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Foreword

Bumblehood Guide to Italy eBook - Foreword

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Guide to Italy

Siena, Italy.

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents
Welcome to Italy ............................................................................................................................................. 1 Local Guide to Italy .................................................................................................................................... 2 What to See and Do ............................................................................................................................. 7 Architecture and Monuments ........................................................................................................... 12 Remarkable Sites ............................................................................................................................ 16 World Heritage Sites ........................................................................................................................ 20 Nightlife ............................................................................................................................................ 33 Organized Tours .............................................................................................................................. 35 Geography & Economy ............................................................................................................................. 43 Climate & Weather ............................................................................................................................... 44 Area & Population ................................................................................................................................. 45 Environmental Preservation ................................................................................................................. 47 Regions Overview ................................................................................................................................ 49 Political Overview ................................................................................................................................. 58 Science & Technology .......................................................................................................................... 61 Main Industries ..................................................................................................................................... 63 Flora & Fauna ....................................................................................................................................... 65 Natural Parks ........................................................................................................................................ 67 History ....................................................................................................................................................... 69 First Settlers ......................................................................................................................................... 70 Roman Republic ................................................................................................................................... 71 Middle Ages .......................................................................................................................................... 74 Reunion & the 20th Century ................................................................................................................. 76 Influential Figures ................................................................................................................................. 79 Gastronomy & Drinks ................................................................................................................................. 82 Food ...................................................................................................................................................... 83 Starters ............................................................................................................................................ 84 Main Courses ................................................................................................................................... 85 Dessert ............................................................................................................................................. 91 Pizza & Bread .................................................................................................................................. 93 Drinks .................................................................................................................................................... 95 Dining .................................................................................................................................................... 100 Gourmets .............................................................................................................................................. 101 Popular Culture .......................................................................................................................................... 104 People & Culture ................................................................................................................................... 106 Language ......................................................................................................................................... 107 Media ............................................................................................................................................... 109 Religion ............................................................................................................................................ 110 Arts ........................................................................................................................................................ 112 Music ................................................................................................................................................ 114 Literature .......................................................................................................................................... 117 Visual Arts ........................................................................................................................................ 122 Renaissance ............................................................................................................................... 124 Baroque ...................................................................................................................................... 126 Contemporary Art ........................................................................................................................ 128 Film & Theatre ..................................................................................................................................130 Ballet & Dancing .............................................................................................................................. 133 Architecture ...................................................................................................................................... 134
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Table of Contents

Sports & Recreation .............................................................................................................................. 137 Favourite Pastime ............................................................................................................................ 140 Icons ................................................................................................................................................ 142 Useful Information ................................................................................................................................. 145 Specific Travelers ............................................................................................................................. 147 Visas & Regulations ......................................................................................................................... 154 Getting There ................................................................................................................................... 156 Getting Around ................................................................................................................................. 158 Regions ...................................................................................................................................................... 162 Abruzzo ................................................................................................................................................. 163 Aosta Valley ...........................................................................................................................................164 Natural Attractions ............................................................................................................................ 165 Castles ............................................................................................................................................. 168 Geography ....................................................................................................................................... 172 Flora & Fauna .................................................................................................................................. 173 Economy & Politics .......................................................................................................................... 174 Historical Overview .......................................................................................................................... 175 People ......................................................................................................................................... 176 Cities ................................................................................................................................................ 178 Aosta ........................................................................................................................................... 178 What to See and Do ............................................................................................................... 179 Dining ................................................................................................................................ 180 Religious & Modern Architecture ....................................................................................... 181 Museums .......................................................................................................................... 183 History & Culture .................................................................................................................... 184 Great Minds ...................................................................................................................... 185 Literature ........................................................................................................................... 186 Useful Information .................................................................................................................. 187 Apulia .................................................................................................................................................... 188 Basilicata ............................................................................................................................................... 189 Calabria ................................................................................................................................................. 190 Campania .............................................................................................................................................. 192 Emilia-Romagna ....................................................................................................................................194 Friuli-Venezia Giulia .............................................................................................................................. 195 Lazio ..................................................................................................................................................... 196 Cities ................................................................................................................................................ 198 Rome .......................................................................................................................................... 198 What to See and Do .............................................................................................................. 200 Calendar of Events ........................................................................................................... 201 Organised Tours ............................................................................................................... 204 Vatican City Tours ........................................................................................................ 209 Pompeii Tours .............................................................................................................. 216 Eating ................................................................................................................................ 222 Shopping ........................................................................................................................... 225 Landmarks ........................................................................................................................ 226 Roman Forum .............................................................................................................. 230 Temples ................................................................................................................... 231 Arches ..................................................................................................................... 235 Other Monuments ................................................................................................... 238 Trajans Forum & Markets ............................................................................................ 244
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Table of Contents

Colosseum ................................................................................................................... 248 Palatine Hill .................................................................................................................. 252 Piazzas ........................................................................................................................ 254 Piazza Navona ........................................................................................................ 255 Pantheon ................................................................................................................ 259 Piazza di Spagna .................................................................................................... 263 Piazza del Popolo ................................................................................................... 269 Vatican ......................................................................................................................... 272 St Peters Basilica ................................................................................................... 273 Museums ................................................................................................................ 278 Trastevere ............................................................................................................... 283 Aventine Hill ................................................................................................................. 286 Lateran ......................................................................................................................... 290 Outdoors ........................................................................................................................... 293 History & Culture ......................................................................................................................... 298 Brief History ........................................................................................................................... 299 Origins ................................................................................................................................... 303 Republic ................................................................................................................................. 308 Political Conflicts & Civil Wars ............................................................................................... 315 Great Minds ........................................................................................................................... 321 Defining Events ...................................................................................................................... 325 Useful Information ....................................................................................................................... 327 Liguria ................................................................................................................................................... 333 Lombardy .............................................................................................................................................. 334 UNESCO World Heritage Sites ....................................................................................................... 336 Marche .................................................................................................................................................. 338 Molise ................................................................................................................................................... 339 Piedmont ............................................................................................................................................... 340 What to See and Do ........................................................................................................................ 343 Sardinia ................................................................................................................................................. 346 Sicily ..................................................................................................................................................... 349 UNESCO World Heritage Sites ........................................................................................................ 351 History .............................................................................................................................................. 353 Trentino-Alto Adige ............................................................................................................................... 354 Tuscany ................................................................................................................................................ 355 Umbria .................................................................................................................................................. 357 Veneto ................................................................................................................................................... 358 Gastronomy & Drinks ....................................................................................................................... 360 Cities ................................................................................................................................................ 361 Belluno ........................................................................................................................................ 361 Padua .......................................................................................................................................... 363 Rovigo ......................................................................................................................................... 367 Treviso ........................................................................................................................................ 368 Verona ........................................................................................................................................ 369 Vicenza ....................................................................................................................................... 373 Venice ......................................................................................................................................... 375 What to See and Do ............................................................................................................... 376 Calendar of Events ........................................................................................................... 378 Eating ................................................................................................................................ 383 Shopping & Sightseeing ................................................................................................... 385
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Table of Contents

Outdoors - Palladian Villas ................................................................................................ 386 Popular Sports .................................................................................................................. 389 Useful Information .................................................................................................................. 390 Getting Around .................................................................................................................. 392 Organised Tours ................................................................................................................ 394 Communication ................................................................................................................. 395 Environment ...................................................................................................................... 396 Specific Travelers ............................................................................................................. 397 History & Culture .................................................................................................................... 399 Brief History ...................................................................................................................... 400 Politicians & Military Leaders ....................................................................................... 403 Defining Events ............................................................................................................ 405 Arts .................................................................................................................................... 406 Architecture ....................................................................................................................... 408 Architects & Sculptors .................................................................................................. 411 Famous Citizens ............................................................................................................... 415 Painters ........................................................................................................................ 418

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Italy

Italy
World Europe Countries Italy

Welcome to Italy, a Land of Cultural, Architectural & Natural Wonders!


Greece may have been the cradle of Europe, but Italy is where Europe actually grew up. Conveniently located on a peninsula and two islands that lie in the middle of the Mediterranean, Italy has, in this way or the other, been the economic, political, Cappuccino loves Italy. religious and cultural hub of (Photo by: Roevin) Europe for the better part of the past two and a half millennia. Ever since the early days of the Roman Republic, Italy has been shaping the destiny of the continent - be it as the epicentre of the Catholic Church or the source of the Renaissance or even through its powerful maritime trading republics of Venice, Pisa and Genova. Today, Italy is one of Europe's most populous countries and a major European economy. Attracting close to 45 million foreign visitors annually it is the fifth most visited destination in the world. It would take a lifetime to do all the wonders and sights of this treasure studded peninsula justice, which is probably the reason why Italy attracts such large numbers of repeated visitors. There is simply no time to see everything in one go! There are also two independent enclaves (Vatican City and San Marino) on Italian territory, while Campione D'Italia is an Italian exclave located in Switzerland. Many influential civilizations were located on the Italian Peninsula, with the Etruscan and the Roman being the most notable ones. Italy (region of Tuscany) was also the home of a very groundbraking artistic style called the Renaissance. The country also used to have colonies - this period lasted from mid 19th century to mid 20th century. Nowadays, Italy is positioned in the 8th place in terms of Quality-of-life index, and it co-founded the organization that is now the European Union; it was also one of the founding countries of NATO. Italy has seventh highest nominal GDP in the world which puts it in the group known as G8. The country is also the member of Western European Union, the Council of Europe and the Central European Initiative.

The beautiful city of Perugia is just one of Italy's numerous gems.


(Photo by: Spettacolopuro)

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Local Guide to Italy

Local Guide to Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide

The Name
The most common explanation of the Italian name is the one that claims the Oscan word 'Viteliu', meaning land of young kettle, to be the origin of the country's name. The name originally applied to the southern part of today's Italy, particularly the territory of today's Calabria. Jurisdiction of the original Italy gradually extended during the era of the Greeks and during the Roman conquests.

Italy

Short Historic Overview


The first signs of human presence can be traced back to the Paleolithic era some 200,000 years ago. Subsequent evidence shows that Sicily was the place of many Greek colonies that were established approximately in the 8th and the 7th century B.C. Roman culture was first established in the 8th century B.C. and it was originally a small agricultural community. The community gradually transformed into a huge empire in charge of the whole Mediterranean Sea where the Greek civilization became an integral part of the Roman Empire. Their common legacy is still visible today, especially in modern law, philosophy, arts and administration. The empire managed to survive for twelve centuries during which it transformed from a republic to a monarchy, and finally to autocracy. It was broken into two parts (eastern and western) in 285 AD. The western part subsequently dissolved and left the Italian territory divided between small independent kingdoms and city states for the next fourteen centuries.

Flag

Country Name Italy Country Name Republica Italiana in Official Language(s) Time Zone CET (UTC 1) Summer (DST) CEST (UTC 2) on the European continent / in the European Union Rome Italian / French is co-official in the Aosta Valley / Friulian is co-official in Friuli-Venezia Giulia / German and Ladin are co-official in the province of Bolzano-Bozen / Sardinian is co-official in Sardinia Euro () Parliamentary republic Giorgio Napolitano

Middle Ages
Unification of the Italian Kingdom was not established for several centuries due to strong Byzantine armies' resistance to the Arabs, Holy Roman Empire or the Papacy. The territory was predominantly ruled by the Ottonians, the Carolingians and the Hohenstaufens during that time. Italian regions remained divided until the 19th century. Many families like the Medici in Florence and Visconti in Milan were informally responsible for saving the city states in times of crises. This was the time when many Italian Republics became merchant and were homes to many merchant classes which enhanced artistic and academic advancement. The most dominant Maritime Republics were Venice, Pisa, Amalfi and Genoa. Venice conquered large portions of territory through crusades and it took advantage of its political and economic opportunities. The country was divided between several city states during the late Middle Ages (Venice, Republic of Florence, kingdom of Naples, the Papal States, the Genoese and the Milanese states). Florence was the home of many artistic movements and achievements and it is considered to be the European cultural center of that time. After a long period of thriving, Italy was subject to a disasterous Black Death epidemic which killed one third of its population in 1348. Spain and France were fighting for Italian territory from 1494 up to the 16th century when Spain finally prevailed and conquered the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples. Italy was subsequently taken by Austrians from Spain. Hegemony was replaced with equality, democracy, law and nation during the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars.

Location Capital Language(s)

Currency Government President

Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi Area Bordering Countries Population Density Nationality Religion(s) 301,318 km2 Slovenia, Austria, Switzerland and France October 2007 estimate 59,619,290 197.6 inhabitants/km2 Italian Christianity (90%), Atheism

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Local Guide to Italy

Unity
Italian nationalists and monarchists had the dream of uniting all of the Italian Peninsula into the Kingdom of Italy. Northern Italy was led through unification by charismatic Giuseppe Garibaldi. The northern leader, Camilio Benso, conte di Cavour, had the ambition of uniting Italy solely under his rule. Lombardy-Venetia was liberated from Austrian hegemony during the Second Italian War of Independence with the help of Napoleon III. Italy annexed Venice during the Third Italian war of Independence and France abandoned Rome during the devastating Franco-Prussian War. The weakness of France was taken advantage of by the Italians who quickly took over the Papal State which finished the unification of Italy.
Religion(s) Christianity (90%), Atheism (7%), Islam (2%), other (1%)

Ethnic groups Ethnic Italian (94,96%), Romanian (0.93%), Arab (0.82%), Albanian (0.60%), Asian (non-Chinese) (0.55%), German (0.49%), South American (0.41%), Black African (0.36%), Chinese (0.22%), Ukrainian ( 0.18%), Other (0.43%) Administrative twenty regions, including five which have special division autonomous status / the regions are subdivided into 109 provinces and more than eight thousand municipalities. Constituted GDP Total GDP per Capita Internet TLD Calling Code Unification - 17 March 1861 Republic - 2 June 1946 $1.888 trillion $32,319 .it 39

Recent History
Italy has been expanding its colonial territory during the last two decades of the 19th century - Somalia, Eritrea, Dodekanese and Libya became integral parts of Italian colonial territory. Initially, Italy decided to stay neutral at the beginning of World War I, but later signed the London Pact and entered the war as a part of the Entente. However, the country did not receive all the territories it was promised. The fascists under the leadership of Benito Mussolini attempted a coup in 1922 (March on Rome) and subsequently all political parties in the republic were banned. Italy signed two pacts with Nazi Germany, one in 1936 and the other in 1938. It also strongly approved of Franco's action in Spanish Civil War and Hitler's annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia.

Fun Fact: The Italian flag was modeled after the French national flag, introduced during Napoleons invasion of Italy in 1979.

The Trevi fountain is one of the most recognizable landmarks in Rome.

Geography
Italian territory reminds of a large boot that is surrounded by the Adriatic Sea on the east and the Thyrrenian Sea in the west. Its neighboring countries are Slovenia, Austria, Switzerland and France to the north. Its largest lake on the north is Lago di Garda with 370 square kilometers in surface. The Italian territory also encompasses the islands of Sicily and Sardinia. The only active volcano on mainland Europe is located in Italy (Vesuvius).

Climate
Although there is a prevailing opinion that Italy is a country with Mediterranean climate, its territory is very climatically diverse, depending on the location. The majority of Italy's northern inland has typical continental climate generally classified as Humid Subtropical Climate. Liguria and almost all territory south of Florence can be described as Mediterranean while the coast climate varies depending mostly on altitude of a certain area.

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Local Guide to Italy

Politics
The bicamerality of the Italian Parliament (Parlamento) is established by the 1948 Italian Constitution and it consists of the Chamber of Deputies (Camera dei Deputati) and a Senate (Senato della Republica). Its judiciary is independent and its executive branch encompasses the Council of Ministers (Consiglio dei ministri) run by the Prime Minister (Presidente del consiglio dei ministri). The parliament together with a number of regional delegates elects the President for a period of seven years, who later nominates the prime minister. The prime minister then proposes other ministers who have to obtain the vote of confidence from both chambers of Parliament. The parliament is elected using a somewhat complicated electoral system which consists of both proportional representation and a majority prize for Landscape of Sardinia. the largest coalition. Italians are allowed to vote if they are 18 or over, but Photo by: Philipp K. they have to be at least 25 in order to vote for the Senate. The Senate is elected using the regional representation electoral system. Italian judiciary system has its roots in Roman Law further expanded by the Napoleonic code and subsequent statutes. Italy has sent its troops as part of the UN and NATO operations to Somalia, Bosnia, Kosovo, Albania, Mozambique etc.

Military
Italian Supreme Defense Council is in charge of commanding Italian Armed Forces and the Council is presided over by the Italian President. There are currently more than 300,000 members of staff which makes Italy the 8th in the world in terms of military expenditure. The military is dived into four branches: the army, the navy, air force and gendamerie. Italian army has recently been transformed into a professional all-volunteer force with about a hundred thousand active duty members of staff. The navy was established in 1946, and today it is an up-to-date navy that with thirty thousand ships in its possession. The Marina Militare has been an integral part of many NATO operations around the world and some say it ranks as the fourth strongest navy in the world. The Italian airforce was founded in 1923 by King Vittorio Emanuele under the name Regia Aeronautica. The name was changed to Aeronautica Militare after Italy became a republic by referendum. The airforce today has some six hundred aircraft. Gendamerie provide the republic with a police service on the national level.

Regional, Provincional & Municipal Division


Italy has 20 regions, including five which have special autonomous status. The regions are subdivided into 109 provinces and more than 8,000 municipalities.

A winding scenic road on the Italian-Swiss border.


(Photo by: Mikael Miettinen)

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Local Guide to Italy

Region 1. Abruzzo 2. Basilicata 3. Calabria 4. Campania 5. Emilia-Romagna 6. Friuli-Venezia Giulia 7. Lazio 8. Liguria 9. Lombardy 10. Marche 11. Molise 12. Piedmont 13. Apulia 14. Sardinia 15. Aosta Valley 16. Tuscany 17. Trentino-Alto Adige 18. Umbria 19. Sicily 20. Veneto

Capital Aquila Potenza Catanzaro Naples Bologna Trieste Rome Genoa Milan Ancona Campobasso Turin Bari Cagliari Aosta Florence Trento Perugia Palermo Venice

Area 10,794 9,992 15,080 13,595 22,124 7,855 17,207 5,421 23,861 9,694 4,438 25,399 19,362 24,090 3,263 22,997 13,607 8,456 25,708 18,391

Population 1,305,000 594,000 2,004,000 5,790,000 4,187,000 1,208,000 9,375,000 1,610,000 9,375,000 1,528,000 320,000 4,341,000 4,071,000 1,655,000 123,000 3,619,000 985,000 867,000 5,017,000 4,738,000

Population and Ethnic Composition


Italy's population has reached approximately 60,000,000 people which makes it the fourth largest population in the EU and the 23rd largest in the world. Italian population density is the 5th in the EU, with close to 200 people per square kilometer. The north of Italy has the highest density and it the home to one third of the entire Italian population. The country used to be characterized by massive emigration and it has gradually transformed to a immigrant-receiving country. Italy has ten cities with population over 300,000 people, with Rome being the first (2,705,603) and Catania in Sicily being the last with 301,564. The country also has four major metropolitan areas - Milan, Rome, Naples and Turin (Torino). Foreigners make about five percent of the Italian population with close to three million people. Some cities (Milan, Padua, Prato) are characterized by one tenth of their population consisting of immigrants. The prevailing number of immigrants comes from the north African territory, but recent statistics show that Eastern Europe is the region of origin of a large number of foreigners in Italy.

Tourists are ever-present in Italy.


(Photo by: Patrick Denker)

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Local Guide to Italy

Religion
Although Italy is a predominantly Roman Catholic country, you will be amazed by the level of superstition of many of its citizens. Malocchio (evil eye) is warded off in many ways. Some Italians simply point the index and little finger down while the middle and ring fingers are folded under the thumb. Others will confess in a shy manner that they are wearing amulets. Some pregnant women in Italy wear chicken necks around their necks to ensure their babies are not born with the umbilical chord strangling them. Many insurance company employees find it difficult to discuss the possibility of their clients' death because they want to avoid that subject at any cost. This kind of social phenomenon is called Catholic paganism.

Religious Composition
The most represented religion in the country is Roman Catholicism with 87,8% of Italians stating themselves as Roman Catholics. The church has officially broken the connection to the government in 1929 when the Lateran Treaty was signed between Mussolini and the Catholic Church. Rome became the center of Catholicism and Vatican was declared an independent state. Catholicism was established as an official state religion but this changed in 1985 when Prime Minister Bettino Craxi and the pope agreed on dropping compulsory religious education in schools and religion was no longer official. Not many Italians practice their faith, and only one third describe themselves as active members of the Church. Other Christian religions include Eastern Orthodoxes (940,000 or 1.6%), Romanian Orthodoxes (500,000 or 0.85%), Ukrainian Orthodoxes (180,000 or 0,31%). Other religious groups comprise of Protestants (675,000 or 1.1%), Jehovah's Witnesses (500,000 or 0.85%), Latter-day Saints (22,000 or 0.04%), Muslims (1,210,000 or 2.1%), Buddhists (160,000 or 0.3%), Hindus (115,000 or 0.2%), Sikhs (70,000 or 0.1%), Jews (45,000 or 0.1%), no religion (3,400,000 or 5.8%).

The dome of St Peter's cathedral in Rome.


(Photo by: Vicbuster)

Economy
Rapid industrialization of Italy began before World War I and continued its rapid development all through the first half of the 20th century. Important global trends and crises like the 1930s world depression and Benito Mussolini's fascist political actions steadily restructured Italian economy, while its expansion was marginalized. Agriculture used to be Italy's main source of income up until the end of the World War II when nearly half of the workforce was still employed in agriculture. Industries began concentrating on the north of the country which later proved to be one of the main reasons of the northern economic superiority over the much poorer south. The development continued up until 1970s when the government introduced resolute measures in order to put an end to economic inefficiencies. Subsequent years were crucial for Italy's public debt reduction and one of the remedies was privatization of public industries. Other measures included the reduction of government spending but this also did not help in stopping Italian economy issues from escalating. The stagnation continued until 2005 when Italy's GDP was estimated at $1.76 trillion with mining, structuring and manufacturing contributing one third, and services contributing more than 70 percent. The proportion of agriculture was reduced to mere 2%. Although Italy has essentially a private enterprise economy, the government still had large proportions of control in some sectors (telecommunications, transportation, oil industry etc.). Government interest slowly begun to transfer to private ownership during 1990s, but the government is still a major, if not leading Italian employer. The south of Italy has always been developing much slower than the north - this has been an ongoing problem of the government for years. The majority of corporations and factories choose north over south for their headquarters due to the lack of infrastructure and a thriving crime rate in the south. Southern Italy has always had a lower unemployment rate than the north, in spite of the governments' efforts to foster industrialization in that region.

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What to see and do in Italy

What to See and Do in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide What to See and Do

Italy is a world of wonders - spectacular buildings, rich history and ancient sites, breathtaking scenery and numerous artistic achievements. All this has found its home in a country so small that it is sometimes not hard to ask yourself - where does it all fit? It is impossible to experience everything Italy has to offer in just one vacation? It is not advised to try to accomplish that because you would have to rush off from one place to another and there would be little time to enjoy that strong and bright color spectrum Italy has been glowing with for centuries. However, visiting some of the highlights offered here is bound to reveal a part of Italy's eternal allurement.

Tuscany - Hill Towns


Tuscany is home to some of the world's most beautiful ancient hill towns. Not much has changed from the times of Renaissance when numerous artists rushed off to Tuscany in search of a perfect scenery to paint. San Gimignano is probably the most famous and the most visited hill-town in Italy.
Buildings of San Gimignano.
(Photo by: Cfwe)

Siena, Italy.

It is located some 30 kilometers northwest of Siena. If it had not been for the competitive nobles in the village, its recognizable tower skyline would not have existed. The town is very well preserved and it could be characterized both as rural and aristocratic. Other features include the city's rich collection of secular and religious frescos. The best way to experience this town's history and its people is to visit it well out of season, because from Easter to October there are numerous tourists trying to capture the spirit of the paradise called San Gimignano. The town used to be dominated by two families - the Ardighelli and the Salvucci. Although it is home to 15,000 people, the town used to house four hospitals, five monasteries, baths open for public and a brothel. The idyll however did not last long - the first conflict between the two families occurred in 1246 and when the 'war' escalated it could only by halted by the Black Death which devastated both the town's citizens and its economy.

Pompeii and Herculaneum


One common feature separates these sites from any other ancient site in the world; they have both been destroyed and preserved perfectly at the same time by a volcano eruption on August 2, 79 AD. Pompeii is one of the most visited archaeological sites in the world with around two and a half people coming to see it every year. The true value of this site lies in the fact that it was not simply destroyed by the eruption; it was buried under tons and tons of burning pumice stone (lapili), preserving the town to the finest detail. Another tourist and religious destination is the nearby Santuario della Madonna del Rosario, a famous catholic pilgrimage. Herculaneum is another perfectly preserved archaeological site located south of Naples. It used to be a serene small fishing town that housed about four thousand people, in addition to being a high-end resort for rich Romans. It was also submerged by the Vesuvius eruption in AD 79. This catastrophe has a good side - the town was preserved to the finest detail, including pottery and clothes that its inhabitants had been wearing. This helped to discover what living looked like thousands of years ago; that is why the site is one of the most valuable archaeological discoveries in the world. It was rediscovered at the beginning of the 18th century, but serious scientific excavations did not start until 1927 and a lot of work still has to be done to uncover all the secrets this peaceful fishing town, still enveloped in shrouds.

