al., 2000; Keller,
2005; Raito, 2006; SDFEC, 2007; Kazemian and
Huat, 2009a): (i) Shallow Soil Mixing (SSM), which
uses a single mechanical mixing auger located at the
end of the drilling tool (Kelly bar), (ii) Cement Deep
Mixing System (CDM), which utilizes a series of
overlapping augers and mechanical mixing shafts,
(iii) Injection and grouting methods which can be
considered a type of soil mixing. The Federal
Highway administration has suggested that these
techniques can be classified based on (Elias et al.,
1998): (i) method of additive injection (i.e. wet or dry
injection), and (ii) method by which additive is mixed
(i.e. rotary/ mechanical energy or by high pressure
jet).
Grouting or injection generally is used to fill voids in
the ground (fissures and porous structures) with the
aim to increase resistance against deformation, to
supply cohesion, shearstrength and uniaxial
compressive strength or finally (even more
frequently) to reduce conductivity and interconnected
porosity in an aquifer (Moseley and Kirsch, 2004).
Gleize et al. (2003) stated that pozzolanic materials
and fillers (kaolinite and sand) can be added to the
chemical grouts as these materials change the
microstructure of mortars and consequently modify
some of its properties.
Chemical stabilization is an effective method to
improve the soil properties by mixing additives to
soils. Today, commercially available chemical grouts
cover a wide range of materials, properties and costs,
and give the grouter the opportunity to select a grout
for specific job requirements. These reagents bring an
almost instant setting time and produce very low
penetrability type gel that are unsuitable for
permeation treatments; but in the soils with high
ground water level, it can be effective as the water
causes the grout to be diluted (Rawlings et al., 2000).
The function of the accelerator is to control gel time
and impart strength to the gel. The effect of an
accelerator is important at temperatures below 37 C
and increases in importance as the temperature
decreases. An excessive amount of accelerators may
result in undesirable flocculation or formation of local
hardening. This causes variations in both, the gel and
setting times that would tend to plug injection
equipment or restrict penetration, resulting in poorly
grouted area. Therefore, a retarder should be added in
the mixture for delaying the setting time and
formation of gelation (USACE, 1995). Calcium
chloride has been used in concrete since 1885 and
finds application mainly in cold weather, when it
allows the strength gain to approach that of concrete
cured under normal curing temperatures (Rixom and
Mailvaganam 1986). Calcium chloride has the ability
to accelerate cement hydration and reduce set time by
as much as two thirds. Research has shown that the
important contributions of cold weather protection
and early strength of concrete, calcium chloride
provides other benefits as well: (i) improves


workability, (ii) improves strength of air-entrained
concrete, (iii) reduces bleeding, these advantages
cause to produce better quality concrete faster.
Concrete acceleration with calcium chloride greatly
facilitates completing jobs as quickly and
economically as possible (The Dow Chemical
Company, 2006).
This study was aiming to describe the effects of
different ratios of calcium chloride and kaolinite on
cementation and pozzolanic reactions process of
cement grout in the soil, characterized by unconfined
compressive strength (UCS).


Materials
Cement used in this study (as binders) was sourced
from Anuza Enterprise Company, Malaysia. Calcium
chloride anhydrous powder (CaCl
2
) and kaolinite
were used as a reactor/accelerator and filler
respectively. The kaolinite [Al
2
Si
2
O
5
(OH)
4
] structure
is made up of silicate sheets (Si
2
O
5
) bonded to
aluminum oxide/hydroxide layers [Al
2
(OH)
4
] called
gibbsite layers. Tables1 and 2 show the chemical
compositions of calcium chloride and kaolinite
respectively.

Table1 Chemical composition of calcium chloride

Constituent (%)
Minimum Assay 96%
SiO
4
0.02
Ca(OH)
2
0.04
Mg
+2
0.6
Alkalis (sulfate) 0.6

Table 2 Physico-chemical composition of kaolinite

Constituent (%)
SiO
2
45.8
Al
2
O
3
39.55
Fe
2
O
3
0.57
CaO 0.41
MgO 0.14

Experimental Methods
For preparing the samples to investigate the effect of
calcium chloride and kaolinite on shear strength of
cement grout, different ratio of cement was first
thoroughly homogenized with the water in the ratio of
1:1 by a household mixer and then the grout were
mixed with organic soil (750g) and the desired
amount of kaolinite, and calcium chloride were added
to it (Table 3).

Table3 Grout formulae with their notations and group
numbers

Grout
No.
Grout Formula
(%)
Grout
No.
Grout Formula
(%)
1
K
(%)
Ca
(%)
Ce
(%)
2
K
(%)
Ca
(%)
Ce
(%)
20 0.0 20 20 0.0 30
20 0.1 20 20 0.1 30
20 0.25 20 20 0.25 30
20 0.5 20 20 0.5 30
20 1.0 20 20 1.0 30
20 2.5 20 20 2.5 30
20 5.0 20 20 5.0 30
20 10 20 20 10 30
3
0 1.0 20
4
0 1.0 30
10 1.0 20 10 1.0 30
20 1.0 20 20 1.0 30
30 1.0 20 30 1.0 30
Note:K- Kaolinite, Ca- Calcium chloride and Ce- Cement

After mixing thoroughly, the confection was
transferred to a cylindrical container of the same
height and inner diameter as that used in the UCS test
(38mm in diameter and 76mm high). Curing of the
samples was accomplished by keeping the container
with the confection submerged in distilled water in a
large tray for 3 and 30 days ata constant temperature
(222C). For repeatability and reproducibility of the
tests, six samples were prepared for each grout
formula as mentioned before; and the variation in the
shear strength of the six samples, during any curing
period (3 and 30 days) was not more than 5%. The
values of the shear strength reported here are the
average values.
The combinations of the chemicals used in preparing
the grout are arranged according to the increasing
component in the confection for easy readability and
are shown in Table 3. UCS tests were performed
according to BS 1377-7-7(1990) on the samples at the
end of 3 and 90 days of curing.

The influence of different compounds (calcium
chloride and kaolinite) on cement grout has been
investigated and the results are presented in the
following paragraphs.

Influence of Calcium Chloride on Shear Strength
of Cement Grout
The influence of calcium chloride was studied by
preparing samples with different concentrations of
calcium chloride (0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2.5, 5 and 10% by
weight of soil) as mentioned in grout Nos. 1 and 2.
The effect of calcium chloride on the shear strength
and moisture content of the samples after 3 and 30
days of curing are presented in Fig. 2 for grout
Nos. 1.

Fig. 2 Influence of different calcium chloride
concentrations for grout No. 1

It was observed that (Fig. 2) by increasing the
calcium chloride concentration in grout No. 1 from 0
to 1%, the shear strength of the samples increased
from 208 to 264kPa after three days of curing.
Furthermore, by increasing the calcium chloride up to
10%, the trend of the shear strength showed a
reversal, that is, the shear strength decreased from
264 to 138kPa. Similarly, the shear strength of the
samples varied with an increase in curing time from 3
to 30 days for grout No. 1. It increased from 248 to
278kPa by increasing calcium chloride from 0 to 1%,
then the trend reversed and the shear strength
decreased from 278 to 149kPa when the
concentration of calcium chloride increased from 1 to
10%, and the trend was similar for grout No 2 also.
Kazemian et al. (2009b) and Huat et al. (2011) have
reported that when water comes in contact with
cement, three phenomena take place; (i) cement reacts
with water, this is called hydration, (ii) there are
pozzolanic reactions between Ca(OH)
2
from burnt
cement and pozzolanic minerals in the soil, and (iii)
there is ion exchange between calcium ions (from
cement and additives) with ions present in the
kaolinite, which leads to an improvement in the
strength of the mixture. First step (when the calcium
chloride concentration in less than 1%), the
confection particles present in grout tend to go
towards the particles with a zero net charge and will
not repel each other. This is the reason for an increase
in shear strength the samples. Conversely, due to the
addition of extra calcium cations, the charge balances
in the confection, giving a positive charge to the
confection and thereby leading to the re-stabilization
of the colloidal fraction and deflocculating of the
large size particles.
ACI Committee 212 (1963) and Transportation
Research Board (1990) emphasized that, according
laboratory tests,the maximum increases in
compressive strength of concrete resulting from the
use of 2% of calcium chloride by weight of cement
ranges from 400 to 1,000 psi (2.8 to 6.9 MPa) from 1
through 7 days, curing at 70 F (21 C) and long-term
strength is usually unaffected and is sometimes
reduced, especially at high temperatures.

Influence of Kaolinite on Shear Strength of
Cement Grout
The effect of kaolinite on samples was investigated
by preparing different samples based on grout Nos. 3
and 4 (Table 3) and the results are presented in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Influence of different kaolinite concentrations
for grout No. 3

The grout Nos. 3 and 4 consisted of different amounts
of kaolinite (0, 5, 10, 20, and 30% by weight of soil),
while the amount of other additives were kept
constant. Firstly, the shear strength of the samples
with grout Nos. 3 and 4, after three days of curing,
was observed to increase with an increase in the
kaolinite content. Furthermore, with an increase in the
curing time, the shear strength increased as well. For
grout No. 3, the shear strength increased from 238 to
275kPa and from 254 to 284kPa, respectively, after 3
and 30 days of curing (Fig. 3). The trends of variation
in shear strength for the samples with grout No. 4
were similar to grout No. 3.
The above findings agree well with the fact that (as
mentioned earlier), cement initiates a chemical
reaction with water called hydration. When tricalcium
silicate (C
3
S) and dicalcium silicate (C
2
S) are mixed
with water, calcium ions are quickly released into the
solution with the formation of hydroxide ions. When
the concentration of calcium and hydroxide ions
reaches a certain threshold value, calcium hydroxides
crystallize out of solutions and this finally leads to the
production of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and
thus, an increase in the shear strength of the treated


samples. The pozzolanic reaction takes place with the
mineral parts of the soil; since there is kaoilinite in
the mixture, it contains aluminous and siliceous
minerals. Some of these possess pozzolanic
properties, i.e. under certain conditions they can react
with Ca(OH)
2
to form calcium aluminate silicate
hydrate (CASH), which leads to an increase in the
shear strength together (Janz and Johansson, 2001;
Huat et al., 2011). As mentioned earlier, the third
reaction in this confection is ion exchange between
calcium ions (from cement and calcium chloride)
with ions present in the kaolinite which cause to
increase the shear strength by increasing the kaolinite
and this was also evident in the confections (Figs. 2
and 3).

CONCLUSIONS
This study was carried out to investigate the effects of
the calcium chloride and kaolinite on shear strength
of treated soil. It was observed that, by increasing
calcium chloride within 1% by the weight of soil, the
shear strength of grout increased, after that it
decreased due to an increased positive charge on the
surface of particles, thereby leading to the re-
stabilization of the particles and deflocculating of the
large size particles. The shear strength increased by
increasing the kaolinite in the grout due to increasing
of pozzolanic reactions and ion exchange between
calcium ions (from cement and additives) with ions
present in the kaolinite and mineral part of soil.

REFERENCES
ACI Committee 212.(1963). Admixtures for
concrete.ACI Journal Proceedings 60(11):1481-
524.
Transportation Research Board. (1990). Admixtures
and ground slag for concrete. Transportation
Research Circular no. 365, Washington:
Transportation Research Board Index, 50pp.
Andromalos, K.B., Hegazy, Y.A., and Jasperse, B.H.
(2000).Stabilization of soft soils by soil
mixing.Proceedings of the Soft Ground
Technology Conferenc, Noorwijkerout,
Netherland.
Bergado, D.T., Anderson, L.R., Miura, N., and
Balasubramaniam, A.S. (1996).Soft Ground
Improvement in Lowland and Other
Environments.New York, USA: ASCE Press,
123-183.
British Standard Institution, BS.(1990). Methods of
Test for Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes.
London, UK: British Standard Institution.
Construction Industry Res. and Info. Assoc.(CIRIA)
(2000). Grouting for Grouting Engineering.
London, UK: CRIRIA Press, pp 12-57.
Elias, V., Welsh, J., Warren, J., and Lukas, R.
(1988).Ground improvement technical
summaries.Department of Transportation,
Federal Highway Administration, Publication
No. FHWASA98086, 13-48.
Gleize, P.J., Muller, A., and Roman, H.R.
(2003).Microstructural investigation of a silica
fume-cement-lime mortar.Cement & Concrete
Composites, 25: 171-175.
Huat, B.B.K., Kazemian, S., Prasad, A., and
Barghchi, M. (2011). A study of the engineering
behavior of peat stabilized by DMM: Lab model
and FE analysis. Scientific Research and Essays
J. 6(1): 196-204.
Janz, M., and Johansson, S. (2002).The function of
different binding agents in deep stabilization.
Report 9, Swedish Deep Stabilization Research
Center, Linkping, Sweden, 14-47.
Kazemian, S., Prasad, A., Huat, B.B.K., Ali, T.A.M.,
and Aznieta, F.N. (2010).Effect of cement,
sodium silicate, kaolinite and water on the
viscosity of the grout.Scientific Research and
Essays J. 5(22): 3434-3442.
Kazemian, S., and Huat, B.B.K. (2009a).Assessment
and comparison of grouting and injection
methods in geotechnical engineering.European
Journal of Scientific Research. 27(2): 234-247.
Kazemian, S., Asadi, A., Prasad, A., and Huat,
B.B.K. (2009b).Settlement Problems in Peat Due
to Their High Compressibility and Possible
Solution Using Cement Columns. In Shen-en C,
de Leon AD, Dolhon AM, Drerup MJ, Parfitt K
(eds) Forensic engineering 2009: pathology of
the built environment, Proceedings of the 5
th

Congress on Forensic Engineering, ASCE,
November, Washington, 3: 255-265.
Keller Company. (2005). Retrieved from Keller:
Http://www.kellergrundbau.com.
Moseley, M.P., andKirsch, K. (2004). Ground
Improvement.2
nd
ed. UK, Taylor & Francis, UK.
Raito Company. (2006). Retrieved from Raito:
Http://www.raito.co.jp/english/
Raju, V.R. (2009). Ground improvement principles
and applications in Asia. In Leung CF et al. (eds)
Ground Improvement Technologies and Case
Histories, Singapore, Geotechnical Society of
Singapore (GeoSS), 43-66.
Ramachandran, V.S. (1984). Accelerators. In
Ramachandran VS, Park Ridge NJ (eds)
Concrete admixtures handbook: Properties,
science, and technology, Noyes Publications.
Rawlings, C.G., Hellawell, E.E., and Kilkenny, W.M.
(2000).Grouting for Ground Engineering. UK,
CIRIA Press.
Rixom, M.R., and Mailvaganam, N.P.
(1986).Chemical Admixtures for Concrete.
Cambridge, England: The University Press.
Roslan, H., and Shahidul, I. (2008).properties of
stabilized peat by soil-cement column method.
The Electronic Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering (EJGE Journal), 13( J).
Shideler, J.J. (1952). Calcium chloride in
concrete.Journal of American Concrete Institute,
537-559.


Soilmec Drilling and Foundation Equipment
Company (SDFEC). (2007). Retrieved from
SDFEC: Http://www .soil mec.it/
The Dow Chemical Company, (2006). Calcium
Chloride in Portland Cement Concrete.
Retrieved:
http://www.glchloride.com/brochure/Brochure%
20%20Calcium%20chloride%20in%20Portland
%20cement%20concrete.pdf
US Army Corps of Engineers. (USACE) (1995).
Chemical grouting.US Army Corps, Washington
DC, USA.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION ASSESSMENT BY USING MWSWAT
MODELING ON SABARMATI RIVER

Shaikh M Zuned
P G Student Water Resources Management Department,
L D College of Engineering, Ahmedabad Gujarat-380015, India. E-mail: zunedshaikh@gmail.com
P P Lodha
Associate Professor, Water Resources Management Department, L D College of Engineering, Ahmedabad, Gujarat-380015, India. E-mail:
pplodha@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Potential Evapotranspiration is a phenomenon representing the hydrologic response of a watershed to
precipitation. Hydrologic response of the watershed to precipitation is studied in order to estimate the Potential
Evapotranspiration using remotely sensed data through GIS. The present paper is focused on Sabarmati River which is passing
through states of Rajasthan and Gujarat and meets Gulf of Cambay. The study area is covering Gujarat Portion up to Vasna
barrage which is situated downstream of Ahmedabad city. Daily rainfall and maximum and minimum temperature data of eight
years (1998-2005) are used in the study. SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool), a distributed hydrological model, is a
public domain model actively supported by the USDA has been applied for this research work. The main components of SWAT
include weather, surface runoff, return flow, percolation, Evapotranspiration, transmission losses, pond & reservoir storage,
crop growth & irrigation, groundwater flow, reach routing, nutrient & pesticide loading, and water transfer. The study adopts a
Map-Window (GIS software) interfaced SWAT based distributed model for the study of watershed to estimate the potential
Evapotranspiration. The soil data, land use data, DEM, and drainage map of study area are used in the study a geographical
information system (GIS) is used for generating drainage networks, land cover/land use data and soil series. The SWAT model
is made to run and results are measured by applying appropriate Potential Evapotranspiration methods.

INTRODUCTION
Water is a precious natural resource, vital for sustaining all
life on the earth. Less than 3% is fresh water and less than is
accessible to mankind. It is however not uniformly distributed
and space. Water is needed for irrigation for growing food,
drinking needs of people and to maintain the natural
ecosystem. Water as a resource requires special attention due
to its multiple benefits and the problems created by its
excesses, storages and deterioration of quality. It needs
development, i.e. storage for surface water and pumping from
groundwater.
A number of advanced techniques have been developed on
various aspects of water conservation and quality preservation
by researchers. Also, there are traditional approaches
available and are being used very effectively in various parts
of the world. Some of these techniques are;
1. Systems Approach to Hydrological Problems and
Mathematical Modeling.
2. Geographical Information Systems and Remote
Sensing in Water Resources Management.
3. Water Pollution and environmental considerations.
4. Watershed Management, Education, Artificial
Recharge and Rain Water Harvesting.
Catchment hydrology is difficult to observe, conceptualize
and model because it includes interactions among several
nonlinear processes, under environmental conditions that are

spatially and temporally variable. Advances in distributed
parameter hydrologic modeling and its integration with
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) have led to the
development of powerful tools like;
1. Agricultural Non-point Source Pollution model
(AGNPS).
2. Chemicals, Runoff and Erosion from Agricultural
Management Systems (CREAMS).
3. Groundwater LOADING effects of Agricultural
Management Systems (GLEAMS).
4. Hydrologic Simulation Program FORTRAN (HSPF).
5. Simulator for Water Resources in Rural Basins
(SWRRB).
6. Soil and Water Assessment Tools (SWAT).
SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) was chosen as the
first model for this effort, as it is free, open source, actively
supported by model developers, well documented, and has
been tested around the world. It has a substantial and growing
number of users in the developing world, as shown by the
papers presented at its biennial conference. The SWAT
Interface was written as a plug-in for MapWindow. It is
similar in scope to the ArcView interface to SWAT, which is
probably the way most existing SWAT users set up the model.
LITERATURE REVIEW
PET is the rate at which Evapotranspiration would occur
from a large area uniformly covered with growing vegetation

that has access to an unlimited supply of soil water and that
was not exposed to advection or heat storage effects.
MWSWAT uses one of the following three methods to
estimate Evapotranspiration.

PENMAN-MONTEITH METHOD
The Penman-Monteith equation combines components that
account for energy needed to sustain evaporation, the strength
of the mechanism required to remove the water vapor and
aerodynamic and surface resistance terms. The Penman-
Monteith equation is:
0
( ) [ ]/
(1 / )
net air p z z a
c a
H G c e e r
E
r r

where is the latent heat flux density (MJ m
-2
d
-1
), E
is the depth rate evaporation (mm d
-1
), is the slope of the
saturation vapor pressure-temperature curve, de/dT (kPaC
-1
),
Hnet is the net radiation (MJ m
-2
d
-1
), G is the heat flux
density to the ground (MJ m
-2
d
-1
), air is the air density (kg
m
-3
), c
p
is the specific heat at constant pressure (MJ kg
-1
C
-1
),
e
o
z
is the saturation vapor pressure of air at height z (kPa), e
z
is the water vapor pressure of air at height z (kPa), is the
psychrometric constant (kPa C
-1
), rc is the plant canopy
resistance (s m
-1
), and ra is the diffusion resistance of the air
layer (aerodynamic resistance) (s m
-1
).
PRIESTLEY-TAYLOR METHOD
Priestley and Taylor (1972) developed a simplified version of
the combination equation for use when surface areas are wet.
The aerodynamic component was removed and the energy
component was multiplied by a coefficient,
pet
= 1.28,
when the general surroundings are wet or under humid
conditions
( ) O pet net E H G

where is the latent heat of vaporization (MJ kg
-1
), E
o
is
the potential Evapotranspiration (mm d
-1
),
pet
is a
coefficient, is the slope of the saturation vapor pressure-
temperature curve, de/dT (kPa C
-1
), is the psychometric
constant (kPaC
-1
), H
net
is the net radiation (MJ m
-2
d
-1
), and G
is the heat flux density to the ground (MJ m
-2
d
-1
).

HARGREAVES METHOD
The Hargreaves method was originally derived from eight
years of cool- season Alta fescue grass lysimeter data from
Davis, California (Hargreaves, 1975). Several improvements
were made to the original equation (Hargreaves and Samani,
1982 and 1985) and the form used in SWAT was published in
1985(Hargreaves et al., 1985):
0.5
0.0023 ( ) ( 17.8) O O mx mn av E H T T T
Where parameters appearing have the same meaning as
described in earlier methods.

Objectives
To replace conventional hydrological methods with latest
techniques like GIS tools.
To study MapWindow SWAT and apply it to simulate
Evapotranspiration for Sabarmati river.
To assess PET process using appropriate method with
watershed modeling.
Scope of the study
As described earlier, analytical methods are too laborious and
time consuming. They also require complex equations to be
solved. Hence there is a need of advance techniques to replace
them. The present study is an attempt of analyzing PET using
MWSWAT. In the present study PET and various other
parameters are considered. For this various Landcover change
and Temperature increase scenarios are generated using
SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) Model. Then using
MWSWAT model PET, surface runoff, discharge, soil
erosion etc are estimated and analysed.
Methodology
The SWAT model requires a number of GIS data layers as
input. These include subbasin map, land use, soils, and digital
elevation model (DEM) and weather station layers. All of the
layers are then exported to the MWSWAT, which is the
MapWindow interface with the SWAT model. For generating
the database the following data products are used. They are
1. Survey of India (SOI) topomaps on 1:50,000 scale.
2. Indian Remote Sensing(IRS) satellite data and
3. Other collateral data.
After exporting the data to MWSWAT, step by step procedure
is followed in order to get the output. The procedure is
described in section. The output is obtained in a notepad
which is then verified with the original weather station data.
Methodology is described by steps shown below;
Study of PET
Collection of data for Sabarmati river
Study of MWSWAT
Exporting data to MWSWAT
Model run
Result/Output
Analysis

RESULTS
THE RESULTS ARE SHOWN IN THE FORM OF A TABLE
ACCORDING TO THE METHOD EMPLOYED
YEAR
PET
PENMANMON
T TH
PRIESTLEYT
AYLOR
HARGRE
AVES
1998 922.88 680.29 854.499
Z 972.596 714.662 895.558
2000 964.661 746.799 921.247
2001 904.49 675.577 862.541
2002 1020.063 730.969 910.006
2003 847.495 658.591 855.508
2004 1028.106 740.152 889.266
2005 1001.597 714.863 911.628
TOTL 7661.888 5661.903 7100.253
REFERENCES
K.S.Raju, A.K.Sarkar and M.L.Dash Integrated water
resources planning and management
Remote sensing and GIS by Bhatta.
Manual for learning MWSWAT.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

LOCATION OF WATER HARVESTING STRUCTURES IN SEETHA
RIVER BASIN OF COASTAL KARNATAKA BY RS AND GIS
PERSPECTIVE A CASE STUDY

Mohandas Chadaga
Professor, Department of Civil Engg., M. I. T., Manipal 576104, Email: mdchadaga@yahoo.com
Ravindranath
Assoc. Professor, Department of Civil Engg., M. I. T., Manipal 576104.
Sreeniwas Poudel S.
Department of Civil Engg., M. I. T., Manipal 576104
Varun Kadian
Department of Civil Engg., M. I. T., Manipal 576104

ABSTRACT: Identifying site specific water harvesting structures in a river basin is a tedious job due to the
geologic and geomorphic variations of the basin and peoples need. Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical
Information System (GIS) help us in this respect due to their established advantages. In this study, a river basin
Seetha situated in the Western Ghats foothills of coastal Karnataka is considered for the purpose of
identification and location of different water harvesting structures by using RS and GIS tools. Many thematic
maps like Slope map, Land use land cover map, soil map and runoff coefficient maps were generated and
overlaid by developing certain decision rules. SCS-CN method was used for the run-off analysis. Four different
types of water harvesting structures were considered in this study. The results demonstrate the capability of GIS
and its application for planning and locating water harvesting structures over large areas. In particular, farm
ponds and check dams were found to more relevant for this study area. Percolation ponds were not much
feasible as per the framed design rules. It can be concluded that the water harvesting potential of Seetha river
basin is very good and can be harnessed in economical way by this type of systematic studies for the benefit of
local community.
INTRODUCTION
Water harvesting is a general term to include all
systems that concentrate, collect and store runoff from
small catchments for later use in smaller user areas.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the
United Nations defines water harvesting as, the
process of collecting and concentrating surface runoff
from a runoff area into a run-on area, where the
collected water is either directly applied to the
cropping area and stored in the soil profile for
immediate use of the crop or stored in a farm water
reservoir for future productive uses, i.e. domestic use,
livestock watering, aquaculture and irrigation. The
collected water is also used in groundwater recharge.
As a general rule the catchment area from where the
water is drawn is larger than the command area,
where it is collected and used. Water harvesting is
essentially a traditional system used since many
centuries, now being made over to meet the present
day needs.
In the present day scenario, the reasons for people
resorting back to water harvesting is mainly because
of depletion of ground water, unpredictable rainfall
due to climate change and most importantly due to the
increased scarcity of water because of the destruction
of precious sources due to unplanned urbanization and
increased water pollution. Following this, various
systems have been developed in individual,
communal or watershed levels to effectively harvest
water (Sharda, V.N., Juyal,G.P.,).
Many studies have been conducted in river basins to
find sites suitable for locating different types of water
harvesting structures (Abbas, I.I. et. al., (2010),
Girish Kumar, et.al., (2008), Durga Rao,K.H.V.
Venkateswara Rao,V. and Roy, P.S. (2007), Gupta,
K.K. et.al., (1997), Sivaraman K.R., et. al., Mintesinot
B., Kifle W. & Leulseged). Studies have been done on
many river basins because of the diversities in
topography, geology and geomorphologies of these
river basins. Modern techniques like Remote Sensing
(RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can
be adopted for this purpose with fair accuracy. A case
study of analysis for the location of water harvesting
structures in a west flowing river basin of coastal
Karnataka is presented in this paper with the results.
STUDY AREA: SEETHA RIVER BASIN
Seetha river basin is one of the major river basins of
the Udupi district of coastal Karnataka. River Seetha
is a west flowing river originating in the foothills of
Western Ghat. Major rivers of this basin are Seetha,
Goli Hole, Kollangar Hole, Megadde Hole, Markal
Hole, Kudlutirtha Hole, Neemar Hole, Sunkadi Hole
etc. (Fig.1). All these rivers originate at the Western
Ghat region and flow westwards joining Seetha River
at various points of its length and later flow to join the
Arabian Sea. The basin is located between longitudes
75 4124E and 7590E and latitudes 13 2136 N
and 13300. It is surrounded by the Arabian Sea on
the west, Thunga basin on the east, Gangolli river
system basin on the north and the Swarna basin on the
south. The basin is accessible by National highway
Number-66 (NH-66) from Mangalore in the south and
Goa in the north and also by Konkan railway running


in north-south direction. River Seetha originates at an
altitude of 980m near Kutrikal Gudda in the Western
Ghats and flows westwards. It has a total length of
flow of 82 km (Chadaga Mohandas (2009)).

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1. Digital database creation - includes development of
contour maps, drainage maps, slope maps along with
the soil and Hydraulic Soil Group Maps.
2. Land use/land cover mapping of the study area.
3. Rainfall and runoff modelling of the study area.
4. Site suitability analysis for locating water
harvesting structures by analysing the above database.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Durga Rao, K.H.V. and Sathish Kumar, D., (2004),
developed a prototype Spatial Decision Support
System (SDSS) integrating Landuse/Landcover
derived from the remote sensing data, real-time
hydrological data, GIS and a model based subsystem
for computing soil loss, land capability classification
and engineering measures. The developed SDSS can
help users to analyze soil erosion and suitable
watershed management practices.
Modi, Gagendra P., Mishra Rajeev, and Rao Panakala
P. (1996), developed a method for determining runoff
coefficients for various landuse/landcover with the
help of remote sensing data. For a given rainfall,
overland flow was calculated using lumped parameter
model. The stream flow was computed by solving
unsteady flow equation by finite difference equations.
Padmavathy et al. (1993) used ArcInfo for the
derivation of various thematic maps form IRS-1A
imagery and Survey Of India (SOI) toposheets. Check
dam sites were selected according to a suitability
ranking considering certain criteria without estimating
runoff.
Tauer & Humborg (1992) used RS and GIS to
determine the potential sites for water harvesting. The
surface runoff was estimated for the drainage basin
during the wet season to determine the potential
runoff irrigation areas using Landsat-TM and SPOT
data.

METHODOLOGY
Data Used
Survey of India (SOI) Toposheets- The basin is spread
over the SOI toposheets of 48 O/3, 48 O/4, 48 K/15
and 48 K/11.
Rainfall Data- Monthly average rainfalls of six
different influencing rainfall stations for a period of
13 years (from January 1989 to January 2002) was
obtained from the Minor Irrigation Department in
Mangalore. These six stations were Ajekar, Karkal,
Kervase, Kota, Mulikar, Sitanadi and Udupi.
Soil map and Satellite Images-Soil maps obtained
from the National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land
Use Planning (NBSS&LUP) was adopted for
developing the soil layer. An IRS-IC Satellite image
from the same region of the year 2002 was used to
generate land-use/land-cover maps. Google Earth
images are also used for this purpose.
Digitization
Digitization is the process by which the raster data are
converted to vector data. Digitization is adopted to
develop vector layers like drainage and contour
(Lillesand and Kiefer, ITC educational textbook
series). Digitization was done by overlaying an
empty vector layer over the extracted study area
toposheet and then tracing the rivers and contours.
ERDAS-Imagine 8.5 was used for this purpose.
Creation of Base Maps
Slope map-The contour map was further processed to
create a slope map. The digitized contour map was
exported ARCVIEW. Then using the inbuilt
interpolation function of the software a Digital
Elevation Model of the study area was created. From
the Digital Elevation Model slope map of the study
area was derived in terms of percentage slopes (Fig.2.
and Fig.3.). The classification of percentage slopes are
shown in the Table 1.
Hydraulic Soil Group (HSG) Map - Soil map of
Dakshina Kannada region obtained from NBSS&LUP
scanned and digitized. The study area was subset and
each of the soils in the basin was identified from the
map index and was subsequently categorized as one
of the four Hydraulic Soil Groups i.e. A, B, C or D
with the help of literature (Fig. 4.).
Land use/ Land Cover Map - The land use/land cover
map is generated by using IRS-1C, MSS imageries
with Path-97 and Row-63. The imageries acquired in
March, 2003 and obtained from NRSC, Hyderabad
were used for the purpose (Fig.5.). Supervised
classification is adopted as per the NRSA guidelines
of 1987 (Level 1). Following classes were
generated (Chadaga Mohandas, 2009).
1. Agricultural Land
2. Forest
3. Water bodies
4. Waste Land
ARCView and ERDAS IMAGINE 8.5 softwares were
used for the analysis and development of various
thematic maps.

Runoff Analysis
Runoff is an important criterion for locating water
harvesting structures in any river basin. The intensity
of runoff directly decides the type of water harvesting
structure a particular location. A runoff coefficient
map was prepared to be used in this analysis.
The major inputs of runoff analysis were the Rainfall
Data, Land Use/Land Cover data, and Hydraulic Soil
Group map. Although a minimum of 25 years data is
required for accurate estimation monthly average
rainfall data for the years 1989-2002 could only be
obtained from the Department of Minor Irrigation,
Mangalore and this was used. Soil Conservation
Services (SCS) Curve Number method was adopted to
obtain the runoff coefficient map as indicated in the
flow chart (Fig.5, Fig.6. and Fig.7.). The Runoff


Coefficients were classified into three classes (Table
2). Integration of various thematic maps as per the
various decision rules was done in Visual Basic 6.0
and a site suitability map was developed.

The creation of a Site Suitability Map was a multistep
process. Firstly those maps had to be created which
would act as an input map for the Site Suitability
Map. These maps are:
1. Digital Elevation Model
2. Slope Map
3. Land Use/ Land Cover Map
4. Curve Number Map (CN Map)
5. Runoff Coefficient Map
6. Hydraulic Soil Group Map
Each of these maps is illustrated from Fig.3 to Fig.7.
Four types of water harvesting structures were
selected to locate in the study area. Each structure
could only be located at a point which fulfilled certain
criteria known as Decision Rules (Table 4.).

Check Dams
There are about 9 locations in the Seetha river basin
where check dams can be built (Fig.8.). These are the
located at the end regions of hill slopes indicating that
if check dams are built here it will also help in
controlling soil erosion due to high velocity water
flowing from regions having higher slopes on the
upstream side.
Check dams will also lead to the formation of stream
pools (a stretch of a river or stream in which the water
depth is above average and water velocity below
average) in the drain that it is located thus facilitate
surface water storage.
Farm Ponds
Farm pond regions are illustrated in the map in Fig. 9.
Seetha River basin is topographically more favorable
for locating farm ponds. Among the four selected
harvesting structures it can be seen that farm ponds
can be located over most of the regions. This is
basically due to the topography of the basin which is
more or less plain for the major extent on the east
(about
3
2
portion) after the initial highly sloping
regions of the Western. The site suitability map
prepared for farm ponds was once again overlaid on
the Land Use and Land Cover map and it was
observed that many of the regions identified for farm
pond were within or near the agricultural land.

Sub-Surface Dykes
It can be seen from the map in Fig.8. that the sites
suitable for locating subsurface dykes are very close
to the sea. Subsurface dykes could be constructed in
the obtained suitable region to effectively store the
runoff water from the upstream and also prevent the
saline water infiltrating the land from the sea from
mixing with the stored water by acting as a suitable
barrier. This would help in cultivation of crops which
have low salt tolerance in this region. Further
uncultivable lands due to salt water intrusion could
also after the construction of subsurface dykes be
utilized for cultivation as the stored runoff would
dilute high salt content in these regions.

Percolation Ponds
These are illustrated in the map in Fig.10. The chief
function of a percolation pond is to store the water
from runoff after a storm and allow it to seep into the
ground. Obtained result shows that the very less area
especially in the plain regions is considered for
locating this type of harvesting structures.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Four types water harvesting structures viz., check
dams, farm ponds, sub surface dykes and percolation
ponds are considered for locating in this study. It can
be seen from the results that the extent of sites
suitable for farm ponds greatly exceed the other
structures. Nine suitable sites were identified where in
check dams can be located to harvest water. Sub
surface dykes can be located mostly in the western
most areas of the basin. This is mainly due to the fact
that this is the only region where pervious soil are
available and sub-surface dykes serve to recharge
underground sources of water.
Very less sites were identified where percolation
ponds could be located. However, all the regions
suitable for these structures have very high water
tables due to their close proximity to the Arabian Sea.
Thus percolation ponds may not of more suitability
for Seetha River basin. However, more detailed study
by including geological control points may be
required before arriving any final decision in this
respect.

SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK
A detailed analysis can be done by incorporating more
data to achieve greater degrees of accuracy. For a
more accurate analysis of runoff a minimum of 25
years of rainfall data is needed. Daily rainfall data
may give a better result of runoff by SCS-CN method.
Existence of lineaments may be considered while
framing the decision rules by preparing Lineament
maps. The database prepared can be used to prepare
soil erosion models and maps which can also be used
by framing decision rules on all these.

REFERENCES
Abbas, I.I. Muazu, K.M. and Ukoje, J.A., (2010),
Mapping LandUse-land Cover and Change
Detection in Kafur Local Government,, Kastina,
Nigeria (1995-2008) Using Remote Sensing and
GIS, Research Journal of Environmental and
Earth Sciences 2(1): 6-12.
Chadaga Mohandas (2009), River basin studies of
Seeta-Swarna and Gangolli composite river
systems of coastal Karnataka, west coast of
India using remote sensing and geographic


information system (GIS) techniques. Ph D
thesis (unpublished) submitted to Manipal
University.
Girish Kumar, M. Agarwal, A.K. Rameshwor Bali,
(2008), Delineation of Potential Sites for Water
Harvesting Structures using Remote Sensing and
GIS, J. Indian Society of Remote Sensing 36,
323-334.
Durga Rao,K.H.V. Venkateswara Rao,V. and Roy,
P.S. (2007), Development of spatial decision
support system for water harvesting structures
using remote sensing inputs, Journal of
Geomatics, 1(1),
Gupta, K.K. Deelstra, J. Sharma, K.D. (1997),
Estimation of water harvesting potential for a
semi-arid area using GIS and remote sensing,
Proceedings of Rambat Symposium S3, April
1997, IAHS publication no. 242,
Mintesinot B., Kifle W. & Leulseged T., Fighting
famine and poverty through water harvesting in
Northen Ethiopia, Comprehensive Assesment
Bright Spots Project Final Report
Sivaraman K.R.,Rainwatre Harvesting Structures &
Technologies in different Geo-hydro-thermo
Regimes & Agro Climatic Zones-A case study
Sharda, V.N., Juyal,G.P., Water harvesting
Techniques, Design of small dams and hydraulic
compliments
Ramakrishnan,D. Bandyopadhyay, A. and Kusuma,
K. N. SCS-CN and GIS based approach for
identifying potential water harvesting sites in the
Kali Watershed, Mahi River Basin, India,
Thesis work submitted to Department of Earth
Sciences, IIT-Bombay, Powai.
Principles of remote sensing, ITC educational
textbook series.
Remote sensing and image interpretation, Lillesand
and Kiefer.
Water Harvesting Structures for Ground Water
Recharge, Watershed development training
manual
.

Fig.1. Drainage Basin Map

Fig.2. Digital Elevation Model

Fig.3. Slope map

Fig.4.Hydraulic Soil Group (HSG) map

Fig.5. Land use/Land cover map

Fig.5. Flow Chart for the generation of runoff
coefficient


Fig.6. Curve Number map

Fig.7. Runoff Coefficient map

Fig.8. Sites suitable for Check Dams

Fig.9. Sites suitable for Farm ponds

Fig.10. Sites suitable for Sub-surface dykes

Fig.11. Sites suitable for Percolation Ponds

Table 1. Classification of Slopes
Slope Class Percentage Slope (%)
Nearly level 0-1 %
Very Gentle 1-3 %
Gentle 3-5 %
Moderate 5-10 %
Strong 10-15 %
Steep 15-35 %
Very Steep >35 %

Table 2. Rainfall Coefficient Classification
Class Runoff Coefficient
range (%)
Low <20 %
Medium 20-40 %
High >40%

Table 3. Curve Numbers for Hydraulic Soil Cover
Complexes (Under AMC II conditions)

Land Use

Land
Cover
Hydraulic Soil Group
A B C D
Agriculture Paddy 95 95 95 95
Forest Dense 26 40 58 61
Waste Land - 71 80 85 88
Water Body - - - - -

Table 4. Decision Rules for individual Water
Harvesting Structures
Harvesting
Structure
Soil
Permeability
Runoff
Coefficient
Permissible
Slope
Farm
Ponds
Low Medium/
High
0-5 %
Check
Dams
Low Medium/
High
<15 %
Sub-
surface
Dykes
High Medium/
Low
0-3 %
Percolation
Pond
High Low < 10%

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

REVIEW ON SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE

Kumar Praveen
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT-Roorkee, 247667,pkaerfce@iitr.ernet.in
Asstt. Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT-Roorkee, 247667, gdranfce@iitr.ernet.in
Jindal Abhishek
M.Tech. Student, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT-Roorkee, 247667,jindalabhishekpnrpce@iitr.ernet.in

ABSTRACT: Self compacting concrete (SCC) was introduced by Japanese researchers in 1980s to overcome
the problem of the durability of the concrete structures without any aided compaction. Since the development of
SCC, a lot of research work has been performed, but still theres an immense scope in the field of this
technology. Also the usage of SCC has been limited in the past mostly towards structural and building works,
the application of SCC towards pavement section is still limited, the objective of this paper is to share the light
on the technology of SCC in order to educate the professionals in the arena of construction industries and
infrastructure fields, so that research can be done in this direction and this technology can be successfully and
profitably be used in all construction fields. The absence of an established industrial standard for SCC allows
more creativity in fabricating a mix to specific job requirements.

INTRODUCTION
When large quantity of heavy reinforcement is to be
placed in a reinforced concrete (RC) member, it is
difficult to ensure that the formwork gets completely
filled with concrete, that is, fully compacted without
voids or honeycombs. Compaction by manual or by
mechanical vibrators is very difficult in this situation.
The typical method of compaction, vibration,
generates delays and additional cost in the projects.
This problem can now be solved with self-compacting
concrete. A self-compacting concrete may be defined
as the type of concrete (sensitive mix, strongly
dependent upon composition and characteristics of
constituents) which flows under its own weight and
has sufficient segregation resistance.

This self-compacting concrete is advantageous for
placing in structures with congested reinforcements,
without any compaction. Once applied, the self-
compacting property enables the concrete to fully
reinforce around the steel and completely fill the
spaces within the framework. The self-compacting of
concrete is achieved without losing any kind of
strength, stability or change in properties. Self-
compacting concrete has been successfully used in
France, Denmark, the Netherlands and UK, apart from
Japan.

DEVELOPMENT
Self compacting concrete was introduced by Japanese
researchers in 1980s. For several years beginning in
1983, the problem of the durability of the concrete
structures was a major issue. The creation of durable
concrete structures requires adequate compaction by
skilled workers. However, the gradual reduction in the
number of skilled workers in Japans construction
industry has led to a similar reduction in the quality of
construction work. Thus, there was a need for a type
of concrete which can be compacted without the help
of skilled workers.

Prof. Hajime Okamura proposed the concept of self
compacting concrete in 1986, while the first prototype
of self compacting concrete was developed in 1988 by
Prof. Ozawa at University of Tokyo. This type of
concrete fills each corner of formwork with congested
reinforcement without any aided compaction or
vibration. This increases productivity and reduces the
labour cost and Noise levels and makes it easy to
work around. First paper on self compacting concrete
was authored by Ozawa et al in 1989 and first
International workshop on self compacting concrete
held in Kochi, Japan in 1998.

METHODS FOR MAKING SCC
Self compacting concrete was first developed by Prof.
Hajime Okamura in Japan during 1980s.
Manufacturing of a self compacting concrete requires
three main aspects to be fulfilled. They are as
follows:-
1. High amount of water reducing substance or
super plasticizer is added for obtaining high
flowing characteristics.
2. A type of aggregate mixture is added to get
the desired compactness. Note that the
aggregate content is of round shape and
proportional in size in order to increase the
locking tendency of the concrete.
3. Alteration of fluid properties is done to
ensure a cohesive mix which will keep the
aggregate and paste together. These fluid
properties can be achieved by adding to a
high quantity of fine content such as cement
fly ash or by adding Viscosity Modifying
Admixtures (VMA).
The frequency of collision and contact between
aggregate particles can increase as the relative
distance between the particles decreases and then

internal stress can increase when concrete is
deformed, particularly near obstacles. Research has
found that the energy required for flowing is
consumed by the increased internal stress, resulting in
blockage of aggregate particles. To avoid this kind of
blockage, the level of coarse aggregate content is
lowered as its energy consumption is intense.
Highly viscous paste is also required to avoid the
blockage of coarse aggregate when concrete flows
through obstacles. When concrete is deformed, paste
with a high viscosity also prevents localised increases
in internal stress due to the approach of coarse
aggregate particles. High deformability can be
achieved only by the employment of a super
plasticizer, keeping the water powder ratio to a very
low value.
MATERIALS
The Materials used in self compacting concrete are
the same as in conventional concrete except that an
excess of fine material and chemical admixtures are
used. Also, a viscosity-modifying agent (VMA) will
be required because slight variations in the amount of
water or in the proportions of aggregate and sand will
make the self compacting concrete unstable, that is,
water or slurry may separate from the remaining
material.
To achieve a high workability and avoid obstruction
by closely spaced reinforcing, self compacting
concrete is designed with limits on the nominal
maximum size (NMS) of the aggregate, the amount of
aggregate and aggregate grading. However, when the
workability is high, the potential for segregation and
loss of entrained air voids increases.
The powdered materials are fly ash, silica fume, lime
stone powder, glass filler and quartzite filler. The use
of pozzolanic materials helps the self compacting
concrete to flow better.

Powder Materials

1. Hydraulic cements Conforming to ASTM
C150, C595, C845, or C1157. Cement from one
cement source may provide excellent SCC while
changing to another source provides dramatically
different results. Testing prior to production is
required. In applications where visual
appearance is critical, cement of the same
source, brand, and color, manufactured at the
same mill should be used throughout the project.
2. Supplementary Cementitious Materials
Pozzolanic or latent hydraulic powders,
conforming to ASTM C618, C989, or C1240,
can provide additional workability, increased
strength, and reduced permeability and
efflorescence.
3. Inert powder Limestone, dolomite, or
granite dust finer than 0.150 mm (No. 100)
sieve.

Admixtures
Superplasticizers - Superplasticizers are a water-
reducing admixture that causes a significant increase
in flowability with little effect on viscosity
()
.
The primary purpose behind using superplasticizers is
in achieving highly flowable concrete while
maintaining low water and high fines content. Low
water-to-cement ratio is a principal factor enhancing
strength, durability, permeability and shrinkage.

Combination of the most suitable W/C, and
Superplasticizer Powder Ratio (Sp/P)

Optimum combination of
superplasticizer and w/c ratio. (Okamura)

Different bases of New Generation super Plasticizers
or High Water reducing agents (HRWRA) have
different water reduction capacities. The advantage of
this water reduction can be taken either to increase the
strength as in high strength concrete or to obtain a
better flowability as in case of self compacting
concrete.

Following are bases which are commonly used as
superplasticizers.

Modified Lignosulfonates(MLS).
Sulfonated Melamine Formaldehyde (SMF).
Sulfonated Naphthalene
Formaldehyde(SNF).
Acrylic Polymer based(AP).
Coplymer of Carboxilic Acrylic.
Acid with Acrylic Ester(CAE)
Cross Linked Acrylic Ploymer(CLAP).
Polycarboxylatethers(PCE).
Multicarboxylatethers(MCE).
Polyacrylates.
Combination of above.
Other admixtures successfully used in SCC mixes
include air entrainers, water reducers, retarders,
accelerators, and specialty admixtures such as
corrosion inhibitors. The use of each of these

materials depends upon the specific application, and
pre-testing is required. When air-entraining
admixtures are used, quality of air system must be
confirmed, as mixes with lower stability may
experience loss of air due to low paste viscosity.

The primary negative effect when adding
superplasticizer alone to concrete is that the mix may
have a tendency to segregate and bleed. There are two
paths to avoid this problem, involving modifying mix
proportions and use of viscosity modifying
admixtures.

Aggregates

Fine Aggregates - Fine aggregates should meet the
requirements of ASTM C33 with the exception of
grading requirements. Variations in fine aggregate
quality will have a major effect on the overall quality
of SCC. Again, water demand is of paramount
importance. All things being equal, the less water
needed to achieve a target slump flow, the better the
self compacting concrete is likely to be. Fine
aggregate moisture control must be provided for. It is
a critical factor in controlling self compacting
concrete.

Coarse Aggregates - Aggregates should meet the
requirements of ASTM C33 with the exception of
grading requirements. The combined gradation of
aggregates is more important than individual
gradations.

The maximum size of coarse aggregatesdepends on
the particular application and is usually limited to 20
mm. It should not be larger than 12 (preferred) to 23
the spacing of the narrowest gaps between reinforcing
bars. Mixes with higher maximum size relative to the
gap will be more sensitive to blocking, and will likely
need either higher powder content or a VMA to
increase viscosity.

Coarse aggregates (and blends) having the lowest
possible water demand will provide the best self
compacting concrete. When water demand is high, the
water content in the paste is greater, requiring more
powder to keep the water-to-powder ratio low enough
to avoid stability problems. Thus the more rounded
the aggregate the easier it will be to make quality self
compacting concrete. The lower the void content, the
less mortar is needed to fill the voids.

Coarse aggregates with high-aspect ratios should be
avoided if possible. Well rounded aggregates allow
better packing (at equal gradation), and lower mortar
and lower powder content will be required. Care
should be taken that crushed aggregate is as blocky in
shape as possible. This is not to say that more angular
aggregates cannot make good self compacting
concrete, only that it will take more powder, more
VMA, or both to do so.

MIX DESIGN
While there is no set definition for self compacting
concrete yet, for now the concrete construction
industry generally follows certain methods of
measuring mix properties to define an SCC. The
absence of an established industrial standard for SCC
allows more creativity in tailoring a mix to specific
job requirements.

While Okamura and Ouchi described two methods for
design mix of self compacting concrete, these
methods are discussed as under:

(1) Rational mix design method

Self-compactability can be largely affected by the
characteristics of materials and the mix proportions. A
rational mix-design method for self compacting
concrete using a variety of materials is necessary.
Okamura and Ozawa (1995) have proposed a simple
mix proportioning system assuming general supply
from ready- mixed concrete plants. The coarse and
fine aggregate contents are fixed so that self
compactibility can be achieved easily by adjusting the
water-powder ratio and superplasticizer dosage only.

The coarse aggregate content in concrete is
fixed at 50% of the solid volume.
The fine aggregate content is fixed at 40%
of the mortar volume.
The water-powder ratio in volume is
assumed as 0.9 to 1.0, depending on the
properties of the powder.
The superplasticizer dosage and the final
water-powder ratio are determined so as to
ensure self-compactibility.
In the mix proportioning of conventional concrete, the
water-cement ratio is fixed at first from the viewpoint
of obtaining the required strength. With self-
compacting concrete, however, the water-powder
ratio has to be decided taking into account self
compactibility because self-compactability is very
sensitive to this ratio. In most cases, the required
strength does not govern the water-cement ratio
because the water-powder ratio is small enough for
obtaining the required strength for ordinary structures
unless most of the powder materials in use is not
reactive.
The mortar or paste in Self-compacting concrete
requires high viscosity as well as high deformability.
This can be achieved by the employment of a
superplasticizer, which results in a low water-powder
ratio for high deformability.

(2) Adjustment of water-powder ratio and
superplasticizer dosage.

The characteristics of powder and superplasticizer
largely affect the mortar property and so the proper
water-powder ratio and superplasticizer dosage cannot
be fixed without trial mixing at this stage. Therefore,
once the mix proportion is decided, self-
compactability has to be tested by U-flow, slump flow
and funnel tests. Methods for judging whether the
water-powder ratio or superplasticizer dosage are
larger or smaller than the proper value by using the
test results, and methods for estimating the proper
values are necessary. The relationships between the
properties of the mortar in self-compacting concrete
and the mix proportion have been investigated and
then formulated. These formulae can be used to
establish a rational method for adjusting the water-
powder ratio and superplasticizer dosage to achieve
appropriate deformability and viscosity (Ouchi 1998).

APPLICATIONS

After the development of the prototype of self-
compacting concrete at the University of Tokyo,
intensive research was begun in many places,
especially in the research institutes of large
construction companies. As a result, self-compacting
concrete has been used in many practical structures.

The first application of self-compacting concrete was
in a building in June 1990. Self-compacting concrete
was then used in the towers of a prestressed concrete
cable-stayed Shin-Kiba Ohashi bridge in 1991.
Lightweight self-compacting concrete was used in the
main girder of a cable-stayed bridge in 1992. Since
then, the use of self-compacting concrete in actual
structures has gradually increased. Self-compacting
concrete has been successfully used in France,
Denmark, the Netherlands, Germany, USA and UK,
apart from Japan.

A typical application example of Self-
compacting concrete is the two anchorages of
Akashi-Kaikyo (Straits) Bridge opened in April
1998The volume of the cast concrete in the two
ahchorages amounted to 290,000 m3. A new
construction system, which makes full use of the
performance of self compacting concrete, was
introduced for this. The concrete was mixed at
the batcher plant beside the site, and was the
pumped out of the plant. It was transported 200
meters through pipes to the casting site, where
the pipes were arranged in rows 3 to 5 meters
apart. The concrete was cast from gate valves
located at 5 meter intervals along the pipes.
These valves were automatically controlled so
that a surface level of the cast concrete could be
maintained. In the final analysis, the use of self-
compacting concrete shortened the anchorage
construction period by 20%, from 2.5 to 2 years.
Self-compacting concrete was used for the wall
of a large LNG tank belonging to the Osaka Gas
Company, whose concrete casting was
completed in June 1998. The volume of the self
compacting concrete used in the tank amounted
to 12,000 m3.
Application in under water construction : 40000
m3 of concrete placed under water by using the
Tremie method for the construction of a dry
dock.
The Toronto International Airport, where
concrete had to be pumped upwards from the
ground to form 101-foot tall columns.
In the US, a high-strength SCC was imperative
for constructing tightly reinforced elements
poured in below-freezing weather forthe 68-
story Trump Tower in New York City.

ADVANTAGES
Self compacting concrete is both a time saver as well
as a money saver. On a large building job, even a five
minute delay can cost the project thousands in
penalties because processes are interconnected and the
more variables that can go wrong the higher the
likelihood that they will. The use of self compacting
concrete eliminates the need for additional machinery
as well as manpower, both saving time and money.

The advantage of self compacting concrete is that not
only is it self-leveling but it can also be mixed to dry
with a shiny finish that requires little else in terms of
finishing. This saves time on a number of procedures
including vibration, leveling, compaction and
finishing with power floats. Finishing alone can be
quite time intensive as it requires a number of passes
and if you wait too long or start too early you can
wave good-bye to having any type of decent finish.

Higher installation performance since no
compaction work is necessary which leads to
reduced construction times, especially at large
construction sites.
Reduced noise pollution since vibrators are not
necessary
Higher and more homogenous concrete quality
across the entire concrete cross-section,
especially around the reinforcement.
Improved concrete surfaces (visible concrete
quality)
Typically higher early strength of the concrete so
that formwork removal can be performed more
quickly.
CONCLUSIONS
The development of SCC strongly supports an
increased industrialization of the concrete
construction process. The fact that concrete can

be handled as a fluid gives in itself drastic
process improvement possibilities.
Self-compacting concrete has two big
advantages. One relates to the construction time,
which in most of the cases is shorter than the time
when normal concrete is used, due to the fact that
no time is wasted with the compaction through
vibration. The second advantage is related to the
placing.
While there is no set definition for self
compacting concrete yet, for now the concrete
construction industry generally follows certain
methods of measuring mix properties to define an
SCC. The absence of an established industrial
standard for SCC allows more creativity in
tailoring a mix to specific job requirements.
Due to its ability to guide itself into every nook
and cranny in the form, SCC can produce nearly
nil defects concrete. About 40 to 50% of cement
content can be replaced by supplementary
cementing material like fly ash; cost of the
concrete is greatly reduced.
Although SCC finds its application in past in
many projects, still its limited to structural
elements such as bridge, columns, reinforced
walls etc. When talked of its usage in the field of
pavement construction, the application has been
limited to pavement repairs and rehabilitation.
REFERNCES
Okamura, H., Ouchi, M. (2003). Self
Compacting Conrete. Journal of Advanced
Concrete Technology Vol.1, No. 1, 5-15, April
2003.
Suresh, G., Bhanumathidas, N., Kalidas, N., Self
Compacting Concrete, The Emerging Concrete
Practice for Critical Applications. Master
builder.
NRMCA, CIP 37 Self Compacting Concrete
(SCC). Concrete in practice, what, why &
how?.
Druta, C., Tensile Strength And Bonding
Characterstics Of Self Compacting Concrete.
Ouchi, M., Hibino, M., Development, Applications
And Investigations Of Self-Compacting
Concrete.
Abou-Zeid, M., Roushdy, M., Performance and
Uniformity of Self Compacting Concrete.
Journal of the Transportation Research Board,
No. 1914, Transportation Research Board of
the National Academies, Washington, D.C.,
2005, pp. 7180.
Suksawang, N., Nassif, H., Najm, H., Evaluation
of Mechanical Properties for Self
Consolidating, Normal, and High
Performance Concrete. Journal of the
Transportation Research Board, No. 1979,
Transportation Research Board of the National
Academies, Washington, D.C., 2006, pp. 36-
45.
Mukai, D., Altan, S., Ehrgott, J., Early Strength of
Self Compacting Concrete. Transportation
Research Record 1698, Paper No. 00-1043.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

A STUDY ON SHOTCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Vipin Bansal
First-degree Student, Civil Engg. Dept., BITS Pilani, Rajasthan,(333031) India, Email: vipinbansal2008@gmail.com
Abhishek Choudhary
First-degree Student, Civil Engg. Dept., BITS Pilani, Rajasthan,(333031) India, Email: f2008449@bits-pilani.ac.in
Dipendu Bhunia
Assistant Professor, Civil Engg. Dept., BITS Pilani,, Rajasthan,(333031) India. Email: dipendubhunia@gmail.com
Ashutosh Parauha
First-degree Student, Civil Engg. Dept., BITS Pilani, Rajasthan,(333031) India, Email: ashutosh..parauha@gmail.com
Nikhil Shrivastava
First-degree Student, Civil Engg. Dept., BITS Pilani, Rajasthan,(333031) India, Email: nick310791@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
This paper will investigate and highlight critical aspects of sprayed concrete initially between dry and wet
shotcrete and then develop a suggested total system approach with the wet shotcrete process. It is important to
note that shotcrete is not a mystical combination of concrete constituents but is one of several ways to cast
concrete. The characteristics of concrete as well as basic concrete properties and technologies need to be
addressed whether it be shotcrete or cast concrete in the form of civil engineering construction. Aspects like
amount of cement, water-cement ratio, consistency, curing, and reinforcement need attention as with any type of
concrete construction. The one single main reason for shotcrete of poor quality being applied throughout the
world, and particularly in underground mining operations, is that it seems to be either forgotten or through lack
of training and expertise, that the basics of concrete technologies are paramount.

INTRODUCTION
The great advantages of sprayed concrete as not only
a construction process but also as a rock support
process have been developed gradually since the early
1900s in the United States. The improvement of
materials, development of equipment as well as
application techniques have made sprayed concrete a
very important part of underground civil and mining
works. Two spraying methods are common: dry mix
and wet mix, and whereas this paper will particularly
cover wet mix shotcrete, a basic comparison as well
as reasoning for this choice is important. It should
also be remembered that both methods have their
advantages and disadvantages and, depending upon
project requirements, prevailing underground
conditions, accessibility and the experience and
training of personnel, then the best suited method
should be chosen.
Shotcrete is used in lieu of conventional concrete, in
most instances, for reasons of cost or convenience.
Shotcrete is advantageous in situations when
formwork is cost prohibitive or impractical and where
forms can be reduced or eliminated, access to the
work area is difficult, thin layers or variable
thicknesses are required, or normal casting techniques
cannot be employed. Additional savings are possible
because shotcrete requires only a small, portable plant
for manufacture and placement. Shotcreting
operations can often be accomplished in areas of
limited access to make repairs to structures. The
excellent bonding of shotcrete to other materials is
often an important design consideration. The force of
the impact of this pneumatically propelled material on
the surface causes compaction of the shotcrete paste
matrix into the fine surface irregularities and results in
good adhesion to the surface. Within limits, the
material is capable of supporting itself in vertical or
overhead applications.

Dry Shotcrete
The cementitious material and aggregate are
thoroughly mixed and either bagged in dry condition,
or mixed and delivered directly to the gun. The
mixture is normally fed to a pneumatically operated
gun which delivers a continuous flow of material
through the delivery hose to the nozzle. The interior
of the nozzle is fitted with a water ring which
uniformly injects water into the mixture as it is being
discharged from the nozzle and propelled against the
receiving surface.

Wet Shotcrete
The cementitious material, aggregate, water, and
admixtures are thoroughly mixed as would be done
for conventional concrete. The mixed material is fed
to the delivery equipment, such as a concrete pump,
which propels the mixture through the delivery hose
by positive displacement or by compressed air.
Additional air is added at the nozzle to increase the
nozzle discharge velocity.
[1]
SHOTCRETE VERSUS CONVENTIONAL
CONCRETE
Unlike conventional concrete, which is first placed
and then compacted in the second operation, shotcrete
undergoes placement and compaction at the same
time due to the force with which it is projected from
the nozzle. Shotcrete is more dense, homogeneous,
strong, and waterproof than is possible to obtain by
any other process. For most bridges original concrete


will require additional repair long before shotcrete
needs repair and it suffers little deteriorations.
Shotcrete is not placed or contained by forms. It can
be impacted onto any type or shape of surface,
including vertical or overhead areas. It forms an
excellent bond with the substrate and can be given a
variety of surface finishes.

Advantages of shotcrete
Shotcrete is used in lieu of conventional concrete, in
most instances, for reasons of cost or convenience.
Shotcrete is advantageous in situations when
formwork is cost prohibitive or impractical and where
forms can be reduced or eliminated, access to the
work area is difficult, thin layers or variable
thicknesses are required, or normal casting techniques
cannot be employed. Additional savings are possible
because shotcrete requires only a small, portable plant
for manufacture and placement. Shotcreting
operations can often be accomplished in areas of
limited access to make repairs to structures.
[7]

Strength of bonding
The excellent bonding of shotcrete to other materials
is often an important design consideration. The force
of the impact of this pneumatically propelled material
on the surface causes compaction of the shotcrete
paste matrix into the fine surface irregularities and
results in good adhesion to the surface. Within limits,
the material is capable of supporting itself in vertical
or overhead applications.

Comparison of dry-mix and wet-mix processes
Shotcrete suitable for most requirements can be
produced by either the dry-mix or wet-mix process.
However, differences in the equipment cost,
maintenance requirements, operational features,
placement characteristics, and product quality may
make one or the other more attractive for a particular
application.

(1) Bond strengths of new shotcrete to existing
materials are generally higher with dry-mix shotcrete
than with wet-mix shotcrete. Both shotcrete mixtures
often provide significantly higher bond strengths to
existing materials than does conventional concrete.
(2) Typically, dry-mix shotcrete is applied at a much
slower rate than wet-mix shotcrete. Dry-mix shotcrete
is often applied at a rate of 1 or 2 cubic yards per hour
compared to wet-mix shotcrete applied at a rate of up
to 7 or 8 cubic yards per hour. Depending on the
application, the in-place production rate may be
significantly lower because of obstacles, rebound, and
other features which may cause delays.
(3) Rebound is the shotcrete material that "bounces"
off the shooting surface. Rebound for conventional
dry-mix shotcrete, in the best of conditions, can be
expected to be at least 20 percent of the total material
passed through the nozzle. Wet-mix shotcrete
rebounds somewhat less than dry-mix shotcrete.
(4) The use of air-entraining admixtures (AEA) in
shotcrete is practical only in wet-mix shotcrete. When
batched properly, AEA forms an air-void system
suitable for providing frost resistance to wet-mix
shotcrete. The formation of an air-void system in dry-
mix shotcrete is not possible. However, dry-mix
shotcrete, when properly proportioned and applied,
will have a compressive strength exceeding
approximately 7,000 pounds per square inch (psi). It
has performed well in moderate exposures to freezing
and thawing.

TYPES OF SHOTCRETE

Fiber-Reinforced Shotcrete
Unreinforced shotcrete, like unreinforced
conventional concrete, is a brittle material that
experiences cracking and displacement when
subjected to tensile stresses or strains. The addition of
fibers to the shotcrete mixture adds ductility to the
material as well as energy absorption capacity and
impact resistance. The composite material is capable
of sustaining post crack loadings and often displays
increased ultimate strength, particularly tensile
strength. Fibers used in shotcrete are available in three
general forms: steel fibers, glass fibers, and other
synthetic fibers. Natural fiber, a fourth form, is not
commonly used in shotcrete and will not be discussed.

Silica-Fume Shotcrete
Silica fume is a very fine noncrystalline pozzolanic
material composed mostly of silica. Silica fume is
used in concrete and shotcrete to increase strength,
decrease permeability, and enhance cohesion and
adhesion. Specific advantages of silica fume in
shotcrete are the improved bond strength of shotcrete
to substrate surfaces, the improved cohesion of the
shotcrete, and the resulting ability to apply thicker
layers of shotcrete in a single pass to vertical and
overhead surfaces. The material is more resistant to
"washout," where fresh shotcrete is subject to the
action of flowing water, and rebound is significantly
reduced. Shotcrete containing silica fume may have
improved resistance to aggressive chemicals.

Polymer-Modified Shotcrete
Polymers are incorporated into shotcrete in two ways.
In one method, the entire binder is composed of a
polymer material. This is no longer a hydraulic-
cement product but a polymer shotcrete. The more
common use of polymers is the addition of a polymer
emulsion to the hydraulic-cement mixture, as with a
partial replacement of the mixing water, or as total
replacement, which disperses throughout the mixture
forming a continuous polymer matrix. This is termed
polymer-portland-cement shotcrete.

Accelerated Shotcrete
Accelerating admixtures are used extensively in
shotcrete. Highly effective accelerators have been


developed for rapid setting of shotcrete. Often
considered "super-accelerators," these are commonly
used with dry-mix shotcrete. With the increasing use
of silica fume, the use of accelerators may decline
somewhat. In the past, these accelerators were
exclusively powdered materials added to dry-mix
shotcrete materials. Now both powdered and liquid
admixtures are used in both dry-mix and wet mix
shotcrete. The use of these accelerators with a wet-
mix process requires that the accelerator be added at
the nozzle rather than batched with the other
materials.
[5]

MATERIAL PROPRTIONING AND
PROPERTIES
a. Cementitious Materials
Portland cement.
Cement requirements for shotcrete are similar to those
for conventional concrete. Portland cement must meet
the requirements of CRD-C 2011 (American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C 150), Type I or
II. Where the shotcrete will be exposed to soil or
water high in soluble sulfates, Type II or V should be
used as described in EM 1110-2-2000. Blended
cement must meet the requirements of CRD-C 203
(ASTM C 595), Type IP or IS, and moderate sulfate
resistance may be specified by adding the suffix MS
to the type designation. Where structural requirements
require high early strength, Type III meeting the
requirements of CRD-C 201 (ASTM C 150) cement
should be considered.
[2,6]

Pozzolan.
When added to a Portland-cement matrix, pozzolan
reacts with the calcium hydroxide and water to
produce more calcium silicate gel. Consequently,
shotcretes with pozzolan may exhibit improved long-
term strength performance and lower permeability.
Pozzolan is sometimes added to wet-mix shotcrete to
enhance workability, improve pump ability, increase
resistance to sulfate attack, and reduce expansion
caused by the alkali-silica reaction.

Silica fume.
Silica fume is an extremely fine, amorphous
pozzolanic material which is a waste product of the
silicon, ferrosilicon, or other silicon alloy production
in submerged-arc electric furnaces. The silica fume
condenses from the exhaust gases forming extremely
minute spherical particles. The material is over 85
percent silica dioxide, is approximately 100 times
finer than Portland cement, and has a specific gravity
ranging from 2.1 to 2.6.

b. Aggregate
Aggregate should comply with the quality
requirements of CRD-C 133 (ASTM C 33). Table 3-1
shows acceptable grading limits. Grading No. 1
should be used if a mortar mixture is desired. Grading
No. 2 and 3 contain coarse aggregate; the latter is
similar to a conventional 19.0-mm (3/4-inch) nominal
maximum size aggregate, except for a reduction in the
larger sizes to minimize rebound. Aggregate failing to
comply with these gradings may be used if
preconstruction tests demonstrate that it gives good
results. However, a uniform grading is essential.
Coarse and fine aggregate should be batched
separately to avoid segregation.
Fine aggregate for finish or flash coats and certain
other special applications may be finer than Grading
No. 1. Finer fine aggregates, however, generally
produce shotcretes having greater drying shrinkage,
while coarser sands result in more rebound.
Lightweight-aggregate shotcrete is most practical for
the dry-mix process. Since moisture and aggregate
contact is initiated at the nozzle, the severe
workability reductions common in conventional
lightweight concrete production do not occur.

Grading Limits for Aggregate

Percent by Mass Passing Individual Sieves
Sieve Size Grading No. 1 Grading No. 2 Grading
No. 3

3/4-inch 100
1/2-inch 100 80-95
3/8-inch 100 90-100 70-90
0.19 inch (No. 4) 95-100 70-85 50-70
0.093 inch (No. 8) 80-100 50-70 35-55
0.046 inch (No. 16) 50-85 35-55 20-40
0.024 inch (No. 30) 25-60 20-35 10-30
0.012 inch (No. 50) 10-30 8-20 5-17
0.006 inch (No. 100) 2-10 2-10 2-10

c. Water
Potable water should be used. If this is not available,
the proposed water source should be tested according
to CRD-C 400. No special requirements are necessary
for curing water applied to shotcrete (ASTM 1978).
Water for curing of architectural shotcrete should be
free from elements that will cause staining.

d. Chemical Admixtures
Use of admixtures.
Because of shotcrete equipment limitations, the use of
admixtures in shotcrete is not the same as in
conventional concrete. Admixtures should be tested in
the field prior to use on large jobs to ensure that the
desired properties are achieved. Chemical admixtures
used in shotcrete should comply with the appropriate
requirements given in CRD-C 625 (ASTM C 1141).
ACI 212.3R (paragraph A-1, ACI (1991a)),
"Chemical Admixtures for Concrete," contains
detailed information on general use in concrete.

Air-entraining admixture (AEA).
The use of AEAs in shotcrete is practical only in wet-
mix shotcrete. Due to the loss of air during the
gunning process of the wet-mix shotcrete, the AEA
should be batched so that the measured air contents in
the plastic mix prior to pumping are twice the desired
hardened shotcrete air content. The mixing process
required to form the air bubbles does not occur in the


dry-mix process, hence a suitable air-void system is
not generated using the admixture. Air entrainment
has slightly reduced rebound.

Water-reducing and retarding admixtures.
WRAs meeting the requirements of CRD-C 87
(ASTM C 494) are readily adapted to the wet-mix
process but are not used in dry-mix shotcrete due to
the ineffectiveness of the admixture when adding the
admixture and water at the nozzle. Retarding
admixtures are seldom used in shotcrete, except for
near horizontal surfaces where subsequent finishing of
the shotcrete surface is required.
[3]

e. Reinforcing Steel
Reinforcing bars for shotcrete should meet the same
specifications as for conventional concrete. Because
of the placement method, the use of bars larger than
No. 5 or heavy concentrations of steel are not
practical. Large bars make it difficult to achieve
adequate build-up of good quality shotcrete behind
the bar and heavy concentrations of steel interfere
with the placement of shotcrete. In general, bar
spacings of 6 to 12 inches are recommended for
shotcrete reinforcement. It is often advantageous to
specify as welded wire fabric, reinforcement either
uncoated, galvanized, or epoxy coated. Flat stock
should usually be specified in lieu of rolled fabric.
Because of the rolled configuration, rolled welded
wire fabric is difficult to place at specified locations.
Wire spacing should be as wide as possible to allow
shotcrete to be built up behind. Spacing of 6 inches is
recommended; however wire spacing as low as 2
inches has been used with 4 inches being more
typical. In repair work, a thin shotcrete coating may
not require reinforcement. When reinforcement is
exposed in the old concrete, but not severely
corroded, it may be the only reinforcement necessary.
In other cases, additional reinforcement (bars or wire
mesh) may be required to replace corroded steel to
control temperature cracking, if not to satisfy
structural considerations

f. Fiber Reinforcement

Steel fiber reinforcement.
Steel fibers have been used in shotcrete to increase its
ductility, toughness, impact resistance, and reduce
crack propagation. The fibers are commercially
available in lengths ranging from 1/2 to 3 inches.
Typical fiber lengths for shotcrete range from 3/4 to
1-1/2 inches and are used in the amount of 1 to 2
percent by volume of the shotcrete. The fibers have
little effect on compressive strength and produce only
modest increases in flexural strength. However, they
provide continued and, at times, improved load
carrying capacity after the member has cracked.
Steel fiber source
Steel fibers are manufactured in several ways. Wire
fibers are produced from drawn wire that has been
subsequently cut or chopped. Flat steel fibers are cut
or slit from sheet of steel or by flattening wire. The
melt-extraction process is used to "cast" fibers by
extracting fibers from a pool of molten steel.
Consequently, fibers are round, flat, or irregular in
shape. Additional anchorage is provided by
deformations along the fiber length or at the ends.
Deformations can be natural irregularities, crimps,
corrugations, hooks, bulbs, and others. Collated fibers
and fibers with noncircular cross sections reduce the
handling and batching problems common with
straight, round fibers.

PROPORTIONING OF SHOTCRETE
a. Considerations.
In general, conventional concrete technology may be
applied to shotcrete proportioning. Prior to mixture
proportioning, the following should be considered:
(1) Type of dry-mix or wet-mix shotcrete appropriate
for the work.
(2) The specific job constraints on the shotcrete work.
(3) The type of specification.
(a) Performance versus prescription.
(b) Contractor versus Government mixture
proportioning.

b. Mixture proportioning trial batching.
(1) Since shotcrete performance is highly dependent
on application procedures, trial batching and testing is
a critical operation in verifying mixture performance.
The batching and mixing of wet-mix shotcrete is
practically identical to conventional concrete; only the
fabrication of specimens is different. However, dry-
mix is a distinct process. It is normal procedure to
obtain trial mixture proportions for shotcrete from the
contractor.
(2) Test panels are particularly important for dry-mix
shotcrete because laboratory mixtures cannot
duplicate as-shot dry-mix shotcrete. Typically, a
performance specification of 12-hour, 7-day and/or
28-day compressive strengths will be specified, along
with a grading for the aggregate. Both the wet- and
dry-mix methods will yield a higher as-shot cement
content and lower coarse aggregate content, due to
rebound of the aggregate.

c. Wet-mix proportioning.
Mixture proportioning procedures for the formulation
of conventional concrete for pumping applications are
applicable for wet-mix shotcrete. The nominal
maximum aggregate size is usually 3/4 inch or
smaller. The batched cement content will typically
range from 500 to 700 pounds per cubic yard. Rich
mixtures are common for shotcrete, especially, if
vertical or overhead shotcrete placement is required.
The limiting factor for cement content in a mixture is
often governed by the amount of cement necessary for
the shotcrete to adhere to a wall or ceiling, not the
specified compressive strength. It is not unusual for
shotcrete used in vertical and overhead placement to


have 28-day strengths in excess of 4,500 psi, due only
to the amount of cement necessary to make the
shotcrete adhere.
(1) Workability.
The slump for wet-mix shotcrete should be near the
minimum that the pump will handle. A 3-inch slump
should normally be considered the maximum slump to
be used. Excess slump will yield lower-strength
shotcrete which will tend to slough off of vertical and
overhead surfaces.
(2) Entrained air.
If air entrainment is to be used, an air content ranging
from 8 to 12 percent prior to pumping is typical. The
in-place shotcrete will have about one-half of the
entrained air that was recorded at the pump.
(3) Admixtures.
Additional admixtures generally behave the same in
wet-mix shotcrete as they do in conventional concrete.
Any admixture should be tested in the mixture
proportioning studies and on the test panels prior to
usage.

d. Dry-mix proportioning.
There is no established method of proportioning dry-
mix shotcrete. Since it is not practical to perform
laboratory trial mixtures for dry-mix shotcrete, field
testing of dry-mix proportions is highly advisable,
especially if no field data exist for a given dry-mix.
The in-place aggregate grading will be finer than the
batched grading due to rebound, especially if larger
aggregate sizes are used. As with wet-mix shotcrete,
the in-place cement factor will be higher also varies
between 0.30 to 0.40.

e. Fiber-shotcrete proportioning.
Steel fiber lengths for shotcrete are typically 1 inch
but often range from 3/4 inch to 1-1/2 inches. The
fiber should be at least 1/4 inch longer than the
diameter of the maximum aggregate size. Shorter
fibers are more easily pumped through the system,
although more are required for equivalent
performance. Fiber batch quantities are dependent on
required shotcrete properties. Typical fiber
proportions range from 0.5 to
2.0 percent by volume of shotcrete. Deformed fibers
and fibers with end anchorage provisions produce
shotcrete with properties equivalent to straight fibers
at much lower fiber loadings. Since fibers tend to
rebound at a greater rate than does aggregate, the fiber
batch quantity should be adjusted accordingly.
Proportioning mixtures using glass fibers is discussed
by the PCI (1981). Proportioning mixtures using
polypropylene fibers is discussed by Morganet al.
(1989).

f. Silica-fume shotcrete proportioning
Silica fume is added to a shotcrete mixture as a
cement replacement or in addition to cement. Batch
quantities range from 7 to 15 percent by mass of
cement. Strength enhancement and decreased
permeability is apparent at the lower dosages.
Reductions in rebound and increases in cohesiveness
for thick applications do not occur until silica-fume
dosages exceed approximately 14 percent. Further
mixture adjustments to wet-mix shotcrete may be
necessary to attain the required workability level.

g. Polymer-modified shotcrete
Polymer emulsions are typically 50 percent solids and
50 percent water. The liquid portion of the emulsion
replaces the equivalent volume of water, and the solid
portion replaces the same volume of combined solids.
Additional adjustments to attain desired workability
levels may be required.

PLACEMENT

Shotcreting can be a hazardous operation, especially if
the work must be conducted in a relatively confined
area. The critical hazards include control of the
material (shooting), rebound, plugged nozzle, hose or
coupling breaks, caustic materials, and dusting.

Preparations

a. Unformed sections.
Where shotcrete is to be placed against earth surfaces,
as in canal linings, the surfaces should first be
thoroughly compacted and trimmed to line and grade.
Shotcrete should not be placed on any surface which
is frozen, spongy, or where there is free water. The
surface should be kept damp for several hours before
shotcrete is placed.

b. Formed surfaces.
Forms should be made of plywood sheathing,
expanded metal lath, or other suitable material, true to
line and dimension. They should be adequately braced
to ensure against excessive vibration and constructed
to permit the escape of rebound and air during the
gunning operation, particularly in the case of thick
structural members. Columns should be formed only
on two adjacent sides wherever possible. Satisfactory
results may be obtained where three sides are formed,
provided the width is at least 1.5 times the depth.
Pilasters may be formed on two adjacent or opposite
sides. The soffit and one side of beams should be
formed, and shores should be set below the soffit in
such a manner that no deflection will occur under the
load to be imposed. Short, removable bulkheads may
be used at intersections. The forms should be oiled or
dampened and should be clean just prior to gunning.

c. Work area access.
Safe, adequate scaffolding should be provided so that
the nozzle man can hold the nozzle at the optimum
angle and distance from the surface for all parts of the
work. The scaffolding should also provide easy access
to the shotcrete surface for screeding and finishing
operations.


d. Reinforcing steel repair.
Concrete around the reinforcing should be removed
until clean, uncorroded steel is reached. Concrete
behind reinforcing steel should be removed to a depth
to allow proper placement from a nozzle angles not
more than 45 degrees to the surface. This depth is
often more than 1.5 times the bar diameter but not less
than 1 inch. Reinforcing that is corroded so badly that
its usable cross section is reduced must be replaced.

f. Anchorage.
Anchorage of shotcrete follows practice for
conventional concrete.

g. Alignment control.
A variety of alignment control devices are required to
establish the limits of shotcrete placement, including
ground wires, guide strips, depth gauges, depth
probes, or forms. Ground wires are usually 18 or 20-
gauge, high-strength steel wires attached to a
turnbuckle or spring to provide tension. Wires may be
used to establish corners of the shotcrete work, and
may be spaced at 2- to 3-foot intervals for screed
guides for flat areas. Guide strips are wood lath
attached to crosspieces at 2- to 3-foot intervals, used
similarly to wires. Depth gauges, small metal or
plastic devices attached to the surface to which
shotcrete is being applied, indicate the resulting
thickness of the shotcrete. They may be left in place,
and slightly covered, if their presence is not
damaging. Depth probes are stiff steel wire rods pre-
marked with the thickness of shotcrete, which are
inserted into the shotcrete to check thickness.

MINIMIZING THE EXTENT OF SHOTCRETE
Precision design
Aesthetically it is far better (and more cost effective)
to apply shotcrete precisely to unstable sections of
cuttings than to apply a blanket covering. In order to
achieve this, the shotcrete application should be
planned and designed in advance so as to minimize
visual impact as well as stabilize the slope. This
planning need not be time consuming if the right
expertise is employed and could be based upon
photographs of the emerging cutting.

Progressive stabilization
Stabilization treatments (including shotcrete) should
be applied progressively with excavation rather than
left to the end. This tends to minimize usage which is
a cost saving and satisfies both geotechnical and
urban design objectives.
Relationship with surrounding rock Finish or extend
the application of shotcrete up to distinct edges,
natural joints or changes in the face of the cutting.

Masking
Shotcrete should be controlled and applied only where
required and masked off for other areas, for example
in soft rock seams. A neat sharp edge, especially if it
coincides with a change in the rock texture or a
fracture line, is generally more appropriate than
bleeding the shotcrete out or allowing overspray.
However it should be accepted that feathering the
shotcrete may be required in order to achieve a good
bond with the rock.

Screening
Planting should be used to help screen the shotcrete
application.

AVOIDING THE NEED FOR SHOTCRETE

The need for the use of shotcrete or any other better
stabilization technique should be avoided. Besides
being particularly unsightly, relative to an untreated
safe slope shotcrete is costly and high maintenance. It
is better to have designed the cutting so that
stabilization is not needed. The best time to avoid or
reduce the need for shotcrete is in the route selection
and refinement process. The best way to avoid the
need for shotcrete is to allocate sufficient space for
the road and the cuttings. Liaison with geotechnical
experts in the route selection stages will assist in
defining the space needed for the road corridor by
advising on appropriate cutting slopes.

Principle
a. Obtain sufficient land

The need for shotcrete can be eliminated through
purchase of sufficient land so that batters can be laid
back to a stable grade. Where adjacent land is highly
valuable or threatened habitat, discussions should be
held with stakeholders to consider the relative merits
of the land needed versus the costs (financial and
aesthetic) of the shotcrete application.

b. Avoid over steep cutting faces

The need for batter treatment arises when cutting
faces are over steep for the combination of rock types,
fracturing and weathering patterns intersected. Ensure
that the stability and treatment consequences of
steepening cutting faces are given appropriate
consideration at the route selection and concept
design stages. Where there is limited geotechnical
information it is preferable to nominate flatter rather
than steeper batters in an EIS. Design for optimal not
maximum gradients, then if there is a change in
gradient or slope stability, shotcrete may still not be
necessary. In most situations, slopes flatter than
2(H):1(V) with 5m benches and setbacks from
carriageways will provide a stable cutting as well as
allow space for vegetation to establish.

c. Provide space for cuttings


Obtaining sufficient space between the road and rock
cutting is by far the best way to avoid the need for
shotcrete. Every meter gained has a significant impact
on the risks posed by an unstable cutting. It also
allows planting to develop to help catch debris,
improve the appearance of the road corridor and break
up the expanse of concrete.

d. Explore other sources of fill if required

In occasional situations cuttings are deepened to
balance additional fill requirements by steepening
cutting faces rather than by widening the cutting
footprint. In these circumstances consider borrowing
material from other locations.

e. Explore alternative stabilization techniques

Where potential shotcrete stabilization needs are
identified explore alternative solutions such as:
Reduce face heights and steepen slopes to reduce
erosion. Shotcrete application on the bench top only,
to minimize water penetration and ongoing erosion.
Rock bolting (where possible rock bolt heads should
not be covered with shotcrete). Mesh netting or use of
bolted rock mesh. Fencing at key locations on the
benches and base of slopes to catch loose material.
Soft fall areas at the base of slopes to contain loose
material. Locally won rock gravity walls (e.g.
Woronora bridge project). Retaining walls or precast
panels over stabilized cuttings, to be considered in
urban areas with high land value and high quality
finishes needed. Slopes stabilized by rock mattresses
or stone.

f. Be judicious in the use of shotcrete

Consider the costs and benefits of the do nothing
option. If there is sufficient space, allowing the slope
to weather and erode safely may be the best option in
the long run.

g. Specify pre splitting
Specify excavation methods that minimize the risk of
creating unstable slopes (e.g. Oak Flats interchange
where rock was ripped rather than presplit). Prepare
specifications and manage contracts such that the risk
of blasting damage to pre-split faces is minimized.

CONCLUSION
Today shotcrete has become a very useful material due
to its high strength, durability, low permeability, good
bond, limitless shape possibilities and ease of handling
in areas of difficult access. It also requires no
formwork, is highly cost effective and is particularly
useful where land space is limited. The circumstances
of its use may arise either as part of the original
construction or as remediation of existing batters. The
distinction is important. New work should allow
substantial control over geotechnical design, and hence
pre-construction decisions about batter slopes and how
they will be stabilized and maintained. Treatment
should be planned and preventative, rather than
remedial, although some surprises may occur. For
existing slopes, you have what you have and the
treatment is almost always remedial. While the possible
options may be similar, the constraints on their use
(including costs) are different
There should always be a clear purpose for the use of
any engineering measure and shotcrete is no exception.
It must be understood in terms of its intended
function(s) and comparisons made with alternatives
which could replace it. It is not practical to dismiss the
use of shotcrete due to its appearance. The science of
rock durability is very complex and there are few
experts in Australia who could predict with a great
degree of accuracy the durability of all types of rock
after exposure. Judicious use of shotcrete to ensure the
stability of the batter (or slope) and the safety of road
users is inevitable when considering the extent of our
road network. Nevertheless shotcrete is sometimes used
in excess and applied when not always needed. Project
managers and their teams need to apply control to the
applications so that it is applied with precision and
mindful of visual impacts.

REFERENCES

Indian standard IS 9012
American Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee
Report 506R-90,"Guide to Shotcrete"
ACI 212.3R (paragraph A-1, ACI (1991a)),
"Chemical Admixtures for Concrete".
Engineering and design manual EM 1110-2-
2000.
Pre stressed Journal (PCI 1981).
CRD-C 201 (American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) C 150 ) Type I ,
CRD-C 203 (ASTM C 595) , CRD-C 201
(ASTM C 150), CRD-C 133 (ASTM C
33)and similar codes.
www.commercialshotcrete.com

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

SOME STUDIES ON THE INFLUENCE OF CLAY ON CONSOLI-
DATION CHARACTERISTICS OF COHESIVE SOILS

S.V. Rao
Scientist C, Central Soil and Materials Research Station, Olof Palme Marg, Huaz Khas, New Delhi-110 016, Email:
camrad@sify.com

ABSTRACT: In the settlement behaviour of saturated soil mass, clay content plays an important role because
of the fact that the clay particles have more surface areas giving rise to more electrical unbalanced charges at the
surfaces. Every material undergoes certain amount of strain when a stress is applied. Soil undergoes strains
which are not proportional to the applied stresses. It is therefore necessary to study the stress-strain
characteristics of the soil in the foundation of structures in order to understand the settlement of the structure
and to predict and to make provision for the settlement which may occur during its lifetime. Since oedometer
experiments are time consuming, it will not be out of the way if the coefficients of the stress-strain relationship
are derived on basis of a few experiments within the zone of clay content and utilize the relationship for
estimating these parameters of the untested soil samples by interpolation. Consolidometers of fixed ring type
with capacity 16 kg/cm
2
are used in this work. The soils taken for the studies were the cohesive soils collected
from three different dam sites having different percentages of clay. Based on the laboratory experimental studies
on consolidation characteristics of cohesive soils with different percentages of clay, the following conclusions
were arrived at: Coefficient of consolidation decreases linearly with increase in clay content. The relationship
between coefficient of compressibility (q
v
) and clay content at different stress level is linear. The strain recovery
increases with increase in plasticity index.
Keywords: Clay, Consolidation, Settlement, Oedometer
INTRODUCTION
In the settlement behaviour of saturated soil mass,
clay content plays an important role because of the
fact that the clay particles have more surface areas
giving rise to more electrical unbalanced charges at
the surfaces. Every material undergoes certain amount
of strain when a stress is applied. Soil undergoes
strains which are not proportional to the applied
stresses. It is therefore necessary to study the stress-
strain characteristics of the soil in the foundation of
structures in order to understand the settlement of the
structure and to predict and to make provision for the
settlement which may occur during its lifetime. Since
oedometer experiments are time consuming, we will
not be out of the way if the coefficients of the stress-
strain relationship is derived on basis of a few
experiments within the zone of clay content and
utilize the relationship for estimating these parameters
of the untested soil samples by interpolation.