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What to see and do in Italy

Emiglia-Romagna Cuisine
The region of Emiglia-Romagna is globally recognized as being home to some of the richest and extravagant dishes in Italy. Its most famous specialities usually come with a lot of parmesan cheese (Parmigiano Reggiano), Parma ham (prosciutto di Parma), acetto balsamico and pasta that comes in all shapes and sizes. Bologna generally has the reputation of being the gastronomic empire of Italy, offering plates packed with pasta with ricotta cheese, spinach or pork. Parma and Modena became famous for its bollito misto - boiled sausages, trotters, beef or tongue; zampone is Modena's own specialty - a stuffed pig's trotter. Whereas authentic Emiglia food is more oriented towards continental ingredients like mushrooms, cheese, butter and chestnuts, food found in Romagna is oriented towards south, with a lot of onions, olive oil and garlic.
Parmigiano Reggiano, famous Italian cheese.
(Photo by: paPisc)

Parco Nazionale d'Abruzzo


Where is it located? Why in the Abruzzo region, of course, although some territories are in Lazio and Molise as well. The park was founded in 1923 and it has successfully carried out its role as the preserver of species like chamois, the Italian wolf and Marcian brown bear for years. It is now one hundred times bigger than the original protected area. Other dominant species include wild boar, white-backed woodpecker and roe deer. Floral composition in the park is dominated by beeches, Silver Birches and Black and Mountain pines. The highest mountain peaks in the park include Mount Petroso (2,247m) and Mount Marsicano (2,242m). Aquatic areas include the Sangro River which flows in the south-east direction from its rise in the Devil's Pass through the Lago di Barrea before exiting the park and turning north-east. Other rivers are the Melfa and Giovenco.

Venice Carnival
The Venice Carnival takes place every year from the seventies (it was first recorded in 1268 but it fell into decline in 1798 when the city became became a part of the Austrian-held Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia) for ten days until Lent and finishes with a spectacular ball in the Piazza for the commons. This spectacular carnival hosts various performances and pageants with countless people parading in beautiful hand-made costumes perfected just for the occasion. Many palaces in private ownership open their doors for the public and host lavish themed feasts (go to any tourist office in the city for detailed information).

View of Herculaneum from above.


(Photo by: A.M. Kuchling)

Duomo, Orvieto
Some of the historians described the Orvieto Dome as being 'the greatest, the richest polychrome monument in the world'. A pope once said that the Duomo will float up to heaven carried by its beauty on the Day of Judgment. They pretty much captured the essence of it. It was built to commemorate the Miracle of Bolsena (a Bohemian priest came to rebuild his belief into transubstantiation and blood started dripping from the host when he was serving a mass in a nearby church). A more realistic miracle lies in the fact that the dome was built at all. Orvieto was very violent during the Medieval period and locals were close to giving the dome up a few times. The construction went on for three hundred years and drained up thirty architects, 150 sculptors and 90 mosaicists. The fruits of their work were amazing - the dome was a perfect example of a traditonal Romanesque-Gothic architecture.

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What to See and Do in Italy

Naples - Museo Archelogico Nazionale


This archeology museum is Naples' top when it comes to preserving some of the most valuable collections of Graeco-Roman artefacts. The site used to house the city's cavalry and later it was turned into a university. The museum was founded in the late 18th century by the Bourbon King Charles VII with the purpose of housing the king's valuable art collection he inherited from his mother. It is also home to a large number of artefacts found in Pompeii and Herculaneum, as well as rich collection of Etruscan and Egyptian relics, among other things. The museum's collection is so extensive that it is not too difficult to get lost in its rambling galleries; the best way to focus on its highlights is to follow the bilingual Guida di Orientamento. The ground floor has a beautiful Farnese collection of Roman and Greek sculptures, whereas a small but nevertheless astonishing mosaics collection is housed on the mezzanine floor. The Secret Room (Gabinetto Segreto) is on the floor above the Farnese collection and some of its highlights include many erotic paintings and other ancient pornography. The 1st floor is devoted to numerous discoveries found in Pompeii and the basement holds a small collection of Egyptian artefacts.

Cinque Terre
Le Cinque Terre is one of Italy's most valuable natural treasures. It is a coastline that stretches for eighteen kilometers and its most distinctive feature are its cliffs. The farmers taking care of their olive trees and dry-stone-walled vineyards have lived there for centuries, occupying five beautiful villages, each separated from another by mountains. The site was declared a World Heritage Site in 1997 and it also includes a protected maritime area and the national park (Parco Nazionale delle Cinque Terre). It seems as if time has stopped here - farmers still monorail themselves up and down these picturesque hills. The good side of this eternal time denial is that no cars or motorbikes are allowed in the villages, so the environment is pretty much intact, except for farming and fishing purposes. The area is connected by trains and electric buses are used instead of classic public transportation in the villages. Information about accommodation and eateries can be found at www.cinqueterre.com.

Bergamo - Citta Alta


The upper town of Bergamo has become world famous as being one of the most beautiful historic centers in Italy. It is surrounded by Venetian walls dating back to the 17th century and it houses numerous historical landmarks: Piazza Vecchia (old square) and Piazza della Ragione are both absolute must sees. Pallaza della Ragione was constructed in the 12th century and it used to be the administrative Scene from the Carnival in Venice. center of the city during the communal age. Many details added in subsequent (Photo by: Alaskan Dude) centuries tell the story of Venetian domination (the facade decorated with the lion of St. Mark), and it proves that its architects were very up to date when it comes to decorating trends combined with convenience (the 18th century sundial). Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore has a long religious history because it was built upon the site of a previous religious building dating back to 7th century. Its construction lasted for three hundred years and its highlight is the Giovanbattista Tiepolo frescos in the dome. Citta Alta is also home to the magnificent Cappella Colleoni, an astonishing example of Renaissance art and architecture and the Rocca (Castle) with walls more than six kilometers long.

The Amalfi Coast (Costiera Amalfiana)


Where? Province of Salerno, Campania. The Amalfi Coast is a beautifully structured coastline which stretches from the Sorrentine Peninsula (Province of Salerno) to Vietri sul Mare. The area has been heavily inhabited since the early Middle Ages, leaving a rich cultural heritage and some of the finest architectural and artistic works.

Assisi, the Basilica of San Francesco


Assisi is a medieval city where St. Francis was born and the place is closely connected to the activities of the Franciscan order. Its medieval architectural and artistic achievements were declared a World Heritage Site in 2000. Its main site is the Basilica of San Francesco that was badly damaged during the 1997 earthquake series, during which four people had died. The basilica has since been undergoing restoration which will continue at least until 2010. The upper church is home to one of the most famous art pieces in the world - the circular-shaped fresco made of 28 parts. The fresco is said to be created by Giotto and his pupils but this theory is currently under debate within the scientific community. Other attractions in the city include the Cathedral of San Rufino, built on a Roman cistern, Basilica of Santa Chiara, two medieval castles dominating the city's scenery etc.

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What to See and Do in Italy

Shopping Spree in Milan


Milan is a synonym for shopping - there are just a few other places in the world with such an abundance of boutiques, malls, designer outlets, and furniture shops. Beware of the city's working hours though and do not hope to buy anything in the period between 12:30 and 3:30 pm because that is when the majority of shops are closed. Their usual working hours are from Tuesday to Saturday 10am to 12:30 pm and 3:30 to 7:30 pm. Most of them are open on Monday afternoons and larger stores are also open on Sunday afternoons. It was not until the eighties when thousands of fashion-conscious people flew to Milan from all over the world to embark on a shopping spree the majority of us can only dream of. This was the time when the international reputation of labels like Gucci, Dolce&Gabanna, Prada and Versace went sky-high. Prices are definitely not acceptable for an average traveling budget - however, Milan is a place of neverending price-cuts so a bit effort to try and find a cheaper jacket or a pair of trousers is bound to pay off eventually. The majority of shops are concentrated around 'Quadrilatero d'Oro', Via Monte Napoleone and Via della Spiga and around. Most of them could be described as youth-oriented and interesting. The streets off San Babila are stuffed with shops selling excellent designer furniture like the one made by the famous Gio Ponte.

Beaches of Sardinia

Le Cinque Terre - Manarola.


(Photo by: Paolo Bertinetto)

Sardinia is said to have the finest beaches in Italy - miles upon miles of idyllic pearly white sand are bound to leave every visitor breathless. The waters surrounding the island have pretty much the most beautiful shades of emerald green and aquamarine you can imagine. Scenery is cut with rugged cliffs plunging into the sea and countless coves are waiting to be discovered. The islands name was given by the Greeks and the Phoenicians, describing the way it was created. Sandalyon is an ancient term for a sandal, because God created the island by stepping on it. The coastline, populated by numerous harbors and coves, stretches for more than 2,000 kilometers which leaves enough privacy for everyone in search of a quiet and peaceful holiday. This island has always been characterized as 'off shore' both because of its equidistance from the Italian and North African mainland, and because of its distinctive natural features rarely found elsewhere in the Mediterranean Sea. D. H. Lawrence once said that Sardinia is 'lost between Europe and Africa and belonging to nowhere'.

Gran Paradiso National Park


Gran Paradiso is the first national park declared as such in Italy and it is home to some of the most astonishing scenery in this part of Europe. It comprises the valleys surrounding the Gran Paradiso mountain (4,061m) whose value was first recognized by the King Vittorio Emanuele II who almost drove the entire ibex population to extinction. There are now more than three thousand of them living in the park in addition to more than six thousand chamois. The park is mostly visited by tourists from April to October; many families come to enjoy spectacular views from the northern part of the park where the mountains are higher and there is abundance of picnic areas and hotels. Southern parts are visited by more serious hikers who like a bit of excitement during their vacations.

Fun Fact: Italy has more hotel rooms available than any other country in Europe.
The Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi (St. Francis) in Assisi, Umbria.
(Photo by: JL2003)

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What to See and Do in Italy

Rome - Centro Storico


The historical center of Rome was declared a World Heritage Site whose area was extended in 1990 and it now encompasses the walls of Urban VIII. The site includes some of the most important antiquity monuments like the Mausoleum of Augustus, the Forums and the Pantheon. Basilica di San Paolo fuori le Mura is also an integral part of the site and it is considered to be one of four churches to be the great ancient basilicas of Rome. It is believed to be the place of burial of Saint Paul and many emperors further extended the building which made it even more beautiful.

Florence - di Uffizi

Sardinia, Italy.

It is a well known fact that Florence is the capital of the Renaissance. Its numerous historical buildings and priceless art collections have been dominating the city for centuries. However, one thing stands out as an example of a perfect compilation made for all those without enough time to properly explore numerous artistic achievements scattered throughout the city. Galleria degli Uffizi is home to the most valuable art collection in Italy. Even the most unknowledgeable visitors will soon recognize a number of artworks, like the Birth of Venus by Botticelli. The U-shaped building is an artwork itself because of its ceilings decorated in Grotesque style among other beautiful details. The edifice was built in 1560 and its original purpose was to jhouse the government offices with a top floor designed to house the art collection belonging to Francesco I de'Medici. The artwork is displayed chronologically and there are so many pieces it will take you at least three or four hours to take a look at the key works of this gallery. If that seems too energy-consuming, restrict yourself to the first fifteen rooms and explore the gallery's Renaissance collection. Prepare yourself for long lines in front of it as well - sometimes it takes an hour or two to get inside.

Matera
Sassi di Matera (Stones of Matera) is an ancient town that was first settled as early as the Paleolithic period. This is also said to be one of the first settlements in Italy, while later settlements tell a story of each culture that inhabited the area. The Sassi is a series of buildings dug in the rock, but many of these 'houses' are actually caverns adapted for human inhabitation. Another amazing fact is that some streets are placed on other houses' rooftops and people are still living in the same houses which have been inhabited for nine thousand years. Sassi is very similar to ancient sites located around the city of Jerusalem. Mel Gibson used the setting for his Passion of Christ.

Florence, Italy.

Mantova
Mantova is a city in Lombardy and the capital of the Mantova province. The city is surrounded by three lakes that were artificially created in the 12th century (Lago Superiore, Lago di Mezzo, and Lago Inferiore). The city has been the scene of many classics like the Shakespare's Romeo and Juliet (Romeo was exiled to Mantua because he killed Tybalt Capulet) and Verdi's Rigoletto. The city was named after the Etruscan god Mantus, the god of the underworld. Scientists speculate the city was founded some four thousand years ago. Its historic center cobbled with stone has preserved its medieval ambience and it is home to two famous palaces: the Palazzo Ducale and Palazzo Te. Palazzo Ducale houses Montegna's fresco depicting the Gonzaga family that ruled the city for three centuries. The building also served as the court. Palazzo Te has a fresco made by the Mannerist Giulio Romano whose work was never deprived of erotica and fantasy.

A beach east of Cagliari.


(Photo by: Lostajy)

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Architecture and Monuments of Italy

Architecture and Monuments of Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide What to see and do Architecture and monuments

There are numerous must sees in Italy - there are 47 World Heritage Sites alone, all of them worth seeing on account of their beauty and historical importance. It would be impossible to visit them all in one trip, but try to see as many as possible once you get to Italy.

Teatro alla Scala in Milan


The Teatro alla Scala in Milan, also known as La Scala, is the most famous theatre in Italy and one of the most famous theatres in the world; it is also an important part of the cultural life of the northern capital of Italy. It is located in the centre of Milan in the famous square, Piazza della Scala, which the theatre was named after. La Scala stands in front of the monument to Leonardo da Vinci, on the other side of the Piazza Duomo, across the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II. The theatre was built by the order of Marie Theresa, empress of Austria, at the end of the eighteenth century and was designed by the famous architect Giuseppe Piermarini. The theatre was inaugurated in 1778 and for the first exhibition they chose a work by Antonio Salieri. La Scala became the most important Opera theatre in the world. During the Second World War it was bombed and was quickly reconstructed after the end of the war. La Scala is one of the most important sites in the history of Italian opera, and the major composers of the XIX century, from Giuseppe Verdi to Giacomo Puccini, have presented their most important works, and important figures of the world Opera scene like Maria Callas and Luciano Pavarotti have performed in this theatre. Between 2000 and 2004, La Scala has been radically restored, a project carried out by the Swiss architect Mario Botta. The restoration of the building was carried out in a very short time, but was criticised for the scenic tour and for the large stage, but most of all because some important archeological pieces of Roman times were lost during the works. The theatre opened again in December 2004 with the representation of Antonio Salieri's Europa Riconosciuta, which is the same work with which La Scala was opened in the XVIII century. After the recent restoration works, La Scala features 2030 seats.

Italian Renaissance artist and scientist, Leonardo da Vinci, contributed to the city of Milan with several architectonic constructions.
(Photo by: Stadje)

St. Mark's Square in Venice


Piazza San Marco (St. Mark's Square), the only piazza in the city of Venice, as the other squares are called campi, is the square placed in front of St. Mark's Basilica and the heart of the Serenissima, the symbol of the ancient Republic of Venice. It is divided in three parts: the main body of the square; the southern part called Piazzetta San Marco which lies in front of the Doge's Palace (the government's palace of the Republic), and includes the libreria which is the entrance to the square from the sea through two famous pillars in front of the harbour of the Doge's Palace; and the Piazzetta dei Leoncini, on the western side of the Basilica, which features the statues of two lions, another symbol of the Republic of Venice. The square was built after the construction of the first Basilica (the one we can see now is the third and was built in the XI century) in the IX century with the arrival of St. Mark's relic, becoming the future centre of the city. The Piazzetta was built in the XII century, after covering the water space in front of the Duke's Palace, and the square was decorated in marble after the conquest of Costantinopoli at the beginning of the XIII century after the fourth crusade and the arrival of precious materials in Venice. During this time, equestrial monuments, the Cavalli di San Marco (St. Mark's horses), were placed to crown the Basilica, while the clock tower and the libreria are dated to the XVI century.

Often in autumn, especially in October and November, the tide brings the sea water over the argins of the canals, flooding the city, the streets, the squares and even the ground floor of houses, churches and shopts. Although for local residents this phenomenon is not appreciated, tourists can find it very peculiar in St. Mark's square where the whole area becomes a still mirror of water which offers a magical and unique vision, often used as subject by famous photographers.
(Photo by: Pepe2000)

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Architecture and Monuments of Italy

The Piazzetta dei Leoncini was placed in 1722, and the pavement og the square in white marble we see today was placed a year later, in 1723. The church of San Geminiano was demolished with the arrival of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1807 who had the new Royal Palace built instead. The square has not changed its looks since. St. Mark's Basilica is the most famous church in Venice, seat of the Patriarch of Venice, and is the most important example of Bizantine architecture in Italy, although it features many characteristics of Venetian architecture, showing the crossing point between the Eastern Roman Empire and and western Europe. The external part of the church it is divided in three sections: the inferior part, the terrace and the lanterns. As the basics of the church had to be placed on a fragil lagunar soil, the Church was spread on a wider surface rather than towards the top, so the outside impression of the church is a sense of wideness. St. Mark's in Venice, in fact, is 76.5 meters long, 62.5 meters wide, while the highest point reaches 43 meters.

Piazza San Marco, Venice.

The facade is marble of various colours, dated to the XIII century. It features mosaics and a large number of sculptures, while the arch over the main doors in bronze reminds of Arabic architecture. The square was called by Napolen Bonaparte the most beautiful drawing room in Europe and it gathers an incredible and unique mixture of architecture and richness which reminds of the past glory of the Republic of Venice. Today is one of the most visited sites in Italy. Here are many monuments and museums to vist: the Basilica, the campanile, the pillars, the Biblioteca Marciana, the Correr museum, the clock tower, St. Mark's treasure, etc.

Piazza del Duomo in Pisa (The Leaning Tower)


The Piazza del Duomo in Pisa, also known as Piazza dei Miracoli, is included in UNESCO's World Heritage list and, besides being one of the most famous squares in the world, it is one of the most important sites for Italian Renaissance architecture. The square is composed of four religious constructions (hence the name Piazza dei Miracoli given by Italian XIX century poet Gabriele D'Annunzio; Square of the Miracles): the Cathedral named to St. Mary of the Assumption, the Baptistry of St. John, the Camposanto Monumentale and the campanile, known as the Leaning Tower of Pisa. The square is a pedestrian area and has been covered with a garden. It took its modern shape during the XIX century, after architect Alessandro Gherardesca had some pre-existing constructions demolished, and had the four monuments restored. The Duomo, named by Santa Maria Assunta, is a masterpiece of Romanic architecture which features classic, ancient, Byzantine, Lombard-Emilian and Islamic elements, proof of the cultural flourishing of Pisa throughout its history. The church was blessed in 1118 and spread in the first half of the XII century by Rainaldo, who was also responsible for the decoration of the inferior part of the facade. The church was built in white marble on a Latin cross, decorated with sculptures, among which a Madonna col Bambino by Andrea Pisaon, and in the inside the Pergamo in marbl by Giovanni Pisano, from the XIV century. The Leaning Tower is one of the most famous pieces of architecture in the world, as is the campanile of the Duomo. Its construction was started in 1173, but the works were interrupted shortly after they reached the third floor, as the tower started to lean on one side. The works started again a century later with attempts to correct the direction, and three more floors leaning on the other side were built.

On the northern side of the Duomo there is a piece of marble of Roman origins which features a series of little holes. According to legend, these were the signs left by the Devil as he climbed the walls of the Duomo, attempting to stop its construction. For this reason the marks on the marble took the name of Unghiate del Diavolo, which is Italian for the nail marks of the Devil. The legend also adds that the number of these marks changes every time one tries to count them. In fact, there are about 150 of them, but some marks are lighter than others and are sometimes neglected while counting. Visitors who often tried to count them recorded differing numbers when counting them several times in a row.
(Photo by: Beriliu)

Fun Fact: The average Italian eats approximately 25 kilograms of pasta every year.

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Architecture and Monuments of Italy

The tower is about 58 meters high and the and it leans five meters off from its central axis. Like the Leaning Tower of Pisa, the construction of the Baptistry of St. John was not exempted from troubles. Its construction started in 1152 by architect Diotisalvi and was built in marble with circular plant inspired by the Anastasis of Jerusalem's Holy Sepulchre. The works were interrupted and began again in the second half of the XIII century by Nicola and Giovanni Pisano. The efforts to build the original cupola were started in 1358. The Camposanto Monumentale represents the background of the square and was designed by Givanni di Simone in 1277 and was completed in the XVI century. It was used as burial site and features many coffins from ancient times, initially placed along side of the Duomo. Originally, the walls were covered with enormous frescos, ruined during World War Two and later partially restored. The most famous cycles of frescos represent the episodes of the Triumph of Death, the Last Judgment and the Stories of the Saint Hermits by Buonamico Buffalmacco in the XIV century.

The Colosseum in Rome


The Flavian Amphitheatre in Rome, best known as the Colosseum, is one of the most famous ancient Roman monuments in the world and part of the UNESCO World Heritage list. The name Colosseum derives from an enormous bronze statue of the Roman emperor Nero, which was located in front of the amphitheatre, and which, due to its size, was known as Nero's Colossus. The construction of the theatre was started by Vespasianus but was completed by Titus in 80 A.D. Its opening ceremony lasted one hundred days and is described in ancient chronicles. The Colosseum was bult in order to give Rome a place worthy of the fame of its galdiators' shows, which formerly took place in a building in wood which was built on order of Nero, and was destroyed in the great fire of 64 A.D. The games before took place either in the Roman Forum or in the Forum Boarium, where temporary structures would be place on occasino of the games. Throughout all the empirial age, the Colosseum was restored several times, as the building was often damaged by earthquakes, like the one in 443 A.D. and fires, like the one in 217 A.D. In the VI A.D., the Colosseum was not used anymore and started getting ruined with time. The construction reflects the architecture of the first empirial age, based on a curve line which forms an ellipse over 500 meters long with axes of 18.5 and 156.5 meters, and is supported by a series of archs. It's highest point reaches 48.5 meters but it originally reached 52 meters. The arena measures 86 meters by 54, and its ground was covered in bricks and wood, which were covered in sand, constantly cleaned in order to absorb the blood of the slaughtered.

The Colosseum was used to exhibit shows called naumachiae, which were litteraly simulations of ship battles. The arena was flooded through a pipe system built underground beneath the Colosseum and were used, after the show, to let the water out. However, these shows did not seem to have had much success among the audience, so their history is quite short.
(Photo by: Dafalias)

It was separated from the stands by a podium of about four meters, decorated in marble and protected by bronze fences. Beneath the arena there were a large central passage and twelve curved corridors where they keped machinery used to lift animals or other machines onto the arena. Different kinds of spectacles took place in the amphitheatre, some of which were: fights among animals, execution of criminals by animals, execution carried out by men, and combats between gladiators. When it was opened, the theatre hosted games which lasted three months and during which about two thousand gladiators and nine thousand animals lost their lives. The last record of games in the theatre dates back to 437 A.D., but the theatre was used even later for games with animals until after the invasion of the Goths in 519 A.D.

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Architecture and Monuments of Italy

The Palace of Caserta


The Caserta Palace is one of the most extravagant and wonderful palaces a king has ever had built and is on the UNESCO World Heritage list. As you cross the entrance you immediately get the impression like you entered a palace from a fairytale. Charles III Bourbon had architect Luigi Vanvitelli design the new Caserta, a building modeled on Versailles. It is built on a rectangular base, covers a surface of 44,000 square meters and goes up to 42 meters of height along a front of 250 meters. The Royal Palace contains one 1200 rooms, lightened by 1,790 windows. The construction works started in 1751 by commission of Charles III of Naples - in that same year architect Vanvitelli's project was approved. His successors, Murat in particular, contributed a lot to the aesthetical improvements of the palace. This Royal Palace of Caserta is one of the most visited monuments in Italy, and one of its most outstanding features is the beauty of the receiving halls, almost entirely covered in silk of San Leucio, decorated with precious stones, tapestries, furniture and mirrors which run along the corridors, around the four main courtyards.

(Photo by: Twice25 & Rinina25 ; GFDL)

View of the park of the Caserta Palace.

The Royal rooms are divided in two apartments, the old and the new ones, dated between the end of the XVIII and the beginning of the XIX century. The XVIII century wing is a real museum of Neapolitan artistic crafts, in which there are ball rooms with frescos inspired by the four seasons, lounges, receiving halls, boudoirs in late baroque and rococo. The fresco in a room named after Alexander the Great, the bedroom of Francis II and the Staircase of Honour with 117 steps, made out of a unique block of stone, are only some of the examples of the greatness of the Royal Palace, which also includes a library with ten thousand volumes. The Royal Palace of Caserta was used to host the state leaders summit of the G7 in 1994. However, one of the most beautiful features of the Royal Palace is its park, which extends for three kilometers from south to north, over a surface of 120 hectares. The park features a series of beautiful fountains that divide two main parallel alleys, which connect the Italian and the English gardens.

A panoramic view of Rome.


(Photo by: Sabrina Campagna)

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Remarkable Sites in Italy

Remarkable Sites in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide What to see and do Remarkable sites

Italy is a country full of natural treasures with different characteristics due to the geographical variety of its territories. In Italy you can find Alpine natural parks, inland forests and lakes, and Mediterranean coasts and islands. The human touch to nature often managed to improve the beauty of the landscape like in Tuscany and on the lakes, giving a unique combination of nature and historical heritage.

Northern lakes
The north of Italy is a meeting point between the Alps and a great plain, Pianura Padana, crossed by the river Po which carries the waters of several rivers that come down from the mountains. As many sites with similar geographical features, the northern part of Italy is characterized by a large number of lakes, some of which offer marvelous natural views and beautiful urban centres. Among them there are three lakes that, by size and beauty, are worth being mentioned: Lake Maggiore, Lake Como and Lake Garda.