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP AND TEST DETAILS
Equipment used is consolidometers of fixed ring type
with capacity 16 kg/cm
2
. The soils taken for the
studies were the cohesive soils collected from
different dam sites having different percentages of
clay. The percentages of clay studies were 27.7, 45.3
and 53.5 percent of 2 micron and less grain sizes. The
activities of these soil samples were 0.52, 0.66 and
0.81 respectively.

Test Procedure
The soil simple to be tested was dried in the oven for
24 hours under the temperature of 105-110
0
C. After
fixing the compaction dry density of 1.5 gm/cc, the
required weight of the sample to be prepared was
taken and the sample was thoroughly mixed with an
initial moisture content of 24 percent. The inner
surface of the oedometer ring and the outer lateral
surface of the loading pad were smoothened by
applying high pressure-grease to eliminate any
friction between the sample and the ring and the
loading pad and the ring respectively. The porous
stones were boiled thoroughly to eliminate entrapped
air and subsequently placed in distilled water. The
bottom porous stone thus prepared was kept inside the
oedometer and a thoroughly wetted filter paper which
was made to the size of the porous stone was placed
over the porous stone. The prepared soil was placed in
the oedometer and the required prefixed thickness of
the sample was obtained by pressing the soil by static
compaction. The initial moisture content was kept at
24 percent for ensuring uniform compaction. Over
this surface of the soil, wetted filter paper and air free
porous stone were placed one over the other.

The oedometer mould was filled with distilled water
upto its surface and the screws were tightened. Then
the loading pad was kept gently and the oedometer
was placed over the loading device. The extensometer
was connected keeping sufficient travel for the
measurement of compression during the experiment.
A small pressure of 0.25 kg/cm
2
was applied as
setting load and the initial reading of the dial gauge
was noted. After 24 hours, final reading of the applied
setting load was noted. This final reading was the
initial reading for the subsequent loading. The load
(stress levels) studied are 0.25-0.50 kg/cm
2
, 0.50-1.0
kg/cm
2
, 1.0-2.0 kg/cm
2
, 2.0-4.0 kg/cm
2
, 4.0-8.0

kg/cm
2
and in three cases the load (stress) increment
was upto 16 kg/cm
2
. The tests were carried out on
fully saturated samples with constant compaction
density of 1.5 gm/cc.

PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION
The properties of the soil in the various samples tested
are given in Table-I.

Stress - Strain Characteristics
The vertical strain during various stages of
consolidation was calculated as the ratio between the
settlement as recorded by the dial gauge and the initial
thickness of the sample. The relationship between the
vertical strain and the vertical stress both during
loading and unloading for all the tested samples are
shown is Figure 1. The figure shows a curvilinear
increase in vertical strain with increase in stress
during loading and a curvilinear decrease in stress
during unloading for all the samples tested. As the
percentage of clay increases, for the same vertical
stress of 4.0 kg/cm
2
, the strains observed are 0.136,
0.189 and 0.279 for the clay contents of 27.7, 45.3
and 53.5 percent respectively. Figure 2 shows the
variation between plasticity index and percentage
strain recovery. It can be seen that with increase in
plasticity index the strain recovery increases linearly.

A semilog plot between vertical strain (
1
) on
arithmetic scale and vertical stress (
v
) on log-
arithmetic scale is shown in Figure 3. From this plot a
linear relationship for the stress and strain is arrived
as given below:
(
v
)
1
= C
1
(N
1
)
1
(during loading) (1)
(
v
)
1
= C
2
(N
2
)
1
(during unloading) (2)

In the above expressions the constants C
1
and C
2
have
the dimensions as that of stress whereas the constants
N
1
and N
2
are dimensionless. The values of these
constants during loading and unloading were
evaluated for each of the soil sample. The values of
these constants during loading are plotted against clay
contents in Figure 4 with a view to predict these
constants for other untested soil samples falling
within the tested clay content ranges.


Variation in Compression Index (C
c
) and Swelling
Index (C
s
)
From the present series of tests, the indices of
compression and swelling were also evaluated for
each of the tested sample at different stress levels and
it is seen that these values are varying slightly with
stress levels. The average values of these indices
show increased values with increase in clay contents.

Relationship between Coefficient of
Compressibility (q
v
) and Clay Content
Coefficients of compressibility obtained under various
stress levels are plotted against percentage clay
contents. Figures 5 shows the (q
v
) values increase
with increase in clay contents. It can also be seen that
at lower stress levels the increase in (q
v
) values are
much more compare to higher stress levels.
It can be concluded from the above diagram that the
effect of clay content on coefficient of compressibility
is more during initial stages of loading and becomes
insignificant at higher loadings.

Coefficient of Consolidation (C
v
) versus Average
Vertical Stress
The coefficient of consolidation decreases with
increase in stress level and beyond a certain stress
level, the curve becomes asymptotic. This trend has
been observed for all the percentages of clay contents
which are shown in Figure 6. This indicates that the
changes in coefficient of consolidation are
insignificant beyond a given stress level, which may
be due to the fact that further decrease in void ratio is
comparatively negligible. The stress level beyond
which the curve becomes asymptotic is different for
different clay contents. The values of stress levels are
5.0, 3.5 and 2.5 kg/cm
2
for the clay contents of 27.7,
45.3 and 53.5 percent respectively.

Variation of (C
v
) with Stress Levels for different
Clay Contents
The relationship between the coefficient of
consolidation and the clay content at different stress
levels is shown in Figure 7 which shows linear
decrement in the coefficient of consolidation with
increase in the clay content. The decrease in the
coefficient of consolidation (C
v
) may be due to the
reduction in permeability which is caused due to
increase in clay content. It is interesting to note that
the straight lines for different stress levels are almost
converging at a clay content of around 52.8 percent.
This convergence may be envisaged as the combined
effect of increase in stress levels and clay contents.
The relationship between the coefficient of
consolidation and the clay content at different stress
levels can be expressed in the following from : y = mx
+ c, in which m and c are constants and the values of
these constants will depend upon stress levels.
Magnitudes of m and c are given in Table-II.

Table II
Stress levels (m) cm
2
/Sec (c) cm
2
/Sec
0.25-0.50
0.50-1.00
1.00-2.00
2.00-4.00
4.00-8.00

(-) 0.049
(-) 0.041
(-) 0.027
(-) 0.015
(-) 0.013
0.026
0.022
0.014
0.008
0.007

Permeability Studies
The coefficients of permeability were computed from
the consolidation test results. As expected, the relation
between the void ratio (e) and the coefficient of
permeability (k) was seen to be linear in a semi-log
plot.

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the laboratory experimental studies on
consolidation characteristics of cohesive soils with
different percentages of clay, the following
conclusions were arrived at:
(1) The strain recovery increases with increase in
plasticity index.
(2) The relationship between stress (
v
) and strain (
1
)
for statically compacted cohesive soils in linear on a
semi-log plot. This relation can be expressed in the
following forms:
(i) (
v
)
1
= C
1
(N
1
)
1
(during loading)
(ii) (
v
)
1
= C
2
(N
2
)
1
(during unloading)
(3) The constant in the above expression (during
loading) gives non-linear relationship with percentage
clay content. The variation between these constants
and clay contents shows convexity upwards (C
1
) and
convexity downwards (N
1
).

(4) The relationship between coefficient of
compressibility (q
v
) and clay content at different stress
level is linear. It is found that during the initial stages
of loading the differences in (q
v
) values are significant
and at higher stress levels the variation of (q
v
) is
independent of clay contents.
(5) Coefficient of consolidation decreases linearly
with increase in clay content. The same trend has been
observed for all the stress levels studied. The plots are
converging towards increase in percentage of clay.

REFERENCES
Berry, P.L. and Wilkinson (1969), Radial
Consolidation of Clay Soil, Geotechnique, Vol.
XIX, No.2, pp. 260-262, June.
Booth, A.R. (1971), Compaction and Preparation of
Soil Specimens for Oedometer Testing, Soil
Specimen Preparation for Laboratory Testing,
ASTM, 78
th
ASTM- Canada pp. 216-225.
Fossberg, P.E. (1965) Some Fundamental Engineering
Properties of a Lime Stabilised Clay, Proceedings
of the VI
th
International Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol. I,
pp. 221-223.
Kaul, B.K. (1973), Consolidation Characteristics of
Na Illite, Journal of the Indian National Society of
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol.
89, No. SMI, pp. 115.
I.S. Code 2720 Part XV 1974.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

NONDIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF A CIRCULAR PLATE RESTING ON
THE PASTERNAK FOUNDATION USING THE STRAIN ENERGY
APPROACH

Ashish Gupta
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, B.I.E.T., Jhansi, E-Mail: shi_g2000@rediffmail.com
Dilip Kumar
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, M.M.M.E.C., Gorakhpur

ABSTRACT: In this paper, nondimensional expression for the deflection of a thin circular elastic plate resting on
the Pasternak foundation by the strain energy approach has been adopted. A complete nondimensional analysis has
been done for the various parameters like modulus of subgrade reaction (k
s
*) and shear modulus (G*) for estimating
the deflection (w*) of the circular plate.

INTRODUCTION
The soil-foundation interaction problem is of
importance to many engineering situations, which
include the study of raft foundations, pavement of
highways, water tanks, airport runways, buried
pipelines and pile foundations. A major proportion of
these studies are primarily concerned with elastic
analysis of the interaction problem. A complete
analysis of the interaction problem for elastic bodies
generally requires the determination of stresses and
strains within the individual bodies in contact.
For generalized foundations, the model assumes that
at the point of contact between plate and foundation
there is not only pressure but also moments caused by
interaction between the springs. Such a continuum
model is often used to represent flexible structures
that are essentially one-dimensional in geometry. The
ground may be represented by foundation model like
the one-parameter Winkler model or the two-
parameter models proposed by Pasternak (1954) and
Vlazov and Leontev (1966) or higher order models
like those developed by Kerr (1964) and Reissner
(1958).
In recent years, efforts have been made to analyze the
thin circular elastic plate resting on a two parameter
Pasternak foundation under concentrated and
distributed loads adopting approximate technique for
determining approximate plate deflection. The
analysis also considers the effect of tensionless
characteristics of the Pasternak foundation, that is, lift
off of the plate from the foundation surface. It was
reported that lift off appears when the slopes of the
foundation surface and that of the plate are not equal.
A circumferential shear force develops along the
contour of the plate due to the slope discontinuity of
the plate and soil surfaces. It also reflects the lift off
the plate and, consequently, the soil reactions develop
within the range of contact radius.

REVIEW OF PAST WORKS
A system of equations was developed by Reissner
(1945) for the theory of bending of thin elastic plates
which takes into account the transverse shear
deformability of the plate. Mindlin (1951) deduced
the three dimensional equations of elasticity in to a
two dimensional theory of flexural motions of
isotropic elastic plates and computed the velocities of
straight-crested waves and found to agree with those
obtained from the three-dimensional theory. Galletly
(1959) studied the circular plates on a generalized
elastic foundation. Rodriguez (1961) presented the
three-dimensional bending of a ring of uniform cross-
sectional area and supported on a transverse elastic
foundation. The modified Bessel function for the
three-dimensional case of a finite beam or plate was
given by Kerr (1964) by using the Kernal function.
Weitsman (1970) analyzed the one parametric
Winkler and Reissner foundation under a single
concentrated load under the assumption that tensile
stresses could not be transmitted across the interface
between beams or plates and their supporting sub
grade. This assumption forms no contact regions
under the beam or plate. Due to no contact region the
beam or plate lifts up away from its foundation and
the sub grade does not support the structure. The lift
off phenomenon under various boundary conditions
based on the beam or plate was also reported.
Celep (1988) presented a phenomenon that a thin
circular plate subjected to eccentric concentrated load
and moment as well as uniformly distributed load has
been supported on an elastic foundation of Winkler
type foundation reacts in compression only and he
reported that the plate will lift off when the
foundation stiffness is low. It has been also reported
that, if the edge of plate is not anchored against
lifting off, the plate may have a partial contact with
the foundation.

Celep and Turhan (1990) analyzed the axisymmetric
vibrations of a circular plate subjected to a
concentrated dynamic load at its center. The solution
given by them was the extended solution given by
Weitsman (1970). The solution was carried out by
using the Galerkins method and the modal functions
of the completely free plate. This problem was a
nonlinear one but linear theory of plate was used in
the problem.
Guler and Celep (1993) reported the extended study
of axisymmetric vibrations of a circular plate on
tensionless elastic foundation by Celep and Turhan
(1990). The solution was given by using Galerkins
method using the modal functions of the completely
free plate. Various contact curve and time variation
with the central and edge deflection were shown. The
most valuable result was given that increasing the
load values, keeping loading eccentricities value
constant, an increase in the displacements without
changing the extent of the contact.
Utku et al. (2000) presented a new formulation for
the analysis of axisymmetrically loaded circular
plates supported on elastic foundation. In this
formulation the circular plate was modeled as a series
of concentric annular plates in such a way that each
annular plate is considered as simply supported along
the inner and outer edges, hence no contact develops
between the plate and the foundation. The deflection
and radial bending moment were chosen as the
solution variables at each interior support. This
analysis has been presented the circular plates on
tensionless Winkler foundation; that reacts in the
compression only.
Wang et al. (2001) presented the exact axisymmetric
buckling solutions of Reddy circular plates on the
Pasternak foundation. The solution was the extended
solution of Kirchhofs buckling solution of circular
plates without elastic foundation.
Guler (2004) analyzed a thin circular plate resting on
a two parameter Pasternak type foundation under
concentrated central and distributed loads. It was
analyzed the effect of tensionless characteristics of
the Pasternak foundation system. For the analytical
expressions, lift off (plate takes lift from the
foundation surface) had been considered. The system
of nonlinear algebraic equations accomplished by
using an iterative method. Galerkin technique has
been adopted for the approximate analytical
solutions.
Shukla at al. (2011) derived an expression for the
deflection of a thin circular elastic plate resting on the
Pasternak foundation under concentrated load by
adopting the strain energy approach. Nondimensional
expression for plate deflection is also reported for
convenience in this study; which is shown by
Equation 1. With the help of the complete derivations
by shukla et al. (2011), an effort has been done for
analyzing the circular plates resting on two-parameter
foundation soil in the present study with some design
charts.

DERIVATION FOR THE NONDIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE CIRCULAR PLATE RESTING ON
PASTERNAK FOUNDATION UNDER THE CONCENTRATED LOADING CONDITION
The response function for the Pasternak foundation is given by:

|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
r
w
r
1
r
w
GH w k q
2
2
s (1.1)

where H = thickness of the shear layer.
On reproducing the deflection of the circular plate; It can be shown as:

w = C
0
+C
2
.r
2
(1.2a)
or,
r C 2
r
w
2
=
c
c
(1.2b)

2
C 2
r
w
r
1
=
c
c
(1.2c)
and,

2
2
2
C 2
r
w
=
c
c
(1.2d)

By substituting Eq. 1.2(a), (c) and (d) in to Eq. (1.1),


GH C 4 ) r C C ( k q
2
2
2 0 s
+ =
(1.3)

The strain energy U
1
of thin circular elastic plate resting on Pasternak foundation can be calculated as:

2 2
2 1
a C ) 1 ( D 4 U v + t =
(1.4)

The work done W by the load acting on the circular plate on Pasternak foundation can be shown as:

0
C Q W = (1.5)

The strain energy U
2
owing to the deformation of the Pasternak foundation is calculated as:

( )
} }
t
u =
2
0
a
0
2
d dr r w q
2
1
U (1.6a)
By substituting Eqs. (1.2a) and (1.3) into Eq. (1.6a),
( ) | |( )
} }
t
u + + =
2
0
a
0
2
2 0 2
2
2 0 s 2
rdrd r C C GH C 4 r C C k
2
1
U
( ) ( ) | |
} }
t
u + + =
2
0
a
0
2
2 0 2
2
2
2 0 s
rdrd r C C GH C 4 r C C k
2
1

( ) ( ) | |
} }
t
u + + + =
2
0
a
0
2 2
2 2 0
2
2 0
4 2
2
2
0 s
rd rd H r C H C C G 4 r C C 2 r C C k
2
1
( )
}
+ +
t
=
a
0
3 2
2 2 0
3
s 2 0
5 2
2 s
2
0 s
dr GH r C 4 GrH C C 4 r k C C 2 r C k r C k
2
2

a
0
4 2
2
2
2 0
6 2
2 s
4
2 0 s
2
2
0 s
4
r GHC 4
2
r C GHC 4
6
r C k
4
r
C C k 2
2
r
C k
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + t =

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + t =
4 2
2
2
2 0
6 2
2 s
4
2 0 s
2
2
0 s
a GHC a C GHC 2
6
a C k
4
a
C C k 2
2
a
C k
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 0
2 4 2
2
2
2 0
2
0
2 s
a C C C 2 Ha G a C a C C 3 C 3 a
6
k
+ t + +
t
= (1.6b)
The total potential energy of the thin circular elastic plate-foundation system is:

( ) W U U
2 1
+ = [ (1.7)

By substituting Eqs. (1.5), (1.6a) and (1.6b) into Eq. (1.7),

( ) ( )
0
2 2
2 2 0
2 4 2
2
2
2 0
2
0
2 s 2 2
2
C Q a C C C 2 Ha G a C a C C 3 C 3 a
6
k
a ) 1 ( D C 4 + t + +
t
+ t v + = [
(1.8)
For the stable equilibrium, potential energy should be a minimum. Thus,


0
C
0
=
c
[ c
(1.9a)
and,

0
C
2
=
c
[ c
(1.9b)
From Eq. 1.9 (a) and (b),
0
0
=
c
[ c
C

( ) 0 Q C GHa 2 a C 3 C 6 a
6
k
2
2 2
2 0
2 s
= t +
t
( )
2
2
4
s
0
2
s
C GHa 2
2
a k
C a k Q
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
t
= t
or,

( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
t
t
=
2
4
s
0
2
s
2
a H G 2
2
a k
C a k Q
C (1.10a)

0
C
2
=
c
[ c

( )
0
4 s 2
2
4 6 s 2
C a
2
k
GHa 2 C GHa 2 a
3
k
a 1 D 8
|
.
|
\
| t
t =
|
.
|
\
|
t
t
+ v + t
(1.10b)

By substituting Eq. (1.10a) into Eq. (1.10b),
( )
( )
0
4 s 2
2
4
s
0
2
s 4 6 s 2
C a
2
k
GHa 2
GHa 2
2
a k
C a k Q
GHa 2 a
3
k
a 1 D 8 |
.
|
\
| t
t =
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
t
t
(
t
t
+ v + t
( )
( )
|
.
|
\
|
t =
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
(
+ v +
2 s 2
0
2
s
0
2
s 2 4 s
a
2
k
GH 2 a
C GH 2
2
a k
C a k Q
H Ga 2 a
3
k
1 D 8

( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ v +
t
|
|
.
|
\
|

= t
H Ga 2
3
a k
1 D 8
a
2
a k
GH 2
a k
C
Q
2
4
s
2
2
2
s
2
s
0

or,

( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ v +
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
=
H Ga 2
3
a k
1 D 8
2
a k
GH 2
k
1
a
Q
C
2
4
s
2
2
s
s
2
0
(1.11a)

By substituting Eq. (1.11a) into Eq. (1.10a),
( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ v +
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
t
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
t
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
t
=
H Ga 2
3
a k
1 D 8
2
a k
GH 2
k
1
H Ga 2
2
a k
a
Q a k
H Ga 2
2
a k
Q
C
2
4
s
2
2
s
s
2
4
s
2
2
s
2
4
s
2
( ) (
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ v +
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|
t
=
H Ga 2
3
a k
1 D 8
2
a k
GH 2
k
1
k 1
GH 2
2
a k
a
Q
C
2
4
s
2
2
s
s
s
2
s 2
2
(1.11b)
By substituting Eq. 1.11(a) and (b) into Eq. (1.2a),

( ) ( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+ v +
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+ v +
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
= 1
H Ga 2
3
a k
1 D 8
2
a k
GH 2
k
k
GH 2
2
a k
a
r Q
H Ga 2
3
a k
1 D 8
2
a k
GH 2
k
1
a
Q
w
2
4
s
2
2
s
s
s
2
s 2
2
2
4
s
2
2
s
s
2

(1.12)

A special case of Eq. (1.12) for G = 0 reduces to the following expression:

( ) ( )
|
|
.
|
\
| v +
+ t
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
| v +
+
+
t
=
4
s
4
s
2
4
s
2
s
a . k
1 . D . 16
6
1
a . k .
r . Q
a . k
1 . D . 32
3
1
1
1
a . k .
Q
w
(1.13)
Eq. (1.13) is the expression for the case of a thin circular plate resting on the Winkler foundation.

On dividing Eq. (1.13) by radius of the circular plate a, it follows:

( ) ( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
= 1
H Ga 2
3
a . k
1 D 8
2
a k
GH 2
k
k
GH 2
2
a k
a
r Q
H Ga 2
3
a k
1 D 8
2
a k
GH 2
k
1
a .
Q
a
w
2
4
s
2
2
s
s
s
2
s 3
2
2
4
s
2
2
s
s
3

( ) ( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+ v +
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+ v +
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
= 1
D .
H Ga 2
D 3
a k
1 8
2
a k
GH 2
D
a
D
a . k
D
a k
GH 2
2
a k
D
a
D
r Qa
D .
H Ga 2
D 3
a k
1 8
2
a k
GH 2
D
1
k
1
D
a
D
Qa
2 4
s
2
2
s
2
4
4
s
4
s
2
s
4
2
2 4
s
2
2
s
s
4

( ) ( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
= 1
D
H a . G 2
D 3
a k
1 8
D 2
a k
D
H Ga 2
D
a . k
D
a k
D
H a G 2
D 2
a k
1
a
r
D
Qa
1
D
H a . G 2
D 3
a . k
1 8
D 2
a k
D
H Ga 2
D
a k
1
D
a Q
1
2 4
s
2
4
s
2
4
S
4
S
2 4
s
2
2 4
s
2
4
s
2
4
s

(1.14)

Considering nondimensional parameters as

|
.
|
\
|
=
-
a
w
w (1.15a)
|
.
|
\
|
=
-
a
r
r (1.15b)
|
.
|
\
|
=
-
D
Qa
Q (1.15c)

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
-
D
H Ga
G
2
(1.15d)
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
-
D
a k
k
4
s
s
(1.15e)

Eq. (1.14) reduces to,

( ) ( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+ v +
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+ v +
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
=
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
G 2
3
k
1 8
2
k
G 2
k
k
G 2
2
k
r Q
G 2
3
k
1 8
2
k
G 2
k
1 Q
w
s
2
s
s
s
s
2
s
2
s
s

or,

( )
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+ v +
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
=
-
-
- -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- -
-
G 2
2
k
k r
1
G 2
3
k
1 8
2
k
G 2
k
1 Q
G 2
2
k
r Q
w
s
s
s
2
s
s
s
2 2

(1.16)

Eq. (1.16) provides an expression for deflection of the thin circular elastic plate resting on Pasternak foundation
under concentrated loading in nondimensional form.

CONCLUSIONS
Estimation of deflection of circular plates is of great
importance as it is associated with many geotechnical
engineering structures. As described earlier, it has
been found that a large number of studies and various
analytical methods and the numerical techniques
have been adopted for the analysis of circular plates
resting on the different foundation models under

concentrated loading condition. Various efforts have
been made to analyze a thin circular elastic plate
resting on the Winkler foundation and Pasternak
foundation by adopting different approaches in order
to present the analytical expressions for the plate
deflection as well as for the study of the plate lift off.
Deflection can be directly calculated by putting all
the parameters in this equation. Eq. (1.16) shows the
deflection of the circular plate resting on the
Pasternak foundation under concentrated loading in
their nondimensional form.

NOTATIONS
a Radius of the plate (m)
D Flexural rigidity of the plate (Nm)
G Shear modulus of the Pasternak foundation (N/m
2
)
H Thickness of the Pasternak shear layer (m)
k
s
Modulus of subgrade reaction of the Paste nak
foundation (N/m
3
)
q Reaction for the foundation to applied concentrated
load (N/m
2
)
Q Concentrated load applied at the centre of the plate
(N)
r radius vector of any point on the plate (m)
r
b
Contact radius (= b/a) (dimensionless)
w Deflection of the plate (m)
Poissons ratio of the plate material (dimensionless)

REFERENCES
Celep, Z. (1988). Circular Plates on
Tensionless Winkler Foundation.
Journal of Engineering Mechanics,
ASCE, Vol.114, No.10, pp.1723-1739.
Celep, Z. and Turhan, D. (1990).
Axisymmetric Vibrations of Circular
Plates on Tensionless Elastic
Foundations. Journal of Applied
Mechanics, ASME, Vol.57, pp.677-681.
Galletly, G D. (1959). Circular Plates on a
Generalized Elastic Foundation. Journal
of Applied Mechanics, Transactions
ASME, Vol.26, pp.297.
Guler, K. (2004). Circular Elastic Plate
Resting on Tensionless Pasternak
Foundation. Journal of Engineering
Mechanics, ASCE, Vol.130, No.10,
pp.1251-1254.
Guler, K. and Celep, Z. (1993). Static and
Dynamic Responses of a Circular Plate
on a Tensionless Elastic Foundation.
Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol.183,
No.2, pp.185-195.
Kerr, A.D. (1964). Elastic and Viscoelastic
Foundation Models. Journal of Applied
Mechanics, Transactions ASME, Vol.31,
No.3, pp.491-498.
indlin, R.D. (1951). Influence of Rotatory
Inertia and Shear on Flexural Motions of
Isotropic, Elastic Plates. Journal of
Applied Mechanics, Transactions ASME,
Vol.18, pp.31-38.
Pasternak, P.L. (1954). Fundamentals of a
New Method of Analyzing Structures on
an Elastic Foundation by Means of Two
Foundation Moduli. (In Russian),
Gosudarstvenuoe izdatelslvo literary po
stroitalstvu I arkhitekture, Moskva-
Leningrad (as cited in Vlasov and
Leontev 1966).
Rodriguez, D.A. (1961). Three-
dimensional bending of a ring on an
elastic foundation. Journal of Applied
Mechanics, 28, 461-463.
Utku et al. (2000). Circular Plates on
Elastic Foundations Modeled with
Annular Plates. Computers and
Structures, Vol.78, pp.365-374.
Vlazov, V.Z., and Leontiev, U.N. (1966).
Beams, plates and shells on elastic
foundations, Israel Program for Scientific
Translations, Jerusalem (translated from
Russian).
Wang, C. M., Xiang, Y., and Wang, Q.
(2001). Axisymmetric buckling of reddy
circular plates on Pasternak foundation.
Journal of Engineering Mechanics,
127(3), 254-259.
Weitsman, Y. (1970). On Foundations That
React in Compression Only. Journal of
Applied Mechanics, ASME, Vol.37, No.
1, pp.1019-1031.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


OPTICAL SENSOR BASED CRACK OPENING DISPLACEMNETS
STUDIES IN CONCRETE
K.Samrajyam
Research Scholar, Department of Physics, NIT, Warangal
B.Sobha
Associate Professor, Department of Physics , NIT, Warangal
T D Gunneswara Rao
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering , NIT, Warangal

ABSTRACT: Cracking is one of the frequent cause of complaints in concrete industry .Cracking is known to
occur due to fatigue, over loading and damage caused either by loading or environment. The failure of bridges,
structures, buildings and dams is due to the cracking. This underlines the importance of estimation of crack
width as predictor for the health of the concrete structures .Here we report on preliminary results obtained using
a plastic optical fibre intensity based technique. The results so obtained in a three point bend test on plain
concrete specimens are compared with the data obtained from the INSTRON.
INTRODUCTION
Many public structures that are well designed need
periodic maintainence and regular inspection to
ensure their health. In this connection crack
monitoring and detection plays an important role
.Crack widths ranging from 0.2 mm to 2mm caused
either by exposure to environment , natural hazards
are known to signal the failure of the structure.
They exist both optical ( based on optical fibre
interferometric techniques , FBGs[1]). And also non
optical methods for estimation of the crack mouth
opening displacement in concrete structures.
However the excellent performance of these methods
is offset by their expensive instrumentation
requirements for signal processing. In most cases the
high measurement resolution provided be these
methods proves to be of no direct advantage given
the fact that more economical methods are provided
by using plastic optical fibres. These intensity based
devices are of low cost.And it is more easier to
measure the optical power than the phase /state of
polarization of light. It is more advantageous with
multimode fibres as the phase and state of polarization
is lost when it propagates through this kind of fibres.
It was our intention to choose an economical,
inexpensive technique that would fit into our needs in
the long run. Hence we opted to use plastic optical
fibres for the investigation of our crack width
experiments

Advantages of Plastic Optical Fibre
Characterisitics
In addition to the usual advantages offered by silica
optical fibres the other advantages include : a) capable
either of being surface mounted or be embedded in
large civil structures and composite materials to asses
their reliability b)large inherent strain sensitivity
(6%-12%) c) have high fracture toughness d) provide
large core size , large numerical aperture , flexibility,
easy handling, less costly.(2,4)

EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
Sample preparation
Materials
Cement conforming to IS 12269 1983 with specific
gravity 3.15 is used for the concrete mix. Natural river
sand with specific gravity 2.60 is used as fine
aggregate. Crushed coarse aggregate of size 20mm
was used (60%) and also 10 mm size was used (40%)
with specific gravity 2.78 .
Mix proportions
M20 grade concrete mix design was used for the
casting and the mix ratio: 1:1.5:3 was used for the
preparation of concrete samples[3].
Casting
Cubes of 100mm size were used to determine the
compressive strength of concrete. Cylinders with 150
mm diameter and 300 mm length were used to
determine the Modulus of Elasticity of concrete.
Prisms of 100mm x 100mm x 400mm (B x D x
L),Beams of dimensions 700*150*100 (B*D*L), size
were casted. A needle vibrator was used for
compaction. All the specimens were cured for 28 to
40 days in the curing tank. After curing time the
samples were separated from the curing tank and
notch depth (a/d=0.2,0.3)was used for the prisms and
beams .Notch was made in the specimens using notch
cutter.
Description of a measurement system
We used a standard multi-mode plastic fibre having a
core diameter of 980 m made with PMMA resin
surrounded by a fluorinated polymer cladding of
diameter 1000 m . A LED source injects a
modulated light beam into the fibre whose light output
is received by a highly-sensitive NPN
phototransistor. The photo transistor s current is
converted to voltage using a transimpedance
amplifier . We developed a simple, inexpensive
transimpedance amplifier that converts the current
generated by the photo transistor in to a voltage


which is then logged into a computer using a data
logger
Preparation of the sensor
The surface of the POF sensor is abraded using a fresh
razor blade causing the removal of a predetermined
length of the cross section.( we refer to this as guage/
sensitization length , approximate range = 2 to 5 cm).
This process is adopted to increase the amount of light
lost in the fibre in the bending process result is
increase in the responsivity.
The sensor so prepared is glued to a prenotched
concrete specimen.using a suitable cynoacrylate
adhesive and after intial preparation of the concrete
specimen surface as outlined in [5]
Test Procedure
The figure [1] below shows the photograph of the
experimental set up used for the 3-point bend
specimen test arrangement in the Materials
Laboratory of the Civil Engineering Department , at
NIT, Warangal.

Fig. 1 Experimental setup for the three point bend test
of concrete beam on 1000KN instron

The pof sensor was pasted across the notch with a
cyanoacrylate adhesive . The load was applied on the
beam with a cross head displacement rate is 0.002
mm per sec. During the loading The data obtained
from the POF sensor was logged using a data logger(
sampling speed of 1 sample/ sec). The normalised
POF voltage is observed to vary according to the
crack opening displacement (in the range 0.01 to 0.1
mm)(COD) and is shown in Fig 2 below

Fig. 2 Typical Graph between Stroke (mm)v/s
norm.pof voltage/Load
The experimental runs were performed on five
concrete beams with dimensions (40*15*10) cm,
(40*10*10) cm using INSTRON. Initially when the
beam was at rest there no change in the pof voltage
was observed .When the crack generation started, the
pof voltage varies and shows a reduction beyond the
maximum stroke value. It can be deciphered that the
measured displacement or crack width range using
pof sensor lies in the range 0.02 to 0.1 mm and this
displacement is equal to the stroke value obtained
from the instron. It is known that stroke is related to
displacement and displacement is related to Crack
mouth opening displacement (CMOD).
CONCLUSION
A concept of using plastic optical fibers for the
measurement of crack width (range 0.02 to 0.1) mm
in concrete beams is explored in this paper. Further
calibration tests in this direction are necessary to
reinforce the adoption of plastic optic fiber sensors in
the health monitoring of the structres
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: The authors would like
to gratefully acknowledge the partial financial
assistance received from the AP State Council of


Science and Technology in the form of R&D and
special projects sanctioned in 2009
REFERENCES
Fiber-optic Bragg grating sensors for bridge
monitoring Cement Concrete Components ,
Maaskant R, Alavie A T, Measure R M, Tadros
G, Rizkalla S Hand Guha-Thakurta A, 1997,
vol.19 , pp2133.
Plastic Optical Fibre Sensors for Structural Health
Monitoring: A Review of Recent Progress, K. S.
C. Kuang, S. T. Quek, C. G. Koh, W. J.
Cantwell, and P. J. Scully, Journal of Sensors,
Volume 2009 (2009), Article ID 312053,
Concrete Technology, by M.L.Gambhir, Tata-
McGraw Hill , New Delhi
Plastic optical bers: an introduction to their
technological processes and applications. Zubia
J, Arrue J., Optical Fiber Technology,2001,
7(2): 101140
Crack detection and vertical deection monitoring in
concrete beams using plastic optical bre
sensors, Kuang K S C, Akmaluddin, Cantwell
W J, Thomas C Measurement Science and
Technology,2003, vol.14, no.2, pp205216

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF NAILED OPEN CUTS- A CASE STUDY

Bhishm Singh Khati
Assistant professor, CED, G B Pant Engg. College, Pauri, Uttarakhand, bhishm_khati@yahoo.co.in
Dilip Kumar
Assistant professor, CED, NIMS University,Jaipur, Rajsthan, India, jhadilip@sify.com

Swami Saran
Emeritus Professor, Dept. of Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee, India, Email: saranfce@iitr.ernt.in

ABSTRACT: Soil nailing method is used for stabilizing the tunnel portal and shafts, slopes and to support the
excavations and also for remedial uses like repair of unstable old retaining walls, stabilization of failed slopes
etc. by increasing the apparent cohesion of the soil. This method is very easy and effective method in earthquake
prone areas. At present, only static and Pseudo-static analysis of a nailed open cut has been reported in the
literature. Dynamic analysis is most significant for soil nailing projects in earthquake prone regions of India.
In this paper dynamic analysis of nailed open cuts is presented in order to obtain the displacements of the cut. It
is assumed that nailed soil mass corresponding to a static factor of safety equal to unity moves during the
earthquake. The soil behind this mass is replaced by series of springs and the nails being replaced by stiffeners.
Equation of motion works out to be a two degree differential equation, which on integration and putting proper
boundary conditions yield the displacement of the cut.
Keywords: Open Cuts, Soil Nailing, Dynamic Displacements, Static Analysis
INTRODUCTION
Soil nailing reinforces the soil within a failure zone to
make it behave as a monolith, much the same way as
lumber acts after having been nailed together. The
process is done from the top down, that is, soil is
excavated and secured, or nailed, in small lifts,
starting at the surface. Residual stresses in the soil of
the slip plane act on the grouted mass of bar in grout
and nails itself. The great advantage of the
technique is that it allows soil retention in very tight
areas at any configuration and at competitive costs to
other proven techniques such as tiebacks Once a lift is
secured it becomes self-supporting, able to
permanently hold itself in position as the excavation
continues. The basic concept of soil nailing (Patra and
Basudhar, 2001) is to reinforce and strengthen the
existing ground by installing closely spaced steel bars,
called "nails," into a slope or excavation as
construction proceeds from top to down. This process
creates a reinforced section that is itself stable and
able to retain the ground behind it. The
reinforcements are passive and develop their
reinforcing action through nail ground interactions as
the ground deforms both during and following
construction. Nails work predominantly in tension,
but are considered by some to also work in
bending/shear under certain circumstances. Generally,
the soil nails significantly increase the apparent
cohesion of the soil through their ability to carry
tensile loads. A construction facing is also usually
required, and is typically shotcrete reinforced by
welded wire mesh or chicken mesh. For permanent
walls, the shotcrete construction facing is typically
covered in cast-in-place concrete facing. The walls
consist of soil nails spaced approximately 5 ft. (1.5 m)
on center with a shotcrete facing which is covered
with a permanent cast-in-place concrete facing. Soil
nailing is not appropriate at sites consisting of clays
which creep, clean sands which will not stand up or
areas below the water table. The nails are either
placed in drilled bore holes or grouted along their
length to form Grouted nails or directly driven into
the ground as driven nails. It is seen that the nailing
techniques is useful for making underground cut and
also for stabilization of the loose soils.
Pseudo-static Analysis
A vertical nailed open cut of height H has been
analyzed to evaluate the critical failure surface using
pseudo static analysis. The length of the nail used is
L and with a vertical and horizontal spacing of Sv.
The failure surface with a Factor of Safety (F.S) of
unity is considered as critical. A computer program
has been developed for the pseudo static analysis to
find the critical failure surface using the MATLAB
software.
The pseudo-static analysis is based on the following
assumptions: (After Saran, 2005)
1. The deformations of the soil in the active
zone are sufficient to fully mobilize the
shear strength of the soil over the entire
failure surface.
2. The mass of the nail is neglected because it
is very less compared to the mass of the
soil.
3. The failure is along a surface defined by
the arc of a logarithmic spiral passing
through the toe and the ground at right
angle. The centre of the spiral is located on
a straight line which rises at an angle
and passes through the point where the
failure surface meets the ground.
4. The shear resistance of the nail due to nail
bending stiffness is taken care of by using
the plastic analysis method suggested by
Jewell and Pedley (1990). The shear
resistance mobilized in the nail is
calculated by limiting the soil bearing
pressure to the safe value given by the
equation
} tan )
2
{
*
)}
4 2
tan( ) 2 / ) 1 {(

e
K
a v b

(1)

where

b
= Limit bearing stress between the soil and
the nail

v
= Vertical stress
= Angle of internal friction of the soil
K
a
= Coefficient of active earth pressure
5. The normal stress on the nail surface in the
horizontal direction is assumed to be K
a

times the normal stress in the vertical
direction.
6. The internal failure mode of the wall is either
by pull-out or rupture or excessive bending
leading to the formation of a plastic hinge in
the nail whichever is critical. The horizontal
and vertical seismic forces are taken in terms
of horizontal and vertical seismic coefficients
h a
nd
v.

The inputs for the program for pseudo-static analysis
are as follows
i) H Height of the nailed open cut, m.
ii) L Length of the nail used in the cut,
m.
iii) D Diameter of the nail used in the cut,
m.
iv) S
v
Vertical spacing of the nail, m
v) Unit weight of the soil, kN/m
3

vi) Angle of internal friction of soil,
deg
vii)
h
Horizontal seismic coefficient
viii)
v
Vertical seismic coefficient
ix) C Cohesion of the soil, kN/m
2

x) f
1
Limit bond stress of the nail, kN/m
2

xi) f
y
yield stress of the nail, kN/m
2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS TO FIND THE
DISPLACEMENTS
Dynamic analysis of the nailed open cut has been
done to evaluate its displacement at various
heightsThe soil in the failure surface is considered to
be the moving mass (Fig. 2(a)). The mass of the soil
in the failure surface is lumped at its CG. The soil
behind the failure surface is replaced by closely
spaced independent elastic springs as shown in Fig.
2(b). The nails behind the failure surface are replaced
by elastic stiffeners as shown in Fig. 2(b).

Fig. 2(a) Nailed Open Cut of height H

Fig. 2(b) Mathematical Model of Nailed Open Cut

The assumptions on which dynamic analysis is based
are the same as that of the static analysis discussed in
section 2. In addition to these assumptions the
following assumptions are also made
(i) The earthquake motion may be considered as
an equivalent sinusoidal motion with
uniform peak acceleration and the total
displacement is equal to residual
displacement per cycle multiplied by number
of cycles.
(ii) Soil stiffnesses for displacement of the open
cut towards the backfill and away from the
backfill are different.
(iii) Damping of soil and base friction are
neglected.
(iv) The critical failure surface is the failure
surface at which the factor of safety (F.S) is
unity which is found by pseudo-static
analysis discussed in section 2.

FORMULATION USED FOR THE DYNAMIC
ANALYSIS
The inputs for the program are as follows
i) H Height of the nailed open cut, m.
ii) L Length of the nail used in the cut, m.
iii) D Diameter of the nail used in the cut,
m.
iv) S
v
Vertical spacing of the nail, m
v) n
h
Modulus of sub grade reaction of
the soil, kN/m
3

vi) Unit weight of the soil, kN/m
3

vii) F Excitation force, kN
viii) f Excitation Frequency, Hz

EQUATIONS OF MOTION
The soil in the failure surface is considered to be the
moving mass (Fig. 2(a)). The mass of the soil in the
failure surface is lumped at its CG. The soil behind
the failure surface is replaced by closely spaced
independent elastic springs. The nails behind the
failure surface are replaced by elastic stiffeners.
The spring constant values at various division
points were
2
1
6
1
v h
S K
(2 a)
2
2
K
v h
S (2 b)
2
3
2
v h
S K (2 c)
2
) 1 (
v h i
S i K (2 d)
2
) 1 3 (
6
1
v h n
S n K (2 e)
where K
1
and K
n
are the spring constants of top and
bottom most points, K
i
, the spring constant at any
intermediate divisions. (Saran, 2006)
The stiffener constants of the nails are determined
by carrying out pull out tests in the laboratory.
Gosavi (2006) carried out 135 pull out tests with
different surcharge values for the length of the nails
of 1.0 m, 1.5 m, 2.0 m, 2.5 m and 3.0 m and load
displacement curves for different surcharges were
plotted. In the present study the loads corresponding
to displacements of 1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm and 4 mm
were noted for all the tests and the stiffness were
calculated by dividing the load by the
corresponding displacements. Mean stiffness for
each of these tests were taken and plotted against
the surcharges used for that nail length. The
equation of the curve for different nail lengths was
evaluated by linear regression. The equations of the
curve for each nail length are given in Table 1.

Table 1 Equation of the Curves to find Stiffener
Constants

Diam
eter,
D
mm
Lengt
h, L
m
Equation of the curve
16 3.0 K = -0.038 q
3
+ 1.5 q
2
2.2 q
+ 320
2.5 K = -0. 32 q
3
+ 1.5 q
2
5.8 q +
250
2.0 K = -0.014 q
3
+ q
2
8.3 q +
250
1.5 K = -0.048 q
3
+ 3.6 q
2
70 q +
600
25 3.0 K = -0.049q
3
2.4 q
2
+ 61 q +
140
2.5 K = -0.026 q
3
+ 0.58 q
2
+ 30 q
+ 120
2.0 K = -0.038 q
3
+ 2.2 q
2
19 q +
440
1.5 K = 0.0075 q
3
0.1 q
2
+ 5.2 q
+ 310

These equations are further generalized for different
by correlating the coefficients the above equations
in terms of length of the nail as follows,
For D = 16 mm,
270) 210L - (420L 390)q - 300L (-58L
15)q 11L - (2.2L 1.2)q - 1.2L - (0.25L K
2 2
2 2 3 2
si

(3)

For D = 25 mm,
100) 330L (110L 180)q 210L (55L
22)q - 23L (5.5L 0.51)q - 0.51L - (0.12L K
2 2
2 2 3 2
si

(4)
The equations of motion of the nailed cut using
DAlemberts principle can be written as follows
t F
x M
o
sin Sv]) )
2
1
- (i - h) - [(H K
Sv] 1) - (i - h) - [(H K ( x ) K K (
n
0 i
si
n
0 i
i
n
0 i
si
n
0 i
i
..

(5)

0 ) Sv] )
2
1
- (i - h) - [(H K Sv] 1) - (i - h) - [(H K (
x Sv]) )
2
1
- (i - h) - [(H K Sv] 1) - (i - h) - [(H K (
2
n
0 i
si
2
n
0 i
i
n
0 i
si
n
0 i
i
..

J
(6)
Where
M Mass of the soil in failure wedge
J Polar mass moment of inertia of the soil about
the axis of rotation
w Frequency of the excitation force
H Height of the cut
H Height of CG from the base of the cut
x Translatory displacement
Rotational displacement
The solution of the equations can be written as
t X x sin (7}
t sin (8)
where X and are arbitrary constants.

Solving Eqs. (5) and (6), we get

) (
) (
2 2
2
2
c r
b
a
a
X
o
(9)

b
b
r
c a
a
o

2
2 2
). )( (
(10)
Therefore displacement is given by

t
c r
b
a
a
x
o
sin
) (
) (
2 2
2
2
(11)

t
b
b
r
c a
a
o

sin
). )( (
2
2 2

(12)
The displacement at the top of the cut is given by
) ( h H x x
top
(13)
Where,

a
M
K K
n
i
si
n
i
i

) (
0 0
(14)

o
o
a
M
F
(15)

b
M
S i h H K S i h H K
v
n
i
si v
n
i
i

)} )
2
1
( ) {( } ) 1 ( ) {( {
0 0

(16)
c
J
S i h H K
J
S i h H K
v
n
i
si
v
n
i
i
} )} 2 / ) 1 ( ) {(
} ) 1 ( ) {( {
2
0
2
0
(17)

VALIDATION OF THE PROGRAMS
The results from the dynamic analysis were
validated using a three dimensional model of nailed
cut using ANSYS. (Fig. 3)

Fig. 3 Three Dimensional Model of Nailed Cut

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
The soil-nail model is a two degree of freedom system
with combined translational and rotational motion.
The height of the cut is H (Y-direction), width of the
cut B (X direction) is taken as 0.8 times the height.
The length of the cut is kept equal to the length of the
nail L (Z direction).

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The soil nail model is restrained in all directions at
the base. There are no restrains at any other directions

Static Analysis
Static analysis of the open cut is performed using the
following loads to evaluate the displacements of the
cut.
(a) Self weight of the cut
(b) Surface loads
(c) Acceleration due to gravity

Dynamic Analysis
Response Spectra analysis of the cut is performed
using the standard response spectra from IS- 1893:
2002 (Part-1). At the start modal analysis is
performed to find the frequency of the structure. The
mode extraction was done using Block Lanczos
method to find twelve modes. The modes were
combined using Square root of sum of squares (SRSS)
method. Using these frequencies response spectra
analysis was carried out to find the dynamic
displacement of the structure. For response spectra
analysis, single point excitation response spectrum
was used.

The results of displacement of the cut from ANSYS
and MATLAB for the following parameters were
carried out (Table 2).

Table 2 LIST OF PARAMETERS USED
Parameters Values considered
Height of the Cut, (H) 6 m, 12 m, 14m
Length of the Nail, (L) 4 m, 5m, 6 m
Diameter of the Nails, (D) 16 mm, 25 mm, 32
mm
Spacing of the Nails, (S) 0.4 m, 0.5 m, 0.6 m

Z

is the height at which the displacement is measured.
It is the height at which the nails are placed.

Comparison for Different Heights of the Cut, H
L = 5 m D = 25 mm S = 0.5 m

(a) Height of the cut = 8 m
Height of the Cut, H = 8 m
0
1
2
3
4
0 2 4 6 8 10
Z (m)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
ANSYS
MATLAB

Fig. 4(a) Variation in Displacement for Height = 8
m

(b) Height of the cut = 10 m

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 2 4 6 8 10
Z (m)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
ANSYS
MATLAB

Fig.4 (b) Variation in Displacement for Height =
10 m

(c) Height of the cut = 12 m

0
10
20
30
40
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Z (m)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
ANSYS
MATLAB

Fig.4 (c) Variation in Displacement for Height
= 12 m

Fig. 4 (a), Fig. 4 (b) and Fig. 4 (c) show the variation
of displacement with height of the cut for the height
of the cut H = 8 m, 10 m and 12 m respectively, using
MATLAB and ANSYS. It can be observed that as the
height of the cut increases displacement also increases
which is as expected. Further the results obtained
from the developed MATLAB code is in very good
agreement with that using ANSYS, therefore verifies
the code. It can be observed that the agreement is very
good for H = 12 m.

Comparison for Different Length of the Nails, L
H = 8 m D = 25 mm S = 0.5 m

(a) Length of the nails L = 4 m
Length of the Nail, L = 3 m
0
1
2
3
0 2 4 6 8 10
Z (m)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
ANSYS
MATLAB

Fig. 5(a) Variation in Displacement for Length = 3
m

(b) Length of the nails L = 4 m
Length of the Nail, L = 4 m
0
2
4
6
8
0 2 4 6 8 10
Z (m)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
ANSYS
MATLAB

Fig. 5(b) Variation in Displacement for Length =
4m

(c) Length of the nails L = 5 m
Length of the Nail, L= 5 m
0
1
2
3
4
0 2 4 6 8 10
Z (m)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
ANSYS
MATLAB

Fig. 5(c) Variation in Displacement for Length = 5
m

of displacement with length of the nails for length of
the nails L = 3 m, 4 m and 4 m respectively, using
MATLAB and ANSYS. It can be observed that as the
length of the nail increases displacement decreases
which are as expected. Further the results obtained
from the developed MATLAB code is in very good
agreement with that using ANSYS, therefore verifies
the code. The agreement is excellent for L = 5 m.

Comparison for Different Diameters of the Nails,
D
H = 8 m L = 5 m S = 0.5 m
(a) Diameter of the Nail = 16 mm
Diameter of the Nail, D = 16 mm
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
0 2 4 6 8 10
Z (m)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
ANSYS
MATLAB

Fig. 6(a) Variation in Displacement for Diameter D
= 16 mm
(b) Diameter of the Nail = 25 mm
Diameter of the Nail, D= 25 mm
0
1
2
3
4
0 2 4 6 8 10
Z (m)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
ANSYS
MATLAB

Fig. 6(b) Variation in Displacement for Diameter D
= 25 mm

(c) Diameter of the Nail = 32 mm
Diameter of the Nail, D = 32 mm
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 2 4 6 8 10
Z (m)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
ANSYS
MATLAB

Fig. 6(c) Variation in Displacement for Diameter D
= 32 mm

Fig. 6(a), Fig. 6(b) and Fig. 6(c) show the variation of
displacement with diameter of the nails for diameter
of nails D = 16 mm, 25 mm and 32 mm respectively,
using MATLAB and ANSYS. It can be observed that
as the diameter of the nail increases displacement
decreases which are as expected. Further the results
obtained from the developed MATLAB code is in
very good agreement with that using ANSYS,
therefore verifies the code. The agreement is
reasonably good for all diameters.

Comparison for Different Spacing of Nails, S.

H = 8 m L = 5 m D = 25 mm
(a) Spacing of the Nails = 0.4 m
Spacing of the Nails, S = 0.4 m
0
1
2
3
0 2 4 6 8 10
Z (m)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
ANSYS
MATLAB

Fig. 7(a) Variation in Displace
-ment for Spacing = 0.4 m

(b) Spacing of the Nails = 0.5 m

0
1
2
3
4
0 2 4 6 8 10
Z (m)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
ANSYS
MATLAB

Fig. 7(b) Variation in Displace

(c) Spacing of the Nails = 0.6 m

0
1
2
3
4
0 2 4 6 8 10
Z (m)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
ANSYS
MATLAB

Fig. 7(c) Variation in Displace

of displacement with spacing of the nails for spacing
of the nails S = 0.4 m, 0.5 m and 0.6 m respectively,
using MATLAB and ANSYS. It can be observed that
as the spacing of the nail increases displacement also
increases which are as expected. Further the results
obtained from the developed MATLAB code is in
very good agreement with that using ANSYS,
therefore verifies the code. This agreement is good for
S = 0.6 m.

CONCLUSIONS
Displacement of the open cut at various heights
obtained from dynamic analysis (MATLAB) match
very well with those obtained by three dimensional
modeling using ANSYS.
Displacement of the Nailed Cut depends on the soil
and Nail parameters. From the present study it can
be concluded that Displacement of the Nailed Cut
1. Increases with the increase in height of the
cut.
2. Decreases with the increase in length of the
nail.
3. Decreases with the increase in diameter of
the nail.
4. Increases with the increase in spacing of the
nail.
Among the nail characteristics, length of the nail is
the most significant parameter to reduce the
displacement. An increase in length of nail from 3 m
to 5 m (for a height H = 8 m) may decrease the
displacement of the cut by more than 50 percent.

Future Directions
In the present analysis only displacement was the
output but some other parameters such as stresses can
also considered.
In the present analysis, only one acceleration of 0.3g
is considered. Hence the effect of different
accelerations can be studied.
Analysis for real earthquake time history can be
carried out.
Damping of soil has been neglected and the same
shall be considered for the analysis.
The soil behavior has been assumed linear but a
nonlinear soil model may be considered.

REFERENCES
Babu G.L.S and Singh V.P., (2008), Numerical
Analysis of Performance of Soil Nail Walls in
Seismic Conditions, ISET Journal of
Earthquake Technology Vol. 45, No. 1-2, pp 31
40.
Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of
Structure, (Part 1), Fifth Revision Bureau of
Indian Standards.
Gosavi M.S., (2006), Behavior of Nailed Open
Cuts Ph.d Thesis, Department of Civil
Engineering, IIT Roorkee
Juran I., and Elias, V., (1991),Ground Anchors and
Soil Nails in Retaining Structure, Chapter-26,
pp 868-905, Foundation Engineering
Handbook, 2.
nd
Edition.
Lee, K.L and Chan, K, (1972),Number of equivalent
significant cycles in strong motion
earthquakes, Proceedings, International
Conference on Microzonation, Seattle,
Washington, vol. II, pp. 609 - 627
Mittal S. and Biswas A.K. (2006),River Bank
Erosion Control by Soil Nailing
Geotechnical and Geological Engineering Vol.
24: pp 1821 - 1833.

ISBN 978- 81- 921121-0-7
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OPTIMAL CROPPING PATTERN USING
LINEAR PROGRAMMING AND GENETIC ALGORITHM
Ingle Visha
Post Graduate Student, Dept. of Civil Engg., Govt. College of Engg, Aurangabad-431005, Maharashtra, E-mail:
inglevv@gmail.com
D.G.Regulwar
Faculty, Dept. of Civil Engg., Govt. College of Engg, Aurangabad-431005, Maharashtra,E-mail: dgregulwar@rediffmail.com

ABSTRACT: Multiplicity of cropping systems has been one of the main features of Indian agriculture which is
attributed to rain-fed agriculture and prevailing socio-economic situations of farming community. Due to rapidly
growing population and industrialization, water allocation for irrigation is being diverted for other purposes. In
future more and more water will be required to the cities and industries. In these circumstances, optimum water
allocation will be extremely important to meet ever increasing demands and to irrigate maximum area. Irrigation
planning and management has gained significance due to growing social needs and increasing demands for food
grains while the resources have remained limited. The irrigation management involves optimal cropping pattern
for a given land area and water availabilities with objective function to maximize agricultural economic returns.
This paper presents on the development and comparison of result of LP model using LINGO (Language for
Interactive General Optimization) and Genetic Algorithm (GA).On the concept of distributing the released water
to different crops with their command area for their cultivation are considered according to irrigation policy. The
objective function of this study is to determine the optimal cropping pattern with adequate water supply that will
maximize income. The model is applied to a case study of Jayakwadi reservoir- stage 1, Aurangabad district,
Maharashtra State, India. The optimization model attempts to find out feasible combinations of resources and their
allocation with suitable combinations which maximize agricultural economic return subject to given constraints
expressed as LP model expression/equation. By comparing the results of cropping pattern model using LP and
GA, the optimal cropping pattern is determined.
KEY WORDS: Genetic Algorithm, Linear Programming and Cropping Pattern.

INTRODUCTION
The utilizable water resources on the earths surface
cannot be expanded to meet the growing needs for
agriculture, industries and domestic sectors. Especially
for developing countries like India, where the
distribution of the available water resource with respect
to space and time is quite uneven and also the growth
rate of population is high, the importance of optimal
utilization and the need for conservation of the
available resources cannot be under-estimated. In the
past decades, the methodology of system Analysis has
been introduced and has been widely accepted through
a number of research works carried out in the planning
and management of water resources. Gurav and
Regulwar (2010) have worked on fuzzifying a model to
deal with irrigation planning involving uncertainty and
vagueness. Kamodkar and Regulwar (2011) have
worked on cropping pattern for a given land area and
water availabilities with objective to maximize
economic returns using linear programming and
genetic algorithm.

LINEAR PROGRAMMING
General
Linear programming (LP) is applied to water
resources problem for various purposes mainly due to
the simplicity in solution and due to the availability of
standard algorithm. The main requirement of the
formulation of the LP models is that both the
objective functions as well as the constraints should
be linear. For this purpose, it is very essential to
linearise the conditions or constraints that may be
non-linear in nature by making use of an
approximation procedure. Several modified
formulations based on LP were suggested and their
applications were reported in the literature. Some of
the important applications of LP algorithm and
various special forms of LP algorithms such as mixed
integer programming, goal programming, stochastic
linear programming, linear physical programming,
successive LP (SLP) are reviewed.
Raju and Nagesh Kumar have also discussed on
irrigation planning using genetic algorithms. They
have used GA technique to evolve efficient cropping
pattern for maximizing benefits for an irrigation
project in India. The constraints include continuity
equation, land and water requirements, crop
diversification and restrictions on storage.

Genetic Algorithm
Wardlaw and Sharif have presented several alternative
formulations of a genetic algorithm for reservoir
systems, which were evaluated using the four-
reservoir, deterministic, finite-horizon problem. The
results demonstrate that a genetic algorithm could be
satisfactorily used in real time operations with
stochastically generated inflows. A more complex
ten-reservoir problem was also considered, and results
produced by a genetic algorithm were compared with
previously published results. The genetic algorithm
approach is robust and is easily applied to complex
systems. It has potential as an alternative to stochastic
dynamic programming approaches.

Regulwar et al (2002) have discussed the use of
genetic algorithm for optimal reservoir operation for
irrigation. The objective of the study was to maximize
the irrigation release. The constraints for this
optimization were reservoir capacity, hydropower,
and storage continuity. The approach has been applied
to Jayakwadi project, Maharashtra is taken as a case
study.

Goals of Optimization
The most important goal of optimization is
improvement. Optimization seeks to improve
performance towards some optimal point or points. It
basically aims of seeking improvement to approach
towards the destination of optimum point itself. While
trying to accomplish optimization, we long for
perfection to describe and attain what is best by
knowing how to measure and alter what is good or
bad. Optimization theory encompasses the
quantitative study of optima and methods for finding
them.

Difference between GA and Traditional Methods
By abstracting natures adaptation algorithm of choice
in artificial form, GA differs from conventional
optimization and search techniques in four ways
1. GA work with a coding of the parameter set,
not the parameter themselves.
2. GAs search from a population of points, not
a single point.
3. GAs use payoff (objective function)
information, not derivatives or other auxiliary
knowledge.
4. GAs use probabilistic transition rules and
stochastic operators, not deterministic rules.
Table 1a : Comparison of Natural and GA
Terminology
Natural GA
Chromosome
Gene
Allele
Locus
Genotype
Phenotype
Epistasis
String
Feature, character or
detector
Feature value
String position
\structure
Parameter set
Non linearity.

Phases of Genetic Algorithm
Genetic algorithm consists of three phases:
1. Initialization.
2. Evaluation.
3. Genetic Operation.
If F(x) is the fitness function and f(x) is the objective
value function, then-

The fitness function F(x) = f(x) for maximization
problem.

F(x) = 1 / [1+f(x)] for minimization
problem.

Reproduction
Reproduction, also known as selection operator, is an
operator where by an old chromosome is copied into a
mating pool according to its fitness value. Highly fit
chromosomes receive higher number of copies in the
next generation. Copying chromosomes according to
their fitness means that the chromosomes with a
higher fitness value have higher probability of
contributing one or more offspring in the next
generation. This is this is according to Darwins
evolution theory of survival of the fittest fit; the best
ones should survive and create new offspring. The
commonly used reproduction operator is the
proportionate reproduction operator, where a string is
selected for the mating pool with a probability
proportional to its fitness. In this process, each
individual string is assigned a probability of being
selected for copying as:
1
f
k
i i
i
f
=

Where,
f
i
= The fitness or objective function value of the i
th

individual
k = Population size.
The following selection methods are described by
Goldberg:
1. Deterministic sampling.
2. Remainder stochastic sampling without
replacement.
3. Stochastic sampling without replacement.
4. Remainder stochastic sampling with
replacement.
5. Stochastic sampling with replacement.
6. Stochastic tournament (Wetzel ranking).
Perhaps the easiest is to create a biased Roulette
Wheel where each current string in the population has
a roulette wheel slot sized in proportion to its fitness.
e.g.: Suppose the sample population of 4 strings has
objective or fitness function values f as shown in
table.

Table 1b Strings and Fitness Values
No. String (x) Fitness
(x
2
)
Percentage of
total
1 01101 = 13 169 14.4
2 11000 = 24 576 49.2
3 01000 = 8 64 5.5
4 10011 = 19 361 30.9
Total 1170.00 100.00
The percentage of population and total fitness is
calculated in above table. The approximated weighted
roulette wheel for this generations reproduction is
shown in figure below.
1 01101 = 13
2 11000 = 24
3 01000 = 8
4 10011 = 19

Fig. 1 Roulette wheel.
Crossover
1. Simple or Single Point Crossover.
2. Multipoint Crossover.
3. Uniform Crossover.

Single point crossover
In this method crossover is carried out at a single
point. This is illustrated in the following example.
Let Par1 and Par2 be the two parents selected for
crossover. Assume the strings Par1 and Par2 be the
two parents selected for crossover. Assume the strings
Par1 and Par2 as below:-
Par1 : 1 1 0 0 | 0 1 0 1
Par2 : 1 0 1 1 | 0 1 1 1
Now, a crossover site is selected randomly as an
integer between 1 and string length. Here string length
is taken as 8, let the crossover site be 4.
Then children Child1 and Child2 are generated as
below:
Child1 : 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
Child2 : 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1

Multi point crossover
This method is similar to Single Point Crossover
except that more than one crossover site is randomly
selected and contents of Child1 and Child2 are
selected alternatively from Par1 and Par2 with change
from one parent to another at the crossover sites.

Uniform crossover
In this method, crossover is performed over the entire
length of string of bits. For this a mask is generated
randomly. This mask is a string of bits of value 0
or 1 and sizes same as the chromosome string
length. With the information in the mask we can
generate the new population as below:
Par1 : 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
Par2 : 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
Mask : 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
Child 1: 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
(If mask = 0, Child 1 = Par1 and Child2 = Par2)
Child2 : 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
(If mask = 1, Child 1 = Par2 and Child2 = Par1)
Mutation
1. Flip Bit Mutation.
2. Boundary Mutation.
3. Uniform Mutation.
4. Non-Uniform Mutation.
5. Gaussian Mutation.

Flip bit mutation
A mutation operator that simply inverts the value of
the chosen gene (0 goes to 1 and 1 goes to 0) can only
be used for binary genes.
Example: -
Original String: 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
Assume mutation site: 4
String after mutation: 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

Boundary mutation
A mutation operator that replaces the value of the
chosen gene with either the upper or lower bound for
that gene (chosen randomly) can only be used for
integer and float genes.

Uniform mutation
A mutation operator that replaces the value of the
chosen gene with a uniform random value selected
between the user-specified upper and lower bounds
for that gene. This mutation operator can only be used
for integer and float genes. It permits the value of a
gene to be mutated randomly within its feasible range
of values, possibly resulting in significant
modification of otherwise good solutions. There are
two types of uniform mutations. Modified uniform
mutation and Random uniform mutation.

Modified uniform mutation
Modified uniform mutation permits modification of a
gene by a specified amount, which may be either
positive or negative.

Random uniform mutation
In random uniform mutation a small proportion of the
genes from the parent population are randomly
selected and replaced with other genes also generated
at random. This step ensures that all possible genes
remain available for the construction of better
solutions, even when the evolving population drives
some potentially useful blocks to extinction through
the selection mechanism. Random uniform mutation
is neutral in the sense that it never takes advantage of
the current position of the parent population in the
search space nor is it influenced by the effect that
previous mutations have had in the value of the
objective function.

Non-uniform mutation
A non-uniform mutation is a mutation operator that
increases the probability that the amount of the
mutation will be close to 0 as the generation number
increases. This mutation operator keeps the
population from stagnating in the early stages of the
evolution then allows the genetic algorithm to fine
tune the solution in the later stages of evolution. This
mutation operator can only be used for integer and
float genes. In non-uniform mutation, the amount by
which genes are mutated can also be reduced as a run
progresses, and can therefore help in the later
generations to fine tune the solutions. This operator is
particularly suited to problems where high precision is
required.

Gaussian mutation
A Gaussian mutation is a mutation operator that adds
a unit Gaussian distributed random value to the
chosen gene. The new gene value is clipped if it falls
outside of the user-specified lower or upper bounds
for that gene. This mutation operator can only be used
for integer and float genes. It also ensures that the
search space does not remain limited to that defined
by the parent population, but it does so in a less
disruptive manner than the random version. In this
procedure, a number of parent individuals are selected
and small changes are performed in all of their
components so that the resulting chromosome is
located somewhere within a small neighborhood of its
parents. The alterations performed to the genes are
normally distributed with mean zero and a standard
deviation, appropriate for the problem at hand. In this
way, every gene could have an independent
distribution allowing the user to define the appropriate
magnitude of the change for each variable involved.
This mutation procedure places the offspring in the
hyper-ellipsoids of constant probability defined by the
multivariate normal distribution specified, allowing
the individuals to align and take steps in directions
that, hopefully, maximize improvement.

Parameters of GA
There are three basic parameters of GA.
1. Crossover probability.
2. Mutation probability.
3. Population size.

Crossover probability
Crossover probability says how often will be
crossover performed. If there is no crossover,
offspring is exact copy of parents. If there is a
crossover, offspring is made from parts of parents
chromosome.
- If crossover probability is 100%, then all
offspring are made by crossover.
- If it is 0%, whole generation is made from
exact copies of chromosomes from old population.
Crossover is made in hope that new generation will
have good parts of old chromosomes & may be the
chromosomes will be better. However, it is good to
leave some part of population survive to next
generation.

Mutation probability
Mutation probability says how often will be parts of
chromosome mutated. If there is no mutation,
offspring is taken after crossover without any change.
If mutation performed, part of chromosome is
changed.
- If mutation probability is 100% whole
chromosome is chromosome is changed, if it is 0%,
nothing is changed.
- Mutation is made to prevent falling GA into
local extreme, but is should not occur very often,
because the GA will change to random search.

Population size
Population size says how many chromosomes are in
population (in one generation). If there are too few
chromosomes, GA has a few possibilities to perform
crossover and only a small part of search space is
explored. If there are too many chromosomes, GA
slows down.

Fig. 2 Algorithm for GA Technique

Methodology
The methodology discussed here is Genetic Algorithm. It
is a search procedure based on the mechanics of natural
selection and natural genetics, which combines an
artificial survival of the fittest among string structures
with structured yet randomized information exchanged
with genetic operators abstracted from nature with some
innovative flair of human search. The operation of genetic
algorithms is straightforward. Genetic algorithms use
random choice to guide highly exploitative search. They
operate on populations of strings, with the string coded to
represent some underlying parameter set. Reproduction,
crossover and mutation are applied to successive string
populations. These operators involve random number
generation, string copying, and partial string exchange.

The success and performance of genetic algorithms are
dependent on population size, number of generation, and
the probabilities of crossover and mutation. Goldberg
suggested that good GA performance require the choice
Start
Initial Population
Terminat
Stop
Selection
Mating
Crossover
Mutation
Yes
No
of high crossover probability, a low mutation probability
(inversely proportional to the population size) and a
moderate population size. Populations of 50-100
individuals taken through 10-20 generations have a high
probability of creating optimal or near-optimal solutions.
The mutation operator is applied to the entire population
on a bit by bit basis.

The GA is composed of the following steps:
1. Randomly generate an initial population of
binary strings representing possible designs.
2. Decode the binary strings to obtain decimal-
valued decision variables for each design in the
population. Using a simulation model, calculate the
fitness of each member of the current generation
based on the objective function value and possible
constraint violations. In the process of evaluating the
fitness of an individual design the constraints of the
management model are examined. The amount of any
constraint violation is multiplied by a weight factor
and added to the fitness value as a penalty:
2
j 1
f ( ) j( )
p
fi x j
=
= +e u

Where,
f
i
is the fitness value and f(x) is the objective function
value, p is the total number of constraints, e is 1 for
maximization and +1 for minimization problem, j is
the penalty coefficient or weight factor and j is
amount of violation of the j
th
constraint.
3. Starting with the current population of
designs, produce subsequent generations in three steps
using the genetic operations of reproduction,
crossover, and mutation applied to current generation.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until convergence or the
maximum number of generations is exceeded.

OPTIMAL PROBLEM FORMULATION
Optimization procedure must only be used in those
problems where there is definite need of achieving a
quality product or a competitive product. It is
expected that the design solution obtained through an
optimization procedure is better than other solutions
in terms of the chosen objective i.e. cost, efficiency,
safety etc. it is impossible to apply a single
formulation procedure for all engineering design
problems. The purpose of the formulation procedure
is to create a mathematical model of the optional
design problem, which then can be solved using an
optimization algorithm. The following figure shows
an outline of the steps usually involved in an
optimal design formulation process.

Fig. 3 Optimal design formulation process

The first step is to realize the need for using
optimization in a specific design problem. Thereafter,
the designer needs to choose the important design
variables associated with the design problem. The
formulation of optimal design problems involves
other considerations, such as constraints, objective
function. As shown in the figure, there is usually a
hierarchy in the optimal design process; although one
consideration may get influenced by the other.

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The Jayakwadi project built across river Godavari in
Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state. The dam is
situated at Latitude 18
0
46 N Longitude 75
0
20 E,
Jayakwadi village, Taluka Paithhan district
Aurangabad. The catchment area of the reservoir upto
dam sit is 21774 km
2
. The length of the dam is 10280
m and its maximum height is 37.73 m. The gross
storage of reservoir is 2909 Mm
3
and live storage is
2170 Mm
3
. Total installed capacity for power
generation is 12.0 MW (Pumped storage plant).
Irrigable command area is 1,41,640 Ha Area of
irrigation in Kharif is 22%, in Rabi 45% Two seasonal
28%, Hot weather 3% and Perennial crops 4.5% Map
of Maharashtra State showing Jayakwadi project is
shown in map.

Need for
optimization
Choose design
variables
Formulate
constraints
Formulate objective
function
Set up variable
bounds
Choose an
optimization
algorithm
Obtain solution

Fig. 4 Map of Maharashtra

Formulation of the Problem
Maximum agricultural return

AER =
. .
KC RC
i i i i
A NBC A NBC +

+ . .
PC TSC
i i i i
A NBC A NBC +

+
.
HWC
i i
A NBC

AER = Agricultural Economic Return (Million Rs)
NBC
i
= BC
i
IC
I
i = Crop Index
x
1
= Sugarcane (P)
x
2
= Banana (P)
x
3
= Chillies (TS)
x
4
= L.S. Cotton (TS)
x
5
= Sorghum (K)
x
6
= Paddy (K)
x
7
= Sorghum (R)
x
8
= Wheat (R)
x
9
= Gram (R)
x
10
= Ground Nut (HW)

KC = Kharif Crop
RC = Rabi Crop
PC = Perennial Crop
TSC = Two Seasonal Crop
HWC = Hot Weather Crop
A
i
= Area or i
th
Crop, (Ha)
NBC
i
= Net Benefit Co-efficient for i
th
Crop,
IC
i
= Input Cost for i
th
Crop.
Subjected to Constraints :

Total Sowing Area Constraints :

KC RC PC TSC HW
i i i i i
A A A A A CA + + + + s

Where, CA = Total command area for all sector for all
crops (Ha)

Season wise :
Maximum sowing area constraints:
Kharif

KC PC
k p
i i i i
A A CA CA + s +

Where,
CA
k
i
= Comand area for kharif season for i
th
crop (ha)
CA
p
i
= Command area for perennial season for i
th
crop
(ha)
Rabi

RC PC
R P
i i i i
A A CA CA + s +

CA
R
i
= Command area for Rabi season for i
th
crop
(ha)
HWS Perennial

PC HWC
P HW
i i i i
A A CA CA + = +

CA
i
HW
= Command area for hot weather season for i
th

crop (ha)

Affinity constraint :
(Upper limits using the existing cropping pattern)
Perennial,

A
1
PC
s CA
i
P
A
2
PC
s CA
i
P

Two seasonal,

A
3
TSC
s CA
i
TC
A
4
TSC
s CA
i
TC

Where,
A
1
= Area under crop No. 1 (Perennial Crop)
A
2
= Area under crop No. 2 (Perennial Crop)
A
3
= Area under crop No. 3 (TSC)
A
4
= Area under crop No. 4 (TSC)

Kharif,

A
5
KC
s CA
i
K
A
6
KC
s CA
i
K

Rabi,

A
7
RC
s CA
i
R
A
8
RC
s CA
i
R
A
9
RC
s CA
i
R

Hot weather,

A
10
HWC
s CA
i
HW

OPTIMIZATION MODEL
To work out the optimal cropping pattern; the
following cropping pattern models are developed and
solved using LINGO. In this cropping pattern model
the increase in the yield due to the sufficient water to
crop is taken into consideration using Genetic
Algorithm model. In the model i.e. (Cropping pattern
model) the variables X1X10 indicates the various
crops according to varying water availability.

Table 2 Total Water Amount and Profit Values for
All Plants
Varia
ble
Plant and
Water amount
(%)
Season Total
Water
Amount
(mm)
X1 Sugarcane (100) Perennial 3160
X2 Banana (100) Perennial 3492
X3 Chillies (100) Two Season 399
X4 LSCotton(100) Two Season 456
X5 Sorgum (100) Kharif 99
X6 Paddy (100) Kharif 650
X7 Sorgum (100) Rabi 526
X8 Wheat (100) Rabi 990
X9 Gram (100) Rabi 498
X10 Groundnut (100) Hot Weather 1592

Cropping Pattern Model
Objective Function

Maximize=AER;

AER=66820X1+115200X2+128000X3+1420X4+574
0X5+7200X6+4620X7+11770X8+7020X9+10320X1
0;

Subjected to
1. Total sowing area constraint

X1 + X2+ X3 + X4 + X5 + X6 + X7 + X8 + X9 X10
<141640

2. Maximum sowing area constraint

X1 + X2+ X3 + X4 + X5 + X6 < 77193.8
X1 + X2+ X3 + X4 + X7 + X8 + X9 < 109771
X1 + X2+ X10 < 10623
X1 < 4249.2
X2 < 2124.6
X3 < 4249.2
X4 < 35410
X5 < 16996.8
X6 <14164
X7 <21246
X8 <35410
X9 <7082
X10 < 4249.2

3. Water Availability Constraint

3.16 X1 +3.49 X2 + 0.399 X3 +0.456 X4 +0.099 X5
+ 0.65 X6 + 0.526 X7 +0.99 X8 + 0.498 X9+ 1.592
X10 < 67000;

The above cropping pattern model is developed for
100% water availability.
Water availability constraint:

. . .
. .
KC RC PC
i i i i i i
TSC HWC
i i i i
A IWR A IWR A IWR
A IWR A IWR TWA
+ +
+ + s

Non-Negativity Constraints:

X
1
,X
2
,X
3
,X
4
,X
5
,X
6
,X
7
,X
8
,X
9
,X
10
> 0

Performance Analysis
The objective of this study is to maximize the revenue
by considering adequate supply of water to a specific
area that has to be cultivated considering Linear
Programming model, from the available constraints
i.e.; available land and water for irrigation. Form
optimization of cropping pattern the optimal cropping
pattern is obtained.

Analytical Analysis for Optimal Cropping Pattern
using LINGO for LP model
The cropping pattern is solved considering
agricultural economic returns according to linear
programming considering 100% water availability.
Results are shown in Table. The maximized revenue
obtained is Rs.1683478.00 from the project.

Table 3 Considering the Water Availability Model,
Jayakwadi Stage I
Sr.
No.
Varia
ble
Crop Area in Ha (for
water
Availability
100%)
1 X1 Sugarcane 4249.2
2 X2 Banana 2124.6
3 X3 Chillies 4249.2
4 X4 L.S.Cotton 0
5 X5 Sorgum(K) 16996.8
6 X6 Paddy (K) 6456.65
7 X7 Sorgum(R) 0
8 X8 Wheat (R) 35410.00
9 X9 Gram (R) 7082.00
10 X10 Groundnut
(HW)
0
Net cropped Area (Ha) 76568.450
Net Revenue (Rs) 1683478.00
Water Used (Ha.m) 67000

A
r
e
a

(
H
a
)

Crop
A
r
e
a

(
H
a
)

Crop
Crop
A
r
e
a

(
H
a
)

Graph 1 Optimal Cropping Pattern using LP Model

Table 4 Computational Analysis for Optimal
Cropping Pattern using GA
Sr.
No.
Variable Crop Area in Ha
(for water
Availability
100%)
1 X1 Sugarcane 4249.2
2 X2 Banana 2124.6
3 X3 Chillies 4249.2
4 X4 L.S.Cotton 4251.2
5 X5 Sorgum(K) 2767.2
6 X6 Paddy (K) 2128.8
7 X7 Sorgum(R) 5.2500
8 X8 Wheat (R) 35410.00
9 X9 Gram (R) 4251.5
10 X10 Groundnut (HW) 4449.2
Net cropped Area (Ha) 63886.15
Net Revenue (Rs) 1540700.00
Water Used (Ha.m) 67000

Graph 2 Optimal Cropping Pattern using GA Model

Table 5 Comparison of Optimal Cropping Pattern
Using LP and GA (X1X10)
Sr.
No.
Variable Crop Area in Ha
(for water
Availabilit
y 100%)
Using LP
Area in Ha
(for water
Availability
100%) Using
GA
1 X1 Sugarcane 4249.2 4249.2
2 X2 Banana 2124.6 2124.6
3 X3 Chillies 4249.2 4249.2
4 X4 L.S.Cotto
n
0 4251.2
5 X5 Sorgum(K
)
16996.8 2767.2
6 X6 Paddy (K) 6456.65 2128.8
7 X7 Sorgum(R
)
0 5.2500
8 X8 Wheat (R) 35410.00 35410.00
9 X9 Gram (R) 7082.00 4251.5
10 X10 Groundnut
(HW)
0 4449.2
Net cropped Area (Ha) 76568.450 63886.15
Net Revenue (Rs) 1683478.00 154070.00
Water Used (Ha.m) 67000 67000

Graph 3 Comparison of Optimal Cropping Pattern
Using LP and GA
JUSTIFICATION FOR ERRORS
It is observed that solution obtained buy LP and GA
are reasonable close. This amount of percent
difference is justified since; the linear programming
technique is suitable for linear programming problem
formulation as it is deterministic in nature. For the
model developed for optimal cropping pattern, linear
programming is used. In case of linear programming
problem, the search for optimum values start forum
single point and in a particular direction. As it is
deterministic in nature, the global optimum is found.

The genetic algorithm is search technique based on
the Darwins principle i.e. survival of fittest fit. In
GA, the search for optimization value start from more
number of points (single point in case of LP).
Therefore we can get more number of feasible
solutions for the same mathematical model developed
(Number of solution depends on population size). The
GA is suitable for complex, nonlinear problems. Still,
for comparison of solution, linear programming is
compared with GA. As GA is search technique,
suitable for nonlinear problem, gives more number of
feasible solutions for the same problem, (near global
optimum).

CONCLUSIONS
- The optimized revenue and optimized
cropping pattern is decided from the solution for eight
different cases by varying the water availability.
Under the optimal cropping pattern by applying the
water stress to crop the values of revenue are 1663907
rupees and cropped area is 141640 Ha for water
availability. These results of the study shows that
even with very low water supply, it is possible to keep
the farm revenue at high levels and the land to be
irrigated also more.
- The liner programming approaches can be
successfully applied to determine the optimal
cropping pattern and to derive the agricultural returns
for irrigation using LINGO. This methodology is
demonstrated through application to Jayakwadi
project, in Aurangabad district.
- With the emergent water problems in the
world, countries prefer the methods for optimum
utilization from their water potentials. Obviously,
provision of agricultural irrigation water to plant
according to their requirements will ensure maximum
production per unit area. However, unnecessary
irrigation by farmers in adequate water conditions
leads to soil salivation and an increase in water table.
- GA is found to be an effective optimization
tool for irrigation planning and the results can be
utilized for efficient planning of any irrigation system.

SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK
LINGO programming model and GA model is
developed for optimization of agricultural economic
returns for single objective i.e. releases either for
irrigation. However other objectives like optimization
for water supply, navigation purpose flood control etc.
can be considered and these objectives can be
fuzzified to develop Multiobjective fuzzy Linear
Programming (MOFL) Model.

APPLICATIONS
In the present study, a LINGO programming model is
developed to find optimal cropping pattern by
developing logic in case of water availability for a
season. However for better results a water yield
relation of plants, field capacity an intra-seasonal
irrigation i.e. (irrigation during different growth stages
of crop) approach can be applied for an exact values
of agricultural economic returns factor in actual farm
of a suitable size.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are thankful to Command Area
Development Authority, Aurangabad, Maharashtra
State, India for providing necessary data for the
analysis.

REFERENCES
Gurav and Regulwar, Irrigation Planning Under
UncertaintyA Multi Objective Fuzzy Linear
Programming Approach, 28 March 2010 /
Accepted: 18 November 2010, Springer Science
+ Business Media B.V. 2010.
Goldberg, D.E., Genetic Algorithms is Search,
Optimization and Machine Learning. 1989,
Addison Wesley, Reading Mass, pp1-50, 245-260.
Jyothirmai, U.L., Shareef, S.M., and Raju, V.T.
Optimal Farm Plans for Increasing income
Water use and Employment in Three Regions of
Nagarjunasagar Command Area in Andhra
Pradesh, 4
th
International R & D Conference on
Water and Energy ofr 21
st
Century, CBIP, 28-31
January 2003, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India.,
Vol-II, pp.592-604.
Kamodkar and Regulwar, Comparison between
Linear Programming and Genetic Algorithm for
Cropping Pattern, National conference paper
presentation EPM 2011.
Regulwar, D.G. Ghangrekar, M.M., and Anand Raj
P,. Optimal Reservoir Operation for Irrigation
using Genetic Algorithms. Proc. International
Conference on advances in civil Engineering,
ACE-2002, IIT-Khargpur, January 2002 , pp.259-
265.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF FOLLOWING PHENOMENA IN INDIAN
MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS

K.V.R. Ravi Shankar
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, GMR Institute of Technology
Rajam -532127, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA, e-mail: kvrrshankar@gmail.com
Tom V. Mathew
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Powai, Mumbai-400 076- INDIA, e-mail: vmtom@civil.iitb.ac.in

ABSTRACT: Car-following behaviour is one of the building blocks of traffic simulation models. Several studies
analysed following behaviour leading to the development of distinct models. However, most of them are confined to
following behaviour of similar vehicle-types. A study on vehicle-type dependent following behaviour is required for
accurate modelling of mixed traffic conditions where the static and dynamic characteristics of vehicles differ
significantly. In this paper, vehicle-type dependent following behaviour is analysed using data collected for different
vehicle-type combinations. The results point to the need for considering vehicle-type behaviour particularly in mixed
traffic conditions. Future simulation models should adopt the vehicle-type dependent behaviour for a realistic
representation of mixed traffic conditions.

INTRODUCTION
Modeling the behaviour of one vehicle following another
vehicle is the fundamental concept of many of the
existing traffic simulation tools. Several research studies
have been conducted and theories were developed to
represent this behaviour (Gazis et al., 1961; Yang and
Koutsopoulos, 1996; Gipps, 1981; Treiber et al., 2000;
Wiedemann, 1974; Wiedemann and Reiter, 1992;
Fritzsche, 1994; Bando et al., 1995; Chakroborty and
Kikuchi, 1999). However, the following behaviour in
mixed traffic conditions poses a new challenge and the
recent studies proved the vehicle-type effect on following
behaviour. The manoeuvrability of vehicles and the sight
distance of the drivers effect the driving behaviour
largely in mixed traffic conditions. For example, driver
behaviour may be different in the case of bus following a
passenger car compared to passenger car following a bus
(as shown in Figure 1). The static and dynamic
characteristics of these vehicles differ significantly and
influence the driver behaviour. Some of the recent studies
also point to the effect of vehicle-type on driver following
behaviour (Punzo and Tripodi, 2007; Ye and Zhang,
2009; Brackstone et al., 2009). There is a need to
realistically represent the mixed traffic flow behaviour. In
spite of the several simulation models being used, there is
no common consensus as to which model or simulation
performs better under given traffic conditions. The
driving behaviour also changes from region to region and
in countries like India, the diversity in vehicle and driving
characteristics will have a considerable influence. Hence
there is a need to study the vehicle-type dependent
behaviour and suggest models which can represent the
vehicle-following behaviour rather than the conventional
car-following models.

Fig. 1 Vehicle-type dependent following behaviour in
mixed traffic conditions

DATA COLLECTION
For analysing the vehicle-type dependent behaviour, nine
lead-following vehicle-type combinations were
considered for data collection. Two major urban arterials
in Mumbai, India, are selected for data collection. A 4.6
km long straight section on Eastern express highway and
5.9 km stretch on Western express highway in Mumbai
are selected. Even though, these stretches are referred as
express highway, they are a part of the main arterials of
Mumbai city and comprise of mixed traffic. A snapshot of
the eastern express highway stretch is shown in Figure 2.
These sections are eight lane divided urban highways with
typical traffic volumes ranging from 833 to 1066
vehicles/hr/lane. These stretches are continuous sections
with no major intersections and represent a typical urban
traffic. Data was collected using vehicles equipped with
GPS receivers and the procedure is described below.
Experiments were conducted with nine combinations of
vehicles comprising of passenger car (length 4.7 m), three
wheeled auto-rickshaw (length 2.6 m) and bus (length 9.4
m). Data was collected using GPS (Global Positioning
System) equipped vehicle.


Fig. 2 A snapshot of the eastern express highway section

With the help of beacon receiver, the real time
differentially corrected GPS data was recorded. Data was
obtained from a series of experiments carried out along
the selected stretches under real traffic conditions from
October, 2007 to March, 2008. As the car-following
behaviour may change in rainy conditions and at night
time due to less visibility, experiments were conducted on
sunny days and during peak and off-peak time.
Preliminary surveys were conducted for assessing the
satellite availability and traffic characteristics. Leading
vehicle driver was asked to follow the traffic stream and
the following vehicle driver to follow the lead vehicle
without overtaking. Drivers selected for the data
collection are regular drivers and were not aware of the
objectives of the study. They were in the age group of 25
to 30 years. Data sets containing lane changing or
extrusion of vehicles between lead and following vehicles
were excluded.