Lake Maggiore
Lake Maggiore is situated in the north-west of Italy at a height of 194 meters above sea level, and it is the second largest lake in Italy with 212 square kilometers, a maximum length of 12 and a coastline of about 170 kilometers.
Lake Maggiore.
(Photo by: Stincpao)

The main river that comes out of the lake is the Ticino with a maximum depth is 370 meters. It is situated between two regions and two states: the east coast is in Lombardy, while the west side in Piedmont, in Italy; the nothern part is situated in Switzerland. The lake is mainly surrounded by hills which separate it from the Alps, giving it a warmer climate. There are many islands of . varying sizes in the lake (11 in total, two of which are in Switzerland) on which several villas were built, and are divided in two groups: the Borromee isles and the isles of Brissago. The lake also is characterised by a high number of castles, villas, parks, gardens and mueseums located on the coast, the islands or in neaby cities. The most important tourist centre of the lake is the city of Stresa, in the Piedmont region, which holds many beautiful hotels; there are also other nice towns in the vicinity, such as Arona and Verbania.

Lake Como
The lake Lario, best known as lake Como, covers an area of one hundred forty six square kilometers and is the third largest Italian lake after Garda and Maggiore, and the deepest European lake with a maximum depth of 410 meters. This lake has a characteristic shape of the letter Y turned upside down and is divided into three parts: Colico in the north, Lecco in the south west, and Como south west, with a coast like of 170 kilometers. The lake is entirely surrounded by mountains, the highest of which is Mount Legnone (2609 meters). A total of 37 rivers connect with the lake, the most important of which is the Adda continues towards the river Po. The only island in the lake is the Comancina, situated in the Como section. The most important town on the lake is the city of Como, which gives the name to the lake, followed by the city of Lecco. Como is situated in the southwestern part of the lake and is the most important artistic and economic centre. This area was inhabited by Celtic population even before the Roman conquest, was dominated by foreign countries like Austria and Spain after the fall of Rome; it was also the home town of famous Italian scientist Alessandro Volta.

Fun Fact: Approximately 3,000 are thrown every day into the Trevi Fountain in Rome. All collected money is donated to the local charities.

Some of the most beautiful sights in the city are the villas, the lungo lago, the old centre and the Duomo. The city of Lecco is important as it was used as inspiration for the landscapes descripted in Italian XIX century writer Alessandro Manzoni's masterpiece The Betrothed. There are other important towns along the lake, remarkable for their beauty, like Bellagio, Cernobbio, Tremezzo, Menaggio, Dongo, Gravedona and Varenna.
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Lake Garda
The lake Garda, or Benaco, is the largest lake in Italy with a surface of around 370 square kilometres, maximum depth of 346 meters, and a coastline of one 155 kilometres. It spreads through three Italian regions: Lombardy, in the area of Brescia with coast towns like Desenzano del Garda, Salo' and Sirmione; Veneto, in the area of Verona, where the most important coastal towns include Peschiera del Garda, Malcesine and Torri del Benaco; and the Trentino-Alto Adige, in the area of Trento. In the lake there are five small islands: isle dell'Olivo, isle Sogno, Tirmelone, isle Garda (the largest) and the isle of San Biagio. The first three belong the region Veneto, while the other two are in the Lombard territory. Like the lake Maggiore, the climate is warm, which allows the growth of mediterranean vegetation like lemons, olives and palms, which makes it a good site for bathing - it is one of the main tourist sites in northern Italy.

The lake area offers tours of the isles by ferry, or trips around the lake on mountain paths, which are good to enjoy in beautiful views of the natural landscape of the lake. The Veneto coast, beneath the Mount Balod, is surrounded by a series of particular urban centres. From the north, Malcesine, (Photo by: Criscris1) is important for a fortress built in mountain rocks, its narrow streets are ideal for romantic walks and a cable allows tourists to reach 1,800 meters of height from which there is a wonderful view of the lake. Towards south there is Brenzone, with good infrastructure for cycling. Torri del Benaco boasts a medieval castle and good tracks for trekking around the lake. More to the south you can find the Bay of Mermaids and the town of Garda, followed by Bardolino, famous for its good wines and for its nightlyfe, and Lazise, a good site for camping. Near the lake, between Peschiera del Garda and Lazise, there is one of the most popular theme parks in Europe, Gardaland, named after the lake, which is one of the most important tourist sites in area, with 3.4 million tourists in 2007. On the Lombard coast, Sirmione is famous for an important villa dated to ancient Roman times, called Grotto of Catullus (in Italian Grotte di Catullo, private residence of Roman poet Gaius Valerius Catullus), and for its XIII century Scaliger Castle.

Just like Lochness in Scotland, the lake Como is haunted by a legend of a prehistoric monster, Lariosaurus (from the name of the lake, Lario) who lived the waters of the lake about 230 million years ago. Como, in fact, is one of the deepest lakes in Europe, and fossils proved the existance of this terrible reptile. The Lariosaurus does not reach the size of a meter, but the scary thing about it are its irregular teeth. However, according to the legend, the monster survived until today; since the 1940s, newspapers have reported the testimony of people who swore to have seen a monster, not bigger than two meters.

Cinque Terre
The Cinque Terre (in English, five lands) are a piece of rocky coast in the northwestern Italian region Liguria in province of La . Spezia, between Point Mesco and Point Montenero, which includes five urban centres, called terre (lands) in the past. Namely, they are: Monterosso, Vernazza, Corniglia, Manarola and Riomaggiore. The Cinque Terre refers to a rocky coastline of about fifteen kilometres which spreads along five towns, between Levanto and La Spezia. The five towns feature ancient characteristics due to isolation, which shielded their historical and natural beauty from modernisation. The sea and land in this region are intervowen in a unique landscape, which varies from 800 meters tall peaks and suddenly descends towards the sea within a distance of 500 meters. Due to the mixture of its geographical features with human interventions, such as terraces for agriculture and villages, the Cinque Terre are one of the most important tourist sites in the region and in the country; in 1997 the area became part of the UNESCO World Heritage list and in 1999, the Italian government protected it as a natural park in order to preserve the balance between nature and construction. The most western point, Monterosso al Mare, reachable on foot through the hardest track, the Blue Path (Sentiero Azzurro), is a town situated on hills where people used to grow olives and plant vineyards. The coastline is full of beautiful beaches, cliffs and clean water. An important landmark is the medieval tower Aurora, located on the Cappuccini hill, which separates the ancient centre from the modern town. At the church of Saint Francis, you can find important artworks like a painting allegedly a work of Van Dyck. Vernazza, the highest point of the Cinque Terre, is connected to Monterosso by a path between a mediterranean landscape and acgricultural facilities, partially abbandoned. Architectural elements are the proof of the past superior life standard to the other towns in the area. Corniglia is situated on a rocky promontory, near an area full of vineyards. This town was always more bonded to the land rather than the sea and it features urban characteristics similar to inland centres. The Saint Peter church is a lovely example of gothic architecture, while Via dell'Amore is a path which leads to Manarola, along a coastline cliff, and it takes about thirty minutes. Manarola is an ancient centre, but due to the lack of historic records, it is hard to give precise information; uphill there is a gothic church from the XIV century. Riomaggiore is the most eastern point if the Cinque Terre, situated in a narrow valley of Rio Maior, a the river near which the urban centre was born. The town was most likely founded by the Greek in the VIII century, but the first historic records date from the XIII century. In the high part of the town there a church named after Saint John, built in 1340, but the facade was rebuilt in the XIX century in gothic style.
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Remarkable Sites in Italy

Dolomites
The Dolomites (in Italian also called Monti Pallidi, Pale Mountains) are mountains located in the eastern Alps, in the Italian regions of Veneto, Trentino-Alto Adige and Friuli-Venzia-Giulia. The Dolomite area stretches from the province of Belluno, through Bolzen, Trento, Udine to Pordenone. The rocky mountains of the Dolomites give an impression of randomly placed groups of rock, a result of bending and cracking of rocks along faults, often caused by earthquakes. The Dolomites are still in the process of rising, as part of the tectonic process which is bringing the African plaque against European. The rock face also features marks made by glaciers, wind and rain. The Dolomites hold many very important sites for Italian winter tourism, like Cortina d'Ampezzo (also used for the ski world cup) in the Conca Ampezzana, Ortisei and Selva di Val Gardena, Canazei in Val di Fassa, Cavalese in Val di Fiemme, San Martino di Castrozza in the Primiero, Arabba in Valle di Livinallongo, Corvara in Val Badia, Pinzolo and Madonna di Campiglio in val Rendena. Besides skiing, the Dolomites are ideal for free climbing and trekking, due to the structure of the mountains and the presence of glaciers.

Italian poet and Nobel Prize Eugenio Montale called the inhabitants of the Cinque Terre the offspring of Hercules, due to the incredible work they did to create the structures necessary to grow crops in such an inadapt land.
(Photo by: Tsevis)

The Dolomites appearance is enhanced by the presence of many lakes, like the lake Alleghe, lake Dobbiasco, lake Braies, lake Landro, lake Tovel, and others. In addition, there is a large number of natural parks in this part of the eastern Alps: Parco Nazionale delle Dolomiti Bellunesi, Parco naturale delle Dolomiti d'Ampezzo, Parco naturale Fanes - Sennes e Braies, Parco naturale Paneveggio - Pale di San Martino, Parco naturale dello Sciliar, Parco naturale Dolomiti di Sesto, Parco naturale Puez Odle, Parco naturale provinciale dell'Adamello-Brenta, Parco Naturale Dolomiti Friulane.

The Chianti Area


Chianti is an area which stretches for about twenty kilometers from the south of Florence to the north of Siena in Tuscany, a crossover between nature, art and culture. It is also rich with vineyard-covered hills,where homonimous Italian wine Chianti is produced. The name was given to the area in the XIII century, referring to the League of Chianti, a group of villages under the administration of the County of Florence. The local agriculture is mainly aimed at the production of olive oil and wine. The wine tradition of this area is ancient and the production still follows the traditional methods. With its small villages and properties all around the countryside, and its closeness with important cities in Tuscany, this region attracts many tourists from other countries and many of them even have residence there, mainly Swiss, Germans, Dutch and English. The English, in particular, have bought many farms and castles, making them similar to English cottages, hence the name "Chiantishire" often used for this area. Besides the beauty of the landscapes, characterised by vineyards spread all over the hills, the Chianti area is rich in history, art and culture, with an incredible number of castles and old towns.

The Dolomites took their name from French naturalist Deodat de Dolomieu (1750-1801) who was the first to study a particular type of rock, Dolomite, which is the main component of this part of the Alpes.
(Photo by: Ilviale)

There are around twelve urban centres in this area, and they were all founded in medieval times, like Barberino Val d'Elsa, Greve in Chianti, Castelnuovo Berardegna and San Casciano in Val di Pesa. The whole area can be divided in two parts, the Chianti Fiorentino, as the area part of the province of Forence, and the Chianti Senese, the area under the administration of Siena. The Chianti Fiorentino area includes the Val di Pesa, particularly rich in art, especially in the town of Mercatale, as the municipal territory is surrounded by castles, like the Castle of Bibbione and the Castle of Gabbiano. The Chianti Senese, in the south, includes the Valleys of Abbia, Elsa and Pesa. In this part, Castellina in Chianti was the centre of the Chianti league. Dominated by a medieval fortress, its territory is full of interesting religious buildings, like the Church of Saint Martin and the Church of Saint Leonino in Conio.

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Remarkable Sites in Italy

Amalfi Coast
The Amalfi Coast, or Costiera Amalfitana, is a part of coast in the Campania region, located in the south of the Sorrentine peninsula facing the Salerno gulf; it begins in Positano in the west and ends in Vietri sul Mare in the east. This coast is world famous for its natural beauty, mysterious caves, cliffs and bays, and it features important touris services, like hotels and organised tours. American XX century writer John Steinbeck wrote the following line about the Amalfi Coast: "It is a dream place that isn't quite real when you are there". The name of the coast comes from the city of Amalfi, which was one of the four ancient Maritime Republics along with Genoa, Venice and Pisa. Amalfi is the main urban centre of the coast, both geographically and historically. Amalfi was founded by Roman families who had In the first years of the twelfth century, the republics of Florence and shipwrecked on the coast as they were sailing towards Siena were in conflict for the territories of Tuscany, in particular for Constantinopole, and the first records of the city are dated to the the Chianti area. The legend tells that the two cities decided that the VI century A.D. It became a republic in the IX century, becoming borders between the republics should be settled through a competithe oldest maritime republic. The city lived a period of strength tion; two champions had to challenge each other in a race and the crowing of a rooster at sunrise would mark the beginning. One and richeness, defeating neighbouring cities and the Arabs, but started from Florence, the other from Siena and had to run towards eventually perished in the war against Pisa. each other; the borders would be set in the point where the two The Costiera Amalfitana is also known for its heterogeneous would meet. However, Florence used a trick, starving a black features, as each of the towns of the coast has its own particular rooster and fooling it with a candle light, so the rooster crowed quite characteristics and traditions. The other towns which form the before sunrise. The champion of Florence started the race before his adversary and gained more land in favour of his republic. Since costiera are Vietri sul Mare, famous for its precious ceramics; then, the rooster became the symbol of Chianti. Cetara, a small fishermen's village which still carries its ancient (Photo by: D3tchibe) beauty; Maiori, an ancient Roman summer residence; Ravello, the city of music and of wonderful landscapes; Scala, the oldest town of the coast; Atrani, the smallest municipality in Europe; Conca dei Marini, with its cave Grotta dello Smeraldo; Furore; Praiano, where the Doges of Amalfi spent their holidays; Positano, the pearl of the coast, and Tramonti, famous for its woods. Besides the natural beauty of the area, the main sites to visit on this coast are the Duomo of Amalfi, the church of Saint Mary in Positano, the chuch of Our Lord the Saviour of Birecto and Saint Mary Magdalene in Atrani, the Villa Cimbrone and Villa Rufolo in Ravelo, the churches of Saint Luke and Saint Gennaro in Praiano, the church of Saint Pancrazio in Conca dei Marini, the church of Santi Trofimena and the Roman villa in Minori, and the castle of Saint Nicola de Thoro Plano in Maiori. The Costiera Amalfitana has been introduced in the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1997 as "an outstanding example of Mediterranean landscape".

Fun Fact: Most Italian families that emigrated to America are originally from the italian south, mostly from the city of Naples.

The name Amalfi is thought to have mythological origins. According to the legend, in fact, the Hercules, son of the Greek god Zeus, fell in love with a nymph called Amalfi. Unfortunately, though, Amalfi died still very young, and Hercules decided to bury her in the most beautiful place on earth, where he founded a city he named after his lost love.

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World Heritage Sites in Italy

World Heritage Sites in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide What to see and do World Heritage Sites

Here is a list of Italian sites that are included in the UNESCO World Heritage list.

Rock Drawings in Valcamonica


Where: Province of Brescia, Lombardy Coordinates: N45 57 25.4 E10 17 50.4 Valcamonica is located in the plains of Lombardy and it is home to one of the biggest collections of prehistoric petroglyphs in the world. There are more than 140,000 carvings on approximately 2,500 rocks depicting both profane and supernatural themes like navigating, agricultural activities, dance, magic and war. These carvings were made in the period of over 8,000 years and its significance comes from the continuation of the engraving practice from the Epipaleolithic until the Roman and Medieval periods which gives us an insight into human thought and human mentality and customs over that long period.

Church and Dominican Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie with The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci
Where: Province of Milano, Lombardy Coordinates: N45 27 57.2 E9 10 13.8 Protected zone area: 1.5 ha The core of this hectar-and-a-half large World Heritage Site is the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie which is home to some of the world's most famous artwork like Leonardo Da Vinci's Last Supper painted on the northern wall of the convent.
Valcamonica drawings.
(Photo by: Luca Giarelli)

Historic Center of Rome, the Properties of the Holy See & Sao Paolo Fiori del Mura
Where: Province of Roma, Lazio region (IT) / Vatican City State (VA) Coordinates: N41 53 24.8 E12 29 32.3 This World Heritage Site was extended in 1990 and it now encompasses the walls of Urban VIII. The Site includes some of the most important antique monuments like the Mausoleum of Augustus, the Forums and the Pantheon. Basilica di San Paolo fuori le Mura is also an integral part of the site and it is considered to be one of four churches to be the great ancient basilicas of Rome. It is believed to be the place of burial of Saint Paul and many emperors further extended the building which made it even more beautiful.

Historic Center of Florence


Where: City and Province of Florence, Tuscany Coordinates: N43 46 23.016 E11 15 21.996 Protected zone area: 505 ha The historic center of Florence was made a World Heritage Site in 1982 on the count of its extreme historical and cultural importance. Florence is considered to be the birthplace of Renaissance and its thriving period was very visible during the Medici influence in the 14th and 15th century. Santa Maria del Fiore is a cathedral that shows just how much Florence was culturally and artistically active over the period of six hundred years. There are many other churches that are also homes to some of the greatest artwork in the world (Michelangelo, Giotto, Brunelleschi and Botticelli).
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World Heritage Sites in Italy

Piazza del Duomo, Pisa


Where: City and Province of Pisa, Tuscany Coordinates: N43 43 23 E10 23 47 Protected zone area: Core zone: 8.87 ha Piazza del Duomo in the center of Pisa is home to a number of medieval monuments recognizable all over the world. The most prominent one is the Leaning Tower, a campanille belonging to the nearby cathedral. It began leaning towards southeast shortly after its construction had begun in 1173, because of poor foundations and loose soil. It now faces southwest. The tower was built over the period of 177 years and it involved three phases interrupted by wars and other important events at the time. Other influential buildings in the area include the Baptistry of St. John (Battistero di San Giovanni) and the Camposanto, both very influential in the filed of monument building from the 11th until the 14th century.

Florence skyline.
(Photo by: Echiner1)

Venice and its Lagoon


Where: Province of Venezia, Veneto Region Coordinates: N45 26 03.5 E12 20 20.2 The city of Venice is a masterpiece altogether - the bare fact that the city was built on water supported initially only by wooden pillars, makes it extraordinary. Venice was founded as early as 5th century and its 118 islets became a major maritime center five centuries later. Furthermore, the majority of its beautifully constructed buildings are home to works of some of the world's most renowned artists like Tintoretto, Giorgoione and many others. Venice is connected with more than four hundred bridges leaning over its numerous canals and although the city is facing difficulties due to gradual sinking, the Italian government has put in serious efforts to preserve it for the upcoming generations.

Historic Centre of San Gimignano


Where: Province of Siena, Tuscany Coordinates: N43 28 5.016 E11 2 30.012 Protected zone area: 13.88 ha San Gimignano was once an important corridor used by travelers heading to or from Rome on the Via Francigena. The patrician families in control of the city built more than 70 towers to showcase their power and significance. Only 14 of them have been preserved but the town has nevertheless managed to preserve its feudal atmosphere and image. San Gimingnano also houses several churches with extraordinary renaissance artwork, and the Town Gallery is home to works by the authors like Pinturicchio, Benozzo Gozzoli, Filippino Lippi, Domenico di Michelino, Pier Francesco Fiorentino, and others. The importance of this World Heritage Site is, among others, the fact that the towers are considered to be the inspiration for the design of the Essex University Campus as well as for some of the residential colleges at Yale University.

Fun Fact: Mercury barometer, battery, eyeglasses, typewriter, Espresso machine - all of these items were invented by Italians.

The spectacular city of Venice.


(Photo by: unknown author)

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World Heritage Sites in Italy

The Sassi and the Park of the Rupestrian Churches of Matera


Where: City and Province of Matera, Region of Basilicata Coordinates: N40 39 59 E16 36 37 Protected zone area: 1016 ha The most important part of this World Heritage Site is the Sassi di Matera (Stones of Matera), an ancient town that was first settled as early as the Paleolithic period. This is also said to be one of the first settlements in Italy, while later settlements tell a story of each culture that inhabited the area. The Sassi is a series of buildings dug in the rock, but many of these 'houses' are actually caverns adapted for human inhabitation. Another amazing fact is that some streets are placed on other houses' rooftops and people are still living in the same houses of their ancestors of some nine thousand years ago. Sassi is very similar to ancient sites located around the city of Jerusalem.

Sassi Matera.
(Photo by: Riccardo T.)

City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of Veneto


Where: Provinces of Padua, Rovigo, Treviso, Venice, Verona and Vicenza, Veneto Region Coordinates: N45 32 57 E11 32 58 Protected zone area: 333.87 ha The city of Vicenza was founded in the 2nd century B.C. and it reached its economic, social and cultural peak in the period between the 15th century until the end of the 18th century, under the rule of Venice. The city's unique appearance can be seen in the work of Andrea Palladio whose urban buildings and villas had influence on architectural development in general. This architect's work later inspired an architectural style known under the name of Palladian and it was a dominant building style throughout North America, England and many other European countries. Palladio's work can be seen in a number of building scattered around town, including: Villa Capra, Basilica Palladiana, Teatro Olimpico and many others.

Early Christian Monuments of Ravenna


Where: City and Province of Ravenna, Emilia-Romagna Region Coordinates: N44 25 13.5 E12 11 46.5 Protected zone area: 1.32 ha Ravenna was a two time capital - it was the seat of the Roman Empire in the 5th century and then the capital of Byzantine Italy until the 8th century. Its unique collection of early Christian mosaics and monuments consists of eight elements that have been declared World Heritage Sites. These are: the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, the Neonian Baptistery, the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, the Arian Baptistery, the Archiepiscopal Chapel, the Mausoleum of Theodoric, the Church of San Vitale and the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe. All of them were constructed in the period between the fifth and the sixth century. The beauty of these buildings is based on the fact that they are all great examples of a perfect mixture of different influences it is a place where the East meets the West. A perfect combination of Graeco-Roman heritage, Christian iconography and Western styles.

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World Heritage Sites in Italy

Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia


Where: Provinces of Rome and Viterbo, Region of Latium Protected Zone area: 20.84 ha Coordinates: N42 00 24.6 E12 06 06.8 These two cemeteries tell a story of development of the Etruscan civilization in the period between the 9th and the 1st century B.C. This is the oldest urban civilization in the area of northern Mediterranean. Many tombs are characterized by carvings and painting on their walls where while others are topped with impressive burial mounds (tumuli). The Banditaccia Necropolis in situated in the vicinity of Cerveteri and it has thousands of tombs organized in a city-like manner - it even has streets and squares. The shapes of the tombs are virtually innumerable - some of them are house-shaped whereas others look like trenches in cut rock.

Crespi d'Adda
Where: Province of Bergamo, Lombardy Coordinates: N45 35 36 E9 32 18

Banditaccia necropolis.

Crespi d'Adda is a fine example of 'company towns' built by industrialists in the 19th and the early 20th century. Company towns were generally built by philantropist industrialists in order to accommodate their workers and provide social amenities. They were constructed in Europe and North America. Crespi d'Adda is a remarkably well preserved town and a part of it is still used for industrial purposes, although this is threatening the site to a certain extent. The town has been declared a World Heritage Site in 1995 and its unique appearance and purpose have remained intact.

Historic Center of Naples


Where: City and Province of Naples, Campania Coordinates: N40 51 05 E14 15 46 Naples was first founded by Greek settlers in 470 B.C. and it has since then developed into a modern city with huge cultural heritage and rich social history. Naples is a city of more than 400 churches which makes it one of the most Catholic cities in the world. Many of them have been listed as a part of the Naples Historical Center World Heritage Site. All forms of architecture blend perfectly into the the modern atmosphere of the city.

Historic Center of Siena


Where: City and Province of Siena, Tuscany Protected zone area: 170ha Coordinates: N43 19 7 E11 19 54 Siena is a perfect example of a preserved medieval city. Elegant gothic architecture is its main feature. The appearance of the city has been acquired in the period between the 12th and the 15th centuries during which many of Siena's artists and architects influenced European trends in building and artistic work.

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World Heritage Sites in Italy

Castel del Monte


Where: Communes of Andria and Corato, Province of Bari, Puglia Region Coordinates: N41 5 5.3 E16 16 15.4 Castel Del Monte was built in the 13th century by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Some speculate that the castle was never intended as a defensive fortress because it has neither a drawbridge or a moat. Its octagonal shape with a bastion at each corner is thought to represent the symbol of the earth and the sky. The castle closely resembles the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem which Frederick II saw whilst on a Crusade. Castel del Monte was empty up to 1825 when the Italian government bought it for 25,000 lira and began with its restoration. Castel del Monte is a perfect example of blending Gothic, Oriental and classical Antique architectural styles.
Centre of Siena.

Historic Center of the City of Pienza


Where: Province of Siena, Tuscany Coordinates: N43 4 37 E11 40 43 Protected Zone Area: 4.41 ha Many say that Pienza is the touchstone of Renaissance urbanism. The entire valley was declared a World Heritage Site in 2004. This was the birthplace of Pope Pius II who decided the place needed some refurbishing. Bernardo Rossellino was chosen to be the designer of the landscape and his vision included the Piazza Pio II as the center of this marvelous urban space. The surrounding buildings (the Piccolomini Palace, the Borgia Palace and the cathedral) represent superb examples of late Gothic style of churches in the south of Germany.