VEHICLE-TYPE DEPENDENT BEHAVIOUR
The data was analysed to see how the vehicle-type
influences the following behaviour. For this, the space
headway i.e. distance between the lead and following
vehicles less vehicle length is determined from the
latitude and longitude values obtained from the GPS
instruments. As the following behaviour changes from
driver to driver, data was collected using different drivers
for each of the lead-following vehicle-type combination.
Since the following-distance is a function of speed,
analysis was conducted separately for various speed
categories (multiples of 5 m/s). The cumulative frequency
distribution of following distance for various drivers and
the vehicle-type combinations is shown in Figure 3. It can
be seen from this figure that the space headway
distribution varies significantly with the vehicle-type.
Moreover, the driver variability is less significant than the
vehicle-type variability for almost all speed ranges. Thus
vehicle heterogeneity has a significant effect on car
following behaviour in addition to driver heterogeneity.
This result is also consistent with a recent study showing
that following behaviour is affected by the type of lead
vehicle (Brackstone et al., 2009). However, the variation
is more prominent in the case of a bus following a
passenger car (C-B). Thus vehicle-type also has a
considerable influence on following behaviour. Small
sized vehicles were observed to follow the lead vehicle at
a lesser headway compared to large vehicles. The higher
manoeuvrability of small sized vehicles allows the drivers
to maintain lesser safety distance.

The relative speed and following distance plot for the nine
vehicle-type combinations considering the entire data set
is shown in Figure 4. The following distance values on y-
axis represent the distances between lead and following
vehicles for a particular vehicle-type combination. It can
be seen from this figure that a considerable difference
exists in the following distance between vehicles for
various vehicle-type combinations. The points are
concentrated in a narrow range for the A-A combination
and widely spread for passenger car following passenger
car (C-C) and bus following passenger (C-B)
combinations.

CONCLUSION
Traffic flow modeling is one of the much sought after
studies in transportation engineering and has wider
applications in capacity analysis, driver behaviour
assistance systems etc. In the past decades, considerable
research has been carried out to understand and model the
driving behaviour in terms of certain mathematical
relationships. However, a realistic modeling of driving
behaviour poses a challenge to the research community,
particularly in mixed traffic conditions. Car-following
behaviour was analysed for different lead-following
vehicle-type combinations. Extensive field data was
collected using GPS receivers for nine vehicle-type
combinations comprising passenger cars, three wheeled
auto-rickshaws, and buses from two major arterials of
Mumbai city in India. This study addresses the influence
of the type of vehicle on the behaviour of mixed traffic.
This study established the existence of distinct car-
following behaviour for various lead and following
vehicle-type combinations.

REFERENCES
Bando, M., Hasebe, K., Nakayama, A., Shibata, A. and
Sugiyama, Y. (1995), Dynamical model of traffic
congestion and numerical simulation, Phys. Rev. E,
Vol. 51, American Physical Society, pp. 10351042.
Brackstone, M., Waterson, B. and McDonald, M. (2009),
Determinants of following headway in congested
traffic, Transportation Research Part F: Traffic
Psychology and Behaviour, Vol. 12, pp. 131142.
Chakroborty, P. and Kikuchi, S. (1999), Evaluation of
the general motors based car-following models and a
proposed fuzzy inference model, Transportation
Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, Vol. 7, pp.
209235.
Fritzsche, H. T. (1994), A model for traffic simulation,
Transportation Engininering Contribution, Vol. 5, pp.
317321.


Gazis, D. C., Herman, R. and Rothery, R. W. (1961),
Nonlinear follow-the-leader models of traffic flow,
Operations Research, Vol. 9, pp. 545567.
Gipps, P. G. (1981), Behavioural car-following model
for computer simulation., Transportation Research,
Part B: Methodological, Vol. 15 B, pp. 105111.
Punzo, V. and Tripodi, A. (2007), Steady-state solutions
and multiclass calibration of gipps microscopic traffic
flow model, Transportation Research Record 1999,
Journal of the Transportation Research Board,
Washington D.C., pp. 104114.
Treiber, M., Hennecke, A. and Helbing, D. (2000),
Congested traffic states in empirical observations and
microscopic simulations, Phys. Rev. E, Vol. 62,
American Physical Society, pp. 18051824.
Wiedemann, R. and Reiter, U. (1992), Microscopic traffic
simulation: The simulation system mission,
background and actual state, final report, Technical
report, Brussels.
Yang, Q. and Koutsopoulos, H. N. (1996), A
microscopic traffic simulator for evaluation of dynamic
traffic management systems, Transportation Research
Part C: Emerging Technologies , Vol. 4, pp. 113129.
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headway analysis using freeway traffic data, presented
at the 88th annual meeting of the transportation
research board, number Report no.:09-2997,
Washington D.C.

Fig. 3. Space headway profiles for the nine vehicle-type
combinations and different drivers

Fig. 4. Typical following distance vs relative speed
profiles for various vehicle-type combinations

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


FEM FORMULATION OF DIRECT METHOD OF CONCRETE GRAVITY
DAM - NONLINEAR FOUNDATION INTERACTION
A Burman
Asst. Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, India

D Maity
Assoc. Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
A Kumar
UG Student, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, India

S Bhushan

S Sankrit


INTRODUCTION: Considerable research has been conducted in the area of dynamic interaction analysis of
structure-foundation coupled system. The structure is considered to be linear, isotropic and the foundation is
assumed to follow elasto-plastic yield behavior. In the present work, the free field response is obtained first for the
foundation domain subjected to ground motion. The free field responses are used to determine the soil-structure
interaction forces which are exerted on the coupled soil-structure system along with the externally applied
earthquake excitations. The responses thus found are added to the free-field responses to calculate the total
displacements, velocities and accelerations of the system considering the effects of SSI. The algorithm presented
here is robust in terms of runtime as well as memory allocation considerations.

THEORITICAL FORMULATION
Modeling of Dam
In the present work, Koyna concrete gravity dam has
been chosen as the structure. The dam body is
considered to be homogenous and isotropic. For plane
strain problems, the constitutive matrix | | D expressing
the relationship between stress { } and strains{ } for
the dam monolith is:
{ } | |{ } D = (1)
where,
| |
( )
( )( )
( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
+

=

1 2
2 1
0 0
0 1
1
0
1
1
2 1 1
1 E
D
(2)
Here Eand are the Youngs modulus and the
Poissons ratio of the material of the dam body
respectively.
Modeling of Foundation
In the present work, the foundation material is assumed
to be of rock in nature. A nonlinear constitutive model
has been chosen to simulate the stress vs. strain
behavior of soil/rock which is nonlinear in nature. The
framework of elasto-plasticity has been chosen to
represent the foundation material properties. A popular
and widely accepted yield criterion for geo-materials
namely Drucker-Prager criterion has been adopted for
the purpose of analysis.
The Drucker-Prager Yield Criterion

Fig. 1 Geometric representation of the Mohr-
Coulomb and Drucker-Prager yield surfaces in
principal stress space

An approximation to the Drucker-Prager law was
presented by Drucker and Prager (1952) as a
modification of the Von Mises yield criterion. The
influence of a hydrostatic stress component on
yielding was introduced by inclusion of an additional
term in the Von Mises expression to give
( )
'
2
1
2 1
' k J J = + (3)
This yield surface has the form of a circular cone. In
order to make the Drucker-Prager circle coincide
with the outer apices of the Mohr-Coulomb
hexagonat any section, it can be shown that (as in
Fig. 1):


( )( )
sin 3 3
sin 2
=
,
( )( )
sin 3 3
cos 6
'
=
c
k
(4)
Coincidence with the inner apices of the Mohr-
Coulomb hexagon is provided by:
( )( )
sin 3 3
sin 2
+
= a
,
( )( )
sin 3 3
cos 6
'
+
=
c
k

(5)
However, the approximation given by either the inner
or outer cone to the true failure surface can be poor for
certain stress combinations.
Solution Scheme for Coupled Dam-Foundation
System

In dam-foundation interaction problems, the foundation
and the structure do not vibrate as separate systems
under external excitations, rather they act together in a
coupled way. The most common SSI approach used is
based on the "added motion" formulation. To develop
the fundamental SSI dynamic equilibrium equations,
the soil-structure system, as shown in Fig. 2 is
considered.

Fig. 2 Soil- structure interaction model

The SSI model here is divided into three sets of node
points, viz. the common nodes at the interface of the
structure and soil are identified with the subscript c;
the nodes within the structure are with s and the
nodes within the foundation are with f respectively.
From the direct stiffness approach in structural analysis,
the dynamic force equilibrium of the system is given in
terms of the absolute displacements, U, by the
following sub-matrix equation:
\
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
ss sc s ss sc s
cs cc cf c cs cc cf c
fc ff f fc ff f
g
ss sc s ss sc s
cs cc cf c cs cc cf
fc ff f fc ff
M M u C C u
M M M u C C C u
M M u C C u
K K u M M u
K K K u M M M
K K u M M
( (
( (
+
` `
( (

( (
) )
( (
( (
+ =
`
( (

( (
)

g
c
g
f
u
u

`

)
(6)
Where the mass and stiffness at the contact nodes are
the sum of the contributions from the structure (s) and
foundation (f), are given by
( ) ( ) f
cc
s
cc cc
M M M + =

( ) ( ) f
cc
s
cc cc
C C C + =
( ) ( ) f
cc
s
cc cc
K K K + =

(7)
By solving Eq. (6) using Newmarks integration
method, one would obtain the absolute
displacements, velocities and accelerations of the
coupled SSI problem. The free-field solution is
designated by the free-field displacements v,
velocities v and accelerationsv . Here,
g
u is the
ground acceleration vector. By a simple change of
variables, it becomes possible to express the absolute
displacementsU , velocitiesU

and accelerations U

in terms of displacements u, relative to the free field
displacements v. Or,
(
(
(
+
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
f
c
S
f
c
S
f
c
S
u
u
u
v
v
v
U
U
U

(
(
(
+
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
f
c
S
f
c
S
f
c
S
u
u
u
v
v
v
U
U
U

(
(
(
+
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
f
c
S
f
c
S
f
c
S
u
u
u
v
v
v
U
U
U
(8)

The above equation can be written as
0 0
0 0
0
0
ss sc s ss sc s
cs cc cf c cs cc cf c
fc ff f fc ff f
ss sc s
cs cc cf c
fc ff f
M M u C C u
M M M u C C C u
M M u C C u
K K u
K K K u R F
K K u
( (
( (
+
` `
( (

( (
) )
(
(
+ = +
`
(

(
)

(9)
where:
0 0
0 0
0
0
ss sc s ss sc s
ss cc cf c ss cc cf c
fc ff f fc ff f
ss sc s
ss cc cf c
fc ff f
M M v C C v
R M M M v C C C v
M M v C C v
K K v
K K K v
K K v
( (
( (
=
` `
( (

( (
) )
(
(
`
(

(
)

&

(
(
(
=
g
f
g
c
g
s
ff fc
cf cc ss
sc ss
u
u
u
M M
M M M
M M
F

0
0
(10)
To calculate the free field responses (i.e. free field
displacements, velocities and accelerations), only the
foundation part without the presence of
superstructure is solved. Hence, the corresponding
values of the displacement, velocity and acceleration
for the structural part are taken as zero. This involves
the introduction of the following change of variables:


(
(
(
+
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
f
c
S
f
c
f
c
S
u
u
u
v
v
U
U
U

0

(
(
(
+
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
f
c
S
f
c
f
c
S
u
u
u
v
v
U
U
U
0

(
(
(
+
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
f
c
s
f
c
f
c
s
u
u
u
v
v
U
U
U 0
(11)
The foundation domain is subjected to
earthquake motion and the free-field displacement for
the common and other foundation nodes are obtained.
+
+ (12)
and
( )
( ) ( )
0 0
0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ss sc
s
ss cc c
ss sc ss sc
s s
ss cc c ss cc cf c
M M
R M M v
C C K K
C C v K K K v
(
(
=
`
(

(
)
( (
( (
` `
( (

( (
) )

(13)

After obtaining the free field response, the interaction
force R is calculated using Eq. (13). The added
responses (displacement, velocity and accelerations) of
coupled dam-foundation domain are calculated using
Eq. (14). The added responses are added to the free
field responses to get the absolute responses of the
coupled soil and structure domain.

R+F (14)

Absorbing Boundary

Fig. 3 Viscous dashpots connected to each degrees of
freedom of a boundary node

A way to eliminate waves propagating outward from
the structure is to use Lysmer and Kuhlemeyer
(1969) boundaries. This method consists of simply
connecting dashpots to all degrees of freedom of the
boundary nodes and fixing them on the other end
(Fig. 3).
Effect of Hydrodynamic pressure
Assuming the reservoir water to be inviscid and
incompressible and its motion to be of small
amplitude, the governing equation for hydrodynamic
pressure is as follows (Westergaard, 1933):
0
2
= V p (15)

NUMERICAL RESULTS
Selection of an optimum Mesh Size
A dam (Fig. 4) of height 15.0 m, crest-width 2.0 m
and base width 10.0 m discretized with isoparametric
linear quadrilateral elements. This particular dam-
foundation system was originally solved by Yazdchi
et al. (1999) using coupled FEM-BEM technique
considering soil-structure interaction effects. The
dam and the foundation are assumed linear
elastic with the following material properties.
Poissons ratio 0.2; modulus of elasticity E
d
= 3 10
7
kN/m
2
and mass density as 2600 kg/m
3
. The
Poissons ratio and the mass density of the
foundation were assumed the same as those of the
dam. In addition, a horizontal static load of 1000 KN
is applied on the rightmost crest point of the dam
shown in Fig. 5. It is observed that the times and the
horizontal displacements at the rightmost crest point
converges sufficiently for a mesh division of 4 6
(horizontal vertical) in the dam portion as well as
for a mesh division of 12 4 for the foundation
region. However, a mesh division of 4 10
(horizontal vertical) in the dam portion has been
chosen for the validation purpose.


Fig. 4 The geometry of dam-foundation prototype
(Yazdchi et al, 1999)
Validation of Proposed Algorithm
The results of the present model are compared with the
results of dam model (Fig. 6) analyzed by Yazdchi et.
al. (1999) for Koyna ground motion. The foundation
size of 100 m 50 m has been considered for validating
the algorithm with the dam prototype solved by
Yazdchi et al. (1999) considering the effect of soil-
structure interaction. After arriving at a suitable mesh
grading for both the dam and the foundation domain, an
attempt is made to compare the present results with the
result obtained by Yazdchi et al. (1999). While solving
the dam-foundation model as used by Yazdchi et al. by
the proposed scheme, the effect of viscous damping and
the hydrodynamic pressure is also considered. In
addition, initially the dam has been analyzed
considering the effects of its self-weight and the
hydrostatic pressure, which produced initial
acceleration in the dam body.
In the present work, the hydrodynamic pressures at the
upstream face of the dam are calculated These
hydrodynamic forces are applied on the upstream face
of the dam. Table 1 shows the comparison between the
results of Yazdchi et al (1999) and that of the proposed
method for different E
f
/E
d
(impedance ratio) ratios. The
maximum crest displacement of the dam under seismic
excitation by both the method has been tabulated in the
Table 4 for a comparison purpose. The present results
are also compared with the results obtained by Reddy et
al. (2008). The obtained displacements by the proposed
interaction scheme are in very close agreement with the
results obtained both by Yazdchi et. al. (1999) and
Reddy et al. (2008). The slight discrepancy between the
two results obtained in both cases might be due to:
i) Use of different methods and numerical
tools for the solution of the coupled system.
ii) Different mesh sizes considered for the
problem.

Table 1 Comparison of maximum horizontal crest
displacements & accelerations (a/g)

In spite of differences in the methodologies used for
solving this particular problem, appreciable
agreement in the obtained values of horizontal crest
displacements is achieved by the present method. In
the present analysis, the side nodes at the boundary of
the foundation domain are attached to viscous
dashpots and the nodes at the base are fixed apart
from the middle node.
Response of Koyna Dam
The seismic response of Koyna dam has been
investigated considering the interaction behavior of a
linear concrete dam and an elasto-plastic foundation
subjected to Koyna earthquake (1967)
acceleration. The foundation material is assumed to
be of hard rock. The width and the depth of the
foundation are assumed 350.0 m and 100.0 m
respectively. The geometry of the dam-foundation
system chosen for the analysis is shown in Fig. 5.
The material properties of the dam are as follows:
The Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio and mass
density of dam body are considered as 3.15e+10
N/m
2
, 0.235 and 2415.816 kg/m
3
respectively.
Similarly, the Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio and
mass density of foundation are considered as
1.75e+10 N/m
2
, 0.2 and 1800.0 kg/m
3
.The values of
cohesion and angle of internal friction for foundation
are C=150 KN/m
2
,
25 =

respectively (Deb,
2006).

Fig. 5 The geometry and boundary condition of the
Koyna dam-foundation system


It is observed from the convergence study that the
results converged sufficiently for a mesh grading of
8 5 for the dam domain and for a mesh grading of
12 5 for the foundation domain with sufficient degree
of accuracy. In the following section results of the
comparison of the dam foundation interaction analysis
assuming linear and non-linear behavior of foundation
domain is presented. In these analyses, to propound the
effect of soil structure interaction upon the rigid
analysis, the self-weight of the dam and foundation
have not been considered. In the interaction analysis,
the analysis is done by assuming a semi-infinite
boundary condition by fixing with dashpots at the ends,
and the remaining nodes at the base of the foundation
have been fitted with rollers allowing only horizontal
translation. It is to be noted all these analyses are
carried out for the horizontal components of Koyna
(1967) earthquake acceleration and the effect of vertical
components is not taken into account
Fig. 6 shows the comparison between the variation of
crest displacements, obtained by dam-foundation
interaction analysis assuming linear and non-linear
behavior of foundation domain. Fig. 7 and Fig. 8
display the variation of major and minor principal
stresses plotted at neck node A (as shown in Fig. 7)
for linear and nonlinear foundation material used in the
interaction analyses. It is evident that the values
obtained for the horizontal crest displacements as found
out from non-linear analysis is more than those
obtained assuming linear analysis. Also the stresses at
the neck node have increased when the non-linear
behavior of foundation domain is considered.

Fig.6 Variation of Crest Displacement for Koyna
Excitation
-5
0
5
10
15
20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (sec)
M
a
j
o
r

p
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
) Linear dam-linear foundation interaction
Linear dam-nonlinear foundation i nteraction

Fig. 7 Major Principal Stress variation at node A
-18
-16
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (sec)
M
i
n
o
r

p
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)
Linear dam-linear foundation interaction
Linear dam-nonlinear foundation interaction

Fig. 8 Minor Principal Stress variation at node A

CONCLUSION
The paper presents a methodology for the analysis of
concrete gravity dam subjected to seismic excitations
using direct method of soil structure interaction
considering material non-linearity of foundation.
Dashpots are added at the boundaries of the
foundation for representing semi-infinite domain.
The Dam domain is considered to be consisting of
linear elastic material. The foundation domain is
considered to be consisting of hard rock mass having
non-linear behavior and is analyzed using Drucker-
Prager failure criterion. Drucker-Prager yield criteria
represent the behavior of foundation more efficiently
because it is a dedicated yield criterion for rock
masses. The proposed method is validated from the
literature, which shows the accuracy of the developed
algorithm. The numerical results presented here
prove the efficiency of the present algorithm to solve
a soil-structure coupled problem of massive
structures such as concrete gravity dams. The values
obtained for the horizontal crest displacements as
found out for non-linear analysis is more than those
obtained assuming linear analysis. The stresses at the
neck node and heel node have increased when the
non-linear behavior of foundation domain is
considered.

REFERENCES
Deb, D (2006), Finite Element Method Applications in
Geomechanics, Prentice Hall of India.
Drucker, D. C. and Prager, W. (1952). Soil mechanics and plastic
analysis for limit design. Quarterly of Applied Mathematics,
vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 157165.
Lysmer J. and Kuhlemeyer R. L. (1969), Finite dynamic model
for infinite media, Journal of Engineering Mechanics
Division, ASCE, Vol. 95 (EM4), pp. 859-877.
Reddy B. V., Burman A. and Maity D. (2008), Seismic Response
of Concrete Gravity Dams Considering Foundation
Flexibility, Indian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 38, pp. 187-
203.
SAP 2007 The users manual.
Westergaard H. M. (1933), Water pressures on dams during
earthquakes, Trans. ASCE, Vol. 98, pp. 418-472.
Yazdchi M., Khalili N., Valliappan S. (1999) Dynamic soil-
structure interaction analysis via coupled finite element-
boundary element method. Soil Dyn. And Earthquake
Engng., Vol. 18, pp. 499-517.

-1.00E-01
-8.00E-02
-6.00E-02
-4.00E-02
-2.00E-02
0.00E+00
2.00E-02
4.00E-02
6.00E-02
8.00E-02
1.00E-01
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (sec)
H
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l

c
r
e
s
t

d
i
s
p

(
m
)
Linear dam-linear foundation interaction
Linear dam-nonlinear foundation interaction

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7
DEVELOPMENT OF A STIFFNESS ANALYSIS FOR A
STRUCTURAL ELEMENT IN A BUILDING INFRA-
STRUCTURE
Pradeep Kumar

Associate Prof., Deptt. of Civil Engg., HBTI, Kanpur
Swatantra K. Porwal
Assistant Prof., Deptt. of Mechanical Engg., VSGOI, Kanpur, swatantraporwal@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT: Buildings play a key role in the infrastructure development. Safety against the mechanical
parameters in the building needs extra attention with the conventional and seismic analysis & design of a building. It
is equally important to understand the behavior of failure in the members of the building. Strength and Stiffness are
two main criteria for design of failure of a structural member such as beam in any building. For calculation of the
stress & stiffness value, the beam is discretized into the smaller elements like rectangular, triangular, hexahedral and
tetrahedral; and for equal discretization, isoperametric element is used. In this paper, the beam as structural element,
subjected to load is considered. Its deformation from its original position is assessed. As the value of the stress
becomes maximum, the structure starts failing. For protection of the structural element from failure, this work
proposes to discretize the beam into the smaller elements called finite elements. The results are calculated and
compared with the values obtained by other conventional methods of analysis.
Keywords - Strength, Stiffness, Deflection, Finite Element, isoparametric element.

INTRODUCTION
Beam Slab and column are the most important
components of a building. As per the strength criterion of
the design, they should be strong enough to resist bending
moment and shear force or in other words ,the bending
stresses and shear stresses but as per the stiffness criterion
, they should be stiff enough to resist the deflection and
not to deflect more than the permissible limit under the
action of the loading. In actual practice some
specifications are always laid to limit the maximum
deflection of a cantilever or a beam for its smaller span.
Structural design engineering process includes material
selection for construction; determine appropriate
structural system for a particular case. If the stress value
is less than the allowable stress value then the structure is
safe but for greater than the allowable stress value,
structure fails. The complexity of modern structures often
requires a great deal of creativity in order to ensure the
structural support and resist the loads they are subjected
to. At the time of manufacturing, lot of stresses act on the
structural element due to the axial loading, bending
moment, whose value is greater than the expected value .
In this work , the calculation of the stress , using the
stiffness value with the concept of Finite Element
Analysis , is done a program is developed which first
calculates the stiffness value and later, the stress value by
using the concept of FEM.
STRUCTURAL MEMBER : A CASE STUDY

A Beam can be defined as a structural element which
has one dimension (length) considerable larger
compared to the other two directions i.e. breath &
depth and is supported at few points . For the
calculation of the stress & stiffness value in the
beam, it is discritized into the smaller elements and
for the discritization, the elements like rectangular,
triangular, hexahedral and tetrahedral are available
and for equal discritization, isoparametric elements
are used.

Finite Element Formulation
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was first developed in
1943 by R. Courant, who utilized the Ritz method of
numerical analysis and minimization of variational
calculus to obtain approximate solutions to vibration
systems. Shortly thereafter, a paper published in 1956
by M. J. Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L.
J. Topp established a broader definition of numerical
analysis. The paper centered on the "stiffness and
deflection of complex structures".

Isometric Elements
' ' '
1 1 2 2
........
n n
x N x N x N x = + +
' ' '
1 1 2 2
........
n n
z N z N z N z = + +
' ' '
1 1 2 2
........
n n
y N y N y N y = + + { } { }
'
n
x N x ( =

where [N] are the shape function of the parent
rectilinear element &{x
n
} are the nodal coordinates
of the element.The shape function will be expressed
through the natural coordinate system r,s& t.. The shape
function [N] used in the above transformation thus help
us to define the geometry of the element in the Cartesian
coordinate system. If these shape function [N] are the
same as the shape functions [N] used to represent the
variation of displacement in the element, these elements
are called isoparametric element.
{ } { }
'
n
x N x ( =

Four-Noded Two- Dimensional Element
Consideingr a quadrilateral two dimensional element the
parent element is a rectangle mapped into a square in
natural coordinates & This in turn is transformed into an
arbitary quadrilateral element with straight boundaries.the
shape function used for represeting the variation of
displacement for a four noded Rectangular ele ment given
by equation can be used to describe the geometry of the
arbitrary quadrilateral in Cartesian system. However from
computer programming point of view the terms are
rearranged to suit the description of the vector {xn} as-

1
1
1 2 3 4 2
1 2 3 4 2
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
.
.
.
x
y
N N N N x
x
N N N N y
y

(

(
=
` `
(
)

(

)

y
3
where N
i
(i= 1,2,3,4) are given by equation
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
3 4
1 1 / 4 1 1 / 4
1 1 / 4 1 1 / 4
N r s N r s
N r s N r s
= = + +
= + = +

Thus this transformation relates a unit square in r & s
coordinates to an arbitrary quadrilateral in Cartesian
(x,y) coordinates system whose shape & size are
determined by the eight nodal coordinates
x
1
,y
1
,x
2
,y
2
,x
3
,y
3
,x
4
,y
4
.The above relation also helps to
determine the x,y coordinates of any point in the
element when the corresponding natural coordinates r
& s are given.
| |
/ / / / /
/ / / / /
r x r y r x x
J
s x s y s y x

(
= =
` ` (
) )

where [J] is the Jacobian matrix. Hence the
derivatives with respect to Cartesian coordinate
system can be given as
| |
1
/ /
/ /
x r
J
y s

=
` `
) )

4 4
' '
1 1
&
i i i i
i i
x N x y N y
= =
= =

| |
1 1
1 2 3 4 2 2
3 3 1 2 3 4
4 4
y
/ / / / y
y / / / /
y
x
N r N r N x N x x
J
x N s N s N s N s
x

(
(
(
(
= =
(
(

(
(

& noting that N
i
is a function in (r,s) the Jacobian [J]
can be evaluated as
| |
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
y
1 / 4 1 / 4 1 / 4 1 / 4 y
y 1 / 4 1 / 4 1 / 4 1 / 4
y
x
s s s s x
J
x r r r r
x
(
(
+ + (
(
= = (
(
+
(

(
(

Let the inverse of | | J is required-
| |
1
11 12
21 22
J J
J J
J
(
=
(

It should be observed here that in order to transform
the x & y coordinates into r & s coordinates the
inverse of | | J must exist. Hence the determinant of
the Jacobian | | J must be non zero at every point of
(r,s).
| | | | det J / / / / 0 J x r y s x s y r = = =
11 12
21 22
11 12
21 22
0 0 / /
0 0 / /
/ 0 0 /
/ / 0 0
J J u x u r
J J u y u s
v x J J v r
v y v s J J

(
(

(
=
` `
(

(

(
) )

The strain-displacement relations can be expressed in
Matrix form as
{ }
/
1 0 0 0
/
0 0 0 1
/
0 1 1 0
/
x
y
xy
u x
v y
v x
v y

(
(

(

(
= =
` (
(
(
(

)

{ }
11 12
21 22
21 22 11 12
/
0 0
/
0 0
/

/
u r
J J
u s
J J
v r
J J J J
v s

(

(
=
`
(

(

)

4 4
' '
1 1
&
i i i i
i i
x N u y N v
= =
= =

1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1
/ 0 / 0 / 0 / 0 /
/ 0 / 0 / 0 / 0 /
/ 0 /
/
N r N r N r N r u r
N s N s N s N s u s
v r N
v s

=
`

)
1
1
2
2
3 2 3 4
3 1 2 3 4
4
4
0 / 0 / 0 /
0 / 0 / 0 / 0 /
u
v
u
v
u r N r N r N r
v N s N s N s N s
u
v

(

(

(
`
(

(

(

The stiffness matrix for the element is given by-
| | | | | || |
T
K h B C B dxdydz =
} } }

In the case of the present example of the two dimensional
element it is given by-

| | | | | || |
T
K h B C B dxdydz =
}

[k] = h [B]
T
[C] [B] dx dy dz
where h is the thickness of the element. It can be shown
that the elemental area in the Cartesian coordinates (x-y)
can be expressed in terms of the area in the area in the
local coordinates (r-s) as-
| | dxdy J drds =
| | | | | || || |
T
K h B C B J drds =
}

| | | | | || || |
T
i j
K hww B C B J =
Where K= stiffness value
i j
ww = Gauss weights
h = Thickness of the Element
B = Strain-Displacement Matrix
J = Jacobian

CONSTITUTIVE MATRIX
To determine the stresses in the members of a
structure or in a deformable solid it is necessary to
know the components of stress as a function of the
components of strain & vice versa.We assume that
material is elastic & obeys the hooks law According
to hooks law the six components of stress may be
expressed as a linear function of six component of
strain.
11 12 16
21 22 26
31 32 36
41 42 46
51 52 56
61 62 66

C C .......... C
C C .......... C
C C .......... C
C C .......... C
C C .......... C
C C .......... C
x x
y
z
xy
yz
zx
o
o
o
T
T
T
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
= (
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

x
x
xy
yz
zx

`

)

( )( )
( )
( )
( )
1- 0
/ 1 1 2 1- 0
0 0 1-2 / 2
C E

(
(
= +
(
(

So we will use
Experimental Program
This work will develop a software in c language and
this software will calculate stiffness value and then
compaired the given result.

Literature survey represents that most of the
sciencetist have been worked in the field of structural
engineering & Finite Element Analysis & the main
aim of all sciencetist is to design a safer structural
element or to protect the failure of the structural
element which occurs during the manufacturing stage
& loading condition it has been discussed that during
the manufacturing stage more residual stresses occurs
& the calculation of these stresses is must. So to
protect the failure of the structural element during
manufacturing stage & loading condition analytical
work is done. This analytical work includes the finite
element analysis for every time dependent effects &
manufacturing stage.At the time of loading, two
criteria is more important these are Stiffness & Strength
or Stress which are applying on it. so the calculation of
these values strength & stiffness is must & for the
calculation of these values this work provides a software
which will calculate the strength & stress value by using
the concept of FEM.

RESULT FOR COMPOSITE ELEMENT
Element no.
Stiffness(N/mm.)
Deflection(mm)
Element no.1 3.719254*10
-30
8.888889*10
1

Elemen t
no.2
7.528492*10
-27
8.913123*10
1

Element no.3 1.417448*10
-22
8.937357*10
1

Element no.4 -99.53938 8.961591*10
1

Element no.5 -70.1099 8.985825*10
1

Element no.6 2.247546*10
-30
8.901006*10
2

Element no.7 1.153879*10
-26
0.901006*10
2

Element no.8 -34.66768 0.905853*10
2

Element no.9 -45.76091 0.908276*10
2

Element
no.10
2.515676*10
-18
0.910700*10
2

Element
no.11
9.086976*10
-31
0.913123*10
2

Element
no.12
-73.70749 0.915546*10
2

Element
no.13
-41.55019 0.917970*10
2

Element
no.14
-34.56874 0.915546*10
2

Element
no.15
3.839850*10
-19
0.913123*10
2

Element
No16
5.390944*10
-30
0.910700*10
2

Element
No17
7.471256*10
-27
0.908276*10
2

Element
No18
-39.84877 0.905853*10
2

Element
No19
-93.23479 0.903429*10
2

Element
No20
-37.8328 0.901006*10
2

Element
No21
4.779204*10
-30
8.985825*10
1

Element
No22
-70.97516 8.961591*10
1

Element
No23
1.668300*10
-23
8.937357*10
1

Element
No24
-101.95116 8.913123*10
1

Element
No25
5.787271*10
-18
8.888889*10
1

CONCLUSION
The software developed, provides an insight into the
values of stiffness and deflection that are important to
protect the failure of the structural elements . As
discussed ,during the manufacturing stage, more
residual stresses occur and during the loading
condition, structural element failure occurs due to the
failure of the strength & stiffness value and by the
deflection value, which is calculated at the point
where the stress is maximum. To calculate all these
values, an analytical work is done and discussed by
using the FEM by which the analysis of any part or
element can be done for the building infrastructure .
By this very reason, the Finite Element Analysis has
been included for every Time dependent effects &
Manufacturing stage. This work paves a path for
structural engineering fraternity for providing the
value of stiffness, deflection and also protects the
failure of the structural elements which will be
important for both, a user of the building and the
developer who builds the structure.
References
[1]Zhigang Yu , XiaoliGuo , Fule Chu ,(2010), A
multivariable hierarchical finite element for static and
vibration analysis of Beams,Vol 46,No. ,pp 625-
631
[2]M. Lezgy-Nazargah , S.B.Beheshti Aval ,
M.Shariyat,(2010) A refined mixed globallocal
finite element model for bending analysis of
multilayered rectangular composite beams with small
widths,Vol 49,No. 2011,pp. 351-362
[3] Newmark NM, Siess CP, Viest IM. Tests and
analysis of composite beams with incomplete
interaction. Proc Soc Exp Stress Anal 1951;9(1):75
92.
[4] Spacone E, El-Tawil S. Nonlinear analysis of
steelconcrete composite structures: state of the art. J
Struct Eng ASCE 2004;30(2):15968.
[5] Leon RT, Viest IM. Theories of incomplete
interaction in composite beams. In: Proceedings of
the composite construction in steel and concrete III,
Irsee, Germany, 914 June. p. 85870.
[6] Faella C, Martinelli E, Nigro E. Steel and
concrete composite beams with flexible shear
connection: exact analytical expression of the
stiffness matrix and applications. Comput Struct
2002;80:10019.
[7] Ranzi G, Bradford MA, Uy B. A direct stiffness
analysis of a composite beam with partial interaction.
Int J Numer Meth Eng 2004;61:65772.
[8] Girhammar UA, Pan D. Dynamic analysis of
composite members with interlayer slip. Int J Solids
Struct 1993;30(6):797823.
[9] DallAsta A, Zona A. A Finite elements for the
analysis of composite members with interlayer slip.
In: Proceedings of CTA XVIII (Italian Workshop on
Steel); 2001.
[10] Griffiths DW, Nethercot DA, Rockey KC, Evans
HR. Finite element method: a basic introduction. 2nd ed.
Halsted Press; 1975.
[11] Weaver W, Gere JM. Matrix analysis of framed
structures. 3
rd
ed. Chapman & Hall; 1990.
[12] Ranzi G, Bradford MA. Time-dependent analysis of
composite beams with partial interaction using the direct
stiffness approach. UNICIV Report R-423, School of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of
New South Wales, Australia; 2004.
[13] Girhammar UA, Gopu VKA. Composite beam-
columns with interlayer slip-exact analysis. J Struct Eng
ASCE 1993;119(4):126581.
[14] Ranzi G, Bradford MA. Analytical solutions for the
time-dependent behaviour of composite beams with
partial interaction. Int J Solids Struct 2006;43:377093.
[15] Ansourian P. Experiments on continuous composite
beams. Proc Inst Eng 1981;71(Part 2):2551.
[16] Oehlers DJ, Bradford MA. Composite steel and
concrete structural members: fundamental behaviour.
Oxford: Pergamon Press; 1995.
[17] Ranzi G. Partial interaction analysis of composite
beams using the direct stiffness method. PhD thesis,
UNSW; 2003. 1214 G. Ranzi, M.A. Bradford /
Computers and Structures 85 (2007) 12061214

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES FOR COLOUR REMOVAL
Shiva Shankar Y
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Hindustan College of Science & Technology, Mathura-281122.
ysivashankar@yahoo.com.
Abhishek Kumar
Manager, Muncipal Solid Waste Department, Jamshedpur Utilities & Services Company Ltd, Jamshedpur-831001.
abmishra30@gmail.com.
Harshit Jain
UG Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005.
hjair4617@gmail.com
Devendra Mohan
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005.
devmohan9@yahoo.com.

ABSTRACT: Coloured industrial effluents discharged into surface-water bodies has become a serious
problem in India because a sizeable population depends on surface water-resources for supply. With rapid
growth of industrialization and use of synthetic dyes, conditions of surface water bodies are deteriorating fast to
the level of serious concern and sometimes, these may even be rendered unfit for certain uses. Therefore, proper
treatment of coloured effluents is one of the most urgent tasks before an environmental engineer and a number
of directions are being explored for an effective control. This paper presents a brief review on emerging
technologies that can be used for enhanced colour removal from industrial effluents.
KEY WORDS: Colour removal, emerging technologies, chitosan, coagulation and flocculation, adsorption,
sago industry, ionizing radiation.
INTRODUCTION
Coloured water is indicative of dissolved organic
material, inadequate treatment, high disinfectant
demand and the potential for the production of excess
amounts of disinfectant by-products. Inorganic
contaminants such as certain metals are also common
causes of colour. In general, the point of consumer
complaint is variable over a range from 5 to 30 colour
units, though most people find colour objectionable
over 15 colour units (USEPA 2011).
Industries like textile dyeing, pulp and paper mills and
chemicals manufacturing units generate a large
amount of coloured water. Synthetic dyes have
increasingly been used in textile and dyeing industries
because of their ease of application and cost-
effectiveness in synthesis and high stability to light,
temperature, detergent and microbial attacks. More
than 10,000 chemically different dyes are being
manufactured. The world dyestuff and dye
intermediates production are estimated to be around
710
8
kg per annum (Fatih & Sengul 2011). At
present, synthetic colouring materials have become a
big problem for the environment. Their synthetic
origin may cause interference with the natural
degradation of such materials.
The Environmental impacts can be broadly classified
into three types i.e., first level impacts, second level
impacts and third level impacts. These are classified
based on sequence of their manifestation or
occurrence after disposal. The first level
environmental impact is colouration of surface with
which it comes into contact. The common practice of
disposal of coloured water is into the streams or
nearby water bodies, chemically polluting the water
bodies and affecting the ecosystem, which constitutes
the second level impacts. Further this leads to third
level impacts, i.e., further degradation in quality due
to chemical and biological subsequent transformation
in the ecosystem conditions.
Synthetic colouring agents are harmful to human
beings and animals because of their toxicity
carcinogenicity (Birhali & Ozmen 2005; Onur &
Erinc 1998), mutagenicity (Abdou et al. 2001),
teratogenicity (Marks et al. 1981) and certain other
characteristics, which affect the human health
adversely.
The methodologies used for colour removal can be
broadly classified as physico-chemical and biological.
Commonly used methods are coagulation and
flocculation, adsorption and advanced oxidation
processes. With increasing concentration of
pollutants, application of these methods is not
satisfying the purpose completely because even traces
of remaining pollutants can affect the aquatic
ecosystems adversely. Therefore, a combination of
above-mentioned methodologies with biological
techniques can be a feasible alternative. This paper
presents a review of various methodologies proposed
recently for enhanced colour removal.

EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
Application of Bio-Polymer
Renault et al. (2009) have studied the use of chitosan
a partially deacetylated polymer obtained from the

alkaline deacetylation of chitin, a biopolymer
extracted from shellfish sources. In particular, the
development of chitosan-based materials as useful
coagulants and flocculants is an expanding field in the
area of water and wastewater treatment. Their
coagulation and flocculation properties can be used to
remove particulate inorganic or organic suspensions,
and also dissolved organic substances. Chitosan
possesses several intrinsic properties such as its non-
toxicity, its biodegradability and its outstanding
chelation behaviour that make it an effective
coagulant and/or flocculant for the removal of
contaminants in the dissolved state. It has the physico-
chemical characteristics of both coagulants and
flocculants, i.e., high cationic charge density and long
polymer chains, leading to bridging of aggregates and
precipitation. Numerous works have demonstrated
that chitosan and its derivatives (in particular grafted
biopolymers) can be a potential substitute for metallic
salts and synthetic polyelectrolytes in the treatment of
wastewater for the removal of both particulate and
dissolved substances.

Combination of Physico-Chemical Methodologies
Guendy (2010) has proposed a combination of
coagulation and adsorption processes for Acid Red
dye removal using aluminum sulfate (Alum) and
ferric chloride as coagulants and granular activated
carbon (GAC) as adsorbent. The results revealed that
application of coagulation before adsorption is most
effective in removing nearly 71- 97.7% using alum at
pH 6- 8 and 53.7- 98.9% using FeCl
3
at pH 4- 6 at a
lower dosage of both coagulants in the range of 70-
110 ppm and 20- 90 ppm dye concentration. Removal
of the dye by adsorption increased from 75- 90% by
decreasing its initial concentration from 50 to 10 ppm
for 2.5 gm GAC and from 80- 95% for 5 gm GAC at
pH 8 and equilibrium time of shaking 120 min. at
room temperature (25 2
0
C).
Riera-Torres (2010) studied use of nanofiltration,
coagulationflocculation to remove colour from five
reactive dyes namely Remazol Black 133 B (C. I.
Reactive Black 5), Procion Crimson H-EXL, Procion
Navy H-EXL, Procion Yellow H-EXL and Procion
Blue H-EXL all of them with the monochloro tri azine
reactive group and chromophore azo. Nanofiltration
was carried out using an energy saving nanofiltration
membrane in a 0.5 L pilot plant at 10 bar.
Coagulationflocculation experiments were
performed in a jar test apparatus using an anionic
polyelectrolyte flocculant, FeCl
3
as a coagulant agent
and with two different resins melamineurea
formaldehyde and polyamine resin. Results proved
that nanofiltration removed in the order of 40 and
80% of colour for the five dyes while coagulation
flocculation reached between 85 and 95% of colour
removal for four dyes except in the case of polyamine
resin for RB5. The combination of these techniques
dramatically improved the removals reaching over
98% of colour removal for all dyes except for RB5
that achieved a 90%. The combined process also
decreases COD values as it implies the use of lower
resin concentration than coagulationflocculation.

Use of Alum Sludge
Chu (2001) has effectively achieved dye removal
from textile industry wastewater using recycled alum
sludge. The removal of dyes from such wastewater by
recycled alum sludge (R.A.S.), generated by the
coagulation process itself, has been studied in detail
and optimized. One hydrophobic and one hydrophilic
dye were used as typical compounds to examine the
performance of this process.
It was found that R.A.S. is a good material for
removing hydrophobic dye from wastewater, while
simultaneously reducing the fresh alum dosage. It was
found that about one third of the fresh alum dosage
could be saved. The back-diffusion of residual dye
from the recycled sludge was detected, but it could be
easily controlled by addition of small amount of fresh
alum to the system. Use of R.A.S. is not
recommended for the removal of hydrophilic dyes,
since high solubility characteristics of such dyes can
cause deterioration in the water quality during
recycling.
Bosibuyuk et al. (2004) have studied the use of sludge
obtained from water treatment plant for treatment of
dye wastes. Potential for using this sludge for the
treatment of reactive, direct, disperse, acidic, and
basic dyestuffs by coagulation and sorption has been
studied in detail. The sludge acted as a coagulant and
removed colour with excellent efficiencies in case of
basic, disperse and direct dyes. The optimum
conditions were: pH value of 5 and a sludge dosage of
2000 mg/L. Intermediate results were obtained for
acidic and reactive dyes. Efficiency of the sludge was
also compared with alum and ferric chloride for the
same group of dyes.
The sludge was also used as a coagulant to treat the
wastewater from a textile industry. At dosage varying
from 2000-4000 mg/L, the sludge was as effective as
ferric chloride and alum removing COD. Sorption
tests have shown that disperse and reactive dyes could
not get adsorbed onto the sludge
Moghaddam et al. (2010) have described application
of coagulation and flocculation processes for dye
removal using sludge from water treatment plant.
They have also worked on optimization through
response surface methodology for ferric chloride
(FCS) sludge for the removal of Acid Red 119
(AR119) dye from aqueous solutions. The dye
removal of 96.53% was observed and it was found
that reusing the FCS as a low cost material into the
coagulation/flocculation processes in wastewater
treatment plants can offer some advantages such as
high efficiency for the dye removal and economic
savings on overall treatment plant operation costs.

Ionizing Radiation
Abdou et al. (2011) found that use of ionizing
radiation such as electron beam and gamma
irradiation could be utilized in the decolourization and
degradation of the dye waste water after dyeing cotton
fabrics with four different dyestuffs based on azo and
anthraquinone structures. The dyes used in study are
Azo Direct Blue, Azo Reactive Yellow,
Anthroquinone Reactive Blue and Anthraquinone
Direct Green. Influence of parameters like irradiation
dose, H
2
O
2
concentration, pH of the solution and dye
concentration on the percentage decolourization was
studied. Radiation technology, as an advanced
oxidation process, has been recognized as a promising
process for hazardous organic wastewater treatment.
It is well known that most coloured materials undergo
bleaching or colour changes when exposed to ionizing
radiation. Therefore, gamma and electron beam
irradiation can be considered as potential methods for
the treatment of wastewater from textile and other
industries using dyes for different purposes.
Electron beam irradiation can decompose effectively
dye molecules, but large dosages are necessary to
completely degrade dye molecules to small fragments.
Presence of H
2
O
2
can greatly promote degradation of
dye solutions and increase COD removal efficiency.
Results proved that combination of radiation
technology and other treatment process may be a
potential approach for dye wastewater treatment. The
results have indicated that dye solutions are easily
decolourized by using electron beam in presence of
H
2
O
2
than in its absence. The results showed that
decolourization of dye solution mainly depends on the
pH media in presence of H
2
O
2
, structure of dye and to
some extent the concentration of the dye. Complete
decolourization and degradation of dyes has been
achieved at pH 9 and dye concentration of 1 g/L in
case of an azo dye. Data of COD and TOC removal
confirmed relatively higher efficiency of electron
beam with respect to gamma irradiation.

Reuse of Industrial Waste Water
Senthil Kumar et al. (2011) have studied on
wastewaters from textile dyeing industries for the
decolourization and removal of degradable organics
with sago wastewater as a co-substrate in a pilot scale
two-phase upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB)
reactor. The UASB reactor was inoculated with seed
sludge from an anaerobic digester treating sago
wastewater.
Release of coloured compounds into natural water
bodies is undesirable because of their impact on
photosynthesis of aquatic plants, carcinogenic nature
of many of these dyes and their break-down products.
Sago effluent possesses high COD and it is highly
acidic and with high organic contents in nature. As a
result of discharge of sago wastewater, depletion of
dissolved oxygen may take place in water sources of
the affected area. It also causes an increase in air
pollution in terms of stringent foul odour, inorganic
carbon deposit and change of soil matrix are possible.
Advantage of combining the effluents was that the pH
gets neutralized and therefore, there remains no need
for adding caustic/lime. Similarly, the presence of
starch in the sago industry wastewater reduces
demand for the addition of nutrients during the
process. The sago effluent was utilized as co-substrate
to enhance the degradation of textile dye house
effluent which is recalcitrant in nature. The colour and
COD removal efficiency was studied by feeding the
combined wastewater of sago and textile dyeing
industry at different mixing proportions of 90:10,
80:20, 75:25, 70:30, 65:35 with COD ranging from
5200 to 6320 mg/l. The maximum COD removal was
about 53.1% in acidogenic reactor (90:10 mixing
ratio) and 88.5% in methanogenic reactor (70:30
mixing ratio). In methanogenic reactor, at organic
loading rate of 5.6 kg COD/m
3
/ d maximum COD
(88.5%) and colour (91.3%) removal were observed.

Usage of Clayey Soils
Hassan & Hameed (2011) have proposed use of Fe-
clay as effective heterogeneous Fenton catalyst for
decolourization of Reactive Blue 4. In the study
decolourization of anthraquinone dye Reactive Blue 4
(RB4) in an aqueous solution was investigated by
using Fe-ball clay (FeBC) as heterogeneous catalyst.
In heterogeneous solid catalysts, iron ions are
immobilized on the solid supports or within the
structure and in the pore/interlayer of the catalysts. As
a result, the catalysts can maintain its ability to
generate hydroxyl radicals from hydrogen peroxide,
and iron hydroxide precipitation is also prevented.
Besides showing limited leaching of iron ions, the
catalysts can be easily recovered after the reaction,
and remain active during successive operations.
Use of clays as catalysts for Fenton-like reactions is a
promising alternative for decontamination of soils,
groundwater, sediments and industrial effluents
because they are natural, abundant, inexpensive and
environment-friendly. Wide usefulness of clay
minerals is essentially a result of their high specific
surface area, high chemical and mechanical stabilities
and a variety of preferable surface and structural
properties.
Experiments were carried out with varying
combinations of Fentons reagent, ball clay and Fe-BC
catalyst on Reactive Blue dye. The results indicated
that FeBC has been proved to be a superior
heterogeneous catalyst for decolourization of RB4 in
an aqueous solution. The best operation parameters
for Fenton oxidation of RB4 were 0.80 wt.% of iron
ions loading, 5.0 g/L of catalyst dosage, and 8 mM of
H
2
O
2
for 50 mg/L initial RB4 concentration at an
initial pH 3.0 at 30C temperature. Under these
conditions, 99% decolourization efficiency of RB4 in
aqueous solution was achieved within 140 min of
reaction time. FeBC catalyst demonstrated not only
good catalytic activity, but also a reasonably small
iron leaching. This characteristic makes possible for

the catalysts to have long term stability, without
generating significant iron hydroxide sludge.

Electro Coagulation
Bahadir et al. (2011) have studied the electrochemical
decolourization of textile dye and removal of metal
ions from [textile dye|metal ion] binary mixtures of
[Acid Blue 29|Cu(II)], [Reactive Red 2|Cu(II)], [Acid
Red 97|Ni(II)], and [Reactive Blue 4|Ni(II)] using iron
anodes and Na
2
SO
4
electrolyte in a batch
electrochemical reactor. In this work, the
electrochemical process was found independent of
type of textile dye and metal ion in binary mixtures
due to the similar removal trends were observed in all
the cases. Depending on electrochemical reaction
conditions, textile dye decolourization and metal ion
removal were obtained between 70.699.7% and
64.9100% for textile dye decolourization and metal
ion removal, respectively. At response surface
optimized operating conditions, 89.498.2% textile
dye decolourization and complete metal ion removal
were achieved.
In the electro chemical treatment, rapid
decolourization achieved in the study indicated that
the acid and reactive dyes were completely degraded
into smaller and colorless organic and inorganic
molecules without any coagulant addition or any
further physicochemical processes in order to enhance
the treatment performance. It was concluded that
metal ions were removed from binary mixtures by
precipitation with OH
-
ions produced at the cathode,
by coagulation/flocculation with Fe(OH)
2
and/or
Fe(OH)
3
clusters, or by direct reduction to solid metal
on the cathode surface. Results of this study have
indicated that this electro chemical reactor could be a
feasible and an efficient alternative treatment system
for the electrochemical textile dye decolourization and
removal of metal ions from [textile dye|metal ion]
binary mixtures.

Combination of Fungal and Bacterial Treatment
Cenek et al. (2011) have studied combined fungal and
bacterial treatment for colour removal in textile
wastewater. Low efficiency of dye removal by mixed
bacterial communities and high rates of dye
decolourization by white-rot fungi suggested a
combination of both processes to be an option for
treatment of textile wastewaters containing dyes and
high concentrations of organics. In this two-step
approach, fungal application provides the
decolourization and the bacterial step the removal of
organic carbon pollution from the effluents. I. lacteus
formed sustainable biofilms usable for long periods
and was capable of rapid decolourization of various
dye structures. It maintained effective levels of
laccase during prolonged applications and both could
decolorize and detoxify the textile wastewater.
Sequential two-step application of Fungal Trickling
Filter and bacterial reactors resulted in efficient
decolorization in first step and TOC reduction of 95
97% in the two steps.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
In view of the facts mentioned above, it becomes clear
that use of emerging techniques involving
combination of methodologies, use of environment-
friendly materials like chitosan, clays and others,
reuse of sago industry wastewater and application of
ionizing radiations can enhance the colour removal
significantly. The colour removal by application of
various commonly used physico-chemical methods
like coagulation and flocculation, adsorption, etc.
varies between 60- 70%. Application of properly
selected certain techniques mentioned above can raise
the percentage upto 90-99%. In addition to these,
application of biological methodologies can add
advantages of enhanced colour removal with less
severe problem of sludge disposal.

REFERENCES
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758.
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Khalil, Z. H. (2001). Effect of cyanine dyes
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mutagenic effects in garlic (Allium Sativum L.),
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Symposium on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants.
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toxicity and teratogenenicity of six commercial
textile dyes using the frog embryo teratogenesis
assay xenopus, Journal of Drug and Chemical
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and Forster, C. F. (2004). The use of wasteworks
sludge for the treatment of dye wastes, Journal of
Environmental Technology, Vol. 1, 51-65.
Cenek, N., Katerina, S., Oldrich, B., Olga, K.,
Andreas, H. and Werner, F. (2011). Potential of
combined fungal and bacterial treatment for
colour removal in textile wastewater, Bioresource
Technology, Vol. 102, 879888.
Chu, W. (2001). Dye removal from textile dye
wastewater using recycled alum sludge, Wat. Res.
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Fatih, D. and Sengul, K. (2011). Removal of basic red
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Guendy, H. R. (2010). Treatment and reuse of
wastewater in the textile industry by means of

coagulation and adsorption techniques, Journal of
Applied Sciences Research, Vol. 6, 964-972.
Hassan, H. and Hameed, B. H. (2011). Fe-clay as
effective heterogeneous fenton catalyst for the
decolorization of reactive blue 4, Chemical
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04. 040.
Marks, T. A., Gupta, B. N., Ledoux, T. A. and
Staples, R. E. (1981). Teratogenic evaluation of
2-nitro-p-phenylenediamine,4-nitro-o-phenylene
diamine and 2, 5-toluenediamine sulfate in the
mouse, Journal of Teratology, Vol. 24, Number
3, 253-265.
Moghaddam, S. S., Moghaddam, M. R. A. and Arami,
M. (2010). Coagulation/Flocculation process for
dye removal using sludge from water treatment
plant: optimization through response surface
methodology, Journal of Hazardous Materials,
Vol. 175, 651657.
Renault, F., Sancey, B., Badot, P. M. and Crini, G.
(2009). Chitosan for coagulation/flocculation
processes an eco-friendly approach, European
Polymer Journal, Vol. 45, 13371348.
Riera-Torres, M., Gutierrez-Bouzan, C. and Crespi,
M. (2010). Combination of coagulation
flocculation and nanofiltration techniques for dye
removal and water reuse in textile effluents,
Desalination, Vol. 252, 5359.
Senthilkumar, M., Gnanapragasam, G., Arutchelvan,
V. and Nagarajan, S. (2011). Treatment of textile
dyeing wastewater using two-phase pilot plant
uasb reactor with sago wastewater as co-
substrate, Chemical Engineering Journal, Vol.
166, 1014.
USEPA (2011). Details are available online at
http://water.epa.gov.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF BED LOAD FORMULAS FOR
INTENSE BEDLOAD CHANNELS

Sumit Talukdar
Research Scholar, Dept. of Civil Engg., Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati-781039, Email:
s.talukdar@iitg.ernet.in
Bimlesh Kumar
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg., Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati-781039, Email:
bimk@iitg.ernet.in
Subashisa Dutta
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg., Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati-781039, Email:
subashisa@iitg.ernet.in

ABSTRACT: The study on Bedload transport behaviour is widely explored from the last few decades and
many semi-empirical or empirical equilibrium transport equations are developed. The phenomenon is a very
complex due to its varied physical properties like velocity, depth, slope, particle size in the alluvial system.
Alluvial channels having have been considered as intense bed load channels. is called as Einstein
transport function. In practical applications, these formulae have appreciable deviation from each other in
derivation and also their ranges of applications are different. It is imperative to know the best predictive
equations in for the field applications. Present work, based on large database of different bed load
measurements, does a comparative analysis in terms of prediction ability of different bed load equations.
Keywords: flow depth, flow velocity, sediment, incipient motion, shear stress, critical shear stress, bedload,
transport rate, alluvial river.

INTRODUCTION
Bedload transport in alluvial rivers is the principle
link between river hydraulics and river form and is
responsible for building and maintaining the channel
geometry (Parker 1979; Leopold 1994; Goodwin
2004). Bedload prediction is of primary importance
for river engineering, fluvial geomorphology, eco-
hydrology, environmental surveys and management,
and hazard prediction (Recking, 2009). Bedload
transport can be described as a random phenomenon
that is generated by the interaction of turbulent flow
structure with the materials of the bed surface
(Einstein 1950). This interaction is very complex and
as a result, attempts to model this process have
largely resulted in limited or qualified success. There
is no bedload transport until the critical variable such
as shear stress, stream power, discharge, or velocity
has been exceeded by the flow conditions and that
the bedload transport rate increases in proportion to
the increase in the flow condition beyond the critical
value. Also numerous studies, both in natural
channels and in flumes are based on this concept and
a large number of transport rate equations are
developed in the literature as use depend on the flow
conditions. The probabilistic approach to bedload
movement (Einstein 1950) offered new insight into
bedload transport processes. However, the level of
complexity made application of this method to
natural channels very difficult (Yang, 1996). A large
number of sediment transport models designed to
describe bedload have been formulated e.g. Meyer-
Peter & Mller (1948), Bagnold (1956), Bagnold
(1966), Einstein (1950), Yalin (1963), Chang et al.,
(1967). Some of the many other transport models
which can be mentioned in this context are:
Engelund & Hansen (1967), Ackers-White (1973),
Engelund & Fredse (1976) and van Rijn (1984).
Selection of an appropriate formula is very difficult
because of availability of numerous equations on
bedload transport. Field practitioners must be able to
accurately predict the sediment capacity of river
channels in order to assess physical and biological
function and stability. Hence, an attempt has been
made to analyze some of the most used equations for
their prediction capability for the field applications.

DATA SOURCE
Recking (2006) has compiled an extensive database
for bedload measurements and same has been used
here. The data are accomplished herein termed as
intense bedload transport, (Einstein parameter)is
higher than approximately 0.4 (Graf, 1998). Table 1
shows the ranges of the observations used in the
present work.
Table 1 Summary of Hydraulic Properties
Variable Average Minimum Maximum Std. Dev.
b(m)
0.55 0.10 2.00 0.38
d(m)
0.01 0.00 0.04 0.01
(SD)
1.58 1.00 8.46 1.25
s
(kg/m
3
)
2650.37 1250.00 2810.00 127.35
S
0.02 0.00 0.20 0.04
u(m/s)
0.94 0.22 2.88 0.47
y(m)
0.07 0.01 0.86 0.08
(m
2
/s) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
C(g/m
3
)
82.83x10
3
314.20 13.56x10
5
18.35x10
4

4.58 0.04 264.05 17.96


BEDLOAD TRANSPORT EQUATIONS
Hans Albert Einstein defined a bedload formula as
"an equation linking the rate of bedload
transportation with the properties of the grain and of
the flow causing the movement" (Einstein, 1942).
The various equations analyzed in the present work
out of which some of the representative approaches
have been discussed as follows:

Shear Stress Approach
The basic assumption is that, when the flow
conditions exceed the criteria for incipient motion,
sediment particles on the streambed start to move.
The transport of bed particles in a stream is a
function of the fluid forces per unit area (the tractive
force or shear stress) acting on the streambed (Du
Boys 1879, Shields 1936 & Kalinske 1947).

Energy Slope Approach
Sediment transport phenomenon is the result of many
interacting parameters and one or the other parameter
can be replaced by a function of some other ones.
One example is the wall shear stress, which depends
directly on the slope and the bed roughness. Such a
methodology has been used in energy slope
approach, which is primarily dependent on the
energy slope (Meyer-Peter et al. 1934 & Meyer-Peter
and Mller 1948).

Discharge Approach
Bedload transport is defined as the bed material
weight per unit width per unit time, g
b
(kg/sec/m)
or the volume of the transported bed material per
unit width per unit time, q
b
(m3/sec/m), given by
Yalin (1977). Simultaneously, Schoklitsch (1934,
1943) developed an expression for the critical
discharge applicability of the bed-load transport
models.

Probabilistic Approach
A paradigm change became evident as the turbulence
had to be incorporated in a more explicit form. It was
just not enough to take care of the turbulent
fluctuations by a mean wall shear stress. It is the
merit of Einstein (1942, 1950) who realized this gap
in the transport theories and started incorporating
turbulence. Einsteins law is defined by observations
that the probability that hydrodynamic forces move a
single grain on the bed depends on grain form and
the instantaneous flow condition of the near-wall
flow field and the particle moves when the resulting
forces acting on the grain are strong enough
(Einstein-Brown 1950) .

Regression Approach
Limitation of defining complex process into precise
mathematical expression, which governs the bedload
transport, has compelled researchers to use the data
driven model (regression, neural network) for
explaining bedload transport process (Rottner 1959).
Equal-Mobility Approach
Based on field data from Oak Creek (Milhous, 1973),
Parker et al. (1982) introduced the equal-mobility
theory, which states that the threshold conditions for
each size fraction is independent of grain size. As a
consequence of equal mobility, the bedload transport
rate of a certain flow can be calculated by a single
representative grain diameter as the d
50
(Parker et al.,
1982).

Although based on different approaches, these
equations rely primarily on the same general
assumptions. The fluid and sediment properties are
steady and uniform having infinite and continuous
supply of sediment for which the bedload is
transported and the sediment stored in a reach can be
neglected (Graf 1971; Gomez and Church 1989; Reid
and Dunne 1996). The ability of each approaches in
predicting bedload rate are calculated against
experimental data and the correlation coefficients
(R
2
), root mean squared errors (RMSE, ) and slope
of lines of best fit (slope) are shown in Table 2. The
better performance for R
2
, and slope are exist in
Graf and Suszki (1987), Einstein-Brown (1950), Gill
(1972), Van Rijn (1993), Julien (2002) and Wilcock
& Crowe (2003). The value R
2
of Du Boys (1879),
Wilson (1966), Graf (1971), Fernandez-Luque &
Beck (1976), Wiberg & Smith (1989), Soulsby
(1997), Ribberink (1998), Wong & Parker (2006a,
b), Mayer-Peter & Mller (1948), Parker (1979),
Ashida & Michue (1972), Engelund-Fresoe (1976),
Madsen (1991) and Wilcock (2001) curves are
similar in nature. While Shields (1936), Ashmore
(1988), Low (1989), Meyer-Peter (1934), Schoklitch
(1934), Yalin (1963), Engelund & Hassan (1967),
Nilson (1992), Fredsoe & Deigaard (1992), Brown &
Julien (1995), Camenen & Larson (2006) and
Abraham & Gao (2006) performs separate from
others. Finally, Graf and Suszki (1987) method has
the optimum values of R
2
, and slope which predicts
better values consistently close to the experimental
values. Figure 1 shows the best four comparison of
the curves (
cal
versus
obs
) proposed by different
investigators with data reported in the various studies
for sediment bedload transport at intense condition.
The figure shows considerable compatibility with the
observed .

The experimental data shows a marginally scatter
and could be explained as a set rather than well
defined curves. The discrepancy is primarily due to
particle shape, random nature of the entrainment
process, and the difficulty with defining criteria that
adequately capture this feature, but other factors may
also play a role. These comparisons show that the
estimation for bedload transport may be a standardize
phenomenon for studying the transport of sediments
over the surface.


0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Van Rijn (1993)
R
2
=0.954, =5.660, slope=0.832
C
a
lc
u
la
t
e
d

Observed
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Julien (2002)
R
2
=0.957, =5.517, slope=0.837
C
a
lc
u
la
t
e
d

Observed
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Van Rijn (1993)
R
2
=0.954, =5.660, slope=0.832
C
a
lc
u
l
a
t
e
d

Observed
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Julien (2002)
R
2
=0.957, =5.517, slope=0.837
C
a
lc
u
l
a
t
e
d

Observed
Table 2 Comparison of different approaches for
predicting intense bedload rate.
Sl. No. Formula
Statistical Parameters
R
2
Slope

1. Du Boys (1879) 0.948 1.379 1.950
2.
Shields (1936)
0.936 0.005 5.3x10
-4

3.
Wilson (1966)
0.940 3.910 0.412
4.
Graf (1971)
0.940 2.590 0.275
5. Fernandez-Luque and
van Beck (1976)
0.940 1.857 0.196
6. Graf and Suszka
(1987)
0.960 7.202 1.084
7.
Ashmore (1988)
0.930 1.060 0.095
8.
Low (1989)
0.890 1.8x10
-4
1.6x10
-5

9. Wiberg and Smith
(1989)
0.940 1.857 0.196
10.
Soulsby (1997)
0.940 1.681 0.176
11.
Ribberink (1998)
0.948 3.510 0.438
12. Wong and Parker
(2006a)
0.945 1.568 0.187
13. Wong and Parker
(2006b)
0.940 1.278 0.136
14.
Meyer-Peter (1934)
0.915 0.267 0.027
15.
MPM (1948)
0.940 2.606 0.275
16.
Schoklitsch (1934)
0.916 6.5x10
-5
6.5x10
-6

17. Einstein-Brown
(1950)
0.965 24.448 3.775
18.
Gill (1972)
0.956 2.253 4.063
19.
Parker (1979)
0.941 3.338 0.375
20.
Yalin (1963)
0.924 3.426 0.343
21. Engelund and
Hansen (1967)
0.930 12.512 1.358
22. Ashida and Michue
(1972)
0.944 4.275 0.507
23. Engelund-Fredsoe
(1976)
0.941 5.257 0.585
24.
Madsen (1991)
0.941 0.281 0.031
25.
Nilson (1992)
0.939 4.032 0.417
26. Fredsoe-Deigaard
(1992)
0.902 5.628 0.528
27.
Van Rijn (1993)
0.954 5.660 0.832
28. Brown and Julien
(1995)
0.932 5.123 0.531
29. Nino and Garcia
(1998)
0.941 14.627 1.629
30.
Julien (2002)
0.957 5.517 0.837
31. Camenen and Larson
(2006)
0.768 5.297 0.165
32. Abrahams and Gao
(2006)
0.928 4.582 0.512
33.
Wilcock (2001)
0.941 0.326 0.037
34. Wilcock and Crowe
(2003)
0.950 0.206 0.028

Fig. 1 Comparison between Measured and Observed
Bedload Transport Rate for best four formulae at
Intense Condition.

CONCLUSIONS
Bedload transport formulae are based on the idea that
a relationship exists between hydraulic conditions,
the sediments present and the sediment transport rate
(Gomez and Church, 1989). However, there are
many factors, primarily related to the temporal and
spatial resolution and accuracy of observations in
real rivers that confound this relationship for
example local shear stress and description of
sediment and surface structure. Hassan and Church


(2000) comment that in low transport regimes,
transport rate is "exceedingly sensitive" to bed
surface grain size and structure. Consequently,
transport equations are often considered unreliable
and the results variable. This paper compares most
widely used empirical bedload methods based on the
concept of sediment transport for predicting the
intensity of bedload rate. The primary aim of the
present investigation is to study the degree of
deviancy of calculated bedload rate with the
measured value. Towards this objective, an extensive
set of existing experimental data set on bedload
sediment are used to find the most successful
prediction for measured bedload transport rate at
intense conditions. Of these proposed curves it may
be indicated that Graf and Suszki (1987) curve
having high R
2
=0.960, a comparatively =7.202 and
slope=1.084. From the above thirty three methods it
may be concluded that the proposed methods are
statistically precise with the observed (measured)
bedload sediment transport.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial
support that was received from the Department of
Science and Technology, Govt. of India (SERC-
DST: SR/S3/MERC/005/2010) to carry out the
research work presented in this paper.

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ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

ANALYSIS OF ROUGHNESS AND CRACKING ON SELECTED
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT IN BANGALORE CITY

Prathima G
IV Sem M.Tech, DSCE, Bangalore, prathivijay76@gmail.com

ABSTRACT:The road surfaces are assumed to be good and even when it is free from any undulations, depressions
and any kind of cracks. These pavements undergo continuous progressive changes from the day one of its
construction since it will be opened to traffic immediately. Along with the traffic volume the climatic factors are
considered as the important parameters influencing the pavement performance condition. With the influence of these
parameters the pavement deteriorates progressively over a period of time. Thereby both the structural and functional
adequacy of the pavement to serve the required traffic is an essential criterion. The structural deterioration of the
pavement is evaluated with respect to various kinds of distresses like crack, patch, ravel etc while the functional
evaluation of the pavement is conducted with the unevenness measurements, riding comfort of the people. The
present study is planned for the future prediction of pavement distresses both structurally and functionally. The
variables such as crack area and unevenness are considered in the study. The various field studies are conducted
periodically on the selected stretch of road during different seasons of the year. The data collected are rebound
deflection studies, traffic volume increments in terms of commercial vehicles per day, crack area and other surface
distress measurements, the unevenness and riding quality measurements are made up in the analysis.
The collected data was analyzed by the development of empirical relationship (empirical model). The crack criteria
on the selected test pavement when observed for Do Nothing strategy showed the response within the
permissible limits while the roughness parameter displayed a wide range beyond the permissible limit. The
empirical relationship cannot be relied on all condition data. The real data observed for long term future predictions
is an essential criterion.

INTRODUCTION
Pavement Distress
The road pavements in India are quickly leading to the
end of their design life due to the increase in wheel load
applications and as well the increase in wheel load
repetitions. Thereby this has lead to the increase in rate
of deterioration of the pavements. Along with the
structural deterioration the functional condition of the
pavement surface also needs to be evaluated from time
to time which hereby indicates users point of view.
From the users point of view it should provide safe,
easy, comfort and fast movement of the vehicles at a
very low vehicle operation cost. The periodical
evaluation of the structural and functional deterioration
of the flexible pavements leads to the strong pavement
surface exhibiting low signs of failure.
It is important to ascertain whether certain types of
pavement distress are progressive, leading to eventual
failure of the road, or whether they are non-progressive.
Distinction will be made between two different types of
failure. The first of its kind is structural failure, includes
a collapse of the pavement structure or a breakdown of
one or more of the pavement components of such
magnitude to make the pavement incapable of
sustaining the loads imposed upon its surface. The
second, type functional failure wherein the pavement
can no longer carry out its intended function without
causing discomfort to passengers or without causing
high stresses in the plane, due its roughness. It may or
may not be accompanied by structural failure.

Pavement Performance and Deterioration
The Pavement Performance by itself is considered
as one of the complex phenomenon since it involves a
large variations in many of the features such as material
characteristics, traffic volume, the climatic and
environmental factors, the quality of construction and so
on. These varying features are termed as performance
variables. The performance variables enhances the
deterioration process such as roughness, pavement
deflection and different types of surface distress viz.,
cracks, potholes, bleeding, patchwork etc.
Pavement deterioration is a sensitive observation
that represents the progressive change in the road
pavements without any abrupt failure of the structure.
This means pavement deteriorates over a period of time
under the influence of loading and hence it is called as
Structure - Sensitive - System. The complete reliance
on pavement performance represents a static condition
wherein one must await for a relatively long period of
time before new applications are involved. The other
alternative involves the theoretical equations that are
based upon simplified assumptions and at times do not
apply to conditions as they exist in the field. It is
thereby good to rely upon both approaches.

Objectives and Scope of the Present Study
Objectives -The main objectives of the study are:
To study the performance of flexible pavements,
that are inserviceable condition in terms of
parameters such as rebound deflection, crack area
and surface unevenness condition
To develop empirical equations for structural and
functional condition deterioration of the pavements
Application of linear and non-linear curves for
evaluation of pavement performance for roughness
and crack parameters observed over a period of
time and traffic volume
Scope -
The present study is planned for pavement performance
evaluation by the analysis of pavement distress
parameters- roughness and cracking on the selected
stretch. As the two distress parameters influence both
structurally and functionally on the pavement surface
the variations are observed under the influence of traffic
volume, over period of time by the application of
empirical relationship.

Literature Review
Review of Earlier Work on Pavement Performance
Reddy B.B. (1996)
(1)
developed the pavement
deterioration models of various parameters such as
deflection, roughness and crack criteria for the analysis
of pavement performance. The crack models for two
types of pavement crust such as (BM+PC) AND
(BM+BC) were adopted. The functional evaluation of
the pavement was also taken into consideration with the
development of deterioration models as Riding Comfort
Index model (RCI). Reddy B.B. along with
Veeraragavan (2001)
(2)
presented a rational approach
for the maintenance of flexible pavements that are in
serviceable condition by development of a priority
ranking model and ranked the pavements with respect to
budget criteria. Reddy B.B. and Sharma along with
Veeraragavan (2004)
(3)
put forth the development of
flexible pavement deterioration models which reflects as
a methodology for pavement preservation. This
pavement preservation aims at preserving investments
which enhances the pavement performance by
extending the pavement life. This is one of the cost-
effective strategies planned for the pavement treatments
conducted on the existing roadways.

STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL CONCEPTS
Structural Condition of the Pavement
There are many kinds of distresses appearing on the
pavement surface, but the most prevailing mode of
distress in flexible pavement is considered to be fatigue
cracking. A crack is a common defect or a fault
observed in bituminous surfaces. This weakens the
surface structure gradually due to the percolation of
water into the surface area. Once these cracks are
initiated, immediate remedial action should be taken
else they increase in area ultimately leading to the
disintegration of the surface. The cracks develop due to
the repeated application of load on to the surface which
causes excess of tensile strain in the bituminous layers.

Functional Condition of the Pavement
The performance of the flexible pavement is defined as
a functional characteristic of the road surface that is
primarily related to level of serviceability that provides
to the users. The users opinion on the quality of the
pavement is described by the surface parameters.
Thereby pavement unevenness is the principle measure
of pavement condition. This is identified by pavement
roughness parameter. The pavement roughness is
generally defined as an expression of irregularities in
the pavement surface that adversely affect the ride
quality of a vehicle and thus the user. The roughness is
considered to be an important pavement characteristic
because it affects not only ride quality but also vehicle
delay costs, fuel consumption and maintenance costs
(vehicle operation costs).

Road roughness characteristic: It is a feature applied
all along the length of the road and this is defined by a
summary index that measures directly the longitudinal
profile and then applied for a mathematical analysis and
thereby reducing the profile to the roughness statistic.
One such roughness measure is the International
Roughness Index (IRI).

METHODOLOGY
The measure of distress can be either subjective or
objective. The subjective measurement may be a rating
of high, medium, or low based on visual inspection.
Objective measurements, are generally expensive to
obtain, it is the use of different types of automated
distress detection equipment i.e. pavement condition
rating van for condition surveys.

Crack Measurements: The cracks are measured in
terms of Crack Area Measurements. This involves the
measurement of crack length and width. They are
classified into three classes as low, medium and high
based on the cracking area per sqm. If the area is
between (0 to 5mm/sqm) it is assumed to be low, if
between (5 to 10mm/sqm) it is medium and (>10mm
/sqm) it is taken as high.

Unevenness Measurements: The Bump Integrator is
a response type road roughness measuring equipment.
The road roughness measurement made by Bump
Integrator is a manual method. While the roughness and
pavement condition estimation by a pavement condition
rating van i.e. road survey equipment called IRSM
HAWKEYE 2000 Network Survey Vehicle

DETERIORATION MODELS
Deflection Criteria

The performance of deflection is evaluated by using
linear equation. The linear equation is of the form Y =
0.0006x 0.0979, where Y = Deflection, mm and x =
Traffic Volume predicted as per equation- A = P ( 1 + r
)
x
. Future predicted deflection data is obtained by this
linear equation thereby varying the traffic volume. The
data is tabulated in table 6.1.

Crack Criteria
(Y)
( crack )ti
= ( 0.0005x
i
)
traffic
+ ( 0.8273x
i
)
deflection
+ (
0.202x
i
)
time
1.46 --------- (1)

Table.1 Crack Model Data Summary
Time
(years)
Traffic
Volume
(cvpd)
Deflection
(mm)
Crack
(%)
0.25 1797 0.95 0.11
0.50 1893 0.95 0.13
0.75 1989 1.06 0.21
1 2025 1.12 0.68
2 2177 1.21 1.03
3 2340 1.31 1.40
4 2516 1.41 1.77
5 2705 1.53 2.17
6 2908 1.65 2.57
7 3126 1.78 2.98
8 3361 1.92 3.43
9 3613 2.07 3.88
10 3884 2.23 4.35

The distress parameter crack is dependent on three
independent variables i.e. traffic volume, deflection and
y = 0.000x - 0.097
R = 0.75
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
1
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.08
1700 1800 1900 2000
D
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

m
m
Traffic Volume cvpd
Deflection mm
y = 0.000x - 0.845
R = 0.891
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
1700 1800 1900 2000
C
r
a
c
k

%
Traffic Volume cvpd
Crack/Traffic
y = 0.827x - 0.665
R = 0.965
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1
C
r
a
c
k

%
Deflection mm
Crack /Deflection
y = 0.202x + 0.049
R = 0.891
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
C
r
a
c
k

%
Time Years
Crack /Time
period of time. The above graphs shows the linear
variation of crack with these three independent
variables. The linear equations obtained from these
graphs helps to build an empirical relationship of the
form 1. By this equation 1 future prediction of crack is
obtainable. The future predicted crack values in percent
are tabulated in the table as shown below.

The crack percentage seen from the modeled data shows
a gradual rise in distress to the influence of traffic over a
period of time.

Comments
From the model, the structural parameter crack is
designed for Do-Nothing Strategy. Do-nothing option
puts no maintenance to the selected road surface from
the period of last overlay. As per the Intervention Levels
for Urban Roads
(12)
the maximum permissible cracking
for arterial roads is defined to be 5 percent. This gives a
comparison to the Table 1 of Crack Model data. The
model data shows it is within the permissible limit. Out
of the total test stretch area (say about 58500 m
2
) the
maximum crack observed at the prediction of tenth year
is about 4.35 % that indicates only about 2544 m
2
. This
cracked percent displays the Serviceability Indicator of
the test surface. The level of serviceability is good
(Level 1) with respect to cracking criteria.

Roughness Criteria
(Y)
( roughness )ti
= (1.1875 x
i
)
traffic
+ (1436.4x
i
)
deflection
+
(456x
i
)
time
+ 3078 (2)

The distress parameter roughness is dependent on three
independent variables i.e. traffic volume, deflection and
period of time. The above graph shows the linear
variation of roughness with these three independent
variables. The linear equations obtained from these
graphs helps to build an empirical relationship of the
form eqn 2. By this equation 2 future prediction of
roughness is obtainable. The future predicted roughness
values in terms of unevenness index are tabulated in the
table 2 as shown below.
Table.6.3 Roughness Model Data Summary
Time
(years)
Traffic
Volume (cvpd)
Deflection
(mm)
Roughness
(mm /km)
0.25 1797 0.95 2201
0.50 1893 0.95 2341
0.75 1989 1.06 2429
1 2025 1.12 7548
2 2177 1.21 8313
3 2340 1.31 9107
4 2516 1.41 9915
5 2705 1.53 10767
6 2908 1.65 11637
7 3126 1.78 -
8 3361 1.92 -
9 3613 2.07 -
10 3884 2.23 -
y = 1.187x + 75.72
R = 0.983
2150
2200
2250
2300
2350
2400
2450
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
R
o
u
g
h
n
e
s
s

m
m
/
k
m
Traffic Volume cvpd
Roughness/Traffic
y = 1436.x + 906.4
R = 0.629
2150
2200
2250
2300
2350
2400
2450
0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1
R
o
u
g
h
n
e
s
s

m
m
/
k
m
Deflection mm
Roughness/Deflection
y = 456x + 2095.
R = 0.983
2150
2200
2250
2300
2350
2400
2450
0 0.5 1
R
o
u
g
h
n
e
s
s

m
m
/
k
m
Time Years
Roughness/Time
COMMENTS
From the model, the functional parameter roughness is
designed for Do-Nothing Strategy. Do-nothing option
puts no maintenance to the selected road surface from
the period of last overlay. As per the Intervention Levels
for Urban Roads
(12)
the maximum permissible
roughness for arterial roads is defined to be 2000
mm/km. When this is compared to the table 2 of
roughness model data it shows a wide range in the
output value. The empirical model developed for
roughness prediction indicates this large variation in the
data is due to many random features that are influential
parameters responsible for rise in roughness.
The environmental factors (non-structural effects)
influencing roughness includes along with the
temperature the other primary aspects like moisture
variations and the sub grade movements which cause
volume changes or distortion in the pavements. These
factors are not directly related to traffic or the pavement
strength but they do influence roughness progression
substantially and are quite difficult to quantify.The
calculated model values indicate Level 3 of the
serviceability indicator. With these high values the
surface cannot be utilized without any maintenance
aspect. This shows requirement of maintenance
strategies to be undertaken during the first year of its
usage.

DISCUSSIONS
With the help of mathematical relationship an effort is
made to predict the probable future distresses
(roughness and crack parameter) of the selected
pavement surface with change in time and traffic
volume.
The observations showed that a reliable crack value is
obtained from the mathematical relationship that could
assist the highway engineers or the pavement
management studies in designing the probable
maintenance strategies. The crack criteria is within the
permissible limits as per the Intervention Level for
Urban Roads
(12)
. This indicates the pavement surface
will be in good condition for the future predicted
duration.
While the observations made with respect to the
roughness parameter shows a higher range as compared
to the Intervention Level for Urban Roads
(12)
. It is
necessary the surface needs maintenance repairs to
provide the serviceability level.
When compared among parameters i.e. deflection,
crack, and roughness values of model data it is observed
that the deflection reaches the permissible limit at 0.75
years with traffic volume equal to 1989 cvpd, the crack
is within the permissible limit even at the 10
th
year
which means there is no need for immediate
maintenance while the roughness of model data shows
the higher range i.e. beyond permissible limit at the 1
st

year as per the analysis.
This is a clear indication that either on the basis of
deflection or on roughness value the maintenance
strategy has to be built upon. On priority, the choice of
selection of distress parameter for maintenance aspect
depends on the agency who has involved in the
contractual work.

LIMITATIONS
Any road study cannot be the work of couple of months
or a year. The study needs periodical evaluation due to
various influencing factors such as environmental
impact, seasonal change, and the gradual rise in
movement of vehicles etc observed not less than 6
months interval of time. Since the present study is
based on future predictions of pavement distresses by
the development of empirical relationship, it seems to
be acceptable criteria for certain parameters while for
other parameters it cannot be relied upon. There by the
real data obtained with due course of observations can
be more reliable.

FUTURE SCOPE
This available data can be made use of, in future for
developing the generalized model relationship which
helps for long term prediction of highway projects. If
the work is further continued periodically, the regular
observations help in developing the reliable model.

REFERENCES
Reddy B.B. (1996), Development of Failure Criteria
for Flexible Pavements , Ph. D Thesis, Bangalore
University, Bangalore, December 1996.
Reddy B.B. and Veeraragavan, A, (2001), Priority
Ranking Model for Managing Flexible
Pavements at Network Level, Paper No. 478,
Journal of Indian Roads Congress, Volume 62-
3, December 2001.
Reddy B.B, Sharma R.S, Veeraragavan A, (2004),
Development of Flexible Pavement Preservation
Framework for an Integrated Asset Management,
Paper No.505, Journal of Indian Roads Congress,
Volume 65-2.
S.S. Naidu, Dr.P.K. Nanda, Pawan Kalla, Dr. P.K.
Kanchan and K. Sitaramanjaneyulu (2005),
Pavement Maintenance Management System for
Urban Roads Using Software HDM 4- A Case
Study, Journal of Indian Roads Congress, Volume
66-3, October 2005.
Maj. Shailendra Singh and Veeraragavan. A, (2007),
Preventive Maintenance: Cost Effective
Technique to Preserve Indian Highways, Highway
Research Bulletin, Journal No. 77, Indian Roads
Congress, 2007
Indian Roads Congress (1983), Geometric Design
Standards For Urban Roads In Plains, IRC: 86-
1983, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
Ralph Haas, W. Ronald Hudson, and John Zaniewski
(1994), Modern Pavement Management, Krieger
Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida, 1994.

Pavement Performance Study, Study on Existing
Pavement Sections, Ministry of Surface Transport,
Volume-2, September 1994, Central Road Research
Institute, New Delhi.
Indian Roads Congress (1997), Guidelines for
Strengthening of Flexible Road Pavements
Using Benkelman Beam Deflection Technique,
IRC: 81-1997, Indian Roads Congress, New
Delhi.
Indian Roads Congress (2001),Guidelines for the
Design of Flexible Pavements, IRC:37- 2001,
Indian Roads congress, New Delhi.
Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (2001),
Manual for Construction and Supervision of
Bituminous Works, Indian Roads Congress, New
Delhi.
Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (2004),
Guidelines for Maintenance Management of
Primary, Secondary and Urban Roads, Indian
Roads Congress, New Delhi.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7
INVESTIGATIONS OF MIXING IN MECHANICALLY STIRRED TANK:
COMPARISON OF CD-6 IMPELLER AND RUSHTON TURBINE
Thiyam Tamphasana Devi
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
Guwahati-781039, Assam, India. d.thiyam@iitg.ernet.in

Bimlesh Kumar

Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
Guwahati-781039, Assam, India.bimk@iitg.ernet.in

ABSTRACT: For proper designing of stirred tank, it is necessary to know the detail mechanism of the
hydrodynamics of fluid inside the stirred tank. The study on the non standard (i.e., CD-6) impeller is found very less
in literature as compare with standard impeller like Rushton turbine. This study contributes on the comparative study
of CD-6 impeller and Rushton turbine. The hydrodynamics of mechanically baffled stirred tank (T=27 cm diameter)
of CD-6 impeller and Rushton turbine (d=9.3cm diameter) mounted at T/3 from tank bottom was being investigated
using commercial software (Fluent
) of computationally fluid dynamics (CFD). The results of the CFD simulation

was compared with published literature studied on Rushton turbine. Multiple reference frames (MRF) impeller
model and realizable k- turbulence model coupled with first order upwind differencing discretization schemes were
applied in this simulation. The nature of the flow field and turbulence field at various radial were investigated. It is
learnt that the presented numerical model in this study is underpredicted from the experimental observation but good
accepatable pattern is achieved. From the comparative study of this numerical model, it is concluded that CD-6
impeller gives good mixing property than the Rushton turbine.

Key words: Hydrodynamics, Stirred tank, CFD, Rushton turbine, CD-6, MRF
1. INTRODUCTION
In the industrial process like chemical, mineral and
wastewater treatment industries, mechanically stirred
tanks are widely used for either simple liquid mixing or
for more complex multiphase processes. Even a simple
tank is geometrically complex and under most
operating conditions the flow is turbulent. In order to
understand the complex phenomena that occur in such
tanks, it is necessary to investigate the flow fields as
well as turbulence field in the vessels. The total mixing
in a stirred tank depends on the mean flow and
turbulence, which in turn also depends on the shape of
impeller (Dewan et al. 2006). In recent years, a more
fundamental approach has been taken to the
understanding of the mixing process through detailed
studies of the flow pattern created by an impeller
(Shekhar & Jayanty 2002). The geometry of an
impeller of stirred tank plays major role in optimum
design of stirred tanks (Driss et al. 2010). The optimum
design and the efficiency of mixing operations are
important parameters on product quality and production
costs.

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has become a
very powerful tool in the process industry not only for
the research and development of new processes but also
for the understanding and optimization of existing ones
(Aubin et al. 2004). Using CFD, one can understand
the mechanism of mixing of fluids in mixing tanks with
much easier and economical means than the use of
experiments (Rao and Sivashanmugam 2010). The
accuracy of CFD model depends mainly on various
factors like impeller model, turbulence model,
discretization scheme, convergence criteria, etc. and
hence for better results one has to select these factors
suitably and wisely.

The property of mixing can be defined indirectly in
terms of flow field and turbulence field. The magnitude
of these fields depend on the various geometric
parameters of stirred tank like shape & size of tank and
impeller, number of impeller blade, rotational speed of
impeller, impeller submergence depth, type of fluid,
shape, size & number of baffles, etc. It is well known
that baffled stirred tank possess better mixing than the
unbaffled stirred tank. This is because of the
improvement in mixing of the swirling motion of the
fluid producing complex recirculating turbulent flow in
the tank due the interaction of the fluid flow with the
stationary baffles. The velocity and turbulent field were
investigated by Wu and Patteron (1989) experimentally
based on baffled Rushton turbine using Laser Doppler
Velocimeter (LDV). They found from their study that
the mean velocities, pumping capacities, and turbulence
intensities in the impeller stream were approximately
proportional to the impeller speed. And if these values
normalized with impeller tip velocity then it become a
function of position in the tank only, not a function of

impeller speed. In this study, the experimental values of
axial and radial velocities of Wu and Patterson (1989)
were compared with the simulated values studied on
Rushton turbine and CD-6 impeller. The main objective
of this study is to carry out a comparative study on
Rushton turbine and CD-6 impeller as the published
literature based on CD-6 impeller has been found very
less as compared to Rushton turbine.