The Trulli of Alberobello


Where: Province of Bari, Puglia Region Coordinates: N40 46 57 E17 14 12.984 Protected zone area: 10.52 ha A trullo is a stone dwelling with a conical roof that had been built without any cement or mortar. Drywall construction is typical for prehistoric building which is still being used in the area. The majority of these buildings have only one room designed as temporary shelters. Trulli are very popular on the real estate market and some of them are available for sale. However, if one wishes to purchase and restore it for general use, they need to conform to many regulations.

18th-Century Royal Palace at Caserta with the Park, the Aqueduct of Vanvitelli, and the San Leucio Complex
Where: Provinces of Caserta and Benevento, Campania Coordinates: N41 4 23.988 E14 19 35.004 The complex was constructed by the Bourbon king Charles III during 18th century in order to rival to the Royal Palaces in Madrid and Versailles. Reggia di Caserta was a royal residence and it used to be the largest palace built in Europe in the 18th century. The Aqueduct of Vanvitelli closely resembles an ancient Roman construction that was used to carry water to the palace gardens. The Aqueduct is more than 60 meters high and 42 kilometers long. It was built over a period of close to 20 years.

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World Heritage Sites in Italy

Archaeological Area of Agrigento


Where: Province of Agrigento, Sicily Coordinates: N37 17 23 E13 35 36 Protected zone area: 934 ha Agrigento is a city in Sicily with a history that dates back to the Golden Greek Age when the city was founded by colonists from Gela, who named it Akragas. Ancient Akragas is a huge space with many unexcavated areas. The highlights of the city are seven monumental temples built in the south side in the Doric architectural style. These temples represent some of the best-preserved ancient Greek buildings outside of Greece. What was founded as a remote Greek colony grew into one of the most powerful cities in the Mediterranean area.

Caserta Palace.
(Photo by: Twice25 & Rinina25; GFDL)

Archaeological Areas of Pompei, Herculaneum and Torre Annunziata


Where: Province of Naples, Campania Coordinates: N40 45 E14 29 As the result of the Vesuvius eruption in the year 79, two of the promising Roman towns were buried under ashes in a matter of hours - Pompei and Herculaneum. Both of them were slowly excavated and have been open for the public since the 18th century. Pomei proved to be a prosperous and agriculturally oriented town whereas smaller Herculaneum was a holiday resort that was generally better preserved under the ash. Main Pompei sight include Madonna del Rosario di Pompei basilica that became a prominent site for Catholic pilgrimages during recent years.

Botanical Garden (Orto Botanico), Padua


Where: City and Province of Padova, Veneto Region Coordinates: N45 23 56.8 E11 52 50.4 Protected zone area: 2.2 ha The Botanical Garden of Padua founded in 1545 is the world's oldest botanical garden that remained in its original location. Apart from being known for its huge surface of some 22,000 square meters, it is also famous for its historical design. Its round central shape represents the earth surrounded by a circle of water, designed to protect the garden from night thefts. Its original purpose was to grow medicinal plants in addition to being a showcase of plants to students that learned how to distinguish real remedy plants from the false ones. The garden gradually expanded in both scientific and physical sense and many exotic plants were first shown to the public there. The Padova Botanical Garden is a bastion of science, and it helps understanding the relationship between people and nature to the present day.

Cathedral, Torre Civica and Piazza Grande, Modena


Where: City and Province of Modena, Emilia-Romagna Region Coordinates: N44 38 46.5 E10 55 32.4 Modena cathedral is a magnificent artwork by two of highly appreciated artists, Lanfranco and Wiligelmus and a unique example of early Romanesque art. Its embellishment represents different architectural elements - the rose-window was constructed in the 13th century and the lions supporting the columns at the entrance originate from the Roman Ages. They were probably excavated during the foundation construction. Torre Civica (Torre della Ghirlandina) is its bell tower erected close to 90 meters from the ground and it has long been the traditional symbol of the city of Modena. The construction began in 1179 with the purpose of competing with Bologna's towers. The construction began in 1099 on the former site of two churches that have both been destroyed. It was finished with the consecration by Lucius III in 1184.

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World Heritage Sites in Italy

Costiera Amalfitana
Where: Province of Salerno, Campania Coordinates: N40 38 60 E14 35 60 The Amalfi Coast is a beautifully structured coastline which stretches from the Sorrentine Peninsula (Province of Salerno) to Vietri sul Mare. The area has been heavily inhabited since the early Middle Ages, leaving a rich cultural heritage and some of the finest architectural and artistic works.

Su Nuraxi.
(Photo by: unknown author)

Ferrara, City of the Renaissance, and its Po Delta


Where: City and Province of Ferrara, Emilia-Romagna Region Coordinates: N44 50 16 E11 37 10 Protected zone area: 46712 ha Ferrara was intended to represent an 'ideal city' and it became the intellectual and artistic bastion of Italian Renaissance. It is located around a ford over the River Po and is still surrounded by 9 kilometers of ancient walls built predominantly in the 15th and 16th centuries. They are considered to be the best example of preserved walls in Italy. Prominent attractions include Castello Estense, a square in the center of the city surrounded by four towers. Others include the Palazzo del Municipio reconstructed in the 18th century, a university that owns the original work of Torquatto Tasso and Palazzo dei Diamanti which houses the National Picture Gallery with some of the finest works from many prominent Renaissance artists.

Portovenere, Cinque Terre, and the Islands (Palmaria, Tino and Tinetto)
Where: Province of La Spezia, Liguria Region Coordinates: N44 6 24.984 E9 43 45.012 Protected zone area: 4689.25 ha Portovenere consists of three villages (Fezzano, Le Grazie and Portovenere) and three islands (Palmaria, Tino and Tinetto). The name is believed to refer to the temple of the Venus which was constructed on today's site of the the church of Peter the Apostle. Main sights include the Gothic Church of St. Peter finished in 1198, the Romanesque Church of St. Lawrence and many other. This part of the Ligurian coast has great scenic and historical value because it witnesses the never ending human conflict with uneven and steep terrains that were somehow tamed in harmony with nature.

Residences of the Royal House of Savoy


Where: Province of Torino, Piedmont Region Coordinates: N45 4 21.108 E7 41 8.592 Protected zone area: 338.14 ha The Duke of Savoy wanted to express his power with an extensive reconstruction and expansion of the city of Turin which became his capital in 1562. This magnificent group of structures was declared a World Heritage Site in 1997 because of its extreme importance the the region's cultural and urban development. The residences include, among others, Palazzo Reale, Palazzo Chiablese, Royal Armory - Royal Library, Palazzo della Prefettura, Faade of the Royal Theatre, Palazzo Madama, Palazzo Carignano, Castello del Valentino, Castello di Rivoli and many others. Palazzo Reale (the Royal Palace of Turin) was a royal residence until 1645, and its rich tapestries and an extensive collection of Japanese and Chinese vases are one of many evidence elements of the aristocratic lifestyle of its owners.
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World Heritage Sites in Italy

Su Nuraxi di Barumini
Where: Province of Medio Campidano, Sardinia Coordinates: N39 42 21 E8 59 29 Protected zone area: 2.3254 ha Nuraghe is a megalithic edifice dating back before 1000 B.C. The nuraghe are the dominant kind of megalithic buildings in Sardinia, some of which are more than 3,000 years old. Nuraghe have become a distinctive symbol of the region and its ancient culture has been built upon these edifice. A nuraghe looks like a conical tower resembling a beehive. They were normally built on panoramic spots and the nuraghic architecture is said to be the most advanced of all civilizations in the Western Mediterranean at the time. Nuraghe Barumini is the most important complex of such kind and it has therefore been declared a World Heritage Site in 1997. The village is positioned around a three-story tower built some 2,500 years ago. Scientists believe that no parallel exists anywhere else in the world for this form of defensive structure.

Cinque Terre.
(Photo by: Adventur)

Villa Romana del Casale


Where: Piazza Armerina, Province of Enna, Sicily Coordinates: N37 21 58 E14 20 03 Villa Romana del Casale was the center of an enormous estate during the Roman Ages and its considered to be a symbol of countryside exploitation, on which rural economy was based.The Villa has the richest and the most preserved collection of Roman mosaics in the world. It was built sometime in the first quarter of the 4th century. Scientists presume that the villa served its purpose for a mere 150 years, but it remained inhabited and a village called Platia (derived from palatium - palace) developed around it. The villa was buried for many years until serious excavations started during the 20th century. The size and luxury of the villa indicated that it has once belonged to a member of the senatorial class or a member of the royal family.

Nuraghe.
(Photo by: Horsch)

Archaeological Area and the Patriarchal Basilica of Aquileia


Where: Province of Udine, Friuli-Venezia Giulia Region Coordinates: N45 46 6 E13 22 3 Protected zone area: 155.3 ha Aquileia is an ancient city that played an important role during the evangelization of Central Europe. As much if the complex remains unexcavated, Aquileia is considered to be the largest archeological site of this kind in the world. The Basilica of Aquileia is said to be one of the most important Christian buildings in the world.

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World Heritage Sites in Italy

Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park with the Archeological sites of Paestum and Velia, and the Certosa di Padula
Where: Province of Salerno, Campania Coordinates: N40 17 E15 16 Parco Nazionale del Cilento e Vallo di Diano is Italy's second largest national park. It is located in the vicinity of the southern part of the famous Amalfi coast, comprising small rural towns and villages by the sea. Its magnificent complexity combined with the heterogenity of the landscape blends perfectly with the mythical character of the region and its rich cultural life. The area is of extreme historical importance because it used to be a vital trading route in addition to being crucial for successful cultural and political exchange during the prehistoric and medieval periods. The area was an important connection point between the Etruscan and Lucanian peoples as well as between Magna Graecia and its colonies. Paestum and Velia are the two cities from classical times found in the area.

Historic Centre of Urbino


Where: Province of Pesaro, Marche Region Coordintes: N43 43 30 E12 37 59.988 Protected zone area: 29.23 ha

The ruins of ancient Aquileia.

Urbino is a small town located on the top of the hill in the Marche and it a was one of many Italian towns that attracted numerous artists and scholars during the 15th century. The town and its artistic and scientific achievements influenced trends all over Europe and the 16th century economic stagnation saved it from being transformed into a more modern city, so it remained one of the best preserved Renaissance towns. The town owes its development to a notable patron Federico da Montefeltro who was the duke of the town from 1444 to 1482. It is home to the University of Urbino founded over 500 years ago and its most notable architecural site is the Palazzo Ducale. Its construction commenced in the second half of the 15th century and it is now the home of the Galleria Nazionale delle Marche, which is the owner of one of the most valuable Renaissance art collections in the world.

Villa Adriana (Tivoli)


Where: Province of Rome, Region of Latium Coordinates: N41 56 39 E12 46 19.1 Villa Adriana is a magnificent complex created in the second century A.D. which combines elements of architecture found in Greece, Egypt and Rome. Formed as an 'ideal city', the Roman emperor Hadrian is said to have ruled the empire from this very spot during his later years. The site was partially ruined during the last years of the Roman Empire and many of its statues were moved to Villa D'Este. This large complex is believed to spread over more than one square kilometer; it contains 30 buildings and the finest example of an Alexandrian Garden. It houses a theater, libraries, temples, several thermae and palaces among other things. Numerous artefacts were excavated from the site, any many of them are being displayed or restored in the world's renown galleries and art institutions (Louvre, Musei Vaticani etc).

Fun Fact: More than 75% of Italian territory is hilly or mountainous.

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World Heritage Sites in Italy

Assisi, the Basilica of San Francesco and Other Franciscan Sites


Where: Umbria, Perugia Coordinates: N43 3 58.2 E12 37 20.8 14563.25 ha Protected zone area:

Picturesque Urbino.
(Photo by: unknown author)

Assisi is a medieval city where St. Francis was born and the place is closely connected to the activities of the Franciscan order. Its medieval architectural and artistic achievements were declared a World Heritage Site in 2000. Its main site is the Basilica of San Francesco that was badly damaged during the 1997 earthquake series, during which four people had died. The basilica has since been undergoing restoration which will continue at least until 2010. The upper church is home to one of the most famous art pieces in the world - the circular-shaped fresco made of 28 parts. The fresco is said to be created by Giotto and his pupils but this theory is currently under debate within the scientific community. The lower church was built shortly after the upper church and its four frescos are attributed to Maestro delle Vele (Giotto's pupil). Another important painter who attributed to the beauty of the church is Cimabue, whose depiction of St. Francis is said to be the most accurate one. Other attractions in the city include the Cathedral of San Rufino, built on a Roman cistern, Basilica of Santa Chiara, two medieval castles dominating the city's scenery, etc.

City of Verona
Where: City and Province of Verona, Veneto Region Coordinates: N45 26 19 E10 59 38 Protected zone area: 452.899.994 ha Verona was founded in the first century B.C. and it has since then been the bastion of culture, art, history and science in Italy. Its prosperity began in the period between the 13th and the 14th century, under the Scaliger rule. Verona has been declared a World Heritage Site in 2000 due to the fact that it is a fine example of a city's uninterrupted development that has been going on for two millennia. Its cultural transition from the Roman times to the present day is astonishing and well-depicted - the majority of sites have been carefully preserved and they all confirm the city's military, artistic and historical importance. Verona's must sees are virtually innumerable. The city Juliet's balcony. (Photo by: __JiGGy__) is perhaps best known for being the scene of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, and many tourists come to admire their houses. The Arena dating back to Roman times is a magnificent amphitheater (the third largest preserved) that is still serving its purpose today. Cassa Di Giulietta (Juliet's House) is supposedly the home of the famous balcony love scene, but the balcony was added in 1936 and declared 'Juliet's House'. Castelvecchio is a castle built in the 14th century and it is home to the famous city art museum housing an extensive Renaissance painting and medieval sculpture collection. Piazza delle Erbe is the cultural center of the city and its Madonna Verona fountain and the Gardello Tower dating back to the 14th century make it even more picturesque.

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World Heritage Sites in Italy

Isole Eolie (Aeolian Islands)


Where: Mediterranean Sea - Southern Tyrrhenian Sea Coordinates: N38 29 16.3 E14 56 44.1 Protected zone area: 1216 ha Aeolian Islands are an archipelago derived from volcanic activity north of Sicily. The islands were listed as World Heritage Sites in 2000 because of their extreme importance in volcanic activity research and beautiful scenery.

Villa d'Este, Tivoli


Where: Province of Rome, Region of Latium Coordinates: N41 57 50.1 E12 47 46.5 Protected zone area: 4.5 ha Another remarkable example of preserved Renaissance culture is Villa d'Este located in Tivoli near Rome. The surrounding garden has been the model for many European gardens and it is considered to be one of the first giardini delle meraviglie. It is encircled by a courtyard dating back from the 16th century and has a fountain on the side wall. All principles of Renaissance were illustrated here in a special manner and the Villa symbolizes the peak of the Renaissance culture.

Late Baroque Towns of the Val di Noto (South-Eastern Sicily)


Where: Provinces of Catania, Ragusa, and Syracuse, Sicily Coordinates: N36 53 35.5 E15 04 08.1 Protected zone area: 112.790001 ha These 8 late Baroque Sicilian towns (Caltagirone, Militello Val di Catania, Catania, Modica, Noto, Palazzolo, Ragusa and Scicli) were rebuilt on former sites of the towns that were shattered by earthquakes in 1693. Besides following principles of the architectural style of the day, many towns represent fine examples of building and style innovations that were new at the time. All of them symbolize the peak of the late Baroque architecture and art.

Villa d'Este in Tivoli.


(Photo by: Thalia)

Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy


Where: Regions of Lombardy and Piedmont Coordinates: N45 58 28.4 E9 10 10.4 Protected zone area: 721.900024 ha This group of chapels and other architectural achievements was created during the 17th and 18th century. All of them have been perfectly blended with the surrounding scenery and all of them are homes to influential artistic work like various depictions of scenes from the Christian past in form of sculpture and painting. The Sacre Monti are:

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World Heritage Sites in Italy

The Sacro Monte of Belmonte, Valperga (1712), province of Turin The Sacro Monte or Nuova Gerusalemme (New Jerusalem) of Varallo Sesia (1486), Varallo Sesia, province of Vercelli The Sacro Monte and Calvary, Domodossola (1657), province of Verbano-Cusio-Ossola The Sacro Monte of Santa Maria Assunta, Serralunga di Crea (1589), province of Alessandria The Sacro Monte of the Holy Trinity, Ghiffa (1591), province of Verbano-Cusio-Ossola The Sacro Monte of San Francesco, Orta San Giulio (1590), province of Novara The Sacro Monte of the Blessed Virgin of Succour, Ossuccio (1635), province of Como The Sacro Monte of the Rosary, Varese (1598) The Sacro Monte of the Blessed Virgin, Oropa (1617), province of Biella

Val d'Orcia
Where: Province of Siena, Tuscany Coordinates: N43 04 E11 33 Protected zone area: 61187.960938 ha This Tuscan region is located between the hills south of Siena and Monte Amiata. The region first became famous during Renaissance when many artists depicted these serene hills occasionally interrupted by villages like Radicofani, Montalcino or Pienza. The landscape was since depicted in numerous photographs, paintings and other artistic achievements. Val d'Orcia is a perfect example of a well governed 14th century city-state that put a lot of effort into bending the scenery to transform it into an agricultural landscape that was aesthetically distinctive at the same time.

Syracuse and the Rocky Necropolis of Pantalica


Where: City and Province of Syracuse, Sicily Coordinates: N37 03 34.0 E15 17 35.0
Syracuse is a city of great historical importance in the south of Italy. Its main feature is the richness of Greek culture in forms of architecture, art and history. The city is associated with Archimedes (a Greek astronomer, mathematician, engineer, physicist and inventor) who was born there in 287 B.C. Syracuse is was one of the most powerful city-states of the ancient Mediterranean and its numerous architectural and artistic achievements witness its political importance throughout history. Main sights include the Greek theater, the Temple of Athena, a Roman amphitheater etc. The Pantalica Necropolis consists of more than 5,000 crypts carved in rock, the majority of them dating back to the period between the 13th and the 7th centuries B.C. Syracuse is a living example of troubled Sicilian history when many civilizations ruled the area (the Greeks, the Byzantines, the Bourbons, the Arabo-Muslims, the Hohenstaufen dynasty). It also showcases rich cultural heritage that is over three thousand years old and extremely culturally diverse.

Syracuse.
(Photo by: Ricky72)

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World Heritage Sites in Italy

Genoa: Le Strade Nuove and the system of the Palazzi dei Rolli
Where: Liguria Region, Genoa Province Coordinates: N44 24 44 E8 55 52 Protected zone area: 15.777 ha This World Heritage Site, located in the historic center of Genoa, dates back to the late 16th and early 17th century when the city was at its peak in terms of seafaring and finances. Genoa was the first city to be parceled out with the help of an urban development project in the world. Le Strade Nuove (The New Streets) are the home to a group of Renaissance and Baroque palaces. These palaces were built to accommodate many eminent families in the city and they are fine examples of applying different architectural solutions in order to adapt to specific social and economic structure.

Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina Landscapes


Coordinates: N46 29 54 E09 50 47 Protected zone area: 152.42 ha The railway connects two historically significant railway lines that go through the Swiss Alps using two passes. The Albula line, located in the northwestern part of the area became functional in 1904 and it is 67 kilometers long. The site contains an astonishing series of covered galleries, tunnels (there are 42), and 144 viaducts and bridges. The railway had the purpose of connecting Central Alps settlements with the rest of the world at the beginning of the 20th century. Its socio-economic impact to the area was strong and long-lasting. The railway represents another successful attempt of bringing the nature and people together without jeopardizing the area ecologically.

Mantua and Sabbioneta


Where: Po valley, northern Italy Coordinates: N45 9 34 E10 47 40 Protected zone area: 235 ha These two towns are examples of different approaches to Renaissance town planning - Mantua was extended and renewed while Sabbioneta represents planning according to the period's principles. The city of Mantua is laid out irregularly and its streets show evidence of the city's growth since the Roman period with many medieval buildings, and a Baroque theater. Main sights include: The Palazzo Te - a mature Renaissance and post-Raphaelian mannerism styles palace The Palazzo Ducale, the residence of the ruling Gonzaga family The Basilica of Sant'Andrea The Duomo The Rotonda di San Lorenzo The Bibiena Theater The church of San Sebastiano The Palazzo Vescovile ("Bishops Palace") The Palazzo degli Uberti The Torre della Gabbia ("Cage Tower") The Palazzo del Podesta that hosts the museum of Tazio Nuvolari The Palazzo della Ragione with the Tower of the Clock The Palazzo Bonacolsi Sabionetta was founded in the 16th century under the Vespasiano Gonzaga Colonna rule. Its main features are the right-angle grid layout and the fact that it is a single-period city.
Palazzo Ducale in Mantua.
(Photo by: Emmeu; GFDL)

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Nightlife in Italy

Nightlife in Italy
World Europe Countries Italy Local guide What to see and do Nightlife

Rome by night.
(Photo by: Vintphoto)

range from five to twenty euros. Working hours are usually from 10:30 PM until early in the morning. Locali notturni (nightclubs) generally have even steeper drink prices but entrance is more often free or up to 14 euros. People are usually a bit older than in discos and the music selection is generally narrower. Gay and lesbian bars and nightclubs can mostly be found in major cities, rather than in smaller towns. The best source of information about nightlife are always local newspapers and magazines. Another useful source is a publication covering events and other entertainment information, published by the local government.

A picture of the Italian people should be right next to the word 'socializing' in a dictionary - that is how much their life revolves around informal gatherings. It has been that way for centuries - all towns and cities were growing around the central piazza where people came to mingle and talk, especially in the evenings. To entertain yourself in Italy, all it takes is to sit at a table on the street and watch people go by. Bars and cafes have long working hours and remain open until really late at night. Many pubs opened in Italy recently and they are becoming increasingly popular. These venues are usually fancier than an ordinary Irish pub, and they resemble a night club without music. Drinks are generally more expensive than in a regular bar. Many pubs imitating a classic British or Irish pub have opened in Rome and in other northern cities recently. Le discoteche (discos) are actually huge venues spread on several floors playing every possible kind of music. Drink prices follow the size of the clubs unfortunately. Entrance fees in small towns are usually 25 euros, but these prices rise up to 100 euros in large cities or on the Italian Riviera. If it is any consolation, your first drink is usually covered by the ticket and subsequent drinks

Nightlife in Rome
Rome has always been the city with the biggest number of entertainment alternatives, especially during the Estate Romana, a huge festival hosting hundreds of cinema, opera, music and theater shows. The city becomes overwhelmed with events taking place under the stars in gardens, parks and church yards. Ancient Roman ruins and Renaissance villas become the scenes of unforgettable performances of some of the most renowned artists of our time. The end of summer does not mean the end of entertainment in the city - autumn is the time of several interesting festivals dedicated to jazz, drama and dance. Rome's most detailed entertainment and nightlife guide is Romac'e (www.romace.it, published every Wednesday). The publication also includes the English-language section. Trova Roma is another excellent source of information regarding Rome's nightlife. This is a free Thursday insert of La Reppublica. Wanted in Rome is a magazine published in English and it includes listings of exhibitions, festivals and other events.

Classical Music
Rome is a perfect place for catching a classical concert. One of the most praised venues is the Auditorium Parco della Musica - a stunning complex that combines modern architecture with perfect acoustics. Not all concerts have to be paid for in the city - many churches organize free performances around Easter, Christmas and New Year. Repertoires are usually excellent and the seats are available on the first-come, first-served basis. The best way to be informed about these events is to check local newspapers, especially the listings. Rome has two major organizers of classical music performances - the Academia di Santa Cecilia and the Academia Filarmonica Romana. Auditorium Parco della Musica is a spectacular complex holding 3,000 people. The venue comprises three concert halls and the largest is the Sala Santa Cecilia with a capacity of 2,800. This is the home of the famous Santa Cecilia orchestra. The auditorium has hosted every performance ranging form Stravinski to the Scissors Sisters. Check the website for information about dates, tickets and program. Teatro Olimpico is the home of the seasonal performances of the Academia Firmarmonica Romana. The program consists mainly of classical concerts with the odd contemporary performance and multimedia event.

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Nightlife in Italy

Opera
The opera season in Rome lasts for 7 months - from December until June. Teatro dell'Opera di Roma is often said to be a poor relative of the famous La Scala in Milan. Although its acoustics are not the best in the world, the building will nevertheless impress you with its 19th-century frescoed interior covered in stucco, gilt and red velvet. The theater is home to a large number of opera and ballet performances. Tickets can cost between 17 to 65 for a ballet performance and from 23 to 130 for an opera performance. Opening nights cost a bit more. During summer all performances are moved to Terme di Caracalla, one of Rome's most impressive ruins covering more than a hundred hectares of land.
Venice by night.

Cinemas

(Photo by: Annia316)

The overwhelming number of cinemas in Rome is not great news for people who love movies but do not understand Italian. Although there are about 80 of them, only a handful show films in the original language (those will be marked VO or versione originale). tickets cost between 5 and 8, with many cinemas offering discounts on Wednesdays. Cinemas showing VO films are Warner Village Moderno and Metropolitan.

Fun Fact: The average Italian drinks almost 100 litres of wine every year.

Rome at night is a magical sight.


(Photo by: Luigig)

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Organized Tours through Italy

Organized Tours through Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide What to see and do Organized tours

Here is a list of possible organised tours you can take to visit Italy in a short time with the best possible landmarks.

2-Day Italy Trip: Naples, Pompeii, Sorrento and Capri


Visit some of the most popular Italian cities and historical sites like Naples, Pompeii, Sorrento and Capri on a two-day excursion starting in Rome. Try what real pizza tastes like in Naples, the birthplace of this magnificent yet simple meal. Naples is a brazen yet vicarious city that was first inhabited by the ancient Greeks; they gave it the name of Neapolis or 'new city'. From there you can embark on a journey into ancient past by visiting the famed Pompeii. Under the ash from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 B.C., the now preserved site gives historical insight to life during the Roman Empire. Sorrento is a city overlooking the bay of Naples, that is both a sea side resort town and the agricultural center of the region. Treat your senses in one of the cafes lined up in plazas or try tasty citrus fruits, one of the best in the Mediterranean. The beautiful Isle of Capri that has been luring people for centuries on account of its magnificent scenery and the famous Blue Grotto, named for the azure limestone glow beneath its waters.

Ancient Pompeii.

Departs: Daily Departure Point: The tour departs from most centrally located hotels in Rome. Departure Time: The tour departs between 6:30am - 7:15am, exact time to be advised on reconfirmation. Return details: The tour returns to original point of departure. (Day 2) Hotel Pickup: The tour departs from most centrally Rome hotels in Rome. Please include the details of your hotel at the time of booking. You must call the tour operator at least 24 hours prior to tour start to reconfirm all tour and departure details. If the tour operator does not pickup from your hotel, they will advise you of the meeting point by phone. The contact details will be listed on your voucher.

Detailed Itinerary
Day 1: Rome, Naples, Pompeii, Sorrento (L, D)
After departing Rome, drive along the 'Sun Route' motorway and cross the regions of Lazio and Campania. Once in Naples, enjoy a short city tour before continuing towards Pompeii where lunch in a restaurant is provided. As a UNESCO World Heritage listed site, Pompeii is one of the must-see attractions of Italy. You will visit the excavations of this world-famous Roman town, destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 A.D. Board the coach and travel along the Sorrentine Coast to Sorrento for dinner before you go to sleep.

Day 2: Sorrento, Capri, Sorrento, Rome (L)


After breakfast and weather permitting, arrive in Capri for a visit of the Blue Grotto via row boats. On the way back from Marina Grande harbor make your way to Anacapri, a tiny and picturesque Mediterranean-style village with views of the Gulf of Naples. After lunch in a restaurant in Capri, wander down quaint little streets and explore the famed Piazetta. Later, embark on the coach for the final time, back to Rome via Sorrento. In the event of adverse weather conditions, the Blue Grotto trip will be replaced by a visit to the Faraglioni. The route includes local guides, entrance fees, accommodation (1 night), hotel pickup and dropoff, meals as per itinerary (B = breakfast, L = lunch, D = dinner), transportation in air-conditioned coach and escort by an English speaking guide.

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Organized Tours through Italy

5-Day Best of Italy Trip


Taking some time to explore the best of Italy will certainly pay off if you decide to embark on this five-day tour and get a taste of Italy's capital then venture north out of Rome and navigate through Assisi, Siena, Florence, Padua, Venice and San Marino. This journey will spare you modern highways and large cities to discover the real Italy, where ancient villages are just waiting to be discovered. Departing Rome, you will travel through Umbria to Assisi and join the millions of pilgrims that arrive each year to pay homage at the home of St Francis. Steeped in medieval tradition, the Gothic buildings of Siena won't fail to entice you either on your next coach stop. Art and architecture, paintings and sculptures, museums and galleries. Let the renaissance inspired city of Florence captivate you before making your way to the Shakespearian city of Padua. It was the setting for Shakespeare's The Taming of the Shrew. Spend the last of your travels navigating the canals of Venice. Composed of more than a hundred tiny islets, take a gondola ride or loose yourself down narrow winding streets. Departs: Seasonal / from April 1st to November 15th, Monday to Saturday; from 16 November 16th to February 28th, Monday Departure Point: Tour commences at Hotel Diana Via P. Amedeo 4. The meeting point is easy to locate and your guide will be waiting for you. Departure Time: Tour departs at 7:15am. Please be ready at 6:45am. Return details: Tour returns to original point of departure. (Day 5) Hotel Pickup: Hotel pickup not available.

Itinerary:
Day 1 Rome, Assisi, Siena, Florence (D)
Departing Rome, you will travel by deluxe coach to Assisi. Stop in this mystic town for a panoramic visit of its Basilica and the church of St. Maria degli Angeli. After departing Assisi, you will get to the Italian superhighway (Autostrada del Sole) en route to Siena. Surrounded by ancient walls, this medieval city is famous for its Piazza del Campo, a splendid square shaped like a shell where the famous "Palio di Siena" horse race takes place each year. See also the elegant Palace and the Cathedral. In the afternoon proceed to Florence for dinner and overnight.

Day 2 Florence (B, D)


After breakfast at the hotel, embark on a morning city tour appreciating the artistic beauty of Florence. You will view the Dome by Brunelleschi, Giotto's bell tower and the Baptistry. Next it's onto the Piazza della Signoria, Palazzo Vecchio and finally the church of Santa Croce. Enjoy the afternoon at your leisure before dinner and overnight in Florence.

Day 3 Florence, Padua, Venice (B, D)


After breakfast at hotel, take time out this morning at your own leisure. Depart for Padua this afternoon for a short visit of the Basilica of St. Anthony. Next you will travel to Venice for dinner and overnight.

Day 4 Venice (B, D)


After breakfast at the hotel, take a tour of fascinating Venice. Admire the St. Mark's Square, Doge's Palace and visit one of the famous shops selling Murano glass. This afternoon is at your own leisure before dinner and overnight.

View of Assisi.

Day 5 Venice, San Marino, Rome (B)


Shortly after breakfast at hotel you will depart by coach from Piazzale Roma. Next stop is San Marino, one of the smallest states in the world. In the evening (8.00pm) arrive in Rome, the Eternal city where your tour ends.

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Organized Tours through Italy

Additional Information:
The tour includes local guides, accommodation (4 nights), meals as per itinerary (B = breakfast, L = lunch, D = dinner), transportation in air-conditioned coach and escort by an English speaking guide. The tour has to be booked at least 48 hours before departure. You will receive confirmation for this tour within two days following your booking. The tour is operated in English unless stated otherwise. Contact www.viator.com for any additional details. You can also book your trip online.

3-Day trip: Florence and Pisa


Feast your senses on the romance of Tuscany on a three-day tour departing from Rome. Tuscany has been shaping Italy's rich culture, be it through art, history or the finest Italian produce for centuries. What better way to discover the core of the country than by visiting some of its most praised highlights on a three-day tour. Departing Rome, you will travel to the region's heart in Florence. It is home to an abundance of paintings and sculptures housed throughout numerous galleries and public squares. Next it's onto Pisa with its biggest attraction, the Leaning Tower. Enjoy the best of both worlds as you travel to Florence by coach and return to Rome by train. With the knowledge of local guides you will gain an appreciation for the sites, sounds and smells that each new city brings. You will have plenty of free time to discover your own Tuscan treasures too. Please note that on Tuesdays and Thursdays from November to February the visit to Pisa will be replaced with Siena and San Gimignano. Departs: Seasonal, from April 1st to November 15th, Tuesday and Thursday Departure Point: Tour departs from central Rome. Exact location will be confirmed upon reconfirmation of your booking. Departure Time: Tour departs between 6:30am and 7:15am, exact time to be confirmed. Return details: Tour returns to original point of departure. (Day 3) Hotel Pickup: Hotel pickup not available.

Detailed Itinerary:
Day 1: Rome and Florence (L)
Departing from Rome, you'll travel through the rolling hills of Tuscany en route to Florence. Your city tour of Florence includes views the Duomo, the third Pieta by Michelangelo, the Baptistry with its Golden Bronze Doors by Ghiberti and Giotto's Belfry. Next, you will pass the Accademia Gallery featuring Michelangelo's famous statue of David before making your way to Piazza della Signoria. Stop for lunch in a local restaurant and spend the afternoon exploring Florence at your own leisure. Overnight stay in hotel.

Day 2: Florence, Pisa (B)


After breakfast in the hotel, this morning is free to discover more highlights in Florence. After lunch meet up with your tour and depart for Pisa. On your arrival, view the famous Piazza dei Miracoli, the Dome, and the famed Leaning Tower. You will return to Florence to spend the night.

Day 3: Florence and Rome (B)


Free time in Florence after breakfast this morning. You will depart mid-afternoon from Florence to Rome by train. The tour includes hotel drop off and you will arrive in Rome at approximately 9:00pm.
View of Florence.
(Photo by: Beriliu)

Additional Information:
The tour includes local guides, entrance fees, accommodation (two nights), meals as per itinerary (B = breakfast, L = lunch, D = dinner), transportation in air-conditioned coach and escort by an English speaking guide. The tour has to be booked at least two days before departure. You will receive confirmation for this tour within two days following your booking. The tour is operated in English unless stated otherwise. Only one piece of check-in luggage per person is permitted on this tour. The tour starts in Rome, and you will be notified of the exact location after your booking has been confirmed. Contact www.viator.com for any additional details. You can book your trip online.

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Organized Tours through Italy

Bike Tour Italy - Piedmont Wine Tour


Visiting Italy only for its arts, history and architecture would be a real shame without indulging in its wines which are said to be one of the finest in the world. One of the highlights of this exceptional trip is the chance to sample wonderful Italian wines and see the grape harvest and truffle festival in Alba. The region of Piedmont is famous not only for its wine culture but also for its fantastic cuisine you can enjoy during this tour. During the trip you will see some of the architectural wonders of the region without driving many tourists that come to Italy will not be in your way because you will have the chance to use uncrowded and undiscovered cycling roads. A small group within the tour is organized, which will allow you to have a more relaxing and enjoyable travel experience. The Piedmont region of Northern Italy is known for its villas, castles, vineyards and delicious, French-influenced cuisine. Piedmont, which translates to "foot of the mountains," is nestled between the French and Swiss Alps.

Cycling is one option for exploration of Italy.


(Photo by: Andy_c)

This area is a lot less touristy than Tuscany and Umbria, making it a great area for cyclists. Our tour takes place during the grape harvest, so its a perfect time to visit the wineries and taste some of Italy's best red wines, including Barolo, Barbaresco, Nebbiolo and Asti Spumante, a sweet, sparkling white wine. You will be able to stay in some of the areas most beautiful villages. During the tour you will have plenty of time for wine tasting and exploration. If you want some more challenge, the itinerary offers a wide variety of loop rides with options for plenty of climbing. Another option is choosing a 'non-cycling' day, including hiking, sightseeing or simply exploring the local villages.

Details:
Arrival and departure: Torino/Turin or Milan/Milan
The average daily mileage is forty miles over rolling hills along vineyards and fruit orchards. You will have plenty of options for riding more or less, and for those who are looking for a challenge there are some great climbs in this area, including the 6,000-foot climb into the Alps. It is up to you how much you want to ride each day. The tour includes lodging in quaint, welcoming inns and hotels, cyclist-friendly breakfasts every day, most dinners (four-course dinners, including wine and coffee), full van support and snacks and drinks on the ride each day, experienced tour guides and daily detailed maps and route notes, transportation and luggage transfers during the tour, gratuities for transfers, hotels and restaurants an ATG bike jersey and a souvenir map with the tour route. The tour does not include plane tickets, lunches, non-group dinners on the free evenings, bikes (available for an additional fee), personal services (including laundry, telephone, hotel minibar charges, etc.) and travel insurance.

Tour duration: six days (five nights) or ten days (nine nights)

Detailed Itinerary
Day 1: Saluzzo
Meeting at the hotel at 2pm for a brief orientation, after which the visitors will have the remainder of the afternoon to assemble or fit their bikes and explore the town. There will be a short warm-up ride for those interested. Welcome dinner together. Saluzzo is a flourishing medieval hill town, located at the foot of the Alps, 55 miles south of Torino. Its narrow cobblestone streets are lined with renaissance and medieval architecture, and offer a variety of churches, a castle and a palace to explore. Saluzzo has numerous restaurants, cafs, wine bars and is well known for its finely crafted furniture and antique shops.

Day 2: Saluzzo Market -loop Rides


Ride Options: 37-60 miles/1,000-6,000 feet. A ride to a weekly market in the morning and followed by a walking tour around mediaeval Saluzzo. After that the tour proceeds to an afternoon loop ride to the foothills of the Alps where the visitors will see the Abbaye de Staffarda. If youre looking for a challenge, theres an opportunity to ride into the Alps to the source of the Po River, with up to 6,000 feet of climbing. Dinner on your own.
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Organized Tours through Italy

Day 3: La Morra
Ride 45 miles/1,000 feet. Leaving behind the Po River Valley the bikers will ride along narrow roads bordered by popular groves and corn fields to La Morra, located in the heart of the Barolo wine country. The ride will be followed by a visit to the castle in Racconigi and sampling some homemade gelato in Racconigi and Sommariva di Bosco, where chocolates are also a specialty. There may be an opportunity to visit Alba and go to the Annual White Truffle Festival. Dinner with the group at a fabulous Piedmontese osteria.

Day 4: La Morra Loop Ride/Wine Tasting Ride


Options: 0-24 miles/2,300 feet. Relax and explore the town or join the group for a loop ride through the vineyards of the Langhe region, famous for Barolo, the Vineyard. (Photo by: Boquerones) king of Italian reds, and the nebbiolo grape. The beautiful natural landscape of vineyards, gorges and woodlands is dotted with medieval, Renaissance, Baroque and 19th century architecture. A visit to the areas enotecas (wine cellars) followed by sampling some of the local wines is definitely recommended. Dinner with the group at a local agroturismo (working farm/winery), located amongst the vineyards.

Day 5: Asti
Ride 43 miles/2,200 feet. Stopping in Alba, where the group will explore the villages red-bricked medieval towers, Baroque and Renaissance palaces and cobblestone streets lined with gastronomic shops. A ride along rolling hills with vineyards of Piedmonts best-known wines, including Barbaresco, Dolcetto d'Alba, Nebbiolo d'Alba, Barbera d' Asti and Asti Spumante, the local sparkling wine. The hotel is located in central Asti, offering easy access to the village. Dinner on your own.

Day 6: Casale Monferrato


Ride 54 miles/4100 feet. A ride along Monferrato vineyards on small country roads lined with walnut and poplar groves to the fortified town of Casale Monferrato. On the way, the group will visit the Santuario di Crea, a renowned Italian pilgrimage site, where a stop will be made for wine tasting and enjoying wonderful views of the vineyards below. Dinner on your own.

Day 7: Casale Monferrato


Ride Options: 0-41 miles/1,900 feet. Visit the oldest baroque synagogue, relax and explore the town, and/or join the group for a loop ride in the Monferrato hills. In the afternoon, the group will have the option of wine tasting at the enoteca in Vignale Monferrato. Dinner with the group made by a world-famous chef.

Day 8: Borgomanero
Ride 62 miles, flat! Leaving the wine-producing area behind, the group will proceed north to the Italian lakes. The ride will take you through one of the largest rice growing areas of Europe, on flat roads that run through numerous small Italian villages. Theres an opportunity to visit San Nazzaro Sesia, a village built around 11th century Benedictine abbey. A stop in Gatinara to taste fabulous DOCG wine is recommended. Youll also have an opportunity to visit some great local bike shops and gaze upon the sleek Colnago and Pinnerolo bikes! Dinner with the group at the local trattoria.

Day 9: Lago Maggiore


Ride 32 miles/1,050 feet. This day is reserved for a relaxing route along the shores of three beautiful lakes: Lago dOrta, Lago Mergozzo and Lago Maggiore. You can visit the village of Mergozzo in the afternoon, the famous botanical gardens of Villa Taranto in Pallanza, relax and enjoy the view from our lakeside hotel, or take a stroll along Lago Maggiore with a gelato. Final celebration dinner with the group. Pallanza, located on Lago Maggiore, is unmistakably Mediterranean in atmosphere, with palm trees and oleanders lining the lakeside promenades. Pallanza is home to the famous botanical gardens of Villa Taranto, which has more than 20,000 species of plants.

Day 10: Lago Maggiore


The tour ends after breakfast. For those who are heading home, theres a one-hour bus transfer to Malpensa Airport for your midday plane departure. If youre interested in extending your stay,they can stay at Lago Maggiores shoreline, a great place to relax before heading home.
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Popular Routes in Italy

Popular Routes in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide What to see and do Popular routes

It is impossible to discover Italy and all its virtues in a week or two, but visiting some of the highlights may give you a pretty good idea. Being determined to see all landmarks in a single Italian city might take you days, if not weeks, so do not even try to do that. A person would need a lifetime to 'do' all of Italy, so devote some time to do a small research and see what interests you most.

Classical Cities
This itinerary allows you to see many highlights of the route going from Rome to Milan and, if all goes well, it will take you approximately two weeks to do it. Be prepared for all unexpected situations like detours, long lunches and any other delays that might lay ahead! Your trip should start with a three-night stay in Rome, where the abundance of landmarks is truly remarkable. Rome is home to the Sistine Chapel, St Peter's, the Colosseum and much more. Head to Florence for the magnificent di Uffizi art collection and many other Renaissance jewels that the city has been holding on to for centuries. Day trips to Siena and Pisa are definite must-dos. Your next stop should be Bologna where the food is said to be the finest in Italy and where there are a lot of magnificent monuments, beautiful boulevards and other landmarks. Venice along with its dazzling waterways and centuries of preserved architecture and art is awaiting you next and three days should be enough to get a taste of its true grandeur. Heading west should get you to Verona, home of the world-famous lover couple by the name of Romeo and Juliet. The city also house the magnificent Roman Arena, a very well preserved and Italy's third largest amphitheater. Proceed to Milan from there to see the what Italy's financial hub looks like and to catch a glimpse of what real shopping madness looks like. The city is also home to the Last Supper, one of Da Vinci's most famous works.
The famous Leaning Tower in Pisa.
(Photo by: A. Meins)

The Grand Tour from Head to Toe


This tour is great because it can be done from either north or south, whichever suits you most to make you holiday in Italy memorable. A good starting point is the city of Milan, the shopping capital of Italy. Head north and east to Lombard Lakes, then to the romance capital Verona before tasting some architectural and culinary delights in Bologna. Florence should enchant you with some of the most amazing architectural achievements. From there you can start exploring the Romanesque period of the walled Lucca and catch a glimpse of Pisa's Leaning Tower wonder. Siena awaits you if you head southeast where the abundance of medieval architecture will sweep you of your feet. Proceed south towards Perugia, the enchanting capital hill-town of Umbria. From there you will realize that all roads truly lead to Rome when the discovery of the ancient city is a memorable experience every time. Naples should be your next stop where you will be amazed by the chaotic atmosphere that leaves no one aloof. Do not forget to visit the incredibly preserved coast line towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Amalfi coast in the vicinity of this stop is a definite must see as well because of its picturesque hill towns practically hanging from the cliffs. Set off east to the 'high heel' of Italian peninsula where the extravagant Baroque palaces in the town of Lecce are not to be missed. Heading southwest from Naples will lead you to the wonderful island of Sicily whose historical, natural and culinary wealth tell a different story about the Italy we are used to hearing about. The island's fascinating capital Palermo should be the perfect end of a fairytale named Italy.

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Popular Routes in Italy

Florence to Pitigliano - a Two-Week Itinerary


Although Tuscan beauty has become more or less cliched, it still remains very vibrant and certainly one of top must-see destinations in Italy. As you travel the route you will become more and more amazed by the wonders of citta d'darte, beautifully built fortified towns with the abundance of warm countryside that unfold graciously before you. Tuscany is pretty much the epitome of romance. Therefore it is recommended for all visitors interested in making a romantic getaway, especially if if you are traveling with your loved one. Head north after a three-night stay in Florence and you will reach Prato and Pistoia. Prato is a beautiful town with several landmarks, the most prominent being the charming Duomo and the Medici villa of Poggio a Caiano that houses beautiful frescoes by Pontormo. Pistoia is the city of musical manifestations like the Pistoia blues where icons like Patti The heart of San Gimignano. Smith, Bob Dylan, Santana and Muddy Waters have made their (Photo by: M. Strange) musical appearances. Heading further west will take you to the lovely in-walled Romanesque gem-town of Lucca. Swing south to Pisa and its Leaning Tower to see what the fuss is all about. As you move further south, you will notice the colors getting brighter and the hills getting more mellow; when you pass Livorno you will reach the Etruscan-Roman heritage of Volterra. The magnificent, tower-spiked town of San Gimignano lies a short drive east from Volterra where you can decide on staying the night within town-limits or in a farm on the outskirts. Towns like Castellina or Radda in Chianti in the hills of Il Chianti are a definite must-see along your route but be careful - the enchanting beauty of the scenery has fooled many a traveler into staying too long. Head to the lovely Siena after that and visit Arezzo and Cortona lying to the east. From there the road will take you further south to Umbria and its beautiful hill towns like Montepulciano, Pienza and Montalcino before reaching the ancient Etruscan land around Pitigliano whose houses look like they are about to jump off soaring rock cliffs.

One Week of Discovering Piedmont


The region of Piedmont has always been in the shadow of its more prominent sister-regions like Tuscany and Umbria, and it is still waiting to be discovered. Piedmont is a region that has a selection of goodies prepared for almost every taste. The capital, Turin, will surprise with its subtle grandeur consisting of beautiful riverside scenery and its proud and elegant historic centre. The city surprisingly offers all the conveniences of a big city in addition to the benefits beyond. From Turin head southwest to Saluzzo, a magnificent medieval town lying in one of the most fascinating valleys east of the Alps - this is a perfect option for those who want to see the rather neglected side of Italy - its natural wonders and well-preserved oases of green. The Laghe hills lying east of Saluzzo hide some of the best kept culinary secrets of Italy where you are bound to be surprised with the fact that Bologna is not the only gastronomy capital of the country. Alba is the wine-making center of the area, famous for its picturesque vineyards, blood-red wine and white truffles. Alba's rival from medieval times is the town of Asti, north of Alba. Asti is another wine center of the region with the difference that it is specialized in white wines rather than red ones. However if, by any chance, your craving for red wine has not been satisfied in Alba, head to region of Monferatto where more red wines are produced in abundance. Taking the A26 from Montferrato will get you to Lago d'Orta, one of the few famed lakes in the country. Staying overnight in the charming town of Orta San Giulio will allow you to enjoy the beautiful lakeside scenery. Skiing and hiking is available for those who head further west to Varallo and the Valsesia valley that lies on the foot of the Swiss Alps.

The Lakes of the Dolomites


One of Italy's most prominent lakes, Lago Magiorre, is located on the north of Italy from where you can start exploring its water wonders on a 565 kilometer long itinerary around the lakes and into the mountains. The area is packed with national parks, snowy slopes, picturesque Alpine towns and magnificent gastronomic traditions. When you land at the airport in the vicinity of Milan, a short drive will take you to the edge of Lago Maggiore, one of the most serene places in Italian territory. Invest in rent-a-car if you can or try to have your own transport because embarking on this route will allow you to discover one of Italy's best kept natural secrets. Head west from the lake and you will reach Switzerland (passport required) and its lovely Stresa where you can stay overnight. Before the road takes you back south, visit lovely Como situated on the lake of the same name (Lago di Como). Stay the night in Bellagio that has a camp site and some lovely picturesque art galleries. Head east from the northern side of Lago Maggiore to the Parco dell'Adamello and Parco Nazionale dello Stevio. The area is packed with walking trails that will allow you to go even further into exploring the natural wonders of the region. Skiers will be delighted to know that the Parco Nazionale dello Stevio is home to the famous ski resort Bormio.

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Popular Routes in Italy

Following Val Venosta out of the park will take you to a small town Merano and the nearby Bolzano, city worth seeing for its Austrian feel typical for the whole Alto Adige area. The roads heading north and east go deep in the Dolomite area and it really is not important whether you choose summer or winter to do the itinerary - the beauty of the surroundings is amazing during both seasons. Use picturesque villages of Castelrotto or Siusi as starting points of many walks along the Alps. Sella Ronda, another challenging ski route along four valleys is situated further northeast in the vicinity of Parco Naturale di Fanes Sennes e Braies. Heading further east will take you to Parco Naturale delle Dolomiti di Siesto while Cortina d'Ampezzo is a show-off site for high-end skiers from all over Europe.

View of the Dolomites near Stella Pass, Italy.


(Photo by: Phillip Bouchard)

World Heritage Site Tour


It is no wonder that a country with such rich history and vast legacy has 47 World Heritage Sites. Visiting all of them would take a lot of time but seeing some of the highlights might help you getting an insight into the riches of Italy's history and the beauty of its nature. You can start by visiting the Roman resort town Tivoli before you embark on a journey around Tuscany's historic towns like Florence, Siena, San Gimignano, Pisa or Pienza. All of these town centers were declared World Heritage Sites on account of their extreme historical and aesthetic importance. Head to Modena from Tuscany where you can see the beautifully constructed Romanesque cathedral. Visit Ravenna with its stunning early-Christian and Byzantine mosaics before reaching Ferrara, one of the most preserved magnificent Renaissance towns. Head to Urbino where you can catch a glimpse of perfectly preserved history because the town is one of the few intact Renaissance oases. Finish you exploration in Assisi, the home town of St Francis and a very famous pilgrimage that attracts million of people every year.

Delightful play of light and shadow in beautiful Florence.