2. GEOMETRY OF STIRRED TANK
The detail of the stirred tank used in this study is taken
same with the dimension used by Wu and Patterson
(1989) and is shown in figure 1(a). The diameter of the
stirred tank (T) is 27cm and impeller diameter is (d)
9.3cm mounted at a height of (C) T/3 from tank bottom
and open at top. The fluid used is water and filled at a
height (H) equal to the tank diameter. (i.e., 27cm). The
speed of the impeller is 200rpm. The generated
unstructured grid (835515 cells) is shown in figure 1
(b).

(a) (b)
Fig. 1. (a) Geometry of stirred tank used in this study
(b) Unstructured grid of stirred tank.
3. METHODOLOGY
CFD simualtion was performed to annalyze the velocity
and turbulence field of stirred tank and velocity fields
were compared with the Wu and Patterson
experimental results. The theory involved in CFD
simulation is discussed in section 3.1.

3.1. Theory
The two equations involved in computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) modelling are conservation of mass
and conservation of momentum (Reynolds-averaged
Navier-Stokes).
The continuity equation is a statement of conservation
of mass.
( ) 0
i
i
U
t
x

(1)
The momentum equation is a statement of conservation
of momentum in each of the three component
directions. Apart from momentum transport by
convection and diffusion, several momentum sources
are also involved.
i i ij
k
k
i
j
j
i
j i
j i
i
i
F g
x
U
x
U
x
U
x x
p
U U
x t
U

)]
3
2
( [
) (
) (
(2)
In equation (2), the convection terms are on the left.
The terms on the right hand side are the pressure
gradient, a source term; the divergence of the stress
tensor, which is responsible for the diffusion of
momentum; the gravitational force, another source
term; and other generalized forces (source terms),
respectively.

k- turbulence model is a widely used model in CFD
because of its reasonable accuracy for a wide range of
turbulent condition in an agitated vessel (Rao and
Sivashanmugam 2010). In the turbulent regime,
fluctuations in the mean velocity and other variables
occur, and their effect needs to be incorporated into the
CFD model in order for the model to be able to provide
meaningful results. This is done through the use of a
turbulence model. A process of time averaging the
conservation equations for turbulence is included in
Navier-Stokes equations. When the turbulence is
included the transported quantity (velocity), is assumed
to be the sum of an equilibrium and a fluctuating
component,
'
i i
u U . After time-averaging over many
cycles of the fluctuation, terms containing factors of the
fluctuating component average to zero. Hence equation
(2) becomes
i i
j
j i
j
ij
k
k
i
j
j
i
j i
j i
i
i
F g u u
x x
U
x
U
x
U
x x
p
U U
x t
U

) ( )]
3
2
( [
) (
) (
'
(3)
Equation (3) is called Reynolds-Averaged Navier-
Stokes, RANS equation for momentum.
The new term,
' '
j i
u u (bar indicates average) is called
the Reynolds stresses. The two transport equations that
need to be solved for the kinetic energy of turbulence,
k, and the rate of dissipation of turbulence, :

k
i k
t
i
i
i
G
x
k
x
k U
x t
k
) ( ) (
) (

(4)

k
C G
k
C
x x
U
x t
k
i
t
i
i
i
2
2 1
) ( ) (
) (

(5)
C
1
, C
2
,
k
and
are empirical constants. G

k
is the
generation term; the product of velocity gradients and
depends on turbulent viscosity:
i
j
i
j
j
i
t k
x
U
x
U
U
U
G
) (

(6)

2
k
C
t

(7)
The solutions for k and are used for solving the
turbulent viscosity,
t
. Using the values of
t
and k,
the Reynolds stresses can be calculated in equation (3)
and the new velocity components are used to update the
turbulence term, G
k
(eqn. 6).

The three families of k- turbulence model are standard,
renormalization group (RNG) and realizable. The
standard is a semi-empirical and the two transport
equations that need to be solved for this model are for
the kinetic energy of turbulence, k, (eqn. 4) and the rate
of dissipation of turbulence, (eqn. 5). RNG is a
modified version of the k- model improving the results
for swirling flows and flow separation. The Realizable
k- model is the recently developed model addition to
the family of k- model. The realizable k- is
considered to be a better model than the standard k-
for stirred tank flows, as better accounts for flow
features such as strong streamline curvature, vortices
and rotation (Gimbun et al. 2009). It contains a new
formulation for the turbulent viscosity,
t
(eqn. 7) and a
new transport equation for the dissipation rate, . The
turbulent viscosity,
t
is computed using a variable for
the quantity of C.

Multiple reference model (MRF), snapshot model,
sliding model (SM) are the most commonly used
impeller models in CFD. They mentioned about the
three main generalized impeller model as MRF
(Gentric et al. 2005, Deglon & Meyer 2006, Singh et al.
2007), SM (Shekher & Jayanty, 2002, Zadghaffari et al.
2010) and snapshot (Ranade et al. 1996, 2001). In MRF
approach, a rotating frame is used for the region of the
rotating components while a stationary frame is used
for stationary regions. Impeller is at rest in the rotating
frame and the tank walls are at rest in the stationary
frame. The grid used for an MRF solution must have a
perfect surface of revolution surrounding each rotating
frame. The snapshot model (Ranade 1996) is a steady
state approach that captures the flow field at a single
instant in time, when the impeller position relative to
the baffles is fixed (Marshall & Bakker 2002). The SM
model is a time-dependent solution approach in which
the grid surrounding the rotating components
physically moves during the solution.

The order of discretization refers to the convective
terms in the governing equations. The CFD available
discretization schemes are central differencing scheme,
first order and second order differencing scheme, Quick
differencing scheme. Central differencing scheme is
suitable for when the LES (large eddy simulation)
turbulence model is used. First order upwind
differencing scheme is suitable when the convection
dominates and the flow is aligned with the grid. Second
order is modified version of first order and QUICK is
also similar with second order upwind differencing
scheme (Marshall & Bakker 2002).

3.2. CFD Simulation
The CFD software Fluent

was used to analyze the
fluid flow and turbulence flow of stirred tank. Full tank
dimension was used for the generation of unstructured
grid (835515 cells). The theoretical background
involved in CFD simulation has been mentioned in the
previous section (3.1). The impeller model adopted in
this study is MRF as it is suitable for baffled stirred
tank. Realizable k- model is used for turbulence model
as it is suitable for swirling turbulent motion of fluid
flow with first order upwind differencing discretization
scheme. First order upwind differencing discretization
scheme is a simple model, it does not take time to
simulate and memory usage is also very less as
compared with other discretization models. The
convergence criterion for all the equation (continuity,
velocity, k and ) considered in this study is 10
-4
.

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The mean radial and axial velocity normalized by
V
tip
=Nd measured at radial distance, r=5 & 9cm is
shown in figure 2(a-b) and figure 3 (a-b) respectively.
The typical pattern of radial velocity achieved by
experimental results isobserved similar with the
simulated values. In case of the experimental and
predicted results of Rushton turbine, it is observed that
the simulated results is underpredicted from the
experimental result mostly at the central and tip region
of impeller. This may be due to the creation of
complexity of turbulence flow particularly in this
region. If we consider only the simulated values of
radial velocity for CD-6 impeller and Rushton turbine,

more magnitude is observed in case of CD-6 impeller.
The variation in the values of radial velocity due to the
variation in radial distance can be seen from figure 2(a-
b). The maximum magnitude of radial velocity
measured at r=5cm (exactly near the impeller tip) is
found greater than the magnitude measured at r=9cm
(farther distance from the axis of shaft) for both the
case of CD-6 impeller and Rushton turbine. The
maximum mgnitude of radial velocity at radial
distance, r=5cm for experimental is 0.75 while the
simulated values are 0.5 V
tip
amd 0.6 V
tip
for Rushtone
turbine and CD-6 impeller respectively.

(a) r=5cm

(b) r=9cm
Fig. 2. Mean radial velocity at radial position (a) r
=5cm and (b) r=9cm
This discrepancy of radial velocity in the CFD
simulation may be corrected by selecting appropiate
convergence criteria or other parameters like impeller
model, turbulence model, discretization scheme, etc.
In case of axial velocity, the typical pattern achieved
experimentally is little different from the simulated
result. The CD-6 impeller shows more convincing
results than the Rushton turbine (figure 3a & 3b). There
is always some discrepancy in CFD simulation when it
is compared with experimental results. Axial velocity
also found vary with the variation in radial distance and
the curve nature is seen near the impeller tip (r=5cm).
When the radial distance nearer to the tank wall, the
nature of axial velocity tends to straightness. This is
due to the resistance imposed by the stationary wall of
tank. It resists the freely movement of fluid particles
inside the tank. Due to the assumption of no slip
condition the flow field near the tank wall is expected
to be neglible and is observed in figure 3b as its radial
distance (r=9cm) is likely to approach near the tank
wall.

(a) r=5cm

(b) r=9cm
Fig. 3. Mean axial velocity at radial position (a) r=5cm
and r=9cm


(a) top view at z=10.5cm (CD-6) (b) top view at z=10.5cm (Rushton)

(c) front view at y=0 (CD-6) (d) front view at y=0 (Rushton)
Fig. 4. Vectors of turbulent kinetic energy, k (m
2
/s
2
) showing (a-b) top veiw at just above the impeller blade (i.e.,z=10.5cm
from bottom of tank) and (c-d) front view at the centre of tank (i.e.,y=0) for CD-6 impeller and Rushton turbine
respectively.
The vectors of turbulent kinetic energy, k (m
2
/s
2
) just above
the impeller blade (z=10.5cm) and exactly half of the tank
(y=0) for CD-6 impeller and Rushtone turbine were
presented in figure 4(a-d). turbulent kinetic energy is one of
the most important parameter for defining the mixing
capacity and performance of a stirred tank (see Wu &
Patterson 1989). The formation of a pair of trailing vortices
behind the blades of Rushton turbine is well known in
baffled stirred tanks mentioned by Alcamo et al. (2005) and
also witnessed in this simulation (figure 4d). The magnitude
of turbulent kinetic energy in these figures 4a-d shows that
the CD-6 impeller produces more kinetic energy but the
strong flow path (clear flow lines) is seen in the case of
Rushton turbine.

5. CONCLUSION
Numerical prediction of Rusthon turbine is comparable with
earlier published experimental results. The radial velocity
and turbulent kinetic energy around impeller shows the
mixing capability of that particluar impeller. Non-standard
impeller such as curved blade shows appreciable increase in
radial velcoity when compared with Rushton turbine.
Simulation also predits more turbulent kinetic energy for
CD-6 than Rushton turbine, which implies that CD-6
impeller has more mixing capability than Rusthon turbine.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by a research grant from Indian
Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati
(SG/CE/P/BK/01).

Notation
C=height of impeller from tank bottom, m
C
1
, C
2,
C,
k
,
=turbulence model constant

CD-6=chemineer disk
CFD=computational fluid dynamics
d=impeller diameter, m
F
i
=net force in the i direction, N
g=gravitational acceleration (m/s
2
)
G
k
=generation term for turbulence, kg/ms
3

H=height of fluid (water), m
k=turbulent kinetic energy, m
2
/s
2

MRF=multiple reference frame
N=impeller rotation speed, s
-1

rpm=revolution per minute
T= tank diameter, m
t=time, s
V
z
=axial velocity, m/s
u
i
=fluctuating velocity component in the direction i, m/s

U
i
=velocity components in the direction i, m/s
U
j
= velocity components in the direction j, m/s
U
k
=velocity components in the direction k, m/s
V
r
=radial velocity, m/s
V
tip
= dN, m/s
z=vertical height, m
r=radial distance, m
ij
=kronecker delta
=turbulent dissipation rate, m
2
/s
3

=dynamic viscosity of the fluid, Pa.s
t
=turbulent viscosity, kg/ms
=3.14
=density of fluid, kg/m
3

REFERENCES
Alcamo, R., Micale, G., Grisafi, F., Brucato, A. and
Ciofalo, M. (2005) Large-eddy simulation of turbulent
flow in an unbaffled stirred tank driven by a Rushton
turbine. Chemical Engineering Science, 60, 2303-2316.
Ankmma, R.D. and Shivashanmugam, P. (2010)
Experimental and CFD simulation studies on power
consumption in mixing using energy saving turbine
agitator. Journal of Industrial and Engineering
Chemistry, 16, 157-161.
Aubin, J., Fletcher, D. F. and Xuereb, C. (2004) Modeling
turbulent flow in stirred tanks with CFD: the influence
of the modeling approach, turbulence model and
numerical scheme. Experimental Thermal and Fluid
Science, 28, 431445.
Deglon, D.A. and Meyer, C.J. (2006) CFD modelling of
stirred tanks: Numerical considerations. Minerals
Engineering, 19, 1059-1068.
Dewan, A., Buwa ,V. and Durst, F. (2006) Performance
optimizations of grid disc impellers for mixing of single-
phase flows in a stirred vessel. Chemical Engineering
Research and Design, 84(A8), 691-70.
Driss, Z., Bouzgarrou, G., Chtourou, W., Kchaou, H., and
Abid, M.S. (2010) Computational studies of the pitched
blade turbines design effect on the stirred tank flow
characteristics. European Journal of Mechanics
B/Fluids, 29, 236-245.
Gentric, C., Mignon, D., Bousquet J. and Tanguy ,P.A.
(2005) Comparision of mixing in two industrial gas-
liquid reactors using CDF simulations. Chemical
Engineering Science, 60, 2253-2272.
Gimbun, J., Rielly, C.D. and Nagy, Z.K. (2009) Modelling
of mass transfer in gas-liquid stirred tanks agitated by
Rushton turbine and CD-6 impeller: A scale-up study.
Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 87, 437-
451.
Marshall, Elizabeth Marden and Bakker, Andre. (2002)
Computional Fluid Mixing. Fluent, Incorporated, USA.
Ranade, V.V. and Dometti, S.M.S. (1996) Computational
snapshot of flow generated by axial flow impellers in
baffled stirred vessels. Trans. IChemE, 74(A), 476-484.
Ranade, V.V., Perrard, M., LeSauze, N., Zubeb, C., and
Bertrand, J. (2001) Trailing vortices of Rushton turbine
PIV Measurements and CFD Simulations with Snapshot
Approach. Chemical Engineering Research and Design,
79(A), 3-12.
Shekhar, S.M. and Jayanti, S. (2002) CFD study of power
and mixing time for paddle mixing in unbaffled vessels.
Trans IChemE, 80(A), 482-498.
Singh, K.K., Mahajani, S.M., Shenoy, K.T., Patwardhan,
A.W. and Ghosh, S.K. (2007) Chemical Engineering
Science, 62, 1308.
Wu, H., Patteron, G.K. (1989) Laser Doppler measurements
of turbulent-flow parameters in a stirred mixer.
Chemical Engineering Science, 44, 2207-2221.
Zadghaffari, R., Moghaddas, J.S. and Revstedt, J. (2010)
Large eddy simulation of turbulent flow in a stirred tank
driven by a Rushton turbine, Computers & Fluids, 39,
1183-1190.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


ESTIMATION OF HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION FROM
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE LANDFILL AT KOLKATA USING
EPACMTP MODEL

Sanjukta Basak
Master of Engineering Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata -700032, India.
Email: sanjukta_86@yahoo.co.in.
Subhasish Chattopadhyay
Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata -700032, India.Email:
subharpita@rediffmail.com.
Swapan Kumar Mukhopadhyay
Reader, Department of Civil Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata -700032, India. Email: swapanju2003@yahoo.co.in.
Amit Dutta
Reader, Department of Civil Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata -700032, India.
Email: amitt55@yahoo.com; amittdutta@civil.jdvu.ac.in.

ABSTRACT: In developing countries like India, rapid population growth and economic development is resulting in
significant increase in municipal solid waste (MSW). Presently a very crude system of waste management is
followed throughout the country. Disposal of solid waste is generally done in open dumps with no liner or leachate
collection systems. Kolkata; one of the four metropolitan cities in India is generating around 3000 MT/day of MSW.
The city with sufficient precipitation during monsoon coupled with unlined landfill sites give birth to considerable
amount of polluted leachate having high organic and inorganic content, which has high probability of contaminating
soil, surface water and ground water and render the water resource unfit for municipal use. EPAs Composite Model
for Leachate Migration and Transformation Products (EPACMTP) model has been used to evaluate migration of
heavy metal through the ground-water pathway from MSW landfill site at Dhapa, Kolkata to down-gradient
arbitrary drinking water wells situated in the shallow aquifer. Landfill without any cover or liner system is treated as
a finite depleting source. The model uses Monte-Carlo method to generate a probability distribution of well
concentrations that reflects the variability in the various modeling parameters. Leachate generation from open
dumping ground at Dhapa having an area of 21.4 hectare and almost 20 m height is (900-1000) L/m
2
/year as
estimated by EPAs Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance (HELP) Model. For Kolkata the aquifer
saturated thickness is set as 10 m and the unsaturated zone (silty clay loam soil) thickness or depth to ground water
table as 20m. The aquifer hydraulic conductivity is set at 1890 m/year, hydraulic gradient as 0.0057. MSW of
Kolkata is polluted with heavy metals like Hg (1mg/kg), Cd (3mg/kg), total Cr (43.9mg/kg), Cu (54.4mg/kg) and Pb
(788mg/kg). Average heavy metal concentration in leachate from Dhapa dumping ground is 0.05mg/L Cr, 0.045
mg/L Cd, 0.0055mg/L Hg, 0.075mg/L Pb and 0.2mg/L Cu (KEIP, 2005). Considering leak as 986 L/m
2
/year and
recharge into the subsurface strata from surrounding as 456 L/m
2
/year, at a receptor well situated 500m distance
away from the landfill and at 25m depth below ground level, peak concentration of Cr, Hg, Cd, Cu and Pb are
found to be 0.2585 mg/L, 0.002843 mg/L, 0.02326mg/L 0.1034mg/L and 0.03877mg/L respectively and these
concentration remains in the receptor well for ~ 1419, 876.7, 1140, 5144 and 9600 years respectively and then starts
decreasing. When leachate quantity is reduced to 43 L/m
2
/year by providing good top cover comprising vegetative
soil, drainage layer and barrier clay layer then peak concentration of all these heavy metal are found to be well
within their respective DWS.
Key words: Heavy Metal Pollution, MSW, Landfill Leachate, Groundwater Pollution, EPACMTP Model.
INTRODUCTION
In developing countries the management of municipal
solid wastes is becoming a major problem (Visvanathan
& Glawe, 2006), (Glawe et al., 2005). Rapid population
growth, economic development and modernization are
leading to generation of huge amount waste. India with
1.21 billion populations is generating MSW at the rate
of 100 gpcd in small towns and 500 gpcd in large
towns. Open dumping of waste is done all over the
country which does not provide liner or leachate
collection (Singhal & Pandey, 2001), (Kumar, 2005)
and treatment facility and thus pose a reasonable
probability of adverse effects on health and
environment (Sahu, 2007).

India receives huge amount of rainfall and almost 70
% of the annual rainfall occurs during the monsoon.
Thus undoubtedly landfill sites produce huge amount

of polluted leachate having high organic and inorganic
content, which can contaminate soil, surface water and
ground water and render the water resource unfit for
municipal use (Rao & Shantaram, 2003), (Saha et al.,
2003). Dumping of electronic goods, electro plating
waste, painting waste, used batteries, etc. in MSW
landfills and is resulting in increased concentration of
heavy metal in leachates which in turn is polluting the
groundwater. Electronic goods contribute around 70%
of the heavy metals in landfills. India is importing
electronic waste specially computers having high lead,
mercury and cadmium concentration from Singapore,
South Korea and US for disposal (Esakku et al., 2003).
Further some small scale industries dumps their wastes
in MSW landfills which is also an eminent source of
heavy metals. Heavy metals like Cr, Hg, Pb, Cd, Cu
found in leachate are of great concern as they are toxic,
carcinogenic, non biodegradable and can undergo
bioaccumulation and biomagnifications
(Tchobanoglous. et. al., 1993), (Oman & Junestedt,
2008). In India almost 61% of the water needs are
fulfilled with ground water but this limited available
water source is getting polluted by migrating leachate
(Iqbal & Gupta, 2009), (Murray et al., 1981),
(Varshney, 2008), (Jhamnani & Singh, 2009), (Mor et
al., 2006), (ESG, 2011), (Sabahi et al., 2009a,b),
(Yusoff & Al-Hawas , 2008), (Niininen et al., 1994),
(Bhalla et al., 2011).

To find out the extent of contamination of ground
water, conducting field test is costly and time
consuming. Therefore use of validated models (Mohan
& Muthukumaran, 2004), (Mirbagheri et al., 2009),
(Rouholahnejad & Sadrnejad, 2009) for this purpose is
becoming a common practice. EPAs Composite Model
for Leachate Migration and Transformation Products
(EPACMTP) is one such validated model which has
been used around the world (Isukapalli, 1999), (Li &
Benson, 2009), (Reinhart & McCreanor, 1999).

Kolkata, one of the four metropolitan cities of India is
not an exception to the above stated situation
(Chattopadhyay et. al., 2009) yet not much work has
been done on quantitative analysis of leachate and its
impact on ground water. EPACMTP has been used to
evaluate migration of metal through the ground-water
pathway from MSW landfill site at Dhapa Kolkata to
down-gradient arbitrary drinking water wells situated in
the shallow aquifer.

STUDY AREA
Kolkata with 9 million populations generates
3000T/day of MSW as on 2006 analysis and is
estimated to reach 3750 T/day by the year 2025
(Chattopadhyay S et al., 2007a). There is no source
segregation arrangement, only 60% house-to-house
collection and 5055% open vats are used in the
present collection system (Chattopadhyay S et al.,
2009). Almost all of the waste generated is collected
and transported to the disposal site but a very crude
disposal system is followed.
In Kolkata also open dumping (without liners and
without a leachate management facility) is carried out
in the Dhapa dumping ground situated in the eastern
fringe of the city. It has been in use for around 20
years and now it has exhausted. The Dhapa dumping
ground has an average area of 21.4 ha. (KEIP, 2005).
The waste pile with no intermittent or top cover is
almost a vertical structure with 20 m average height
(Chattopadhyay S et al., 2007b). Currently some area
adjacent to this site has been acquired by KMC and
dumping is going on over there.

The physical composition of MSW of Kolkata is given
in Table 1 (Chattopadhyay S et al., 2009). Density of
MSW is 850 kg/m
3
(CPHEEO, 2000). The specific
gravity of the waste is calculated as 1.58, total porosity
of the MSW has been calculated as 0.694 (v/v)
(Murthy, 1989) and moisture content as 46 %.

Table 1 Average physical composition of municipal
solid waste of Kolkata
Components Wet
Weight %
Components Wet
Weight %
Compo-sable 50.56 Rubber
leather
0.68
Paper 6.07 Rags 1.87
Plastic 4.88 Wood 1.15
Glass 0.34 Coconut 4.5
Metal 0.19 Bones 0.16
Inert 29.6

MSW of Kolkata is polluted with heavy metals like Hg
(1mg/kg), Cd (3mg/kg), total Cr (43.9mg/kg), Cu
(54.4mg/kg) and Pb(788mg/kg). Kolkata situated at
22.34
0
N latitude and longitude 88.24
0
E receives
plenty of rainfall and produces huge amount of
leachate containing high concentration of organic and
inorganic pollutants (Saha et al., 2003). Natural
leachate collected around the old dumping grounds at
Dhapa is found to have 0.43-0.85 mg/L Cr, 0.04-0.05
mg/L Cd, 0.002-0.009 mg/L Hg, 0.07-0.08 mg/L Pb
and 0.06-0.28 mg/L Cu. Other than heavy metals
natural leachate contains high BOD (375-425mg/L),
COD (2455-2545 mg/L), Cl
-
(3520-3943mg/L), TKN
(228.6-585.5mg/L), TDS (9912-10186mg/L) and
phenolic compounds < 1mg/L(KEIP, 2005).

Therefore to find the effect of leachate percolating into
the ground water, the sub surface soil strata of the city
has been studied. The vadose zone below the ground
surface generally contains 10 to 25m silty clay loam

and its hydraulic conductivity varies between 10
-8
to 10
-
5
cm/sec. Below this a fine sand bed is found which is
the first shallow aquifer 10 to 20 m thick having
hydraulic conductivity of around 10
-3
cm/sec. Though
the second aquifer at a depth of 80 - 90 m is the most
potential and exploited aquifer of Kolkata, yet many
parts of surrounding areas still use the shallow aquifer
as drinking water source. The ground water flow in the
Dhapa area is predominantly from east to west i.e. from
landfill to city (KEIP, 2005), (Sengupta, 2009).

The analysis of water samples from the shallow aquifer
(19-25 m) around the Dhapa dumping ground clearly
brings out the inherent poor chemical quality of the
groundwater. The tube wells tapping deeper ground
water at 80-90m below in the Dhapa area have high
concentrations of phenolic compounds at places, high
Fe, Mn, high TDS (Ca, Mg and Cl content ) and
occasionally high Cr (KEIP, 2005).

METHODOLOGY
EPACMTP simulates the fate and transport of dissolved
contaminants from a point of release at the base of a
different waste disposal unit (e.g. landfill), through the
unsaturated zone and underlying groundwater, to a
receptor well at an arbitrary downstream location in the
aquifer. It takes into account various site specific,
constituent specific, unsaturated zone specific and
aquifer specific parameters. Deterministic or Monte
Carlo methodology can be used to model continuous or
finite source (EPA, 200a).

Landfill without any cover or liner system is treated as
a finite depleting source. Monte-Carlo method has been
used to generate a probability distribution of well
concentrations that reflects the variability in the various
modeling parameters. Though Monte-Carlo analysis has
been done yet site specific infiltration, recharge and soil
characteristics has been given as a constant value. Thus
a combination of Monte Carlo and Deterministic
analysis has been done by setting Logical variable for
Regional Site-based Analysis as False as needed for
Nationwide Analysis deterministic analysis. Therefore
Monte-Carlo method has been used with a combination
of constant, derived and distribution of input variables
to find the contaminant concentration at the receptor
well.

Since a finite source is being simulated, both the
unsaturated and saturated zone transport modules are
implemented in the transient mode and flow in steady
state. Infiltration or leakage from 20m high landfill with
21.4 ha. area (at Kolkatas landfill site Dhapa) without
any top cover or liner (KEIP, 2005) is estimated to be
986 L/m
2
/year using HELP model (EPA,1994a,b), The
recharge rate was determined for silty loam soil type
considering average annual rainfall of Kolkata to be
1850 L/m
2
using the HELP model. The constant
recharge rate has been set as 456 L/m
2
/year. For
Kolkata the aquifer saturated thickness is set as 10 m
and the unsaturated zone (silty clay loam soil)
thickness or depth to ground water table as 20m
considering the base of the landfill on the ground
surface (KEIP, 2005). The aquifer hydraulic
conductivity is set at 1890 m/year and the hydraulic
gradient is assigned a value of 0.0057. Since Kolkata
region has sand and gravel aquifer (KEIP, 2005) non
carbonate ground water type which represents
unconsolidated sand and gravel aquifer with a natural
pH of 7.4 has been used.

Since the depleting source scenario is most appropriate
for a landfill waste management scenario, where the
waste accumulates during the active life of the unit,
but leaching may continue for a long period of time
after the unit is closed, therefore metals have been
modeled using linearized MINTEQA2 isotherm that
calculates a single value of K
d
from a nonlinear
isotherm (EPA, 2003b).
The hypothetical drinking water well is assumed to be
located at a distance 500 m away from the edge of the
waste unit because as per Solid Waste Management
and Handling Rules in case of landfills no
development buffer zone should be 500m around the
landfill (CPHEEO, 2000). Since the contaminant
plume in the ground water follows a Gaussian plume
pattern, highest concentration is always found along
the plume centre line so distance from the plume
centerline is kept constant at zero. The well position
has been fixed at a constant depth i.e. midpoint of the
saturated zone.

*Note : The distance of the well has been varied to
find concentration versus distance curve. Also the
depth has been varied to find its effect on
concentration. Concentrations are found at midpoint of
aquifer having depth 10m.Therefore depth below
ground level = (unsaturated zone depth + 5 m) (EPA,
1997).

OBSERVATIONS
Chromium concentration in MSW is taken as 43.9
mg/kg and in leachate as 0.5mg/L as reported by KEIP
for Dhapa, Kolkata (KEIP, 2005). Therefore ratio of
chromium concentration in waste to leachate i.e.
Nratio is 280 L/kg. WHO and BIS recommended
maximum allowable concentration in drinking water
for Cr
6+
as 0.05 mg/L.


The 90 percentile value is taken for further study as it
assures that the ground water concentration will be less
than this value for at least 90 percent time considering
the range of variability associated with waste sites.
Therefore it provides a large degree of confidence that
the results are adequately protective of human health
and the environment. The percentiles versus peak
chromium concentration are plotted and are shown in
the Figure 1.

It is observed that peak chromium concentration
appears in the receptor well after a certain period ~ 8
years as it takes some time to travel through the entire
unsaturated zone and then through the aquifer before
reaching the well.

Fig. 1 Graph showing percentile versus peak chromium
concentration (mg/L) curve
Therefore as the contaminated ground water plume
reaches the well chromium concentration is observed
and from then concentration starts increasing rapidly
(Bhalla et al., 2011). At around 9.5 years it crosses the
maximum limit for DWS and then reaches the highest
concentration of 0.2585mg/L at around 30years. After
that the highest peak concentration i.e 0.2585mg/L
remains constant upto 1419 year. The reason behind is
that the landfill contains huge amount of chromium
(high Nratio) which takes a long time to deplete. As the
landfill is considered as a depleting source, it takes
almost 3485.6 years to exponentially reduce leachate
concentration to 0.05 mg/L i.e DWS. Thus
contaminants are contributed to the leachate for many
years even after the site is closed (Farquhar, 1988). The
decrease of leachate concentration emanating from the
base of the landfill is very slow and so high leachate
concentration remains for several years. This time can
be reduced only when total waste concentration in the
landfill is reduced by reducing Nratio, since all other
variables are constant.
The landfill almost acts as a continuous source of
chromium and so due to a constant inflow of chromium
to the ground water a steady state concentration is
observed at the well. EPACMTP gives the highest
peak concentration within a time period and we got the
highest peak concentration of 0.2858 m/L and the time
of its occurrence upto 1419 year even when the time
period or Tcutoff was set to 10,000 years. Therefore it
can be inferred that 0.2858 mg/L concentration
remains upto 1419 years and after that it stars
decreasing.
If concentration verses time is plotted then the curve
first increases and then becomes constant for a long
time and then again would decreases thus taking the
shape of a plateau as shown in Figure 2.

Fig. 2 The concentration breakthrough curve for
chromium
Peak, 30 year and 70 year average receptor well
concentration of chromium with the passage of time is
shown in Figure 3.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
g
/
L
)
Year
70 Year Aver age
30 Year average
Peak

Fig. 3 Peak, 30 year average and 70 year average
chromium concentration variation with time
At an early stage when the curve shows a sharp
increase a substantial difference between peak and two
average concentrations is obtained as shown in Figure
3. As usual 30 year average is found to be more than a
70 year average as the exposure period is always
selected to be centered about the time when peak
receptor well concentration occurs. Since a flat curve
0 . 1 8 0 . 2 0 0 . 2 2 0 . 2 4 0 . 2 6 0 . 2 8
0
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
1 0 0
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
ile
P e a k C o n c e n t r a t i o n ( m g / L )

remains for a long time during this period the steady
state concentration, peak concentration and 30 year and
70 year average is found to be same.
As the position of the receptor well is shifted away
from the landfill the chromium concentration also
decreases but even at 800 m distance away from the
landfill it is above the DWS with a concentration of
0.1873 as shown in Figure 4.
0 10 20 30 40 50
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
800 m
upto 1422 yr
500 m
upto 1419 yr
50 m
upto 1411 yr
P
e
a
k

C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
g
/
L
)
Years
Fig. 4 Variation of peak concentration of chromium at
different distance with time

Depth to ground water affects the amount of dispersion
and dilution that occurs between the base of the landfill
and the well, and therefore impact concentrations at the
monitoring well. Decrease in receptor well
concentration with increasing depth to ground water is
shown in Table2.

Table 2 Variation of chromium concentration with
depth from ground level

At 500 m distance away from the landfill and at (20+5)
m depth below ground level no concentration is found
if saturated hydraulic concentration of the aquifer is
reduced to as low as 110
-3
cm/sec, then slowly
receptor well concentration increases as flow rate is
increased and reaches a peak of 0.2847 mg/L at 110
-2

cm/sec. After that it again starts decreasing probably
due to a dilution effect caused by fast moving waster at
higher hydraulic conductivities (Rouholahnejad &
Sadrnejad, 2009).

The initial chromium concentration is changed by
changing the Nratio keeping all other parameter
unchanged; it is observed that ground water
concentration remains same as the initial leachate
concentration. Only when Nratio is higher,
concentration remains in the receptor well for longer
period and vice-verse. If chromium concentration in
the waste is taken as 140mg/kg i.e. the average
concentration found in Chennai MSW (Esakku et al.,
2003) but in leachate it is kept at 0.5mg/L then the
only difference in result will be that 0.2858 mg/L
concentration will remain upto 4450 years and after
that it will decrease

Mercury concentration in MSW is <1mg/kg and in
leachate is 0.0055mg/L as reported by KEIP for
Dhapa, Kolkata (KEIP, 2005). Mercury concentration
in MSW is taken as 0.29 mg/kg which is the
average concentration found in Chennai (Esakku et al.,
2003). EPA (EPA, 2011) and BIS recommended max.
allowable concentration in drinking water for Hg
2+
as
0.001mg/L. At around 12 years it crosses the
maximum limit for DWS and then reaches the highest
concentration of 0.002843mg/L at around 30years.
After that the highest peak concentration i.e 0.002843
mg/L remains constant upto 876.8year and then starts
decreasing. It takes almost 1,557.79 years to reduce
leachate concentration to 0.001 mg/L i.e DWS. At a
distance of 800m receptor well concentration is
0.002058 mg/L which is above the DWS.

Lead concentration in MSW is 788 mg/kg and in
leachate as 0.075mg/L as reported by KEIP for Dhapa,
Kolkata (KEIP, 2005). EPA recommended Maximum
Contaminant Level (MCL) i.e the highest level of a
contaminant that is allowed in drinking water is 0.015
mg/L (EPA, 2011) for lead but BIS recommended it as
0.05 mg/L. Lead appears in the receptor well after a
very long about 200 years from the closer of the
landfill. After 300 years it peak concentration at the
well starts increasing rapidly and reaches 0.0285 mg/L
within 400 years but then it concentration increases
very slowly and reaches the steady state concentration
of 0.03877mg/L at around 2000 year and remains
constant upto 9600 year as for a depleting source,
leachate concentration decreases exponentially with
time. It takes almost 73450 years to reduce leachate
concentration to 0.05 mg/L. S. But at a distance of 500
m lead concentration is 0.03877 mg/L which is within
the acceptable limit.

Cadmium concentration in MSW is 3 mg/kg and in
leachate as 0.045mg/L as reported by KEIP for Dhapa,
Kolkata (KEIP, 2005). BIS recommended maximum
allowable concentration in drinking water for Cd
2+
is
0.01 mg/L but EPA recommended MCL is 0.005 mg/L
Depth below
ground level
(m)*
Peak
conc.
(mg/L)
16 0.2758
20 0.2743
25 0.2585
45 0.2459
85 0.2456
105 0.2454

(EPA, 2011 for cadmium. Cadmium appears in the
receptor well after 10 years from the closer of the
landfill. At around 20 years it crosses the maximum
limit for DWS and then increases rapidly and reaches
0.02202 mg/L within 40 years but then it concentration
increases very slowly and reaches the steady state
concentration of 0.02326 mg/L at around 100 year and
remains constant upto 1140 years. It takes 1729.7 years
to exponentially reduce leachate concentration to 0.01
mg/L i.e DWS. At a depth of 25 m below the ground
level and a distance of 800m receptor well
concentration is 0.01685 mg/L which is slightly above
the DWS of 0.01 mg/L.

Copper concentration in MSW is 54.4 mg/kg and in
leachate is 0.2 mg/L as reported by KEIP for Dhapa,
Kolkata (KEIP, 2005). Thus as such copper
concentration in leachate from Kolkatas dumping
ground is within BIS maximum allowable standard in
drinking water i.e 1.5mg/L and also well within EPAs
MCL of 1.3 mg/L (EPA, 2011).EPACMTP has been
run to check weather the ground water concentrations
remains within the desirable limit of 0.05mg/L as set by
BIS. Copper also appears in the receptor well after 80
years from the closer of the landfill. After 100 years it
peak concentration at the well starts increasing rapidly
and it crosses the desirable limit of 0.05 mg/L after 170
year. It reaches 0.0758 mg/L within 700 years but then
it concentration increases very slowly and reaches the
steady state concentration of 0.1034 mg/L at around
1300 year and remains constant upto 5114 year.
Therefore it takes almost 6501.2 years to exponentially
reduce leachate concentration to 0.05 mg/L i.e DWS.
At a depth of 25 m below ground level and a distance of
800m receptor well concentration is 0.0749 mg/L which
is above the desirable DWS of 0.05 mg/L.

All the above results are obtained at 986 L/m
2
/year
leakage rate. If by providing the complete top cover
system leachate is reduced to 43 L/m
2
/year then at
500m distance away from the landfill and at 25 m depth
below ground level then metal concentrations is found
to be safe in the receptor well as shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Safe peak rreceptor well concentration of
different metal at 43 L/m
2
/year leakage rate
Leakage Rate 43 L/m
2
/year
Metal DWS
(mg/L)
Peak Receptor Well
Concentration (mg/L)
Chromium 0.05 0.048
Mercury 0.001 0.00053
Lead 0.05 0.005314
Cadmium 0.01 0.0043
Copper 0.05 0.2227 10
-5

From the output obtained from running EPACMTP
model it is observed that metal concentration appears
in the receptor well after a lag period and then
increases rapidly and reaches the peak but remains for
several hundred or thousand years. Organic
concentration on the other hand remains lesser period
for around 25 years after the closer of the landfill and
then starts decreasing, as by then the waste almost gets
stabilized. Therefore during the active period
providing leachate collection and treatment and bottom
liner system is a necessity as. However, several
researchers have documented that liners eventually
leak. Maximum life of liners (50-100 years) (Lee &
Lee, 1993) thus lined MSW landfills will do no more
than postpone groundwater pollution and rather remain
a threat to groundwater quality forever from heavy
metals point of view. But if leakage rate is reduced to
43 L/m
2
/year by providing complete cover system then
metal concentrations are found to be safe in ground
water.

But if such a landfill is closed and properly covered
infiltration and leachate generation reduces thereby
reducing the threat to the quality of groundwater
connected to the landfill area.

CONCLUSIONS
Kolkata with sufficient precipitation especially during
monsoon with unlined landfill sites is generating ~
(900-1000) L/m2/year i.e. ~ 2.14 108 L/year leachate
from Dhapa. This leachate is highly contaminated with
heavy metals which remain in the receptor well for
hundreds or thousands of years. Thus for the future
engineered landfills and for existing open dump sites
throughout the country including the dumpsite at
Dhapa, it is recommended that a complete cover
system comprising 60cm barrier clay on the top of
waste followed by 15 cm lateral drainage sand layer
and 45 cm vegetative soil cover on top of it with fair
vegetation should be provided as it reduces leachate
generation by ~ 96% after the closer of the landfill in
order to prevent contamination of precious
groundwater due to solid waste disposal.

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ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

BEHAVIOUR OF SUCTION CAISSON AS FOUNDATION SYSTEM
FOR OFFSHORE WIND TURBINE IN SANDY SOILS

Suchit Kumar Patel
Post-Graduate student, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Guwahati, Guwahati-781039, Email: p.suchit@iitg.ernet.in
Baleshwar Singh
Associate Professor, Department of Civil engineering, IIT Guwahati, Guwahati-781039, Email: baleshwar@iitg.ernet.in

ABSTRACT: Suction caisson can be used as an alternative foundation for offshore wind turbine. Both
monopod and tripod or tetrapod foundations are considered. The main challenging problems encountered are
due to large horizontal forces and overturning moments. This review is about the development of design
methods for the suction caisson as a foundation in sandy soil for offshore wind turbine. Here the attention is
given on installation and design for in-service performance. Some field trials and laboratory studies are reported.
Here also some relevant theoretical works are mentioned. The calculation procedure depends on first predicting
the suction beneath the caisson lid and then further calculating tensile load. Also variation of stiffness with
loading level of foundation is observed.

INTRODUCTION
With increase in energy demand all over the world,
offshore wind energy is becoming a suitable
alternative to fulfil the energy demand. Offshore
wind energy industry is very rapidly expanding
sector in the world today. Due to limitation of non
renewable energy resources, it has very wide scope
to fulfil energy demand in future. This energy is
environmental friendly and pollution free. The wind
speed is typically higher and steadier in offshore than
onshore and become steadier with increase in
distance from shore. There is large continuous area
available to expand wind farm industries. Also there
is less wind turbulence which allows the turbine to
harvest energy more effectively. It also reduces the
fatigue load effect on turbine. In offshore case there
is not any chance for noise and visual problems
which affect the local people. But there is huge
investment and high risk involve in this project. So it
is of greater need for development of economically
and technically optimum solution for the installation
of it. There are different types of foundation system
that have been developed like monopile, gravity base
and suction caisson.

Suction caissons have been extensively used as
anchor and foundation for small number of offshore
platforms for oil and gas industries. They are
presently being considered as a possible
economically alternative foundation option for
offshore wind turbines as discussed by Houlsby &
Byrne (2000). Suction caissons are large cylindrical
structures open at the base and closed at the top. The
installation of suction caisson is done in two steps.
Initially it is penetrated under its self-weight in
seabed. Afterwards suction is applied to penetrate it
to desired depth. The suction is created by pumping
out the water from the cylindrical compartment. It
creates pressure differential on the lid of caisson
which effectively increases the downward force on
foundation. These are simple steel structures deigned
with less steel than that required for an equivalent
pile foundation resulting in lower material cost.
However the main cost benefit is that the installation
method is much quicker and simpler than for other
solutions. Installation is significantly not weather
dependent. Suction caisson can be flexibly adapted to
a variety of structural forms which maximise its
accessibility and can accommodate a variety of water
depth. Also at the end of wind turbine life, suction
caisson may be removed completely from seabed
(Byrne et al. 2002).

Design of suction caisson foundation for offshore
wind turbines differ in many ways than that of
typical oil and gas industries foundations (Houlsby et
al. 2005). Firstly the structures are installed in
shallow water depth up to 40m. Also the structures
are relatively light. In wind turbine case vertical
loading on foundation is relatively small, while
horizontal and moment loadings are much larger and
also dynamic in nature. Due to shallow water depth
sometimes local scour and sediment movement occur
which is caused by shallow water wave effect. The
dynamic interaction between the wind-induced
loading of turbine rotor and the wave induced
loading on the structure result in complicated
dynamic loading on foundation.

Suction caisson is of two type monopod and tripod or
tetrapod. The monopod resists the overturning
moment directly by its rotational fixity in the seabed.
As turbine becomes larger, monopod design may
become sufficiently large and become uneconomical.
The alternative solution found for this is tripod or
tetrapod which has multiple smaller foundations. In
either of these foundation configurations the
overturning moment of the structure is resisted by
push-pull action of opposing vertical loads on the
upwind and downwind foundations. The key design
issue for monopod is the overturning moment, whilst
for tripod or tetrapod it is tension in upwind leg. It is


important to recognise that the design of a turbine
foundation is not usually governed by consideration
of ultimate capacity, but is typically dominated by
consideration of stiffness of foundation and
performance under fatigue loading. In sand applied
suction also generates flow within the soil along with
downward movement of skirt of foundation. Pore
pressure gradients are beneficial to the installation
process and must be accounted for in design
calculation. Under dynamic loading accumulated
pore pressure even leads to liquefaction. With
degradation of the sand layer strength and drainage
of pore water the foundation and sand surrounding it
will sink gradually, even pore pressure may further
rise which lead to liquefaction of sand surrounding
foundation.

This paper is a review of main problem studied
during design of suction caisson in sandy soils. The
two main problems studied for design of suction
caisson as foundation are (a) installation and (b) in-
service performance.

INSTALLATION
The principal difference between installation of
suction caisson for an offshore wind turbine and for
previous application is that the turbines are likely to
be installed in much shallower depth. The installation
process can be broken in two components. (a) Self-
weight penetration and (b) suction installation. The
self weight penetration is important to insure seal at
edge of foundation in order to complete suction
installation adequately. For design it is important to
understand the interaction between soil density, the
skirt wall thickness and the effective vertical load
acting on foundation. The designer will have to
predict the required suction as a function of
penetration depth. This can be used to assess pump
capacity and rate of suction to be applied. Also
designer should be aware of any design limitation
like maximum aspect ratio to avoid the possibility of
liquefaction.

Self-weight Penetration
A typical outline of suction caisson is shown in Fig.
1 . The resistance on the caisson is calculated as the
sum of outside and inside friction and end bearing
capacity.

Fig. 1 Outline of suction caisson (after Houlsby et al.
2005)

The frictional terms are calculated in similar way as
in pile design. The end bearing is taken as the sum of
Nq and N term in conventional way and it is
assumed that solutions for a strip footing of width t
are appropriate for the caisson rim (Houlsby et al.
2005). If no account is taken of the enhancement of
vertical stress close to the pile due to frictional forces
further up the caisson, the vertical load on caisson for
penetration to depth h in the absence of suction is
given as

Outside friction Inside friction
(1)
End bearing

If the effect of stress enhancement is ignored, it leads
to an underestimation of the force and suction
required for full penetration. If this effect is
considered with uniform effective stress assumed
within the caisson and outside, then Eq. (1) can be
expressed as

+ (2)

where

Suction Installation
Let the pressure in caisson be s with respect to
seabed water pressure. If p
a
is atmospheric pressure,
absolute pressure inside caisson is p
a
+
w
h
w
s.
Excess pore pressure developed at caisson tip is as
where a is pore pressure factor. Absolute pressure at
the tip is p
a
+
w
(h
w
+ h) as. This leads to
downward hydraulic gradient of as/
w
h on the outside
of caisson and upward hydraulic gradient of (1
a)s/
w
h on the inside. Due to this in Eq. (2) is
replaced by + as/h outside and by (1- a)s/h
inside the caisson during the calculation of vertical
stress as in Eq. (3).

(3)

Limit of Suction Installation
With increase in suction the upward hydraulic
gradient inside the caisson reaches a critical value at
which vertical effective stress inside the caisson at
tip falls to zero and condition for liquefaction is


generated. Further increase in the suction may
induce local piping with a major water inflow to
caisson without further significant penetration of
caisson. At this condition h (1 a)s = 0 which
gives s = h/(1- a). Substituting this value in Eq. (3)
leads to

(4)

By solving Eq. (4), the maximum depth of
penetration for a given suction can be determined.

Comparison with Field Observation
A first major structure was installed using suction
caisson in dense sand at Draupner in the North Sea
by Statoil in 1974. Fig. 2 shows the theoretical
prediction of suction compared with the range of
field measurement as obtained on the site. It can be
seen that there is a good correlation found between
the case record and the calculated suction pressure.

Fig. 2 Calculated and measured suction at Draupner
E (after Houlsby and Byrne, 2005)

IN-SERVICE PERFORMANCE
A large number of tests have been carried out to
study the performance of a caisson under moment
loading at relatively small vertical loads as relevant
to wind turbine design.

Field Test on Monopod
The largest test involved the instrumented Vestas
V90 3.0 MW prototype turbine at Frederikshav,
Denmark (Houlsby et al. 2005). The test program
involving the prototype was focusing on long term
deformations, soil structure interaction, stiffness and
fatigue. Only model analysis was used to analyze the
structure behavior of wind turbine during various
operational conditions. The large scale tests
employed loading by applying a horizontal load at
fixed height, under constant vertical load. The large
scale tests were complemented by laboratory studies.
The laboratory and large scale test were intended to
model the prototype. Scaling of the tests was
achieved by Eq. (5).

(5)

where h = height of load acting above foundation, D
= caisson diameter and m and p are index for model
and prototype. Each test had three phases.

1. Installation phase: The caisson was installed
with suction and CPT tests were performed
before and after the caisson installation.
2. Loading phase: Wind turbine tower was
mounted on caisson top and the loading on
caisson was done by pulling the tower
horizontally. The combined loading was
controlled by changing loading height.
3. Dismantling phase: The caisson was removed by
applying overpressure inside caisson.

The moment loading test was done in two ways.
Firstly small amplitude loading with relatively high
frequency was applied. Secondly larger amplitude
but lower frequency cycles were applied. Fig. 3
shows the hysteresis loop obtained from series of
cyclic tests at different amplitudes. It is clear that as
cycle becomes larger the stiffness reduces but
hysteresis increases.

Further jacking test was performed with much larger
amplitude of cycle under quasi-static conditions. At
larger amplitude of rotation the secant stiffness
decreases and hysteresis increases as the amplitude
increases. The unusual shape of hysteresis loop at
very large amplitude is due to gapping occurring at
the side of the caisson. Fig. 4 shows the moment
rotation responses of jacking test.

Fig. 3 Moment rotation response of caisson at
progressively higher amplitudes of loading SEMV
test (after Houlsby et al. 2006)


Fig. 4 Hysteresis loop from hydraulic jacking test
(after Houlsby et al. 2005)

The secant stiffness deduced from both test were
combined in Fig. 5 and are plotted against the
amplitude of cyclic rotation. The two tests give a
consistent reduction pattern of shear modulus with
strain amplitude, similar to that obtained from
laboratory tests.

Fig. 5 Shear modulus against rotation amplitude

At the end of jacking tests pullout tests were
performed. The test result is shown in Fig. 6. The
tensile load decreases rapidly. The proportion of
tensile load generated by suction pressure inside the
caisson is also shown. The difference between total
load carried by caisson and suction load represents
friction acting on caisson skirt. The frictional load
generated on the skirt during pullout of sand is
shown in Fig. 7 along with an estimate of friction
computed using Eq. (6) (Houlsby et al. 2005).

(6)

Field Test on Tetrapod or Tripod
In multiple footing the overturning moment is
resisted by opposing push-pull action on the upwind
and downwind side of foundation. Tripod is the most
obvious multiple footing designs to use and has
advantage of simplicity. But approximate calculation
indicates that the tetrapod structure is usually a more
favourable configuration to avoid tension as it
requires somewhat less materials.

Fig. 6 Load against displacement during pullout test

Fig. 7 Measured and computed friction during
pullout (after Houlsby et al. 2006)

Vertical cyclic load tests were performed on multiple
caisson and the performance was investigated under
cyclic vertical loading (Kelly et al. 2004). Fig. 8
shows the caisson performance under different
vertical cyclic loading. Small amplitude cycles show
stiff response while large amplitude cycles show
more hysteresis and more accumulated displacement
per cycle. As soon as cycle goes to tension, a much
softer response is absorbed and hysteresis loops
acquire banana shape. During design this soft
response should be avoided. These observation
means that tension must be avoided in design of
tripod or tetrapod foundation for wind turbine. In
shallower depth avoiding the tension means that
either foundation must have large spacing between
the footings or the ballasting must be used.

Fig. 8 Cyclic vertical loading of model caisson (after
Kelly et al. 2004)


CONCLUSIONS
In this paper design calculation is presented which
can be used to assess the suction caisson foundation
installation in sand. The overall design includes self-
weight installation, installation with suction and
limitation of suction installation process. In-service
performance of suction caisson foundation is
analyzed separately for monopod and tripod or
tetrapod. The small vertical load, high horizontal
load and moment are features of offshore wind
turbine. It is found that monopod foundation design
is dominated by moment loading, while in case of
tripod or tetrapod tensile loading is governing factor.
With different loading tests it is found that as vertical
loading amplitude increases, stiffness is reduced and
hysteresis increases. When tension is reached there is
sudden reduction in stiffness. Also with increase in
moment loading, stiffness decreases whereas
hysteresis increases. Pullout test indicates that a
sizeable ultimate tensile resistance can be generated
but is accompanied by extremely large displacement.

REFERENCES
Byrne, B., Houlsby, G., Martin, C. and Fish, P.
(2002). Suction caisson foundation for offshore
wind turbines. Wind Engineering, 26(3), 145-155.
Houlsby, G.T. and Byrne, B.W. (2000). Suction
caisson foundation for offshore wind turbines and
anemometer masts. Wind Engineering, 24(4), 249-
255.
Houlsby, G.T. and Byrne, B.W. (2005). Design
procedure for installation of suction caisson in
sand. Proceeding ICE, Geotechnical Engineering,
158(GE3), 135-144.
Houlsby, G.T., Ibsen, L.B. and Byrne, B.W. (2005).
Suction caisson for wind turbines. Proceeding of
the International Symposium on Frontiers in
Offshore Geotechnics, Perth, Australia, 2005, 75-
94.
Houlsby, G.T., Kelly, B.R. and Byrne, B.W. (2005).
The tensile capacity of suction caisson in sand
under rapid loading. Proceeding of the
International Symposium on Frontiers in Offshore
Geotechnics, Perth, Australia, 2005, 405-410.
Houlsby, G. T., Kelly, B.R., Huxtable, J. And Byrne,
B.W. (2006). Field trial of suction caisson in sand
for offshore wind turbine foundation.
Geotechnique, 56(1), 3-10.
Kelly, R.B., Byrne, B.W., Houlsby, G.J. and Martin,
C.M. (2004). Tensile loading on model caisson
foundation for structure on sand. Proc. ISOPE,
Toulon, Vol. 2, 638-641.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF MULTISTORIED BUILDING
USING FLAT SLAB

M.S.Janbandhu
Student, M.Tech. Structural Engg.Y.C.C.E Nagpur , Email: maheshsj_1@yahoo.co.in
V.G.Meshram
Asst. Professor, Civil Department, Y.C.C.E Nagpur , Email: meshramvg@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: The seismic effect on the structure is the most important factor while designing the
civil Engineering structures which will cause adverse effect later on. In present study efforts being
taken while analyzing the structure for Earthquake resistance. In this we have taken a live project a
five storied building with flat slab and dynamic analysis is done by Response Spectrum Method
taking all load combinations as per IS-1893.We have used software SAP 2000 for this purpose. Main
emphasis is given on the structural response when flat slab is provided. Behavior of the structure is
studied for four types of models like a flat slab only, Flat slab with head, with drop and with both
head and drop with equal thickness as well unequal thickness. The results of all four types are then
compared for time period, axial forces, shear forces, moments in each direction and the slab panel
moments. The structure is designed as per IS-456-2000 and IS-13920 guidelines.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1General
Flat slab is a reinforced concrete slab supported by
columns with, or without drops. The columns may be
with, or without, column heads. Flat-slab is one of
the most widely used systems in reinforced concrete
construction because of its high degree of structural
efficiency. It use simple formwork and reinforcing
arrangements, and requires the least storey height.
Although efficient in resisting gravity load, the flat
slab system is inherently flexible and can have
excessive lateral drift when subjected to seismic
loading. Its susceptibility to severe damage during
strong earthquakes is well documented (Rosenblueth
1986; Hawkins 1980).

In zone of high seismicity, the flat-slab systems are
designed such that slab-column space frame supports
gravity loads and the shear walls provide resistance
to lateral load (Wey and Durani 1992; Robertson and
Durani1992; Moehle and Diebold 1985). However, it
is required by the building codes [IS: 456; ACI:
building 1989] that the gravity load subsystem must
be able to deform with the lateral load resisting
system without any loss of its load carrying capacity.
Thus, in realty the two subsystems act together.
Furthermore, since the design seismic force
recommended by the codes are generally much less
than what the structure would experience during a
major earthquake , a certain degree of nonlinear
response is to be expected.

Fig. 1.2 With Drop & No
Column Head
Fig 1.1 Without Drop & No Column
Head
Fig. 1.3 Without Drop & with
Column Head


1.2 Advantages
Some of the advantages of Flat Slab are:-
1. Rapid construction
2. Maximum design flexibility
3. Economy
4. Headroom height requirements large
5. Minimum storey heights
6. Controlled deflection
7. Optimum clear span
8. Sufficient lateral displacement capacity

1.3 Terminology Related With Flat Slab

1.3.1 Column Strip
Column strip means a design strip having a width of
0.25 l
1
, but not greater than 0.25 l
2
, on each side of
the column centerline, where I
1
, is the span in the
direction moments are being determined, measured
centre to centre of supports and l
2
, is the-span
transverse to l
1
, measured centre to centre of
supports.

1.3.2 Middle Strip
Middle strip means a design strip bounded on each of
its opposite sides by the column strip.

1.3.3 Panel
Panel means that part of a slab bounded on-each of
its four sides by the centre-line of a column or
centre-lines of adjacent-spans.

1.3.4 Thickness of Flat Slab
a) The thickness of the flat slab shall be generally
controlled by considerations of span to Effective
depth ratios.
b) For slabs with drops span to effective depth ratios
given in 23.2 shall be applied directly; otherwise the
span to effective depth ratios obtained in accordance
with Provisions in 23.2 shall be multiplied by 0.9.
For this purpose, the longer span shall be considered.
The minimum thickness of slab shall be 125 mm.

1.3.5 Drop
a) The drops when provided shall be rectangular in
plan, and have a length in each direction not less than
one third of the panel length in that direction.
b) For exterior panels, the width of drops at right
angles to the non-continuous edge and measured
from the centre-line of the columns shall be equal to
one-half the width of drop for interior panels.

1.3.6 Column Head
Where column heads are provided, that portion of a
column head which lies within the largest right
circular cone or pyramid that has a vertex angle of 90
degree and can be included entirely within the
outlines of the column and the column head, shall be
considered for design purposes.

Fig. 1.4 Flat slab with drop & column
Head Structure
Fig. 1.5 Slab beam Structure


2.0 ANALYSIS OF FLAT SLAB BY RESPONSE
SPECTRUM METHOD
2.1 Introduction to Problem

Fig.2.1 Line Plan of Structure

0.26
0.26
0.26
0.26
0.26
0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
FIFTH
FLOOR
FOURTH
FLOOR
THIRD
FLOOR
SECOND
FLOOR
FIRST
FLOOR
GROUNDLEVEL

0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
0.26
0.26
0.26
0.26
0.26
FIFTH
FLOOR
FOURTH
FLOOR
THIRD
FLOOR
SECOND
FLOOR
FIRST
FLOOR
GROUNDLEVEL

0.26
0.26
0.26
0.26
0.26
0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
FIFTH
FLOOR
FOURTH
FLOOR
THIRD
FLOOR
SECOND
FLOOR
FIRST
FLOOR
GROUNDLEVEL
ExternalDrop
1.1x1.0m
Internal Drop
2.2x2.0m

1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10 11
13 14 15 16
21 19 22 23
17
C1
30 28 29
24
12
18
25
26 27
20
C7
C2 C3
C5 C6
C8 C9
C4
C1
C1 C1
C2
C2 C2
C3
C3 C3
C4 C4
C4
C5
C5 C5
C6
C6
C7 C9 C8
C6
5.6m
6.6m
5.6m 5.6m 5.6m 5.6m
6.6m
6.6m
6.6m Panel no.
17
Panel no.
18
Panel no.
19
Panel no.
20
Panel no. 16
Panel no. 11 Panel no. 12 Panel no. 13 Panel no. 14 Panel no. 15
Panel no. 9 Panel no.10 Panel no. 7 Panel no.6
Panel no. 3 Panel no. 4 Panel no. 5
Panel no. 8
Panel no. 1 Panel no. 2
Fig. 2.2 Sectional Elevation of Simple
Flat-Slab Structure
Fig. 2.3 Sectional Elevation of Flat-Slab
with Drop Structure
Fig. 2.4 Sectional Elevation of Flat-Slab with
Head Structure


0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
0.26
0.26
0.26
0.26
0.26
FIFTH
FLOOR
FOURTH
FLOOR
THIRD
FLOOR
SECOND
FLOOR
FIRST
FLOOR
GROUNDLEVEL
Internal Drop
2.2x2.0m
External Drop
1.1x1.0m

2.2 Modeling of flat slab for Response Spectrum

Column size (500x500)mm
Slab thickness 200 mm without drop
Live load on all floors 6 kN/m
2
(50% for
earthquake)
Grade of concrete M25 & steel Fe 415N/mm
Brick wall external & internal 230 mm
Density of brick wall including plaster 20kN/m
3

Density of brick wall including plaster 20kN/m
3

Drop size external (1100x1000)mm
Drop size internal (2200x 2000)mm
Depth of Head 400mm
Head at bottom (500x500)mm
Head at top (1200x1200)mm

2.2.1 Mathematical Model

Table 2.1 Mathematical Model
Sr.No Perticulars
1 The mathematical model includes five
storey building with 30 column in each
floor and 20 slab section

2 All columns are modeled as beam element
and slab is modeled as plate element
having area type shell
3 Each plate is sub divided into 9*8 =72
plate element
4 For dynamic analysis of structure
response spectrum method was used

2.2.2 Soil Strata

It is assumed that the footing is resting at 1.5m from
GL
Medium soil
2.2.3 Seismic Force Calculation
Zone II for Nagpur city Z=0.1
Hence spectra for medium soil \
Importance factor =1.5
Sa/g=1+15T0.00 T 0.101
Damping 5%
= 2.5 0.1 T 0.55
Soil type medium
= 1.36/T 0.55 T 4.0
R for SMRF=5 & OMRF=3
1. Time period in long direction Tx =0.09H/d
=0.09x21/28 =0.357sec
2. Time period in short direction Ty=0.09H/d
=0.09x21/26.4 =0.368sec
Take Sa/g for both direction = 2.5
2.2.4 Scale Factor

R
I
x f
2
1
=0.15
Where, I= Importance factor =1.5
R=Response reduction factor=5
2.2.5 Response Spectrum for Zone II:-Soil Type II
(Medium Soil)
Period(Sec) Acceleration
0 0.1
0.1 0.25
0.55 0.25
0.8 0.17
1 0.136
1.2 0.1133
1.4 0.0971
1.6 0.085
1.8 0.0756
2 0.068
2.5 0.0544
3 0.0453
3.5 0.0389
4 0.034
4.5 0.034
5 0.034
5.5 0.034
6 0.034
6.5 0.034
7 0.034
7.5 0.034
8 0.034
8.5 0.034
9 0.034
8.5 0.034
10 0.034

Fig. 2.5 Sectional Elevation of Flat-Slab
with Drop & Column Head Structure
Table 2.2 Time Period Vs Acceleration


Fig. 2.6 Response Spectra for Zone II

2.3 Results and Discussion

2.3.1 Comparison of Time Period (sec)
Table 2.3 Comparison of Time Period (sec)
Time Period for all Flat Slabs (sec)
Modes Flat Head Drop Drop
head
1 1.60 1.61 1.65 1.66
2 1.56 1.57 1.61 1.62
3 1.47 1.50 1.53 1.53
4 0.47 0.47 0.49 0.49
5 0.46 0.46 0.48 0.48
6 0.43 0.43 0.44 0.44
7 0.23 0.23 0.24 0.42
8 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.24
9 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.23
10 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.23
11 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.21
12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.21

Fig. 2.7 Comparison of Time Period (sec)
Description & Interaction (Time Period)
As it is seen from SAP-Results there are many modes
out of which if we consider the first two modes it has
been seen that the time period of flat slab without
Head & Drop seems to be low due to which Sa/g will
be less and lateral forces will also be less

Fig.2.8 Comparison of Axial Force (kN) First
Storey
Table 2.4 Comparison of axial Force of first storey
TYPE
FLAT
SLAB DROP
WITH
HEAD
DROP
WITH
HEAD
C1 593 573 581 569
C2 728 708 716 699
C3 708 689 695 681
C4 722 703 712 693
C5 836 819 825 809
C6 833 810 821 799
C7 715 695 708 689
C8 838 815 827 806
C9 869 879 888 876

Description & Interaction (Axial Force)

As we go from fifth Story to the first story we can
see the first story have long column and we have
maximum axial force to be developed in the column
of first story with drop and head.

Table 2.5 Comparison of Shear Force of first storey

TYPE
FLAT
SLAB DROP
WITH
HEAD
DROP
WITH
HEAD
C1 21 20 21 19
C2 42 40 38 40
C3 42 38 41 35
C4 40 39 40 36
C5 63 62 65 60
C6 70 72 63 70
C7 44 38 38 39
C8 73 71 70 65
C9 77 74 78 72
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0 10 20
A
C
C
L
E
R
A
T
I
O
N
PERIOD (Sec)
RESPONCE SPECTRA
Accler


Fig 2.9 Comparison of Shear Force (kN) First Storey

Description & Interaction (Shear Force)

From SAP Result it is seen that due to lateral forces
developed are in decreasing order from flat to drop
with head & there is not much differences in the
models with only drop & only head.

Table No.2.6 Comparison of Moment (kN-m) First
Storey
Flat slab Drop With head Drop with
head
TYPE M2 M3 M2 M3 M2 M3 M2 M3
C1 76 107 80 120 84 110 112 101
C2 335 38 300 30 285 30 261 35
C3 295 31 357 32 306 32 330 32
C4 22 196 25 231 32 221 21 231
C5 23 30 45 41 40 31 27 35
C6 24 32 40 32 40 41 28 51
C7 21 298 46 328 25 307 34 293
C8 31 32 25 31 62 37 36 41
C9 31 32 26 32 45 42 40 48

Fig 2.10 Comparison of Moment in X- Direction
(kN-m) First Storey

Fig 2.11 Comparison of Moment in X- Direction
(kN-m) First Storey

Description & Interaction (Moments)
From the graph it is found that the moments are
directly proportional to the stiffness. Since the
stiffness is going to increase from flat to drop with
head & if we compare Slab with the head & Slab
with the drop. The stiffness will not very much there
fore the moment variation are not much.

2.3.2 Comparison of Slab Moment (kN-m/m) for
Panel No. 7
Table 2.7 Comparison of Slab Moment in X-
Direction (kN-m/m) for Panel No. 7
Panel X- Direction
Column Strip
dn
Middle Strip Column strip
up
M11 M22 M11 M22 M11 M22
Flat Slab
Max.Positive
26 15 19 29 25 16
Max.Negative
-147 -145 -23 -31 -142 -149
Drop
Max.Positive
26 15 19 29 25 16
Max.Negative
-147 -144 -23 -31 -142 -149
Head
Max.Positive
26 15 19 29 25 16
Max.Negative
-147 -144 -23 -31 -142 -149
Drop with Head
Max.Positive
41 -31 100 124 42 31
Max.Negative
-362 -164 -77 -123 -362 -164


Table 2.8 Comparison of Slab Moment in Y-
Direction (kN-m/m) for Panel No. 7
Panel Y- Direction
Column Strip
L
Middle Strip Column strip
R
M11 M22 M11 M22 M11 M22
Flat Slab
Max.Positive 28 29 26 24 28 27
Max.Negative -141 -149 -31 -33 -147 -145
Drop
Max.Positive 19 29 26 24 18 27
Max.Negative -147 -149 -31 -33 -147 -146
Head
Max.Positive 18 29 26 24 18 27
Max.Negative -146 -149 -31 -33 -147 -145
Drop with
Head

Max.Positive 225 464 94 153 223 464
Max.Negative -355 -164 -95 -95 -356 -169

3. ANALYSIS OF FLAT SLAB USING
DIFFERENT THICKNESS BY RESPONSE
SPECTRUM METHOD

Table No. 3.1 Different Slab Thickness

Type Flat
Slab
(mm)
Column
Head
(mm)
Drop
(mm)
Drop
with
head
(mm)
Thickness
of slab
240 220 200 180

3.1 Comparison of Time Period (sec)

Table 3.2 Comparison of Time Period (sec)
Modes Flat Head Drop Drop
Head
1.00 1.60 1.70 1.85 2.00
2.00 1.56 1.66 1.80 1.95
3.00 1.47 1.58 1.69 1.81
4.00 0.47 0.49 0.52 0.55
5.00 0.46 0.48 0.51 0.55
6.00 0.43 0.45 0.47 0.54
7.00 0.23 0.23 0.24 0.48
8.00 0.23 0.23 0.24 0.31
9.00 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.28
10.00 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.24
11.00 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.24
12.00 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.21

COMPARISON OF TIME PERIOD
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
MODES
T
I
M
E

P
E
R
I
O
D
(
S
E
C
)
FLAT
HEAD
DROP
DROP HEAD

Fig. 3.1 Comparison of Time Period (sec)
4. DESIGN OF FLAT SLAB BY IS 456:2000
The term flat slab means a reinforced concrete slab
with or without drops, supported generally without
beams, by columns with or without flared column
heads. A flat slab may be solid slab or may have
recesses formed on the soffit so that the soffit
comprises a series of ribs in two directions. The
recesses may be formed by removable or
permanent filler blocks.
4.1 Components of flat slab design

Fig. 4.1 Panel, columns trips and middle strips in Y-
direction

4.1.1 Column Strip
Column strip means a design strip having a width of
0.25 I
1
, but not greater than 0.25l
2
, on each side of
the column centre-line, where I, is the span in the
direction moments are being determined, measured
centre to centre of supports and 1
1
, is the -span
transverse to 1
2
, measured centre to centre of
supports.

4.1.2 Middle Strip
Middle strip means a design strip bounded on each of
its opposite sides by the column strip.


4.1.3 Panel
Panel means that part of a slab bounded on-each of
its four sides by the centre -line of Column or centre-
lines of adjacent-spans.
Division into column and middle strip along:

Table 4.1 Span Calculations
Longer span Shorter span
L
1
=6.6m, L
2
=5.6m
(i) column strip
= 0.25 L
2
= 1.65m
But not greater than 0.25
L
1
=1.4 m
(ii) Middle strip
=6.6-(1.4+1.4)=3.8m
L
1
=5.6m,L
2
=6.6m
(i) column strip
= 0.25 L
2
= 1.4m
But not greater than 0.25
L
1
= 1.4m
(ii) Middle strip
=5.6-(1.4+1.4)=2.8m

4.1.4 Drop
When provided shall be rectangular in plan, and
have a length in each direction not less than one-
third of the panel length in that direction. For exterior
panels, the width of drops at right angles to the non-
continuous edge and measured from the centre -line
of the columns shall be equal to one -half the width
of drop for interior panels.
Since the span is large it is desirable to provide drop.
Drop dimensions along:

Table 4.2 Drop Dimension

Hence provide a drop of size 2.2 x 2 m i.e. in internal
column strip width.
Hence provide a drop of size 1.1 x 1m i.e. in external
column strip width.

4.1.5 Column Head
Where column heads are provided, that portion of a
column head which lies with in the largest right
circular cone or pyramid that has a vertex angle of
90and can be included entirely within the outlines
of the column and the column head, shall be
considered for design purposes.

Column head dimension along:

Table 4.3 Column Head Dimension

Adopting the diameter of column head = 1.20 m
=1200 mm as per IS (456:2000)

4.1.6 Depth of Flat Slab
The thickness of the flat slab up to spans of 10 m
shall be generally controlled by considerations of
span (L) to effective depth (d) ratios given as below:
Cantilever 7; simply supported 20; Continuous 26.
For slabs with drops, span to effective depth ratios
given above shall be applied directly; otherwise the
span to effective depth ratios in accordance with
above shall be multiplied by 0.9. For this purpose,
the longer span of the panel shall be considered. The
minimum thickness of slab shall be 125 mm.
Taking effective depth of 25mm
Overall depth D = 220 +25 = 245mm >125 mm
(minimum slab thickness as per IS: 456)
It is safe to provide depth of 240 mm.

4.1.7 Estimation of Load Acting On The Slab
Dead load acting on the slab = 0.240 x 25 = 6 kN/m
2

= W
d1

Floor finishes etc. load on slab = 1kN/m
2
= W
d2

Live load on slab = 6kN/m
2
= W
l

Total dead load = W
d1+
W
d2
=7 kN/m
2

The design live load shall not exceed three times the
design dead load.
Check:
Wd
Wl
=0.85 < 3 ok
Total design load= W
d
+ W
l
=6.0+7=13kN/m
2

4.2 Shear in Flat Slab
The critical section for shear shall be at a distance
d/2 from the periphery of the column /capital/ drop
panel, perpendicular to the plane of the slab where d
is the effective depth of the section. The shape in
plan is geometrically similar to the support
immediately below the slab.

Check for shear stress developed in slab
The critical section for shear for the slab will be at a
distance d/2 from the face of drop.
Perimeter of critical section = 4 x 2240 = 8960mm
(2000+240/2+240/2)
Total factored shear force: (1.5x13(L
1
xL
2
-(2.24)
(2.24))
= (1.5x13(6.6x5.6-(2.24)
(2.24))
= 623kN
Nominal shear stress =
v
=
bd
vu
=
240 8960
623000
X
=0.29N/mm
2

Shear strength of
concrete=
c
=0.25 fck =0.25 25 =1.25N/mm
2

v
<
c
(safe design ok)
If
v
<1.5
c
then the slab should be re-designed
Check for shear in drop
b
0
= (D + d
0
) = 3.14(1.2+.46) =5.21m
V= (1.5x13 (5.6x6.6-(1.2) (1.2)) = 693kN

L
1
=6.6m, L
2
=5.6m
Not less than L
1
/3=2.2m
L
1
=5.6m,L
2
=6.6m
Not less than L
1
/3=1.9m
L
1
=6.6m, L
2
=5.6m
Not less than L
1
/3=2.2m
L
1
=5.6m,L
2
=6.6m
Not less than L
1
/3=1.9m


Nominal shear stress =
v
=
bd
vu
=
460 2000
693000
x
=.75N/mm
2

Shear strength of
concrete=
c
=0.25 fck =0.25 25 =1.25N/mm
2

v
<
c
(safe design ok)

4.3 Maximum Design Moments for Flat Slab as
Per SAP 2000 Version 9.03

Table 4.4 Slab Moments in X- Direction

Table 4.5 Slab Moments in Y- Direction
Slab Maximum Moments For Panel No.7
Panel Y- Direction

Load
Combination
Column
Strip Middle Strip Column strip
M11 M22

M11 M22 M11 M22
Drop
with
Head
Max.
Positive 1.5(DL+LL) 303 866 80 134 303 866
Max.
Negative 1.5(DL+LL) -388 -956 -9 -184 -388 -956

Table 4.6 Steel Calculation
Panel Longer span Shorter span
Column strip
Middle strip
Column strip
Reinforcement
ve steel
Reinforcement
+ve steel
Spacing ve
steel
Spacing +ve
steel
-956kN-m
+134 kN-m
-956 kN-m
4664mm
2

1938mm
2

20mm @130c/c
16mm @100c/c

-568kN-m
+104 kN-m
-956 kN-m
3512mm
2

1508 mm
2

20mm @130c/c
16mm @130/c

Table 4.7 Design of column by IS-456-2000 and IS-
13920
Type Main
R/F
IS 456-
2000
Main
R/F
IS
13920-
1993
Stirrups
IS 456-2000
Stirrups
IS 13920-
1993
C1

6-
25+2-
16

6-
25+2-
16

8mmDia.
2L@180mm
1)8mmDia.
2L@250mm

2)8mmDia.
3L@80mm
Detailing of C3 Column for First Storey

Figure 4.2 Detailing of C3 columnas per IS
13920:1993.

Figure 4.3 Detailing of C1 column as per IS
13920:1993

(Note: - Design of column for 1% steel is safe for all
structure in all checks as per IS 456:2000 and
detailing is done by IS 13920:1993)
5. CONCLUSIONS
1. Drops are important criteria in increasing the shear
strength of the slab.
2. By incorporating heads in slab, we are increasing
rigidity of slab.
3. The dynamic analysis results indicate that the
lowest mode of vibration i.e. third mode was the
torsional mode. This seems to be a typical of flat-slab
building with a central core of shear walls.
4. Modeling of flat plate slab with diaphragm and
without diaphragm in case of response spectrum
method there is no variation in axial force, shear
Slab Maximum Moments For Panel No.7
Panel Load
Combination

X- Direction

Column
Strip
Middle
Strip Column strip
M11 M22 M11 M22 M11 M22
Drop
with
Head
Max.
Positive 1.5(DL+LL) 308 866 92 104 31 0
Max.
Negative 1.5(DL+LL) -568 -161 -67 -105 -388 -956


force and moment as moment of inertia of slab is
very high it acts as rigid.
5. The negative moments section shall be designed
to resist the larger of the two interior negative design
moments for the span framing into common
supports.
6. Enhance resistance to punching failure at the
junction of concrete slab & column by providing
drop with head.
7. Drop with head & Flat slab head is very good
combination to reduce the moment with less
thickness of slab.
8. In earthquake zone we shall provide only flat slab
drop with head & ductile detailing for all structure.

REFERENCES
Abdel Wahab, El-Ghandour, Kypros Pilakoutas, and
Peter Waldron, Punching Shear Behavior of
Fiber Reinforced Polymers Reinforced Concrete
Flat Slabs: Experimental Study. , Journal of
Composites for Construction, Vol. 7, No.3,
August 1, 2003.
ACI Manual of Construction Practice 1995 Part 3
Page No. 318/318R-(201-228).
Ahmed Ghobarah, Performance-Based Design in
Earthquake Engineering: State Of Development
, Engineering Structures Elsevier Science
23,874-884, March 17, 2001.
Austin P.D, Moehle J.P, Interior Slab Column
Connection of Building, 2000
B. A. Izzuddin, X. Y. Tao; and A. Y. Elghazouli,
Realistic Modeling of Composite and
Reinforced Concrete Floor Slabs under Extreme
Loading. , I: Analytical Method Journal of
Structural Engineering, Vol. 130, No. 12,
December 1, 2004.
Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of
Structures Part 1 General Provisions and
Buildings (Fifth Revision) IS 1893(part 1):2002.
Dr. Ram Chandra, Virendra Gahlot, Elements of
Limit State Design of Concrete Structures,
Scientific Publishers (India), 2004.
Dr. R .K. Ingle Excel Spreadsheet for Design of
Colum by IS 456-2000 & IS 13920, Applied
Mechanics Department, VNIT, Nagpur.
Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structures
to Seismic Forces IS 13920:1993
Durrani A. J.; Mau S. T., AbouHashish A. A., and Yi
Li, Earthquake Response of Flat-Slab
Buildings , Journal of Structural Engineering,
Vol. 120, No. 3, March, 1994.
Ehab El-Salakawy, Khaled Soudki, and Maria Anna
Polak, Punching Shear Behavior of Flat Slabs
Strengthened with Fiber Reinforced Polymer
Laminates, Journal of Composites for
Construction, Vol. 8, No. 5, October 1, 2004.
Indian standard Plain & Reinforced Concrete Code
of Practice Fourth Revision IS: 456:2000.
Joo-Ha Lee, Young-Soo Yoon, Seung-Hoon Lee,
William D. Cook, and Denis Mitchell,
Enhancing Performance of Slab-Column
Connections , Journal of Structural
Engineering, Vol. 134, No. 3, March 1, 2008.
L. Cao and C. J. Naito, Design of Precast
Diaphragm Chord Connections for In-Plane
Tension Demands , Journal of Structural
Engineering, Vol. 133, No. 11, November 1,
2007.
M. Altug Erberik and Amr S. Elnashai Loss
Estimation Analysis of Flat-Slab Structures ,
Natural Hazards Review, Vol. 7, No. 1, February
1, 2006.
M.Anitha, B.Q.Rahman, JJ.Vijay, Analysis and
Design of Flat Slabs Using Various Codes,
International Institute of Information
Technology, Hyderabad (Deemed University)
April 2007.
M. H. Haraj, K. A. Soudki, and T. Kuds,
Strengthening of Interior Slab-Column
Connections Using a Combination of FRP
Sheets and Steel Bolts, Journal of Composites
for Construction, Vol. 10, No.5, October 1,
2006.
Paul Arthur Whitehead and Timothy James Ibell
Rational Approach to Shear Design in Fiber
Reinforced Polymer-Prestressed Concrete
Structures, Journal of Composites for
Construction, Vol. 9, No.1, February 1, 2005.
Softwares:-SAP-2000V0.9 & AUTOCAD-2004.
Y.H.Luo, A.J.Durrani, J.P.Conte, Equivalent Frame
Analysis of Flat Plate Buildings for Seismic
Loading, Journal of Structural Engineering,
Vol. 120, No. 7, July 1994.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


TECHNO-ECONOMIC STUDY OF REMOTE AREA SMALL HYDRO
POWER PLANTS

Mon Prakash Upadhyay

M.Tech II Year, Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian Institute Of Technology, Roorkee-247667
Rahul Bhatt

M.Tech II Year, Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian Institute Of Technology, Roorkee-247667
Nitin Kumar Sahu

Assistant Professor, Iimt Institute Of Engineering And Technology MeerutE-mail: mon.u67@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Electricity is most convenient form of energy, which is utilized for lighting, heating and
industrial production. Also generation and consumption of electricity through small hydro does not pollute the
environment and therefore can play an important role for protection of the environment and in maintenance of
ecological balance especially we can say for hilly areas also.Hydro power Development Corporation of
Arunachal Pradesh Limited (A Govt. of Arunachal Pradesh Enterprises) is entrusted with the design and
construction of the power projects in Arunachal Pradesh State. HPDCAPL has assigned the task to Alternate
Hydro Energy Center (AHEC), IIT, Roorkee to prepare detailed project report and detail engineering design and
drawing work for the Sumbachu small hydro project. In this paper we have done the techno-economic study of
remote area small hydro power plants (21500 kW) in Zemithang town of Tawang district of Arunachal
Pradesh. The discharge measured on the Sumbachu Stream on 18th July, 2010 was found to be 1.85 cumec with
gross head of 279 m. Two unit of 1500 kW each has been proposed. The design calculation for all civil
components and electromechanical components is carried out.

INTRODUCTION
The renewable sources of energy which could make
substantial contribution to meet the rural energy needs
are solar, biogas, wind and water power. In Arunachal
Pradesh, the potential of hydropower schemes
identified is about 560 MW in its different river
basins. Though the rate of grid power remains same
irrespective of the point of withdrawal but the fact is
that the supply of power in the remote and hilly areas
and at the tail end has been extremely poor and erratic
with low voltage with frequent and very long
shutdowns.
With the incentives, and right environment through
policies available for hydro power generation,
HPDCAPL decided to install a hydropower plant on
perennial stream to meet the existing demand of the
Zemithang area. Sumbachu Small Hydro Scheme is
proposed to be located on the right bank of
Sumbachu river with the purpose of tapping the
renewable source of energy at competitive prices and
with a view to improve the socio- economic
conditions of the region. There is great need of rural
electrification as an infra-structure for development
and government is laying considerable priority for the
same. By the execution of such Small Hydro
Schemes, the area will usher into new era of
development. The proposed scheme will supply
energy to nearby area. This scheme is very suitable to
meet the power demand in villages like Zemithang
etc.Near the proposed site. At present there is 33kV
grid at a distance of about 30 km from power house
site. Several areas are being provided electricity
through D.G. set which is very costly. The unit cost
from D.G. supply in this area comes out to be more
than Rs. 10.00 per unit. Thus development of this
scheme shall contribute to-
1. Improve basic living conditions and
education standard.
2. Establishment and sustenance of small-scale
and rural based industries.
3. Improve agricultural productivity by stable
power supply for the irrigation need.
4. Improve and further promote tourism in
valley.

SOCIO ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT OF THE SCHEME
Electrification of the area will bring numerous
development activities. The working hours of rural
folks will increase with the availability of electric
supply in the morning and evenings hours in their
domestic/household area. Modern commercial and
entrainment facilities like Radio and Television will
bring the entire population of the area in mainstream
of development. Use of electricity in cooking and
heating will reduce dependence on forest wood. Water
supply shall be augmented with the installation of
pumps. The availability of dependable power will
create avenues for cottage/mini industries giving a
boost to the economic development of the area.
Further with the creation of modern facilities for
living, migration of locals will also be reduced.
Sumbachu Small Hydro Power Scheme envisages the
power generation from Sumbachu Nallah and this
development is without any pondage. Mini/Small
Hydro Power development projects, while sharing all
the benefits of hydro electric generation, harnesses a
renewable source of energy in extremely
environmentally benign manner. Being small it does


not involve any submergence or violation of the
sanctity of forests.
Availability of reliable electrical energy is expected to
reduce over dependence on nature depleting fuel and
will also result in saving of petroleum products like
diesel and Kerosene.
The scheme would also help in activating some
industrial development activities by the local people
due to regular and bulk availability of electricity and
will also improve their living conditions.
The magnitude of construction activity will not induce
migration of labor to this area, as sufficient local labor
is available in the area, and thus local ecology will not
be pressurized.
In addition, it is proposed to do plantation in the
scheme area wherever possible. It will further add to
environment and overall outlook of scheme.

CIVIL WORK STUDY
Keeping in view the availability of material the
Trapezoidal trench Type weir is proposed to be
provided to divert the water from nallah to intake
channel. Such weirs are also suited for mountainous
streams as they do not much interfere with the regime
of the stream. The water fed from diversion weir is
lead to desilting tank through a rectangular
R.C.C.channel (bed width 1.00 m x water depth 1.00
m & bed slope=1/200). At Every interval of 50.0 m
suitable man holes shall be provided by 2 no.
removable RCC slabs of size 1.0 x 0.50 m for
maintenance & cleaning purpose. To allow the water
to escape from forebay tank in case of emergency
shutdown of the machines, 5 m wide spillway is
provided in the upstream of forebay tank to divert the
water into the nallah through a monsoon drain already
existing on site which meets the Nallah.

Powerhouse building is a simple structure housing the
generating units, auxiliary equipment, control panels
and suitable outlet for tail water discharge. Turbine
discharge shall be disposed off to Nyaritang chhu
river through the tail race channel from each unit i.e.
for a discharge of 0.75cumec with the width of
channel is 1.00 meter with a depth of water as 0.60 m
and free board 0.30 m. The length of tail race channel
is approximately 30 meter and channel is provided
with the slope suitable to the terrain. The channel is
proposed to be constructed in stone masonry.

ELECTROMECHANICAL WORK STUDY

As per the standard selection charts, the turbine for
generating 1500 kW at 268 meters net head is
available with 1000 rpm speed. The specific speed of
the turbine at 1000 rpm comes out to 30.2, which falls
in the range of Standard Pelton Turbine. Hence
standard Pelton turbine with double jet system may be
appropriate to choose for this project. Two nos. of
synchronous generators are proposed to be installed.
Synchronous generator of 1875 KVA (1500 kW) at
3.3 KV, 0.80 PF, 3 Phase A.C., 50 Hz, 1000 rpm.
Each Turbine shall be equipped with suitable PLC
based electronic type of governor, which
switches/adjust load so as to match available
generation. The main inlet valve of the turbine shall
be of butterfly type for connecting to penstock.
Electrical control, protection and metering system will be
based on state of art technologies. Microprocessor based
automation systems for the governing and control of
power plant will be adopted. The power generated will
be stepped up to 33 KV through 2 numbers,
2000KVA 3.3/33 KV step up transformers and shall
be transmitted to the state grid. Provision for
emanating one no. 33 KV line from this project for
connection with grid with full protection and metering
systems has been made in this project. However the
cost of 33KV line is not included in the project report.
The project has been identified at such a place which
may be developed as tourist centre in future. The
power supply to the circle head quarter at Zemithang
and adjoining nearby areas along with the military
establishments may be improved with proper
distribution system. Construction of 33 KV line from
the switchyard of the project to distribution
substations has not been covered in the estimate of the
project. All the following equipment shall be provided
in the switchyard with terminal and auxiliary
structures and proper earthing. Suitable control panels
having protection and metering equipment etc shall be
housed inside the power house at appropriate location.
i. 2 x 2000 kVA 3.3/ 33 kV Step up Transformers
ii. 250 kVA 33/0.415 kV Station Transformer
iii. Vacuum circuit breakers
iv. Current transformers
v. Potential transformers
vi. Line isolator
vii. Lightning arrestors
viii. Shielding
ix. Pale fence etc.