(Photo by: Jon Rawlinson)

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Geography and Economy of Italy

Geography and Economy of Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide Geography and economy

Italy is located on a peninsula in the shape of a boot that is surrounded by four seas belonging to the Mediterranean basin. These are the Ligurian Sea in the north, separating the Italian mainland and the island of Corsica, the Tyrrhenian Sea in the west between Sardinia and Sicily, the Ionian Sea in the south, and the Adriatic Sea off the eastern shore. The northern border with a part of the Alps, Italy shares with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia. This area is also a glacial lake district with the largest lake called Garda, located between Milan and Venice. The third biggest, but the most famous lake in Italy is Lago di Como in Lombardy. Italy's landscape is largely determined by the Alps in the north and the Apennines stretching from northwest to southeast, but the Po river valley separates the two mountain ranges. The river Po is the longest Italian river with a length of 652 kilometers. It crosses several regions starting with Piedmont and it goes all the way to Veneto. Its course ends in a wide delta near Venice. Padan plain is the name of the valley that surrounds the river. It is a very fertile area that is home to Italy`s major industrial complexes, making the regions around it the most prosperous in the entire country.

A view of the Italian "boot" from space.

Italy is divided into twenty regions with Rome as the capital of the entire country and the region called Lazio. Northern Italy consists of Aosta Valley, Piedmont, Lombardy, Liguria, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Veneto, Trentino-Alto Adige, and Emilia-Romagna. The four regions that comprise Central Italy are Lazio, Marches, Tuscany, and Umbria. Southernmost regions include Basilicata, Campania, Calabria, Apulia, Abruzzo, and Molise. Italy also consists of several islands, of which Sicily and Sardinia are the biggest. They are the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea as well. Sicily is separated from the mainland by the Strait of Messina and during the Roman times it used to be called Trinacria because it is shaped like a triangle. The Sicilian archipelago consists of the Aeolian Islands off the northeastern shore of Sicily. These islands, together with Sicily itself, are important for the study of volcanoes. Mount Etna, in the eastern part of the island, is one of the active volcanoes in Europe; Stromboli, an island belonging to the Aeolian Islands, is also active. Sardinia is separated from the mainland by the Tyrrhenian Sea. It is a mountainous region with scarce lowlands, mostly located along the coastline. Another active volcano is located on the Italian mainland. Mount Vesuvius`s position is about nine kilometers east of Naples in the region of Campania. The area that surrounds it, with the population of three million, is actually in constant danger because the last eruption happened in 1944. The best-known eruption occurred in 79 AD resulting in complete annihilation of the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.

Fun Fact: Italy borders 7 countries: Austria, France, Vatican, San Marino, Slovenia, and Switzerland.

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Climate and Weather of Italy

Climate and Weather of Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide Geography and economy Climate and weather

The Apennine peninsula stretches from northwest to southeast into the Mediterranean Sea so the climate changes accordingly. The northernmost parts that are located in the Alps experience very severe winters and cool summers. The temperature in this area averages between -12 and -5 degrees centigrade during wintertime, and up to 12 degrees in the summertime. This kind of weather, which is classified as cold Continental climate, occurs in places located in Alpine valley at the altitude of 1600-1800 meters, for example in the Aosta Valley. But there are areas at lower altitudes that have different climate. Valleys between 300 and 1000 meters have a warmer Oceanic climate that is characterized by mild, foggy and wet winters with temperature average between -1 and 3 degrees, and wet and not so hot summers with temperatures between 17 and 20 degrees. Oceanic climate is also found in the Apennines. Further to the south, in the Po River valley, the climate changes to humid subtropical climate, characteristics of which are hot summers and winters that are sometimes severe and sometimes mild. During winter months, from November to March, this area is usually enshrouded in fog. The average winter low is below zero and snow is not an uncommon occurrence, especially between December and March, although it sometimes snows even in April. July is the hottest month in this area and temperatures can sometimes go as high as 35 degrees. This kind of weather occurs in the lower regions of Piedmont, Lombardy, and Veneto and in the northern parts of Emilia-Romagna. Mediterranean climate is prevalent in Central and Southern Italy, although some areas along the coastline of the northwestern region of Liguria are subject to this kind of weather. Even though the coastal areas generally fit the Mediterranean type of climate, there are some differences between the west and east coast. The west coast is wetter and warmer in the wintertime, whereas the east coast experiences cold spells due to the cold northeasterly bora winds. In the northern parts of the east coast in the cities like Trieste, Rimini, and Ancona these bora winds can sometimes cause heavy snowfalls. Further south along the Adriatic coastline, winters are milder due to warm southerly Sirocco wind that turns snow into rain.
(Photo by: Whitetiger8370)

In the Alpine region of Italy winters can be very severe with temperatures going down to -45 degrees centigrade.

The south of the country, including the regions of Calabria, Campania, and parts of Apulia together with Sicily and Sardinia, is the sunniest part of Italy. These regions have the lowest precipitation compared to the rest of the country and enjoy the highest average of sunshine. In this area, August is the hottest month and temperatures can sometimes reach boiling hot 42 degrees. The lowest ever temperature in the lowlands was recorded in 1985 in Emilia-Romagna. The temperature went down to freezing -29 degrees. In the Alpine region, -45 degrees was the lowest temperature ever recorded. The highest temperature ever recorded was 46 degrees in some southern regions together with Sicily and Sardinia.
Southern Italian Regions enjoy Mediterranean climate.
(Photo by: Przemyslaw "Blueshade" Idzkiewicz)

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Area and Population of Italy

Area and Population of Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide Geography and economy Area and population

Area
Italy is situated in Southern Europe; it is a peninsula extending into the Mediterranean Sea in the northeast direction of Tunisia. Its geographic coordinates are 42 50 N, 12 50 E and its total area sums up to 301,230 square kilometers (land: 294,020 sq km, water: 7,210 sq km). Italy is slightly larger than the state of Arizona with boundaries extending 1,899.2 kilometers. Italy's border countries are: Austria (430 kilometers), France (488 kilometers), Vatican City (3.2 kilometers), San Marino (39 kilometers), Slovenia (199 kilometers) and Switzerland (740 kilometers). Italy's coastline streches for 7,600 kilometers and its maritime claims are 12 nautical miles from the coast. Italian climate is predominantly Mediterranean with Alpine characteristics in far north and dry wheather in the south. Its terrain is mostly rugged and mountainous with some plains and coastal lowlands. The lowest point in Italy is the Mediterranean

Italian climate is predominantly Mediterranean.

Sea (0 meters) and the highest is Mont Blanc (Monte Bianco) de Courmayeur (4,748 meters) - a secondary peak of Mont Blanc. Natural resources abound in the country, ranging from mercury, coal, zinc, marble, barite, asbestos, pumice, fluorspar, feldspar, pyrite (sulfur) to natural gas and crude oil reserves, fish and arable land. The land is used for cultivation (26.41%), and more than nine percent of the land is used for permanent crops. Artificial irrigation is used on 27,500 sq kilometers according to the 2003 data. Total freshwater withdrawal is 175 cubic kilometers with 18% domestic, 37% industrial and 45% agricultural use. According to the 1998 data, freshwater use per capita is 723 cubic meters per year. Natural hazards include landslides, mudflows, avalanches, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, flooding and land subsidence in Venice. Current environmental issues include air pollution from industrial emissions such The 2002 eruption of Etna, a volcano in Sicily. as sulfur dioxide; coastal and inland rivers polluted from industrial and agricultural effluents; acid rain damaging lakes; inadequate industrial waste treatment and disposal facilities. Italy has signed many international environmental agreements. However, none of these agreements have been ratified by the Italian government.

Fun Fact: Modern Italian language has its roots in the Italian region of Tuscany.

Venice, Italy.

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Area and Population of Italy

Population
Italy has a population of about 58,200,000, which puts it in the 4th place in the European Union and in the 22nd place in the world. Average density is 196 people per square metre; the population is very unevenly spread across the country. The North has a much greater density than the south with only the Piedmont and Lombardy regions accounting for a fourth of the total population number. The largest city is the capital, Rome, followed by Milan, Naples, Turin, Palermo and Genoa, all containing more than half a million inhabitants. The largest metropolitan area, however is Milan, with Rome, Naples and Turin areas following.

Age Structure and Growth


While only 13.6% of the Italians are adolescent (0-14 years), the group of the retired (65 years and above) is rapidly growing, currently making up for a fifth of the population. Average life expectancy at birth in the country is 80,1 years, while the average age of the population is currently 42,9 years. With a birth rate of 8.36 per thousand and a death rate of 10.61 per thousand, Italy has had a negative birth/death ratio since the 1980s, although the last few years have seen a growth in the number of newborns. Even so, an Italian woman gives birth to 1.3 children, which is much fewer than figures from the 1950s to the 1980s.
Young Italian women tend to choose career over children which has lead Italy to one of the worst birth-death ratios in the world.

Ethnic Groups and Immigration


Ethnic Italians make up for 95% of the population. The other 5% are distributed mainly among Romanians (1%), Arabs (0,8), Albanians (mainly in the southern regions), Asians (the most numerous are the Chinese), Germans and Eastern-European communities, the largest of which are the Ukrainians. Some cities, such as Milan, Brescia and Padua, seem to attract larger numbers of immigrants than others.

Language and Literacy Rate


The official language is Italian, while German community in Trentino-Alto Adige speaks German, some French is spoken in Valle d'Aosta, while around Gorizia and Trieste the small Slovenian community speaks Slovene. Literacy rate is 98,4%.
Milan, Italy.

Religion
Traditionally a Christian Catholic country, Italy today is home to various other religious communities as well. While 90% of Italians declare themselves to be Catholic Christians (with around a third of them practicing), the remaining 10% goes to small Protestant and Jewish communities as well as brought by immigrants Eastern-Orthodox, Islam and other religions. 6% of the population declares themselves non-religious.

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Environmental Preservation in Italy

Environmental Preservation in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide Geography and economy Environmental preservation

Solanas beach in Sardinia.


(Photo by: David Orban)

Italy is one of the most recognizable countries in the world - not only for its history and incredible artistic achievements, but also because of its distinctive shape. Italy is shaped like a giant boot surrounded by four seas of the Mediterranean (the Ionian, Adriatic, Thyrrenian and Liguran). Its coast is not well-indented, but two large islands (Sardinia and Sicily) flank the peninsula on its western and southern side. The country has more than 8,000 kilometers of diverse coastline ranging from low-lying beaches in Sardinia to the Amalfi cliffs. Italy is a mountainous country with more than 75% of its territory dominated by two large mountain ranges. The Alps in the east-west direction. The western part of the range has the cover Italy in a close to one thousand kilometer stretch highest peaks, some of them exceeding 4500m. The most notable peaks are the Mont Blanc (4807m), Monte Cervino (4478m) and Monte Rosa (4633m). All of them are shared with the neighboring countries of Switzerland and France. Although the eastern sector is not as impressive in terms of altitude, it is nevertheless spectacular in scenery. The Dolomites are still the highlight of that part of Italy, although the environment was slightly changed when some peaks collapsed in 2004.

Lago Maggiore.
(Photo by: unknown author)

The foothills of the Alps are scattered with a number of beautiful lakes - Lago Maggiore and Lago Di Garda are the most notable ones. The Alpine area is dotted with many glaciers which are all under constant threat due to climatic changes. The Marmolada glacier on the border of Veneto and Trentino stands out on account of its beauty and many skiers choose it for their next skiing adventure. The Appennini range is is known for being the 'backbone' of Italy because of its position and shape. The range extends for 1250km and is bordered by two cities - Genoa on the north and the region of Calabria on the south. Corno Grande (2912m) is its highest peak and it is located in Gran Sasso d'Italia. Lowlands cover only about one quarter of Italy's territory. The Po valley plain is one of the largest flat areas. The Po river divides the valley which is among the most industrialized and populated Italian regions. Italy's geological history is very complex and even dramatic to a certain extent - the area was once covered by the ocean called Tethys (some 100 million years ago) and the water gradually started withdrawing leaving various sediments behind. The sediments (dolomite, sandstone and limestone) were later the foundation of Italy's mountain ranges.

Etna Volcano, Sicily.


(Photo by: unknown author)

The collision of the African and European continent some forty million years ago resulted in folding of some of the European land mass. Subsequent geological processes created the Alps and the Appenines. The areas around mountain ranges were formed by the erosion of the higher parts. The shaping of the peninsula ended some two million years ago but the sea level continued to rise and fall due to climatic changes.
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Environmental Preservation in Italy

The entire Italian territory is intersected by a line running from eastern Sicily through the Apennini range all the way to the Alps located in Friuli-Venezia Giulia. This line is correspondent to the point where the African and the European territory once collided and this location is still dominated by strong seismic activity visible in a large part of Italian territory. Italy usually has several smaller quakes every year, but Sicily and other parts of Central and Southern Italy are occasionally hit by very strong earthquakes. Italy has seen many earthquakes in the twentieth century, but the strongest one (registered 7 on the Richter scale) occurred in 1908 when an earthquake hit Messina and Reggio di Calabria. The subsequent tidal wave killed more than 80,000 people. Another 2,570 people died of the 1980 earthquake that hit the area southeast of Naples, destroying several villages. An earthquake occurring in Umbria and Le Marche in September 1997 caused ten deaths in addition to destroying a part of the fresco-covered ceiling of the famous Basilica di San Francesco d'Assisi. A primary school in San Giuliano di Puglia, located in the region of Molise was destroyed by an earthquake measuring 5,4 in the Richter scale in late 2002. 29 people died. Italy is home to six active volcanoes. Aeolian Islands has two, Stromboli and Vulcano. Etna is located on Sicily and Vesuvius, the island of Ischia and the Campi FlegreiNaples. Etna and Stromboli are one of the world's most active volcanoes, while that last eruption of Vesuvius occurred in 1944. This has raised many eyebrows in scientific circles because the volcano has been estimated to erupt every thirty years. This alone should not pose a threat, but it is well-known that the longer the eruption is delayed, the stronger it is going to be. The lava flow on Etna's southern slopes caused this tourist area to be closed down by the officials in 2001, while the subsequent earthquake (5.6 on the Richter scale) and continuous volcanic activity resulted in temporary closure of the Catania airport. Etna has been more or less dormant since 2003. Around 10,000 cubic meters of volcanic rock erupted from Stromboli in 2003. This activity resulted in a tidal wave affecting coast areas as far as 160 kilometers away. Volcanic activity of the majority of Italy's volcanoes results in mud springs, hot springs, steam jets and gas emissions, notably on the Aeolian Islands, at Viterbo in Lazio, the Campi Flegrei. Although Italy is still among the world's most beautiful countries, its continuous inhabitation since the Etruscan times has resulted in many areas being severely affected by humans. Pollution is an omnipresent problem in Italy, but the heavily industrialized areas of the north together with major cities (Rome, Naples, Milan) suffer from most damage. Italian areas in the vicinity of the coast also have problems preserving a clean environment, notably the Ligurian coast, the northern Adriatic and and larger cities. There is still a large number of safe and clean beaches, the most prominent being the ones on Sardinia and Sicily. Sardinia is still home to some of the most amazing stretches of coastline in the Mediterranean Sea, and its recently elected governor Renato Soru is partly responsible for that. This Italian millionaire was elected in 2004 mostly on account of his extreme environmental awareness that resulted in freezing all building within two kilometers of the coast. It is now impossible to build on that island from 300 to 5,000 meters (depending on the area's vulnerability).

View of Rome (and smog).


(Photo by: unknown author)

WWF acknowledged this measure as one of the first 'long-sighted policies' in Italy's environmental preservation sector. Other measures include the incident of condemning the construction of the biggest single-span suspension bridge in the world, connecting Reggio di Calabria and Sicily's Messina. Environmentalists and the WWF assured the public and the government that the bridge would result in sealife and birdlife devastation in addition to risking a catastrophe because the bridge would be built in a seismically active area. A part of the bridge funding was agreed to be set aside in order to improve the island's transportation infrastructure instead. The Alps are also on the priority list of the Italian WWF; they house the springs of the Po river and the Reno. One other reason of its preservation is that some Italian sky resorts are experiencing problems caused by the warmest winters ever since measuring began. Italian government has recently implemented many measures in order to try and preserve what is left of clean Italy. It has therefore founded the Ministry of Environment in 1986 that tries to implement many of the EU directives related to ecology and environment. The ministry's main goal is slow but efficient enforcement of environmental laws. Many groups claim that devastating floods in northern Italy resulted from merciless deforestation and construction in the vicinity of rivers. Like many other countries, Italy also has the goal of increasing the use of energy-efficient sources without jeopardizing economic growth. Ill-advised building in on the Italian coast that rose from the 60s tourist boom has resulted in many long-term consequences to the environment and local communities living in those areas. This problem is shared among many Mediterranean countries oriented towards tourism, so WWF is trying to persuade all Mediterranean nations to protect at least ten percent of their coastal areas in the next ten years. WWF claims that at least fourteen percent of all coasts is degraded and damaged. Overfishing and the fact that the Mediterranean Sea hosts one quarter of the world's sea traffic are the main reasons of such an alarming state.
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Regions of Italy

Regions of Italy
World Europe Countries Italy Local guide Geography and economy Regions

Northern Italy
The north of Italy includes the region of Aosta Valley, Piedmont, Lombardy, Liguria, Veneto, Trentino-Alto Adige, Friuli-Venezia-Giulia and Emilia Romagna.

The Aosta Valley


Italy is divided into 20 and it has been like that since 1948, when the new Republican Constitution was ratified. The regions themselves are divided into 95 provinces. The northernmost region is that of Valle d`Aosta, or the Aosta Valley with the regional capital of Aosta. It shares its border with France and Switzerland hence the two German and French speaking minorities. With a population of approximately 120,000, it is a region that is the least populated of all Italian regions due to its severe climate. The first settlers of the valley were Celts and Ligurians who were later conquered by the Romans, and during the Middle Ages by numerous other tribes that invaded the European continent. In the turmoil of the succeeding centuries the region changed many rulers, but in 1861, together with other Italian regions, it was added to the Kingdom of Italy. The economy of the region depends on the metal industry and tourism, especially during winter because of its location in the Alps. Metal Industry was first introduced to the region after the construction of dams on the Dora Baltea river which is the tributary of the Po river, the longest in Italy.

Castle of Fenis in the Aosta Valley.


(Photo by: Ettina82)

Piedmont
One of the biggest Italian regions is Piedmont, surrounded by Valle d'Aosta in the north-west, Liguria in the South, Lombardy in the east, France in the West, and it even shares the border with Switzerland in the North. With the population exceeding four million inhabitants, it is divided into eight provinces with the capital of Turin. This region is located in a fertile valley encircled by the Alps, with river Po running through it. Like the Aosta valley, Piedmont is also abundant in hydroelectric power plants because of the many rivers rich in water that flow into the mainstream of the Po river. Piedmont was first settled by Celts and Ligurians who later became subjects of the Roman Empire. In the medieval times the region shared the fate of many parts of Europe that were being constantly invaded by a multitude of tribes in search of a permanent settlement. At the end of the 18th century Piedmont was annexed by France as part of Napoleon`s acquisitions, and after his fall it became a part of the Austrian Empire. Part of the Piedmontese economy depends on the products of agriculture such as wheat, rice, corn, and wine. Wine is a product that made this region very famous because of its high quality. It is considered one of the richest Italian regions due to the fact that it is the home to Italy's major industries, including the FIAT automobile factory, the textile industry at Biella and Ferrero chocolate factory at Cuneo. Turin is one of the oldest cities in Italy. It was established in the first century BC by the Romans as a military camp. Since that time it has turned into one the most developed cities due to its successful industries. The city is also the home of many beautiful Baroque buildings that enriched the history of architecture such as Palazzo Carignano, Palazo Stupinigi, Palazzo Reale, and Palazzo Madama. These palazzi once belonged to the royal family Savoy that ruled Italy until the end of WWII.

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Lombardy
Lombardy, eastern neighbor of Piedmont, is the most developed of all Italian regions with a population of over 9,000,000. It is situated near the Po delta, a location that proved to be very beneficial for the progress of industry. Lombardy`s share in the total Italian GDP is 20%, making it one of the most prosperous regions on the planet. It is divided into 12 provinces with Milan as its capital. Milan is also the financial capital of Italy, surrounded by many national and international factories that contribute to the general success of this region. The versatility of industry is great, ranging from metallurgy, textiles and chemical products to silk and weapons. This is the reason why Milan is one of the most polluted cities in the world. Archaeologists have found proof that the area occupied by Lombardy was first settled as early as the 2nd century BC. Among the first inhabitants were the Etruscans to whom the Romans were indebted for some of their greatest inventions and innovations. Ever since antiquity, Lombardy has been considered as the richest Roman, and later Italian, province due to its early development of transportation routes which in turn helped the advancement of trade and agriculture. In the 6th century AD, the area was invaded by the Lombards, a Germanic tribe, and the area was thus named Lombardy. During the Middle Ages, Lombardy's prosperity grew, making the region strong enough to resist numerous attacks and to keep their independence. During the Renaissance period, many noble families emerged as rulers of individual cities and their surroundings. The most notable ones were the Visconti family and the Sforza family in Milan, and the Gonzaga family of Mantua. These families were responsible for making these two cities important cultural centers as well as commercial. As patrons of art they employed many artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea Mantegna, and Donato Bramante, One of the most beautiful lakes in Italy, lake among others. At the end of the 18th century, Lombardy was briefly part of Garda seen from space. Napoleon's empire prior to its annexation by the Austrians in 1815. In 1859, the Kingdom of Italy was established, with Lombardy as its richest region. Beside industry and commerce, Lombardy abounds in beautiful nature. The lakes Maggiore, Garda, and Como are the three largest glacial lakes in Italy. The most famous of these lakes is lake Como, with many magnificent villas built all around.

Veneto
Veneto is the second richest Italian region, next to Lombardy. It occupies the northeastern part of Italy. Like Lombardy, it is also rich in water and several rivers pass through Veneto. These are Po, with its tributaries Adige, Brenta, and Piave. Veneto is divided into seven provinces with Venice as its capital. This area has been continuously inhabited ever since the first millennium BC. The first settlers were the Euganei who were replaced during the 6th century BC by the Veneti, a tribe that supposedly came from Troy. Around third century BC, the Veneti joined the Romans and contributed in Rome`s many battles against other tribes or peoples. Over time, the Veneti came to be dominated by the Romans, and eventually their region became a part of the Roman Empire. During the early Middle Ages, Veneto area was the battleground for many tribes that fought for the control of the region. In the 8th century, the Venetian Republic was established and it lasted until 1797 when Napoleon`s forces entered the city. The Republic was ruled by doges who exerted their power over the Adriatic Sea and even beyond. For over a thousand years, Venice enjoyed the status of being one of the most powerful maritime republics in Europe. The economy of the region depends largely on agricultural products such as corn, green peas, apples, cherries, tobacco, and hemp, among others. Industry is also strong in Veneto. Numerous factories popped up in the last four decades making the region one of the most industrialized in Italy. But it is to the production of the world-famous Murano glass that Veneto owes its popularity. Murano is a small island in the Venetian archipelago that gave its name to this well known product. Other than agriculture and industry, Veneto is one of the most frequented tourist destinations. Venice itself is probably one of the most visited cities in the world offering many attractions and attractive locations. It is also known as the city of art with a number of events that corroborate this statement. The Venice Art Biennale and the Venice Film Festival are among them. Venice is not the only city that enjoys a high status. Padua is famous for founding the second university in 1222 in Italy, the first being in Bologna. Verona is famous for its amphitheater, and primarily for being the setting for the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet, although Shakespeare himself had never been to Verona.

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Regions of Italy

Trentino-Alto Adige
Trentino-Alto Adige is one of the 5 autonomous regions in Italy. Unlike other Italian regions, it was not annexed by Italy until 1919, after the fall of Austria-Hungary. The region shares its northern border with Austria and Switzerland so some of the people living there are German-speaking. It is divided into two provinces with Trento as its capital. The economy of the region depends on the production of wine, dairy, wood, paper, chemicals and metal. Its location in the Dolomites makes it an attractive tourist destination during wintertime. It is one of the least populated regions with a population of just over 900,000.

The capital of Veneto, Venice is home to one of the most frequented squares in Europe, San Marco square

Friuli-Venezia Giulia
Friuli-Venezia Giulia is an autonomous Italian region whose capital city is Trieste. It borders Austria and Slovenia and it is divided into four provinces. This region is different because it is The Dolomites in Alto Adige. not a historical region like the others; instead, it was established (Photo by: Ettina82) after WW II because of many border disputes with Yugoslavia had arisen. In 1947, Trieste was split into Zone A and Zone B. Zone A was under the control of the Americans and the British while zone B was controlled by Marshal Tito's forces. In 1954, this system, called the Free Territory of Trieste, was abolished and Zone A was annexed by Italy, while Zone B was annexed by Yugoslavia. This issue troubled the two countries for the next twenty years, but the matter was finally settled in 1975 with the Treaty of Osimo. The region's economy is mainly based on shipbuilding, with Trieste as the main Italian port. Other industries include the production of steel, furniture, and wine. Other than Italian, two other languages are spoken, Slovenian and German.

Liguria
Liguria is one the smallest of all Italian regions, situated in the northwestern part of Italy. It is divided into four provinces with Genoa as its capital. Liguria got its name from the tribe that settled this area before the Roman conquest in the 2nd century BC; they called themselves Ligures. During the Middle Ages, the Republic of Genoa was established and it ruled the rest of the region until 1796, when Napoleon set up the Ligurian Republic. This situation did not last long and Liguria was annexed by France in 1805. The Ligurian economy depends on many different industries like shipbuilding, aviation, steel production, oil refining, but also on tourism, olive oil production, wine, and fishing.

Trieste, Italy.