TECHNO-ECONOMIC STUDIES
i. Flow Duration
Based on the discharge data collected for the year
2001 and 2002, flow duration analysis has been
carried out. The water available has been carried out.
The water available for percentage of time equaled or
exceeded. The various discharges equaled or
exceeded are as follows:
100% = 0.47 /s
75% = 0.91 /s
50% = 1.70 /s
25% = 5.10 /s

ii. Energy generation


Based on the discharge available, power potential has
been worked out at various dependability. For
computation of power potential, the efficiency of
turbine and generator has been taken as 0.88 and 0.95
respectively. Power generation may vary depending
upon the actual equipment purchased and their
efficiencies. Standard turbine runner diameter and
generator capacity have been taken into consideration
for finding out the power potential and possible
energy generation.

iii. Installation capacity and no. of units

The power potential at different dependability is
broadly as follows.
Dependability Power Potential
100% 1046 kW
75% 2017 kW
50% 3782 kW
25% 11329 kW

iv. Energy generation
The provisional installed capacity of 3000 kW at
about 65% dependability may be assumed for further
exercises. Therefore for 3000 kW capacity at
75% Plant Load Factor = 19.17 Million Units
60% Plant Load Factor = 15.77 Million Units

CONCLUSIONS

The site of Sumbachu Small Hydro Electric scheme is
suitable for development of hydropower on Sumbachu
Nallah by utilizing the existing fall in the nallah.
Installation of 2 unit of 1500 kW each by utilizing the
net head of 271 meter and discharge of 1.485 cumecs
is considered most appropriate taking into account the
load demand, cost of the project and availability of
land. The scheme involves very simple civil
engineering works and can be completed in working
period of 24 months. During Rainy period of four
months work at site may not be possible. Construction
materials like sand, screened gravel and aggregates
etc. are available in the nearby area. The proposed
scheme has minimal interference with the
environment and hence would not affect the ecology
of the area. The scheme will be helpful in generating
employment and improvement of quality of life in the
area. The scheme would result in saving of diesel and
kerosene oil by making available a reliable and stable
electricity supply to the people living in the area.
The cost of generation from the scheme at 75%load
factor is about Rs.2.26 per kWh without subsidy
which is much less than the cost of generation from
alternate source of diesel/solar at such remote sites.

REFERENCES
A.K.Akella, R.P.Saini, M.P.Sharma, Social,
economical and environmental impacts of
renewable energy systems, Renewable Energy
2009, 34:390396.Einstein, H.H., Choudhury, D.
and Viswanadham, B.V.S. (1998). Model studies
on mechanics of engineering. Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
ASCE, 90(3), 229-248.
Detail project report of Sumbachu small Hydel
Project (21500 kW) in Zemithang town of
Tawang district of Arunachal Pradesh prepared by
AHEC, IIT Roorkee.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

A PRAGMATIC APPROACH OF POT HOLES REPAIR UNDER INDIAN
SERVICE CONDITIONS

Assistant Professor, Transportation Engineering Group, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT-Roorkee
Praveen Kumar
Professor, Transportation Engineering Group, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT-Roorkee.
Brnd Kumar
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IT-BHU, Varanasi.

ABSTRACT: Potholes are a form of disintegration of the pavement that may be associated with poorly compacted
material, raveling, cracking, improper longitudinal & transverse joints, moisture intrusion, base failure or ageing of
the bituminous materials. Mostly potholes occur in the wheel paths, particularly the outer path, centerline, near the
edge of the pavement and especially where a pavement has been widened. Potholes are also formed due to improper
resealing of core holes made on the pavement surface during the post construction quality control tests. All over the
world pot holes is a daily challenge for cars and trucks being expensive in their repairing. They often appear after
rain or during thaw periods when pavements are weaker. Causes of potholes, different methods of potholes repairing
and preventive & corrective measures of potholes are discussed in this paper.

INTRODUCTION
Potholes are a small, bowl-shaped depression in the
pavement surface that penetrate all the way through the
bituminous concrete layer down to the bituminous base
course or even goes deeper than these layers due to
untimely repairs. Potholes are a serious problem and
their effective repair is an important issue. For road
users, potholes are not simply a nuisance. They
constitute a dangerous safety hazard that can inflict
substantial damage to vehicles.

US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration [1] described, potholes are as bowl-
shaped holes of various sizes in the road pavement
surface, with a minimum width of 150 mm. Low
severity potholes are less than 25mm deep (Fig.1),
moderate-severity from 25mm to 50mm deep (Fig.2)
and high-severity potholes are deeper than 50mm
(Fig.3).

Fig.1. Low severity pothole

Fig.2. Moderate severity pothole

Fig.3. High severity pothole

Causes of potholes

The generally accepted mechanisms for pothole
formation are due to cracking, raveling or stripping in
the pavement surface; moisture intrusion which
weakens the underlying pavement layers and


subsequently this leads to loss of fines from the surface
& underlying pavement layers.
Pothole formation is mostly associated with bitumen
fatigue damage. Potholes on roads and streets of India
are often appearing after the onset of monsoons (2).
When bitumen road pavement ages, it tend to becomes
more porous and rain water increasingly begins to
penetrate through cracks and other flaws (Fig.4).
Additionally, water may enter the road base from the
sides of the road. In colder weather conditions when
sub-zero temperatures occur, the water which has
drained through to the road base or foundation layer
freezes to form pockets of ice (Fig.5). When water
freezes to become ice, it expands. This expansion, or
increase in volume, begins to displace the road
pavement surface. When the temperature subsequently
rises above freezing, the pockets of ice melt leaving
voids beneath the road surface. A succession of freeze-
thaw cycles gradually increases the size of these sub
pavement voids, progressively weakening the road
pavement layer. Traffic loads over the un-supported
pavement cause collapse and the formation of a
pothole. However, these kinds of problems are rarely
observed in our country. There is no doubt that water is
the primary cause of potholes, but the ingress of water
into the road structure to cause the potholes is mostly
due to the condition of the road surface [www. csir]
(3). The formation of potholes differs somewhat
depending on the environmental conditions, traffic
loading, road pavement structure and materials used
(3). Generally, pothole generated from the top course
initially (Fig.6) then once a pothole has been formed, it
will tend to grow in size because traffic will
continually remove broken pieces of the road surface
(Fig.7). If the pothole fills with water, its rate of
growth will accelerate as the water will wash away
loose particles under the force of passing traffic. Whilst
potholes can grow to perhaps half a metre in width
also, if they are left unattended for a longer period then
ultimately they can cause damage to the pavement
structurally. Fig.8 depicts the stepwise formations of
potholes due to their untimely repairs. Ultimately,
expensive reconstruction of the road is then necessary.
Potholes can also result from improperly filled &
unfilled core holes made on the pavement surface
during post construction quality control tests [Fig.9
(a)]. This formation is prone near the edge of the
pavement especially where a pavement has been
widened [Fig. 9 (b)].

Pot holes measurement

Potholes are generally measured in terms of number
and square meters of affected area at each severity
level. Pothole depth is the maximum depth below
pavement surface. If pothole occurs within an area of
fatigue cracking, the area of fatigue cracking is reduced
by the area of the pothole [1].

Disadvantages of potholes

The following are the major disadvantages of potholes
when they are not repaired at all or repaired with the
preceding improper techniques [2]:

(i) Inconvenience to motoring public
(ii) User delays which cost money in terms of
their time
(iii) Extra fuel consumed when the vehicles have
to stop or go very slow
(iv) Excessive wear & tear of the vehicles, which
require frequent repairs
(v) Increased air pollution caused by vehicle
emission due to slow or stopped traffic
(vi) Accidents resulting from the tendency of the
vehicles to go around the potholes
(vii) Increased real cost of repairing potholes in
terms of labour because the government
agencies have to keep on repairing the same
potholes several times during the monsoon
Significant environmental impact due to most of the
reasons mentioned above such as increased fuel usage,
increased air pollution, increased consumption of
energy in repairing the potholes with stopgap
techniques.

Methods of pothole patching.

The construction procedures of potholes patching vary
with method employed and material selected [4]. There
are three primary patching techniques, throw and roll,
semi-permanent patches and injection patching; an
overview of each follows:

Fig.4. Water penetration through cracks &
flaws (www.instarmac.co.uk)


1.5.1. Throw and Roll
The throw and roll method is often used for
temporary patches. It is only appropriate when weather
conditions do not allow a semi-permanent patch to be
placed, or the road is due for rehabilitation in the very
near future. It is the least expensive and least labor-
intensive method for patching a pothole and includes
the following steps:
(i) Patching material is placed into the hole, with or
without cleaning and/or drying of the hole.
(ii) The material is compacted using the maintenance
truck tires.
(iii) The finished patch should have about 10 mm
crown to prevent water ponding.
Clean-up is generally not required.
1.5.2. Semi-Permanent Patching
Semi-permanent patching is considered to be an
effective patching method (second only to complete
removal and replacement of the failed area). The steps
of this method are summarized as follows:
(i) Mark the boundaries of the distressed area,
taking care to encompass a slightly larger area
than that reflected by the distress. The repair
boundaries should be as rectangular as
possible and take into consideration the
dimensions of the equipment that will be used
for removal of the old material and
compaction of the new material.
(ii) Cut the boundaries of the patch square using
either a diamond saw or pneumatic hammer
with a spade bit. In the case of the latter, care
should be taken not to damage the HMA
surface layer in the sound pavement.
(iii) Square up the sides of the hole until the edges
of the hole are sound pavement. This method
is very simple if the boundaries of the repair
area were cut with a diamond saw or
established with cold milling equipment. It is
usually only required when manual techniques
of material removal are employed. It is
suggested that the depth of the patch be 50%
thicker than the thickness of the failed layer.
(iv) Remove water and debris from the hole and
apply a tack coat of asphalt emulsion to the
sides and bottom of the hole.
(v) Place the patch material in the hole, taking
care to avoid segregation. The hole should be
overfilled by 20 to 25 percent of its depth to
provide adequate material for compaction.
(vi) Compact the patch material with a hand
device or a small vibratory roller. It is
preferably to use compaction equipment
whose surface is smaller than the size of the
patch. It is very difficult to achieve
satisfactory compaction with equipment that
bridges the repair area.
(vii) The patch should be compacted thoroughly
with proper compaction equipment. For

Fig.5. Unsupported pavement fails under
the traffic loads. (www.instarmac.co.uk.)

Fig.6. Pothole in the wearing course

Fig.7. Pothole in the deeper layer


additional compaction by traffic and helps
prevent standing water accumulate in the
patch area, the finished patch should have a 3
to 6 mm crown.
The edges of the patched area should be sealed with
crack sealant. For areas with significant amount of
rainfall, the entire patch should be fog sealed.

Injection Patching
Injection patching is a rapid and effective method of
patching that requires specialized equipment. This
method is used for low volume traffic roads and is an
alternative to the throw and roll method. The patches
are temporary, but generally have a longer life than
throw and roll patches. The steps for injection patching
are described below:
(i) Prepare the site for patching by blowing debris and
water from the hole with the application nozzle.
(ii) Spray a tack coat of emulsion on the sides and
bottom of the hole at a rate of approximately 1
liter/m
2
.
(iii) Blow asphalt/aggregate mixture into the
hole, filling the hole to the top.
Considering the current practices which are being
adopted by the various construction agencies in India
are briefly discussed here [2]: (i) mostly potholes are
being filled with soil, which is usually washed away in
the first rain and this method is not successful (ii)
another way to fill the potholes is dumping bare stones
in the holes. This not only provides a rough riding
surface especially for motorcycles but also the stone
particles start to ravel out of the pothole during
subsequent rains. If the stones survive in the potholes,
these are not usually removed and pothole properly
patched when the road or street is overlaid with hot
mix. This results in reappearance of the same pothole
during next years monsoon. (iii) for a very deep
potholes, full cement bags of sand is employed to fill
the holes which is highly undesirable and (iv)
sometimes a penetration macadam type approach is
used. In this method, a tack coat is applied to the
bottom of the pothole. A layer of large stone is spread
in the pothole. Bituminous binder is applied to the
stone layer and then another layer of stone is
spread and compacted. This penetration macadam is
extremely porous to water
and gets saturated with water when it rains. Even when
the road is resurfaced
with hot mix, the pothole redevelops at the same place
year after year. However, in other developed countries,
sophisticate automated patching technology is being
employed for pothole repairing [5]. This kind of
technology could work in quicker ways as well as has
advantages on cost over manual repair. As its initial
investment is very huge, it would be difficult to employ
such costly machinery in every running project.
Therefore as on today, we rely more on manual
repairing method than other methods.

Fig.8. Pot hole damaged the entire pavement layers

Fig. 9a.

Fig. 9b.
Fig.9. Pot hole developed near the centre-line (a) &
outer wheel path (b).


Fig. 10. Digging out the distressed portion

Fig. 11. Removal of disintegrated materials

Fig. 12. Tack coating to the bottom of the
repair area

Fig. 13. Applying tack coat to the bottom as
well as sides of the repair area

Fig. 15. Placing of
patch material &
leveling
Fig. 16. Hand
compaction
Fig. 17. Vibratory
compaction

Fig. 14. Transportation of patch
material to repair site.


A lack of periodic and /or preventive maintenance
leads to the development of weaknesses in the road
pavement structure. Therefore, interval of road
inspection should be conducted at least once in three
months of time. There should be pre-and post-monsoon
inspections of the road and the necessary preventive &
corrective measures should be carried out to the
appropriate standards. Knowledge of the effects of
routine maintenance on pavement performance is
important to the management of highway pavements at
both the network and the project level [6]. Rigorous
repair procedures that involve cutting, cleaning, and
compacting are the most cost-effective ways to repair
potholes. Throw-and-go procedures cost approximately
three times more than do the more rigorous procedures
[7].

Preventive & corrective measures

Materials for pothole repairing
Materials play an important role in the efficient and
effective use of maintenance treatments. The two main
materials comprising flexible pavement maintenance
treatments are bitumen and aggregate. Generally,
bitumen types like paving bitumen, bitumen emulsion
& bitumen cutback are oftently recommended for
patching activities related to pavement maintenance.
Also, suitable modified bitumen grade other than
conventional bitumen grade may also be suggested
depending upon the work demand. Under no
circumstances, cutback bitumen should be allowed to
be made by contractors or department by blending
kerosene with paving bitumen. It should only be
obtained from approved manufactures; the same should
conform to all requirements of IS 217 specifications.
The patching mix gradation given in Table 1 may be
adopted for pothole repairing. It should be noted that
the material passing 0.075 mm sieve is restricted to 2%
maximum (based on washed gradation) for ensuring
quality and durability of the patching mix.

Table 1. Gradation of Stockpile Patching Mix [2].

Sieve size, mm Percent passing

9.5 100
4.75 40-100
2.36 10-40
1.18 0-10
0.075 0-2
As far as possible, aggregate with 1.0 % or less water
absorption should be used. If the water absorption
exceeds 1.0 %, the amount of residual bituminous
material should be increased as shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Minimum Residual Bitumen Content by
Weight of Mix [2].
Aggregate water
absorption, %
Minimum residual bitumen
content, %
1.0 or less 4.5
1.1 to 1.5 5.0
1.6 to 2.0 5.5

Example to explain the residual bitumen content: If the
total amount of cutback
bitumen in the mix is 6.0 % and the cutback has 80 %
bitumen (residual) and 20 % diluent
(such as kerosene), the residual bitumen content in the
mix is 6.0 times 80 %, which is
equal to 4.8 %. The contractor must obtain the actual
percentage of residual bitumen in the
MC cutback from the approved supplier.

The mineral aggregate should be clean and surface dry
before mixing. The temperature of aggregate shall
preferably be in between 5
0
C to 65
0
C and that of
bitumen shall be in between 55
0
C to 95
0
C.
The following two tests should be performed on the
mixture, freshly prepared or taken from a stockpile at
any time during its storage life (usually 6 months) [2]:
1. Water Resistance Test
2. Workability Test

The water resistance test will indicate whether the
patching mix has a potential for stripping in the pothole
in presence of water. If the mix fails this test, it means
a proper type and/or amount of antis tripping agent has
not been used in the mix. If the mix fails in
workability, it could be due to improper bitumen type,
low bitumen content, excessive fines or improper
gradation.

A pragmatic approach of pot holes repair
Once the distress areas are located, mark the
boundaries of the distressed area to be replaced. At the
best possible, one should strive for rectangular areas
taking into considerations of the equipment that will be
used for removal of the failed material and compaction
of the new material (Figs. 10).

Cut out the perimeter of the area with suitable tools and
remove the disintegrated materials (Fig.11).
Clean the dig out area with the help of suitable
equipments like cycle pump and air compressor.
Then tack coat of bitumen emulsion is applied at the
rate of 1liter/m
2
approximately to the sides of the repair
area as well as along the bottom of the repair area. It is


also important to ensure timely supply of patch
material to the repair site and the same can be
performed with the help of wheel barrow (Fig. 14) for
small magnitude of work. The patch material is
typically placed in lifts if the depth of the repair is
greater than 100 mm. The thickness of any lift should
not exceed 100 mm.

Initially hand compaction may be employed (Fig. 16)
for ensuring proper compaction at the corners & edges
of the repair area, Compact each lift using equipment
similar to that typically used in hot-mix asphalt
compaction operations. The width of the compaction
equipment should be narrow enough to fit within the
repair area. The finished patched area should have a
crown of 3 to 6 mm. It is an allowance made for further
compaction under traffic loads.

CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The effective technique for reducing pothole
formation on the road surface is timely preventive
maintenance to the appropriate standards.
2. Interval of road inspection should be frequent. It
should be atleast once in three months.
3. Pothole repair programme should aim to mobilize
funds as well create well-trained mobile team for
each project.
4. Holes detected on the pavement surface during
post construction quality control test should be
made good. The edges in particular holes should
be sealed firmly so as to prevent intrusion of
surface water. The number of holes in the
pavement surface should be kept as low as
possible.
5. Joints of pavements are weak planes and are also
one of the vulnerable locations for formations of
potholes hence therefore; extra care should be
taken by ensuring sufficient overlapping distance
& providing requisite degree of compaction at
locations where two lanes are jointing or
terminating.
6. Adequate quantity of tack coat should be sprayed
to the dugout areas before placing premix material
for ensuring strong bonding.
7. Sealing cracks is of the utmost importance. The
presence of open cracks greater than 3 mm allows
the ingress of water into the pavement layers,
thereby decreasing strength (load-bearing
capacity) and making them more susceptible to
formation of potholes.
8. Timely treatment of hungry surfaces on the road
pavement is essential to prevent the formation of
potholes. The same can be treated with
rejuvenator or by spraying suitable grade of
bitumen emulsion.
9. Warmer and drier weather should be preferred for
long lasting pothole repairs. Under unavoidable
circumstances, temporary repairing may be got
conducted even during monsoon however, the
same shall make a permanent repair as soon as
possible.

REFERENCES:
1. US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration, Distress Identification Manual
for the Long -Term Pavement Performance
Program, Publication Number FWA-RD-03-031,
June 2003.
2. Kandhal, P. S. and D. B. Mellott. Rational Approach
to Design of Bituminous Stockpile Patching
Mixtures. TRB, Transportation Research Record
821, 1981.
3. www.csir.co.za/pothole_guides, non-technical and
technical guides.
4. Caltrans, Maintenance Technical Advisory Guide,
Volume I, Flexible Pavement Preservation, Second
Edition, 2008.
5. James R. Blaha Fabrication and Testing of
Automated Pothole Patching Machine Strategic
Highway Research Program (SHRP-H-674),
National Research Council Washington, DC, 1993.
6. Fwa, TF and Sinha, K.C., A Study of the effects of
routine Pavement Maintenance Transportation
Research Board, Issue Number: 1102, 1986, p. 6-
13.
7. Thomas, HR and Anderson, DA, Pothole Repair:
You cant afford not to do it right Transportation
Research Board, Issue Number: 1102, 1986, p. 32-
40.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

ANALYSIS OF THE MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURE SEVEN
HOMOGENEOUS REGIONS OF INDIA

R. K. S. Maurya
Department of Geophysics, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, Email:rksmaurya@gmail.com
G. P. Singh
Department of Geophysics, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, Email: gpsinghbhu@hotmail.com.

ABSTRACT: In the last 100 years or so, the Earths surface and lowest part of the atmosphere have warmed
up on average by about 0.6oC. During this period, the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has
increased, largely because of the burning of fossil fuels for energy and transportation, and land use changes, for
food by mankind. In the last 20 years, concern has grown that these two phenomena are, at least in part,
associated with each other. That is to say, global warming is now considered most probably to be due to the
man-made increases in greenhouse gas emissions. Whilst other natural causes of climate change, including
changes in the amount of energy coming from the Sun and shifting patterns of ocean circulation, can cause
global climate to change over similar periods of time, the balance of evidence now indicates that there is a
discernible human influence on the global climate. Analysis of the mean monthly temperature seven
homogeneous regions, viz., West Himalaya (WH), Northwest India (NWI), North Central India (NCI),
Northeast India (NEI), West Coast (WC), East Coast (EC), and Interior Peninsula (IP) has been studied for the
period of 1901-2000. Detail analysis on annual and seasonal changes in mean monthly temperature (Tavg),
mean maximum temperature (Tmax) and mean minimum temperature (Tmin) have been done. Each year was
divided into four principal seasons, viz. winter, pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon. The analysis shows
that the annual mean temperature, mean maximum temperature, and mean minimum temperature are increasing.
As far as different homogeneous region are concerned, the analysis shows that the WH, NWI, NCI, NEI, WC,
EC and IP show a rising trend of approximately 0.53C, 0.07C,0.41C, 0.55C , 0.67C , 0.42C and 0.45C
per hundred year respectively. The largest temperature rising are found over the WC and minimum over NWI.

INTRODUCTION
In the last 100 years or so, the Earths surface and
lowest part of the atmosphere have warmed up on
average by about 0.6
o
C. During this period, the
amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has
increased, largely because of the burning of fossil
fuels for energy and transportation, and land use
changes, for food by mankind. In the last 20 years,
concern has grown that these two phenomena are, at
least in part, associated with each other. That is to say,
global warming is now considered most probably to
be due to the man-made increases in greenhouse gas
emissions. Whilst other natural causes of climate
change, including changes in the amount of energy
coming from the Sun and shifting patterns of ocean
circulation, can cause global climate to change over
similar periods of time, the balance of evidence now
indicates that there is a discernible human influence
on the global climate.
Climate refers to the average weather experienced
over a long period, typically 30 years. This includes
temperature, wind, and rainfall patterns. The Earths
climate is not static, and has changed many times in
response to a variety of natural causes.
The term climate change usually refers to changes
that have been observed since the early 1900s. These
changes in global climate are likely to be due to a
combination of both natural and human causes:
The Earths climate varies naturally as a result of
interactions between the ocean and the atmosphere,
changes in the Earths orbit, fluctuations in energy
received from the sun, and volcanic eruptions.
The main human infl uence on global climate is likely
to be emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) such as
carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4).
Global atmospheric concentrations of carbon
dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have increased
markedly as a result of human activities since 1750
and now far exceed pre-industrial values determined
from ice cores spanning many thousands of years. The
global increases in carbon dioxide concentration are
due primarily to fossil fuel use and land use change,
while those of methane and nitrous oxide are
primarily due to agriculture.
They can be defined by the differences between
average weather conditions at two separate times.
Climate changes differently in different time scales
and geographical scales. Many studies have reported
that the global mean surface air temperatures have
significantly increased in the last century and
pronounced warming has occurred in the last three
decades (Jones et al 1999; Houghton et al 2001; Jones
and Moberg 2003). On the regional scale, Kothawale
and Rupa Kumar (2005) have examined trends in
surface air temperature over India from 19012003
and reported that the annual mean, maximum as well
as minimum temperatures have significantly increased
by 0.2
0
C per decade in last three decades. It is
remarkable acceleration of the warming trend
compared to the trends of past century (19012003).
However, manifestation of such changes on shorter


timescale has been recognized to be one of the most
crucial factors in terms of socio-economic impacts.
Increasing atmospheric temperatures and carbon
dioxide along with uncertainties in annual
precipitation have an adverse affect on Indian
agriculture (Aggarwal 2008).
DATA AND ANALYSIS
Mean monthly temperature data for seven
homogeneous regions, viz., Western Himalaya (WH),
Northwest (NW), North Central (NC), Northeast
(NE), West Coast (WC), East Coast (EC) and Interior
Peninsula (IP) are used in the present study over a
network of 121 stations are same as used by Pant and
Rupa Kumar (1997). This is originally from the
monthly weather records of the India Meteorological
Department (IMD). The data have been updated for
the period 1901-2003 from the Indian Daily Weather
Reports (IDWRs) published by the IMD.
We can use the linear regression equation for the
trend line . We can apply a statistical
treatment known as linear regression to the data and
determine these constants.
Given a set of years and temperature data set
with n is number of years.
m is slope
b is y-intercept
n
n
n
is standard derivation
x is mean
Coefficient of Variation ( C.V.) =
n
n
n
X 100
A Cold/warm year can be classifies as
Warm Year
T
avg
- +1
Cold Year
T
avg
- -1
T
avg
is the average rainfall and is standard derivation
for period 1901-2000.

1. Western Himalaya
Fig. 1 Temperature homogeneous regions of India
The analysis shows change of Average temperature
over Western Himalaya (WH) has increased by about
0.53C and average temperature is 11.86 C and
standard derivation is 0.49C (Figure-2). Highest and
lowest temperatures are 13.4 C (1999) and 10.78 C
(1920). The analysis also shows the numbers of cold
and warm cases are 16 and 14 respectively during the
period of study. Table 1 shows the number of cold
and warm years during different decades. An increase
in maximum temperature is about 0.67C/decades,
maximum temperature is about 18.03C/decades, and
standard derivation is about 0.72C. The highest and
lowest temperatures are 20.09C (1999) and 16.17C
(1957) respectively. An increase in minimum
temperature is about 0.40C and standard derivation
about 0.47C. Highest and lowest minimum
temperatures are 6.78 C (1956) and 4.52 C (1975)
respectively during the period of present study.

Fig. 2 Average surface air temperatures (C) over
Western Himalaya. (anomalies are computed from
mean 1901-2000). Trend is found using 5 points
moving average.

Western Himal aya
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991
years
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)


Table 1 Cold (C) and Warm (W) years over
homogeneous region of the India
Decades WHI NEI NWI NCI ECI WCI IPI
C W C W C W C W C W C W C W
1900-10 4 0 4 0 1 2 2 1 2 0 7 0 0 1
1911-20 3 0 6 0 1 1 3 0 2 0 2 0 4 0
1921-30 0 1 1 0 1 1 3 1 2 0 1 0 1 2
1931-40 0 2 0 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 3 2
1941-50 2 2 0 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 0 0
1951-60 1 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 2 1 1 0 0 0
1961-70 3 0 0 1 1 1 0 2 2 0 0 3 3 1
1971-80 1 1 1 1 2 0 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 3
1981-90 2 1 0 0 2 2 1 1 0 4 0 3 0 1
1990-
2000
0 4 0 5 1 4 0 4 0 6 0 7 2 5
Total 16 1412 11 14 16 14 14 16 15 15 15 15 15

2. North-East India
The analysis shows change in average temperature
over North-East India (NEI) has increased about 0.55
C during 20
th
century, average temperature is 23.31
C, and standard derivation is 0.30 C (Figure-3). We
have found that High and Low temperature year for
this period are 24.17 C (1958) and 22.35 C (1905)
respectively. The numbers of cold and warm year are
12 and 11 for the same period. Table 1 is shows the
number of cold and warm year in various decades.
The average maximum temperature is about 28.63C
and standard derivation 0.41C. The highest and
lowest temperatures are 29.61 C (1966 & 1979) and
27.38 C (1905) respectively. An increase of
minimum temperature is about 0.09C and average
minimum temperature is about 17.98C and standard
derivation is about 0.31C. The Highest and lowest
temperatures are 19.98C (1958) and 17.07C (1971)
respectively.

North East India. (anomalies are computed from mean
1901-2000). Trend is found using 5 points moving
average.

3. North-West India
The analysis of average temperature over the North-
West India (NWI) have shown that the temperature
has increased about 0.07C during 20
th
century,
average temperature is 25.24C, and standard
derivation is 0.38C (Figure-4). The highest and
lowest temperatures are 26.08 C (1921) and 24.08 C
(1917) respectively. The analysis shows the number
of cold and warm years of 14 and 16 for the same
period. Table 1 shows an increase in maximum
temperature is about 0.41C and average maximum
about 0.49C. The highest and lowest maximum
temperatures are 33C (1969) and 30.32C (1917)
respectively. Decreases in minimum temperature is
about 0.27C, average minimum temperature is about
18.40 C and standard derivation about 0.363144 C .
We have found that High and Low minimum
temperature year for this period 19.28 C (1915) and
17.71 C (1945) respectively.

North West India. (anomalies are computed from
moving average.
4. North-Central India
The analysis shows a change in average temperature
over North-Central India (NCI) by 0.41C during 20
th

century, average temperature is 24.31C, and standard
derivation is 0.34C (Figure-5). Highest and Lowest
temperature years for this period are 25.17C (1958)
and 23.18C (1917) respectively. The numbers of cold
and warm years are 14 and 14 respectively for the
same period.
Table 1 shows an increase in maximum temperature
of about 0.68C, average maximum temperature about
30.68C and standard derivation about 0.45C. High
and Low maximum temperature year for this period is
31.90 C (1966) and 29.10 C (1917) respectively.
Increase of minimum temperature is about 0.15C and
average minimum temperature about 17.95C and
standard derivation is about 0.353391C. Highest and
Lowest temperature year for this period are 18.98 C
(1958) and 17.08 C (1971) respectively.
No rt h Eas t Ind i a
- 1. 5
- 1
- 0 . 5
0
0 . 5
1
19 0 1 19 11 19 2 1 19 3 1 19 4 1 19 51 19 6 1 19 71 19 8 1 19 9 1
Ye ars
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

North West Indi a
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991
Years
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)


North Central India. (anomalies are computed from
moving average.
5. East-Coast India
The analysis of average temperature over the East-
Coast India (ECI) shows an increase in temperature
about 0.42C during 20
th
century, average temperature
is 27.91C, and standard derivation 0.25C (Figure-6).
Highest and Lowest temperatures for this period are
28.64C (1998) and 27.26C (1917) respectively. The
number of cold and warm year is 14 and 14 for the
same period. An increase in maximum temperature is
about 0.54C, average maximum temperature is about
32.34C and standard derivation about 0.31C.
Highest and Lowest temperature for this period is
Increase in minimum temperature is about 0.29C and
average minimum temperature about 23.49C and
standard derivation 0.28C. Highest and Lowest
minimum temperature for this period is 24.29 C

East Cost India. (anomalies are computed from mean
average.

6.West-Coast India
The analysis of Average temperature over West-Coast
India (WCI) shows an increase of temperature about
0.67C of during 20
th
century, average temperature is
25.90C, and standard derivation is 0.29C (Figure-7).
We have found that High and Low temperature year
for this period (1998) 26.73C and (1917) 25.15C.
We have seen the number of cold and warm year 15
and 15 for the same period. An increase in maximum
temperature is about 1.13C and average maximum
about 0.41C. Warmest and coldest years are for this
period is 1987 (31.86C) and 1917 (29.73C)
respectively. Increase in minimum temperature is
about 0.19C and average minimum temperature
about 20.97C and standard derivation about
0.263816C. We have found that High and Low
minimum temperature year for this period 21.68 C

West Cost India. (anomalies are computed from mean
average.
7. Interior Peninsular India
The analysis of Average temperature over Interior
Peninsular India (IPI) shows an increase of about
0.45C during 20
th
century, average temperature is
28.57 C, and standard derivation is 0.659469 C
(Figure-8). We have found warmest and coldest
temperature of 30.16C (1973) and 26.75C (1918)
respectively. Table 1 shows the number of cold and
warm year of 15 and 15 for the same period. An
increase in maximum temperature is about 0.42C.
Average maximum temperature is about 32.39 C and
standard derivation about 0.36C. Warmest and
coldest years are during study period is 1980
(33.03C) and 1917 (31.17C) respectively. An
increase in minimum temperature is about 0.39C and
average minimum temperature about 20.52 C and
standard derivation about 0.29. While High and Low
minimum temperature year for this period 21.31 C
(1998) and 19.86 C (1904 & 1917) respectively.

North Central India
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991
Years
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)
Eas t Co s t Ind i a
- 1
- 0 . 5
0
0 . 5
1
19 0 1 19 11 19 2 1 19 3 1 19 4 1 19 51 19 6 1 19 71 19 8 1 19 9 1
Ye a rs
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)
We s t Co s t Ind i a
- 0 . 9
- 0 . 6
- 0 . 3
0
0 . 3
0 . 6
0 . 9
19 0 1 19 11 19 2 1 19 3 1 19 4 1 19 51 19 6 1 19 71 19 8 1 19 9 1
Ye ars
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)


Interior Peninsular India. (anomalies are computed
from mean 1901-2000). Trend is found using 5 points
moving average.

CONCLUSION
Analysis of the mean monthly temperature seven
homogeneous regions, viz., West Himalaya (WH),
Northwest India (NWI), North Central India (NCI),
Northeast India (NEI), West Coast (WC), East Coast
(EC), and Interior Peninsula (IP) has been studied for
the period of 1901-2000. Detail analysis on annual
and seasonal changes in mean monthly temperature
(T
avg
), mean maximum temperature (T
max
) and mean
minimum temperature (T
min
) have been done. Each
year was divided into four principal seasons, viz.
winter, pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon.
The analysis shows that the annual mean temperature,
mean maximum temperature, and mean minimum
temperature are increasing. As far as different
homogeneous region are concerned, the analysis
shows that the WH, NWI, NCI, NEI, WC, EC and IP
show a rising trend of approximately 0.53C,
0.07C,0.41C, 0.55C , 0.67C , 0.42C and 0.45C
per hundred year respectively. The largest
temperature rising are found over the WC and
minimum over NWI.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors also want to acknowledge to the
Department Science and Technology, Government of
India (No.SR/AS/05/2008) for financial support in the
form of project.

REFERENCES
Aggarwal PK (2008): Global climate change and
Indian agriculture: impacts, adaptation and
mitigation. Indian J Agric Sci 78:911919.
Houghton J T, Ding Y H, Griggs D J, Noguer M, van
der Linden P J, Dai X, Maskell K and Johson C A
(eds) 2001 The Scientific Basis. Contribution of
Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
Jones P D, Horton E B, Folland C K, Hulme M,
Parker D E and Basnett T A (1999) The use of
indices to identify change in climatic extreme;
Climate Change 42 131149.
Kothawale D R and Rupa Kumar K (2005), On the
recent changes in surface temperature trends over
India; Geophys. Res. Lett. 32 L18714,
doi:10.1029/2005GL023528.
Maurya R K , G P Singh and P K Singh ( 2010) :
Change in temperature and precipitation over
India and its homogeneous zones during 20
th

century; Nava Gavesana Vol 1, Issue 2, Oct-Dec,
page 16-33.
.

Int e ri o r Pe ni ns ul ar Ind i a
- 2
- 1
0
1
2
19 0 1 19 11 19 2 1 19 3 1 19 4 1 19 51 19 6 1 19 71 19 8 1 19 9 1
Ye ars
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

RELATE AVERAGE CONCENTRATION OF SEDIMENT TO LOCAL
CONCENTRATION FOR STEADY UNIFORM FLOW

N.D.Vernekar
Post Graduate student, Bharati Vidyapeeth University College of Engineering,Pune - 411043, Email: nvgec78@gmail.com
A.R.Bhalerao
Principal & Dean, Bharati Vidyapeeth University College of Engineering,Pune -411043, Email: arbhalerao@bvucoep.edu

ABSTRACT: The measurement of sediment load involves determination of velocity of flow and concentration of
sediment at large number of points in an alluvial channel. This process proves to be time consuming. The existing
theories and empirical equations available for computation of sediment load give approximate values. In practice, the
concentration is measured at 0.6 times the depth below the surface. Sampling at 0.6 times the depth has been worked in
India and some parts of U.S.A., which gives the mean concentration, presumably because the mean velocity occurs
approximately at this level. However this does not hold true at all times because the concentration in the vertical varies
with the flow conditions, size and nature of sediment. Keeping in view these factors, this research involves utilizing the
laboratory data to determine ratio of depth at which the average concentration of the sediment lies under given
conditions of shear velocity, temperature, slope, depth of flow .Also it includes determination of a dimensionless
parameter involving the above variables and thus relates average concentration of sediment to local concentration at a
point under steady uniform flow. This research thus involves analysing the concept of sediment diffusion coefficient
from the available laboratory and field data.

INTRODUCTION
For sediment transport Einstein assumed that bed load
transport of a given size range,i
B
q
B
occurs in a bed layer
of thickness 2d.Here in q
B
is the rate of bed load transport
in weight per unit width per time,i
B
is the fraction of bed
load of a given size range and d is the representative
grain size.Since there will be continuity in the distribution
of the suspended load and the bed load it is assumed that
average concentration of the bed load in the bed layer
must be equal to the concentration of suspended load at
2d.This theory has been taken into consideration and from
the concentration profiles of Laboratory data by James
R.Barton and Pin Nam Lin,Emmet M.Laursen and
adopting the method of Integrating curves the total
suspended load (q
s
) is computed. This method proves to
be tedious. Hence further an attempt is made to obtain a
dimensionsless parameter by adopting the equation as
suggested by E.W.Lane and A.A.Kalinske and plot curves
from which we can obtain total suspended load and also
can relate average concentration of sediment to local
concentration at a point.Another aspect of this paper is to
obtain values of sediment diffusion
coefficient,momentum transfer coefficient from the
available laboratory and field data and verify the
approximate method as suggested by E.W.Lane and
A.A.Kalinske.

COMPUTATION OF TOTAL SUSPENDED LOAD
(q
S
) AND AVERAGE CONCENTRATION (C
avg
).
The total suspended load is computed by equation
} =
D
2d
Cudy
s
q (1)

where q
s
= sediment transport rate per unit width
C = concentration at depth y from the bed of channel; u =
velocity at depth y from bed of channel; D = depth of
flow; d = representative grain size.
The average concentration, C
avg
,is obtained by
q
s
q
avg
C = (2)

where q = discharge per unit width.Using the above
equations for computations of average concentration
proves to be tedious and time consuming.Thus an attempt
has been made to obtain the dimensionless parameter.

DETERMINATION OF DIMENSIONLESS
PARAMETER (P)
From the laboratory data (Barton & Lin,1955;Laursen,
1957) the dimensionless parameter is obtained by
equation suggested by E.W Lane and A.A.Kalinske
(Garde & RangaRaju,2000)
|
|
.
|
\
|
= A
*
u
o
15 Pexp
a
qC
s
q (3)
where C
a
= concentration of sediment at depth a from
the bed;q
s
= sediment transport rate per unit width;
o
=
fall velocity of sediment particle;u
*
=shear
velocity;A=a/D;D=depth of flow;P is a function of
o
/ u
*

and u
*
/k
o
u.using Mannings equation for u, u
*
/k
o
u can be
expressed in terms of n/D
1/6
,where n=d
1/6
/21;d = sediment
size;k
o
= Karmans constant;n = Mannings roughness
coefficient.
The fall velocity of sediment at a given temperature is
determined from the graph of sediment size(d) v/s fall
velocity(
o
) (Garde & RangaRaju, 2000).
Utilising the laboratory data (Barton and Lin,1955
;Laursen, 1957) and by adopting the Eq.(3) graph of P


v/s
o
/u
*
& n/D
1/6
in SI units

(Fig.2) is plotted for values
of n/D
1/6
=0.012 to 0.014 & n/D
1/6
=0.015 to 0.018.

Fig.2 Graph of P v/s
o
/u
*
& n/D
1/6

COMPUTATION OF SEDIMENT DIFFUSION
COEFFICIENT,MOMENTUM TRANSFER
COEFFICIENT,LANE AND KALINSKE FACTOR
In equations involving determination of sediment
concentration,these equations are arrived at based on the
assumption that sediment diffusion coefficient and
momentum transfer coefficient are equal. The
approximate method suggested by Lane and Kalinske
showed that a constant value of sediment diffusion
coefficient and momentum transfer coefficient can be
used in the vertical for wide rivers (Garde &
RangaRaju,2000).
The approximate method suggested by Lane and Kalinske
is given by equation
15
gDS D
m
s
= = (4)
where
s
= sediment diffusion coefficient;
m
= momentum
transfer coefficient;g = gravitational acceleration;D=depth
of flow;S = slope.
From the available laboratory data (Barton &
Lin,1955;Laursen,1957) and field data
(Brownlie,1981;Molina,2001) ,the sediment diffusion
coefficient is calculated by equation
0
y
c
s
C
o
=
c
c
+ (5)

where
o
=fall velocity of particle (ms
-1
); C=time
averaged concentration (ppm);
s
=sediment diffusion
coefficient (m
2
s
-1
).

Momentum transfer coefficient is calculated by equation
|
.
|
\
|
=
D
y D
ky
*
u
m
(6)

where
m
=momentum transfer coefficient (m
2
s
-1
);
u
*
=shear velocity (ms
-1
); k=karmans constant;
y=reference depth (m); D=depth of flow (m).

Lane and Kalinske factor is calculated by equation
15
gDS D
L = (7)

where L=Lane and Kalinske factor (m
2
s
-1
); D=depth of
flow (m); g=gravitational acceleration (ms
-2
); S=slope.

From the values obtained for
s
,
m,
L a graph of D v/s
s
,
m,
L is plotted for laboratory data and for field
data.(Fig.3) shows plot of D v/s
s
,
m,
L for laboratory
data and (Fig.4) shows plot of D v/s
s
,
m,
L for field
data.

Fig.3 Graph D v/s
s
,
m,
L for laboratory data

Fig.4 Graph of D v/s
s
,
m,
L for field data

From the values thus obtained we arrive at
New equation
15
*
Du
s
= for d 0.2mm (8)

45
0.885
*
Du
s
= for d >0.2mm (9)
where
s
=sediment diffusion coefficient (m
2
s
-1
); d=depth
of flow (m); u
*
= shear velocity (ms
-1
); d = diameter of
sediment particle (mm).


CONCLUSIONS
From (Fig.2) plot of P v/s (
o
/u
*
) & n/D
1/6
for known
values of (
o
/u
*
), n/D
1/6
,q & C
a
,q
s
can be computed and
for various sediment size mixtures we can plot such
curves wherein we can relate average concentration of
sediment to local concentration at a point and the average
concentration depends on the depth of flow,size of
sediment particle,fall velocity of particle,& shear velocity.

From (Fig.3), (Fig.4) plot of D v/s
s
,
m
,L we can say that
sediment diffusion coefficient,momentum transfer
coefficient,Lane and Kalinske factor are not equal and
from the new equation arrived at we can compute the
values of sediment diffusion coefficient if we know the
slope,shear velocity and depth of flow.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writers are grateful to late Dr.R.J.Garde for his
guidance during the studies.

REFERENCES
Brownlie, W.R. (1981). Compilation of Alluvial channel
data.
Barton, J.R. and Lin,P.N. (1960). A study of sediment
transport in alluvial channels.
Garde R.J. and RangaRaju K.G. (2000). Mechanics of
Sediment Transportation and Alluvial stream
Problems.
Grenfell,S.E. and Ellery E.N. (2009).
Hydrology,Sediment Transport Dynamics and
geomorphology of a variable flow river:The Mfolozi
River,South Africa.Water SA Vol.35,No.3,271-278.
Laursen, E.M. (1957). An Investigation of Total Sediment
Load.
Molina,A. (2001). Transport of Sediment in large sand
bed rivers.Journal of Hydraulic
Research,Vol.39,No2,135-145.

SYMBOLS
q

rate of flow per unit width (m
2
s
-1
)
q
s
rate of sediment transport per unit width
C
avg
average concentration of sediment
C
a
concentration at reference depth
D Depth of flow (m)
U
*
shear velocity (ms
-1
)
n Mannings roughness coefficient
A elevation of reference concentration
L Lane and Kalinske factor (m
2
s
-1
)
s
sediment diffusion coefficient (m
2
s
-1
)
m
momentum transfer coefficient (m
2
s
-1
)

o
fall velocity of sediment particle (ms
-1
)
d diameter of sediment particle (mm)

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL CONTAMINATED BY
TANNING INDUSTRY EFFLUENTS

Ashwani Jain
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, NIT, Kurukshetra-136119, Email: ashwani.jain@rediffmail.com

ABSTRACT: Effluents from industries cause a lot of nuisance to the public. Normally, people are more
concerned about environmental problems; the engineering implications of soil pollution are not appreciated by
them. Discharge of untreated industrial effluents on to the open ground affects not only the index properties of
the underlying soils, but also their engineering behaviour. This paper describes the experimental work that has
been conducted to evaluate the effect of contamination by tanning industry effluents on the properties of soil.
Undisturbed and disturbed soil samples have been collected from the site of a tanning industry, from depths
varying from 0.8 to 1.2 m. The soil samples so collected have been subjected to comprehensive tests, both
chemical and physical. The results indicate that not only the index properties, but also the engineering properties
of soil have been adversely affected due to contamination by tanning industry effluents. It has been observed
that the shear strength of soil decreases, and plasticity index, compressibility and permeability increase with
increase in degree of contamination.

INTRODUCTION
Tanning of hides and skins to convert them into
leather has been an important industrial activity since
antiquity. It is a versatile industry adaptable to large
and small scales, and to high and low levels of
sophistication, and consequently it is found in almost
every country on earth. The potential environmental
impact of tannery operations is widely acknowledged.
There are fewer consensuses, however, about how and
by whom these impacts should be resolved. Questions
of chemical safety, contamination of land and ground
water, inadequate provision for solid waste and sludge
disposal, spills and accidents involving chemical
substances, and the general nuisance of odour and
noise from installations are taken into account more
and more often by regulatory and planning authorities.
Pollution from tanneries has a negative long term
impact on the growth potential of a country,
irrespective of the immediate economic benefits of
production. Polluted water, air or soil affect peoples
health and damages ecological processes that sustain
the production of food.
The objective of present study is to determine the
effect of effluents from tanning industry on the
properties of soil in the vicinity of the industry.

SOME LABORATORY STUDIES
Kumpaley et al. (1985) studied the case of accidental
spillage of a highly concentrated caustic soda solution
in to the subsoil. As a result of the spillage and
seepage through cracked drains in an industrial
establishment in Ghana, considerable structural
damage has been caused to light industrial buildings
in the factory, in addition to localized subsidence. The
pH of the uncontaminated soil was 6.5 while that of
the contaminated sub-soil was as high as 10 to 11.
Deterioration in soil strength as a result of chemical
reactions in soil was considered as a possible cause of
structural distress. Laboratory investigations showed
general decrease in the undrained strength of soil with
increasing caustic soda concentration. Caustic soda
imparts a negative charge to the surface of soil
particles and acts as a dispersing agent; the
consequent decrease in inter-particle attractive forces
has been considered to be responsible for the loss of
undrained shear strength.
Srivastava et al. (1994) have studied the effect of
waste water from four industries, namely sugar mill,
paper mill, fertilizer plant and a power generation
equipment manufacturing industry, on a typical
alluvial (CL-ML) soil. To study the interaction
effects, soil has been studied with distilled water first
and then with the waste waters from the four
industries separately. The study reported engineering
and chemical properties of soil, chemical analysis of
waste water before and after its interaction with soil
and changes in the soil properties. All the four
effluents were causing overall deterioration in soil
properties and the chemistry of waste water and soil
was thought to be responsible for the interaction
behaviour.
Meegoda et al. (1994) have studied the factors that
control the compression index of contaminated soils.
The two soils tested are kaolin (clay of low plasticity)
and a mixture of bentonite (15% by weight) and
kaolin (85% by weight) (clay of high plasticity).
Chemicals used in this study are glycerol and 1-
propanol. Experimental results indicated that the
compressibility of the two soils used in this study
changed with the type and amount of chemicals in
pore fluids.
Meegoda et al. (1995) have performed experimental
investigation to evaluate the effects of oil
contamination on soils and to establish a methodology
to identify and classify contaminated soils. Fine-
grained oil contaminated soils are often identified and
classified as granular soils with large particle sizes
and may result in selection of improper treatment
techniques. In this study, four uncontaminated soils
were first identified and classified; then all four soils
were mixed with 3% motor oil. The soils are
classified as clay of high plasticity, clay of low


plasticity, silty clay and silty sand. The oil-
contaminated soils were first tested for identification
and classification and then treated by (a) heating in
ovens at various temperatures (low temperature
desorption), (b) adding solvents (solvent extraction),
and (c) adding surfactants (treatment with
surfactants). The processed soils were then
reidentified and reclassified. Test results showed that
treatment with a surfactant produced near virgin soils
for all four soil types. The solvent extraction was
adequate only for the silty sand and the silty clay. The
low-temperature thermal treatment was inadequate for
all four soils. To further confirm the above test
results, the low plasticity clay was mixed with 6%
motor oil and the above test programme repeated.
This soil with a higher degree of contamination
produced same results. To provide an explanation for
the change in soil behavior due to oil contamination,
low-plastic soil was mixed with oil up to 70% by
weight and Atterberg limit tests performed. It was
concluded that fine grained soils, when contaminated
with oil, behave as granular soils with particle
aggregation. Since soil in this study was artificially
contaminated, one should exert a caution when
applying the results of this study to soils in contact
with oil for many years.

CHEMICALS IN TANNING INDUSTRY
The major chemicals used in the tanning process are
shown in the Table 1. Table 2 shows the composition
of a typical combined tannery effluent that has not yet
been treated. It is characterized by a high oxygen
demand and high salt content and is strongly alkaline.
It also contains high level of suspended solids and
possibly a persistent high land of chrome.

SAMPLING DETAILS OF SOIL
The industry chosen for this study is tanning industry
(leather producers) near Karnal. Undisturbed and
disturbed soil samples have been collected from three
different locations of this industry. The tubes used for
the collection of undisturbed soil samples are of 10
cm and 30 cm length. Sample 1 has been withdrawn
from a depth of 1.2m at a site far away from the point
of disposal of effluent and is considered to be an
uncontaminated soil sample not having any pollution
effect. Sample 2 has been withdrawn from a depth of
1.2m and sample 3 from a depth of 0.8m at sites near
to the point of disposal of effluent. Sample 2 and
sample 3 are partially and highly contaminated soil
samples respectively. All the soil samples have been
collected below the storage pond level.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL SAMPLES
Samples collected from the three locations have been
subjected to chemical analysis for determination of
pH, total soluble sulphates, chlorides and organic
matter as per various IS specifications. Chemical
properties have been summarized in Table 3. In
general, it has been observed that the values of these
parameters in the soil samples increase as the distance
from the source of contamination decreases.
Table 1 Chemical used in the tanning process
(Source UNIDO)
Chemicals/Materials Heavy
Leather
Light Leather
(kg per 100 kg of raw hides)
General Purpose Chemicals
Sodium Sulphide, Na2S 3.0 3.0
Calcium Hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 4.5 4.5
Hydrochloric Acid, HCl 0.3 0.3
Ammonium
Sulphate,(NH4)2SO4
2.0 2.0
Sodium Bisulphate, NaHSO3 1.5 1.5
Sodium Chloride, NaCl 10.0 10.0
Calcium Formate, Ca(COOH)2 - 2.0
Sulphuric Acid, H2SO4 4.0 4.0
Sodium Carbonate, Na2SO3 - 2.0
Sodium Sulphite - 2.0
Basic Tanning Materials
Chrome Salts Cr2(SO4)3 - 10.0
Vegetable tanning materials 12.0 3.0
Performance Chemicals
Bates 0.8 0.8
Bactericides 0.3 0.3
Syntans - 3.0
Fat liquors - 4.0
Dyeing auxiliaries - 3.8
Dyes - 0.6
Finishes - 4.0
Table 2 Composition of typical untreated combined
tannery effluent
Parameter (mg/lit) Chrome
Tannage
Vegetable Tannage
pH 9 9
Total Solids 10000 10000
Total ash 6000 6000
Suspended solids 2500 1500
Ash in suspended solids 1000 500
Settled solids (2h) 100 50
BOD5 900 1700
KMnO4 value 1000 2500
COD (K2Cr2O7) 2500 3000
Sulphide 160 160
Total Nitrogen 120 120
Ammonia nitrogen 70 70
Chrome (Cr) 70 -
Chloride (Cl
-
) 2500 2500
Sulphate (SO4) 2000 2000
Phosphorus (P) 1 1
Ether extractable 200 200
Table 3 Chemical properties of the soil samples
Parameter Sample-1 Sample-2 Sample-3
pH 7.1 8.5 9.2
Total soluble
Sulphate (%)
11.27 20.15 23.42
Chlorides, ppm 192 1860 2942
Organic matter
(%)
0.72 3.25 4.97
Total soluble
solids (%)
16.92 21.34 25.63


PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL SAMPLES
The samples collected from the three locations have
been subjected to tests for determination of various
index and engineering properties as per IS
specifications. These properties have been
summarized in Table 4. It has been observed that the
clay size content decreases due to alkaline pollution
from tanning industry. This change may be attributed
to the flocculation occurring in alkaline environment.
All the soil samples have been classified as clayey
sand (SC) as per IS Classification. In general, the
consistency limits of the soil including its plasticity
index increased with increase in the degree of
contamination. It is observed that chemically polluted
soil samples showed higher optimum moisture content
values and lower maximum dry density values as
compared to the uncontaminated soil samples. It has
also been observed that chemically polluted soil
samples exhibited higher permeability values than
unpolluted samples which may be due to higher void
ratios shown by contaminated samples.

Table 4 Index and engineering properties of soil
samples
Soil Property Sample
1
Sample
2
Sample
3
Index Properties
Gravel (%) 5.00 5.5 5.5
Sand (%) 51.17 52.25 53.56
Silt size (%) 20.12 21.04 21.07
Clay size (%) 23.71 21.21 19.87
Liquid Limit
(%)
34.08 41.21 49.35
Plastic Limit
(%)
21.23 23.45 27.26
Plasticity Index 12.85 17.76 22.09
IS
Classification
SC SC SC
Activity Ratio 0.54 0.83 1.11
Natural Water
Content (%)
21.65 30.83 35.76
Field Dry
Density, (g/cc)
1.78 1.59 1.41
Degree of
saturation (%)
71.0 85.20 91.9
Initial void ratio 0.69 0.86 0.95
Optimum
moisture
content (%)
14.9 15.9 16.5
Maximum dry
density (g/cc)
1.90 1.83 1.79
Engineering Properties
Permeability,
cm/sec (x 10
-6
)
1.89 3.31 3.92
Compression
Index
0.192 0.214 0.271
Shear
Parameters
c 0 0 0

37.67
o
33.50
o
30.10
o

Compressibility of polluted samples is greater as is
seen from the increase in compression index values.
Shear strength was determined by testing the soil
samples in direct shear apparatus. Consolidated
drained tests were conducted on undisturbed samples.
It has been observed that there is a decrease in
strength of polluted samples.

CONCLUSIONS
The study indicates that both chemical and physical
properties of soil are adversely affected from
engineering point of view due to contamination by
untreated tanning industry effluents. When industrial
wastewater interacts with soil, complex physico-
chemical process takes place, resulting in significant
change of soil properties. In general, it has been
observed that the pH value, total soluble sulphate,
chlorides, organic matter and total soluble solids in
the soil samples increase as the distance from the
source of contamination decreases. It has also been
observed that the shear strength of soil decreases, and
plasticity index, compressibility and permeability
increase with increase in degree of contamination.
REFERENCES
IS: 2720 (Part - 21) (1977). Methods of test for soils:
Determination of total soluble solids. Bureau of
Indian Standards.
Determination of organic matter. Bureau of Indian
Standards.
Determination of pH

value. Bureau of Indian
Standards.
IS; 2720 (Part - 27) (1977). Methods of test for soils:
Determination of total soluble Sulphate. Bureau of
Indian Standards.
Kumapley, N. and Ishola, N.K. (1985). The effect of
chemical contamination on soil strength. Proc. of
XI International Conference on Soil Mechanics
Foundation Engineering, San Francisco, Vol. 3,
11991201.
Meegoda, N.J. and Ratnaweera, P. (1994).
Compressibility of contaminated fine grained soils.
Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol.17, No.1,
March, 101-112.
Meegoda, N.J. and Ratnweera, P. (1995). Treatment
of oil contaminated soils for identification and
classification. Geotechnical Testing Journal,
Vol.18, No.1, March, 41-49.
Srivastava, R.K. et al. (1994). Laboratory study of
soil-industrial waste water interaction behavior.
Proceedings XIII ICSMFE, New Delhi, India,
1553-1556.
Sudhakar Rao, M. and Sridharan, A. (1993).
Environmental Geotechnics - A Review. Indian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 23, 235-252.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


WATER MANAGEMENT ON DRIP AND MICRO SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION FOR SUMMER GROUNDNUT CROP UNDER DEFICIT
WATER SUPPLIES

A. B. Rathod
Department of Water Resources Management, Civil Engineering, L. D. College of Engineering, Ahmadabad
anilrathod_222399@yahoo.com
S. A. Trivedi
shaileshatrivedi@yahoo.co.in

ABSTRACT: The experiments were conducted during summer season (Feb. to May) for the consecutive 3
years ( to assess the groundnut crop response to different 6 irrigation levels. (IW/CPE=0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 and
1.2, ratio of irrigation application to cumulative pan evaporation of days from last irrigation) under drip and
micro sprinkler irrigation and its comparisons. Under the micro sprinkler irrigation, the lowest and the highest
pod yield were observed as 2948 kg / ha and 5319 kg/ha under the IWCPE of 0.6 and 1.2 requiring the seasonal
irrigation of 523 ha.mm/.ha and 1047 ha.mm./ha. Through adopting the drip system, the lowest and highest pod
yield were obtained as 1917 kg/ha and 2927 kg/ha in the IW/CPE of 0.6 and 0.9 respectively requiring 502
ha.mm.ha and 757 ha.mm.ha. Under the drip irrigation, the pod yield was increase by 30.32, 23.56, 17.28,
14.78, 15.66 and 17.28% over micro sprinkler irrigation. The seasonal irrigation water as input and pod/ fodder
yield as output could be assembled in quadratic form. The highest possible water use efficiency under micro
sprinkler and drip irrigation fro summer groundnut crop can be 3.40 kg/ha.mm and 4.148 kg/ha.mm
respectively. The highest total net return (including additional net return from water saving due to deficit
application) under micro sprinkler and drip irrigation were found as Rs.16574 in the IW/CPE o 0.9 and
Rs.19,940 in IWCPE of 0.8 by micro sprinkler irrigation and drip irrigation respectively. The ratio of the
additional befits to additional cost of drip irrigation system adoption replacing micro sprinkler irrigation was
increased from 1.69 in IW/CPE of 0.9 to 2.24 in IW/CPE of 0.8

INTRODUCTION

The land availability being limited, leaving little
scope for the horizontal expansion, efficient
management of the agricultural resources is rapidly
becoming a key issue for agricultural development to
feed ever-growing population from ever-limited
resources. The judicious management of the resources
as a means of increasing production needs, knowledge
of crop response to water, one of the important inputs.
The Saurashtra region of Gujarat state is having 84%
of cultivable land under dry arming and only 16%
area under irrigation mainly on dug wells. The total
annual rainfall if insufficient, scanty and erratic in
nature. The coefficient o variation is more than 40%.
Out of total annual rainfall 80% of seasonal rainfall
received during the month of July and August only.
Due to intensive rainfall over short period, most of the
run of water drains away to the sea and left little
scope to recharge the aquifer in this region. The
climate o this region favors to cultivate groundnut
crop during monsoon and summer season. During
monsoon season, due to scanty, erratic and uncertain
rainfall as well as having more chances of insect and
pest dieses, the yield is low and uncertain. During
summer season, the yield is more and certain provided
sufficient irrigation water resources are available. In
this region, no any major irrigation project exists. The
major source fro irrigation is ground water only. Due
to frequent droughts during project exists. The major
source for irrigation is ground water only Due to
frequent droughts during monsoon and early
withdrawal of monsoon, the life saving and
supplement irrigation have to be applied to monsoon
crops. So whatever the groundwater have been
recharged, the major part of its are being exploited
during monsoon and winter seasons only. Due to
adverse topographical conditions and uneven
distribution of the rainfall over monsoon season, little
amount of rainwater is stored as ground water and left
runs away to sea. So there is acute shortage of water
of irrigation during summer season. However keeping
in view the productivity of summer groundnut, some
water management strategies should be thought so
that we can cultivate the summer groundnut crop from
limited water supplied. This can be achieved by
adopting the water efficient irrigation methods. Also
there is question that whether the farmer should grow
less areas with more water or more area with deficit
irrigation. Therefore, the research is needed to study
of drip irrigation as compared to conventional micro
sprinkler method or this reason.
The farmers apply the seasonal irrigation depth of
more than 100 cm to her summer groundnut crop
without having any scientific supports. Excessive
irrigation water application coupled with low water
availability resulted into low acreage under summer
groundnut crop. Research investigations revealed that
by maintaining certain moisture stress tolerable during
the crop growing season, higher yield per unit area
can be attained that normal and in turn, this saved
irrigation water can be utilized to bring additional
land into cultivation under groundnut corps. So to

bring more area under summer groundnut, two
alternates can be thought. One alternate is to increase
the water resources availability and second is to
increase the water use efficiency by optimal deficit
water applications or adopting some advanced water
efficient technologies. There is little cope or
increasing the water resources in the low rainfall area
and also it needs high investment. Therefore the
efforts were made to study of drip irrigation system
and its relative superiority over micro sprinkler
methods in summer groundnut crop at various water
deficit levels because no firm conclusions had been
drawn so far on water management strategies for
summer groundnut which can be recommended or
adoption by the farmers.

METHODOLOGY

The experiments for all the 3 years were undertaken
during summer season at College of Agricultural
Engineering and Technology, Gujarat Agricultural
University, Junagadh. The summer groundnut crop
was shown in February and harvested in May. The
seeds were treated with the thrum for insects and
fungi control . The agronomic practices like seed rate
(100 kg/ha), fertilizer does (N:P:K = 25:50:0 kg/ha)
and row spacing (0.45 m) etc. were strictly adopted as
recommended by the university for this region. The
sowing and fertilizer application wad done
simultaneously by tractor mounted automatic seed-
cum-fertilizer drill. The interculturing, weeding and
plant protection measures were performed as per
requirements.

The open pan evaporimeter was installed at
experimental site and daily evaporation date at 8.00
IST were taken. The irrigation frequency was decided
based upon the cumulative pan evaporation and
IW/CPE ratios. The other climatic data like
temperature, sunshine hours, humidity and wind
velocity were also collected. The soil samples of
different profile depths were taken to know the soil
moisture status during irrigation intervals.

Two parameter namely irrigating methods (surface
and drip) and water application level were studied.
The 6 water application levels were based on IW/CPE
vales of 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 and 1.2. Under the
different combination of these two parameters, 12 (2
methods X 6 IW/CPE) treatments were taken. Each
treatment was replicated 4 times. The split plot design
was adopted. The net area of samples taken from the
replication plots were 1.8 m x 9m and 2.7 m 6 m
under surface and drip irrigation method respectively.

The controlled amount of water was applied by
respective irrigation method scheduling the irrigation
based on the 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% 100% and 120%
of the cumulative pan evaporation o days since 1
st

irrigation under the treatment of IW/CPE ratio of 0.6,
0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 and 1.2. In the drip irrigation system,
drip line of 16 mm was fitted at 0.9 m distances so
that one drop line can serve two rows of the crops.
The inlet of the drip line was fitted with sub main by
the 16 mm grommet take off the other end of the drip
line was closed by the end plug of 16 mm. The
operating pressure was 1g/cm
2
. The length of the drip
line was varied to match the plot size of the
replications. The water meter and pressure gauge were
fitted to measure the volumetric flow and pressure of
inflow water respectively. Under the micro sprinkler
system, the lateral of 16mm ISI was used to supply
the water to micro sprinkler fitted at 4m distances.
The lateral to lateral distance was kept as 4.05 m. So
the under one replication, the plot size was 16m X
8.1m. At inlet of each sub main, the pressure gauge
was fitted to measure the pressure of the inflow. The
operating pressure was kept as 2 kg/cm
2
. The
discharge capacity of the micro sprinkler was
160LPH. The micro sprinklers were of big swivel
type.


Micro sprinkler Irrigation

(a) Pod Yield
The lowest pod yield was observed as 1471 kg/ha
under the IW/CPE of 0.6 having seasonal irrigation
applications of 523 ha.mm/ha. The additional
irrigation application an increase of pod yield of
388,525,166 and 104 kg/ha from IW/CPE of 0.6 to
0.7, 0.7 to 0.8, 0.8 to 0.9 and 0.9 to 1.0 respectively.
The highest pod yield of 2550 kg/ha was found in the
IW/CPE of 0.9 having 789 ha.mm/ha irrigation water
requirement. Under the IW/CPE of 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9
and 1.0 and 1.2 the water use efficiency were found as
2.81,3.01,3.40,3.23,2.81,and 2.10 kg/ha respectively.
After the statistical analysis, it could be found that the
treatments having IW/CPE of 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 were
statistically at par. Also the insignificant difference
was found between the treatmetns of IW/CPE of 0.6
and 0.7 as well as 0.7 and 0.9. The treatment of
IW/CPE of 0.8 was considered as statistically better
one. It requires 700 ha.mm/ha seasonal irrigation
water giving the yield of 2384 kg/ha.

(b) Fodder Yield
The fodder production was observed as
2948,3588,4465,4959,5222 and 5319 kg/ha
respectively under the IW/CPE of 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9
and 1.0 and 1.2 respectively. It could be seen that the
odder production was continuously increased at
decreasing rate as the IW/CPE was increased from 0.6
to 1.2. The water use efficiency was obtained as
5.63,5.81,6.37,6.28,6.01 and 5.08 kg/ha under
IW/CPE of 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 and 1.2 respectively.
The significant difference was found among the
treatments of IW/CPE o 0.6, 0.7, 0.8 and 0.9.
See Table 1

Drip Irrigation
(a) Pod Yield
The pod yield of 1917, 2297, 2796, 2927, 2829 and
2586 kg/ha were observed under the IW/CPE o 0.6,
0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 and 1.2 respectively using 502, 589,
674, 757, 843 and 1011 ha.mm/ha seasonal irrigation
water. The significant differences in the pod yield was
found among the treatments having IW/CPE of 0.6,
0.7 and 0.8. However, the treatments having IW/CPE
of 0.8 and 0.9 were found statistically at par. The pod
yield was decreased under the treatments having
IW/CPE higher that 0.9. The IW/CPE of 0.8 was
observed as statically better one. There were no
significant differences between the treatments having
IW/CPE 0.8 and 0.9, 0.9 and 1.0 and 1.0 and 1.2. It
was found that the water use efficiency could be
attained as 3.819, 3.899, 4.148, 3.867, 3.356 and
2.558 kg/ha.mm respectively under the IW/CPE of
0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 and 1.2 respectively.

(b) Fodder Yield
The fodder production of 3710, 4604, 5443, 5901,
6295 and 6640 kg/ha could be obtained using 502,
589, 674, 757, 843 and 1011 ha.mm/ha of irrigation
water respectively during the season. The fodder yield
could be increased by the tune of 894, 839, 394 and
345 kg/ha from the IW/CPE 0.6 to 0.7, 0.7 to 0.8, 0.8
to 0.9, 0.9 to 1.0 and 1.0 to 1.2 respectively by
additional water application o 87, 85, 83, 86 and 168
ha.mm/ha. The water use efficiency in producing the
fodder could be observed as 7.390, 7.817, 8.076,
7.795 and 7.467 and 6.568 kg/ha.mm under the
The fodder yield data under all the six treatments
were differed significantly. It was found that the
fodder production was increased at decreasing rate
with increase in the IW/CPE from 0.6 to 1.2.

Comparison
The crop performance under drip irrigation was found
far superior that the micro sprinkler irrigation. Under
the drip irrigation, the pod yield was increased by
30.32, 23.56, 17.28, 14.78, 15.66 and 17.28% over
micro sprinkler irrigation. In comparison to micro
sprinkler irrigation the drip irrigation could produce
25.85, 28.32, 21.96, 18.99, 20.55 and 24.83 more
fodder under the IW/CPE of 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 and
1.2 respectively.

ECONOMICS:

Micro sprinkler Irrigation
The total cost of cultivation o the summer groundnut
crop was 20823, 21951, 22947, 24015, 24963 and
27111 Rs./ha under the treatment having IW/CPE of
0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9 and 1.0 and 1.2 respectively. At high
water application level the total cost of cultivation
was high due to more expenditure toward labours and
diesel/ electricity charges. The gross income under the
IW/CPE from 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 and 1.2 were
23545, 29549, 37687, 40589, 39631 and 36644 Rs./ha
respectively. As we increased the IW/CPE from 0.6 to
1.0, the gross income increased from 23545 to 39631
Rs/.ha and then it decreased to 36644 at IW/CPE of
1.2. Also the higher benefit cost ratio (gross income to
total cost) was found as 1.69 in the IW/CPE of 0.9.
The net return (gross income total cost) in the
summer groundnut crop under the IW/CPE of 0.6, 0.7,
0.8, 0.9, 1.p and 1.2 were 2722, 7598, 14740, 16574,
14668 and 9533 Rs./ha respectively. The higher ratio
of gross income to total cost (1.69) as well as net
return was found. So the water saving in order
IW/CPE of 0.6 to 1.0 was assessed and the net return
from this water saving at respective IW/CPE was
calculated. The net return including additional return
from water saving (over IW/CPE=1 as base) was
4110, 9725, 16656 and 16574 Rs./ ha in the IW/CPE
of 0.6, 0.7, 0.8 and 0.9 respectively. The IW/CPE of
0.9 was found as optimal as the highest net return
(including return from water saving over base
IW/CPE) of Rs.16656 was found at this IW/CPE.
See Table 2

Drip Irrigation
The total cost of cultivation under drip irrigation in
the IW/CPE of 0.6 to 1.2 were varied as 25436 to
30526 Rs/ha. The gross return was 30486, 36767,
44513, 46903, 46220 and 43578 Rs./ha in the
The highest-benefit cost ratio (gross income to total
cost) was 1.68 in the IW/CPE of 0.9. Also the net
return was highest of 18917 Rs.ha in the same
IW/CPE. The net return was calculated as 505, 10401,
17357, 18917, 17374 and 13052 Rs/ha in the IW/CEP
of 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 and 1.2 respectively. The
IW.CPE of 0.8 was taken as base because the highest
benefit cost ratio as well as highest net return was
found at this level. The total net return including
additional return from water saving (over base
IW/CPE=0.9) was found as Rs.7626, 13495, 19940
and 18917 in the IW/CPE of 0.6, 0.7, 0.8 and 0.9
respectively.
See Table 3

Comparison
The additional cost of drip system over order at
respective IW/CPE of 0.6 to 1.2 was found as 7188 to
7958 Rs/ha respectively. The additional benefit was
found as 9776, 12535, 16625, 14793, 11839 and
10201 Rs/ha respectively in the IW/CPE of 0.6, 0.7,
0.8, 0.9, 1.0 and 1.2 respectively. The benefit cost
ratio (additional benefit to additional cost over
surface) of the drip system adoption was increased
from 1.36 in IW/CPE of 0.6 to 2.24 in IW/CPE of 0.8
and then decreased to 1.28 at IW/CPE o 1.2. The
highest benefit cost ratio of drip system adoption
replacing the surface method was found as 2.24 at
IW/CPE of 0.8


CONCLUSIONS

The statistical and economical analysis of the
results data generated through the series of the field
experiments yielded into the following conclusion.

The optimal water requirements of the summer
groundnut crop under micro sprinkler and drip
irrigation can be 700 ha.mm/ha and 674 ha.mm/ha
having irrigation scheduling based on the IW/CPE
of 0.8 and 0.8 respectively for the South Saurashtra
Agro Climatic Zone. The drip irrigation can give
21% more yield with water saving off 11% as
compared to micro sprinkler irrigation.

The highest possible water use efficiency under
micro sprinkler and drip irrigation for summer
groundnut crop can be 3.40 kg/ha.mm and 4.148
kg/ha.mm respectively in this zone.

The highest benefit cost ratio of adopting drip
irrigation system replacing the surface method can
be 2.24 at IW/CPE of 0.8. The drip irrigation
adoption at low (IW/CPE=0.6) and higher
(IW/CPE=1.2) water application level are not so
profitable.

REFERENCES
Anonymous. (200). Studied on Techno-Economic
Feasibilities of Drip Irrigation for summer
Groundnut Crop and its Comparison with Micro
Sprinkler and Drip Irrigation Final Report of
ICAR Adhoe Project, Sub. To ICAR, New Delhi.
Billaz, R. and Ochos R. (1961). The Stage of
Susceptibility to Drought in Groundnut.
Oleasgineux, 16:605.
Boote, K.J. and Hammond, L.C. (1981). Effect of
Drought on Vegetative and Reproductive
Development of Peanut. Processing of American
Peanut Research & Education Society, 13:86
Abstract.
Gorbet D.W. and Rhoads, F.M. (1975) Response to
Peanut Cultivars to Irrigation and Kylar.
Agronomy Journal, 67:373 376.
Hammond. L.C. Boote K.J., Varnell, R.J. and
Robertson, W.K. (1978). Water Use and Yield of
Peanuts on a Well Drained Sandy Soil. Proceeding
of American Peanut Research and Education
Association, 10:73, Abstract.
Hewitt.T.D., Gorbet, D.W. and Westberry, G.O.
(1980). Economics of Irrigating Peanut.
Proceeding of Soil and Crop Science Society Fia
39. 135 140.
Lenka D. And Misra P.K. (1973) Response of
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) to irrigation.
Indian Journal of Agronomy. 18:492 497.
Rank H.D. (1991), Nonlinear Programming Approach
to Agricultural Resources Management. Unpub.
M. Tech. Thesis. Sub to IIT, Kharagpur.
Reddi G.H.S. and Hanks R.J. (1978). Efficient use of
Irrigation water for Wheat and Groundnut.
Maysore Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 11:22
27.
Ronald L. Elliott, Sam L. Harp, Gerald, D., Grosz and
Michael, A., Kizer (1988). Crop Coefficient for
Peanut Evapotranspiration, Agricultural Water
management, 15:155 164.
Saini J.S. and Sandhu R.S. (1973). Yield and Quality
of Groundnut as affected by Irrigation and
Fertilizer Levels Journal of Research, Punjab
Agricultural University. 10: 179 183.
Sandhu R.S., Saini, J.S. and Singh T. (1972). The
Effect of Irrigation and Fertilizer levels on the
Yield and Quality of Groundnut. Journal of
Research, Punjab Agricultural University. 9: 535
540.
Seshadri C.R., Bhavanisankara Rao, M. and Varisai
Muhammed, S. (1958). Studies on Root
Development in Groundnut, Indian Journal of
Agricultural Science. 28: 211 215.
Stansell, J.R., Shepherd, J.L., Pallas, J.E., Jr., Bruce,
R.R., Minton N.A., Bell, D.K. and Morgan L.W.
(1976). Peanut Responses to Soil Water Variables
in the Southeast. Peanut Science, 3 : 44 48.
Su.K.C. and Lu,P.C. (1963). Effect of Time of
Irrigation and Amount of Water Irrigation on
Peanut Yield. Journal of Agricultural Association
of China, 41 : 4351.
Rahmanyam, S.S.D., Sundersingh K.P., Ramaswamy,
S.P., Paxkiraj, S.P. and Rajagopalan, K. (1975).
Effect of Moisture Stress at Different Growth
Stages of Groundnut. Madras Agricultural Journal.
62: 587588.


Table-1: Total Water Applied (ha.mm/ha), Pod and Fodder Yield (kg/ha) under micro sprinkler Irrigation &
Drip Irrigation

Table-2 Cost Benefits Of The Cultivation Of The Summer Groundnut Crop Under Micro sprinkler Irrigation.

Table-3: Cost Benefits Of the Cultivation Of the Summer Groundnut Corp Under Drip Irrigation

IW/CPE Microsprinkler Irrigation (Pooled data or 3 years) Drip Irrigation (Pooled data for 3 years)
Water
Applied
Pod Yield Fodder Yield Water Applied Pod Yield Fodder Yield
0.6 523 1471 2948 502 1917 3710
0.7 617 1859 3588 589 2297 4604
0.8 700 2384 4463 674 2796 5443
0.9 789 2550 4959 757 2927 5901
1.0 868 2446 5222 843 2829 6295
1.2 1047 2205 5319 1011 2586 6640
63.26 96.57 63.25 96.58
160.3 275.2 180.3 275.2
10.44 7.35 10.42 7.37
Treatment
(IW/CPE)
Total Cost
(Rs./ha)
Gross
Income
(Rs./ha)
B/C Ratio for
Cultivation of
summer
Groundnut
Net
Return
(Rs./ha)
Water Saving
(mm) Over
Better
Treatment
Additional
Net Return
From
Water
Saving
Total Net
Return
(with
from
Water
Saving)
0.6 20823 23545 1.13 2722 2835 2575 4110
0.7 21951 29549 1.35 7598 5317 2919 9725
0.8 22947 37687 1.64 14740 9799 3219 16656
0.9 24015 40589 1.69 16574 8479 3727 16574
1.0 24963 39631 1.59 14668 5250 3891 N.A.
1.2 27111 36644 1.35 9533 3266 4543 N.A.
Treatment
(IW/CPE)
Total
Cost
(Rs./ha)
Gross
Income
(Rs./ha)
B/C Ratio
For
Cultivation
of Summer
Groundnut
Net
Return
(Rs./ha)
Total Net
Return
(With
Return of
Water
Saving)
Additional
Cost of
System Over
Surface
Addi.
Benefits of
Drip Over
Surface
B/C ratio
of drip
Adoption
0.6 25436 30486 1.20 5050 7626 7188 9776 1.36
0.7 26306 36767 1.40 10461 13495 7274 12535 1.72
0.8 27156 44513 1.64 17357 19940 7428 16625 2.24
0.9 27986 46903 1.68 18917 18917 7698 14793 1.92
1.0 28846 46220 1.60 17374 17374 7774 11839 1.52
1.2 30526 43578 1.43 13052 13052 7958 10201 1.28

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


A REVIEW OF NOISE ANALYSIS FOR ROAD TRANSPORT
SYSTEMS

Brind Kumar
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi.
E-mail: kumar_brind.civ@itbhu.ac.in
G.D. Ransinchung R.N.
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, Uttarakhand
Saurabh Gupta, Gajendra Kumar Yadav, Alok Kumar
M.Tech. III Semester, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Engineering & Technology,
Sitapur Road, Lucknow

ABSTRACT: Similar to air pollutants, noise is also an acclaimed pollutant which has the potential to degrade
our living standards along roadside. Seemingly, studies pay much attention to air pollution as compared to noise
along road side because the former is visible. However, noise pollution has the capacity to seriously cripple
human beings physiologically and psychologically and in prominence the audio-sensory system. It is ever
increasing its intensity with the growth of population, industry and vehicular traffic. The paper seeks to present a
review of mathematical framework for its analysis under different traffic situations so as to incite studies in this
area.

INTRODUCTION
The problem of noise impact from transportation
activities is unique among the pollutants in its
spontaneity and lack of duration. In any given
transportation situation, the noise generated by the
sources involved at the moment is not affected by any
previous activity, nor does it affect any future activity.
Unlike air or water pollution, noise leaves no residual
evidence to serve as a continuing remainder of its
unpleasantness. This is the principal reason that, even
though its effects are usually as severe as any
transportation impact, noise is often the pollutant with
the lowest priority for control. In case of highways,
however, noise can, in certain situations, becomes the
critical issue in project development.

In India, no separate regulations are in existence
exclusively to control road traffic induced noise
pollution. The stipulations made by regulatory
authorities like Central Pollution Control Board, have
laid down the maximum limits for the ambient air
quality in respect of noise, thus, treating road traffic
induced noise pollution as a component of
deterioration in air quality. Contrarily, in developed
countries there are specific legislations and
regulations for highway noise control. Due to higher
incidence of highway noise pollution is our cities and
certain highway corridors, it is expected that such a
regulation will be underway in the near future.

In developed countries, the regulations, and their root
legislative statutes, have had the effect of forcing
technological advances in the area of prediction
methodologies for impact analysis. In our country too,
a few researchers and institutions have endeavoured
into the assessment of noise level and formulation of
predictive methodologies with hub of the activities
around metropolitan cities and important highway
corridors in plain areas. The traffic composition and

the traffic flow pattern in our country being different
from developed countries who have note worthy
works to their credit, full scale studies pertinent to our
situation including geometrically prohibitive hill areas
has to be conducted before this nuisance assumes
outrageous dimensions. But, before proceeding with
such engineering studies, it is necessary to understand
the various physical mechanisms involved in noise
analysis, to adequately define the various descriptors
used in highway noise and to understand various
underlying concepts which is the objective of this
paper.

PHYSICAL MECHANISMS OF ROAD
TRAFFIC NOISE
To fully understand, noise should be viewed as a
problem of Source-Path-Receiver, because any
solution towards its abatement will have to be
presented as solutions of source, path, and receiver
[1]. Source is a mechanism or device from which
noise is being emitted e.g. the road traffic stream. The
path is the environment through which the emitted
noise travels on its way to striking the receiver, which
may be a person, a group of buildings, or some other
sensitive receptor. Noise is a broad-banded source of
acoustic energy and all its components does not
impact the ultimate receiver, the human, to the same
degree. So, the goal of noise analysis should be to
identify those parameters, which will affect the
emission, transmission, and reception of the noise by
the human. These parameters include:
(a) Temporal distribution of the sound.
(b) Magnitude of the sound.
(c) Cyclic frequency of the sound.
(d) Coherence or time-variance of the sound.

TEMPORAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE SOUND
This is an important consideration, because, the time
of a day, day of a week, and month of a year affect the

condition of a receiver. For example, a heavy flow of
truck traffic may not be offensive to an adjacent
residential area, if flow is concentrated in the
afternoon hours, but will be very offensive if a large
percentage of trucks ply during late night hours. Also,
a temple located near a heavy traffic zone will not be
bothered ordinarily by regular traffic operation, unless
people gather to listen to sermons of a reputed Saint.
Ordinarily, it may be said that noise disturbs activities
requiring concentration and as a consequence it
produces annoyance to the exposed subjects.

MAGNITUDE OF THE SOUND
Emitted sound (or noise) travels by vibrating
individual particles in an elastic medium back and
forth along the direction of propagation, usually in a
cylindrical or spherical manner. This type of sound
wave may be classified as a longitudinal wave,
capable of being propagated through solids, liquids, or
gases. The net displacement for each particle within
the transmitting medium is zero, even though the
wave pulse moves at a high rate of speed of 343 m/s
in air at 20
o
C. The actual magnitude of sound as
perceived by our ears, is caused by short-duration
fluctuations in the atmospheric pressure. These
fluctuations, called sound pressures, are extremely
minute when compared to the atmospheric pressure
which is approximately 1,00,000 N/m
2
, or Pascals
(1Pa = 10 microbars = 0.000147 psi). For example, a
heavy truck at 7.5 m may generate a sound pressure of
upto 0.63 Pa, and a jet aircraft on take off may
generate upto 20 Pa. On the other hand, a very quiet
sound, like the rustling of leaves, may cause a change
in atmospheric pressure in an order of magnitude of
only 0.00002 Pa, which is a million folds smaller than
that of the jet aircraft.

The number of time the sound pressure varies around
its mean value per second is its frequency and, the
maximum displacement from the mean is called
amplitude. The amplitude of sound pressures, as
indicated above, are extremely small in comparison to
the atmospheric pressure. These pressure variations
can be measured by a sound pressure level meter or
simply, a sound level meter.

The most efficient method for analysing and
manipulating the magnitude component of sound is to
examine the relationship between the physical
stimulus and the corresponding physiological
response by the human. E.H. Weber first studied this
phenomenon in 1825 in connection with human
estimates of weights of various objects. Weber
noticed that the increase in stimulus required to
produce a given increase in sensation is proportional
to the pre-existing stimulus [1]. Expressed
mathematically,

W
dW
k dS = (1)
where, dS is the minimum perceptible increase in
sensation, dW is the stimulus producing it, and W is
the total stimulus originally present. Integration of the
above equation yields the relationship known as the
Weber-Fechner Law, where,

W k S log = (2)

(Note: log refers to log
10
)

Intensity (I) is the energy flow per unit time per unit
area perpendicular to the direction of flow. Since the
rate at which work is done (or energy emitted) is
defined as power, the intensity (I) is also the power
transmitted per unit area normal to the direction of
propagation. Power produced by travelling sound
waves is quite small. Interestingly, the average sound
power developed by a healthy person speaking at
normal conversational tone is about 10
-5
watts [2].

Human ear is capable of discerning sound of intensity
as low as 10
-12
watts/m
2
or 10
-16
watts/cm
2
and can
respond without damage to sound one trillion times as
intense [2]. Because of such a large range of
intensities over which human ear responds, use of a
linear scale will be very difficult, and so, a
logarithmic scale is used. Additionally, the ear
responds not linearly, but logarithmically to stimulus
as shown in eq. (2).

Transferring the concept of the Weber-Fechner Law
to the commonly accepted acoustical terminology
yields the widely used ratio of measure, called the
Bel. Simply defined, the Bel is the logarithm of the
relative intensity of sound intensities being compared,
or, a logarithmic ratio of a measured intensity to
reference intensity. Mathematically, the measured
intensity (I) and the reference intensity (
o
I )
corresponding to L Bel is,

(
=
Io
I
L log Bel (3)

But, in practical use the unit Bel was found to be
rather too large, and a unit of one-tenth of a Bel called
the deciBel (dB) is now in general use.

So,
(
=
Io
I
L log 10 dB (4)

In other words, the deciBel is a dimensionless unit
logarithmically relating two like quantities of different
magnitudes, one of which is taken as reference
magnitude (in this case, sound intensity or pressure).
The most commonly accepted reference sound
pressure is (
o
P ) is 0.00002 Pa, which corresponds to

the threshold of human hearing at 1000 Hz. In terms
of the intensity level, the reference intensity is taken
as 10
-12
watts/m
2
or 10
-16
watts/cm
2
.

Intensity (I) of a plane wave is related to the rms
pressure (P) of a plane wave by [1],

C
P
I
o
2
= (5)

where, C
o
is the characteristic impedance of the
medium. It has a value of 415 rayls (1MKS rayl = 1
kg/m
2
.sec) for air at 20
o
C and is a measure of specific
acoustic impedance and named in honour of Lord
Rayleigh. So, the equation for sound pressure level
(SPL) may be expressed as,

(
(
=
2
2
log 10
o
P
P
SPL dB

(
=
o
P
P
SPL log 20 dB (6)

where, P is the measured sound pressure, while both
P and
o
P are root-mean-square (rms) pressures.
When
o
P P = , ) 1 log( 20 = SPL = 0 dB, at the
threshold of hearing at 1000 Hz. When P = 20 P
a
for
jet aircraft at takeoff, SPL = 20 log (20/0.00002) = 20
log (10
6
) = 120 dB.

The reference intensity (
o
I ) taken as 10
-12
watts/m
2

corresponds almost exactly to the reference pressure
(
o
P ) of 0.00002 P
a
. So, I is separated from SPL by
only 0.2 dB, and, for all practical purposes of
transportation noise, it may be stated that L equals
SPL. Table 1 gives examples of transportation related
sound pressure levels with corresponding sound
pressures (rms) in Pascals (P
a
) [1].

From this table it is inferred that, sound levels
corresponding to 10, 20 and 100 dB represents 10
times, 100 times and 10
10
times as intense the
threshold intensity respectively. The area of human
hearing extends in frequency from about 20 to 20,000
cps [1, 3], and in intensity from 0 to 140 dB. The first
sound heard by humans is at a frequency of 20 cps
(threshold of hearing), and, the extreme noise level at
about 20,000 cps becomes painful to human ears
(threshold of pain).