Emilia-Romagna
Emilia-Romagna is among the most populous Italian regions with over 4,000,000 inhabitants. It is divided into 9 provinces with Bologna as its capital. The standard of living is very high thanks to successful agriculture and industry. Agricultural products include cereals, potatoes, corn, fruit and grape vines. The region is famous for the production of high quality red wine. Industrial production is mainly concentrated on the food and automobile industries. Emilia-Romagna is the home to food companies like Parmalat and Barilla. It is also the birthplace of some of the most expensive cars on the market, like Ferrari, Lamborghini, and Maserati.
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Regions of Italy

Central Italy
Central Italy includes the regions of Tuscany, Umbria, Marche and Lazio.

Tuscany
This central Italian region is probably the best known region of Italy. Tuscany owes its popularity to its long and famous history and to the beauty of its nature accentuated by many little towns and villages that are dispersed across the entire region. Tuscan landscape is mainly mountainous and hilly, but the Arno river forms a fertile valley that proved to be beneficial for the development of culture.Over 3,000,000 people live in Tuscany which is divided into ten provinces with Florence as its capital. In the 2nd millennium BC this area was populated by tribes that The Cinque Terre is surely the best landmark to visit in Liguria. belonged to the Apennine culture, and later, at the beginning of (Photo by: Ettina82) the first millennium tribes of the Villanovan culture settled the region. These tribes did not leave a significant mark and they were soon replaced by the more advanced Etruscan civilization. The Etruscans developed agriculture and roads, and they also contributed to the overall history in the field of art. The Etruscan civilization thrived during several centuries and it reached a climax in the 6th century BC, after which period they started to fade and eventually became part of the Roman Empire. The medieval times were characterized by constant battles between the Guelphs, who supported the Pope, and Ghibellines, who supported the Holy Roman Empire. These squabbles along the ideological lines resulted in a divided Tuscany, a state that remained the same for many centuries to come. The Renaissance was born in Tuscany thanks to the Medici family that ruled Florence for many years. Lorenzo Medici, called the Magnificent, gave an incentive to a plethora of artists and intellectuals who were responsible for the birth of the new spirit that would soon conquer entire Europe.

Umbria
Umbria is the only central region that does not have access to the sea. It is a mountainous area with many rivers and two lakes, Trasimeno and Piediluco. Umbria is divided into two provinces and about 900,000 people live there. The capital of the region is Perugia. This area got its name from the Umbri tribe that dwelt there in the 7th century BC. They were a resilient tribe - they managed to resist many Etruscan, and later Roman, onslaughts and keep their distinct culture. Nevertheless, they were assimilated by the Lombards during the early Middle Ages. In the Renaissance period, Umbria was often a battleground for the Guelphs and Ghibellines, but it eventually became a part of the Papal states. Popes' rule ended in the 18th century when Umbria was incorporated into the short-lived Roman Republic. In 1860, Umbria was included in the unified Kingdom of Italy. The economy of the region mainly depends on agriculture, in particular production of olives, olive oil, grapes, tobacco and wheat, whereas chief industrial products are those of the factories of the Terni province. Tourism is also highly developed especially in the city of Assisi, the birthplace of St Francis.
Florence, the capital of Tuscany, is considered to be one of the most beautiful cities in the world.

Marche
A coastal region with a population of 1,5 million, Marche is divided into five provinces with Ancona as the capital city. The landscape of the region is largely determined by the Apennines which make it a very mountainous area with few narrow coastal strips, where most of the urban centers are located. The region owes its plural name to the fact that this area was formerly divided into smaller provinces that used to be a part of the Papal States. During the Renaissance, the region was the battleground of the struggle for supremacy between several families. The two most powerful ones were Malatesta and Montefeltro. Due to its mountainous territory, the regions economy did not depend on agriculture, but rather on manufacture and shipbuilding.

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Regions of Italy

Lazio
Lazio is the fourth central region of Italy with 5,5 milion people, 55% of which live in Rome, its capital. T h e City of Assisi in Umbria. region, Perugia, Italy. (Photo by: Skschulte) which is split into 5 provinces, is located between the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Apennines and bordered to the north and northwest by Umbria and Tuscany respectively, by Abruzzo and Molise to the east, and by Campania to the southeast. This region is considered to be the birthplace of the Roman civilization that came to be the dominant one on the Apennine peninsula, conquering and assimilating every other culture that was in its way. The economy of the region traditionally depended on agriculture, crafts, fishing, and farming. However, during the 20th century industries began to develop, primarily around Rome. Industrial production includes paper, textiles, petrochemicals, cars, electronic devices etc. Rome is, of course, the leading center of the region and is home to many national and international firms. Since Rome is the capital of Italy and one of the most visited tourist destinations, most of the people living there work in the services sector.

Southern Italy
Southern Italy includes Abruzzo, Molise, Basilicata, Campania, Calabria and Puglia.

Abruzzo
Even though Abruzzo geographically belongs to Central Italy, it is administratively a part of Southern Italy due to its traditional association with the so-called Mezzogiorno (meaning Midday in Italian), a term that refers to the south of Italy. This name derives from the Latin word meridies, meaning south. Traditionally, southern Italian regions were poor, illiterate and crime-ridden, and the term Mezzogiorno is used to express the still-present stereotype of southern Italians' backwardness. Most of the region's landscape is ruled by the Apennines, making it very mountainous. It is divided into four provinces with L'Aquila as its capital. 1,3 million people live in the region of Abruzzo. The economy of the region largely depends on tourism that has improved over the past few years. Skiing is the biggest attraction and tourist offer in the region of Abruzzo. Corno Grande is the highest Italian peak, located on the Gran Sasso Massif. Maiella Massif is another popular destination for adventure-seeking alpinists and hikers. Abruzzo is also famous for its well-preserved medieval towns, such as Castel del Monte and Santo Stefano di Sessanio which are a part of the Gran Sasso National Park.
Official flag of Abruzzo.

Molise
Molise is one the smallest and youngest Italian regions with the population of only 300,000. It is divided into two provinces with Campobasso as its capital. It was established in 1963, after the splitting of the Abruzzi e Molise region. Unlike the highly industrialized northern states, Molise is still dependent upon agriculture and farming. Wheat, potatoes and sheep are the main sources of income for the scarce population of Molise. Industry is not very developed in this region. Other than a FIAT factory near Termoli, there are no major industrial complexes. In the last few years there has been some tourist activity, especially in the city of Larino. The regional government started a trend of restoring the old and neglected houses to their previous splendor making Larino a desirable tourist destination. The people of Molise pride themselves on living in one of the most beautiful and unspoiled parts of Italy, due to lack of industrialization.

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Regions of Italy

Basilicata
This has traditionbeen the ally poorest of all Italian regions and largely depopulated due to emigration, but with the discovery of oil the situation has changed in the last few years. The region is divided into two provinces with the city of Potenza as its capital, and Rome, Italy the population of approximately 600.000. It has access to the Tyrrhenian Sea to the south-west, and to the Ionian Sea to the south-east.
Rome, the capital of Lazio, is home to many masterpieces including this image of The Last Judgment by Michelangelo painted on the wall of the Sistine Chapel.

Campania
Campania has a population of approximately 5.8 million people and it is divided into five provinces with Naples as its capital. Unlike other southern regions, Campania abounds in history and culture. It used to be a part of several kingdoms that succeeded each other over the centuries. First, during the Middle Ages it was the Normans that established the Kingdom of Sicily that also included the islands of Malta and Gozo (an island in the Maltese archipelago). After some time, the mainland authorities decided that they wanted independence from Sicily, and thus the Kingdom of Naples was founded. At the beginning of the 19th century, the Kingdom of Two Sicilies was established and it lasted until the unification of Italy in the mid-19th century. During the 8th century BC, Greeks came to this area and established their colonies and managed to to keep their independence from other tribes, such as Samnites, who also settled the region. The Samnites were a very belligerent tribe so they pretty much conquered the entire area by the 4th century BC. Around 340 BC, Romans decided to invade this territory in search of pastures. The events that ensued are known as the Samnite Wars. During the skirmishes, the last Greek colony of Neapolis was conquered by the Samnites. Since the the Greeks did not get any help from homeland, they turned to Romans who eventually freed them from Samnite rule in the Second Samnite War. Romans prevailed, of course, and made Campania part of their Empire. During the following centuries Campania became one of the most important regions of the Empire due to its rich soil. Bay of Naples at sunset. Centuries of easy living were violently and unexpectedly cut (Photo by: Krzysiuc) short by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, leaving the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum buried underground. When it comes to cuisine Campania is one of the most inventive Italian regions. Campania, and more precisely Naples, is the birthplace of what we today call pizza. The famous pizza Margherita and Calzone pizza are both authentic Neapolitan products. Spaghetti is also a dish that was first eaten in Campania, and later conquered the entire world. Furthermore, Campania is home to many delicious cheeses such as Mozzarella and Ricotta.

Calabria
Calabria is located on the tip of the Italian 'boot'. It is a mountainous region surrounded by sea on three sides and separated from Sicily by the Strait of Messina. Pollino, the Sila Massif, and Aspromonte are three mountains that shape the landscape and provide the region with thick forests and rich pastures. Calabria is divided into five provinces with Catanzaro as its capital. Just over two million people live in this region.

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This area was first settled by Italic tribes who were later assimilated by Greeks into Magna Graecia, a Greek colony on the Apennine peninsula. The Greeks were a dominant nationality until the 3rd century BC when they were overrun by some northern tribes, including Samnites and Lucanians. These tribes were eventually made part of the Roman Empire. During the turmoil of the Middle Ages, Calabria suffered numerous afflictions in the form of malaria, pirate attacks, and struggles for supremacy between various contenders. During the 11th century, the Normans established a government in Calabria and over time made it a part of the Kingdom of Sicily. After that Calabria was incorporated into the Kingdom of Naples, a state that remained the same until the Italian unification in the 19th century. Together with other regions of the south, Calabria was, until the mid-20th century, among the poorest parts of Italy. In the last 5 decades the situation has improved due to modernization of agriculture and Strait of Messina separates Sicily from the Italian development of tourism. Nevertheless, centuries of poverty made this mainland. region a fertile soil for crime. The 'Ndrangheta is one of the three famous Italian organized crime families, the other two being Camorra from Naples and Cosa Nostra from Sicily. Calabria is also special because of the different dialects that are still spoken there. The region was ruled by many different nations, and development of various dialects can testify to the immense impact that these other nations have left on the region. French and Spanish words are still heard in the language of Calabria.

Puglia
Puglia, also known as Apulia, is the heel of the Italian "boot". It is divided into six provinces with Bari as its capital. Just over 4 million people live in this region. The first tribes who settled this region came here in the 1st millennium BC. Same as in Campania, they were of Italic origin. And just as in Campania and Calabria they were first assimilated by Greeks and later by Romans. During the Middle Ages, Puglia was constantly being invaded by belligerent northern tribes, such as the Goths and Lombards. The situation relatively calmed down after the Normans entered the region and established the duchy of Apulia. This area was also a part of the Kingdom of Sicily and later the Kingdom of Naples. At the beginning of the 19th century, the French briefly dominated the region. Apulia's economy largely depends on the products of agriculture, such as olives, cereals, grapes, figs and tobacco, and on farming. Industry has been developing lately so factories of all kinds have been established to supply the need for steel, petrochemicals, cement and such. Tourism also evolved, making Apulia one of the most desirable destinations. The language situation is similar to the one in Calabria. Even though Italian has been the official language since the unification in the mid-19th century, there are many dialects that persist to this day. People living in the north speak a variety of the Neapolitan dialect, and those living in the south speak in the Sicilian dialect. There is a minority living in Salento that speak in a dialect of Greek called Griko. Some isolated areas are populated with people who speak in an Albanian dialect called Arbereshe.

Fun Fact: The only three active volcanoes in Europe Etna, Stromboli and Vesuvius - are all located in the southern regions of Italy.

Nocturnal view of Bari.


(Photo by: SalviF)

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Regions of Italy

Insular Italy
Italy features two major islands that have the administrative status of regions - Sicily and Sardinia.

Sicily
Sicily is the biggest island in the Mediterranean Sea and the biggest Italian region. Approximately 5 million people live in nine provinces of which Palermo is the capital. It is separated from the Italian mainland by the Strait of Messina. There are several main rivers that supply the island with water. These are the Salso river, the Belice river, the Grande river, among others. Sicily, together with the small islands that surround it, is important for the study of volcanoes. With a height of over 3,000 meters, Mount Etna is Europe's tallest active volcano. The northeastern islands are also home to several volcanoes, of which Stromboli is still considered active.

Sicily, Italy.

According to archaeological evidence, Sicily has been continuously inhabited since around 8,000 BC. The first settlers were the Sicani tribe who probably migrated from the area nowadays known as Spain. The Elymian tribe who came from the east settled the northwestern part of the island. And finally, the Sicels came during the second millennium BC. According to the Greek historian Thucydides, this tribe gave its name to the island. Sometime around 750 BC, these three tribes were conquered by the Greek who established their colony on Sicily, a part of Magna Graecia. The Greeks were also responsible for cultivating the island, both agriculturally and culturally. They brought olives and grape vines together with their temple architecture. Carthaginians also had a few colonies on the island and this is why the Sicilian Wars were fought throughout much of the 5th and 4th centuries BC. In the 3rd century the Roman Republic offered to help the Greek causing the First Punic War, one of the three that were to follow. After the fighting had ended, the Romans achieved dominance across the entire Mediterranean and they took Sicily from Greece. During the early Middle Ages, Sicily had been changing rulers almost constantly. First, there were numerous Germanic tribes who tried their luck with the invasion of the island. Vandals and Goths briefly governed the area but soon they lost it to Ostrogoths who, led by Theodoric the Great, actually conquered the entire Apennine peninsula in the 5th century AD. Theodoric was an admirer of the Roman civilization and he acted accordingly, allowing freedom of religion and revival of the Roman culture. But the Byzantines were not happy with the way things were going on in Sicily, so Emperor Justinian engaged the Ostrogoths in a war, which is known as the Gothic War in histroy books. Sicily was the first to fall to the Byzantines. In succeeding years the island served as a base for the Byzantines who quickly took the rest of Italy from the Ostrogoths. Byzantine rule ended in 9th century when the Muslims took over. The Muslims introduced oranges and lemons to the island`s agriculture which is important because today Sicilys economy for the most part depends on the production of oranges. The Muslim rule ended in the 11th century when the Normans, led by two brothers, Roger and Robert Guiscard, defeated the Muslim army in 1068. During the 12th century, the Kingdom of Sicily was established and it included Apulia, Calabria, and the Maltese archipelago. The kingdom fared well in those days, being one of the wealthiest kingdoms and exerting great power on the rest of Europe. In the following centuries, several dynasties succeeded the Sicilian throne. After the Normans there were the Hohenstaufens from Germany. They were replaced by the Angevin Dynasty from France in 1266, but they lost their reign due to poor treatment of their subjects who eventually rebelled against the French in 1282. This conflict is known as the War of the Sicilian Vespers. During the conflict the people of Sicily asked the Spaniards for help. This resulted in Spanish rule that lasted until the beginning of the 18th century when Sicily briefly fell into the hands of the Savoy Dynasty. Seven years later the Savoys traded Sicily for Sardinia with the Austrian Habsburg Dynasty who eventually lost it to the Bourbons of Spain. Again. Then came Napoleon who messed up everybodys plans, but this situation did not last long. After the Napoleonic Wars, the Kingdom of Two Sicilies was established, and Naples and Sicily were merged once again. In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi made Sicily a part of the Kingdom of Italy. Sicily is specific because most of the inhabitants are bilingual. Italian is Official Sicilian flag. the official language, but many people also speak Sicilian, also called Siculu. Like Italian, it is a language influenced by Greek, Latin, Spanish and Arabic. and it is spoken in some parts of Calabria and Apulia. The Sicilians are very proud of their heritage and they jump at every opportunity to reiterate that some of the greatest minds were born on their island. For example, Greek philosopher and mathematician Archimedes was a native of Syracuse; Empedocles, also a philosopher, was born here, as were the Nobel Prize winners Luigi Pirandello and Salvatore Quasimodo.

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There is one other thing that made Sicily famous - Cosa Nostra. Mainly through cinematography, Cosa Nostra has become one of the most notorious Italian exports. In reality, it is a loose organization comprised of about a hundred criminal groups, called cosche, that control certain areas, like towns or villages. According to some historians, the mafia in this form developed during the mid-19th century, and spread beyond the European borders due to Italian emigration on a massive scale at the end of the same century. The most popular Cosa Nostra branches are located in the United States and Australia.

Sardinia
Sardinia is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea with the population of 1.6 million. It used to be divided into four provinces, but in 2006 the local government added another four. The capital is Cagliari. Sardinia has been continuously inhabited since prehistory, but during the Neolithic the Nuragic civilization took shape. Around 1000 BC, Phoenicians settled the Sardinian coast. Five hundred years later, the Nuragic natives entered into war with the Phoenicians but were overpowered so they asked the Carthaginians for assistance. Carthage helped but the price was letting Sardinia become a province the Carthaginian Empire. During the Punic Wars in the 3rd century BC, the Roman Republic exploited the fact that the Carthaginians were weak, so they annexed Sardinia together with Corsica without much trouble. During the early Middle Ages, Sardinia was briefly under the Vandal control, together with Sicily, but Justinian, the Byzantine Emperor, took it from them. In the 8th century, Arabs and Berbers occasionally invaded the island.

Sicily and the surrounding islands abound in volcanic activity.


(Photo by: Tim Bekaert)

In the 10th century, local authorities divided Sardinia into four districts that fell under different influences over the next few centuries. In the first half of the 14th century, the Kingdom of Sardinia was established with the help of James II of Aragon. The island stayed under the Spanish rule until the beginning of the 18th century when it became a part of the kingdom ruled by the Savoy Dynasty of Piedmont. After the French Revolution, the Sardinians offered their help in defeating the French army in exchange for their autonomy, and thus the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was created. In 1860, this kingdom spearheaded the Italian unification making Vittorio Emanuele II, King of Sardinia, the first king of Italy. Sardinia's economy depends mainly on tourism. The island offers many interesting and beautiful locations in the form of beaches and picturesque little towns along the coastline. Other sources of income come in the form of silver and gold mines. Industry is primarily concentrated around the production of oil rigs. The landscape of Sardinia is largely mountainous with a few rivers cutting across the island. The longest Sardinian river is Tirso, 151 kilometers long. Sardinian culture is famous for music. A specific way of guttural singing called vocal polyphony is characteristic for Sardinia. The Cagliari, the capital of Sardinia. (Photo by: Cristiano Cani) uniqueness of the island`s music is further emphasized by the use of an instrument that is an authentic Sardinian invention. This instrument is called the launeddas and it is made of wood. It is composed of three pipes and the player has to employ a technique called circular breathing, which means that he or she has to, at the same time, inhale air through the nose and exhale through the mouth into the pipes. Just like the Sicilians, the people of Sardinia have their own language different from Italian. It is a language with traces of Phoenician and Etruscan. Sardinian language is primarily used in rural communities.

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Political Overview of Italy

Political Overview of Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide Geography and economy Political overview

Italian government is characterized by parliamentary democracy and based on a multi-party system. Italy has been a democratic republic for more than sixty years, after the abolition of the monarchy by the popular referendum. The Council of Ministers led by the President of the Council of Ministers of Italy exercise executive power two parliamentary chambers and the government exercise while the legislative power. Italian parliament is characterized by bicamerality. Like in other parliamentary democracies, Italian judiciary is independent of both the executive goverment and the legislature.

President
The President of Italy has powers based on many similarities with the king of Italy. His figure connects three political branches he is the commander-in-chief of armed forces, he appoints the judiciary president and the executive, and he is elected by the lawmakers. His dominant role is to serve as a representative of the republic in whole, rather than supporting particular political tendencies. The electoral body consists of 58 representatives of Italian regions and both houses of the Parliament. The presidential mandate lasts seven years and in order to be elected the president must win with a wide majority of votes. If that fails, the majority is reduced to one-half plus one vote as the ballots progress. Francesco Cossiga and Carlo Azeglio Ciampi were the only presidents to win the mandate on the first ballot. No Italian president has ever won two mandates, although it is not forbidden by law. The powers of the president are predominantly latent - he/she tries to keep a distance from any political debate but still serves as a institutional guarantee for other political figures. He also acts as a guardian of the Italian Constitution and thus has the power to reject any proposed laws by not signing them. The president may resign for several reasons, but once he stops serving, he will be appointed Senator for life and called President Emeritus of the Republic. In the case of his absence, all presidential functions will be vested in the president of the Senate. The current Italian President is Giorgio Napolitano who was elected on May 10, 2006 after the fourth ballot.

The emblem of the Republic of Italy.

Council of Ministers of Italy


The Council of Ministers and its president are appointed by the President of the Republic. The President of the Council (the Prime Minister) is in charge of advising the President of the Republic on how to compose the rest of the cabinet (the Council of Ministers). The Cabinet members are in charge of leading the departments of the government. The proposed Council has to win the vote of confidence from both houses of the parliament. The Council's dominant power is its ability to issue decrees that have to be confirmed in the parliament. The current Prime Minister is Silvio Berlusconi, a controversial figure, who effectively leads the Italian government through the cabinet.

Italian Parliament
The Parliament of Italy is a bicameral body consisting of 945 elected members. Parlamento Italiano has a lower house with 630 representative and the Senate of the Republic with 315 senatori. A new law has been introduced in 2005 that assures proportional election in both houses. The parliament's dominant function is to represent the citizens in the republican institutions. Thus, all their actions have to be in the service of the citizens of Italy. Other parliamentary prerogatives include exercising legislative power - in other words, making bills into laws. No government can be in power without the support of the Parliament, and it must resign in case it fails to receive the vote of confidence. The so-called perfect bicameralism was introduced in Italy in 1948 and it assures the same rights and powers to both houses of the Parliament. This set of rules has been established after the Second World War when fascist dictatorship had been dismissed.

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Political overview of Italy

The two houses act independently and never have joint sessions, except in rare occasions that are prescribed by the law. Those occasions include one where both houses of the Parliament meet for a joint session in order to elect the President of the Republic, one third of the Consiglio Superiore della Magistratura and one third of the members of the Corte Costituzionale. There are currently seven life senators (three former presidents and the rest are appointed because of their great achievements in scientific or social fields).

Judiciary
The basis of the Italian judiciary is Roman law that has been enriched with certain clauses from the Napoleonic codeadversary law system. It relies on an impartial person (a judge) who tries to determine the actual state of the case. a number of other statutes, while it is up to an advocate's skills to represent their party. Italian law also relies on the inquisition which is based on the the courts' active involvement in determining the truth of the case. These two opposite law systems both have roots in old European traditions that gradually became dominant in the majority of countries.

Silvio Berlusconi, the current Italian Prime Minister.

The power of the judiciary to annul certain acts of the executive branch is only partial and it is being practiced only under certain conditions in the Corte Costituzionale (the Constitutional Court). Corte Constituzionale consists of 15 judges led by the President of the Italian Constitutional Court. He is elected by the court itself while others are elected by the President of the Italian Republic (one third), the Parliament (one third) and the ordinary and administrative supreme courts (one third). The dominant function of the Constitutional Court is passing on the constitutionality of laws. This was introduced after World War II. The jurisdiction of the International Law of Justice has not been accepted by Italy.

Political Parties
In order to vote in parliamentary elections one must be an Italian citizen and be at least 18 years of age. However, to vote for the Senate, the voter must be at least 25 years old. Italian political situation changed dramatically in the period between 1992 and 1997. Numerous politicians, businessmen and administrators were undergoing investigations due to many scandals they were a part of. Other reasons of political landscape transformations include the shift from a proportional to an Additional Member System. While some parties emerged, others dissolved and disappeared from political horizon. The Socialists suddenly declined and the Christian Democratic party dissolved while the the Christian Democratic Center and the Italian People's Party arose. A Christian-democratic, liberal and liberal-conservative Italian political party known under the name Forza Italia gained widespread support and became an integral part of the Italian political scene. Its president was a three-time Prime Minister, Silvio Berlusconi. It is generally considered to be a party that is different from others as it was formed by ex-Socialists, ex-liberals and ex-Christian Democrats, political figures that usually do not follow similar ideologies. The party's doctrine ranges from Social democracy to Libertarianism mixed with certain constituents of social market economy and Catholic school teaching. Their image is characterized by modernization and revitalization of both national conservative and liberal conservative points of view. Forza Italia is a member of the the European People's Party (EPP).

Giorgio Napolitano, the President of Italy.

Italian political scene has been dominated by two coalitions since the 1995 elections. The center-right coalition (the House of Freedoms) emerged from the regional election in 1995 while the center-left coalition (the Olive Tree coalition) was formed the following year in the national elections. This coalition was ideologically led by Romano Prodi, an Economics professor who was the head of the coalition in the period between 1996 and 1998. Its composition was dominated by following parties: DS (the Democrats of the Left, social-democratic); DL (Democracy is Freedom - The Daisy, progressive-centrist); SDI (Italian Democratic Socialists, social-democratic) and MRE (the European Republicans Movement, social-liberal).
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Political Overview of Italy

Historical Overview of Italian Post-War Political Scene


The dominant party since 1945 has been the Christian Democrat party. This ensured political stability and prevented the Cold War equilibrium to be disrupted. Italian political scene was further dominated by continuous efforts to keep the Italian Communist Party out of power. The party was a part of the government only once during 61 governments that have been elected in Italy. Many believe that the large number of governments (fifty in fifty years) was a sign of its extreme political instability, but all facts point exactly the opposite - Italy was almost exclusiveley led by the Christian Democrat party and its allies that resulted in Italian government to be nicknamed imperfect bipolarism as right-wing and left-wing parties never alternated in government. The Socialist party entered the government in the sixties while the attempts to include MSI (the fascist Italian Social Movement) resulted in riots and subsequently failed. The alliance between DC (Christian Democracy) and the Socialist Party was encouraged by Aldo Moro, a left-leaning Christian democrat who later tried to incorporate the Communists in the government with a deal called historic compromise that resulted in Aldo Moros murder in 1978. He was assassinated by the extremist left-wing terrorist organisation called Red Brigades.