Table1. Representative Sound Pressures and Sound
Pressure Levels for Transportation Systems

Cyclic frequency of the sound

The cyclic frequency f of sound or noise is
determined primarily by the number of times per
second that the sound pressures fluctuate between
positive and negative values in a sinusoidal
configuration. This quantitative measure uses the unit
Hertz (Hz) after H.R. Hertz (1857-1894). One Hertz is
equal to one cycle per second. Frequency is the
reciprocal of the temporal period T, which is the time
required to complete one cycle on the sine curve.
Mathematically, frequency is defined as,

(
C
f (7)

where, f = cyclic frequency in Hz.
C = speed of sound in the medium (m/s)
= wavelength of the sound (m)

As mentioned earlier, the speed of sound in air is 343
m/s at 20
o
C. Thus a sound with a frequency of 2000
Hz would have a wavelength of 0.17 m; a frequency
of 200 Hz would a wavelength of 1.72 m; and a 20 Hz
sound would have a wavelength of 17.2 m.

Knowledge of wavelength as well as frequency is
very important in transportation noise analysis for a
number of reasons. Firstly, the atmosphere has
different absorption rates for different frequencies;
secondly, barriers between the source and receiver are
less effective against short wavelength dominated
sounds; and thirdly, humans simply respond
differently to sounds of different frequencies. Because
the frequency spectrum of noise is usually so broad, it
can be very cumbersome to work with. Therefore, a
method is needed to summarise the contributions of
noise in the various bands and correlate the
Prms
(Pa)
SPL
(dB)
Description
200.00 140 Threshold of pain
63.24 130
20.00 120 Jet take off
6.32 110
2.00 100 Jet landing
0.63 90 Heavy truck at 7.5 m
0.20 80 Adjacent to a major
highway
0.06 70
0.02 60 Automobile at 15 m
0.006 50 Typical community
0.002 40 Quiet neighbourhood
0.0006 30
0.0002 20
0.0000
6
10
0.0000
2
0 Threshold of hearing
(at 1000Hz)

summaries with human response. This has been done
quite effectively through the use of frequency
weighing networks, which have the added benefit of
being easily adaptable to sound measurement
instruments.

Weighted sound level
Human ear does not respond uniformly to sounds of
all frequencies. It is less efficient at low and high
frequencies and efficient at medium or speech
frequencies at about 600 to 6000 Hz [3], and most
efficient at about 1000-3000 Hz [1], the phenomenon
usually known as Place principle. So, it is necessary
to weight the low and high frequencies with respect to
medium frequencies. In an attempt to duplicate the
response of human ear, sound level meters are often
fitted with three internationally defined frequency
weighing filters, A, B and C. Experience has
shown that the A weighted deciBel, designated by
dB(A), correlates very well with human response to
noise, particularly in estimating the probability of
hearing damage in industry, and in describing
annoyance caused by transportation noise.

Coherence or timevariance of the sound

Noise parameters

(i) Percentile levels (L
10
, L
50
and L
90
)
When measurements of road traffic noise are made,
we are dealing with a noise source that is strongly
time-dependent. To account for this feature,
measurements of noise parameters are important.
Their distribution function is determined by analysing
the noise level data with some form of statistical
analysis. The observed noise levels are grouped in
equal incremental range and the percentage of time
for which the noise level exists in each group is
found. Then the cumulative percentage of time for
which the noise level exceeds the average noise level
of the range considered is computed and, the
cumulative noise frequency distribution curve is
prepared. From this curve, the noise level exceeding a
given percentage of sample time may be determined
as the percentile noise level in dB(A).
L
10
or ten percentile exceeding noise level, is the one
which exceeds 10% of the total observation time. It
indicates the peak levels of intruding noise.
L
50
or fifty percentile exceeding noise level, is the one
which exceeds 50% of the total observation time. It
indicates the average noise level.
L
90
or ninety percentile exceeding noise level, is the
one which exceeds 90% of the total observation time.
It indicates the background noise level.

(ii) Equivalent sound pressure level (L
eq
)
Up to now, transportation noise is characterised
having an intensity (magnitude) component,
expressed in dB; a frequency component, expressed in
Hertz (Hz) and often summarised in A-weighting; and
a temporal component, which describes the daily,
weekly, monthly and yearly fluctuations in its impact
influence. Another component that needs to be
understood is the time-variance, which attempts to
describe and quantify the sporadic and random
manner that transportation noise impinges on the
acoustic environment. Herein, few questions will have
to be addressed before proceeding further, like, does
one use the average sound level emitted by the source
as an indicator of its impact? If so, how is one truck
per day or two cars per hour averaged in a meaningful
way? If the peak sound level of the source is to be
used, where is the significance of another slightly
quieter sound to be included? Also, do changes in
human response correlate well with changes in peak
and averages [1]?

To provide solutions to these questions effectively,
the concept of Equivalent Sound Pressure Level
(
eq
L ) is formulated in terms of the equivalent steady-
state noise level which in a defined period of time
contains the same noise (acoustic) energy as a time-
varying noise during the same period of time. The
eq
L is an energy summation integration, and as such
do not rely on statistical parameters. In other words,
eq
L is the A-weighted energy mean of the noise level
averages over the measurement period. It can also be
considered as the continuous steady noise level which
would have the same A-weighted acoustic energy, as
the real fluctuating noise measured over the same
period of time, and mathematically expressed as,

dt
P
P
t t
L
t
t o
t
eq
(
(
=
}
2
1
2
2
) (
1 2
) (
1
log 10 (8)

where, P
(t)
is the time varying sound pressure, P
o
is
the reference pressure, and t
1
and t
2
are the limits of
the time period in question. In terms of sound
intensity,

dt
I
I
t t
L
t
t o
eq
(
(
=
}
2
1
) (
1
log 10
1 2
(9)

Performing integration of the above equation, we
have,
(
(
(
(
=
n
i
i
n
i
SPL
i
eq
f
f
L
i
1
1
10 /
10
log 10 dB(A) (10)
where, f
i
is equal to the number of occurrences at
SPL
i
.

For Gaussian distribution of percentile noise levels, an
alternative expression for
eq
L may be stated as [4],

(

+ =
56
) (
2
90 10
50
L L
L L
eq
dB(A) (11)

Noise level indices
A major objective of traffic noise study is to relate the
human response to certain physical descriptors of
noise. The common descriptors used in traffic noise
studies are Traffic Noise Index and Noise Pollution
Level.

(i) Traffic noise index (TNI)
It is a traffic noise rating index obtained from a
combination of noise levels, which gives a better
correlation with dissatisfaction. It is obtained on the
consideration that, L
10
as an average peak level
intrudes into L
90
as an average background noise level
when A-weighted noise levels are measured outdoors
[5]. When mathematically stated,

] 30 ) ( 4 [
90 90 10
+ = L L L TNI dB(A) (12)

The term (L
10
L
90
) is called noise climate by some
authors and the final arbitrary constant is included to
yield more convenient numbers. Traffic noise index is
derived on the assumption that, an extensive noise
level fluctuation over time is the dominant factor in
traffic noise annoyance. TNI attempts to make an
allowance for the noise variability, since fluctuating
noise is commonly assumed to be more annoying.

(ii) Noise pollution level (NPL)
According to Robinson, D.W. [6], of the British
National Physical Laboratory,
eq
L in itself is an
insufficient descriptor of annoyance caused by
fluctuating noise, and, road traffic noise is a
significantly fluctuating noise. The index NPL, was
developed to estimate the dissatisfaction caused by
road traffic noise comprising of two terms. The first is
a measure of the equivalent continuous noise level
(
eq
L ) and the second represents the increase of
annoyance caused by fluctuations in that level. For a
Gaussian distribution of noise levels, NPL can be
expressed as given below:

)] ( [
90 10
L L L NPL
eq
+ = dB(A) (13)

Some important derivations of road traffic noise

Noise intensity level for more than one vehicle

We know that,
(
=
o
I
I
L log 10

(
=
o
L
I
I
10 /
10

( /10)
0
10
L
I I = (14)

For the 1
st
vehicle with noise level L
1
, eq. (14) will be,
1
( /10)
0
10
L
I I =

For the 2
nd
2
, eq. (15) will
be,
2
( /10)
0
10
L
I I =

Similarly, for the i
th
i
, eq.
(15) will be,
( /10)
0
10
i
L
I I =

The total noise intensity (I) due to n number of
vehicles at a constant distance d from the source, eq.
(14) may be written
as,
1 2
/10 /10 /10
1 2 0
........ 10 10 ......... 10
i
L L L
i
I I I I I ( = + + + = + + +

1 2
/10 /10 /10
0
(10 10 ......... 10 )
i
L L L
I
I
= + + +
1 2
/10 /10 /10 /10
10 (10 10 ......... 10 )
i
L L L L
= + + +
Taking
10
log on both sides
1 2
/10 /10 /10
log(10 10 ......... 10 )
10
i
L L L
L
= + + +
(
=

=
n
i
L
i
L
1
10 /
10 log 10
(15)

Obtained eq. (16) is the equation for deciBel
summation [1]. For e.g., one truck generates a noise
level of about 90 dB at 7.5 m away from the noise
source. Substituting in eq. (15), we get,

dB L 90 10 log 10
10 / 90
= =
If the noise source is doubled, i.e. two trucks are
considered, then the resulting noise intensity level will
be,
dB L 93 ) 10 10 log( 10
10 / 90 10 / 90
= + =

Three trucks will generate,
dB L 77 . 94 ) 10 10 10 log( 10
10 / 90 10 / 90 10 / 90
= + + =

Four trucks will generate,
dB L 96 ) 10 10 10 10 log( 10
10 / 90 10 / 90 10 / 90 10 / 90
= + + + =


So, an important observation made is that, the
doubling of noise source strength will result in a 3 dB
increase in noise intensity, and halving the source
strength will result in a 3 dB decrease. This concept
can be generalised to add any number of noise sources
of different strengths to obtain the resultant noise
intensity level.

Relationship between noise intensity level and
distance from the source d

The source of road transportation noises is the vehicle
or vehicles emitting noise. These sources as a whole
can be considered as aggregate or macro sources.
But, the motor vehicle, is actually an aggregate of
several micro sources, including engine, exhaust,
and tyre-roadway interaction amongst others. In turn,
each of these micro sources can be classified as
monopole, dipole or quadrupole radiators of noise. A
monopole source is one that produces noise waves
through a change in mass outflow (or volume). A
dipole source, on the other hand, has no volume
change, because it includes two equal and opposite
components. A quadrupole noise radiator is in effect
two equal and opposite dipole noise radiators, with
total dipole strength equal to zero. Thus a quadrupole
has neither a volume change nor a change in the force
on the medium. It may be presumed that motor
vehicle noise is predominantly monopole in nature. A
truck exhaust is an example of monopole source, a
rotating fan blade is a dipole source, and a turbulent
jet is a quadrupole source [1].

There are three basic types of noise sources found in
transportation noise. The first is the point source,
which would be represented by an individual vehicle
e.g. a lone truck on a highway. The second is the pure
line source, which may be an extremely heavy and
uniform traffic flow. The third type is the one most
often found in typical highway traffic, the modified
line source, which has characteristics of both point
and line sources [1].

Point sources are subjected to a phenomenon called
spherical spreading, which results from the inverse
square law. Basically this means that the noise signal
emanating from a source strikes an area A, four times
as large at a distance 2d as it does at a distance d from
a source. Thus, the power per unit area, or Intensity, I
at 2d has reduced by a factor of four, from its value at
d. Mathematically,

At d
1
,
(
=
o
I
I
L
1
1
log 10

At d
2
,
(
=
o
I
I
L
2
2
log 10

(
=
o o
I
I
I
I
L L
2 1
2 1
log 10 log 10

o o
I I I I log 10 log 10 log 10 log 10
2 1
+ =

(
=
2
1
log 10
I
I
(16)

But, at d
2
=2d
1
, A
2
=4A
1
, and I
1
=4I
2

This implied that,
dB
I
I
L L 6 4 log 10
4
log 10
2
2
2 1
= =
(
=

Therefore, for point sources, there is a decrease of 6
dB in noise intensity for every doubling of distance,
and an increase of 6 dB for every halving of distance.

The nature of line source is to conform to cylindrical
spreading and to obey the inverse first power law.
According to this principle, the power flux (intensity)
is reduced by one-half as the distance increases from
d to 2d, because, the size of the area of impact of the
noise signal only doubles as the distance is doubled.
Mathematically,

At d
2
=2d
1
, A
2
=2A
1
, and I
1
=2I
2

Substituting in eq. (16) we have,

dB
I
I
L L 3 2 log 10
2
log 10
2
2
2 1
= =
(
=

So, for a line source, we observe that, there is a
decrease of 3 dB in noise intensity for every doubling
of distance, and an increase of 3 dB for every halving
of distance.

When considering traffic noise, a careful distinction
should be drawn between emission from individual
vehicles and emission from traffic stream [7]. This is
because the peak noise level defined by L
10
are due to
the passage of individual vehicles in the stream acting
as a point sources where the spatial decay rate is 6 dB
per doubling of distance, as one moves away from the
road. However, the background noise level, defined
by L
90
, contains significant contributions from a
greater number of vehicles in the traffic stream, and
therefore acts as a line source, attenuating by 3 dB per
doubling of distance. It should be noted that these
relationships only apply to increase or decrease of

noise level with respect to distance. They do not
consider factors such as atmosphere, attenuation,
absorption, and so on.

Thus, an individual vehicle is a point source, with a
spatial decay rate of 6 dB per distance doubling. As
the flow rate increase, the traffic stream becomes a
line source, with a spatial decay rate of 3 dB per
distance doubling. In practice, most traffic stream
densities are somewhere between point and line
sources, with resultant decay rates of 6 to 3 dB, [1].
Studies also show that, the spatial decay rate for
eq
L
(or energy mean emission level), is always 3 dB per
distance doubling at all traffic densities, [1].
Conversely, doubling of source strength would result
in 3 dB increase in
eq
L for all traffic densities.

Again, if speed is doubled, everything else held
constant, the result would be a 3 dB decrease in
eq
L .
The reason for this decrease is that, with volume held
constant, doubling the vehicular speed actually
reduces the amount of time that each vehicle
acoustically influences a given receiver of sound. This
reduction would of course be more than offset by the
increase in reference energy mean emission levels of
corresponding vehicle types which would be 11.5 dB
per speed doubling for automobiles, 10.2 dB for
medium trucks, and 7.4 dB for heavy trucks [1].

CONCLUSIONS
Studies on traffic noise induced pollution are in
preliminary stages in our country. The dangers
emanating from this pollutant are eminent. Its role as
a polluter to human health is well recognised.
Concerted efforts towards its quantification suitable to
the Indian context are to be made, and abatement
strategies are to be developed through research and
development. Government and public funding should
be mobilised and more number of engineers and
scientists are to be involved in this assignment. There
is a need to form a national level coordination
committee under the ages of the Indian Roads
Congress in line with the Federal Highway
Administration of U.S.A. for coordinated research at
the national level on the subject.

The paper highlights the review of technical and
engineering aspects of quantifying road traffic noise
pollution at the basic level so as to be useful for
further work in this area in our country.

REFERENCES

Cohn, Louis F., and Mcvoy, Gary R., Environmental
Analysis of TransportationSystems, John Wiley
& Sons Inc., New York, U.S.A., pp. 153-186,
1982.
Chhatwal, G.R., Satake, M., Katyal, M., Mehra, M.C.,
Katyal, T., and Nagahiro, T., Noise Pollution,
Encyclopaedia of Environmental Pollution and its
Control, Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd., Daryaganj,
New Delhi, Vol. 3, 1995.
Purdom, Walton P., Noise Evaluation and Control,
Environmental Health, Drexel University,
Academic Press, New York, pp. 146-429, 1972.
Hansi, Lt. Col. J.S., Gupta, A.K., and Nigam, P.S., A
Study on Traffic Noise for Various Land Uses for
Mixed Traffic Flow, Indian Highways, Vol. 14,
No. 2, pp. 30-47, February 1986.
Griffiths, I.D., and Langdon, F.J. (1968). Subjective
response to road traffic noise. Journal of Sound
& Vibration, 8(1):16-32.
Robinson, D.W. (1971). Towards a unified system of
noise assessment. Journal of Sound and
Vibration, 14(3):279-298.
Hassall, J.R., and Zaveri, K. (1988). Acoustic Noise
Measurement, Bruel & Kjaer:1-289.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


BEARING CAPACITY OF POND ASH REINFORCED WITH
A COIR GEOTEXTILE

M.V.S. Sreedhar
Research Scholar & Asst. Professor, Osmania University, email: mvs_sreedhar@yahoo.com
G. Venkatappa Rao
Former Professor, IIT Delhi & Hon. Professor, Osmania University, email: gvrao.19@google.com
R. Ramesh Reddy
Professor, Osmania University, Hyderabad-500007, email: rameshreddy@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT: The need for utilisation of coal ashes is well recognised. However, the utilisation of these ashes
can be increased by understanding their engineering behaviour. If necessary, their performance can be improved
by reinforcing them with materials that possess better tensile strength. India being a largest producer of coir, it
will be mutually beneficial if pond ash is reinforced with coir products. In line with this, efforts are made in this
project to investigate the behaviour of Pond Ash reinforced with a coir Geotextile by conducting load tests in a
model tank. The load bearing mechanism is investigated in terms of effect of depth of placement of the
reinforcement and the effect of overburden. The results indicated that, the maximum improvement in bearing
capacity was occurred when the coir geotextile was placed at a depth of 0.5 B, where B is the width of model
footing. The effect of overburden was to increase the bearing capacity.

INTRODUCTION
In India, about 67% of the electric power needs are
met by coal based Thermal Power Plants. With vast
coal reserves, the dependance on thermal power
generation will continue in future as well. However,
the thermal power plants are emerging coal ashes to
the extent of 170 milling metric tons per year. It is
expected that, by 2031, the ash generation in India
will be around 300 million metric tons per year. Huge
chunk of land is used in disposal of the un-utilised ash
and substantial amounts are being spent on the
maintenance of ash ponds. The better option will be to
increase the utilisation of coal ashes, more so that of
the Pond Ash.
Geotechnical applications such as construction of
pavements, embankments and retaining walls may
provide bulk utilisation of ash,provided the
mechanisms are thoroughly understood. Though few
reinforced pond ash retaining walls are constructed
and functional in the country, there is need for
increasing the confidence level. Further, India being
the largest producer of coir and related products, there
is great necessity for its utilization domestically. It is
therefore appropriate to reinforce the pond ash with
coir products to increase their bulk utilization.
The primary objective of this research is to investigate
the behaviour of Pond Ash reinforced with a coir
geotextile. The objective include studying the effect
of overburden on the bearingcapacity of reinforced
Pond Ash.
The scope of this research includes carrying out load
tests on one type of pond ash only at its relative
density of 70%, in partially saturated state resembling
just compacted state. One type of coir geotextile is
used as reinforcement material. The mechanism is

studied at macroscopic level in terms of variation in
settlement as the bearing stress is increased.

Several studies are carried out on the bearing capacity
of reinforced soils. However, there are very limited
number of studies on the characteristics of
unreinforced and reinforced pond ash (Kim et al.
2005), particularly pertaining to their strength
characteristics.
R.S.Jakka et.al. (2010) have carried out CD and CU
bar tests on pond ash and reported that, the shear
behavior of Pond Ash in general is comparable with
that of sands; however variation is found from Pond
to Pond and within a given pond from point to point.
Goutham Kumar Pothal and G.V.Rao (2008), have
carried out triaxial and load tests on reinforced pond
ash and reported improvement in bearing capacity.
A.K.Bera et.al.(2008), have reported conducting
laboratory load tests on Pond Ash at its MDD
reinforced with one type of Jute geotextile and three
types of Polypropylene geotextiles. They reported
that, ideal depth of placement was 0.255 B, where B
is width of the model footing, that resulted in a
maximum improvement of 34% in the bearing
capacity of reinforced pond ash.

METHODOLOGY
The methodology includes collection of Pond Ash and
its characterization. Preparation of sample for the
laboratory plate load test at a relative density of 70%
and at a moisture content of 26% without and with
placement of reinforcement and conducting strain
controlled load tests as per the scheme of
experiments.


Characterisation of pond ash
The Pond Ash was collected from National Thermal
Power station, Ramagundam in Andhra Pradesh. The
Pond Ash was collected from a place close to the
discharge point that is about 18m from the bank, at a
depth of 3m below the then ash level in
February,2008. The index and engineering properties
of the Pond Ash used in this project are as given in
Table 1. The photograph of the Pond Ash is shown in
Fig. 1.

Table 1 Geotechnical characteristics of Pond Ash
Parameter Value units

Particle Size distribution
Gravel Size particles
Sand Size particles
Silt size particles

3.98 %
87.31 %
8.71 %
Consistency Non-Plastic
Coefficient of uniformity, Cu
Coefficient of curvature, Cc
IS Heavy Compaction test results
4.29
0.65
Maximum Dry Density 1.17 g/cc
Optimum Moisture content 28.10 %
Classification as per IS:1498-1970 SP

Characteristics of Reinforcement element
The characteristics of the coir geotextile (CGT) used
in this research are as shown in Table2. It was
manufactured by M/s Charankattu Coir Mfg.Co.(P)
Ltd.,Shertallay, Kerala.

Table 2 Properties of CGT
Property Value
Name of the product
Weight per unit area (g/sqm)
CCM-00H2M2
773
Thickness under 2kPa (mm) 8.184
Tensile strength
(ASTMD4595)(kN/m)
9.19 / 9.95
Elongation (MD/CD) (%) 38.29/37.01
Mesh opening size (mm) 9.03 x 8.33

Test set up
The experimental test set up is shown in Fig 1. The
PC controlled Tri-axial test facility is utilised to
conduct the model plate load tests. The application of
load is by hydraulic control system and the load is
measured by an electronic load cell with a sensitivity
of 1 kg. The settlement is measured by electronic
Linear Voltage Differential Transducer (LVDT) of
50 mm ranges. The PC controlled facility is run by
software that enables to give the operating conditions
as input. The facility logs the load and settlement
observations continuously and provide online display
of the progress of the mechanism.

Fig. 1 The test set up

Model test tank
A model test tank of size 300mmx750mmx600mm is
fabricated using 12mm thick Perspex sheets placed in
a mild steel angle frame. The bottom plate is provided
with a locking arrangement. The sizes of the tank are
governed by the allowance in the loading frame of the
PC controlled tri-axial facility.

Model footings
The tests are carried out using model footings of size
50mm such that the width of the tank 300mm and
depth of the pond ash bed 250mm, will be more than
or equal to 5B, such that the boundary effects are
eliminated. The model footings are made of 25mm
thick aluminium plates with a rough base.

Scheme of experiments
The investigations are carried out systematically as
per the scheme of experiments, which include
determining the bearing capacity of unreinforced pond
ash followed by the pond ash provided with
reinforcement at 0.50,1.00,2.00 B below the top level
(u), where B is width of the model footing. The
experiments are repeated with a sand bed of dry unit
weight 16.50 kN/cum laid to a thickness equal to 1.0
B, above the model footing level, such that the
overburden acts like a surcharge as assumed in
Terazaghis theory of bearing capacity.

RESULTS
The load Vs settlement curve for Pond Ash reinforced
with coir geotextile is shown in Fig. 2.


Fig. 2 Pond Ash at RD=70% with CGT

The behaviour of pond ash reinforced with coir
geotextile and provided with 1.0B thick surcharge is
shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Pond Ash at RD=70% with CGT + 1.0 B thick
surcharge of sand at 16.50 kN/cum.

OBSERVATIONS
From Fig. 2, the bearing pressure and the axial strain
at failure for un-reinforced Pond Ash were found to
be 275 kPa and 10.97% respectively. The effects of
reinforcement and overburden on the Bearing
Capacity Ratio (BCR), Axial strain at failure, Tangent
Modulus, Post-failure Modulus are shown in Figs.4-7,
respectively.

Fig. 4 (u/B) ratio Vs BCR plot

Fig. 5 (u/B) ratio Vs Axial strain at failure

Fig. 6 (u/B) ratio Vs Tangent Modulus


Fig. 7 (u/B) ratio Vs Post-failure Modulus

Based on the results, the following observations can
be made
1 As seen from Fig. 4, the maximum improvement in
bearing capacity with surcharge was found when
the reinforcement was laid at a depth of 0.50 B and
the improvement decreased as the depth of
placement is increased. This emphasizes the fact
that, the reinforcement function is maximum when
it is placed in the zone of shear failure such that it
modifies the plastic zone formation and thus
contributes to improvement in bearing capacity.
However, in without surcharge case, the maximum
BCR was observed at a (u/B) ratio of 1.00. The
reason as to why the maximum was not at
(u/B)=0.5, may be due to lack of adequate
anchorage due to the presence of only 0.50 B thick
overburden and due to model constraints.
2. The Fig. 5 shows that the axial strain at failure is
minimum at which the BCR was maximum. This
indicates the improvement in stiffness of the
reinforced pond ash.
3. As seen from Fig. 6, the tangent modulus is
maximum when the BCR was maximum. This
signifies improvement in stiffness of the reinforced
pond ash.
4. The Fig. 7 shows the improvement in post-failure
modulus when the u/B ratio was 0.50 irrespective of
where the BCR was maximum. This emphasizes the
fact that, the reinforcement function in without
surcharge case was mobilized in post failure stage
on par with with surcharge case overcoming the
lack of anchorage in the early stages as stated in 1.
5. The Fig. 2-3 indicates the fact that, the overburden
in the form of surcharge has significant effect on
the load bearing mechanism, particularly in the post
failure stage. When total failure was observed in
without surcharge cases, the medium with
surcharge was continued to bear the loads even up
to an axial strain of 20%.
6. As seen from Fig.4-7, the overburden improved the
BCR, Tangent Modulus and post-failure modulus
while it decreased the axial strain at failure,
emphasizing the fact that, the overburden has
significant influence on the modification of plastic
zone formation and results in considerable
improvement in bearing capacity.

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the investigations carried out in this project,
the following conclusions are made
1 The Pond Ash reinforced with a coir
geotextile has shown phenomenal
improvement in bearing capacity.
2 The load bearing mechanism of reinforced
Pond Ash is similar to that of cohesionless
soils.
3. The ideal depth of placement for the
materials used in this research was found to
be 0.50 B, where B is width of the footing.
4. The overburden in the form of surcharge as
assumed in Terazaghis theory of bearing
capacity, showed improvement in load
bearing mechanism both on un-reinforced
and reinforced Pond Ash.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first author acknowledge the support provided
under TEQIP phase-I and Research Infrastructure
fund of UGC.

REFERENCES
Bera A. K., Ghosh A. and Ghosh A. (2005),Regression
model for bearing capacity of a square footing on
reinforced pond ash, Geotextiles and Geomembranes,
23, No. 3,261285.
Bera A. K., Ghosh A. and Ghosh A. (2008), Bearing
Capacity of square footing on reinforced pond ash,
Ground Improvement,161,GI 1,pp 17-22.
Goutham Kumar Pothal & G.V.Rao (2008),Model studies
on Geosynthetic reinforced Pond Ash, JGE,Vol. 13,
Bund. H
Jakka RS, Datta M, Ramana GV (2010) Shear Behaviour of
Loose and Compacted Pond Ash, Geotech Geol Eng
(2010) 28:763778
Kim B, Prezzi M, Salgado R (2005) Geotechnical properties
of fly and bottom ash mixtures for use in highway
embankments, J Geotech Geoenviron Eng-ASCE
131(7):914924
Pandian NS, Sridharan A, Chittibabu G (2001) Shear
strengthof coal ashes for geotechnical applications. In:
Proceedingsof the Indian geotechnical conference,
Indore, India, pp 466469
Sridharan A, Pandian NS, Rajasekhar C (1996)
Geotechnical characterization of pond ash, Narosa
Publishers, Delhi, pp. 97110.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


PERFORMANCE OF CONCRETE FILLED STEEL (CFT) HOLLOW BEAM
SECTIONS IN FLEXURE

Sunil Kute
Professor, K. K. Wagh Institute of Engg. Education and Research, Nasik (MS) 422 003, sunil_kute@rediffmail.com
T.Jayashree
Lecturer, Guru Gobind Singh Polytechnic, Nasik, (MS) 422003
Shantanu Pande
Asst. Professor, K. K. Wagh Institute of Engg. Education and Research, Nasik (MS) 422 003, pande_shantanu@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT:Significant research work is ongoing worldwide to understand the behavior of Concrete Filled Steel
(CFT) hollow sections. The recent research works over CFT hollow sections have illustrated that their behavior in
terms of structural advantage and economy is much better than conventional reinforced concrete woks. The different
properties of CFT hollow sections like high strength, ductility and large energy absorbing capacity have made their
applications popular in zones of high seismicity. Most of the research work has been done in understanding the axial
behavior of CFT hollow sections.The present paper attempts to understand the behavior of CFT hollow beams under
flexure. The high strength rectangular steel hollow section specimen with fixed depth, width and thickness were tested
to failure under pure bending. The different grades of concrete like M15, M20 and M25 were filled in hollow tube
sections and some sections were provided with reinforcement at top and bottom to find influence of different grades of
concrete and effect of reinforcement in CFTs under flexure.It has been observed that the entire specimen demonstrated
favorable post yield behavior with good ductility performance. The increase in grade of concrete enhances the flexural
strength of CFT beam sections significantly. Also, the failure mechanism of beam sections result in an excessive
deflection with no significant lateral disturbances or any form of instability.

INTRODUCTION
CFT consists of a steel tubular encasing of any shape
such as square, rectangular and circular with concrete
(generally high strength) filled into it. The most
commonly adopted cross sections are square,
rectangular and circular as shown in Fig1.
Concrete filled tubes are known for their excellent
earthquake resistant properties such as high strength,
high ductility and large energy absorption capacity. Due
to bond between steel tube and concrete, the local
buckling of steel tube is delayed by the restraint of
concrete and the strength of concrete is enhanced by
confining effect of the steel tube.

Fig. 1 Various cross-sections of CFTs
CU => Circular Unstiffened SU => Square Unstiffened
SS => Square Stiffened using reinforcing ties
Concrete filled steel tubes have been used increasingly
as columns and beam- columns in braced and unbraced
frame structures. They are used as compression
members in low rise and open floor plan construction.
Use of Concrete filled tubes as primary lateral
resistance columns in multi storied braced and unbraced
frames has also, gained popularity.
Much of the computational research conducted on CFTs
to date has focused on computing the ultimate axial and
flexural capacity of members. Relatively little research
has been reported on the flexural behavior of CFT
beams. A number of experimental and theoretical
studies on the related subject have been carried out. M.
Elchalakani, X.L. Zhao, R.H. Grzebieta(2001) have
conducted study on Concrete filled circular steel tubes
subjected to pure bending. Their paper presents an
experimental investigation of the flexural behavior of
circular CFT subjected to large deformation pure
bending where d/t =12 to 110. Wie-Min Gho, Dalin
Liu(2004) have conducted study on Flexural behavior
of high-strength rectangular concrete-filled steel hollow
sections . Their paper presents a study of the flexural
behavior of 12, 1600-mm-long high-strength
rectangular concrete-filled steel hollow section
(CFSHS) specimens tested to failure under pure
bending. Dalin Liu, (2004) in his work on Behavior of
high strength rectangular concrete-filled steel hollow
section columns under eccentric loading, has presented
an experimental study on the behavior of 12 high
strength rectangular concrete-filled steel hollow section
columns subjected to eccentric loading. The slenderness
ratios of the specimens were 20 and 50, while the load
eccentricity ratios (e/B; e is the load eccentricity, B is
the breadth of cross-section) varied between 0.17 and
0.40. Favorable ductility performance was observed for


all specimens during the test. F.W. Lu, S.P. Li, D.W. Li,
and Guojun Sun, (2007) have worked on An
experimental study on the mechanical behavior of non-
uni-thickness walled rectangular concrete-filled steel
tube (CFT) beams subjected to pure bending. Their
experimental and analytical results suggested that a
non-uni-thickness walled rectangular CFT beam
exhibits adequate ductility, and the flexural strength of a
non-uni-thickness walled CFT beam is superior to that
of a uni-thickness walled CFT beam. Arivalagan
Soundararajan; Kandasamy Shanmugasundaram, (2008)
conducted study on The Flexural behavior of concrete
filled steel hollow section beams. They have
experimented the study of normal mix, fly ash, quarry
waste and low strength concrete (brick-bat lime
concrete) contribution to the ultimate moment capacity
of square steel hollow sections. Their experimental
investigation results showed that normal mix, fly ash,
quarry waste and low-strength concrete enhance the
moment carrying capacity of steel hollow sections.

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION:

Test Setup:
6 types of specimens were prepared to investigate the
flexural behavior of rectangular CFT beams. The
specimens were filled by three different grades of
concrete (Grade M15, M20, M25) and Mild steel outer
casing of 4.8mm thickness. The specimens were tested
on 200 ton capacity modified compression testing
machine with a central loading mechanism. All beam
specimens of span length 1000mm were tested to
investigate the flexural behavior of rectangular CFT
beams.
Deflection of the specimens was measured by magnetic
base dial gauges which were placed at the centre and l/4
distances from the edge of the specimen. The
instruments were controlled and calibrated according to
the standard specifications.
Specimens:
The steel hollow specimens were filled with concrete of
three different grades in many layers and carefully
compacted by a steel rod to avoid any gaps that occur
inside the specimen. The overall geometric properties of
the specimens are summarized in a table given below.

Material properties

Cement:
Ordinary Portland cement 53 grade from a single lot
was used throughout the course of the investigation.
The cement was carefully stored in airtight silos to
prevent deterioration in its properties due to
atmospheric effects. The physical properties of the

Table 1 Geometric Properties of the specimens

cement conforming to IS: 8112-1989 and tested as per
IS: 4031-1988. The results of various tests conducted on
cement used are reported in table

Table 2 Physical properties of the cement
Characteristics Units
Results
obtained
Specified value
as per IS:8112-
1989
Fineness
1. Dry sieving
2. Air permeability

cm
2
/gm
%

5
2518

< 10
< 3500
Specific gravity - 3.14
-

Soundness
Le Chatelier Expansion

mm 3 < 10
Characteristics Units
Results
obtained
Specified value
as per IS:8112-
1989
Standard consistency % 28 -
Setting time
1. Initial
2. Final

Minutes
Minutes

90
210

> 30
< 600
Compressive strength
1. 3-days
2. 7-days
3. 28-days

MPa
Mpa
Mpa

23.2
34.6
45.8

> 23
> 33
> 43

Specimen
Designat
ion
Dimensions
(mm) of RHS
Design Grade
of Material(Mpa)
Remarks
B D t Steel Concrete
SP 01

48

96 4.8 310 -
Steel hollow
section
SP 02 48 96 4.8 310 19 CFT Beam
SP 03A 48 96 4.8 310 24 CFT Beam
SP 03B 48 96 4.8 310 24
Reinforced
with 1.22mm
MS wire 4
nos.
SP 4A 48 96 4.8 310 27 CFT Beam
SP 4B 48 96 4.8 310 27
Reinforced
wtih1.22mm
MS wires 4
nos.


Fine aggregates:
Locally available river sand was used as fine
aggregates. The physical properties of the fine
aggregate are listed in table.

Table 3 Physical properties of fine aggregates
Characteristics Results obtained
Grading
Fineness modulus
Specific gravity
Density (Loose) (kN/m
3
)
Water absorption (%)
Moisture content (%)
Zone III (IS:383-1970)
2.51
2.64
15.23
1.20
0.35

Coarse aggregates:
Locally available crushed stone aggregates of maximum
nominal size of 10 mm were used as course aggregate.
Physical properties of the aggregate are listed in table

Table 4 Physical properties of coarse aggregates
Characteristics Results obtained
Fineness modulus
Specific gravity
Density (Loose) (kN/m
3
)
Water absorption (%)
Moisture content (%)
6.45
2.67
16.19
0.60
Nil

Water:
The water to be used both for mixing and curing of
concrete, should be free from deleterious materials. In
present investigation, potable tap water was used.
Steel:
Steel hollows used were factory-made products. They
are produced by Tata Steel Industries, India. The
length of a specimen was 1.00m. The size and thickness
of rectangular specimen were 96x48x4.8mm. Grade of
steel was Fe

310Mpa as per IS 4923:1997 Indian
Standard Hollow Steel Sections for structural use
specifications.
Reinforced mild steel wires of 1.22mm diameter were
placed two each at top and bottom of the specimen.
Test procedure:
The specimens were tested under bending about the
major axis. In the test, the deflections of the specimen
were recorded at each loading interval of 5 KN. For all
levels, the load was applied continuously. The local
bucking was observed near the compression side for all
the specimens. Deflections of the beam specimens were
measured by three dial gauges. One was placed at the
mid span of the specimen and other two were placed at
L/4 distance from the edge of the specimen.

Fig. 2 Test set up

Results and discussions:
The tests were conducted till the failure of beam shows
deflection up to 50 mm on the Compression testing
machine. The ductile behavior can be studied from the
below given Load vs. Deflection at center-span and L/4
distance from the edges of all the specimens.
Load Vs Deflection SP-01
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection(mm)
L
o
a
d
(
K
N
)
L/4

Load Vs Deflection SP -01
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection(mm)
L
o
a
d
(
K
N
)
Central

Fig. 3 Load vs. Deflection curve for Specimen 01


0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection(mm)
L
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
Central

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection(mm)
L
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
L/4

A comparison of Load vs. Deflection curves plotted for specimen 1(hollow section without any filler) and specimen 2
(with M15 grade concrete filler) shows that
there is a definite increase in flexural strength.

Load Vs Deflection SP-3A
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection(mm)
L
o
a
d
(
K
N
)
Central

Load Vs Deflection SP-3A
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection(mm)
L
o
a
d
(
K
N
)
L/4


In comparison of Load vs. Deflection curves plotted for specimen 2 (with M15 grade concrete filler) and specimen 3A
(with M 20 grade concrete filler), it is found that the deflection at a given load has reduced by 3.26% indicating the
increase in flexural strength.
Load Vs Deflection SP-3B
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection(mm)
L
o
a
d
(
K
N
)
Central

Load Vs Deflection SP-3B
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection(mm)
L
o
a
d
(
K
N
)
L/4


Load Vs Deflection SP- 4A
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection(mm)
L
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
Central

Load Vs Deflection SP- 4A
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection(mm)
L
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
L/4


A comparison of Load Vs. Deflection curves plotted for specimen 3A (with M20 grade concrete filler) and specimen
4A (with M 25 grade concrete filler) shows that the deflection at a given load has been reduced by 10.56%


Load Vs Deflection SP- 4B
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection(mm)
L
o
a
d
(
K
N
)
Central

Load Vs Deflection SP - 4B
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection(mm)
L
o
a
d
(
K
N
)
L/4


Behavior of all beams was predicted during the test.
The beam specimens developed the full flexural
strength of the section. The experimental results of this
study demonstrated the predominant failure mechanism
of the beam specimens to be excessive deflection
accompanied with some local distortions near the point
of load application at a stage very close to maximum
loading.The measured load Vs deflection at mid-span
showed all beam specimens established similar
behavior with respect to flexural strength with the
increasing grade of concrete filler.The tested beams
failed in a very ductile manner. No tension fracture was
observed on the tension flange.

CONCLUDING REMARKS:
The tests conducted in this study on concrete filled steel
hollow section beams with M15, M20 and M25 grade
concrete filling and with MS wire reinforcement two
each at top and bottom in case of M20 and M25 lead to
the following conclusions.
Beams filled with M15, M20 and M25 grade
concrete were capable of improving flexural
strength of their sections. The concrete filling
enhanced the flexural strength of the steel
hollow sections. All specimens demonstrated
favorable post yield behavior with good
ductility performance.
From the experimental results of the current
investigation, it can be concluded that the
failure mechanism of the beam sections result
in an excessive deflection with no significant
lateral disturbances or any form of instability.
Specimens with M20, M25 concrete filling and
MS wire reinforcement of two each at top and
bottom have shown marginally higher flexural
strength.
Finally tests conducted in this investigation
confirm that with the increase in the grade of
concrete, considerable increase in flexural
strength is observed. Hence for the composite
sections, better economy can be achieved with
higher grade of concrete.

REFERENCES

Arivalagan Soundararajan, Kandasamy
Shanmugasundaram (2008). Flexural behavior of
concrete-filled steel hollow sections beams,
Journal of Civil Engineering and Management,
14(2): 107114.
Dalin Liu (2004). Behavior of high strength
rectangular concrete-filled steel hollow section
columns under eccentric loading, Thin-Walled
Structures 42, 16311644.
Elchalakani, M., Zhao,X.L., Grzebieta, R.H.
(2001).Concrete-filled circular steel tubes
subjected to pure bending, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 57
F.W. Lu, S.P. Li, D.W. Li, Guojun Sun (2007).
Flexural behavior of concrete filled non-uni-
thickness walled rectangular steel tube, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 63, 10511057.4.
I.S. 4923:1997, Indian Standard Hollow Steel Sections
for Structural Use Specifications.
Wie-Min Gho, Dalin Liu (2004). Flexural behavior of
high-strength rectangular concrete-filled steel
hollow sections, Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 60, 16811696.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


FORECASTING OF GROUND WATER LEVEL OF SIMGATEHSIL,
RAIPUR DISTRICT, CHHATTISGARH USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL
NETWORK

Umank Mishra
Research Scholar, Dept. Of Civil Engineering, IT, BHU, Varanasi (U P)
K K Pandey
Associate Professor, Dept. Of Civil Engineering, IT, BHU, Varanasi (U P)
S B Dwiwedi
Associate Professor, Dept. Of Civil Engineering, IT, BHU, Varanasi (U P)

ABSTRACT: The performance of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is examined in groundwater level forecasting.
The standard feed-forward neural network trained with Levenberg-Marquardt, has been used for forecasting
groundwater level of Simga Tehsil (Raipur) ,in order to identify an optimal ANN architecture that can simulate the
decreasing trend of the groundwater level and provide acceptable predictions. Annual rainfall, temperature,
sunshine, evaporation and relative humidity has been chosen as inputs. The model efficiency and accuracy were
measured based on the root mean square error (RMSE) and regression coefficient (R
2
). The model provided the best
fit and the predicted trend, followed the observed data closely (RMSE = 2.250 and R
2
= 0.96). Thus, for accurate
groundwater level forecasting, ANN with Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm, appears to be a promising tool.
Keywords: Artificial Neural Networks, back-propagation, feed-forward, forecasting, groundwater level fluctuation,
MATLAB.

INTRODUCTION
Groundwater level is an indicator of groundwater
availability, groundwater flow, and the physical
characteristics of an aquifer or groundwater system.
Groundwater contributes greatly to the amount of fresh
water in the world. In many areas, groundwater is
considered a major water source for both drinking and
irrigation purposes. The India uses more than 83.3
billion gallons of fresh groundwater each day for
private and public water supplies, irrigation, livestock,
manufacturing, mining, and other purposes (CGWB,
2008). Earlier, it was considered to be a limitless or at
least fully renewable natural resource, but during the
past 20 years or so, there has been a tremendous
pressure on this precious natural resource mainly due
to rapid industrialization and growth of human
population, though, the advancement in agricultural
technology has been impressive. Poor ground water
monitoring and management has resulted in
considerable depletion of the groundwater table, land
subsidence and deterioration in the water quality,
making the availability of water in the future highly
uncertain. Keeping in mind the scarcity of available
water resources in the near future and it impending
threats, it has become imperative on the part of water
scientists as well as planners to quantify the available
water resources for its judicial use. Thus, a ready
reckoner to monitor the fluctuations in

groundwater levels well in advance is the need of the
hour to devise sustainable water management
protocols.
Physical models (Upadhyaya and Chauhan, 2001; and
Song et al., 2007), water balance models (McCarthy
and Skaggs, 1991; and Roulet, 1991), and statistical
regression models (Yakowitz, 1976; and Joginder et
al., 1981) have been developed in the past to simulate
water table variation in different areas. However, all of
these models need extensive observations to perform
the modeling. The physically based model also requires
an explicit relationship between the input and output
parameters. The presence of errors or uncertainties in
the observations will result in errors or deviations in
model output (Shirmohammadi et al., 2006). Artificial
Neural Network (ANN) modeling provides another
approach to predict water table fluctuation. ANN
technology was developed around 65 years ago
(McCulloch and Pitts, 1943). Since then, it has been
widely used on pattern/speech recognition and
image/signal processing in a variety of fields (Widrow
and Lehr, 1992). The application of ANN in hydrology
started in the early 1990s. In the late nineties, ANN
modeling began to be used in the simulation of water
table fluctuations at different locations (Yang et al,
1997; Yang et al, 2000; Coulibaly et al., 2001; and
Affandi et al., 2007). These studies indicate that ANN
modeling is a convenient tool for predicting water table
fluctuation, especially in areas where the aquifer
system information is not available or where the


available records are relatively short. The purpose of
this study was to develop a quick, easy, and convenient
water level forecasting model using weather
parameters through ANN technology.

Study Area
The input data for the present study were collected for
Simga tehsil of Raipur district of Chhattisgarh state,
India. Study area is located in the western part of the
Raipur district, bounded in the north by Bilaspur
district, in the west by Durg district in a continuous
pattern of land and people. The state of Orissa with its
district area of Sambalpur and Mahasamund district of
Chhattisgarh state defines the eastern boundary of the
Raipur di st ri ct , where as its south east and southern
boundary is delimited by the district ar ea of Balangir,
Kalahandi of Orissa state and Ranker district of
Chhattisgarh State. Sigma tehsil lies between latitudes
( N 21
0
63to N 21
0
75) and longitudes (E81
0
79 to
E83
0
87). It covers an area about 91.73 km
2
. The
district falls under survey of India toposheet No. 64G.
The topographic elevation is about 261-276 m amsl.
The winter season lasts till February. During winter,
the night temperatures may sometimes drop below
10C. From about mid-February both day and night
temperatures increase rapidly till May which is the
hottest month of the year with daily maximum
temperature at 48
0
C characterize the area, with a
distinct rainy season from June to September. The
temperature ranges from 22
0
C to 44
0
C, with an
average annual rainfall of Raipur district is 1290 mm.
The maximum rainfall of the district recorded in the
past is 2324 mm and minimum rainfall is 826 mm.
From the analysis of long-range records it becomes
clear that the district receives 87.0% of the total rainfall
from southwest monsoon during June to September.
The winter rainfall accounts for 9 % of the total rainfall
and summer rainfall accounts for 4% of the total annual
rainfall. The summer season humidity is the lowest,
about 36 %, while it is higher during the monsoon
period about 86%. The humidity again decreases from
October onwards due to rise in temperature and also
due to receding monsoon.
The surface water bodies are rivers and streams, lakes,
springs, ponds and tanks etc. Drainage pattern of the
area is well defined by Fig.1in which different types of
drainage are observed in the unutilized area. The
pattern obtained is namely first order, second order,
third order and fourth order. Fourth order drainage is
more prominent in southern part of the study area and
first and second orders are observed in the northern
part of the area. The different order of the drainage
pattern in the area indicates the scarcity of the ground
water table in the area. Geologically the watershed of
the area consists of carbonate rocks and cherty strata.
The carbonate rock includes the dolomite and
stromatolitic limestone. Cherty shales are the
dominant rock formation in the study area and serve as
highly potential source of ground water in the area.
Both dolomite and limestone are less potential
geological formation for the ground water.

DATA COLLECTION
Monthly water levels have been collected from 19
wells distributed in the area (Fig.1) Groundwater level
data collected from Central Ground Water Board
Raipur. Data on weather / hydrological parameter i.e.
rainfall, temperature, sunshine and humidity were
collected from agricultural department (Meteorological
Division). Both the set of data belong to the period
from year 2000 to 2007.

Fig. 1 Location of study area

METHODOLOGY
Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are information
processing system based on the present understanding
of the biological nervous systems. The processing units
of an artificial neural network are called neurons,
which are arranged in layers. Neurons between layers
are connected by links of variable weights. The most
commonly used architecture of neural network (NN) is
the feed forward neural network. Feed forward network
has no feedback connections (Zurada, 1999). Feed-
forward neural network (FFNN) along with
LevenbergMarquardt back propagation (LMB)
algorithm is used in MATLAB programming.
Feed-Forward Neural Network
Here, the source nodes in the input layer of the
network, supply the respective elements of the
activation pattern that constitute the input signals to the
neurons in the second layer. The output signals of the
second layer are used as inputs in the third layer, and
so on for the rest of the network. Thus, typically the
neurons in each layer of the network have their inputs
from the output signals of the preceding layer only.
The set of output signals of the neurons in the output


layer of the network constitutes the overall response of
the network supplied by the source nodes in the input
layer (Haykin, 2006) as shown in Fig.re 2, which
explains a typical FFNN with one hidden layer.

Fig.2. A typical three-layer feed forward ANN
LevenbergMarquardt Back Propagation (LMB)
Algorithm
The LMB algorithm was designed to approach second-
order training speed without having to compute the
Hessian matrix. When the performance function has
the form of a sum of squares (is typical in training
FFNNs), then the Hessian matrix can be approximated
as
E = [
1
[,

and the gradient can be computed as
g = [
1
e,

where J is the Jacobian matrix that contains first
derivatives of the network errors with respect to the
weights and biases, and e is a vector of network errors.
The Jacobian matrix can be computed through a
standard back propagation technique that is much less
complex than computing the Hessian matrix.
Therefore, the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm uses
this approximation to the Hessian matrix in the
following Newton-like update

x
k+1
= x
k
( [
1
[ + pI)
-1
[
1
e

When the scalar p is zero, this is Newton's method
using the approximate Hessian matrix. When p is large,
this becomes gradient descent with a small step size.
Newtons method is faster and more accurate near an
error minimum. So the aim is to shift towards
Newtons method as quickly as possible. Thus, p is
decreased after each successful step (reduction in
performance function) and is increased only when a
tentative step would increase the performance function.
In this way, the performance function is always
reduced at each iteration of the algorithm.

Training and Testing of the Data
The total identified nodes include the monthly
observed water level in 19 sampled well points with
local weather parameters, viz. Rainfall, temperature
(minimum and maximum), evaporation, and relative
humidity and sunshine. Weather parameters were
chosen as input because they have a direct influence on
groundwater levels. Several neural network models and
their architecture were optimized through rigorous
experimentation for each of the nineteen wells to
predict the variation of ground water level in a
particular month of the year. The input data vector
consists for 32 samples for each well. 75% of the data
were used for the training while rest 25% were used for
testing purposes. The target data were made up of the
ground water level corresponding to vector of local
weather parameter. For a particular well, a feed-
forward neural network is designed with 5 neurons in
the input layer and 1 neuron in the output layer. The
number of neurons in the hidden layer was optimized
experimentally .Thus, the prediction above ground
water level was made with different neural network
model for different wells.
The efficiency of selected network for accurate output
was measured using root mean square error (RMSE)
and regression coefficient (R
2
) using following
equations.
RHSE = _ ( y
y
i
)
2
/ n
n
=1
(1)

R
2
= 1
(
i-
i
)
i
2
-
j
i
2
n
(2)
where y
is the observed data, y

i
the calculated data
and n the number of observations. RMSE indicates the
discrepancy between the observed and calculated
values. Lower the RMSE, the more accurate is the
prediction. The best fit between observed and
calculated values would have R
2
as 1 and RMSE as 0.
Training of the network has been carried out using
Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm. The values of
learning rate and the momentum factor were
decided after examining different combinations.
Learning rate = 0.1 and momentum factor = 0.9
have been found to be the best combinations.


Table1. Summary of the experimentally determined
number of neurons in the hidden layer of neural
network designed for each well.

Well
No.
Hidden
Neuron
Layers
Well
No.
Hidden
Neuron
Layers
1 2 12 2
2 3 13 4
3 3 14 2
4 4 15 3
5 3 16 2
6 3 17 3
7 2 18 3
8 3 19 2
9 2
10 2
11 3

The number of neurons in the hidden layer of the
neural network has been finalized after a trial and error
procedure using different combinations of learning rate
and momentum factor. Each combination of learning
rate and momentum factor has been tested for different
numbers of hidden neurons. The network has been
trained for 5000 epochs (iterations), as there is very
negligible improvement of the RMSE value and R
2

value after 5000 iterations. Fig. 3 and 4 show reduction
of MSE and R for a network having 2 neurons in the
hidden layer and for some of the combinations of
learning rate and momentum factor . It was
observed that for a network having 2 neurons in the
hidden layer, the good value of and is 0.9 and 0.1
respectively.

Fig.3. Decrease of MSE of well no.1 during training

Fig.4. Regression Analysis of simulated and Target
values for G.W.L

Number of hidden layers in the wells varies from 2 to
4.Table 1 shows the number of hidden layers at each
well point.
Further, the data were analyzed separately for each
independent well point to have a clear comparison of
the mean observed and estimated water levels. Here
also, the results exhibited that FFNNLMB was found
to be the best fit for predicting groundwater levels at
the Simga Tehsil. The training performance of the
FFNN-LMB for different well is given in Table 2.
The performance trend of the model, individually for
each of 19 wells along with actual and predicted values
is indicated in the figure 5.

Here, the predicted water level trend followed the
observed trend closely, showing that the difference
between actual and predicted values is close to zero for
each of the19 wells.


Table2. RMSE and R
2
values for training and testing
of network for different wells.

Well
No.
TRAINING TESTING
RMSE R
2
RMSE R
2

1 1.7958 0.9659 2.251 0.8363
2 1.9062 0.9249 1.2546 0.6679
3 1.7503 0.9976 0.554 0.8973
4 2.2361 0.9372 1.4902 0.94904
5 0.552 0.9903 0.469 0.96051
6 2.508 0.9772 0.8721 0.864
7 0.2535 0.8547 0.2496 0.7639
8 0.8986 0.96024 0.4512 0.8505
9 2.8474 0.8771 1.0622 0.3818
10 0.6823 0.8906 1.2859 0.90607
11 1.4576 0.87502 2.3086 0.65096
12 1.824 0.897 3.0584 0.8765
13 2.0319 0.75009 2.1688 0.6664
14 1.074 0.9616 2.2333 0.6794
15 0.4737 0.873 2.8495 0.855
16 1.415 0.856 1.5466 0.759
17 0.8711 0.8767 2.0933 0.8467
18 0.5724 0.9175 1.5049 0.729
19 1.1616 0.919 0.9013 0.9477



Fig.5.Performance trend of the model

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are thankful to the Head, Department of Civil
Engineering for providing the infrastructure to
complete this work.

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ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


REDUCTION OF FLUORIDE WITH FREE JETS FOR INDUSTRIAL
APPLICATIONS

Suresh Kumar. N
Professor, Dept.of Civil Engg, College of Engg.(A), Osmania University, Hyderabad-500007 (A.P).
Email: nskdr@yahoo.co.in
Ravi Kumar, S.,
Post Graduate Student, Dept.of Civil Engg, College of Engg.(A), Osmania University, Hyderabad-500007 (A.P).

ABSTRACT: Fluoride is an essential element in water with certain concentration limit. Excess of fluoride
causes the seizing of the human body growth and leads to fluorosis. The population exposure to levels of above
1.5 ppm of fluoride had increased and led to several incidences of skeletal deformation and permanent
disability. A simple method called Nalgonda technique, not only helps in removal of fluorides, but also helps in
removing colour, odour, turbidity, bacteria and organic contaminations from raw waters. The present
investigation has been taken-up to investigate the mechanism of fluoride removal with help of hydraulic action
without any mechanical devices. The study has revealed that, the fluoride reduction through jets is as high as
90%. Hence, the usage of jet clariflocculators for fluoride reduction in public water supply systems would save
considerable time and result in smaller size of tanks due to smaller detention times. Moreover, the absence of
moving or mechanical components can eliminate most of the problems associated with corrosion, and
breakdown of mechanical components. As a consequence, the need for stand-by units is not obligatory.

INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the most important natural resources.
Water is required for the survival of mankind. Water
is vital to life and development. In the past, a wide
range of defluoridation materials and methods have
been tested and evaluated. Nevertheless,
implementation is sparse and most often restricted to
limited areas in developing countries. Most common
defluoridation methods implemented in rural areas of
developing countries are adsorption on activated
alumina, bone char and/or clay, co-precipitation with
aluminum hydroxide (known as Nalgonda
Technique) and contact precipitation with calcium
and phosphate. Other methods like reverse osmosis
or electro dialysis though efficient are too
sophisticated for implementation in rural areas of
developing countries.

Natural concentration of fluoride in ground water
depends on many factors such as geological,
chemical and physical characteristics of the area
(nature of soil, porosity of rocks, pH, temperature
and depth of wells). It is possible to map the pattern
of fluorine path by taking the exact location of each
monitoring well and analyzing ground water flow
paths. The levels of fluoride in the water are
alarming in Nellore, Nalgonda and Vijayanagaram
Districts of Andhra Pradesh. Further, high fluoride
concentrations occur as shock loads occasionally in
smelter units of aluminum manufacturing industries.

Considerable work has been done all over the world
on treatment of Fluorosis. Unfortunately the results
indicated that the effects of fluorosis are irreversible.
Defluoridation is a process of removal of fluoride ion
in drinking water. When the fluoride rich water
passes through the bed of said media, the fluoride
contents are retained by this, through
physical/chemical adsorption

processes and fluoride free/reduced concentration
water is obtained.
Nalgonda technique is available for Community
Defluoridation and Domestic Defluoridation.
However, this system was not successful as the
community and individuals are not familiar with
correct dosages of chemicals, stirring speeds for
flocculation, and setting time. Hence, safe, efficient
and cost effective defluoridation
techniques/processes need to be developed in order
to prevent the occurrence of fluorosis.
The aim of the present study is to investigate the
mechanism of jet clariflocculation for the reduction
of fluoride concentration.

DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Details of the experimental set-up used in the present
investigation are shown in Fig.1and Fig.2. The
clariflocculator was fabricated out of M.S. sheets and
an anti corrosive paint was applied on all internal
walls to avoid the corrosive action.

Sodium fluoride was used to prepare the artificial
fluoride concentrations of required levels. It was
stored in a tank and pumped to the clariflocculator
with the help of a 0.5 h. p. pump. The required flow
rate was set by adjusting the valve number 1, while
the excess flow was diverted back to the raw water
tank through valve number 2. The inlet to the
flocculator was a submerged jet issued through a
pipe and the outlet from the clarifier was a
suppressed sharp crested weir.

The rate of flow entering the clariflocculator was
measured with a calibrated portable dual frequency

Doppler flow meter, a product of Thermo Poly
Sonics. The circular clariflocculator used in the
present investigation has a plan area of 1963.5 sq.
cm. and a liquid depth of 450 mm. Earlier, it had
been found that for a proper mixing by a

horizontal jet, the optimum depth-wise location of
the nozzle could be at three quarters of liquid depth
when the liquid depth is equal to the tank diameter.
However, the optimum location is at the mid depth of
the liquid, when the depth available is smaller than
the tank diameter. For horizontal position of the
nozzle the mixing time was less than that obtained by
tilting the nozzle at different angles of inclinations
(Maruyama Toshiro, 1986).

Failure to establish the desired flow pattern could
result in a tangential swirl flow, with very poor top-
to-bottom turnover in the vessel. Although tangential
swirl may be capable of producing a good mixing, it
also greatly increases the blend time for a given input
power. Further, an incorrectly mounted nozzle may
only be satisfactory for providing uniformity of
mixing in the lower portion of the vessel (Oldshue,
James Y., 1983). It has been recommended that, the
liquid level in the tank should be less than 1.25 times
the diameter of the tank or the dimension of the
length of the chamber as the case may be (Holland,
F. A., and Chapman, F. S., 1966). Otherwise it may
require either multiple impellers or excessive power
(as much as twice the amount necessary for the same
degree of mixing).

In the present investigation the liquid depth in the
flocculator was kept less than one diameter of the
chamber and the jet was injected from the middle of
water depth in the flocculator (Suresh Kumar, N,
2005). Aluminium sulphate solution of required
strength was stored in a tank. Flow rate of coagulant
entering the raw water pipe line and leading to the jet
clariflocculator was adjusted according to the
influent fluoride concentration. It is desirable that
coagulant solution be injected radially in the plane
perpendicular to the receiving stream as a counter-
current axial jet. This is because the turbulent
velocity intensities in the longitudinal, radial and
circumferential directions generally increase from the
centre of the pipe towards the wall and would result
in more efficient mixing (Pratte, B. D. and Baines,
W. D., 1967). However, due to practical difficulties
in the present case, coagulant solution was injected
as a co-current axial jet through a 0.7 mm diameter
seamless stainless steel tube with the help of a
peristaltic pump, a product of Miclins Pvt Ltd.

The jet diameter was selected as 12.5 mm. The flow
rate was 0.1473 lps at detention time of 10 minutes in
the flocculation chamber (Suresh Kumar, N, 2005).
The detention time chosen for the settling chamber
was 45.0 minutes. Flocculated water was allowed to
enter into a settling chamber through 4 numbers of
rectangular outlets of size 19.6 mm x 12.5 mm. The
dimensions of these outlets were computed according
to mass balance equation by assuming a flow
velocity of 0.15 m/s. The center line of these outlets
was provided at 86% of the liquid depth in the
flocculator measured from the free surface. This is to
ensure the same liquid level in the flocculator and the
settling tank (Suresh Kumar, N, 2005).
According to field experience, the fluoride
concentration in industrial waters normally ranges
up-to 20 mg/l. Hence, in the present investigation
fluoride reductions from a concentration of 20 mg/l
to 1.0 mg/l are targeted. Sodium fluoride was used
to prepare the artificial fluoride concentrations of
required level. A calibration chart was used to predict
the required concentrations which will yield selected
Sodium fluoride values. Fluoride concentration in the
water sample was measured in a spectrophotometer
using SPADNS solution. The decrease in colour is
directly proportional to the fluoride concentration.
3Al
2
( SO
4
)
3
18 H
2
O + NaF + 17NaHCO
3

5 Al(OH)
3
Al(OH)
2
F + 9Na
2
SO
4
+ 17CO
2
+
54 H
2
O (1)

From the above equation
(http://www.bibliotecapleyadas.net/salud/salud_fluor
23.htm. ) it is clear that, 42 parts of fluoride requires
17 x 84 parts of alkalinity as sodium bicarbonate.
Further, 42 parts of fluoride requires 3 x 666 parts of
aluminum sulphate. Therefore, the alkalinity of the
raw water will have to be measured during each run
to assess the extra alkalinity to be created by artificial
means for each run.

Fluoride reduction studies were conducted using 5%
strength (Bhole, A. G., 1993) of aluminum sulphate
solution (5 parts of chemical to 95 parts of water to
give 100 parts by weight of solution). After properly
mixing the aluminum sulphate in water, its dosing
was started. Aluminum sulphate solution dosing rate
was controlled by a peristaltic pump. Aluminum
sulphate flow rates for the selected fluoride
concentrations are shown in Table 1 This following
equation was used in this regard.

Q C Q C Q C
1 1 2 2 3 3
(2)

Q
Q C
C
1
3 3
1
(3)
where
Q
1
= Aluminum sulphate flow rate through the
peristaltic pump (lps)
C
1
= Aluminum sulphate solution strength = 50,000
mg/l

Q
2
= Flow rate in the influent line of the
clariflocculator (lps)
C
2
= Concentration of the raw water
Q
3
= Flow rate in the flocculator = 0.1473 lps
C
3
= Concentration of aluminum sulphate needed for
the fluoride removal (mg/l)

Table 1 Peristaltic Pump Flow Rates for Various
Fluoride Concentrations
Fluoride
concentrationin
water (mg/l)
C
3

(mg/l)

Q
1

(ml/min)

Pump
setting
12.0 570.85 100.80 223
14.0 666.0 117.72 260
16.0 761.14 134.53 296
18.0 856.28 151.35 334
20.0 951.43 168.17 371

The alkalinity required for the removal of fluoride
was computed and alkalinity available in the raw
water was measured during each run. Additional
alkalinity to be created was computed (in sodium
bicarbonate scale). It was converted into an
equivalent sodium carbonate scale. This is because
creation of extra alkalinity by the addition of sodium
carbonate is cheaper. (Table2)

Table 2 Results of Alkalinity Tests
Influent
Fluoride
concent
-ration
(mg/l)
Alkalini
ty
needed
for
fluoride
removal
in
NaHCO
3
scale
(mg/l)
Alkalinit
y of raw
water in
NaHCO
3
scale
(mg/l)
Extra
alkalinity
created in
NaHCO
3
scale
(mg/l)
Extra
alkalin
ity
create
d in
Na
2
C
O
3
scale
(mg/l)
12.0 408.0 232.84 175.16 87.58
14.0 476.0 232.84 243.16 121.58
16.0 544.0 188.16 355.84 177.92
18.0 612.0 188.16 423.84 211.92
20.0 680.0 238.56 441.44 220.72

The water samples were collected at the outlet of the
clariflocculator after the selected detention time. The
fluoride concentration in the effluent water was
measured by a spectrophotometer and an average of
the three samples is reported. Each run was repeated
to ensure the repeatability of the performance of the
tank. The results of fluoride reduction studies are
given in Table 3.

Table 3 Results of Fluoride Reduction Studies
Influent Fluoride
concentration
(mg/l)
Effluent Fluoride
concentration
(mg/l)
Fluoride removal
percentage (%)
12.0 0.92 92.33
14.0 0.95 93.21
16.0 0.98 93.88
18.0 1.00 94.44
20.0 1.20 94.00
It is seen from the Table3that, the fluoride rate of
reduction is marginal or in other words it fairly
remained constant.
The allowable sulphate concentration in the potable
supplies is 200 mg/l (Expert Committee of Central
Public Health and Envr. Engg. Org., 1991). Hence,
the effluent sample water (in case 20 mg/l influent
fluoride concentration) was analyzed for sulphate
concentration. It was noticed that the sulphate
concentration was about 200 mg/l. Therefore, the use
of jet clariflocculators for fluoride reduction can be
used up-to 20.0 mg/l. This is because of the fact that
the effluent sulphate concentration has reached the
maximum permissible limit of 200 mg/l.

CONCLUSIONS
The Bureau of Indian Standard recommends the
fluoride concentration to be 1.0 ppm for drinking
water supplies. The allowable settling time ranges
from 1 to 2 hours (Expert Committee of Central
Public Health and Envr. Engg. Org., 1991). As the
effluent fluoride concentration could be brought
down to about 1.20 mg/l in 45 minutes of settling
time in jet clariflocculators, their use in water
treatment works is recommended. Hence, they can be
retrofitted even in the existing systems without
modifying the units significantly

Since the fluoride reduction is as effective as the
conventional flocculating systems, the usage of jet
clariflocculators in public water supply systems
would save considerable time and result in smaller
size of tanks due to smaller detention times.
Moreover, the absence of moving or mechanical
components can eliminate most of the problems
associated with corrosion, and breakdown of
mechanical components. As a consequence, the need
for stand-by units is not obligatory. Hence, the jet
clariflocculators can be cost effective for fluoride
reduction.

In addition, the usage of free jets for fluoride
reduction can be used in smelter units of aluminium
manufacturing industries wherein it comes as a shock
load occasionally.

REFERENCES
Bhole, A. G. (1993), Performance of static
flocculators, Water Science and Technology,
IAWQ, 27(10) : 181-194
Expert Committee of Central Public Health and
Envr. Engg. Org. (1991), Manual on public
water supply and treatment, Ministry of Urban
development, New Delhi : 290-298.
http://www.bibliotecapleyadas.net/salud/salud_fluor2
3.htm. Drinking water by Anne marie,
helmemhine, A compilation of fluoride treatment
methods
Holland, F. A., and Chapman, F. S. (1966), Liquid
mixing and processing in stirred tanks, Reinhold

Publishing Corporation, Chapman and Hall Ltd.,
London : 1-65
Maruyama Toshiro (1986), Jet mixing of fluids in
vessels, Encyclopedia of Fluid Mechanics vol. 2
edited by Cheremisinoff, N. P., Gulf Publishing
company book division, Houston, Texas : 544-
556
Oldshue, James Y. (1983), Fluid mixing
technology, McGraw-Hill Publications
Company, New York : 176-178
Pratte, B. D. and Baines, W. D. (1967), Profiles of
the round turbulent jet in a cross flow, J. Hydr.
Div., ASCE, 93 (6) : 53-64
Suresh Kumar, N (2005), Low-Cost Jet
Clariflocculators, R&D Report, Dept. of Civil
Engg., College of Engg., Osmania University,
Hyderabad

Fig. 1 Elevation of Jet Clariflocculator Set Up

Fig. 2 Plan of Jet Clariflocculator Set Up

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


COMPARATIVE BEHAVIOUR OF TWO STOREY BRICK MASONRY
BUILDING MODELS OF CONFINED, UN-CONFINED AND MODEL
AS PER IS CODE

Vikash Khatri
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005,
India, Email: khatri.hbtik@gmail.com
P. K. Singh
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India,
Email: prof_pks@yahoo.co.in
P.R. Maiti
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005,
India, Email: prmaiti.civ@itbhu.ac.in

ABSTRACT: During earthquake structural failure of brick masonry buildings take place mainly due to
following two reasons. (i) Weak buildings may collapse under high seismic load and ii) Due to resonance
amplitude buildup may cause collapse. As per Euro Code 8, a construction system where plain masonry walls
are confined on all four sides by reinforced concrete members is called Confined Brick Masonry (CBM). CBM
buildings are very strong as well as ductile, and are ideally suited for building construction in areas where soil
cover is more than 75m, for the following reasons (i) Deep alluvial soil strata eliminates chances of resonance
and ii) Good quality bricks and construction facility are economically available. Dynamic test results of 2-storey
building models on 1/5th scale of unconfined brick masonry (UBM), model constructed as per BIS provision,
and CBM are reported. Due to scale effect g-level of the prototype buildings shall be 1/5th of the models. It has
been found that CBM buildings are very strong and no damage occurred to the CBM building model even at
1.04g-1.88g level, in comparison to the unconfined model which failed at 0.32g-0.39g, and BIS code model
which failed at 0.65g-1.04g. Thus, CBM buildings are found to be approximately 5.9 times stronger in
comparison to UBM and 2.9 times stronger in comparison to buildings constructed as per BIS Code.
Keywords: Earthquake, Confined, Masonry, Buildings.

INTRODUCTION
As per Euro Code 8
1
, a construction system where
plain masonry walls are confined on all four sides by
reinforced concrete members or reinforced masonry is
called confined brick masonry (CBM). In case of
CBM buildings the design philosophy adopted is that
neither the brick masonry nor reinforced concrete gets
damaged during earthquake condition.
Euro Code 8 limits the construction of CBM houses
located in seismic zones having design ground
acceleration (a
g
) greater than or equal to 0.3g to four
storeys (Table 1).
Table 1. Recommended maximum height of
building (H) and number of storeys (n).

Significance of Brick Masonry Buildings in India
As being followed in China and Chile brick masonry
apartment buildings can be the future of the apartment
buildings in India also. Since 1990, base isolated brick
masonry buildings with reinforced concrete
floors/roof have been used more widely in China.

Fig. 1 Brick Masonry buildings in China

Buildings of confined brick masonry type (Fig. 2) are
found in all regions of Chile.

Fig. 2 Brick Masonry buildings in Chile.
Design ground acceleration ag < 0.2
[g]
0.2 -0.3
[g]
0.3
[g]
Unreinforced
masonry
H[m] 12 9 6
n 4 3 2
Confined
Masonry
H [m] 18 15 12
n 6 5 4
Reinforced
masonry
H [m] 24 21 18
n 8 7 6


Socio-Economic Impact
Seismic zones II, III & IV of the Gangetic plain
are shown in Fig.3, where alluvial soil deposit is
having a depth of more than 75m and goes up to
few kilometers in some areas. Total population
residing in the area is approximately 32.91 crores.
Therefore, earthquake resistant confined brick
masonry building for the area will have very high
socio-economic impact.

Fig. 3 Seismic zones II, III & IV of the Gangetic
plain having more than 75m soil cover

Technical Details
According to Euro Code 8 the cross-sectional area of
rebars for tie-columns can be selected in dependence
of seismicity of the location and number of storeys in
the house. In composite confined brick masonry
buildings the column shall be of 230 mm x 230 mm
having 4 bars of 12 mm diameter as longitudinal
reinforcement and 6 mm diameter stirrups at the
spacing of 150 mm centre to centre. The details of
column are shown in the Fig. 4.
230 mm
4 x1 2 d i a
b ar s
M2 0
Co nc r et e
2
3
0
m
m
6 di a st i r ru p s @ 1 5 0 c /c
6 di a st i r r up s @
8 5 c / c
1
5
0
m
m
230 m m
4x 1 2 d ia ba r s
a ) Col u mn deta i ls
b ) Band de tai l s

Fig. 4 Details of composite column and Lintel level
band
The foundation details corresponding to allowable
bearing capacity of 100 kN/m
2
is given in Fig.5. The
width of strip footing for brick masonry shall be 1200
mm and the dimensions for column footing shall be
1200mm x 1200 mm. The column footing shall be
reinforced with 6 bars of 10 mm diameter in both the
directions.
1200 mm
4x12 dia
bars
230 mm
2
5
0
m
m
LeanConcrete
6x10diabars
either way
6dia stirrups @
150 c/c
M20
Concrete
0
1
0
0
m
m

Fig. 5 Details of foundation for a four storey CBM
building
Site Effect
Seismic effect of local soil conditions on peak ground
acceleration are shown in Fig.6.

Fig. 6 Effect of local soil conditions on peak ground
acceleration.
From the figure, it is seen that maximum seismic
acceleration is considerably lower in the alluvium
deposit in comparison to the rock mass.
Fig.7 gives a relationship between the natural period
of soil and alluvium depth.

Fig. 7 Relationship between the natural period of
soil and alluvium depth
As the depth of soil deposit increases, fundamental
period of the deposit also increases. Due to plastic
deformation and cracking of the soil, high frequency
content of the earthquake waves can not be supported
by the soil, and it quickly dies out in the soil.
Therefore, in deep alluvial soil deposit area only low
frequency and high amplitude earthquake waves are
experienced at the ground level.
Fig. 8 shows relationship between damage and the
fundamental period of the soil in the 1967 Caracus
earthquake.


Fig. 8 Damage and the natural period of the soil in
the 1967 Caracus earthquake.

As reported for the 1967 Caracus earthquake,
buildings up to 3 to 5 storeys constructed at places
having soil cover more than 75 meters suffered
minimal damage, and suffered considerable damage at
places having soil depth less than 75 meters.
Similarly, buildings up to 10 to 14 storeys suffered
considerable damage at places where soil cover was
more than 75 meters and suffered minimal damage at
places where soil cover was less than 75 meters.

Structural Action of CBM
Some structural actions of CBM are presented here
for its clear structural understanding.
Load Sharing
In the CBM building, flexible nature of the slab and
the lintel level band, helps the brick masonry wall and
the reinforced concrete column to act together to
support all the vertical loads in direct compression.
Load redistribution between reinforced concrete
column and brick masonry wall mainly at the offsets,
ensures equal strain in the reinforced concrete and the
brick masonry at their interface (Fig. 9).
B r i c k M a s o n r y
R C C o l u m n
a ) F r o m c o l u m n t o w a l l b ) F r o m w a l l t o c o l u m n
A p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 m m

Fig. 9 Load redistribution between reinforced
column and brick masonry wall

CBM Action under In-Plane Static Loading
Singh et al.
2
conducted experiment on three models,
namely; (i) Reinforced concrete frame without infill
(ii) Brick masonry infilled reinforced concrete frame
having no shear connection, and (iii) Brick masonry
infilled reinforced concrete frame with shear
connection. The Load Deflection Curves for the tested
models are given in Figure 10.
According to them, in-plane strength of CBM wall
may go up approximately 10 times in comparison to
unconfined brick masonry.

L
o
a
d
(
k
N
)
0
0
2
50
100
150
200
250
300
10
Deflection(mm)
4 6
8 12 13
Infilledframewithout
shear connection
Infilledframewith
shear connection
Frame without infill

Fig. 10 Load deflection curves for static loading
Continuous Lintel Band Action
Effects of continuous lintel band on out of plain
vibration of the wall, and in plane strength of the wall
are discussed below.
a) Out of plane effect
In case of CBM building continuous lintel band is
provided all around the building. This lintel band
breaks the wall height and thereby increases stiffness
of the wall and results in its reduced deflection to
about one fifth (Fig. 11).
Fig.2.5 (b) with lintel band
w
w
w
slab
slab
slab
slab
lintel band

Fig. 11 Deflection of BM wall with and without
lintel band

Deflections of the wall for the two cases are compared
below.
Deflection without lintel band action,

4
384
wh
EI
A =

Deflection with lintel band action,

4
4
4
2 16
384 3 81 384 5
wh w
h
EI
A | |
A = = ~
|
\ .


Thus, out of plane deflection of the wall reduces to
about 1/5
th
due to the continuous lintel band where the
wall is assumed to be supported.
b) In-plane effect
Singh et al.
3
have reported experimental results of in-
plane effect of continuous lintel band. They have
tested models of infilled frame without opening,
infilled frame with opening having continuous lintel
band, and infilled frame with opening having isolated
lintel band.
The ultimate load carrying capacity of infilled frame
with opening having continuous lintel band was
reported to be 1.7 times that of the infilled frame with
opening having isolated lintel.
Separation of Orthogonal Walls at the Corner
In the CBM buildings, the corner column, which is
tied at the lintel and floor level, provides flexural
support to the two orthogonal walls at the corner. This
action prevents wall separation at the corner during
earthquake.

MODEL TESTS
Scale effect
For small scale dynamic tests the model and prototype
must perform the same physics phenomenon,
therefore the model must simulate the prototype in
size, material, boundary conditions and force effect.
There are several methods, with their advantages and
drawback for founding the similarities between model
and prototype. These methods are derived from
dimensional homogeneity using Buckinghams
theorem. Three main type dynamic models are:
True Replica Model:
This model requires a material whose specific
stiffness
E
follows the same scaling law as the

length dimension. For model test on earth, the gravity
acceleration is normally equal to
. 1g

So the models
elastic modulus should be smaller than prototypes or
the density or model material should be larger than
prototypes, i.e. materials also have to simulate the
stress-strain properties in the inelastic range. This
condition limits the selective field of materials and for
most practical purpose these type of material cannot
be found easily.
Artificial Mass Model:
In this model prototype materials which do not
influence the strength and stiffness of the model are
used for the construction of the models. Similarity in
dynamic behaviour requires similar distribution of
masses and stiffness along the height of the prototype
and the model. Similarity in failure mechanism
requires similarity of working stress level in the load
bearing and structural walls of the prototype and the
model. Additional masses should be added to the
model and fixed to the floor slabs in order to fulfill
the requirements of similarity of mass distribution.
For similarity of working stress level the stresses in
the load bearing walls were increased by prestressed
to a desired level without affecting the similarity in
mass distribution. The attachment of sufficient
additional masses is a difficult task for small scale
models in which the ratio of additional mass density
to structural mass density becomes very large.
Ignoring Gravity Model:
In this model gravity acceleration may be ignored
when the stress created by gravity force is rather
smaller than that created by earthquake force. For
small height buildings, the stresses induced by gravity
loads are small compared to the stresses generated by
seismic motions. Since gravity has a negligible effect
therefore there is no need to simulate gravitational
effect i.e. the ratio
r
a
g
| |
|
\ .
need not be equal to one,
which allows more freedom in selecting model
materials and scaling parameters. The advantage of
this model is that they are simply scaled down
versions of the prototypes without the need of
additional masses. However in this modeling the input
accelerations and frequency is increased by the factor
1
r
l
and the time be compressed by the factor
r
l when
using prototype material in the models. Therefore for
testing such models on a shake table, the shake table
must be capable of reproducing high accelerations at
high frequencies. The similarity conditions of all the
three types of models were compared in Table-2.
Table-2. Similarity Conditions

Similarity Conditions
Model
Types
Scaling
Parameters
True Replica
Models
Artificial
Mass
Models
Ignoring Gravity
Models
Length
r
l
r
l
r
l
r
l
Time
r
t
1/ 2
r
l
1/ 2
r
l
1/ 2
r
r
E
l
| |
|
\ .

Velocity
r
v
1/ 2
r
l
1/ 2
r
l
1/ 2
r
E
| |
|
\ .

Frequency
r

1/ 2
r
l

1/ 2
r
l

1/ 2
1
r
r
E
l
| |
|
\ .

Gravitational
Acceleration
r
g
1 1 neglected
Acceleration
r
a
1 1
1
r
r
E
l
| |
|
\ .

Displacement
r

r
l
r
l
r
l


Mass density
r

r
r
E
l

r

r

Strain
r

1

1

1

Stress
r

r
E
r
E
r
E
Modulus of
Elasticity
r
E
r
E
r
E
r
E
Force
r
F
2
r r
E l
2
r r
E l
2
r r
E l
Specific Stiffness
r
E
| |
|
\ .

r
l

r

r
E
| |
|
\ .

Energy
( )
r
EN
3
r r
E l
3
r r
E l
3
r r
E l

r is the ratio between model and prototype.
r
l is the ratio of length factor between model and prototype.
The models have been prepared and tested on 1/5
th

scale. Since the tested models are only of two storeys,
gravitational effect is neglected. In the direct model
study, response of the prototype is directly determined
from measurement of response of the model
4
.
According to modeling theory
5
input frequencies and
accelerations for the models have to be increased by
five times. Elastic behavior of this type of model has
been reported to be quite accurate when compared to
prototype structure.

UBM Building model Test
An UBM 2-storey model was prepared on
geometrically reduced scale of 1/5
th
which is seen as
mounted on the shake table in Fig. 13.
Materials used for the brick masonry and RC works in
the experiment are; (i) Portland pozzolana cement, (ii)
1st class country bricks of size 462314mm, having
average water absorption of 10.7% and compressive
strength of 35MPa, (iii) Coarse sand of size 4.0mm
downgraded to 1mm having FM of 6.29 used as
coarse aggregate, and (iv) washed locally available
Ganga river sand used as fine aggregate having FM of
2.81.
Concrete mix of 1:1.5:3 by weight with water cement
ratio of 0.5 was adopted for all RC works, and cement
mortar of ratio 1:3 by weight was used for the brick
masonry.

Fig. 13 UBM model Mounted on shake table
Test Results
The building model after failure is seen in Fig. 14.

Fig. 14 Test results viewed from East Face

Amplitude Measurement
Detailed measurements are taken using Laser sensors
and CATMAN Easy software. The amplitude at the
roof slab level was also measured by using a scale
mounted on the stand and a pointer fixed to the
model, with the help of video recording.

Frequency and amplitude
Amplitude of the shake table was fixed at 10mm. In
this model rate of change of frequency was 0.033Hz
/s. Total number of cycles subjected to the model was
122 cycles in 87sec. The time interval was kept as
3sec for each frequency step.

Fig. 15 Time Vs amplitude plot of UBM model (0-
27sec)
The plots between time and amplitude at top of the
model are shown in figures 15 and 16, which
represent plot for the first 27sec, and last 54 to 84sec,
respectively. From figure 16, it is clear that model
vibrated with maximum amplitude of 12.5mm at the
top, with a storey drift of 2.5mm.

Fig. 16 Time Vs amplitude plot of UBM model
(54-84sec)


g- level at failure of the UBM model

If the displacement / amplitude is given by:
y = a sin t
Then, = - a
2
sin t
And,
max
= - a
2

Maximum acceleration at the base level
= -a
2

= 0.010
17.58
2

= 3.09 m/ sec
2

= 0.32g
Maximum acceleration at the top slab level
= -a
2

= 0.0125
17.58
2

= 3.86 m/ sec
2

= 0.39g
The main conclusion drawn from the above
experimentation is that the UBM building model
failed at 0.32g level in bending. Therefore,
reinforcement at the corners was found to be
necessary to enhance the g-level of the building
before failure.

Building Model as per IS 4326-1993.
A building model geometrically similar to UBM
model was prepared as per IS 4326-1993
6
provisions,
except confinement of openings (Fig. 17 and Fig. 18).
Fig.17 shows the model where masonry up to window
sill level with corner reinforcement welded to the base
plate is completed.

Fig. 17 Masonry up to window sill level with
corner reinforcement.
The complete building model mounted on the shake
table is seen in Fig.18.

Fig. 18 Building model as per IS 4326 with Laser
sensors.

Test Results
The building model after failure is seen in Fig. 19.
The failure took place at 0.65g level at base level and
1.04g at top. The mode of failure was failure of the
corner steel in tension.
Amplitude of the shake table was fixed at 5mm. In
this model rate of change of frequency was 0.037Hz
/s. The amplitude with respect to time at roof slab
level, middle floor slab level and base level are
measured with laser sensors.

Fig. 19 Test results viewed after failure.
The plots between time and amplitude at top, middle
and bottom of the model are shown in figures 20, 21
and 22, which represent plot for 14.9-16.08sec,
75.82-76.8sec and 98.8 to 100.0sec, respectively.
Observed maximum amplitude at the top is 8.0mm.

(14.9-16.08sec)


(75.82-76.8sec)

(98.8-100.0sec)

The main conclusion drawn from the above
experimentation is that the building model failed at
5.7Hz frequency i.e. at 0.65g level by the way of
rupture of vertical reinforcement at base level. No
other failure mode was noticed.

CBM Building Model
A building model on 1/5
th
scale and geometrically
similar to UBM model was prepared (Fig. 23).

Reinforcement details adopted in the CBM model (at
1/5th scale) are given in the table 3.

Table 3. Reinforcement details of the model
S.
No
Particulars Dia of
rebars
As per
Euro
code 8
Nos./
spacing
Dia of wire
used in the
model
1. Column rein-
forcement
12mm 4 2.4 mm
2. Slab
reinforcemen
t
8 mm 22mm
c/c
1.6 mm
3. Beam rein-
forcement
12mm 2.4 mm
4. Stirrups 6mm 2legged
@ 17
mm c/c
1.2 mm
5. Lateral ties 6mm 2legged
@ 30
mm c/c
1.2mm
6. Binding wire 22
gauge
26 gauge
The model after test is shown in Fig. 24. As seen from
here, there is no damage to the model at all after the
test. The test had to be stopped due to limitation of the
shake table which became unstable at 7.2Hz
frequency.

Test Results

Amplitude of the shake table was fixed at 5mm.
Time vs. amplitude plot for the CBM model are
shown in figures 25 and 26. The CBM model was

Fig.23. Complete CBM model after mounting on
shake table

Fig. 24 CBM model after test
subjected to amplitude at the top level of model of
9mm and base amplitude of 5mm.

-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
012345678910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Time in sec a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

i
n

m
m

Fig. 25 Time vs amplitude plot for CBM model ( 0-
27sec)


-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1
11
2
11
3
11
4
11
5
11
6
11
7
11
8
11
9
12
0
12
1
Time in sec
a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

i
n

m
m

Fig. 26 Time vs amplitude plot for CBM model
(111- 120sec)

The CBM model did not fail even at 7.2 Hz
frequency. The maximum g-level of CBM at the base
level was 1.04g and at the top slab level it was 1.88g.

CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of experimental study, the following
salient conclusions are drawn.
The frequencies and accelerations of the models is
five times that of the prototype due to the scale effect.
In the UBM model initial cracks due to flexure
appeared at 0.32g 0.39g at the base in the horizontal
direction at a frequency of 2.82Hz, which lead to final
failure. Therefore, there is need for sufficient vertical
reinforcement at the corners to prevent this type of
failure.
Building model as per IS 4326-1993 failed at the
maximum shake table frequency of 5.7Hz. Fixed
amplitude at the base level was +5mm, and the
observed maximum amplitude at the roof slab level
was +8.0mm. The corresponding g-level at the base
was 0.65g and at the roof slab level was 1.04g. Model
failed by the way of corner reinforcement rupture at
the base level. Hence, it is concluded that single bar as
the vertical corner reinforcement is insufficient.
The CBM model was subjected to maximum
practically possible frequency of the shake table of
7.2Hz ( 5mm base amplitude) in 486 cycles. No
damage to the model was observed, and the model
remained intact after the test.
In case of CBM, the shake table amplitude was fixed
at 5mm, and maximum roof slab amplitude of the
model was observed to be 9mm. The corresponding
g-level at maximum possible frequency and amplitude
was 1.04g at the base, and it was 1.88g at the roof slab
level.
In the CBM model no separation of the brick masonry
and RC at the interface was observed even at 1.88g
level. Therefore, it is concluded that for the CBM
buildings, there is no necessity to provide offsets, as
given in Euro
In the CBM Building model there is no failure or
crack observed at openings and at junction of concrete
and masonry even at 1.88 g-level. Hence, it is
concluded that there is no need to confine the
openings as given in the IS 4326-1993.
The CBM building model, tested without bond beams,
exhibited no deficiency during the test even at 1.88g
level. Therefore, it is concluded that in CBM
buildings provision of bond beam below the slab
level, as given in Euro code 8, is not necessary.
The CBM buildings are found to be approximately 5.9
times stronger in comparison to UBM and 2.9 times
stronger in comparison to buildings constructed as per
BIS Code.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The research work was carried out under Special
Assistance Program of the University Grants
Commission, New Delhi in the Department of Civil
Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu
University.

REFERENCES

Euro Code 8: Design provisions for earthquake
resistance of structures. Part 1-2: General rules
for buildings. ENV 1998-1-2:1995 (CEN,
Brussels, 1995).
P.K.Singh, S.Saxena and Prof (Dr) B N Roy.
'Behavior Of Brick Masonry Infilled Reinforced
Concrete Frames Subjected to Static Loading
Journal of the Institutions of Engineers (India), vol
82, no 01, June 2001, pp 23-29.
P.K.Singh, V. Singh and S.Yadav Effect of Opening
on Behavior of the Infilled Frame with and
without Continuous Lintel Band Journal of the
Institutions of Engineers (India), vol 87, August
2006, pp 33-37.
Model Analysis of Structures by T.P. Ganeshan,
University Press (India) Limited.
Krawinkler H. and Moncarz P. D. Similitude
requirements for dynamic models. Dynamic
Modeling of Concrete Structure,SP-73, American
Concrete Institute,1982,pp.1-22
IS 4326-1993, Earthquake resistant design and
construction of buildings Code of Practice,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


DAMAGE ESTIMATION OF R.C.C STRUCTURAL MEMBER BY
DISPLACEMENT BASED ANALYSIS TECHNICS

A.Vimala

Ph.D(Computer Aided Structural Engg.), IIIT-Hyderabad, A.P, India, e-mail: vimlareddy@gmail.com
Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar
Associate Professor & Head, Earthquake Engg. Research Center, IIIT- Hyderabad, A.P, India

ABSTRACT: Reinforced concrete buildings constitute the dominant type of construction in the earthquake
prone countries. In this study a R.C.C building of four storey is considered in the seismic environment and
response of the structure under five ground motions are investigated using MAT LAB, SEISMOSIGNAL and
SAP packages and the damage is estimated for given ground motions.
The investigation is roughly divided into three parts, first part includes investigation of the dynamic
characteristics of ground excitations, second part includes evaluation of the nonlinear seismic behavior of
building subjected to the given ground excitations and third part includes evaluation of damage of the building
for the given ground motions Earthquake can cause damage to the structural and non structural components of
building. This document addresses structural damage. The present study is based on analytical investigation of
seismic performance and potential seismic damage of a member of a typical reinforced concrete framed building
due to earthquakes in India, using rational nonlinear modelling and displacement-based analysis techniques.
Since the seismic damage is directly correlated to the displacement (deformation) of the structure, the yield
displacement of the structure is calculated based on the material properties and geometry of the structure. From
the displacement time history of the structure response, the peak values which exceeding yield displacement of
the structure have been identified to calculate the damage of the structure. The estimation of structural damage
is calculated as per the model of Park and Ang following the modifications introduced by Kunnath et al(1992)
for the given ground motions

Keywords: time history, yield displacement, ductility, frequency, damage.

INTRODUCTION:

Earthquake ground motion is highly uncertain and
difficult to be predicted. The records of strong ground
motions from past earthquakes can serve to
provide a wealth of information that will be
indispensable in the damage analysis and design of
earthquake resistant structures. Earthquake is the
worst among all the natural disasters. It is not possible
to prevent earthquakes from occurring The disastrous
effects of these, however, can be minimised
considerably through scientific understanding of their
nature, causes, frequency, and magnitude. The seismic
hazard analysis refers to the estimation of some
measure of the strong earthquake ground motion
expected to occur at a selected site. This is necessary
for the purpose of evolving earthquake resistant
design of a new structure or for estimating the safety
of an existing structure of importance, like dams,
nuclear power plants, long-span bridges, high-rise
buildings, etc. at that site. A fundamental objective in
seismic evaluation of building structures is the
prediction of displacement imposed by the earthquake
on the structure both at global and elemental levels.
The present study proposes a new approach for the
estimation of damage for each earthquake event by
analyzing the response of the structure under each
ground motion. In this study a R.C.C building is
considered in the seismic environment and the
damage is estimated for given ground motions.

Details of the structure:

Fig.1
Type of building : R.C framed structure
Plot area of the building : 369.5 sq.m
Built up area : 217.75 sq.m
No. of storeys : Ground+ 3 floors
Height of each floor : 3m
No. of columns : 24
Size of column : 0.3m x 0.4m
Size of beam : 0.23m x 0.3m
Grade of concrete : M20
Grade of steel : Fe415

List of earthquakes used in the analysis:
1. India, Sept10,1986
2. chamba, Mar24,1995
3. chamoli, Mar29,1999
4. dharmasala,Apr26,1986
5. India Bangladesh border, Feb6,1988


Displacement time history of the structure:

The displacement time history of the structure is
performed for five ground motions. The results are
presented in figure2 to figure6.

Time [sec]
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
D
is
p
la
c
e
m
e
n
t

[
m
]
0.002
0.001
0.001
0
-0. 001
-0. 001

Fig.2 (India, Sept10,1986)

Time [sec]
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
D
is
p
la
c
e
m
e
n
t

[
m
]
0. 01
0. 005
0
-0.005
-0.01

Fig.3 (chamba, Mar24,1995)

Time [sec]
25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
D
is
p
la
c
e
m
e
n
t

[
m
]
0. 01
0. 005
0
-0.005
-0.01

Fig.4 (chamoli, Mar29,1999)

Time [sec]
15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
D
is
p
la
c
e
m
e
n
t

[
m
]
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
-0. 005
-0. 01
-0. 015

Fig.5 (dharmasala, Apr26,1986)

Time [sec]
9 8.5 8 7.5 7 6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3. 5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
D
i
s
p
la
c
e
m
e
n
t

[
m
]
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
-0.005
-0.01
-0.015

Fi g. 6 (India Bangladesh border, Feb6,1988)
Yield displacement:
It is uneconomical to design structures to withstand
major earthquakes elastically. Therefore, the trend of
design is that the structure should have sufficient
strength and ductility to withstand large tremors
inelastically. For this the interconnections of the
members must be designed particularly to ensure
sufficient ductility.
Ductility () of a member or structure is defined as
the ratio of absolute maximum deformation
(elongation, curvature or rotation) to the
corresponding yield deformation. Thus:

= with respect to displacement
= with respect to curvature
= with respect to rotation

Ductility of a beam is normally determined for a
particular cross section. A beam of width = b,
effective depth = d, depth of the neutral axis = kd (in
elastic range) and = x
u
(in the limit state of collapse),
yield strain of tensile steel =
y
, yield curvature =
y
,
we know:

y
=
Where
y
= = = 2.07 x 10
-5

k = -mp +
m = Es / Ec

u
=
Where
u
= ultimate strain of concrete = 0.0035.
= = ( )
Yield displacement = y =
Where l = length of the column
Percentage of steel : 1.3
Diameter of the bar : 16 mm
Size of the column : 0.3m x 0.4m
Effective depth d : 352 mm
m = = 2.07x10
-3

k=-(8.95x1.3)+ (8.95
2
x1.3
2
+ 2x8.95x1.3)=-1.385
y
=2.07x10
-3
/(352-(-1.385x352))=2.465x10
-6

y=2.465x10
-6
x3000
2
/3=7.39 mm = 0.0073m

Calculation of peak displacements:
The peak displacements of the structure for five
ground motions are presented in figure7 to figure11
Earthquake-1 (India, Sept10,1986)


X-axis -Time in sec, Y-axis - Displacement in mts
Fig.7
Earthquake-2 (chamba, Mar24,1995)

Fig.8
Earthquake-3 (chamoli, Mar29,1999)

Fig.9
Earthquake-4 (dharmasala, Apr26,1986)

Fig.10
Earthquake-5 (India Bangladesh border)

Fig.11

Damage estimation

Structural Damage in a structure due to earthquake
loading may be due to excessive deformation, or it
may be due to accumulated damage sustained under
repeated load reversals. For the present study, the
damage is proposed to be calculated as per Park and
Ang Model (1985). This model consists of simple
linear combination of normalized deformation and
hysteretic dissipated energy as
Damage Based Life of Historical Constructions in
Seismic Environment
D
lk
= +

Where x
m
is the maximum displacement that the
equivalent linear SDOF system would be subjected to
during the base excitation, x
u
= (x
y
where is the
available ductility) is the ultimate displacement of the
system under monotonic loading, represents the
effect of cyclic loading on structural damage, E
h

represents the total energy dissipation in the structure
during the excitation and Q
y
is the yield strength of
the structure. The first term accounts for pseudo-static
displacement and the second term accounts for the
cumulative damage. E
h
is the hysteretic energy
dissipation of the system, which is assumed as given
by Takeda et al. model.
Following the modifications introduced in the model
by Kunnath et al. (1992), the modified form has been
considered in the study

D
lk
= +

where Q
y
= x
y
K
Where K is the stiffness of the structure
x
y
is the yield displacement
E
h
=
N
i 1
4 Q
y
(E(x
i
)-x
y
)
Where N= No.of peak displacements exceeding the x
y

E(x
i
) is the i
th
peak displacement

Peak displacements
The peak displacements of structure which exceeding
yield displacement for 5 earthquakes are presented in
the table1.
Table 1.
eq1 eq2 eq3 eq4 eq5
0 0.0089187
-
0.0095967
0.0077364 0.0077364

-0.0135861 0.0087756 -0.015793
-
0.0131332

0.0119002
-
0.0110905
0.0155328 0.0150918


-0.0107308 0.0092988 -0.0166859
-
0.0155067

-
0.0112507
0.0149149 0.0155328

0.0109201 -0.011072
-
0.0156684

-
0.0123076
0.0088844 0.0149149

0.0131308 -0.0077135 -0.011072

-
0.0128437
0.0084683 0.0088844

0.0135256 -0.0088198
-
0.0088158

-
0.0134138
0.0084111 0.0084683

0.0114905 -0.0074056
-
0.0077135

0.0084111

-
0.0074056

Damage calculation for earthquake 2:

K = 15.26 x 10
6
N/m
= 3
= 0.1
x
y
=0.0073 m
x
m
= 0.0135
Q
y=
0.0073 x 15.26 x 10
6
= 11139800 N
N=4 (0.0089, 0.0135, 0.0119, 0.0073)
E
h
=4 x11139800 [(0.0089-.0073)+(0.0135-
.0073)+(0.0119-.0073)+(.0107-.0073)]
= 704035.36 J
D
lk
=
0405 . 0
0135 . 0
+ 0.1 x
0405 . 0 11139800
36 . 704035
x
= 0.489
Damage calculations for other earthquakes are
presented in the following table 2.

Table 2.

CONCLUSIONS
The uncertainty quantification of the ground motions
is important in reliability analysis and performance
and optimal design of structures
From the peak displacements of the structure response
for the earthquake1, it is observed that there is no
damage for the structure due to this earthquake and
the structure is safe under such type of ground
motions.
A fundamental objective in seismic evaluation of
building structures is the prediction of displacement
demand imposed by the earthquake on the structure
both at global and elemental levels, since the seismic
damage is directly correlated to the displacement of
the structure or structural element.
This article presents an analytical investigation of the
seismic performance and potential seismic damage of
the frame using rational displacement-based analytical
method such as nonlinear dynamic time-history
analysis.

REFERENCES

A.K.Jain, Quality Assurance and Control for
Structures Subjected to Earthquakes, Indian
Concrete Journal, Vol. 70, No.11, pp. 601 608,
November 1996.
Arlekar, J. N., Jain, S.K., Murty, C.V.R., Seismic
Response of RCFrame Buildings with Soft First
Storeys Proceedings of the CBRI
Chopra A.K., Dynamics of Structures: Theory and
Applications to Earthquake Engineering. Pearson
Prentice Hall, Third edition, 2007.
Golden Jubilee Conference on Natural Hazards in
Urban Habitat, 1997,New Delhi.
P.C.Varghese, Advanced Reinforced Concrete
Design, Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited,
New Delhi, 2001.
Pradeep Kumar, R. (1997). Damage Based Life of
Structure in Seismic Environment. Dept. of Civil
Eng., Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
India.
eq.
no.
xy xm xu Qy N Eh Dlk
1
0.0073 0.00138 3 0.00414 11139800 0 0 0
2
0.0073 0.013586 3 0.040758 11139800 4 704035.4 0.489
3 0.0073 0.013526 3 0.040578 11139800 12 2227381 0.679
4
0.0073 -0.01669 3 0.05 11139800 12 1952673 0.56
5 0.0073 -0.01567 3 0.047 11139800 14 2497133 0.687

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

LONG-TERM STATISTICAL EXPRESSION OF TEMPERATURE
OVER INDIA

R. K. S. Maurya
Department of Geophysics, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, Email:rksmaurya@gmail.com
G. P. Singh
Department of Geophysics, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, Email: gpsinghbhu@hotmail.com.

ABSTRACT: Climate is the long-term statistical expression of short-term weather. Climate can be defined as
"expected weather". When changes in the expected weather occur, we call these climate changes. They can be
defined by the differences between average weather conditions at two separate times. Climate may change in
different ways, over different time scales and at different geographical scales. In recent times, scientists have
become interested in global warming. Mean monthly temperature over all-India has been studies that for the
period of 1901-2000. Detail analysis on annual and seasonal changes in mean monthly temperature (T
avg
), mean
maximum temperature (T
max
) and mean minimum temperature (T
min
) have been done. Each year was divided
into four principal seasons, viz. winter, pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon. The analysis shows that the
annual mean temperature, mean maximum temperature, and mean minimum temperature are increasing
approximately at the rate of 0.40C, 0.65C, and 0.40C per 100 years respectively. On the regional scale,
Kothawale and Rupa Kumar (2005) have examined trends in surface air temperature over India from 19012003
and reported that the annual mean, maximum as well as minimum temperatures have significantly increased by
0.2
0
C per decade in last three decades. It is remarkable acceleration of the warming trend compared to the trends
of past century (19012003). However, manifestation of such changes on shorter timescale has been recognized
to be one of the most crucial factors in terms of socio-economic impacts. Increasing atmospheric temperatures
and carbon dioxide along with uncertainties in annual precipitation have an adverse affect on Indian agriculture
(Aggarwal 2008).

INTRODUCTION
Climate is the long-term statistical expression of
short-term weather. Climate can be defined as
"expected weather. When changes in the expected
weather occur, we call these climate changes. They
can be defined by the differences between average
weather conditions at two separate times. Climate
changes differently in different time scales and
geographical scales. Many studies have reported that
the global mean surface air temperatures have
significantly increased in the last century and
pronounced warming has occurred in the last three
decades (Jones et al 1999; Houghton et al 2001;
Jones and Moberg 2003). On the regional scale,
Kothawale and Rupa Kumar (2005) have examined
trends in surface air temperature over India from
19012003 and reported that the annual mean,
maximum as well as minimum temperatures have
significantly increased by 0.2
0
C per decade in last
three decades. It is remarkable acceleration of the
warming trend compared to the trends of past century
(19012003). However, manifestation of such
changes on shorter timescale has been recognized to
be one of the most crucial factors in terms of socio-
economic impacts. Increasing atmospheric
temperatures and carbon dioxide along with
uncertainties in annual precipitation have an adverse
affect on Indian agriculture (Aggarwal 2008).
The overall state of the global climate is determined
by the amount of energy stored by the climate
system, and in particular the balance between energy
the Earth receives from the Sun and the energy which
the Earth releases back to space, called the global
energy balance. How this energy balance is regulated
depends upon the flows of energy within the global
climate system. Major causes of climate change
involve any process that can alter the global energy
balance, and the energy flows within the climate
system. Causes of climate change include changes in
the Earths orbit around the Sun, changes in the
amount of energy coming from the Sun, changes in
ocean circulation or changes in the composition of
the atmosphere. Large volcanic eruptions can affect
the global climate over only a few years. By contrast,
the movement of continents around the world over
hundreds of millions of years can also affect global
climate, but only over these much longer time scales.
In the last 100 years or so, the Earths surface and
lowest part of the atmosphere have warmed up on
average by about 0.6
o
C. During this period, the
amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has
increased, largely because of the burning of fossil
fuels for energy and transportation, and land use
changes, for food by mankind. In the last 20 years,
concern has grown that these two phenomena are, at
least in part, associated with each other. That is to
say, global warming is now considered most
probably to be due to the man-made increases in
greenhouse gas emissions. Whilst other natural
causes of climate change, including changes in the
amount of energy coming from the Sun and shifting
patterns of ocean circulation, can cause global
climate to change over similar periods of time, the
balance of evidence now indicates that there is a
discernible human influence on the global climate.


DATA AND ANALYSIS
Monthly temperature data for all-India are uses in
the present study over a network of 121 stations are
same as used by Pant and Rupa Kumar (1997). This
is originally from the monthly weather records of the
India Meteorological Department (IMD). The data
have been updated for the period 1901-2003 from
the Indian Daily Weather Reports (IDWRs)
published by the IMD.
We can use the linear regression equation for the
trend line . We can apply a statistical
treatment known as linear regression to the data and
determine these constants.
Given a set of years and temperature data set
with n is number of years.
m is slope
b is y-intercept
n
n
n
is standard derivation
x is mean
Coefficient of Variation ( C.V.) =
n
n
n
X 100

A Cold/warm year can be classifies as:
Warm Year
T
avg
- +1
Cold Year
T
avg
- -1
T
avg
is the average temperature and
is standard derivation for period 1901-2000.

Fig. 1 Observed the all India meteorological station.

1. Average Temperature
The analysis shows that the change in average
temperature over All-India (AI) has been by about
0.4 C in 20
th
century and average temperature is
24.25 C and standard derivation is 0.2655 0C for the
same period (figure-2). Highest and lowest
temperatures are 24.896 0C (1941) and 23.363 C
(1917) respectively. Numbers of cold and warm
years are 14 and 15 respectively for the same period.
Table 1 clearly shows the decadal variation in
number of cold and warm years and an increase in
temperature during last decade. Figure-3 shows
depicts a seasonal variation in temperature for winter
season, pre-monsoon, monsoon season, and post-
monsoon season. It is noticed that a increase in
temperatures in all seasons by about 0.51C, 0.31C,
0.12C and 0.79 C respectively.

Fig. 2 Surface air temperature anomalies (C) over
all India (anomalies are computed to their respective
mean 1901-2000). Trend is obtained using 5 points
moving average.

Table 1 Cold (C) and Warm (W) years over all-India
Decades WI Cumulative sum
C W C W
1901-1910 5 0 5 0
1911-1920 2 0 7 0
1921-1930 1 0 8 0
1931-1940 2 0 10 0
1941-1950 2 1 12 1
1951-1960 0 3 12 4
1961-1970 0 2 12 6
1971-1980 2 2 14 8
1981-1990 0 2 14 10
1991-2000 0 5 14 15
Total 14 15
Mean annual average air Temperature
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991
Years
A
n
o
m
a
l
i
e
s

o
f

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)


Winter Season
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991
Years
A
n
o
m
a
l
i
e
s

o
f

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)
Pre-Monsoon Season
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991
Year
A
n
o
m
a
l
i
e
s

o
f

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)
Summer monsoon Season
-0.9
-0.6
-0.3
0
0.3
0.6
0.9
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991
Years
A
n
o
m
a
l
i
e
s

o
f

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)
Post-Monsoon Season
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991
Years
A
n
o
m
a
l
i
e
s

o
f

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Fig 3. Seasonal surface air temperature anomalies
(C) over all India (anomalies are computed to their
respective mean 1901-2000). Trend is obtained using
5 points moving average.

2. Maximum Temperature
The analysis of maximum temperature over all-India
(AI) shows an increase in temperature about 0.65C
during 20
th
century and average maximum
temperature is 30.2C and standard derivation about
0.34C for the same period (figure-4). Highest and
Lowest temperatures during the period of study are

Fig 4. Surface air maximum temperature anomalies
5 points moving average.

3. Minimum Temperature
The analysis shows a change of Minimum
temperature over All-India (AI) has increased about
0.14C and average minimum temperature about
18.3C and standard derivation about 0.27 C
(Figure-5). Highest and Lowest minimum
temperatures are 19.14 C (1958) and 17.61 C
(1971) respectively.

Fig 5. Surface air minimum temperature anomalies
5 points moving average. .

CONCLUSION
Discuses of the temperature over India for the 20
th

century and found are increase. Table-1 shows that
increase of temperature for increase the decade year.
The temperature is increasing 4 to 6 decade and
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991
Years
A
n
o
m
a
l
i
e
s

o
f

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)
Mean annual maximum Temperature
-0.9
-0.6
-0.3
0
0.3
0.6
0.9
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991
Years
A
n
o
m
a
l
i
e
s

o
f

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)
Meanannual minimumTemperature


decreasing 6 to 9 decade. Detail analysis on annual
and seasonal changes in mean monthly temperature
(T
avg
), mean maximum temperature (T
max
) and mean
minimum temperature (T
min
) have been done. Each
year was divided into four principal seasons, viz.
winter, pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon.
The analysis shows that the annual mean
temperature, mean maximum temperature, and mean
minimum temperature are increasing approximately
at the rate of 0.40C, 0.65C, and 0.40C per 100
years respectively.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors also want to acknowledge to the
Department Science and Technology, Government of
India (No.SR/AS/05/2008) for financial support in
the form of project.

REFERENCES
Aggarwal PK (2008): Global climate change and
Indian agriculture: impacts, adaptation and
mitigation. Indian J Agric Sci 78:911919.
Houghton J T, Ding Y H, Griggs D J, Noguer M, van
der Linden P J, Dai X, Maskell K and Johson C A
(eds) 2001 The Scientific Basis. Contribution of
Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press).
Jones P D, Horton E B, Folland C K, Hulme M,
Parker D E and Basnett T A (1999) The use of
indices to identify change in climatic extreme;
Climate Change 42 131149.
Kothawale D R and Rupa Kumar K (2005), On the
recent changes in surface temperature trends over
India; Geophys. Res. Lett. 32 L18714,
doi:10.1029/2005GL023528.
Maurya R K , G P Singh and P K Singh ( 2010) :
Change in temperature and precipitation over
India and its homogeneous zones during 20
th

century; Nava Gavesana Vol 1, Issue 2, Oct-
Dec, page 16-33.
.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


EFFECTS OF CORROSION INHIBITOR ON THE PERFORMANCE OF
MILD STEEL AND PRESTRESSING STEEL

Vasugi Jegan
Undergraduate Student, P.S.G. College of Technology, Coimbatore
Vandhana Mary Jacob
Undergraduate Student, M.N.M. Jain Engineering College, Chennai
Radhakrishna G. Pillai
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai

ABSTRACT: Chloride-induced corrosion is a major deterioration mechanism in concrete structures. A method
to delay corrosion initiation and minimise corrosion rate is the addition of corrosion inhibitors in fresh concrete
(i.e., as an admixture). Calcium nitrite [Ca(NO
2
)
2
] inhibitors are widely used for this purpose. Literature
provides some information on the performance of mild steel reinforcement embedded in mortar with corrosion
inhibitor (Obi-Egbedi 2011, Ilayaraja et al. 2011, Rastogi et al. 2010). However, the information on the
corrosion performance of prestressing steel in such environment is scarce. Such information is necessary in
assessing the corrosion propagation period and can be helpful in enhancing durability of prestressed concrete
structures. This paper presents a comparative study on the performance of mild steel wires and prestressing steel
wires embedded in mortar cylinders (i.e., lollipop samples) with different dosages of corrosion inhibitors. The
mortar cylinders were 12 cm in length and 3 cm in diameter. Mortar was prepared with a water-cement ratio of
0.55 and calcium nitrite corrosion inhibitor dosages of 0, 2, and 4% by weight of cement respectively. The
samples were subjected to accelerated curing (as per IS 9013:1978) and then cyclic wet-dry exposure to chloride
solution. This was done to accelerate chloride migration towards the steel wire at the centre of the lollipop
sample. Just before the end of each wet period, the electrical potential and corrosion rate were measured. The
Linear Polarisation Resistance (LPR) technique and a 3-electrode corrosion cell setup were used to measure the
corrosion rate. The percent reduction in the capacity of the reinforcing bars was estimated using the corrosion
rates determined using the LPR technique. Corrosion propagation periods for a capacity reduction of 20% are
estimated for both mild steel and prestressing steel.

Keywords: Concrete, corrosion, chloride, corrosion inhibitor, calcium nitrite, mild steel, prestressing steel

INTRODUCTION
Service life of concrete structures
Chloride induced corrosion is a major deterioration
mechanism influencing the service life of concrete
structures. Fig. 1 shows a schematic of the overall
service life of a structure. Typically the overall
service life can be divided into three phases as
follows: 1) corrosion initiation phase, 2) corrosion
propagation phase and 3) repair phase.
Initiation Phase
Propagation
Phase
Repair
Phase
Maximum Allowable Damage Level
Last
repair
First
repair
Overall Service Life
Time
Damage
level

Fig. 1 Schematic showing various phases during
the service life of a concrete structure exposed to
corrosive environments (Pillai 2011)
The first phase from construction time to the
corrosion initiation time is termed corrosion initiation
phase. When embedded in uncontaminated concrete,
the steel reinforcement is well-protected against
corrosion. This is because, when steel comes in
contact with the highly alkaline uncontaminated
concrete, an oxide film (known as the passive layer) is
formed over the steel surface. Although this passive
film is very thin, dense, and invisible, it protects the
steel from further corrosion. However, chlorides from
external sources like sea water and/or ground water
can penetrate through the concrete cover, reach the
steel reinforcement surface, and break the passive film.
Once the passive film is broken and sufficient oxygen
and moisture are present, corrosion initiation occurs.
The amount of chloride ions required to break the
passive film is known as critical chloride threshold

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


(Cl
threshold
). Pillai (2003) estimated that the
Cl
threshold
of typical mild steel reinforcement can be
approximately 0.5 kg/m
3
of concrete (0.09% by
weight of cement). It should be noted that there
exists significant scatter in the Cl
threshold
values
published in the literature. This is because of the
complex electrochemical mechanisms of chloride-
induced corrosion. Once actively initiated the
chloride-induced corrosion is difficult to stop;
unless the chlorides are extracted or removed from
the steel-cementitious interface. The second
phase between the corrosion initiation time and the
first repair time is termed corrosion propagation
phase. The corrosion rate depends on the steel
microstructure, the cementitious environment, and
the amount of chloride at the steel-cementitious
interface. Significant amount of research has been
done on the corrosion performance of mild steel
with the addition of various mineral and chemical
admixtures (Bleszynki et al. 2002, Malhotra et al.
2000, Li et al. 1999). Haleem and Wanees (2002)
have studied the environmental factors affecting
the corrosion behaviour of reinforcement steel.
Based on information from McDonald et al. (1996),
Pillai (2003) estimated that ASTM A615 mild steel
reinforcement in severe corrosive environments can
exhibit a corrosion rate of 24 mils/year (1 mil =
0.001 inches). Gu et al. (1996) reported that the
corrosion rate of stainless steel is at least 50 times
lower than that of mild steel in chloride
contaminated environment.
Table 1 shows typical ranges of corrosion rates and
corresponding qualitative categories.

Table 1 Qualitative classification of corrosion
current density (Broomfield et al. 1994)
Corrosion current density,
I
corr
(A/cm
2
)
Corrosion
rate category
< 0.1 No corrosion
expected
0.1 to 0.5 No to
moderate rate
0.5 to 1.0 Moderate to
high rate
> 1.0 High rate

Corrosion inhibitors for concrete applications
A corrosion inhibitor is a chemical compound that
when mixed with concrete can inhibit or decrease the
corrosion rate of the embedded steel. Calcium nitrite
[Ca(NO
2
)
2
] has been used as corrosion inhibitor for
steel-cementitious systems. El-Jazairi and Berke
(1990), Berke and Weil (1992) suggested that a more
coherent, homogeneous passive film forms due to the
catalytic action of nitrite in forming the passive film.
In general, the Ca(NO
2
)
2
-based corrosion inhibitor can
increase the Cl
threshold
and reduce the corrosion rate of
mild steel in chloride contaminated mortar [Ann et al.
(2006)]. However, information on the corrosion
performance of prestressing steel could not be found.
The information on the Ca(NO
2
)
2
dosage and
corresponding corrosion rates of prestressing steel can
be used to estimate the corrosion propagation period,
and hence, to design durable structures. This paper
provides such information on both mild steel and
prestressing steel available in India.
1.1 Corrosion rate measurement - Linear Polarization
Resistance (LPR) Technique
Among various electrochemical techniques, the Linear
Polarization Resistance (LPR) technique can be used
for repeated measurements of corrosion rate of steel
embedded in mortar. Fig. 2 shows the schematic of a
typical LPR curve. The electrical potential of steel
when the current, I, is zero (i.e., at origin; with an open
electrical circuit) is termed open circuit potential
(OCP). A positive or negative current flow will occur
when the potential is forced to change (i.e., polarized)
and vice versa. The extent of this potential change
caused by the net current flow to or from an electrode
is called polarization. Typically, the LPR technique
uses a polarization or an overvoltage, E, of
approximately +20 mV only (versus OCP), which
cannot cause significant electrochemical damage to the
steel surface. Therefore, LPR technique can be
considered non-destructive and used for repeated
corrosion rate measurements on same steel specimen.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


Fig. 2 A conceptual linear polarization curve
(adapted from Pillai 2003)

The slope of the polarization curve, 1/R
p
, at zero
current (i.e., as the curve crosses the vertical
current axis) can be used to calculate corrosion
current as follows:
p
corr
R
B
I (2)
where, I
corr
is the instantaneous corrosion current;
R
p
is the polarization resistance; and B is 26 mV for
passive corrosion conditions. The instantaneous
corrosion current density (or instantaneous
corrosion rate) can be calculated by dividing the
I
corr
by the exposed surface area, A. As the
corrosion activity near the OCP region increases,
the slope of the polarization curve will increase. In
other words, the higher the slope, the larger will be
the corrosion rate. It should also be noted that the
measured corrosion rate is not an average quantity.
The two objectives of this research are: 1) to
compare the corrosion rate of mild steel and
prestressing steel embedded in mortar with
different dosages of Ca(NO
2
)
2
corrosion inhibitor
and 2) to predict the corrosion propagation period
of mild steel and prestressing steel in mortar with
different dosages of calcium nitrite corrosion
inhibitor.
The organisation of the remaining paper is as
follows. A brief discussion on the significance of
this research is provided next. Then an overview
about the materials and experimental procedures
used in the test program is provided. It includes the
experimental design followed by sample
preparation, casting, curing, corrosion testing
procedures and calculation of corrosion
propagation time. The paper then presents the
experimental results and the estimated time taken
for 20% loss in tension capacity. Finally, the
conclusions drawn from this research are provided.

RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE AND OBJECTIVES
Prestressed concrete elements are increasingly used in
major infrastructure projects such as metros, highway
bridges, ports etc. and housing projects. Information
on the corrosion rate of high-strength prestressing steel
strand is important to design durable prestressed
concrete structures. However, very limited
information is available on the corrosion rate of these
strands in concrete. In addition, the use of corrosion
inhibiting admixtures to enhance the durability of
concrete structures is increasing. However, there is a
lack of sufficient information on suitable dosages and
corresponding effectiveness in reducing the corrosion
rate of steel. This article fills these knowledge gaps to
some extent by providing information on the corrosion
rates of prestressing steel and mild steel in mortar with
various dosages of Ca(NO
2
)
2
inhibitor. In addition,
the estimates of the time taken for a particular loss in
the cross-sectional area of the steel are provided. Such
information is helpful for designing durable and
cost-effective prestressed concrete structures.

MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL
PROCEDURES
Experimental design
Table 2 shows the experimental design of the testing
program and the number of samples tested in each
variable combination. Mortar with a
water:cement:sand ratio of 0.55:1:2.75 was used.
Ordinary Portland Cement was used for mortar
preparation. The Grade I, II and III sand (as per IS
383:1970) were mixed in equal proportions and used
for making the mortar. Different dosages of calcium
nitrite (Ca(NO
2
)
2
) corrosion inhibitor were added to
the mix, per Table 2. Corrosion performance of mild
steel and prestressing steel samples were tested. Three
samples were tested for each variable combination a
total of 18 lollipop samples.
Table 2. Experimental design of the corrosion test
program
Mortar
type
Dosage of
corrosion
inhibitor
(% by weight of
cement)
Steel type
Number
of
samples
tested
0.55 w/c
OPC
mortar
0
Mild steel 3
Prestressing
steel
3
2
Mild steel 3
Prestressing
steel
3
4
Mild steel 3
Prestressing
steel
3
Total Number of samples 18

1.2 Sample preparation, casting, and curing procedures
Fig. 3 shows the schematic of a lollipop sample (15 cm
long steel wire embedded in a 120 mm length and
30 mm diameter mortar cylinder). All the mild steel
wires were obtained from same stock. Similarly, all

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


the prestressing steel wires were obtained from
same stock. Prior to embedding in mortar, the ends
of these wires were coated (as shown in Fig. 3)
with a 2-part epoxy. This was done to ensure that
only the centre 50 mm region of the steel wire
(unshaded region in Fig. 3) was exposed to
corrosive environment and the other regions were
free of corrosion.
The required quantities of cement, sand, water, and
corrosion inhibitor were batched. The three grades
of standard sand were mixed for about 2 minutes.
The cement was added to the sand and dry mixed
for another 2 minutes. The batched corrosion
inhibitor was added to mixing water. Water with
inhibitor was then mixed with the cement-sand mix
for 3 minutes. After a rest period of 3 minutes, the
mortar was mixed again for 2 minutes. The mortar
was then placed into the plastic moulds (i.e.,
centrifuge tubes shown in Fig. 3) and tamped using
a 5mm diameter acrylic rod. Then the steel wire
was penetrated or embedded into the mortar and
tapped around the mould surface for proper
consolidation. The plastic moulds were removed
after drying the samples in laboratory room
conditions (27
o
C and 60% RH approx.) for
231 hours. After this, the samples were immersed
in boiling 3.5% sodium chloride (3.5% NaCl)
solution (as per IS 9013:1978) for three and a half
hours. This was done to accelerate the curing of
mortar and the migration of chloride ions towards
the steel surface. It was found that sufficient
amount of chlorides required for active corrosion
was available at the steel surface. The samples
were then taken out of the boiling NaCl solution
and placed in 3.5% NaCl solution at room
temperature (27
o
C) for another one day.

Fig. 3 Schematic of lollipop sample. Corrosion
testing procedures

The cured lollipop specimens were subjected to a
cyclic wet-dry chloride environment using the 3-
electrode corrosion cell test setup shown in Fig. 4.
The 50 mm long region at the centre of the steel wire is
considered as the working electrode (WE). Two
platinum plates (20 mm 7 mm) kept at radially
opposite sides of the WE were used as counter
electrode (CE1 and CE2). Saturated calomel electrode
(SCE) was taken as the reference electrode (RE). It
was positioned such that the tip of the salt bridge
connecting the electrode tip remained in close
proximity with the working electrode. In other words,
this was kept very near to the surface of the mortar
covering the exposed steel surface. All the electrodes
were placed into a specially fabricated glass container
with 3.5% NaCl solution (i.e., the corrosion cell). This
setup was then connected to a computer and
potentiostat (i.e., Solartron 1287 Electrochemical
Workstation) for performing LPR tests discussed in
Section 1.1.

Fig. 4 Schematic of the 3-electrode corrosion cell setup
used for LPR test
Following is a demonstration of how the corrosion rate
is calculated using the LPR tests. In the LPR tests, a
small potential, say 20 mV is applied between the
electrodes and the resulting current is measured. The
polarization resistance [R
p
= (E/I)|E 0] is the
ratio of the applied potential, E (volts), and the
resulting current, I (A/cm
2
). The measured R
p
is
inversely related to the corrosion rate.
Fig. 5 shows a representative LPR curve obtained as
part of this program. Based on the slope of the best-
fitted line near the zero-current region and assuming
the Stern-Geary constant B equal to 26 mV, the rate
of corrosion is calculated to be 12.8 A/cm
2
(detailed
calculations are shown in
Fig. 5). The corrosion rates calculated this way can be
considered as the corrosion rate of the steel during the
corrosion propagation period.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


Fig. 5 LPR curve of test sample with a corrosion
rate=12.8 A/cm
2
1.3 Corrosion propagation time
Fig. 1 shows the three different phases (including
the corrosion propagation phase) of a structure in
service. The corrosion rates calculated using the
LPR tests can be used to estimate the duration of
the corrosion propagation period. The following
Faradays law is applied in determining the mass
loss of the sample,
nF
Ita
m
(2)
where I is the current in amperes; t is the time in
seconds; a is the atomic number of iron; n is the
number of electrons transferred; F is Faradays
constant (96400 Coulombs per equivalent). For
mass, m, of steel or iron corroded can be calculated
using the following: I obtained from the LPR tests,
t = 31536000 seconds per year, a = 26, n = 2, and
F = 96400 Coulombs per equivalent. This
calculated value of m is equal to the mass loss per
year and can be assumed constant - resulting in a
constant rate of reduction in the area of cross-
section and, hence, tension capacity. Using this
information, deterministic estimates of the time
taken for a particular reduction in the cross-
sectional area can be calculated giving an
indication of the corrosion propagation period.
2 Corrosion Rates Obtained From LPR Tests
Fig. 6(a), (b) and (c) show the corrosion rates of the
mild steel and prestressing steel samples embedded
in mortar with 0, 2, and 4% (by weight of cement)
of corrosion inhibitor, respectively. The number of
wet-dry cycles is plotted on abscissa and the
corrosion rate on ordinate. The plots show that, in
general, the corrosion rate of prestressing steel
(hollow circular marker) is less than that of mild steel
(solid circular marker). The average corrosion rate in
samples with 0% inhibitor is approximately 50% and
66% higher than that in samples with 2% and 4%
inhibitor, respectively. This clearly indicates that the
corrosion rate can be decreased by the addition of 2%
corrosion inhibitor. In Fig. 6(a), no statistically
significant change in the corrosion rate is observed for
prestressing steel. Similar behaviour is observed for
mild steel samples shown in
Fig. 6(a). Similar behaviour is exhibited by the data
shown in Fig. 6(b) and (c). Therefore, the exposure
was stopped after 6 wet-dry cycles. At this time, the
chloride concentration in the mortar adjacent to the
steel in a representative specimen was found to be
5.5% by weight of cement. This value is more than the
chloride threshold values reported in literature for mild
steel reinforcement. Therefore, it can be assumed that
the active corrosion is ongoing at a constant rate. Fig.
7 compares the corrosion rates of mild steel and
prestressing steel samples after 6
th
wet-dry cycle. It
should also be noted that, in the case of prestressing
steel, no significant reduction in the corrosion rate is
observed by adding more than 2% corrosion inhibitor.
The effect of dosage on mild steel is also similar in
nature. This bar chart clearly shows that the
prestressing steel is having better corrosion resistance
than the mild steel reinforcement.

-4
-4 2
1
4.93 10
0.026 4.93 10 12.8 /
p
Slope
R
B
I A cm

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


Fig. 6 Corrosion rates of mild and prestressing steel
in mortar with 0, 2, and 4% Ca(NO
2
)
2
inhibitor.

Fig. 7 Comparison of corrosion rates of mild steel
and prestressing steel with respect to corrosion
inhibitor dosage (Corrosion rates after 6
th
exposure
cycle)
2.1
2.2 Corrosion propagation time
Fig. 8(a) and (b) show the estimates of the time
taken for 20% capacity loss of mild steel and
prestressing steel when embedded in mortar with
various dosages. A comparison between Fig. 8(a)
and (b) show that the corrosion propagation periods
for prestressed concrete systems can be more than
that of a conventional concrete system with mild
steel. For example, when no corrosion inhibitor is
added, the mild and prestressing steel systems will
take 11 and 18 years, respectively, for a tension
capacity loss of 20%. Similarly, when 2%
corrosion inhibitor is added, the mild and
prestressing steel systems can take approximately
16 and 38 years, respectively, for a tension capacity
loss of 20%. Interestingly, the dotted and dashed
curves in Fig. 8(a) is very close to each other,
indicating that the addition of more than 2%
corrosion inhibitor may not significantly enhancing
the durability of a mild steel system. Similar is the
behaviour of prestressing steel system, see Fig.
8(b). In general, the presence of corrosion
inhibitors can increase the service life of the
concrete systems with mild steel and prestressing
steel.
However, it should be noted that the effect of the
prolonged prestressing forces, which exist on actual
prestressed concrete structures, is not taken into
account in this study. Therefore, these results on
prestressing steel may be non-conservative in nature.
Further experimental studies are required in this area.

F
ig. 8 Time taken for 20% capacity loss of steel when
embedded in mortar with various dosages: (a) mild
steel and (b) prestressing steel.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions were obtained from the
results:
1. In general, the prestressing steel corrodes at a
lower rate mild steel, when exposed to
uncontaminated and chloride-contaminated
environments.
2. The addition of at least 2% (by weight of cement)
Ca(NO
2
)
2
-based corrosion inhibitor to the mortar
can decrease the corrosion rate; and hence,
increase the corrosion propagation period of both
mild and prestressing steel systems.
3. Addition of more than 2% corrosion inhibitor may
not significantly decrease the corrosion rates and
therefore, may not significantly increase the
corrosion propagation periods.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the Department of Civil
Engineering and the Central workshop at the Indian
Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai for providing
the laboratory facilities and other support for this
research. We specially thank Mr. Jayachandran,
Mr. Murali, Ms. Malarrvizhi, Mr. Soundarapandian,
Mr. Senthilnathan, Mr. Subramaniam, Mr. Murthy, and
Mr. Krishnan of the Dept. of Civil Engineering for
their technical support.

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


REFERENCES
Gu, P., Elliott, S., Beaudoin, J. J., and Arsenault,
B., 1996, "Corrosion Resistance of Stainless
Steel in Chloride Contaminated Concrete,"
Cement and Concrete Research, V. 26, No. 8,
August, pp. 1151-1156
McDonald, D. B., Pfeifer, D. W., and Blake, G. T.,
1996, The Corrosion Performance of
Inorganic-, Ceramic-, and Metallic-Clad
Reinforcing Bars and Solid Metallic
Reinforcing Bars in Accelerated Screening
Tests," FHWA Report No. FHWA-RD-96-
085, October, Federal Highway
Administration, McLean, VA.
Broomfield J.P, Rodriguez J, Ortega L.M, Garcia
A.M., 1994, Corrosion rate measurement in
reinforced concrete structures by a linear
polarization device. In: R.E. Weyers (ed.),
Philip D Cady Symposium on corrosion of
steel in concrete. ACI Special Publication, Vol
No.151-9. 1994, pp 163.
Obi-Egbedi N O, Essien K E, Obot I B., 2011,
Computational simulation and corrosion
inhibitive potential of alloxazine for mild steel
in 1M HCl Scholars Research Library J.
Comput. Method. Mol. Design, 2011, 1 (1): 26-
43
Ilayaraja G, Sasieekhumar A R, Dhanakodi P,
2011, Inhibition of Mild Steel Corrosion in
Acidic Medium by Aqueous Extract of Tridax
procumbens L ISSN: 0973-4945; CODEN
ECJHAO, E-Journal of Chemistry, 8(2), 685-
688
Rastogi R B, Singh M M, Singh K, Maurya J L.,
2010, Electrochemical Behavior of Mild Steel
in Dimethyl Sulfoxide Containing
Hydrochloric Acid Portugaliae
Electrochimica Acta 2010, 28(6), 359-371,
DOI: 10.4152/pea.201006359
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1995, Influence of Multiple Rebar Mats on
Electrochemical Removal of Chloride from
Concrete. Material Science Forum, 1995.
192-194: p. 883-890
Tait W.S., 1994, An introduction to
electrochemical corrosion testing for practicing
engineers and scientists,
http://www.amazon.com/introduction-
electrochemical-corrosion-practicing-
scientists/dp/B0006PFYBO.
Pillai, R.G. and Trejo, D., 2005, Surface
conditions effect on critical chloride threshold
of steel reinforcement, ACI Materials Journal,
Vol.102, No.2, pp 103-109.
Bleszynki R, Hooten R D, Thomas M D A and
Roger C A., 2002, Durability of ternary blend
concrete with silica fume and slag, ACI
Materials Journal, Title no. 99-M51.
Beaudoin J J, Zhang, M H, Malhotra V M., 2000,
Long-term performance of steel reinforcing bars
in Portland cement concrete incorporating
moderate and high volumes of ASTM Class F Fly
ash, Material Journal Publication, Vol No.97, pp
409-417.
Li Z, Peng J, Ma B., 1999, Investigation of Chloride
Diffusion for High Performance concrete
containing fly ash, microsilica and chemical
admixtures Material Journal Publication, Vol
No.96, pp 391-396.
Haleem and Wanees., 2002, Environmental factors
affecting the corrosion behaviour of reinforcement
steel II. Role of some anions in the initiation and
inhibition of pitting corrosion of steel in Ca(OH)
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solutions, Elsevier, Corrosion Science
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determining compressive strength of
accelerated-cured concrete test specimens",
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
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determining effects of chemical admixtures on
corrosion of embedded steel reinforcement in
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ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


REMEDIAL MEASURES FOR RESTORATION OF DISTRESSES IN
PART PARALLEL TAXIWAY AND APRON A CASE STUDY OF LAL
BAHADUR SHASTRI AIRPORT AT BABATPUR, VARANASI

Brind Kumar
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University,Varanasi-221005
Pramod Kumar Singh
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University,Varanasi-221005

INTRODUCTION
The Airports Authority of India (AAI) has executed the
work of the extension of runway, part parallel taxiway
and the apron for upgradation of the Lal Bahadur
Shastri Airport at Babatpur, Varanasi to cater to
international flights. While the runway is of flexible
pavement, the taxiway and apron are rigid pavements.
After execution of the concrete work in 2010, the apron
was opened to traffic in November 2010. The part
parallel taxiway is not under traffic operation as yet.
Soon after their completion, distresses were observed by
the executing agency in form of cracks, popouts,
spalling, corner breaks and faulting. Realising the need
to restore the distresses at the right earnest for
maintaining their operational ability, the AAI
approached the experts for their advice to suggest
suitable remedial measures.
A couple of site visits were made to understand the
nature and extent of distresses. Detailed study of each
distress was made and analysed vis--vis their structural
design, construction and operating conditions. This
paper presents the details of field observations made and
the summary of remedial measures suggested.

PAVEMENT HISTORY
As per information provided by AAI, the details of crust
thickness of the rigid pavements for apron and part
parallel taxiway are shown in Fig. 1. The pavement
history reveal that, 41 cm Pavement Quality Concrete
(PQC) was laid over 10 cm thick Dry Lean Concrete
(DLC) separated by 400 m thick polythene sheet.
Below the DLC layer, the pavement consists of 20 cm
thick Wet Mix Macadam (WMM) laid over 25 cm thick
Granular Sub-Base (GSB). The sub-grade was 30 cm
thick cement stabilized layer, laid over the compacted
natural soil.

Fig. 1. Crust thickness of Apron and part parallel Taxiway

PQC = 41 cm thick
DRLC = 10 cm thick
WMM = 20 cm thick
GSBC = 25 cm thick
Soil cement stabilized subgrade = 30 cm thick
400 thick polythene
sheet

PRELIMINARY FIELD OBSERVATIONS
Apron area
Distresses in the panels of the apron area were carefully
studied and the following observations were made:
(i) Cracks were available in the panels, mostly
extending from one construction joint to the
other.
(ii) Crack followed the pattern of concreting.
(iii) Some cracks were found along the joints.
(iv) Some cracks extended into the adjacent panel.
(v) Popouts were observed in some panels.
(vi) Corner breaks were observed in some panels.
Generally, the cracks were confined to single panels
running parallel to the shorter edge.
Taxiway area
Cracking patterns in the part parallel taxiway area were
of similar nature to those of the apron area. Some of the
cracks in the taxiway panels were repaired by
trenching and refilling about one year back.
Apparently, no fresh cracks were observed at these
locations. This suggests that the same methods may be
successful at other locations where distresses were
available.

DETAILED FIELD OBSERVATIONS
The layout plan of the apron and part parallel taxiway is
shown in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively. The apron is
segmented into 11 parts from A to K, while the part
parallel taxiway has 8 segments from A to H. Every
distress was numbered and its salient details were
recorded corresponding to their respective panel
numbers. Crack width in affected panels was measured
at 5 equidistant locations using vernier calipers having
least count of 0.002 mm as shown in Fig. 4. Average of
these crack widths were computed and recorded for
each crack as shown in Table 1.
Spalling of joints, popouts and faulting of joints were
measured in accordance with the Distress Identification
Manual of the Federal Highway Administration
Publication No. FHWA-RD-03-031, June 2003, U.S.A.
[1].

PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE DISTRESSES
For each distress, one photograph showing its relevant
details was taken in the apron and part parallel taxiway.

DISCUSSION OF THE DISTRESSES
Since the taxiway is yet to be opened for traffic, the
panels therein are not subjected to the design loading.
Whereas, the apron area is in use for approximately one
year, the panels are subjected to the design loading.
Panel cracking has been observed in both the areas i.e.
taxiway and apron. Since taxiway is not subjected to
loading, cracking in these panels is clearly due to
shrinkage only, and they are not structural cracks.In the
apron area, cracking is similar to the taxiway panels.
Average crack width of the cracks in the taxiway panels
is 1.30 mm, and is 1.71 mm in the apron panels.
Therefore, comparing the two it can be concluded that
cracks in the apron panels are due to shrinkage and
these are not structural crack due to failure of PQC and
underlying layers.
Comparing the cracking patterns in the panels for the
taxiway and apron areas, it is observed that in both the
cases, the shrinkage cracks have formed along the
shorter span only, and these are not propagating into the
adjacent panels unless there is some construction defect.
Therefore, once again it is indicated that, the cracks are
due to shrinkage alone.

REASONS FOR CRACKING
Typically all the cracks appeared during the following
winter season after the casting during the summer
season. The cracks being parallel to the shorter side of
the panel in approximately straight line and near the
middle of the panel are indicative of shrinkage and
thermal cracks. Panels cast during winter were
apparently having no cracks.
The reason of cracking in the panels includes shrinkage
strain and thermal strain. Whereas, shrinkage strain had
been normal, thermal strain was higher than normal in
this case.
As per Clause 5.2.4.1 of IS: 1343-1980 [2], shrinkage
strain is of the order of 0.0003. Therefore, shortening of
the 4.2 m long panel of M40 grade concrete is as
calculated below:
Shrinkage Shortening =
c
x L
= 0.0003 x 4200
= 1.26 mm
As the concreting of the taxiway and apron panels was
done during May-June when the temperature peaks to
about 45
C, thermal shortening during winter season

when temperature is about 5
C, may be calculated as
given below:
Thermal shortening =
t
x L x T
= 12 x 10
-6
x 4200 x 40
= 2.02 mm
Therefore, it is observed that due to casting of concrete
at higher temperature (45C), there has been excessive
contraction of concrete resulting in thermal cracks in the
panels.
The total contraction due to shrinkage and thermal
shortening may of the order as given below:
Due to shrinkage = 1.26 mm
Due to thermal shortening = 2.02 mm
Total = 3.28 mm

Supposing that the entire 3.28 mm shortening produces
the tensile stress in the concrete, then tensile stress in
concrete will be:

3.28
4200 40
4200

= 20.74 N/mm
2

This is a very high tensile stress and this cannot be
sustained by the concrete. As such cracking of concrete
particularly during extreme winter is obvious. The
resulting crack would be parallel to the shorter side and
nearly at the middle of the longer side unless there is
some construction joint or other defects in the concrete.
If we assume that the concrete is free to slip on the
polythene sheet in a total of its half panel length from
the edges, then maximum crack width of (
3.28
2
=) 1.64
mm may be expected. This compares well with the
average observed crack width of 1.30mm in taxiway
and 1.71mm in the apron area.

70/71 15 69 68 67 66 65 30 45
14 75 7629 63 44
13 7728 62 43
12 27 64 42
11 7826 41 61
10 25 5540 56 57 58 59 60
9 24 39 54 53 52
8 79 23 38 51
7 22 90 9137 92 95 94 50
6 8021 36 93 49 48
5 20 35 47
4 8119 34 46
3 82 18 88 89 96 33 45
2 72 73 74 83 84 17 86 87 98 97 32 44 43 42
1 16 85 31
4.1 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2
A
B
C
1 3
2 4
106 121
105 120
104 119 15
103 118
102 117 16
101 116
100 115 14 13
99 114
98 113 17
97 112
96 111
95 110 20 18
94 109 23 19
93 108 24 21 25
92 107 41 22 26
60 75
59 74
58 73
57 72
56 27 71
55 30 70
54 28 29 69
53 31 68
52 32 67
51 66
50 3365
49 64 37
48 63
47 62 35 34 36
46 61
4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2
D
H
E
I
S H O U L D E R

Fig. 2. Layout plan of APRON showing distress numbers

Fig. 3. Layout plan of part parallel TAXIWAY showing distress numbers

5 7 3.75
6 8 3.75
136 151 4.0
135 6 5 150 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4.0
134 7 149 4.0
133 148 4.0
132 9 8 147 4.0
131 10 146 4.0
130 145 4.0
129 144 4.0
128 143 4.0
127 142 4.0
126 12 141 4.0
125 140 4.0
124 139 4.0
123 138 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4.0
122 137 4.0
90 105 4.0
89 104 4.0
88 103 4.0
87 102 4.0
86 11 101 4.0
85 100 4.0
84 99 4.0
83 98 4.0
82 97 4.0
81 96 2 4.0
80 95 4.0
79 94 4.0
78 38 93 1 4.0
77 40 39 92 4.0
76 91 4.0
4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
F
J
G
K
57 58 59
6 12 6 12 18
5 11 5 17
4 1 3 4 10 7 16
3 2 9 10 15
2 8 8 9 14
1 7 11 13
49 50 51
4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2
A
S H O U L D E R
S H O U L D E R
B
C
60 61 62
24 30 36
23 29 35
22 28 34
21 27 33
20 26 14 13 32
19 25 31
52 53 54
4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2
D E F
63 64 3.5
42 48 3.83
41 47 3.83
40 46 3.83
39 45 3.83
38 44 3.83
37 43 3.83
55 56 3.5
4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2
G
H

Table 1. Details of field observations of distresses on Apron and part parallel Taxiway
I II III IV V Av.
1 G-93 4.5 x 4
Transverse cracking in
panel
1 1.2 1 1.1 1.1 1.08
Available in the full panel width. No
spalling was observed.
2 G-96 4.5 x 4 Corner break 1.2 1.1 1.5 1.2 1 1.2
No spalling, no faulting, no loss of
material and no patching was observed.
3 K-150 4.5 x 4
Cracking along
longitudinal joint
1.2 1.5 1.6 1.5 1 1.36
Construction joint between panels is
exposed.
4 G-138 4.5 x 4
Cracking along
longitudinal joint
2 2.5 2 2 2.5 2.2
exposed.
5 J-135 4.2 x 4
panel
0.6 0.8 1.1 1.2 1.1 0.96
Available in the full panel width.
Spalling for average width of 15mm was
observed.
6 J-135 4.2 x 4
panel
1.5 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.5 1.36
observed.
7 J-134 4.2 x 4
panel
1.1 1.2 1 1.5 1.1 1.18
observed.
8 J-132 4.2 x 4
panel
1.5 1.4 1.3 1.5 1.1 1.36
observed.
9 J-132 4.2 x 4
panel
1 1 1.5 1.5 1 1.2
observed.
10 J-131 4.2 x 4
panel
1.2 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.32
Available in the full panel width in two
separate stretches. Spalling for average
width of 11mm was observed.
11 F-86 4.2 x 4
panel
1 0.9 0.8 1.2 1.1 1
12 J-126 4.2 x 4
panel
1.4 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.48
observed.
13 I-115 4.2 x 4
panel
3.5 3.5 3.6 3.7 2.8 3.42
observed.
14 I-115 4.2 x 4
panel
1.1 1.2 0.9 0.8 1 1
15 I-119 4.2 x 4
panel
1.5 2 1 1.5 1.1 1.42
observed.
16 I-117 4.2 x 4
Transverse cracking
across panels
1 1.5 1.3 1.5 1.1 1.28
Cracking cuts across transverse joint in
full panel width. Spalling for average
17 I-113 4.2 x 4
panel
0.9 0.9 1.5 1.5 1 1.16
observed.
18 I-110 4.2 x 4
panel
1.3 0.9 1.1 1.2 0.8 1.06
observed.
19 I-109 4.2 x 4
panel
1.1 1.1 0.9 1.4 1.1 1.12
observed.
Description of distress
Description of distress / Crack width (mm) Distress
No.
Panel No.
Panel size
(m)
Remarks
APRON:

20 I-110 4.2 x 4
panel
0.8 0.5 0.5 0.6 1.9 0.86
observed. One end has low severity D-
cracking.
21 I-108 4.2 x 4
panel
1.6 2.2 2.5 2.5 1.8 2.12
observed.
22 I-107 4.2 x 4
panel
2.1 1.8 2.5 2.2 2.1 2.14
observed.
23 I-109 4.2 x 4
panel
2.1 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.4 1.54
observed.
24 I-108 4.2 x 4
panel
1.2 1.3 1.1 1.9 1.2 1.34
observed.
25 I-108 4.2 x 4
panel
0.4 0.6 0.4 0.7 0.6 0.54
observed.
26 I-107 4.2 x 4
panel
0.6 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.62
observed.
27 D-56 4.2 x 4
panel
2.1 1.5 2.7 1.5 1.4 1.84
28 D-54 4.2 x 4
panel
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.56
observed.
29 D-54 4.2 x 4
panel
0.4 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.44
Available in about half panel width. No
30 D-55 4.2 x 4
Transverse cracking
across panels
2 1.5 1.5 1 0.9 1.38
31 D-53 4.2 x 4
panel
2.1 1.5 2.5 1.6 1.8 1.9
observed.
32 D-52 4.2 x 4 Corner break 1 0.5 0.3 0.25 0.7 0.55
Multiple cracks with low severity
spalling was observed. No faulting was
noticed. Average spalling width was
34mm.
33 E-65 4.2 x 4
Damaged plaster over
PQC
Plaster is fully damaged.
34 E-62 4.2 x 4
Cracking under
aerobridge pillar
9 8.5 7.5 6.5 1.2 6.54
No spalling and no faulting was
observed.
35 E-62 4.2 x 4
Cracking under
aerobridge pillar
4.5 4.3 3.5 3.7 3.5 3.9
No faulting was observed.Average
spalling width was 7mm
36 E-62 4.2 x 4
Cracking along
longitudinal joint
0.2 0.25 0.28 0.21 0.31 0.25
exposed. No joint cutting was done.
37 E-64 4.2 x 4 No sealing of joints 0.6 0.46 0.52 0.72 0.65 0.59
Four numbers joints were not sealed and
are exposed.

38 F-78 4.2 x 4
Corner break and
transverse cracking
0.5 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.45 0.39
Low intensity corner break has no
spalling or faulting. Low intensity
transverse crackhas no spalling.
39 F-77 4.2 x 4
Cracking under
aerobridge pillar
5.5 4.5 4 2.5 2.1 3.72
No faulting. Average spalling width was
11mm.
40 F-77 4.2 x 4
Cracking under
aerobridge pillar
7.5 6 5.1 1.5 1 4.22
No faulting and no apparent spalling.
41 I-107 4.2 x 4
panel
1.1 1.2 0.9 1.1 1 1.06
observed.
42 C-32 4.2 x 4
panel
4.2 4.7 3.5 2.8 2.5 3.54
observed.
43 C-32 4.2 x 4
panel
3.2 3.6 3.5 3.3 2.7 3.26
observed.
44 C-32 4.2 x 4
panel
1.5 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.4 1.6
observed.
45 C-33 4.2 x 4
panel
1.6 2.2 2.7 3.1 2.4 2.4
observed.
46 C-34 4.2 x 4
panel
1.4 1.8 1.7 2.1 1.2 1.64
observed.
47 C-35 4.2 x 4
panel
0.3 0.4 1.1 0.8 0.5 0.62
observed.
48 C-36 4.2 x 4
panel
2.3 2.1 1.7 1.5 1.6 1.84
observed.
49 C-36 4.2 x 4
panel
0.5 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.35 0.51
Available in mid region of the panel
width. Spalling for average width of
4mm was observed.
50 C-37 4.2 x 4
panel
2.5 2.2 2.7 2.6 1.7 2.34
observed.
51 C-38 4.2 x 4
panel
2.5 2.2 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.38
observed.
52 C-39 4.2 x 4
panel
2.3 2.5 1.9 2.6 2.2 2.3
observed.
53 C-39 4.2 x 4
panel
3.5 4.2 3.8 3.4 2.1 3.4
observed.
54 C-39 4.2 x 4
panel
0.7 1.2 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.08
observed.
55 C-40
Spalling of expansion
joint
No faulting. Average spalling width was
7mm.
56 C-40 4.2 x 4
panel
3.8 3.6 2.7 2.1 1.9 2.82
observed.

57 C-40 4.2 x 4
panel
4.2 4.8 3.6 3.3 2.1 3.6
observed. No faulting.
58 C-40 4.2 x 4
panel
3.2 2.9 2.6 2.7 2.6 2.8
59 C-40 4.2 x 4
Transverse cracking
across panels
2.5 2.5 2.3 2.9 2.2 2.48
60 C-40 4.2 x 4
panel
1.4 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.7 1.6
observed.
61 C-41 4.2 x 4
panel
0.9 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.08
observed.
62 B-28
Corner break and
spalling of joint
Corner broken into multiple pieces and a
hollow has formed. Average spalling
width was 16mm.
63 B-29 4.2 x 4
panel
0.6 0.8 1.1 0.4 0.3 0.64
observed.
64 B-27 4.2 x 4
panel
0.5 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.7
observed.
65 A-15 Spalling of joint
Average spalling width was 27mm with
loss of material.
loss of material.
67 A-15 Spalling of joint Average spalling width was 17mm.
loss of material.
loss of material.
loss of material.
75
A-14
Cracking along
longitudinal joint
0.4 0.4 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.52
exposed.
76 B-29 Spalling of joint Average spalling width was 9mm.
79 A-08 4.2 x 4 Popouts Multiple low severity popouts.
85 B-16 4.2 x 4
Cracking along
longitudinal joint
1.6 1.5 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.7
exposed.

89 B-18 4.2 x 4 Popout Single popout.
90 B-22 4.2 x 4 Popouts Multiple low severity popouts.
91 C-37 Spalling of joint Average spalling width was 11mm.
Average crack width = 1.71
T-1 B-10 4.2 x 3.8
Repaired transverse
cracking in panel with
new joints spaced at
300mm.
1.5 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.4
T-2 B-9 4.2 x 3.8
Repaired transverse
300mm.
0.7 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.58
T-3 B-10 4.2 x 3.8
Repaired transverse
400mm.
1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.6 1.52
T-4 B-10 4.2 x 3.8
Repaired transverse
300mm.
1.5 1.2 1.1 1.4 1.5 1.34
Available for about two-third panel
width. Spalling for average width of
14mm was observed. No faulting.
T-5 C-17 4.2 x 3.8
Repaired transverse
300mm.
1.7 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.1 1.5
T-6 C-18 4.2 x 3.8
Repaired transverse
400mm.
1.8 1.6 1.4 1.9 1.5 1.64
T-7 C-16 4.2 x 3.8
Repaired transverse
400mm.
1.9 1.7 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.38
T-8 C-14 4.2 x 3.8
Repaired transverse
400mm.
1.8 1.6 1.3 1.1 1.4 1.44
PART PARALLEL TAXIWAY:
80 mm diameter

Fig. 4. Recording of crack width using Vernier
Calipers

T-9 C-14 4.2 x 3.8
Repaired transverse
400mm.
1.6 1.5 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.48
T-10 C-15 4.2 x 3.8
Repaired transverse
700mm.
0.4 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.4
spalling and no faulting was observed.
T-11 C-13 4.2 x 3.8
Repaired transverse
600mm.
1.5 1.8 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.58
T-12 C-18 4.2 x 3.8
Repaired transverse
400mm.
1.5 1.6 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.44
T-13 F-32 4.2 x 3.8
panel.
1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.5 1.38
T-14 F-32 4.2 x 3.8
Repaired transverse
700mm.
1.1 1.2 1.1 1.4 1.1 1.18
Average crack width = 1.30

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

AN EXACT SOLUTION OF MHD FLOW DUE TO ACCELERATED
MOTION OF INFINITE POROUS PLATE
J. Singh
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005
Munna Lal

Dheeraj Agrawal

Mona Goyal

ABSTRACT: An exact solution of MHD flow due to accelerated motion of infinite porous plate is considered in
this paper. Expressions for the velocity field and induced magnetic field have been obtained using Laplace
transformation technique when the magnetic Prandtl number is unity. The variations of velocity profile and induced
magnetic field are presented in graphical format, whereas numerical values of skin friction and current density are
given in tabular form.

Keywords: Magneto-hydrodynamics; Porous Media; Induced Magnetic Field; Laplace Transformation; Skin
Friction
INTRODUCTION
Magneto-hydrodynamics (MHD) is a branch of
continuum mechanics which deals with the flow of
electrically conducting fluids in electric and magnetic
fields. Many natural phenomena and engineering
problems are worth being investigated using MHD
analysis. Such types of flow find huge relevance in
engineering problems involving movement of natural
gas, oil and water through the oil reservoir. In chemical
engineering, filtration and water purification processes
also involve MHD flows. This problem is also of great
interest in industrial technology and geothermal
application such as liquid metal fluid and MHD power
generation system etc. due to its frequent occurrence.
Magneto-hydrodynamics equations are ordinary
electromagnetic and hydrodynamic equations modified
in a form to account the interaction between the motion
of the fluid and electromagnetic field. The formulation
of electromagnetic theory in the mathematical form is
known as Maxwells equation. The flow of an
incompressible, viscous, electrically conductivity fluid
past an infinite flat plate in the presence of a uniform
transverse magnetic field when a plate execute simple
harmonic motion parallel to itself has been discussed
by Ong and Nicholls (1959). They solved the problem
neglecting the induced magnetic field. Singh and Singh
(1983a) have considered MHD through porous medium
bounded by an impulsively started porous plate. Singh
and Singh (1983b) analysed MHD flow of an elastic
viscous fluid past an accelerated plate. Ferdows and
Ota (2005) considered the similarity solution for MHD
flow through vertical porous plate with suction.
Choudhary and Jain (2010) gave an exact solution for
MHD flow past an accelerated surface embedded in a
porous plate. Singh et al. (2010) analyzed the free
convection effect on the flow of elactico-viscous fluid
past an accelerated plate with constant heat flux.
The present paper deals with the flow of an
incompressible viscous and electrically conducting
fluid due to accelerated motion of an infinite porous
plate with a constant suction rate.
MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION &
ANALYSIS
Consider the flow of an incompressible, viscous and
electrically conducting fluid past an accelerated infinite
porous plate. At time t
<0, both the fluid and the plat

are assumed to be at rest. At time t
>0, the infinite plate

starts moving with a velocity u
= ct
(where c is a
positive constant). Taking the x
axis along the plate

and y
axis perpendicular to it, the basic governing

equations for the flow are:
u
= 0, (1)
u
+v
u
= v
2
u
2
+
c
H
0
p
h
(2)
u
+ v
u
=
1
c
c
q
u
2
+E
0
u
(3)
Where u
and v
are the velocity component along and

perpendicular to the porous plate, h
, the induced
magnetic field,p the density of fluid ,v the kinetic
viscosity , o the electrical conductivity of the fluid and,
p
c
the magnetic permeability of fluid.


The inertial and the boundary condition are:
For t
< 0
u
( y
, t
) = 0,
( y
, t
) = 0 (4)
u
(0 , t
) = c t
( y
, t
) = 0
For t
> 0
u
( , t
) = 0,
( ,t
) = 0
The continuity equation (1) gives
V
= - :
0
(5)
Were :
0
(>0) is the suction velocity of the fluid
through the porous plate.
Now, in order to transform eqs. (2) and (3) in non-
dimensional form we introduce the following non-
dimensional quantities.
y=y
(c /v
q
)
1/3,
t = t
(c
2
/v)
1/3

u = u
/( v
0
)
1/3,
u = u
/( v
0
)
1/3

p
m
= op
s
v, M = (
c
p
)
1/2
H
0
v
0
1/ 3

h = [
c
p
1/2

h
( v
0
)
1/ 3
(6)
In view of expressions (6), (2) and (3) can be put as:
u
t
- z
u

=

q
u
2
+ M
h

(7)
h
t
- z
h

=
1
p
m
q
u
2
+ M
u

(8)
And the corresponding boundary condition assume the
form for t<0
u ( y, t) = 0, h( y, t) = 0
u ( 0, t) = 0, h( 0, t) = 0 (9)
For t > 0
u( , t) = 0 ( , t) = 0
Applying the Laplace transform
f (y, s)= ( y, t) c
-st
0
dt (s>0)
In eqs. (7) and (8) , we have
d
2
u
d
2
+z
du
d
+ M
dh
d
- su=0 (10)
1
p
m
d
2
h
d
2
+ z
du
d
+M
dh
d
- sh =0 (11)
Subject to boundary conditions
u =
1
s
2
,
= 0 at y = 0
u = 0,
= 0 at y (12)
Solution of equations (10) and (11) with boundary
condition (12) and assumption p
m
=1 is given by:
u =
1
2s
2
[exp [-{(M+ z) +( H+ z)
2
+ 4s} y/ 2 ]
+ exp [-{(z + H) +( z H)
2
+ 4s} y/ 2 (13)

=
1
2s
2
[exp [-{(M+ z) +( H+ z)
2
+ 4s} y/ 2 ]
- exp [-{(z + H) +( z H)
2
+ 4s} y/ 2 ] (14)
After the inverse transformation of equation (13) and
(14), the velocity field and the induced magnetic field
are given by
u=
1
4
[(

M+x
+t) erf c{
+( M+x) t
2t
}
(
M+x
-t) exp{ -(H+ z) y} er f c{
-( M+x) t
2t
}
+
1
4
[(

x-M
+t)erf c{
+( x-M) t
2t
}
(

x-M
-t) exp{ -( z H) y} er f c{
-( x-M) t
2t
} (15)
h=
1
4
[(

M+x
+t) erf c{
+( M+x) t
2t
}
(
M+x
-t) exp{ -( H+ z) y} x er f c{
-( M x) t
2t
}
1
4
[(

x-M
+t)erfc{
+( x-M) t
2t
}
(
x-M
-t) exp{ -( z H) y} er f c{
-( x+M) t
2t
} (16)
The velocity field being known the skin friction in
dimensionless form in given by
= [
u

+ Mh]
y=0
=
1
2
[{
1
M+x
+
t
2
(H+ z)erf c{
( M+x) t
2
}
{
2x
x
2
+M
2
+ 2tz} {
1
M+x
+
t
2
(z H)erf c{
( x-M) t
2
}


- {exp[- t/4] exp[- (17)
Similarly the current density in dimensionless form is
given by
J=- - [ erf c{ }
( -y+t( )} exp{ -
} + [( +t)erf c{
} }
+{ y+t( )y} }
- exp(
-( +t)exp-{
-( -t)exp{-( }exp{ - }
+( )exp{-( ]
(18)
Results and Discussion:
The Variation of non-dimensional velocity and induced
magnetic field for different parameters values have
been shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The figures reveal that the
Figure 1: Variation of Velocity profile with y
Figure 2: Variation of induced magnetic field with
velocity increases with increase in M, t and decreases
with increasing , whereas, induced magnetic field
shows contrary trend. Tables 1 and 2 present the
numerical values of skin-friction and current density. A
closer look at tables indicates that skin-friction and
current density decrease with M, and t.
TABLE 1. The value of skin-friction
M
Values for
t = 0.2 t = 0.4
1.0 0 0.1000000 0.2000000
1.0 0.5 1.1083147 0.223233
2.0 0 0.2000000 0.4000000
2.0 0.5 0.2161528 0.4443926

TABLE 2. The value of current density

REFERENCE:
Choudhary and Jain (2010), International Journal of
Heat Transfer 53, 1609-1611.
Ferdows and Ota (2005), Journal of Computational and
Applied Mechanics 6 (1), 15-25.
Ong, R.S. and Nicholls, J. A. (1959), Journal of
Astrophysics and Space Science 26, 313.
Singh and Singh (1983a), Indian Journal of Theoretical
Physics 31, 219-223.
Singh and Singh (1983b), National Academy of
Science Letters 6 (7), 233-238.
M t y
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
1 0 0.2 0.769195 0.769195 0.769195 0.769195 0.769195
1 0 0.4 0.683922 0.683922 .683922 0.683922 0.683922
1 0.5 0.2
-
0.667084
-
0.667084
-
0.667084
-
0.667084
-
0.667084
1 0.5 0.4
-
0.565320
-
0.565320
-
0.565320
-
0.565320
-
0.565320
2 0 0.2 0.490625 0.490625 0.490625 0.490625 0.490625
2 0 0.4 0.382637 0.382637 0.382637 0.382637 0.382637
2 0.5 0.2 0.456897 0.456897 0.456897 0.456897 0.456897
2 0.5 0.4 0.518938 0.518938 0.518938 0.518938 0.518938

ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

GPS DERIVED STRAIN ANALYSIS AND CRUSTAL DEFORMATION IN
INDIA

Abhay P. Singh
PhD Student, NCEMP, University of Allahabaad, Allahabad 211002, Uttar Pradesh, , Email abhaysingh2000@gmail.com
Abhishek Rai
Scientist-B, NCEMP, University of Allahabaad, Allahabad 211002, Uttar Pradesh, , Email abhaysingh2000@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: The geodetic data at 18 sites in India are continuously recorded by several universities and research
institute using Global Positioning System (GPS). For study of Crustal deformation National Center of Mineralogy and
Petrol- ogy, University of Allahabad, Allahabad installed highly efficient and accurate LEICA GRX1200GG Pro
receiver at Ghoorpur near to Allahabad. This instrument is also equipped with MET3A sensor to record pressure,
temperature, humidity at regular interval of 30 second for study of precipitable water vapor content in troposphere.
The Latitude and longitude of the GPS sites is 25.21N, 81.30E. GPS sites installed on the Indian plate to measure rate of
displacement of indan plate. The velocity solutions of the measurement sites found after processing and error
corrections using GAMIT/GLOBK software. The GPS velocity data after error corrections and coordinate stabilization
in ITRF2000 reference frame were used for the determination of strain. First, the amounts of site velocity given as
northward velocity component and eastward velocity component were converted to the resultant velocity. The resultant
velocity data of two sites were resolved into components along the vector joining the sites and along a direction
perpendicular to the site vector. The ratio of the difference of the along site component and the distance between the
sites gives the longitudinal strain rate. The ratio of the differences of the components perpendicular to the site vectors
and the distance between them provides the magnitude of the shear strain rate. As the strain is a direction dependent
quantity, the orientation of the vector joining the two sites with respect to the geographical north direction was
determined. This angle gives the azimuth of the longitudinal strain. The azimuth of the shear strain was determined by
adding 90 degree to the azimuth of the site vector. The earthquakes of the Indian plate interior are interpreted to be
results of periodic accumulation of stress/strain due to shortening and release of strain along the same directions during
the extension. The tropospheric and ionospheric regions of the atmosphere affect the propagation of GPS signals. The
neutral atmosphere, which is the non-ionized part of atmosphere, can Normally be divided into two components, the
hydrostatic (dry) and wet portions of the troposphere. The hydrostatic component consists of mostly dry gases
(normally referred to the dry part) ,whereas the wet component is a result of water vapor. Objective of this paper to find
integrated water vapor over Allahabad.

keywords: Crustal deformation, Strain accumulation, Indian plate dynamics, PWV.

INTRODUCTION GPS
A high precision dual frequency Geodetic type GPS
receiver, choke-ring Antenna along with Met-Package is
installed at India Meteorological Department Campus,
Ghurpur, Allahabad. GPS satellites broadcast at two
frequencies, 1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) and 1.2276 GHz
(L2 signal). Most of the receivers, including the one
installed at Allahabad, produce all types of measurement
data (L1, L2, code and phase). The satellite network uses
a CDMA spread-spectrum technique where the low-
bitrate message data is encoded on high-rate pseudo-
random (PRN) sequence that is different for each
satellite. The PRN code for each satellite is hard-wired
into the receiver so that it can reconstruct the actual
signal from the satellites.

Fig 1. Satillite visibilitiy at Allahabad. Upper figure shows the path of
various satellites as they pass above the antenna.

Fig 2. The visibility of different satellites as a function of time of the
day (24 hrs). Atleast 8-9 satellites are visible at any particular time of
the day

The above figure shows the path and visibility of the
satellites at a particular day. The distribution of satellites
are homoginious above the GPS station. At any
particular day, at least 8 to 9 satellites are visible to the
antenna, which can provide sufficient accuracy to the
GPS data analysis.


GPS Data Quality Analysis

Fig. 3. Quality control parameters: Signal to noise ratio,
and multi-path effect on two frequencies, as a function of
azimuth and elevation. Various colors show the effect for
different GPS satellites.

Fig. 4. Quality control parameters: (Same as in above
fugure, but as a function of time of the day).

The accuracy of GPS data processing to a large extent
depends on the quality of GPS data. Therefore, quality
control and pre-processing of data set is an important
consideration while studying millimeter rage accuracy.
Above figure illustrates the data quality for Allahabad
GPS station. As obvious from the above figure, singal to
noise ratio increases the elevation of the satellite
increases, whearas the multi-path effect decreases when
the elevation of the satellite increases. Multipathing is
minimum when satellites are nearly above the receiver.
We did regular quality control analysis of the data by
post-processing the GPS data, at regular intervals.

The raw data in rinex format was provided to the
National GPS-Geodetic data bank at Survey of India,
Dehradun and was also processed locally at NCEMP,
Allahabad University. The data from Indian GPS-
Geodetic network, including Allahabad data is made
available to the scientific community in India for
research Fig. 5. GPS stations used for studying
Crustal deformation. purpose, from the SOI data bank
at Dehradun. At NCEMP, Allahabad Univerity, the GPS
data recorded has also been analyzed locally, along with
data recorded at neighboring GPS stations. For this, the
GPS data from neighbouring GPS stations such as
Lucknow (GSIL), Hyderabad (HYDE), Bangalore
(IISC), Dehradoon (DEHR), Wadia Institute (WIHG),
Bhopal (2191), Jabalpur (BARG), Tezpur (TZPR),
Gawhati (GHTU), were obtained from GPS-Geodetic
data bank of Survey of India, Dehradun. Adjacent figure
shows the location of GPS stations in the Indian
subcontinent, which were used in our analysis.
Simultaneous processing of data from many station
removes many common mode errors and consequently
improves the overall accuracy of analysis.

Fig. 5 GPS sites location deployed in India

The following table shows the location, type of receiver
and data availability period for the station used in our
study. An a-priori requirement of a tightly-constrained
coordinate repetability solutions, is good azimuthal
distribution of GPS stations.

Table 1 (GPS sites location used in Analysis)


GPS Data Processing
processing of the GPS data various softwares are
available in private and public domain. We used the
public domain processing software developed at MIT,
with minor changes required to suit our needs. For pre-
processing and quality control of GPS data we used the
various other softwares available in public domain and
locally developed at NCEMP for various purposes. The
major steps in GPS data processing requires processing
of phase and code data recorded during the period of
experiment. The basic steps in data processing requires
obtaining the accurate satellite navigational path which
becomes available for download, in few weeks time
from, by various international agencies. The other major
steps in data processing requires, an iterative cleaning of
GPS data for cycle slips, modeling of theoretical phase
and code data, computing partial derivatives of phase
with respect to various parameters, estimation of
atmospheric and ionospheric delay parameters and
finally least square estimation of parameters and
goodness of fit. The goodness of fit is upgraded by an
iterative procedure. Other minor steps require removing
effects of ocean-tidal effects, clock drifts and visual and
quantitative inspection of coordinate repeatability time-
series and sky-plots.


Fig: 6. Coordinate repeatability plots: HYDE (top left),
IISC (top right), ALDU (bottom left), and BARG
(bottom right) time series.

Fig. 7. GPS velocity vectors: GPS site velocity in Indian frame of
reference (left panel), relative GPS velocity vectors with ALDU
velocity fixed.

For the frame stabilization HYDE and IISC is used. The
stations for which data availability is only for a limited
period, is loosely coupled, however sites having
adequate data available, the solutions are tightly coupled.
The coordinate repeatability time series for various
stations are shown in above figure.The velocity of IGS
Hyderabad site (HYDE) is 32.780.07, 40.140.16,
0.610.42 in the three directions. The result depends on
analysis of 665 days of data and is very near to results
obtained by International agencies such as SOPAC. The
velocity offset of IISC, Bangalore is 36.160.07,
41.690.16, 2.970.42 and is based on analysis of 660
days of data, whereas POL2 velocity offsets are
6.280.07, 27.220.13, 42.150.35 based on based on
data of 534 days. Velocity offset of DEHR is
32.700.36, 33.020.56, 3.031.27 on the basis of
analysis of 384 days. Velocity offset of BARG(
44.021.26, 37.702.50,15.876.15 result is based on
analysis of only 184 days of data and therefore results
are loosely constrained as data availability is only for
limited period. The velocity offset of Allahabad station


(ALDU) is 40.480.41, 39.070.73, 6.981.71. This
conclusion is based on analysis of 237 days of data even
the total time span of data availability is for two years,
therefore this solution is tightly constrained solution. The
frame of reference has been stabilized using IGS sites
IISC, HYDE. The solution could be improved by adding
more IGS sites on same cratonic blocks. In our study
region only two IGS station IISC, HYDE are available.
The velocity offset has been calculated using ITRF2005
frame of reference. Velocity vector in ITRF2005 has
been shown in Figure 5.3. As we go from south to north
India the velocity of plate motion changes rapidly and
rotating in anti clock wise direction. The preliminary
estimate of velocity at NCEM is about 50 mm/yr and
angle is 43.98N . The circle at the top of velocity vector
represent the error bar. The error bar is direction of
velocity is sufficiently low. KUNM and NTUS is going
in SW direction. The velocities of all sites have been
calculated in Indian frame of reference (Fig 5). The
relative velocity of all the sites have been calculated
fixing IISC, and NCEM and is shown in Fig. 7.

Fig 8: GPS site Velocity in ITRF2005 frame of
reference. Scale 20mm/yr.

To find change in strain field and deformation pattern of
the Indian plate besides measuring the plate-velocity at
the station and perceptible water-vapor content in the
atmosphere. For anaysis of the crustal deformation
reference frame realization site Bangalore (IISC),
Hyderabad (HYDE) has been used. In the analysis data
from IGS station KUNM, SAMP, POL2, KIT3, BAHR,
NTUS has been used from SOPAC data archive.
Allahabad station is located in a quiet environment at
local IMD campus at Ghoorpur Allahabad. The data
from this station provides valuable information about the
Indian plate dynamics and important parameters of water
vapor content in the atmosphere, for weather forecasting
models. All GPS sites have triangulate to show the strain
accumulation in the GPS network. The direction of
contraction and extension are plotted at the centre of
triangle. The magnitude of strain in the study region of
order of micro-strain/yr.

We intend to use the data generated at Allahabad during
this project, along with data from other stations to
understanding the dynamics of deformation in Indian
subcontinent.

Fig. 9
Estimation of Water Vapor Content in the
Atmosphere
Another important outcome of the GPS data processing
is the determination of precipitable water vapor content
in the atmosphere above the receiver. This parameter is
of immense important in short and medium term weather
forecasting as well as studying the atmospheric cycle.
The meteorological parameters were recorded at a 30s
interval by Paroscientific Met3A sensor (Fig. 1).
Pressure, temperature and humidity data collected during
the experiment was used to compute water vapor content
and its seasonal variation above the GPS station. The
neutral atmosphere, which is the non-ionized part of
atmosphere, can normally be divided into two
components, the hydrostatic (dry) and wet portions of the
troposphere. The hydrostatic component consists of
mostly dry gases (normally referred to the dry part),
whereas the wet component mainly comprises of water
vapor present in the atmosphere. The troposphere causes
radio signal delay. The hydrostatic fraction contributes
approximately 90% of the delay. The pressure,
temperature, relative humidity profiles for Allahabad
GPS station are shown in Figure 11.


Fig. 10 ZWD variation for one year data set.

For Allahabad and adjoin regions the GPS wet delay
when compared with theoretical models, it is observed
that GPS calculated wet-delay closely resembles with
Hopfield and Saastamonien models, during the summer
season. However, during the winter season the wet delay
matched closely with Ifadis model. The wet delay can be
easily converted into integrated water vapor. For wet
delay calculations, we used empirically formula to
determine Tm (Bevis et. al.). The integrated water vapor
has been calculated at 00:00 hrs, 06:00 hrs, 12 hrs, 18:00
hrs and plotted in the Figure 12. The smoothed integrated
water vapor has been shown by blue curve (Figure 12a).
The mean of IWV for each month has calculated
separately and plotted in the Figure 12b.

It is observed that for Allahabad and its neighboring
region the water vapor content varies from maximum
70Kg/m2 to a minimum of 15 Kg/m2 (Figure 12a). The
monthly distribution of water vapor is shown in Figure
12b. Water vapor content reaches its maximum during
the rainy season and minimum during winter, as
expected. Thus, atmospheric water vapor variation could
be used as a proxy for short-term weather prediction, if
water vapor estimation is done in real time. The long
term study of water vapor can be used for to develop a
model for the region which can then be used for
prediction of short- and medium term climate changes,
very useful for agriculture based rural India.

Fig. 11: The integrated water has been calculated at
00:00 hrs, 06:00 hrs, 12 hrs, 18:00 hrs and plot.(b)
Monthly Integrated water vapor variation in the data
range July 2007 to June 2009

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ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7


MODELLING HETEROGENEOUS TRAFFIC USING VISSIM

A.K. Maurya
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of technology Guwahati, ASSAM 781039,
Email:maurya@iitg.ernet.in
S. Sharma
Former U.G. Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of technology Guwahati, ASSAM 781039
S. Biswas
P.G. Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of technology Guwahati, ASSAM 781039

ABSTRACT: In India, road traffic is characterized to be heterogeneous. A wide variation in static and
dynamic characteristics of vehicles is observed on the roadway. Vehicles do not follow lane discipline here;
their lateral movement is only restricted by the width of the road. This paper evaluates the potential of
microscopic simulation model VISSIM in modelling Indian traffic. The inherent model of VISSIM incorporates
longitudinal as well as lateral interactions resulted from both roadway and prevailing traffic characteristics. This
paper focuses on uninterrupted traffic flow modelling under Indian traffic scenario. Successful validation
extends this research in: (a) developing macroscopic relationships for various road widths, and (b) effects of
road geometry on driver behaviour, under Indian traffic conditions.

INTRODUCTION
The traffic pattern in developing countries like India
can be characterized as heterogeneous traffic: a wide
variation in speed, size, operating characteristics, and
lateral spacing of vehicles is observed. Moreover,
motorized and non-motorized modes share the same
road space. On the other hand, lane discipline is
generally discarded by vehicles on Indian road. Non-
lane based lateral movement implies a continuous
lateral movement within and between the lanes, and
overtaking within the same lane if lane width allows
that possibility (Vortisch and Gopalakrishanan, 2008).
This lateral movement is only restricted by the road
width. Maurya and Chakroborty (2008) note that lack
of lane discipline forces longitudinal as well as lateral
interactions. The above mentioned complexity of
Indian traffic has become a motivation to conduct this
study. Heterogeneity arising from modes of various
static dynamic characteristics and non-lane based
discipline, without clear lane markings on the
roadways, poses challenges for modellers. In this
regard, a variety of simulation tools are available for
modelling homogeneous traffic. Homogeneity with
lane discipline simplifies the modelling and executes
it in a well structured fashion. On the contrary, these
approaches developed for homogeneous traffic do not
prove to be effective for heterogeneous traffic flow.

For this paper, uninterrupted traffic in India is
modelled using microscopic simulation model
Verkehr in Staedten Simulation (VISSIM). The
inherent model in VISSIM incorporates longitudinal
as well as lateral interactions resulted from both
roadway and prevailing traffic characteristics, which
allows the modelling of heterogeneity with non-lane
based discipline. An understanding of complexity
behind modelling is crucial to replicating the
prevailing traffic situations effectively. The aim of
this paper is to determine how effective VISSIM is in
modelling Indian traffic at macroscopic level. Next
section deals with the related work done in the past.

RELATED WORK
This section describes the previous studies regarding
uninterrupted traffic flow modelling for Indian traffic.
Khan and Maini (2000) have recollected previous
modelling developments related to heterogeneous
traffic prevailing in developing countries. They note
that several studies have provided only few details
regarding modelling approach used for mixed flow
conditions.

Chakroborty et al. (2004) have developed a potential
field model of driver behaviour in uninterrupted
traffic flow. This model includes certain aspects: the
drivers concern for safety and the drivers urge to
reach destination as early as possible. However, this
model is computationally intensive which narrows
down the applicability of this model in simulating
large traffic stream. To overcome the aforesaid
drawback, Maurya (2007) developed CUTSiM
(comprehensive unidirectional traffic simulation
model) to model unidirectional and uninterrupted
traffic streams in computationally efficient and
realistic manner. Many other researchers also has
developed models to simulated Indian heterogeneous
traffic like (Arasan and Koshy, 2005; Dey et al., 2008;
Mathew and Radhakrishnan, 2010). VISSIM has been
a potential microscopic simulation tool in developed
countries. Literature review yields various traffic
simulation studies in context to developing world.
Hossain (2004) was able to calibrate VISSIM to satu-
ration flows, measured at intersection in Dhaka,
Bangladesh, with good results. Ahmed (2005)
conducted VISSIM calibration study for Khobar and
Dammam, Saudi Arabia, by adjusting the default
values of the number of observed vehicles, additive
and multiplicative parts of desired safety distance,
amber signal decision, and distance required in
changing lanes. Mathew and Radhakrishnan (2010)
have calibrated VISSIM for signalized intersection in
India. Results of above simulation studies developed


our faith to conduct Indian traffic stream simulation
study using VISSIM.

The approach presented in this paper builds upon
prior works and expands into topic areas where past
research has suggested it most useful. Full road width
use for lateral movement of vehicles yields new
insight into psycho-physical car-following model of
VISSIM. With great understanding of how vehicles
move laterally, the car-following parameters may be
fine-tuned more precisely.

SIMULATION MODEL OVERVIEW
VISSIM is a microscopic, time-step based,
behavioural traffic flow simulation model. The model
contains a psycho-physical car following model for
longitudinal vehicle movement and a rule-based
algorithm for lateral movements (Fellendorf and
Vortisch, 2001). The following description of inherent
model of VISSIM is entirely credited to Vortisch and
Gopalakrishanan (2008), as VISSIM manual (PTV,
2009) does not provide much evidence of this nature.
Therefore this paper presents this description as an aid
to fellow modellers and to improve the understanding
of the modelling approach behind VISSIM.

Longitudinal car following model
VISSIM uses Weidemanns psycho-physical car
following model, first published in 1974 (Wiedemann,
1974) and further developed in 1991 (Weidemann,
1991). The psycho-physical car following model
assumes that the driver behaviour is dependent on the
four modes of driving: free driving, where driver
seeks to maintain a constant individual desired speed;
approaching mode, when a driver reduces his speed to
the speed of a preceding slower car; following mode,
when a driver follows the preceding car without any
conscious acceleration or deceleration and he seeks to
maintain a constant desired safety distance; and
breaking mode, when the minimum desired safety
distance is violated and the driver applies medium to
high deceleration. For each mode, acceleration results
from speed of the vehicle, speed difference, and driver
and vehicle characteristics. On reaching a certain
threshold, the driver switches from one mode to
another. The thresholds take into account the human
perception capability and this is reason why the model
is called psycho-physical.

Lane Change Logic
The lane change logic in VISSIM is based on a series
of three decisions. In the first decision, the driver
decides if he wants to leave the current lane. This is
the case either for mandatory lane change, when the
driver moves to another lane to make a turn on
intersection or in situations when the driver cannot
drive at his desired speed on current lane. The second
decision compares the situation of the current lane
with the situation of the neighbouring lane. This
decision is positive if the situation on neighbouring
lane is better than on the current. The final decision is
about the possibility to go to the desired lane using
gap acceptance modelling: a driver is willing to accept
a certain deceleration for a vehicle approaching from
behind on the desired lane. The value of this
deceleration is subjected to users calibration
approach and drivers aggressiveness.

Lateral Behavioural Model
Lateral behavioural model has incorporated space-
oriented movement behaviour. This extension allows
drivers to choose any lateral position within the lane
while longitudinal behaviour incorporates more than
one leading vehicle on the same lane. The choice of
the lateral position in a lane follows this simple
principle: the driver chooses the lateral position (i.e.
desired position) where he has maximum longitudinal
time to collision. To move to this position from his
current position, driver applies a constant lateral speed
depending on vehicles type and on his longitudinal
speed.

The car-following model is modified to take into
account lateral safety distances when deciding which
of the preceding vehicles are relevant for the
acceleration behaviour. In this model, the lateral
safety distance that a driver wants to keep while
passing another vehicle depends on both vehicle types
and on speed of overtaking vehicle, i.e., on maximum
of both speeds. To facilitate this concern, a linear
relationship between lateral safety distance and speed
is assumed.

Based on current lateral position, the longitudinal
model looks at all preceding vehicles, within a user
defined look ahead distance and determines relevant
leading vehicles. These are all vehicles which the
driver cannot pass at the moment and with its current
speed and lateral position. Then for each of the
relevant leading vehicle, an interaction according to
psycho-physical car following model is computed.
The final longitudinal acceleration applied is the
minimum of all acceleration resulted from the
individual interactions.

DEVELOPING UNIDIRECTIONAL UN-
INTERRUPTED TRAFFIC FLOW MODEL

Base Model
Unidirectional uninterrupted traffic flow is considered
on modelling grounds. A road network, 4 km long, is
created in VISSIM. Road geometry is assumed to be
plane. Table 1 lists the static characteristics of the
vehicles used in study. As noted in Table 1, a wide
variation in lengths and widths among different
modes of traffic is common in India. Lateral gap
function considers total lateral spacing between
neighbouring vehicles on the road.

TABLE 1 Static characteristic of vehicles.
Vehicle type Lengt Widt Lateral gap
Truck 7.3 2.5
) 04 . 0 76 . 0 ( v
Car 4.3 1.8
) 04 . 0 60 . 0 ( v
Motorized 3 wheeler 3.0 1.4
) 06 . 0 46 . 0 ( v
Motorized 2 wheeler 1.8 0.6
) 06 . 0 30 . 0 ( v
Source: Maurya (2007)

Table 2 shows the speed characteristics of different
vehicles. Desired speed of vehicles is assumed to be
normally distributed: N(, 2). Depending on vehicle
type, the range of desired speed, mean value, and
standard deviation are incorporated in VISSIM
accordingly. In absence of field-observed acceleration
and deceleration profile of different vehicles for
Indian conditions, default values, provided by
VISSIM, are used.

TABLE 2 Speed characteristics of vehicles.
Vehicle type Minimum
(km/hr)
Maximum
(km/hr)
Mean
(km/hr)
Standard
deviation
(km/hr)
Truck 50 70 60 5
Car 70 90 80 5
Motorized 3 wheeler 40 60 50 5
Motorized 2 wheeler 70 90 80 5
Source: Maurya (2007)

Wiedemanns 99 car following model is used in this
study for its potential to model highway traffic
together with the use of numerous driver behaviour
parameters. Lateral behavioural model is adjusted for
non-lane based lateral movements. Any option is
selected in desired position at free flow. Observe
vehicles on next lane(s) option, along with diamond
shaped queuing, is checked; besides, overtaking on
the same lane is allowed from both sides left and
right. In minimum lateral distance option, lateral gap
function (see Table 1) is used to calculate the safe
lateral gap for various vehicle types at 0 km/hr and at
50 km/hr.

The time step influences the resulting driver
behaviour, because smaller time steps allow an earlier
and therefore smoother reaction to the driving action
of the preceding vehicle (Fellendorf and Vortisch,
2001). Thus we have used time step of 0.1 seconds to
investigate the finer details of lateral behavioural
model as well as to depict the speed-flow
relationships on aggregate level.

Unrestricted lateral movement
As mentioned before, previous studies access full road
width to implement an unrestricted lateral movement
(Arasan and Koshy, 2005; Dey et al., 2008).
Therefore in VISSIM, roads are assumed as one lane
but of width equal to entire road width.

MODEL CALIBRATION AND MACROSCOPIC
VALIDATION
Simulation model needs to be calibrated and validated
to replicate reality. Model calibration is defined as the
process by which the individual components of the
simulation model are adjusted or tuned so the model
will accurately represent field-measured or observed
traffic conditions. The improved base model is
calibrated against the fundamental speed-flow
relationship observed on a 14.6 m wide highway with
unidirectional and uninterrupted traffic. Field
observed speed-flow data is taken from PhD Thesis of
Maurya (2007); this data have been collected on
Delhi-Gurgaon highway (NH-8) during March, 2007.
Traffic at this location was uninterrupted and mainly
consists of passenger-cars ( 70%) and motorized two
wheelers ( 30%). The highway was 14.6 m wide. As
noted in Maurya (2007), desired speed distribution for
calibration includes: mean speed (65 km/hr);
minimum speed (50 km/hr); maximum speed (80
km/hr). Lowens and Machemehal (2006) have
investigated the sensitivity of Weidemanns 99 car-
following model parameters on roadway capacity.
Standstill distance (CC0) and headway time (CC1) are
observed to have predominant effect and thus are
more germane in the context of our approach. Only
free flow traffic regime is considered from the point
of view of calibration. A trial and error analysis
followed by sensitivity check yields only a change in
the value of CC1 from 0.9 (default) to 1.5. Keeping
CC0 unchanged, a comparison between field-
observed and simulated speed-flow profile is
presented in Figure 1. A close match between field
observed and simulated speed-flow relationship can
be observed from Figure 1.

Fig. 1 Simulated speed-flow relationships for 14.6 m
wide road (70% passenger cars and 30% motorized
two wheelers) using VISSIM.

SIMULATION RESULTS

Fundamental Speed- Flow Relationships
As for assessing the impact of road width on capacity
of roadway, we generated speed-flow relationships for
various road widths: 3.5m, 7.0m, 10.5 m, and 14.0 m
(Figure 2). These relationships are obtained for
homogenous traffic stream consisting of passenger-
cars only. Chiefly theses diagrams are obtained for

free-flow regime. Static characteristics of vehicles and
speed distribution data are taken from Table 1 and 2.

Table 3 presents the estimated impacts of roadway
width on capacity. In general results are intuitive: As
road width increases, capacity also increases, but not
at a proportional rate as it does in case of homogenous
traffic with lane discipline. This non linear increment
in our case can be attributed to the existing non-lane
based lateral movement.

Fig. 2 Simulated Speed-flow relationships for
different road widths with passenger cars only.

TABLE 3 Roadway capacity estimates for various
road widths obtained from VISSIM simulation for
traffic comprising passenger-cars only.

Road width (m) Capacity
3.5 1880 2080
7.0 2820 3310
10.5 4470 5040
14.0 5810 6430

Investigation of Lateral Behavioural Model of
VISSIM
In Figure 3, finer details of lateral behavioural model
are shown. The two-dimensional reference positions
of vehicles, taken at time step of 0.1 sec, are plotted
against each other. Two-dimensional referencing
includes longitudinal as well as lateral coordinates.
The results can be explained by the lack of lane
discipline on the roadway. It is clear from the figure
that the vehicles lateral positions selection is random,
and the vehicles do not appear to follow each other
within a well defined lane. Vehicles lateral positions
within a lane appear to be randomly distributed.
Therefore it is reflected that macroscopic
characteristics of heterogeneous traffic stream can be
modelled using VISSIM by calibrating its parameters
suitably.

Fig. 3 Lateral profiles of passenger cars on a 14.6 m
wide road obtained from simulation.

PERSPECTIVE
This paper introduced to the integration of
unrestricted lateral movement approach with car-
following theory. Both are part of the existing psycho-
physical car-following microscopic simulation model
VISSIM. Our empirical findings underpin the
potential of VISSIM in modelling non-lane based
lateral movements. Overall, results suggest that
VISSIM could produce realistic measurements.

In future, the first implementation effort will be
directed to the calibration and validation of VISSIM
at microscopic level with more data collection.
Considering genetic algorithm based optimization will
enhance the realistic measurements. Afterwards,
inclusion of non-motorized modes in our model will
lead us to realistic Indian traffic modelling.

REFERENCES
Ahmed, S.A. (2005) Calibration of VISSIM to the
Traffic Conditions of Khobar and Dammam,
Saudi Arabia, M.S. Thesis, King Fahd University
of Petroleum Minerals, Saudi Arabia.
Arasan,V.T. and Koshy, R.Z. (2005). Methodology
for modeling highly heterogeneous traffic flow.
Zoomed view of
circled portion


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Chakroborty, P., Agrawal, S., and Vasishtha, K.
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Dey, P.P., Chandra, S., and Gangopadhyay, S. (2008).
Simulation of mixed traffic flow on two-lane
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Research Board Compendium of Papers.
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traffic flow simulation model VISSIM for urban
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heterogeneous traffic flow. Transportation
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Kanpur, India.
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ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7
RECENT ADVANCES IN HYDROLOGICAL ANALYSIS, MODELING,
AND DECISION-MAKING
R. D. Singh
Director, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee
M. K. Goel
Scientist F, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee
ABSTRACT: Water is essential for sustaining life on Earth. However, in view of the increasing demands for
various competing sectors such as urbanization, industrialization, growing population, and increasing living
standards, the finite freshwater resources are getting vulnerable to deficit in terms of quantity and quality.
Further, because of the high time and space variability in rainfall in this country, optimum conservation and
management of the available water resources for different purposes is the need of the hour.
In the past few decades, the science of hydrology has made significant progress in various dimensions.
Hydrological instrumentation, data collection, processing, storage and retrieval have been computerized to a
considerable extent. Spatial database provided through remote sensing satellites and spatial analyses through
Geographic Information System (GIS) are finding applications in a number of modeling studies. Nuclear
techniques are finding applications in a number of hydrological applications related to identification of recharge
areas, groundwater seepage and its movement and identification of flow components from different sources in a
stream. Further, Decision Support Systems (DSS) are being developed at the scale of river basins which can
help the decision makers in analyzing various scenarios for rational surface and groundwater development and
management without going deep into the modeling intricacies. This paper discusses some of these recent
developments in various facets of hydrology and water resources.
INTRODUCTION
Of all renewable Earth resources, water has a
unique place. It is essential for sustaining all forms
of life, food production, economic development,
and for general well-being of the society. It is truly
a unique gift of nature to mankind as it is difficult
to de-pollute, expensive to transport and impossible
to substitute for most of its uses. Water is also one
of the most manageable of the natural resources as
it is capable of diversion, transport, storage, and
recycling. All these properties impart great utility
of water for human beings.
The water resources of our country (both, surface
and groundwater) play a major role in agriculture,
hydropower generation, livestock production,
industrial activities, forestry, fisheries, navigation,
recreational activities etc. In the planning and
operation of water resources, our National Water
Policy broadly allocates priorities as: (i) drinking
water, (ii) irrigation, (iii) hydropower, (iv) ecology,
(v) agro-industries and non-agricultural industries,
and (vi) navigation. India receives annual
precipitation of about 4000 km
3
, including
snowfall, out of which monsoon rainfall is of the
order of 3000 km
3
. India is gifted with a river
system comprising more than 20 major rivers with
several tributaries, most of which are perennial.
The rivers like Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus
originate from Himalayas and carry water
throughout the year. More than 50% of water
resources of India are located in various tributaries
of these river systems [Lal (2001)]. Apart from the
water available in the various rivers of the country,
the groundwater is also an important source of
water for drinking, irrigation, industrial uses, etc. It
accounts for about 80% of domestic water requirement
and more than 45% of the total irrigation in the
country.
Hydrology is the science of occurrence, distribution,
and movement of water in the atmosphere, at the
surface of Earth and below the surface. With time, the
advances in hydrological techniques have grown
manifold. Automation in Hydrological and Hydro-
meteorological instrumentation provides adequate and
accurate data at desired time interval for the
application of advanced modeling tools to address
various water resources problems. User interactive
Software for Digital hydrological data storage,
processing and retrieval are being developed and
extensively used for data base management. Spatial
database provided through remote sensing satellites
and spatial analyses through Remote Sensing and
Geographic Information System (GIS) are important
tools for the development of spatial decision support
system (SDSS) for spatial data base management and
analysis. These tools provide important input for the
modeling studies. The outcomes of such studies are
being utilized for addressing the number of water
resources management issues. There have been
significant developments and applications of Soft
computing techniques, such as Artificial Neural
Network (ANN) and Fuzzy Logic etc, in the field of
hydrology and water resources. Nuclear techniques are
finding applications in a number of hydrological
applications which include identification of recharge
areas, groundwater seepage and its movement and
identification of flow components from different
sources in a stream. Further, Decision Support Systems
(DSS) are being developed at the scale of river basins
RECENT ADVANCES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
which can help the decision makers in analyzing
various scenarios for rational surface and
groundwater development and management
without going deep into the modeling intricacies.
The present paper gives a brief overview of recent
developments in hydrological modeling and
analysis.
ADVANCES IN HYDROLOGIC
INSTRUMENTATION
The planning, development and operation of water
resources projects is solely dependent upon the
hydrological data. For economic and optimum
utilization, planning, design and development of
water resources, determination of the extent and
availability of surface and groundwater is the first
requisite and this in turn requires readily
accessible, reliable and adequate observation
on the elements of hydrological cycle and related
factors. Hydrometry is concerned with measuring
and observing elements of the hydrological cycle.
Generally, the main meteorological
interest include maximum and minimum
temperature, dry and wet bulb temperature,
wind velocity and direction, sunshine, albedo,
evaporation, soil moisture etc. Main hydrological
variables of interest include water level in the
rivers and corresponding discharge. These
variables are generally measured with conventional
instruments like thermometers, raingauges, wind
vanes and anemometers, sunshine duration
recorders and pyranometers, pan evaporimeters etc.
WMO (1998) has listed various instruments and
their observation methods.
In the recent past, automatic weather stations
(AWS) have been introduced for the repetitive
recording of hydro-meteorological variables at the
desired frequency and store their values in a data
logger for downloading and use. These instruments
(shown in Fig. 1)
Fig. 1: A view of AWS
record measurements like wind speed and
direction, humidity, temperature, sunshine,
atmospheric pressure, solar radiation, rain gauge,
soil moisture and soil temperature. These
of paramount importance in uninhabited,
inaccessible areas for data related to weather
forecasting and cyclone forecasting etc.
weather stations send weather data through
satellites to the base stations and processed data
which can help the decision makers in analyzing
various scenarios for rational surface and
groundwater development and management
without going deep into the modeling intricacies.
aper gives a brief overview of recent
developments in hydrological modeling and
ADVANCES IN HYDROLOGIC
The planning, development and operation of water
resources projects is solely dependent upon the
ic and optimum
utilization, planning, design and development of
water resources, determination of the extent and
availability of surface and groundwater is the first
requisite and this in turn requires readily
accessible, reliable and adequate observation data
on the elements of hydrological cycle and related
factors. Hydrometry is concerned with measuring
and observing elements of the hydrological cycle.
meteorological variables of
interest include maximum and minimum
temperature, dry and wet bulb temperature, rainfall,
wind velocity and direction, sunshine, albedo,
evaporation, soil moisture etc. Main hydrological
variables of interest include water level in the
and corresponding discharge. These
variables are generally measured with conventional
instruments like thermometers, raingauges, wind
vanes and anemometers, sunshine duration
recorders and pyranometers, pan evaporimeters etc.
instruments and
In the recent past, automatic weather stations
(AWS) have been introduced for the repetitive
variables at the
desired frequency and store their values in a data
These instruments
record measurements like wind speed and
direction, humidity, temperature, sunshine,
atmospheric pressure, solar radiation, rain gauge,
These AWS are
of paramount importance in uninhabited, remote,
inaccessible areas for data related to weather
forecasting and cyclone forecasting etc. Automatic
weather stations send weather data through
satellites to the base stations and processed data
required for the regional stations and early warning
stations are transmitted through satellites.
instruments are solar power-based system and runs on
the battery which is charged by the sunlight through a
small solar panel. In India, India Meteorological
Department (IMD) has installed a number of state
art AWS all over the country and efforts are
continuing. To improve meteorological services,
also planned to set up about 1000 AWS through the
expansion programmes of Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO) and Snow and Avalanche Study
Establishment (SASE).
Stream discharge is the volume of water passing a
cross-section per unit of time and is generally
expressed as cubic meter per second (cumec).
Discharge is simply velocity times the cro
area. Cross-sectional area is determined by stretching a
tape across the channel to measure distance at the
cross-section locations where depth is measured with a
calibrated rod. In large rivers, the cross
covered on a moving boat and water depth is measured
with echo-depth recorder. Automatic and digital water
level recorders are getting due recognition for the
measurement of river stages. A radar water level
measuring instrument (Fig. 2)
Fig. 2 View of radar water level recorde
using radar pulses to measure levels
contact with water. It can be located on a bridge, pier
or any structure over the waters surface which, if
connected to a logging sensor, can record data at user
specified interval. Flow velocity is generally measured
either with a float or current meter which again are
available in a number of varieties.
meters have also been developed for measuring
average flow velocities in rivers and streams.
SOFTWARE FOR HYDROLOGICAL DATA
ENTRY & PROCESSING
Advances in hydrology are dependent on good, reliable
and continuous measurements of hydrological
variables. Hydro-meteorological data collected from
various sources/instruments are generally raw
cannot as such be used for most hydrological analysis.
Such data are first computerized and then subjected to
various kinds of tests for ensuring the quality.
processing is a broad term covering all activities from
receiving records of observed raw data to making them
available in a usable form. The raw data are in a
variety of formats such as hand-written records, charts
and digital records. Raw data as observed and recorded
may contain many gaps and inconsistencies. These raw
649
for the regional stations and early warning
stations are transmitted through satellites. These
based system and runs on
the battery which is charged by the sunlight through a
In India, India Meteorological
partment (IMD) has installed a number of state-of-
art AWS all over the country and efforts are
meteorological services, it is
AWS through the
an Space Research
Organisation (ISRO) and Snow and Avalanche Study
Stream discharge is the volume of water passing a
section per unit of time and is generally
expressed as cubic meter per second (cumec).
Discharge is simply velocity times the cross-sectional
sectional area is determined by stretching a
tape across the channel to measure distance at the
section locations where depth is measured with a
calibrated rod. In large rivers, the cross-section is
nd water depth is measured
and digital water
level recorders are getting due recognition for the
adar water level
Fig. 2 View of radar water level recorder
using radar pulses to measure levels without direct
e located on a bridge, pier
or any structure over the waters surface which, if
connected to a logging sensor, can record data at user-
Flow velocity is generally measured
either with a float or current meter which again are
available in a number of varieties. Digital velocity
meters have also been developed for measuring
average flow velocities in rivers and streams.
HYDROLOGICAL DATA
Advances in hydrology are dependent on good, reliable
and continuous measurements of hydrological
meteorological data collected from
various sources/instruments are generally raw and
sed for most hydrological analysis.
first computerized and then subjected to
ensuring the quality. Data
processing is a broad term covering all activities from
receiving records of observed raw data to making them
available in a usable form. The raw data are in a
written records, charts
served and recorded
may contain many gaps and inconsistencies. These raw
data are passed through a series of operations,
typically: data entry, making necessary validation
checks, filling missing values in a data series,
processing of raw data to estimate required
variables, compilation of data in different forms
and analysis of data for commonly required
statistics etc. The rapid advances in computer
technology, in hardware speed of operation and
data storage capacity as well as the capability of
hydrological software has greatly simplified the
management of large quantities of hydrological
data and has rendered obsolete those time-
consuming manual methods which were formerly
the norm. Computer-based hydrological
information systems offer various advantages viz.,
to permit and promote the standardization of
processing, validation and reporting procedures; to
handle a very large amounts of data and users can
be provided with data in the required tabular or
graphical format.
Surface Water Data Entry System (SWDES) has
been developed under Hydrology Project - I and
introduced in 1999. The prime objective of this
data entry software is to provide sufficient facilities
for entering all types of meteorological and
hydrological quality and quantity data. The
software provides suitable facilities for entry of
rainfall, water level, stage-discharge, water quality,
sediment and climatic data as observed by surface
water agencies. The data so entered using this
software is subjected to essential data entry checks
so that the possibility of committing mistakes is
minimized. The graphical interface so provided
gives added advantage of visual means of
validating the entered data. The software is used for
entering the historical and current data, available
with various agencies in huge volumes.
Fig. 3: A window showing main switchboard of
SWDES
Fig. 4: A typical window of HYMOS data
processing software
This software provides a front-end for the data
entry personnel for entering and preliminarily
validating all types of meteorological and surface
water quality and quantity data. The main screen of
SWDES software is presented in Fig. 3.
HYMOS is an information system for storage,
processing and analysis of hydrological and
environmental data. It combines an efficient database
structure with powerful tools for data entry, validation,
completion, analysis, retrieval and presentation. The
wide variety of data processing and analysis features
make HYMOS very suitable for typical project
application in water-related studies. HYMOS has been
developed into a flexible and multi-functional
hydrological information system. A typical window of
HYMOS software is presented in Fig. 4.
HYMOS makes use of a data structure, part of which is
open, which ensures convenient interaction and data
transfer with other existing databases (such as SWDES)
and modeling systems. Being part of DELFT TOOLS,
HYMOS is fully integrated with other software
packages of WL | DELFT HYDRAULICS like
SOBEK, DELWAQ and RIBASIM. The HYMOS
database is time series oriented with common facilities
for spatial analysis. In combination with a
Geographical Information System (GIS) for
comprehensive geographical data analysis, it covers all
data storage and processing requirements for planning,
design and operation of water management systems.
Exchange of data between HYMOS and most common
GIS systems is easy and user friendly.
SOFT-COMPUTING TECHNIQUES FOR
HYDROLOGICAL MODELING
Soft computing techniques are based on the
information processing in biological systems. The
complex biological information processing system
enables the human beings to survive with
accomplishing tasks like recognition of surrounding,
making prediction, planning, and acting accordingly.
Human type information processing involves both
logical and intuitive information processing.
Conventional computer systems are good for the
former, but their capability for the later is far behind
that of human beings. For a computing system to have
human like information processing facility, it should
be flexible enough to support three features: openness,
robustness, and real-time processing. Openness of a
system is its ability to adapt or extend on its own to
cope with changes encountered in the real world.
Robustness of a system means its stability and
tolerability when confronted with distorted,
incomplete, or imprecise information. The real-time
characteristic implies the ability of the system to react
within a reasonable time in response to an event.
Information processing systems with all these three
characteristics are known as real world computing
systems (Chaudhuri and Chattopadhyay, 2005a). A
real-world system should be capable of distributed
representation of information, massively parallel
processing, learning, and self-organization in order
to achieve flexibility in information processing.
Thus, Soft Computing can be viewed as the key
ingredient of real systems. Several authors (Zhang
and Scofield, 1994; Zhang and Knoll, 2001;
Chaudhuri and Chattopadhyay, 2005 a, b) have
discussed the potential of soft computing
techniques in solving real-world problems.
Soft Computing has three basic components,
namely, Artificial Neural Network, Fuzzy Logic,
and Genetic Algorithm. In recent times, two other
methods have been incorporated. They are Rough
Set Theory and Ampliative Reasoning. Artificial
Neural Network (ANN) is useful in the situations,
where underlying processes / relationships may
display chaotic properties. ANN does not require
any prior knowledge of the system under
consideration and are well suited to model dynamic
systems on a real-time basis (Maqsood et al.,
2002). Fuzzy Logic is another Soft Computing
technique necessary for analyzing complex
systems, especially where the data structure is
characterized by several linguistic parameters.
Another component of soft computing techniques
is genetic algorithm. This algorithm is based upon
the concept of evolution and survival of the
fittest. Representation of neurons as artificial
neural network structure for solving real-life
problems is shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5: Representation of neurons as artificial
neural network
Scientific and engineering community has acquired
extensive experience in developing and using soft
computing techniques during last few decades. Due
to their strong learning, cognitive ability and good
tolerance of uncertainty and imprecision, soft
computing techniques have emerged as potential
computing techniques. These methods offer several
advantages over conventional methods. Neural
network technology has offered many promising
results in the field of hydrology and water
resources simulation. Fuzzy logic is another soft
computing technique, which has very recently
received attention in hydrology. It is a paradigm for
an alternative design methodology which can be
applied in developing both linear and non-linear
systems. The discipline of fuzzy logic, fuzzy
systems, and fuzzy modeling has witnessed its
greatest success in real-world automatic control
applications, including subway control,
autonomous robot navigation, auto-focus cameras,
image analysis, and diagnosis systems. In the fuzzy
logic approach the Boolean logic is extended to
handle the concept of partial truth which implies that
the truth takes a value between a completely true value
and a completely false value.
Soft computing techniques have been
recognized as attractive alternatives to the standard,
well established hard computing paradigms.
Traditional hard computing methods are often too
cumbersome for todays problems. They always
require a precisely stated analytical model and often a
lot of computational time. Soft computing techniques,
which emphasize gains in understanding system
behaviour in exchange for unnecessary precision, have
proved to be important practical tools for many
contemporary problems. ANNs and FLMs are
universal approximators of any multivariate function
because they can be used for modeling highly
nonlinear, unknown, or partially known complex
systems or processes. Genetic Algorithm and Particle
Swarm Optimization Techniques have emerged as
potential and robust optimization tools in recent years.
Ever increasing demand for the supply of fresh water
to the various sectors of human needs has given rise to
the problem of optimal management of water resources
on all parts of the world, more so, in a developing
country like India, where the distribution of the water
resource is highly uneven both in space and time. For
efficient management of water resources, prediction of
various hydrological events such as rainfall-runoff
correlation, forecasting of inflow into a reservoir,
forecasting of rainfall, forecasting of evaporation,
forecasting of maximum flood and optimum reservoir
operation policy etc. are required. Soft computing
techniques are very effective for forecast of complex
system in water resources engineering. A number of
studies based on ANN have been reported in
hydrological literature. Modeling in hydrology and
water resources using fuzzy logic is a relatively new
area of research although last decade has witnessed
quite a few studies mainly in reservoir operation and
water resources management. In other important areas
like stage-discharge-sediment relationship, rainfall-
runoff modeling and hydrological forecasting etc., the
fuzzy logic applications have been proved [Lohani et
al. (2005, 2007a)].
APPLICATIONS OF ISOTOPE TECHNOLOGY
IN HYDROLOGY
Isotope methods were introduced into catchment
hydrology research in the 1960s as complementary
tools to conventional hydrologic methods for
addressing questions of where water goes when it
rains, what pathways it takes to the stream and how
long water resides in the catchment (McDonnell,
2003). Despite slow incorporation into routine research
applications, the last decade has seen a rapid increase
in isotope-based catchment studies. These have been
mainly carried out in small well-instrumented
experimental catchments, of the order of 0.01 to 100
km
2
and located typically in headwater areas (Buttle,
1998). In contrast, little has been done in terms of
application and transfer of these concepts and
methodologies to large (100s to 1000s km
2
river
basins) and less instrumented basins. However,
much potential is yet to be realized in terms of how
isotope information may be used to calibrate and
test rainfall-runoff models and to aid in the
sustainable water resources management.
Isotope hydrology deals with the application of
isotopes as tracers in water resources development
and management. Applications of isotopes in
hydrology and water resources has increased in
recent years due to increase of problems in water
sector, particularly depleting groundwater quantity,
deterioration in water quality and many other
unpredictable natural events that affect the
hydrological cycle. The environmental isotopes are
the naturally occurring isotopes of elements found
in abundance in our environment such as H, C, N,
O and S. These are principal elements of
hydrological, geological and biological systems.
The stable isotopes of these elements serve as
tracers of water, carbon, nutrient and solute
cycling. Radioactive environmental isotopes such
as C-14 and H-3 can be used to estimate
age/circulation of groundwater.
A large variety of environmental stable and
radioactive isotopes (e.g.,
2
H,
3
H,
3
He,
4
He,
6
Li,
11
B,
13
C,
14
C,
15
N,
18
O,
34
S,
36
Cl,
37
Cl,
81
Br,
81
Kr,
87
Sr,
129
I,
137
Cs
210
Pb etc.) are employed for
hydrological studies. However, the stable isotopes
have the distinct advantage over injected (artificial)
tracers (
3
H,
46
Sc,
60
Co,
82
Br,
13
1I,
198
Au, etc.) in that
they facilitate the study of various hydrological
processes on a much larger temporal and spatial
scale through their natural distribution in a system.
Thus, environmental isotope methodologies are
unique in regional studies of water resources to
obtain time and space integrated characteristics
whereas the artificial tracers generally are effective
for sitespecific, local applications. Earlier,
artificially produced radioactive isotopes were
being used with a very limited scope of their use as
tracers only, but now environmental isotopes, both
radioactive and stable isotopes, are widely used for
a variety of applications with no fear of health
hazards. Environmental isotopes are freely
available in the atmosphere and automatically
injected in to the hydrologic cycle. Therefore, the
users have neither to purchase these isotopes nor to
inject them in hydrological system.
With the development of sophisticated and
automated instrumentation for very precise isotopic
measurements, new approaches are being
developed and new applications and tools are being
added to the isotope toolbox. Now Isotope
techniques can effectively be used in carrying out
various hydrological studies. Specifically, the
Isotope can be used for tracing the source,
movement, and pollution of ground water. Isotopes
can be used for various investigations in order to
understand and identify the problem for suggesting the
possible remedial solutions. Major applications of
isotopes in hydrology are:
1. dating of waters and sediments,
2. estimation of soil erosion in watersheds/
catchments,
3. estimation of groundwater flow velocity and
direction,
4. discharge measurement of mountainous rivers,
5. seepage/leakage from water bodies,
6. hydrograph separation (shown in Fig. 6),
7. sources of salinity and sea water intrusion,
8. identification of recharge sources and recharge
zones for shallow and deeper aquifers,
9. groundwater surface water interaction,
10. snow and glacial studies, and
11. climate change studies.
Snow melt water = 56%, Glacier Melt water=41%,
Rainfall contribution=3%
Fig. 6: Discharge separation at Gomukh using nuclear
techniques
The National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee has a
well equipped Nuclear Hydrology Laboratory for
measurement of stable and radio isotopes. The Institute
has carried out various studies using the isotopic
techniques in the recent past for example, discharge
measurement of Teesta River, hydrograph separation
of Bhagirathi River at Devprayag, identification of
leakage from Tehri dams, estimation of water balance
of Nainital Lake, estimation of sedimentation rate and
pattern of major lakes of North India, river -
groundwater interaction along Yamuna river at Delhi,
estimation of monsoon contribution to river Bhagirathi
at Gaumukh [Rai et al. (2009)], identification of
recharge zones and source of springs in mountainous
region and groundwater in plain region, and
characterization of Indian precipitation [Kumar et al.
(2010)] etc.
REMOTE SENSING & GIS APPLICATIONS IN
HYDROLOGY
Availability of the right information at the right time to
the right person and at the right cost is a crucial factor
in decision making. For any water resources
development project, information on existing land
use/cover, cropping pattern, soil characteristics and
their spatial distribution is a prerequisite. These data
and information need to be carefully, effectively and
efficiently analyzed, stored and retrieved whenever
required. The conventional procedure of storing,
handling and updating records is slow, un-
systematic, occupies large space and requires huge
manpower. Further, such records are rarely
updated. With the advent of remote sensing and
GIS tools, it has become possible to prepare the
dynamic resource maps at various levels of
confidence. Remote sensing provides multi-spectral
and multi-temporal synoptic coverage for the area
of interest, while the GIS provide the facilities to
integrate and analyze multi-disciplinary data. For
natural resource management to be socially
acceptable, decision-making must be a public and
participatory process. The capability of GIS to
express the information in maps and pictures, can
make the general public more informed and can
involve them in decision making activities.
Remote sensing implies sensing from a distance.
Each satellite image is considered as representing a
spatial distribution of energy coming from the
earth's surface in one or several wavelength ranges
of the electromagnetic spectrum. By using multi-
spectral satellite data suitably, different ground
features can be differentiated and thematic maps
can be prepared. Basic principles of remote sensing
are depicted in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7: Illustration of principles of remote sensing
Satellite remote sensing measurements have been
used to provide regular information on agricultural
and hydrological conditions of the land surface for
vast areas and have played vital role in developing
and monitoring water management plans. Vastness
of the river basins, time and manpower constraints
in data collection and seasonal changes in the
information require fast inventory of study areas. In
all these circumstances, remote sensing can be
looked upon as an aid in planning and decision-
making (Vidal, 2000). The usefulness of remote
sensing techniques in various hydrological studies
have been demonstrated in various studies
[Govardhan (1993), Bastiaanssen (1998, 2000), and
Menenti (2000)]. Advances in remote sensing
technology have led to considerable saving in time and
money spent in data collection and input. There are
variety of available packages for image processing of
satellite data (Bos et al. 2001), ranging from low-cost
and simple (MapInfo, IDRISI, ER-Mapper, PCI) to
complete and simple (ILWIS, GRASS) and
professional and expensive (Erdas-Imagine, IDL-
Envi). In last few years, remote sensing technology has
been increasingly used for evolving an objective,
cheaper and faster methodology for identification of
landuse, soil type, snow cover areas, irrigated areas
and cropping pattern, crop water stress and crop yield,
crop evapo-transpiration, soil moisture and salinity.
Remote sensing data is being increasingly used for
rainfall-runoff modelling, reservoir sedimentation
assessment, watershed prioritization, flood forecasting,
flood risk zoning and flood management. The scope of
remotely sensed data can be significantly enhanced
through integration with other types and sources of
data in a GIS environment. Potential applications of
GIS in hydrological studies include topographical
analysis (creation of DEM, slope, aspect, drainage
network, and contributing basin maps), interpolation of
point information (rainfall or groundwater level) to
generate spatially distributed maps of groundwater
depth and rainfall, and integration of maps of various
variables and different sources for water logging
assessment, soil/land suitability classification, water
resources management and participatory decision-
making (by using the GIS to express information as
maps and pictures to make the general public more
informed and involve them in decision making.
DEVELOPMENT OF DECISION SUPPORT
SYSTEMS (DSS)
With time, we are becoming increasingly aware of the
fact that our water supplies are limited both in quantity
and quality. Water has multiple and often competing
uses and water systems are interrelated with other
physical and socio-economic systems. This precious
resource has competitors that need water in one way or
the other as a result of which it often becomes
challenging in space and time to fully satisfy the needs
of all competitors. Therefore, effective management of
water and related environment in a river basin requires
an integrated and coordinated planning within the
basin. Further, introduction of water resources projects
(reservoirs, irrigation canals etc.) in a river basin sets
in new hydrological regime in the basin with revised
conditions of surface and groundwater availability and
use. In addition, a number of interacting water-related
variables are involved in a river basin such as rainfall,
evapo-transpiration, land use and land cover,
landscape, soil types and their water holding and
transmission characteristics, prevailing cropping
pattern and their water demands, irrigated/rain fed
area, groundwater potential/development and its
temporal availability, urban/rural area and water
demands, industrial development and water
demands, water resources structures and their
characteristics, hydro-meteorological network and
spatial and temporal data availability etc. For
preparing any integrated river basin plan, it is
imperative to gather the details about these
interacting variables and to establish their linkages
for evaluation of their impact on the basin water
resources.
A Decision Support System (DSS) as an interactive
computer-based support system that helps decision
makers utilize data and models to solve
unstructured problems. DSS for integrated water
resources planning and management can be very
important tools that are helpful for fast
computations, easy data management and drawing
conclusions about alternative water policies.
General architecture of a DSS is shown in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8: General architecture of a DSS
As computing speed and ease is becoming more
powerful, more complex yet more comprehensive
DSS are being developed. Such computer models
as MODSIM, RIBASIM, AQUATOOL, TERRA,
MIKE BASIN, RiverWare, WaterWare, and
BHIWA etc. have been used as Decision Support
System (DSS) for integrated river basin planning
and management. MODSIM is widely referred
DSS for conjunctive management of water
resources under the prior appropriation water right
(Fredericks et al., 1998). It is designed as a DSS for
developing improved basin-wise and regional
strategies for river administration, drought
contingency planning, evaluating groundwater
exchange programs, managing recharge and
augmentation projects and resolving conflicts
between urban, agricultural and environmental
concerns. TERRA (TVA Environment and River
Resource Aid) is a DSS developed for the
management of river, reservoir and power
resources of Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)
and the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
(Reitsma, et al., 1996). RIVER WARE is a DSS,
developed at the University of Colorado, for a
general river basin modeling for wide range of
applications (Zagona, 1998) using three
fundamental solution methods: simple simulation,
rule-based simulation and optimization. Similarly,
AQUATOOL (Andreu, et al., 1996), WATER
WARE (Jamieson and Fedra, 1996), RIBASIM
(developed by Delft Hydraulics, The Netherlands),
MIKE BASIN (developed by DHI, Denmark), and
SWAT (Arnold et al., 1994; Neitsch et al., 2002) are
some other DSSs that have been used world-wide to
develop basin hydrologic plans and manage water
resources efficiently.
Under the Hydrology Project II, a DSS (Planning) is
being developed at NIH for integrated water resources
planning and management. Five major components of
the DSS are: surface water planning, integrated
operation of reservoirs, conjunctive use of surface and
ground water, drought monitoring, assessment, and
management, management of surface water and
groundwater quality. The DSS applications are being
developed for the nine Peninsular States of India. In
addition, a DSS (Real-Time) is being developed at
Bhakhra-Beas Management Board (BBMB) to assist
the decision makers in real-time flood forecasting and
management of floods from the reservoirs. This DSS is
being customized for the Satluj river basin. Both the
DSS are being developed with the assistance of DHI,
Denmark as consultants.
CONCLUSION
With time, we are becoming more increasingly aware
of the fact that our water supplies are limited, both in
quantity and quality. In the present age, hydrology and
water-related studies are given due recognition as all
developmental activities depend on water. However,
with technological innovations and emergence of high
speed digital techniques, hydrological observation,
analysis, and management is rapidly advancing with
time. Hydrological instrumentation has improved
substantially with the advent of AWS and GPRS
technology while software have been developed for
storage, analysis, processing, and dissemination of
hydrological data. More rigorous hydrological models
are being used in conjunction with remote sensing and
GIS techniques for detailed representation of real
systems. Soft computing techniques are being
integrated with the models for simulating the
hydrological response of water systems. Nuclear
techniques are finding applications in a number of
hydrological applications. Decision Support Systems
(DSS) are being developed at the scale of river basins
to help the decision makers in analyzing various
scenarios for integrated surface and groundwater
development and management without going deep into
the modeling intricacies. All these developments are
intended to help water resources professionals in
formulating adaptive strategies to cope with future
water stress situations in view of rising demands and
altered water supply pattern as a result of climate
change impact.
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ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7

STATIC AND DYNAMIC STABILITY OF PLATES AND SHELLS

L.S. Ramachandra
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kharagpur-721302

ABSTRACT: The buckling of different elastic structures is the rich source of interesting and
important problems in nonlinear solid mechanics. In this study, linear and nonlinear static and
dynamic buckling of plates and shells are discussed. Historical development of the subject is
outlined. Various methods adopted to determine the critical condition for the elastic
structures subjected to external loading are discussed. Few results on the static and dynamic
buckling of plates and cylindrical shell panels are given. The characteristics of nonlinear
dynamic instability of plates are clearly brought out by dynamic response analysis.

INTRODUCTION
Due to neglect of stability in design, many
structures have collapsed in the past. The following
collapses illustrate the importance of considering
structural stability in design: the collapse of
Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) due to
aerodynamic instability, collapse of Quebec bridge
(1907) due to buckling of one latticed diagonal of a
truss having insufficient shear stiffness, failure of
space frame at Hartford civic center as the main
chords had insufficient buckling strength, collapse
of Ferrybridge cooling tower, failure of aircraft
wings, failure of numerous bridges, tanks, silos,
processing containments, chimneys etc. Depending
on the type of loading, the elastic structure may
respond in linear/nonlinear static bending, stability,
vibration, dynamic stability. There are many books
dealing with each of this topic. Here an attempt has
been made to introduce linear and nonlinear static
and dynamic stability of plates and shells. The
scope of this paper is limited and only a few salient
features of buckling are covered here.
Failure of structural elements is broadly classified
in to two categories: material failure and structural
instability. The material failure can be predicted by
solving the equilibrium equations of structures. To
model this type of phenomenon, the equilibrium
equations are written based on the initial
undeformed configuration of the structure. As
against this, the stability failures are predicted from
the equations written based on the deformed
configuration of the structure. Since the deformed
configurations are not known in advance, even the
linear stability problem becomes nonlinear.
An example often given to make stability
concept clear is shown in Fig. 1. The system
consists of ball of weight W resting at different
positions. Points of zero slopes denote static
equilibrium positions. The ball on a hilltop (Fig.
1a) represents an unstable equilibrium
configuration. If we were to give an infinitesimal
small disturbance, it will roll down the hill. In
contrast, the ball in a trough or a valley represents
the stable equilibrium configuration. Hence, if were to
disturb the ball, it will return to its original position.
There is a third possibility. Take for an example a ball
lying on a plane. If disturbed, it will tend to remain in
the disturbed configuration. This represents a neutral
equilibrium configuration. Hence, the equilibrium
configuration of the system tells us nothing about the
stability of those equilibrium configurations.

(a) Unstable equilibrium

(b) Stable equilibrium

(c) Neutral equilibrium
Fig. 1 Equilibrium positions
METHODS ADOPTED IN STABILITY
ANALYSIS
The word stability means the capability of elastic
structure to regain its original state of equilibrium,
when it is being subjected to small external
disturbances. The structural elements can become
unstable in many ways depending on the structural
geometry and load characteristics. Numbers of
different approaches have been adopted to determine
the critical condition for the elastic structures subjected
to external load. In the oldest method of determining
the stability of the structure one tries to find out
whether the structure admits two or more different but
infinitesimally close equilibrium states (Ziegler 1968,
Simitses and Hodges, 2006). Consider for example a
slender straight hinged-hinged column subjected to an
axial load P. Here the column is assumed to be
perfectly straight and the load, P, is applied along the
centre line of the column. As the load is increased from
zero quasistatically, the column remains straight but
compressed. Now if small external disturbances
(deformations or velocities) are applied in addition to
axial load P and the structure oscillates about the


deformed equilibrium state, the equilibrium said to
be stable. Here, by small it is meant that as small
as desired. However, there exists a load denoted
by P
cr
(critical load) for which the column tends to
deviate from the original equilibrium state and this
equilibrium is said to be unstable. It does not return
to its straight configuration on removing the
disturbance. The column continues to be in the
deformed adjacent equilibrium configuration.
Hence at this level of load there exists two different
equilibrium states infinitesimally close to each
other. In other words a bifurcation point exists for
this load.. This method is generally known as the
equilibrium approach or the bifurcation approach.
The lowest axial load for which this behaviour is
observed is defined as the critical load or the Euler
buckling load of the column as this problem was
first solved by Euler in 1759. The important feature
of the problem just discussed is that there are
multiple equilibrium states, among which an
unbuckled or trivial state in which the column
remains straight as shown in Fig.2.

Fig. 2 Two equilibrium configurations of the
column under the same loading.
The bifurcation analysis can only be applied to
perfect structures. In real world, structures being
imperfect ones, the bifurcation load obtained
through classical eigen value problem can serve
only as the guideline. For imperfect structures, the
buckling occurs when the deflection becomes
excessive or even infinite. Also, from the above
discussion, it is clear that concept of motion be
introduced to discuss the stability. In strict sense,
adjacent equilibrium state can only be discussed by
considering the dynamic process of movement
from one stable state to another (Dym, 1974).
Hence, in general the concept of stability is a
dynamic phenomenon. The dynamic definition of
stability is applicable to all structural stability
problems. In this case, we study the response of
elastic structures subjected to external loads. Here
it is required to determine at what level of load the
response ceases to be bounded. This approach is
known as the kinetic or dynamic approach.
The kinetic criterion of stability was first
introduced by Lagrange for a system with finite
degrees of freedom. A more general definition of
dynamic stability was given by Lyapunov (Simitses
and Hodges 2006). Consider the n-degree freedom
system with generalized coordinates. The static
equilibrium state is denoted by 0 =
i
q and the
system be subjected to bounded disturbances
<
0
i
q and <
0
i
q at t = 0. Here . stands for
L
2

norm. At any instant t > 0, let the response be
given by ) (t q
i
and ) (t q
i
. If the response is also
bounded, i.e, < ) (t q
i
and < ) (t q
i
, then static
equilibrium state is considered as stable. This is shown
in Fig.3, schematically. This definition of stability is
generally used in all fields (structural mechanics,
biology and economics). In simple words, the system
is stable if for small disturbances in initial conditions
leads to small change in the response. For conservative
system, this may be stated as the equilibrium is stable
provided potential energy is positive definite (van der
Heijden, 2009).
The energy criterion of stability for elastic systems
subject to conservative loading is almost universally
adopted by researchers in the field of structural
stability (Hutchinson and Koiter, 1970) to determine
the critical condition. A positive definite second
variation of the total potential energy about a static
equilibrium state is accepted as a sufficient condition
for the stability of that state. In this connection Koiter
(Dym, 1974) has proved the following two theorems.
Theorem 1 (Koiter): A proper minimum of the
potential energy in the equilibrium configuration, in
comparison with the energy in all other possible
configurations characterized by a sufficiently small L
2
-
norm, is sufficient condition for stability.
Theorem 2 (Koiter): The existence of a proper
minimum of the potential energy in the equilibrium
constitutes, for all practical purposes, both necessary
and sufficient condition for the stability of this
configuration in the dynamical sense of Lyapunov.

Fig. 3 Response of disturbed system
Hence for all practical purposes, a minimum of the
potential energy or the positive definite second
variation of the potential energy implies the stability in
the sense of Lyapunov.
The structural element (thin plate or shell) can store
large amount of membrane strain energy under
compressive loads without deforming much. However
it must deform much more to store equivalent amount
of bending strain energy. If the structure stores most of
its energy as membrane strain energy when subjected
to compression and if there is a way that the stored up
membrane energy can be converted to bending energy,
then the structure will fail in the process called

( q
i
t
( q
i
) (
0
t q
sta
unst
P P P


buckling, where membrane strain energy is
exchanged into bending energy (Bushnell, 1985).
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE
SUBJECT
The theory of stability of structures is an important
part of structural mechanics. It is a basis for
rational design of new structures and examination
of the safety of existing structures. The theory of
stability of structures started about 250 years back,
with the work of Euler on buckling of columns in
1759. However, the results of Euler could not be
verified experimentally. The reason for this
discrepancy was explained by Young in 1807, in
terms of imperfections such as initial curvature,
initial bending moments or load eccentricity. A
rigorous mathematical definition of stability was
given by Liapunov in 1892 (Dym, 1974). The
beginning of the modern theory of structural
stability can be traced to the Doctoral Thesis of
Koiter (Koiter, 1945). The thesis initiated
asymptotic analysis of postbuckling behaviour of
structures in the vicinity of critical states. It started
with the sensitivity analysis of structures to initial
imperfections. The study of stability of
conservative and non-conservative systems was
made systematically by Ziegler (1956). Koters
work was further developed by Budiansky and
Hutchinson (1964). Thompson (1963) initiated the
study of nonlinear elastic stability in terms of
generalized coordinates.
With the advent finite elements, the
computation load of many problems has become a
routine. However, correct results for the buckling
of statically indeterminate arches were obtained as
recently as 1970. Both experimental and theoretical
investigations on the instability of shells revealed
shortcomings of the linear theory. It was observed
that however precise the linear theory be, its results
were much less suitable for the practical design of
shells. This was in contrast to linear theory of
columns and plates. The problem for this
discrepancy was identified by Koiter and he
attributed them to imperfections. It was pointed out
by Koiter that moderate reductions due to
imperfections occur in frames but in cylindrical
shells and spherical domes the reduction is up to
1/8 to 1/3 of the critical load. Efforts on removing
the discrepancies between the experimental and
theoretical predictions for buckling of cylindrical
shells significantly influenced the development of
nonlinear theories for shell buckling.
TYPES OF STABILITY
In the bifurcation buckling, a perfect structure
looses its stability by moving from one equilibrium
state to another equilibrium state which is
infinitesimally close to the first equilibrium state.
The load associated with the bifurcation point is
known as the critical buckling load. Bifurcation
point is defined as the point where a perfect structure
switches from an initial equilibrium path (primary
path) to another equilibrium path i.e. secondary path.
Characterization of perfect structure can be done by
bifurcation point and imperfect structure by limit point.
Limit point is the point on equilibrium path, which
corresponds to zero structural stiffness. Nonlinear
analysis is used to predict the nonlinear collapse and
limit points. Snap-through and snap-back buckling is
the phenomenon of nonlinear structural analysis. This
is characterized by a sudden jump from one
equilibrium configuration to another equilibrium state.
At the collapse load the load deflection curve has zero
slopes and if the load is maintained as the structure
deforms, failure of the structure is almost
instantaneous. This type of buckling occurs in hinged
arches and clamped shallow spherical shells subjected
to uniform external pressure loading. The postbuckled
deflection curves of an axially compressed flat and
curved panel, with and without initial geometric
imperfections are shown in Figs. 4. (a) and (b). The
curves in the figures indicate that the postbuckled
equilibrium paths for flat and curved panels are
significantly different. Flat panels exhibit a stable-
symmetric point of bifurcation. The equilibrium paths
for flat plates are hardening in nature.
Curved panels (Fig. 4b), however, exhibit an unstable
postbuckling response and the load-carrying capacity
of the curved panels is reduced to a value below the
bifurcation load when the response jumps to a new
stable equilibrium configuration at a limit point.Snap-
through and snap-back buckling phenomena (Fig. 5)
are some of the most difficult problems in nonlinear
structural analysis. The Newton-type methods are often
used to solve nonlinear structural stability problems.
The usual Newton-Raphson method or its modified
version, self-correcting or standard incremental
method, belong to this category. It is necessary to
modify the standard algorithm of these methods if
these are employed to trace the postbuckling
configurations including snap-through and snap-back
solution paths. For instance, referring to Fig. 5, if the
displacement w were to be prescribed, the limit point B
could be passed and the

Fig. 4 Postbuckled deflection curves showing
bifurcation and limit points under uniaxial
compression: (a) Flat panel, (b) Curved panel.


load-shedding curve BC could be traced. However,
the displacement control method would fail at, or
just before, the limit point F. A great number of
procedures have been proposed to overcome these
problems. The most widely used scheme is the arc-
length method proposed by Riks (1979, 1984) and
Crisfield (1981, 1983).It establishes the loading
parameter as a variable. Since the loading level is
treated as a variable one more equation is required
in addition to the usual equilibrium equations. This
additional equation uses the arc-length of the load-
displacement curve as a controlling parameter.

Fig. 5 Load displacement curve showing snap-
through and snap-back buckling
Often, plates are part of complex structural system
and hence load coming on it may not be always
uniform. For example, in the case of I-beam or
wide flanged beam subjected to bending moment at
the ends or lateral loads on the flange, the web of
the beam is subjected to non-uniform in-plane
loads. The load exerted on the aircraft wings, or on
the stiffened plate in the ship structures or on the
slabs of a multi-storey building by the adjoining
structures usually is non uniform. The type of
distribution in an actual structure depends on the
relative stiffnesses of the adjoining elements. The
non-uniform edge loading introduces all 3-
components of stress (
xx yy xy
, and o o o ) in the
plate which may considerably influence the static
stability behaviour of plate and shell panel.
There are two types of dynamic instability. The
flutter is a type of dynamic instability which is
important for the design of aircraft wings,
suspension bridges, tall chimneys and similar
structures. Another type of instability which is
important for foundations of rotating machinery,
bridge columns and other structures is the
parametric resonance. Plates and shell panels
subjected to dynamic in-plane loading, for certain
combinations of the load amplitude, disturbing
frequency of transverse vibration, may undergo
unstable transverse vibrations. The dynamic in-
plane loading is known as parametric excitation
and the range of the values of parameters causing
dynamic instability is called the dynamic instability
region or parametric resonance region. Parametric
instability zones are generally defined by the
boundaries which separate stable and unstable regions
in the parametric space defined above. Unlike in the
case of resonances occurring under transverse forced
vibration, parametric resonance will occur over a wide
range of excitation frequencies, particularly when the
amplitude of the dynamic load is large (Bolotin, 1964).
The dynamic instability results in transverse vibration
of structures with ever increasing amplitude. Linear
strain-displacement relations are erroneous at higher
amplitude of vibration and hence geometric
nonlinearities need to be considered. Nonlinear theory
results in new phenomena (Shivamoggi, 1977), which
have no place in the corresponding linear problem. The
new phenomena are: (i) existence of solution for all
values of the frequency rather than only for a set of
characteristic values (ii) dependence of amplitude on
frequency (iii) removal of resonance infinities and (iv)
appearance of jump phenomena.
FORMULATION
Here, nonlinear static stability analysis of shell panels
subjected to non-uniform in-plane loads and nonlinear
dynamic buckling analysis of plates are presented. The
static component and the dynamic component of the
applied periodic non-uniform in-plane loading are
assumed to vary according to either parabolic or linear
distribution. Initially, the plate membrane problem is
solved using Ritz method to evaluate the plate in-plane
stress distributions within the prebuckling range.
Subsequently, using the evaluated prebuckling stress
components, the equations of motion of the cylindrical
shell panels subjected to dynamic non-uniform in-
plane loading are obtained using Hamiltons principle
in terms of force and moment resultants.
Expressing stress and moment resultants in terms of
displacements the governing partial differential
equations may be written in terms of displacement
components as,
0 0 0 0 0
1 2
( , , , , ) 0 1, 2..., 5
i
L u v w i = = (1)
Where,
i
L are the nonlinear differential operator, u
o
,
v
o
,w
o
are displacements of a generic points on the
middle surface in three orthogonal coordinate
directions respectively and

1
and
2
are rotations of
normal to mid-plane about y-axis and x-axis
respectively. Adopting Galerkins approximation, the
governing nonlinear partial differential equations are
converted into a set of nonlinear ordinary differential
equations describing the plate dynamic instability. This
may be written as,

| |{ } | | | | | | | | | |{ } { } 0 cos = + + X pt K N K N K K X M
G t G s NL L

(2)

where[ ] M , ] [
L
K , ] [
NL
K and [ ]
G
K are
respectively the mass, linear stiffness, non-linear
stiffness and geometric stiffness matrices and p is the
excitation frequency. Initially only the linear dynamic
instability of rectangular composite plate/shell panel is


studied and hence the nonlinear terms in the Eq. (2)
are not considered.

| |{ } | | | | | | | |{ } { } 0 cos = + X pt K N K N K X M
G t G s L

(3)

It may be noted that, the effect of non-uniform in-
plane load is reflected in the computation of [ ]
G
K
matrix. The Eq. (3) is a second order differential
equation with periodic coefficients. In the above
equation N
s
and N
t
are varied as
s cr
N N = and
,
t cr
N N = where and are static and
dynamic load factors respectively and
cr
N
is the
static buckling load. The regions of instability are
located by boundaries of instability having periodic
solutions with period T and 2T to Eq. (3). These
are determined by the method suggested by Bolotin
(1964) in the present investigation. The solutions to
Eq. (3) with periods T and 2T are assumed in the
form of Fourier series respectively as,
0
2,4,6
( ) ( sin cos )
2 2
k k
k
kpt kpt
x t b a b
=
= + +

(4a)
1,3,5
( ) ( sin cos )
2 2
k k
k
kpt kpt
x t a b
=
= +

(4b)

where,
k
a and
k
b are arbitrary constants. Here, it
may be noted, two solutions of identical periods
bound the region of instability, two solutions of
different periods bounds the region of stability.
Substituting Eq. (4a) or (4b) into Eq. (3) and
equating the coefficients of identical
sin
2
kpt
and
cos
2
kpt
leads to a system of homogeneous
algebraic equations in
k
a and
k
b . For nontrivial
solution, the determinant of the coefficient matrix
of
k
a and
k
b must vanish. The size of the above
determinant is infinite as we have assumed the
solution in the form of infinite series. The
determinants are shown to be belonging to a class
of converging determinant known as normal
determinant (Bolotin, 1964).

Fig. 6 (Sarat Panda and Ramachandra 2009) shows
the postbuckled equilibrium path for parabolically
varying biaxial in-plane edge loading for simply
supported symmetric crossply [0/90/0] cylindrical
shell panel for various load ratios. The load ratio N
0

(=N
y
/N
x
) is the ratio of compressive edge load in
the x-direction (N
x
) to compressive (positive) or
tensile (negative) edge load in the y-direction (
N
y
). For all negative load ratio N
0
, the panel
deflects in the inward direction as shown in the
figure. The tensile load in y-direction makes the panel
deflects downward and subsequent application of
compressive load in x-direction increases the deflection
in downward direction. For zero and small positive
values of load ratio (N
0
) the equilibrium path shows
limit load and snap-through behavior.

1 2 12 13 2 23 2 12
/ 25, 0.5 , 0.2 , 0.25 E E G G E G E = = = = =

Fig. 6 The influence of the load ratio (N
0
) on the
nonlinear behavior of symmetric cross-ply [0/90/0]
cylindrical shell panel subjected to parabolic uniaxial
compression.

Figure 7 shows the principal zone of instability and
secondary zone of instability for symmetric 3-layered
cross-ply [0/90/0] laminated plate subjected to
parabolic edge loading for a static load factor
22
( ) 0,
s
N
E h
= =
by considering geometric
nonlinearity. For parabolic in-plane load the static and
dynamic component of compressive load at the edge
y=0 are denoted as
2
2
(1 )
s cr
y
N N
b
=
and
2
2
(1 )
t cr
y
N N
b
= respectively. It is observed from
the figures that as the nonlinearity (i.e. w/h) increases,
the principal instability zones as well as secondary
zones of instability narrows down and shifts to higher
frequencies. This is because at higher (w/h) ratio, the
plate becomes stiffer due to stretching of its middle
plane.

Fig. 7. Non-liniear instability zones of simply
supported composite cross-ply plate (a/b=1, a/h=100,
and
. 0
22
= =
h E
N
s

1 2 12 13 2 23 2 12
/ 40, 0.5 , 0.6 , 0.25 E E G G E G E = = = = =


Next, the principal dynamic instability regions are
evaluated for the 3 layered symmetric cross ply
[0/90/0] square composite plates (a/b = 1, a/h =
100 and = 0.5) subjected to time dependent non-
uniform in-plane loads. They are shown as the plot
of dimensionless excitation frequency against
dimensionless dynamic load factor ( ) in Figure 8.
It may be observed that the width of the dynamic
instability region is the maximum for the uniform
in-plane load and minimum for the pure bending
case. This is due to the fact that the buckling load is
minimum for uniform loaded plate and maximum
for the pure in-plane bending case. It is instructive
to plot the responses in stable and unstable zones,
as this is expected to clearly bring out the
difference between linear and non-linear analysis.
For this purpose the dynamic instability plot for the
three layered cross-ply composite plate shown in
Fig. 8 is considered.
For this case, the responses are plotted first for a
frequency of p=275, which lies above the unstable
zone. In this zone both linear and non-linear
analysis gives the stable response (Figs.9a and 9b).
However, the amplitude of nonlinear response is
smaller than amplitude of linear response. One can
also observe beats from these figures as reported in
[1, 9]. In the unstable region, for the frequency
p=230, the amplitude of linear response (9c)
increase continuously and the non-linear response
(9d) amplitude remain within bounds. Beats is
observed in Figure 9(d).

Fig. 8 Principal instability zones for SSSS cross-
ply composite plate subjected to parabolic in-
planeload

P =275
(a) Linear response in the region

P =275
(b) Non-linear responcse in the stable region

P= 230
(c) Linear response in the unstable region

P=230
(d) Non-linear-response in the unstable region

Fig. 9 Dynamic response of composite plate in stable
and unstable regions.

CONCLUSIONS
This paper deals with the linear and nonlinear static
stability and dynamic instability of composite plates
and cylindrical shell panels subjected to dynamic non-
uniform in-plane loading. The static buckling load of
non-uniformly loaded cylindrical panels is evaluated in
two steps as discussed above. The dynamic instability
behavior depends on the in-plane stress distribution,
the natural frequency of unloaded structure and
frequency of excitation. The plate in-plane stress
distribution depends on the type of applied in-plane
edge loading. The primary instability regions that
correspond to solution with period 2T has greater
practical importance as the width of the instability
regions are more in this case compared with period T.
At higher (w/h) ratio, the plate becomes stiffer due to
stretching of its middle plane and hence instability
zone narrows down and shifts to higher frequency.
Also response in different regions clearly brings out
the different nature of linear and nonlinear analysis of


plate, i.e., existence of beats, their dependency on
the forcing frequency.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author would like to thank his students, Dr. Sarat
Kumar Panda and Mr. Tanish Dey, for the results
reported in this article.

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ISBN 978-81-921121-0-7
EFFECT OF BRIDGE PIERS SHAPE ON SCOURING

Manvendra Singh Chauhan
Post Graduate Student, Civil Engineering/IT BHU, Varanasi 221005, Email: Manvendra.hbti@gmail.com
U. K. Choudhary
Professor, Civil Engineering/IT BHU, Varanasi 221005, Email: ukc@bhu.ac.in
P. K. Singh Dikshit
Professor, Civil Engineering/IT BHU, Varanasi 221005, Email: pk_sd@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT: In the present age of fast communication, bridges occupy a place of pride in the society as they
facilitate rapid movement of material and personal safety and quickly across the rivers and the other drainages.
The disruption of traffic due to the failure of bridge therefore results in a disaster. The main cause of concern in
stability of bridges founded in river bed is the local lowering of river bed level caused by the river flow around
the bridge elements such as piers, abutments and spurs dikes and is termed as scour and this phenomena is
called scouring. An accurate estimation of scour depth below stream bed during design is important since this
determines the foundation levels of the bridge elements such as piers, abutments, guide bank, spur, groyene, etc.
Usually, a structural engineer checks the safety of the bridge components while an architect designs the bridge
shape. The hydraulic engineer predicts the scour depth at the bridge site for a design flood before the
construction and evaluates the need for scour protection at the bridge site after the construction.

INTRODUCTION
Scour is defined as the erosion of streambed
sediment around an obstruction in a flow field. The
mechanism has the potential to threaten the structural
integrity of bridges and hydraulic structures,
ultimately causing failure when the foundation of the
structures is undermined. It is the consequence of the
erosive action of flowing water, which removes and
erodes material from the bed and banks of streams
and also from the vicinity of bridge piers and
abutments.
Scour can either be caused by the normal flow or
flood events. Normal flow can lower the channel bed
but scouring is most assisted during a peak flow in
which the flow velocity is higher. In other words,
scour can occur under any flow condition that makes
the bed mobile within the vicinity of the obstruction
but the rate of scouring is much higher with larger
flow events. The amount of the reduction below an
assumed natural level (generally the level of the river
bed prior to the commencement of the scour) is
termed the scour depth. A scour hole is defined as the
void or depression left behind when sediment is
washed away from a stream or river bed.
Any structure placed in a river, whether of natural or
human origin, will tend to promote scouring and
deposition due to sudden change in the flow direction
or high velocity flow. Such obstacles can include a
boulder, an island, a sharp bend, or a pipe or road
bridge pier. Local scour causes holes to be dug
around structures such as bridge piers and abutments
which are built on or below the river bed. These
holes can be exceptionally deep, e.g. they can easily
run to 20 to 30m. Scouring can also result in the sand
around the pier being removed to such a depth that
the pier ends up being supported on nothing. Because
of this the pier will fail and the structure will
collapse.
In every bridge failure many people lost their life.
Besides their human toll, bridge failures cost millions
of rupees each year in direct expenditure for
replacement and restoration in addition to the indirect
expenditure related to the disruption of transportation
facilities.

LOCAL SCOUR MECHANISM
The basic mechanism causing local scour at piers or
abutments is the formation of vortices at their bases
(known as horseshoe vortex at a pier and horizontal
vortex at an abutment).The horseshoe vortex results
from the pileup of water on the upstream face of the
obstruction and subsequent acceleration of the flow
around the nose of the pier or embankment. The
action of the vortex removes bed material from
around the base of obstruction. The transport rate of
sediment away from the base region is greater than
the transport rate into the region and consequently a
scour hole develops. As the depth of scour increases,
the strength of the horseshoe vortex is reduced,
thereby reducing the transport rate from the base
region. Eventually for live bed scour, equilibrium is
established and scouring ceases. For clear water
scour, scouring ceases when the shear stress caused
by horseshoe vortex equals the critical shear stress of
sediment particles at the bottom of scour hole. In
addition to the horseshoe vortex around the base of
pier, there are vertical vortices downstream of pier,
called the wake vortex; both the horseshoe and wake
vortices remove particles from the pier base region.
However, the intensity of wake vortices diminishes
rapidly as the distance downstream of pier increases.
Therefore, immediately downstream of a long pier
there is often deposition of material.


Figure: Flow pattern around bridge piers.

FACTORS AFFECTING LOCAL SCOUR
Factors which affect the magnitude of the local scour
depth at piers are as follows:
Approach flow velocity
Flow depth
Pier width
Gravitational acceleration
Pier shape
Size and gradation of the bed material
Angle of attack of the approach flow to the
pier
Bed configuration

LITERATURE REVIEW
The process of local scour around bridge piers is
fundamentally complex due to the three dimensional
flow patterns interacting with the bed materials.
Many researchers around the world have studied the
phenomenon of local scouring. Few of them
presented their view as from their practical
experience and others as per their experimental
results. A large number of literatures have been
published so far. Few of the literature are presented
in this section to give an overview of the scouring
effect around the piers. Dey et al. (1995) derived
quasi-analytical equations for the flow field (in the
scour hole, adjacent to the pier above the flat bed and
in the wake region) by satisfying the continuity
equation and determining empirical coefficients (by
curve fitting experimental data). They analysed a
model and the model may be useful for stimulating
the flow field under prototype conditions. Gosselin
(1997) conducted a series of clear water scour
experiments to measure the velocity field (at various
times during the scour process). He modelled the
velocities in the scour hole with a commercial three
dimensional flow model. Bruce W. Melville (1997)
used results from an extensive program of bridge
scour and determines empirical relations, termed K-
factors which were evaluated by fitting envelope
curves to existing data for piers and abutments and a
new extensive data set for abutments.

Melville and Chicw (1997) studied the temporal
development of clear water local scour depth at
cylindrical bridge piers in uniform sand beds.
Experiments were conducted in four different
flumes. The results showed that the scour depth after
10% of the time to equilibrium is between about
50% and 80% of the equilibrium scour depth,
depending on the approach flow velocity. Totapelly
et al. (1999) examined the temporal variations of
local scour under steady flow and using stepped
hydrographs to calculated scour depth & concluded
that also logarithmic equation represented the
variation of scour with time better than a power
equation and questioned the existence of an
equilibrium depth. They found that for steps with
duration on the order of 2.5 hours, the results of the
super positioning were comparable to experiments.
Graf et al. (2001) investigated the flow patterns in
planes upstream and downstream of a cylindrical
pier embedded and vertically in the scour hole using
an acoustic-Doppler velocity -profiler (ADVP). They
found that the shear stress was reduced in the scour
hole as compared to the approach flow but that the
turbulent kinetic energy was very strong at the foot
of the cylinder on the upstream side. The kinetic
energy was also very Strong in the wake behind the
cylinder.. Faruque and Nago (2003) have calculated
the scour hole on the basis of a sediment transport
equation. A reliable prediction of local scour depth
related to hydrological characteristics and proposed a
design method to predict the local scour depth with
time. Wen-Yi Chang et al. (2004) conducted
experiments of bridge pier scour under steady and
unsteady clear water scour conditions with uniform
and non uniform sediments and proposed a scheme
for computing the scour-depth evolution under
unsteady flow.. Sheppard et al. (2004) performed
local clear water scour tests with different diameter
circular piles, different uniform cohesionless
sediment diameters and a range of water depths and
flow velocities and concludes equilibrium scour
depths were f ound to depend on t h e wash load
concentration. Dey and Barbhuiya (2005) studied the
time variation of scour at abutments, they have
compared the time variation of scour depth at short
abutments (abutment length/flow depth< 1) for the
vertical wall.45 wing wall and semi circular wall.
Clear water scour was studied for uniform and non
uniform sediment. They compared their results with
other investigators and found good agreement.
Sheppard and Miller (2006) conducted local clear-
water and live-bed scour tests for a range of water
depths and flow velocities with different uniform
cohesionless sediment diameters. They used a
circular pier for analysis and tests were performed in
a tilting flume located in the Hydraulics Laboratory
at the University of Auckland in Auckland. Scour
depth predictions were made with four different
local scour equations for the conditions of the tests
and the results were compared with the measured

values. Ettema et al. (2006) did their experiments
on local scour at vertical cylinder, placed in a sand
bed, shows that the similitude of large scale
turbulence is an important consideration influencing
equilibrium depth of local scour. Ashtiani and
Beheshti (2006) carried out experiments of local
scour around pile groups under steady clear water
scour conditions. A variety of conditions including
different pile group arrangements, spacing, flow
rates, and sediment grain sizes were considered. It
was observed that the scour-hole depth for some
cases of pile groups increases as much as two times
more than its magnitude for the cases of single piles.
Dey and Raikar (2007) conducted an experimental
study on the turbulent horseshoe vortex flow within
the developing intermediate stages and equilibrium
scour holes at cylindrical piers measured by an
acoustic Doppler velocity meter (ADV). The
imperative observation is that the flow and
turbulence intensities in the horseshoe vortex flow
in a developing scour hole are reasonably similar.
Subhasish Dey et al. (2008) observed that in a
degrading bed, the bed forms cause edge failure of
the riprap at an abutment when the dunes propagate
over the riprap layer. Also the damaged riprap layer
was significantly vulnerable against a subsequent
flood accompanied by large dunes.
Dey and Singh (2008) conducted experiments on
clear-water scour below underwater pipelines
initially laid on the sediment bed in uniform and
nonuniform sediments under steady flow.
Equilibrium scour profiles were modelled by a cubic
polynomial. The experimental results were examined
to describe the influence of various parameters on
equilibrium scour depth and concluded that the scour
depth with an armor layer was less than that without
armor layer for the same sand bed, when the scour
hole was shielded by the secondary armor layer.
Carmelo Grimaldi et al. (2009) performed laboratory
experiments to investigate the effectiveness of bed
sills as countermeasures against local scouring at a
smooth circular bridge pier, for flow conditions near
the threshold of uniform sediment motion. The
results showed that a bed sill placed at a short
distance downstream of the pier reduces the scour
depth, area, and volume.
Francesco Ballio et al. (2010) performed live-bed
scour experiments at a vertical wall abutment with
specific attention paid to the conceptual issues
concerning the temporal development of local scour
phenomenon. A conceptual model was constructed to
explain some previous experimental results which do
not confirm the explanation for scour fluctuations.
B. Ataie Ashtiani et al. (2010) performed local scour
experiments around complex piers under steady
clear-water condition for a variety of configuration,
including different sizes and shapes of complex
piers. The available procedures for estimating scour
depth around the complex pier were applied to the
present experimental data and their performances
were evaluated.

EXPERIMENTAL WORK AND SETUP
The experiment was conducted in the Hydraulics
Laboratory of Department of Civil Engineering,
Varanasi. The laboratory channel considered was
rectangular having two consecutive bends of reverse
order, 1.0m wide, 22.5 cm deep, central radius (r
c
)
1.0 m and central angles of 1800 each. The bends are
connected with a stilling basin, an upstream straight
reach 4.5 m long, a downstream straight reach 6.5 m
long and a side channel conveying.
Experiment consists of three parts, in first part no
pier was embedded, in second part circular piers
were embedded and in last part same periphery (as
circular piers) elliptical piers were embedded. During
the experiment erosion / sedimentation data were
collected at the different sections which give a useful
conclusion.

CONCLUSIONS
The following important conclusions are drawn on
the basis of data tables, figures and places mentioned
above
1. In case of flow without pier sedimentation occurs
near the convex bank and it is increase as increase in
, and the maximum depth of sedimentation occurs at
= 120.
2. As the location of width increases from the convex
to concave sedimentation decreases and the pocket of
erosion starts near the concave bank at = 120.
3. As increases from 120 erosion zone increases
and its depth is also increased.
4. Sedimentation depth is maximum in case of
circular pier and the location occurs at convex side at
= 120.
5. With increase in depth of sedimentation starts
reducing on the convex side and width of erosion
starts developing on the concave side.
6. The maximum depth of erosion occurs in case of
circular pier at = 150.
7. After = 210 (second bend = 30) the concave
side of first bend is converted into convex side of
second where zone of erosion exist.
8. The maximum erosion depth in second bend at =
270 when accounted in continuously which is =
90 of the second bend, The maximum erosion in
case of circular pier as compared to elliptical pier.
9. The erosion pocket in second bend extends more
in case of circular pier and this pattern continuous till
= 360.

REFERENCES
Ansari S A, Kothyari U C, Ranga Raju K G (2002)
Influence of cohesion on scour around bridge
piers. J. Hydraul. Res. 40: 717729
Chang, W.Y., Lai, J.S., and Yen, C.L. (2004).
Evolution of scour depth at circular bridge
piers.J. Hydraul. Eng., 130(9), 905-913.
Cheremisinoff, P.N., Cheremisinoff, N.P. and Cheng,
S.L. (1987). Hydraulic mechanics 2. Civil
Engineering Practice, Technomic Publishing
Company, Inc., Lancaster, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
780 p.
Chitale S V (1988) Estimation of scour at bridge
piers. J. Irrigation and Power (CBIP) 45:
Chitale S V (1993) Indian practice of scour
estimationlimitations. J. Irrigation and Power
50:
Dey, S., Bose, S. K., and Sastry, G. L. N. (1995).
Clear water scour at circular piers: A model. J.
Hydraul. Eng., 121 (12), 869-876.
Dey, S. (1999). Time-variation of scour in the
vicinity of circular piers. Water & Maritime
Engineering journal, proceedings of the Institution
of Civil Engineers, Thomas Telford Journals,
Londan, 136 (2), 67-65, paper 11426, June.
Dey, S., and barbhuiya, A. K. (2005). Turbulent
flow field in a scour hole at a semicircular
abutment. Can. J. Civ. Eng., 32 (1), 213-232.
Dey, S., rajkumar V.R. (2007). Clear water scour at
piers in sand beds with an armor layer of gravels.
J. Hydraul. Eng., 133 (6), 703-711.
Garde R J, Kothyari U C (1998) Scour around
bridge piers. J. Ind. Nat. Acad. New Delhi, 64:
569580
Garde R J, Ranga Raju K G (2000) Mechanics of
sediment transportation and alluvial stream
problems. (New Delhi: New Age)
Indian Railway Standards, IRS 1985 Code of
practice for the design of sub-structures and
foundations of bridges
IRC 1998 Standard specifications and code of
practice for road bridges, section 1, IRC: 5-1998
IRC 2000 Standard specifications and code of
practice for road bridges. section-VII, IRC: 78
2000
Kothyari U C, Garde R J, Ranga Raju K G (1992a)
Temporal variation of scour around circular
bridge piers. J. Hydraul. Eng. 118: 10911106
Kothyari U C, Garde R J, Ranga Raju K G (1992b)
Live-bed scour around cylindrical bridge piers.
J. Hydraul. Res. 30: 701715
Kothyari U C (2003) Bridge pier scour in gravel
cobble and cohesive bed rivers, Report submitted
to the IRC sub-committee to review the aspects
of scour around bridge foundations
Kothyari U C (2007) Indian practice on estimation
of scour around bridgePiers-A comment Sadhana
Vol. 32, Part 3, June 2007, pp. 187197.
Melville B W, Sutherland A J (1988) Design
methods for local scour at bridge piers. J.
Hydraul. Eng. 114:
Melville, B.W. and Chiew, Y.M. (1999). Time scale
for local scour at bridge piers. Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 125(1): 59-65.
Raudkivi, A.J. and Ettema, R. (1983). Clear-water
scour at cylindrical piers. Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering, ASCE, 109(3): 339-350.
Richardson, E.V. and Davies, S.R. (2001).
Evaluating scour at bridges. Rep. No. FHWAIP-
90-017 (HEC 18), Federal Administration, U.S.
Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C.


AUTHOR INDEX

Abd Elbasit, M. A. M.
1
Agrawal, D.
635
Ahluwalia, R. S.
286
Arora, M. K.
336
Pradhan, B
112
Bahirat, E.M.
181
Bansal, V.
450
Barman, P.J.
112
Basak, S.
525
Bhalerao, A.R.
563
Bhamare, P.R.
205
Bharath, G.
31
Bhardwaj, A.K.
122
Bhaskar, R.
299
Bhatt, R.
548
Bhattacharjee, B.
234
Bhattacharya, A.
336
Bhide, D.D.
205
Bhunia, D.
450
Bhushan, S
492
Bisht, R.S.
144
Biswas, S.
643
Buradkar, P.S.
151
Burman, A.
492
Chadaga, M.
440
Chaithanya, K.
227
Chandra, S.
276
Chattopadhyay, S.
525
Chaudhuri, S. R.
74
Chauhan, M.S.
663
Chauhan, P. A.
210
Chitkeshwar, A.K.
426
Choudhary, A.
450
Choudhary, R.
392
Choudhary, U. K.
663
Chowdhury, P.R
256
Chowdhury, S. R.
74, 195
Dalvi, R. E.
170
Das, S.
276
Das, T.
175
Deb, S.K.
215
Deepu, S.P.
74
Deotale, R.S.
239
Deshmukh, S. D.
239
Deshpande, P.K.
271
Dikshit, P. K. S.
408, 663

Divya, P. S.
58
Domke, P. V.
239
Dubey, O. P.
69
Dutta, A.
215
Dutta, A.
525
Dutta, S.
507
Dwivedi, S. B
294, 349, 595
Gao, E.
392
Ghadiyali, G.A.
250
Ghosh, K. K.
195
Goel, A.
103
Goyal, M.
635
Goel, M.
648
Gupta, A.
461
Gupta, S.
577
Himanshu, S. K.
421
Ingle, V.
480
Jacob, V.M.
618
Janbandhu, M.S.
538
Jain, A.
566
Jain, H.
294,502
Jain, S. K.
286
Jayashree, T.
591
Jegan, V.
618
Jha, M.
27,100
Jindal, A.
445
Jindal, S.
256
Johri, A.
405
Joshi, S. V.
323
Julaganti, A.
392
Kadian, V.
440
Kadu, M. S.
323
Kalantari, B.
317
Kalpana.V.G.
280
Kalvit, S.K.
205
Kanakabandi, S.
417
Kartha, S.A.
112
Katti, B.K.
250
Kene, S. D.
239
Khati, B.S.
472
Khatri, V.
602
Koppineni, A.
227
Krishan, B.
306
Krishan, G.
400
Krishnan, J. M.
58
Kujur, J.
234

Kulkarni, S.N.
205
Kumar, A.
492
Kumar, A.
577
Kumar, B
377, 400
Kumar, B.
417, 551, 577, 625
Kumar, B.
507, 519
Kumar, D.
48
Kumar, D.
360
Kumar, D.
421, 472
Kumar, D.
461
Kumar, J.P.
164
Kumar, M.
1
Kumar, P.
210, 445, 551
Kumar, P.
497
Kumar, R.
95, 294, 365, 405
Kumar, R. S.
598
Kumar, R.P.
610
Kumar, S.
48
Kumar, S.
164
Kumar, S.N.
598
Kumar, S.V.
52
Kumar, V.
331, 365, 405
Kumari, S.
311
Kumthekar, M.B.
271
Kute, S.
591
Ladhane, K.B.
311
Lakshminarasimhan, S.
201
Lal, M
635
Lelitha, V.
52, 227
Lodha, P P
438
Maiti, P. R.
343
Maity, D.
492
Malaya, C.
290
Mallik, N.
355
Mandal, S.
360
Marthong, C.
215
Mathew, T. V.
489
Maurya, A.K.
643
Maurya, R. K. S.
558, 614
Meshram, V.G.
426, 538
Mishra, K.R.
187
Mishra, U.
595
Mohan, D.
502
Mukhopadhyay, S.K.
525
Narayan, S.
7
Nema, A.K.
311
Niyogi, A. G.
276
Ohri, A.
122
Ojha, C.S.P.
1,88,137
Padhye, R.D.
271

Pande, P. P.
283
Pande, S.
591
Pandhar, V.B.
205
Pandey, K.K.
131, 595
Paramkusam, B.R.
48
Parauha, A.
450
Pardeshi, A.K.
157
Pardeshi, D.K.
63
Parekh, B.J.
328
Patel, S.C.R
108
Patel, S.K.
533
Patra, B.K.
365
Petkar, A.S
181
Pillai, R. G.
618
Porwal, S. K.
497
Poudel, S. S.
440
Pradhan, B
112
Prakash, B.S.N.
370
Prakash, D.
81
Prasad, A.
317, 433
Prasad, K.
88,137
Prasad, V.R
299
Prathima, G.
513
Purushothaman, P.
377, 400
Quraishi, M.A.
331
Rai, A.
638
Rai, P.K.
262
Rai, S. P
286, 377
Ramachandra, L.S.
656
Ramakrishna, C.
370
Ransinchung, R.N. G.D.
210, 445, 551, 577
Rao, C. B. K.
299
Rao, G. V.
388, 584
Rao, M.S.
400
Rao, S.
1
Rao, S.V.
457
Rao, T. D. G.
469
Rathod, A. B.
328, 569
Rathor, A.O.
63
Ravindranath
440
Rawat, Y.S.
377, 400
Reddy, M. A.
31
Reddy, R.R.
388, 584
Regulwar, D. G.
63, 157, 480
Roy, D.
7
Roy, L.B.
164
Sahu, N.K.
548
Samrajyam, K.
469
Saran, S.
472
Shah, M.K.
250

Shah, N.B
108
Shankar, K.V. R. R.
489
Shankar, Y.S.
502
Sharma, I.N.
81
Sharma, M. L.
336
Sharma, R. K.
396
Sharma, S.
643
Sharma, Y.C.
37
Sherasia, N.K.
187
Shrivastava, N.
450
Sidharth, K.
227
Kazemian, S.
433
Singh, A.P.
638
Singh, B.
144, 175, 533
Singh, B.N.
331
Singh, C.S.
396
Singh, G. P.
558, 614
Singh, J.
635
Singh, K. M.
88,137
Singh, N.P.
190
Singh, P. C.
81
Singh, P. K.
37, 122
Singh, P.K.
602, 625
Singh, R.
408
Singh, R.D.
648
Singh, S.K.
331
Singh, S.M.
116
Singh, S.P.
382
Singh, T. N.
22
Singh, Y.
382
Singhal, D.
306

Singla, V.
95
Sivapullaiah, P.V.
13, 370
Sobha, B.
469
Sreedeep, S.
290
Sreedhar, M.V.S.
388, 584
Srimani, P.
195
Srivastav, A. L.
37
Srivastava, A.
343
Subramanian, K.
280
Sujan, M.
246
Talukdar. S.
507
Tewari, S.
81
Thalange, S.B.
271
Theunuo, K.
349
Thiyam, T.D.
519
Tignath, S.
27,100
Trivedi, S. A.
569
Upadhyay, M.P.
548
Vashisth, A.
131
Vasu, R. M.
7
Venkatesh, S.
221
Vernekar, N.D.
563
Vimala, A.
95, 610
Vishal, V.
22,
Yadav, G.K.
577
Yadav, H. L.
421
Yasuda, H.
1
Yuvaraaj, K.S.
201
Zuned, S.M.
438

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