Strategy of Tension (strategia della tensione)


The period between 1969 and the end of the seventies is often referred to as the Years of Lead. This was the time of the extremist-left and extremist-right political terrorism that began with the bombing of the Piazza Fontana in the center of Milan. Twenty people were killed and the extensive several years long investigation confirmed suspicions that the bombing was the act of left-wing circles with the Maoist Student Movement that enjoyed support from many students in Milan. The bombing was a part of the strategy that had the goal of blaming right-wing terrorists for attacks. Other incidents included several assassinations by the leftist Red Brigades who wanted to prevent the inclusion of the Communist Party in the government by killing Aldo Moro, the dominant advocate for the Communists' incorporation in the government.

Political Changes
Enrico Berlinguer was at the head of the Communist Party when it finally increased their popularity as the end of the lead years approached. Meanwhile, the Socialist Party with Bettino Craxi as their leader began criticizing the Communists in Italy and the Soviet Union to a greater extent than before. The Socialists were in favor of Ronald Reagan's positioning of Pershing missiles in Italy, which the majority of the Communist Party strongly disapproved of. The Communist Party started losing popularity on the count of their inability to modernize and many of their former sympathizers started shifting to the Socialist Party which started favoring more moderate views that were closely resembling liberal-socialist. The only time that the Communists managed to surpass Christian Democrats was in the 1984 European elections that was partly a result of the recent Berlinguer's death which attracted a large number of sympathizers. After the Chernobyl accident Italy decided to discontinue the production of energy using nuclear plants and the initial moratorium that was supoosed to last until 1993 was extended indefinitely. Following the Mani Pulite investigation which uncovered a vast array of corrupt political and economic actions, many seemingly immortal parties went into oblivion and some changed their names in order to appear more attractive. Socialist Party and the Christian Democrat Party disbanded while the Communists changed their name to Democratic Party of the Left and became the leading social Italian democratic party. This was the start of another Italian transformation called the Second Republic.

Second Republic
The citizens of Italy were exhausted and fed up with extensive corruption, nearly unsolvable political problems and many other issues that came out of the Tangentopoli - a political system based on corruption that swallowed Italy during the eighties. The country underwent big political changes following the 1993 referendum - its electoral system shifted from a proportional to an Additional Member System, many ministries were abolished or their names were changed. The 1994 elections saw the rise of Silvio Berlusconi as a Prime Minister of Italy who was, however, forced to sign his resignation in December the same year after an Italian political party called Lega Nord per l'Indipendenza della Padania withdrew their support. The political scene was dominated by a large number oh center-left coalitions in the period between 1996 and 2001. Berlusconi returned as the head of the government in 2001 as the leader of the 'Freedom House', a center-right coalition. Prodi was the Prime Minister between 2006 and 2007 after the narrow victory of his l'Unione coalition that received more votes than Berlusconi's Casa delle Liberta. Due to the government crisis Prodi resigned. New election resulted in Berlusconi becoming the new Prime Minister who formed the Berlusconi IV Cabinet.
(Photo by: unknown author)

Palazzo del quirinale.

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Science and Technology in Italy

Science and Technology in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide Geography and economy Science and technology

Although Italy is not readily associated with enormous global scientific progress, its firm tradition of upbringing some of the finest scientists in the history of mankind, combined with the efforts the country has made in developing its scientific reputation really has quite visible results. Italy's scientific development started in the 16th century, around the time of Galileo Galilei. Italian continuous curiosity over the centuries has resulted in several scientific schools and the establishment of the country recognized through several Nobel Prizes.

Great Minds of Italian Science


Galileo Galilei
This great scientist had many problems with the church ever since he decided to declare fidelity to the Copernicus' system which claimed that the earth evolved around the sun. By designing his own telescope he managed to prove the Copernicus Theory and completely shattered all common knowledge up to that time. The Church was all but content with his radical discoveries so it forced him into formal recanting his recent studies. Galilei however, never stopped studying and his beliefs were never repressed.

Volta & Galvani

Galileo Galilei, a great Italian scientist and inventor.

Allesandro Volta was an inventor and a scientist he electrified the world by inventing the battery. Volta had been galvanized by his friend and a colleague Luigi Galvani who discovered that a frog's leg placed between two metals produces a small electrical current. Volta used this discovery and demonstrated the battery in 1800 - the first continuous current source.

Marconi
Guglielmo Marconi invented radio-telegrapahy in 1896 which was subsequently improved and ended by the first ever broadcast of a radio message from Great Britain to Australia in 1918. Many say that the key oh the Italian success in scientific fields is the perfect combination of a tight University network and research centers. Italy is recognized all over the world as one of the leader in many scientific fields. Physics, materials and chemistry, aerospace, vaccines and health in general are just the tip of the iceberg.

S&T
Italian government has made an effort to improve the overall situation in the fields of science and technology. It has therefore addresses the S&T National Policy for the period of 2003-2007 by designing a strategy for scientific and technological research improvement. Its main elements are: aiming for internationalization, merit, economic growth by reinforcing Italys scientific base maintaining competitiveness by improving the Italian level of technology strategic industrial research in which universities and research centers are also involved
A tropospheric scatter station designed by Marconi.
(Photo by: Ibeeby)

active participation in international agreements and programs of the European Union the goal of the strategy is to increase public investments from 1% of the GDP to more than 2% before 2010

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Science and Technology in Italy

Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche


CNR is an Italian National Research Council with the aim of supporting technological and scientific research. The organization was founded in 1923 with the primary goal of advancing basic and applied research to maintain competitiveness and be an integral part of the strategic fields defined by the national strategy. CNR is a public organization that defines its own autonomous rules in accordance with the law. The follwing points represent the mission and activities of the Italian National Research Council: promoting and conducting research with the aim of achieving excellence and strategic relevance both nationally and internationally; main tools for achieveing goals is cooperation with the EU and other private & public organizations CNR will be in charge of managing and coordinating national and international scientific research projects that are relevant for the national system; promoting collaboration between Italian scientific community and scietific organizations of other countries; providing scholarships and research fellowships on all levels of higher education. CNR will also be responsible for performing activities of non university related higher education.

Agenzia Spaziale Italiana


ASI (Italian Space Agency) operates under the Ministry of the Universities and Scientific and Technological Research and was founded in 1988 the the aim of promoting and coordinating space activities in Italy. Its basic strategy is cooperating with many national and international organizations and agencies active in space technology in order to achieve better results in space exploration. ASI's headquarters are located in Italy's capital, Rome, and the agency also has two operational centers in Trapani and Matera. Its spaceport is located near the seashore of Kenya. The annual budget of the Italian Space Agency is $978 million.
Italy is an important participant of global space exploration.

The Mose Project


Modulo Sperimentale Ellettromeccanico is a governmental scientific project with the goal of protecting Venice from further 'sinking'. The integral part of the system a row of mobile gates designed to isolate the Venetian Lagoon from the Adriatic Sea. The system is able to restrain water up to the point when the tide reaches 3 meters. The project was started in 2003 and its executors are engineers at FIAT. The MOSE project is a part of a larger strategy that started in 1987 that aims to protect Venice and its lagoon. The Venice Water Authority also raised quaysides and the city pavement to protect it up to the point when the tide reaches 110cm (that is the height when barriers come into operation). Other goals include saving Venice from degradation of the morphological structures that resulted from the city's sinking process. The project aims to solve the centuries' long problem of Venice with tides that affect the city at spring, autumn and winter. The significance of the phenomenon which pushes the waves into the Venice gulf may increase if it is associated with factors like pressure or the winds Bora and Sirocco. Furthermore, the water level rises due to 36 inflow points of canals and rivers. The decision to protect Venice and the lagoon from the devastating flooding consequences was made after the flood of November 1996 when the tide reached 194 cm above the tidal datum. Driven by a strong sirocco wind it was the highest ever tide recoded in the history of Venice. The Flood lasted for two Watchtower satelite. (Photo by: Antfish) days and finally ceased when the wind dropped. This triggered the Italian government to issue the Special Law of 1973 which declared the problem of Venice a national interest priority. The Second Special Law on Venice of 1984 implemented strategies and criteria of the safeguarding project. The Consorzio Venezia Nuova (a group of 50 companies) was entrusted by the Water Authority to design and implement safeguarding measures for the city. Four years after, the city was presented by a series of proposed measures to protect Venice called the REA Project ('Rebalancing and Environment'). This was the birth of MOSE, a row of mobile barriers.
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Main Industries of Italy

Main Industries of Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide Geography and economy Main industries

Currency Trade organisations GDP GDP growth Inflation (CPI) Population below poverty line Labour force

Euro (EUR) / Campione d'Italia (CHF) EU, WTO (via EU membership) and OECD $1.8tn (2007 est.) 1.9% (2007 est.)

GDP per capita $31,000 (2007 est.) 2.3% (2006 est.) 12% (2002) 24.63 million tourism, commerce, communications, machinery, iron and steel, chemicals, food processing, textiles, automobiles, home appliances, clothing, footwear, ceramics $474.8bn $483.6bn Germany 18%, France 10.9%, Netherlands 5.9%, Spain 4.6%, Belgium 4.4%, UK 4.3%, the People's Republic of China 4.2% 107.8% of GDP $832.9bn $925bn

The Bank of Italy.


(Photo by: Lalupa; GFDL)

Italy's rapid industrialization began before World War I and continued its rapid development all through the first half of the 20th century. Important global trends and crises like the 1930s world depression and Benito Mussolini's fascist political actions steadily restructured Italian economy, while its expansion was marginalized. Agriculture used to be Italy's main source of income up until the end of World War II when nearly half of the workforce was still employed in agriculture. Industries began concentrating on the north of the country which later proved to be one of the main reasons of the northern economic superiority over the much poorer south. The development continued up until 1970s when the government introduced resolute measures in order to put an end to economic inefficiencies. Subsequent years were crucial for Italy's public debt reduction and one of the remedies was privatization of public industries. Other measures included the reduction of government spending but this also did not help in stopping Italian economy issues from escalating. The stagnation continued until 2005 when Italy's GDP was estimated at $1.76 trillion with mining, structuring and manufacturing contributing one third, and services contributing more than 70 percent. The proportion of agriculture was reduced to mere 2%.

Unemployment 6.7% (2007)

Main industries

Exports Imports Main import partners Public debt Revenues Expenses

Although Italy essentially has a private enterprise economy, the donor: $2.48 billion, 0.15% of government still had large proportions of control in some sectors Economic aid GDP (2004) (telecommunications, transportation, oil industry etc.). Government interest slowly started to be transferred to private ownership during 1990s, but the government is still a major, if not leading Italian employer. The south of Italy has always been developing much slower than the north - this has been an ongoing problem of the government for years. The majority of corporations and factories choose north over south for their headquarters due to the lack of infrastructure and a thriving crime rate in the south. Southern Italy has always had a higher unemployment rate than the north, in spite of the govenments' efforts to foster industrialization in that region.

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Main Industries of Italy

Primary Sector
Olive oil and olive production is one of the major agricultural activities in Italy. The country is considered to be one of the world's leading oil producers because of very favorable weather conditions, especially in the south of Italy. The variety of climatic conditions also allows it to grow many different kinds of fruit and vegetables almost everywhere in the country. Italian east is known for growing cultures like sugar beets, maize corn, soybeans, grains and many kinds offruit, while the south specialized in growing olives, citrus fruits (lemons, oranges) strawberries, apricots, pears, cherries etc. This vast array of cultures grown in Italy has its roots in the fact that the country is blessed with the widest variety of climatic conditions each appropriate for a different crop. Grape growing in Italy is said to be one of the most sophisticated in the world which can be seen in the quality of Italian wines. Central Italy, especially the region of Chianti is world-famous for making Chianti wine, one of the most prominent Italian wines. Italian wine production is estimated to five million metric tons per year. Dairy industry is one of the major Italian industries as well, with more than fifty kinds of cheese produced all over the country, including Pecorino, Parmesan and Gorgonzola. Some of them are appreciated world-wide, and many cuisines cannot properly exist without them. The number of farms has decreased since 1990; there are currently 2,6 million farms in the country as opposed to the three million Italy estimated to have 18 years ago. The area covered in farms sums up to approximately 19,6 million hectars. The overwhelming majority of farms are small and operated by families (94,7%) and the rest falls under company-run farming areas. Forestry is one of the least developed industries in Italy and the vast majority of wood has to be imported. Many forests were harvested during the Roman Empire and then in the 19th century, but there are still areas where forestry is well-developed. Those areas include Apenines, Dolomites and Alps, in other words, hilly or mountanious Italian regions. Fishing is also reduced to the lowest possible level, with predominantly local and small scale fishing activities. Italy's main fuel resource is natural gas produced offshore in the Adriatic Sea and in the Po Valley. Other than that, Italy is quite poor in mineral and petroleum resources. The majority of petroleum is located predominantly in the south of Italy (Sicily). Other mineral resources are rock salt, talc, lignite and barites.

Manufacturing
The majority of Italian industry is based on small scale and medium sized factories with no mored than a hundred employers. The basis of Italian industry has always been its northern part (Lombardy, Emilia Romagna, Veneto and Piedmont). The main reasons of this uneven industrial concentration is the fact that the region is favorably positioned when it comes to trading with other European countries. The Alps provide hydroelectricity essential for the presence of industry and the flat land is suitable for industrial development. 'Industrial Triangle' is the name of the area where majority of Italian industries are located in (between Genoa, Turin and Milan). Other heavily industrialized areas include Emilia Romagna and the northeastern part of the country. Fiat is the only Italian car manufacturer with Alfa Romeo, Lancia, FIAT, Maserati and Ferrari being its brands. Piaggio and Ducati are famous Italian manufacturers of scooters and motorcycles. Italy is also known for a developed production of home appliances with factories located mostly in the Northeast and in Lombardy. Another world-famous Italian industry is glassware which is situated in Murano and silk production in Como. Murano comprises five small islands all connected with bridges which became the Italian center of glass making after furnaces were moved there from Venice at the end of the 13th century. Murano glass is appreciated worldwide because of its sophisticated appearance and workmanship.

An old Fiat car.


(Photo by: Productplu)

Workforce
Although unempoloyment rates have been decreasing in since the beginning of the nineties, Italy is still facing severe problems with its labor in the south of the country. Some southern regions have unemployment rates which exceed 20 percent, and women and youth have more difficulties with getting a job than men in those areas. The situation improved to a certain extent after Italian government introduced a series of unpopular measures which are sometimes abused by companies in order to make their emloyees work more than it is legally permitted. Unions are said to gather more than forty percent of the overall Italian work force. They are organized into three influential confederations: the Italian Confederation of Workers Trade Unions (CISL), the Union of Italian Labor (UIL) and the Italian General Confederation of Labor (CGIL). Those unions have been stgrongly connected to certain influential political parties in the past (the Christian Democrats, the Communists and the Italian Socialist Party), but they are now resolutely claiming that those ties have been terminated. Despite the fact that they were promoting different political views in the past, nowadays they tend to unify or at least consolidate their positions before confronting management or the government.
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Flora and Fauna in Italy

Flora and Fauna in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide Geography and economy Flora and fauna

Italy is home to many different species, and nearly every wildlife-watching adventure will result in sightings of many mammals like chamois, deer or ibex. Bears have become the most prominent residents of many Italian national parks. More than eighty of them currently live in the Parco Nazionale d'Abbruzzo, Lazio and Molise and some twenty brown bears occupy the area of Parco Naturale Adamello-Brenta. The majority of these animals have been introduced from Slovenia. Wolves, wildcats, snow voles, porcupines and more than fifty other species of mammals occupy the famous Parco Nazionale dei Monti Sibillini, located in the regions of Le Marche and Umbria. The park is home to more than 150 bird types with the golden eagle, and the rock patridge being the most notable ones. Parco Nazionale Archipelago Toscano is every bird's paradise on earth because of endless nesting possibilities in the islands of Giglio, Capraia, Elba and Gorgona. Other interesting species found in the are are the tarantula gecko and the viper of Montecristo, which is endemic.

Porcupine.
(Photo by: unknown author)

Animals
Many species have been driven to the point of extinction for several reasons. Italians loved their la caccia (hunting) in the past and there is still a very powerful community of hunters in Italy whose lobbying in environemntal politics has always been very influential. The Italian environmental awareness has resulted in decrease of the number of hunters, but still more than 700,000 Italians hunt. The twentieth century saw the extinction of 14 species in Italy. Some projects are trying to re-introduce extinct species (osprey in Parco Regionale della Maremma) but many other species will probably never again have Italy for their home. Some reports say that close to 70% of all vertebrata in Italy are endangered so the country is currently facing more environmental problems than just the introduction of extinct species. However, there are species whose re-introduction has been successfully enforced - the number of brown bears in Parco Naturale Adamello-Brenta has finally reached a satisfying level, but this is still their only home. The lynx is another species that made a comeback in Italy, but their number is still very small and they are extremely hard to spot. The northern part of the Appenines and the western portion of the Alps are now homes to an increased number of wolves which have naturally progressed from 100 in the seventies to close to 600 animals today. The studies show that there are no more than 250 otters, and there are two locations in which these precious animals can be found. A small population lives in Parco Nazionale dell Pollino and the Parco Nazionale e Vallo di Diano is home to a thriving community of otters.

Osprey.
(Photo by: unknown author)

Plants
Many original forests and other plant communities have been wiped out because of human area alteration and agricultural activities. The region of Tuscany that was once a beautiful natural vegetation resort is now dominated by olive groves, cypresses and vineyards. The vast portion of Italian vegetation is Mediterranean. The three dominant types of trees are pines, corks and evergreen oaks (ilex). Oak forests became rare over the years, but some can still be found in Tuscany, Calabria, Puglia and Umbria. The dominant tree culture is ilex, with forests that have either been created by humans or interfered with. The cork is the second most common tree in Italy. They usually grow in forests together with ilex or other oaks, but some pure cork forests can still be found in Sicily and Sardinia.
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Flora and Fauna in Italy

Three types of pines are dominant in Italian territory - the maritime pine (found inland, although its name does not suggest that), the umbrella pine or the domestic pine (named after its distinctive shape - long and flattened branches; usually found in Tuscany) and the Aleppo pine. Imports from the past shaped Italian landscape, especially in souther Tuscany where the olive and the cypress can be found in all shapes and sizes. Macchia (maquis) covers the majority of Italy's territory. Maquis is a shrubland biome found in many Mediterranean regions. It usually comprises of evergreen shrubs growing very densly. The dominant plants are thyme, rosemary and lavender. Shrubs are usually two to four meters high and rich undergrowths of orchids, irises and and gladioli can be found underneath them during spring. Gariga is another dominant growth in Italy, prevailing in areas where human interference has been too harsh or where nature has been unkind. It is dominated by even smaller soft-leaved bushes and the scrubland is typical for areas near the coast. The dominant plants found in those areas are lavander, thyme and rosemary.

Pinus halepensis (Aleppo Pine).


(Photo by: unknown author)

The lush scenery of Urbino.


(Photo by: Benedict Francis)

Fun Fact: It is definitely not a good idea to try outrunning the police in Lazio, as some patrols drive a Lamborghini.

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Natural Parks of Italy

Natural Parks of Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide Geography and economy Natural parks

Italy is home to 22 national parks and 2 more waiting to be declared as such, and more than 400 nature reserves, wetlands and natural parks. Italian national parks add up to one and a half million hectars in surface and its environmentalists are constantly fighting for the increase in amount of the protected land. Italy's national parks cover about five percent of its territory and they are very administratively diverse. All protected areas are very important when it comes to flora and fauna preservation and many of the government's programs are dedicated to promoting nature's values and preserving its beauty.

The list of National parks in Italy


Gran Paradiso National Park.
(Photo by: Marcoz)

Abruzzo, Lazio e Molise, Alta Murgia, Appennino Tosco-Emiliano, Arcipelago di La Maddalena, Arcipelago Toscano: Asinara, Aspromonte, Circeo, Cilento e Vallo di Diano, Dolomiti Bellunesi, Cinque Terre, Foreste Casentinesi, Monte Falterona, Campigna, Gargano, Gennargentu, Gran Paradiso, Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga, Majella, Monti Sibillini, Pollino, Sila (Calabria), Stelvio, Val Grande, Vesuvio.

Parco Nazionale d'Abruzzo, Lazio e Molise


Where: Abruzzo region, some territories are in Lazio and Molise Coordinates: 41 45' 51" N, 13 52' 8" E Park headquarters: Pescasseroli in the Province of L'Aquila The park was founded in 1923 and it has successfully carried out its role as the preserver of species like chamois, the Italian Wolf and Marcian Brown Bear for years. It is now one hundred times bigger than the original protected area. Other dominant species include wild boar, white-backed Woodpecker and roe deer. Flora composition in the park is dominated by beeches, Silver Birches and Black and Mountain pines. Official reports claim that there are around 100 bears but the actual figure is closer to 30. The remaining population is under constant threat resulting from poaching and development in Abruzzo. Deer are represented by a larger number, although they are not easy to spot. The number of bird species found in the park is too large to list, but bird-spotters will be pleased to know that some of the interesting species include the jay, the white-backed and green woodpeckers and the hoopoe. The flora is extremely rich and diverse and there are more than 2,000 species found in the area. The most interesting flower of the park is Cypripedium calceolus or lady's slipper (a yellow and black orchid). The beech is the predominant tree with over sixty percent of the area covered by it. Other trees include Silver Birch, the Mountain Pine and the Black Pine. The highest mountain peaks in the park include Mount Petroso (2247m) and Mount Marsicano (2242m). Waters include the Sangro river which flows in the south east direction from its rise in the Devil's Pass and runs through the Lago di Barrea before exiting the park and turning north-east. Other rivers are the Melfa and Giovenco.

Arcipelago Toscano National Park


Where: main islands of the Archipelago, smaller islands Website: www.islepark.it
Abruzzo landscape.
(Photo by: Riccardobr)

Arcipelago Toscano National Park is the largest marine park in Europe with the surface of 56,766 hectares of sea and 17,887 hectares of land.

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Natural Parks of Italy

Foreste Casentinesi, Monte Falterona, Campigna National Park


Area: 365 square kilometers Where: divided between provinces of Forli Cesena, Arezzo and Florence This national park protects some of the most stunning areas of the Apennines. The park is home to two monasteries and rich wildlife, including deer, wild boars, foxes and close to one hundred bird species. The park's dense forests are perfect for an escape from hot summers and are made for walking and enjoying the serenity of the scenery. There are virtually countless walking and trekking paths that cover the area. Interesting sights include the Ridracoli, a lake and a hundred meter-high dam on the Bidente river, Acquacheta, the waterfall that Dante mentioned in his Divine Comedy and the Camaldoli monastery. The park's rich fauna consists of the Apennines wolves, Barn owls, boars, buzzards, eagles, Eurasian Badgers, Fallow deers, martens and many more.

Vesuvius National Park


Where: around the volcano, Mount Vesuvius, east of Naples

Parco Nazionale del Vesuvio, Italy.

The Top of Vesuvius.


(Photo by: unknown author)

The dominant role of the park is to preserve the only active volcano found on Europe's mainland, educating about the correct human integration in the environment, promoting educational and scientific values of the park and preserving the areas extreme geological and historical value. The park's highest peak reaches 1,282 meters and the crater is currently 650 meters wide and some 230 meters deep. The vegetation inside the park is tipically Mediterranean and the Somma side is covered with trees like oak, chestnut and maple due to the damper climate. There are over 900 plant species inside the volcanic complex with 18 endemic ones, like the Helichrysum litoreum. Other interesting species include orchids (20 species) and birches. Fauna species include the Wood mouse, the Stone marten, the Hare and the rabbit. There are about 140 bird species with the Peregrine falcon, the Sparrow hawk and the Redstart invertebrates community includes close to being the most notable ones. Fifty species of butterflies also inhabit this area.

Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga National Park


Where: 135,000 of 160,000 hectars are in the Abruzzo region Administrative center: Via del Convento, 67010 Assergi - L'Aquila Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga is the largest Italian national park with over 2,000 square kilometers of mountainous terrain. It is equipped with some 320 kilomters of paths that crisscross the area. The majority of tourists decide to take the climb to Corno Grande (2912m); it is some 9 kilometers long and the trail should be snow-free between early June until late September. Another interesting itinerary includes ussing the Grand Highway of the Gran Sasso and Monti della Laga National Park from Montorio al Vomano to Amiternum.

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History of Italy

History of Italy
World Europe Countries Italy Local guide History

Located in the heart of the Mediterranean, Italian lands attracted numerous tribes and nations over the centuries. Many did not last and the traces of their political power and cultural development were wiped out by the newcomers. Others successfully blended in and contributed to the further development of the lands. And, of course, there are also those, who managed to not only politically rule long enough, but to impose their social structure and cultural traditions onto the rest and thus create history. Although the Etruscans are believed to be the first significant civilization in the lands of modern-day Italy, after being absorbed by the Roman Republic, unlike Magna Graecia, left little influence behind. The Romans, on the other hand, apart from being excellent warriors and canny rulers, were also very inventive in the field of administration, engineering and law. By means of military power they managed to spread "the Roman way" throughout Europe. Neither the The Colosseum is one of the greatest testimonies of Roman civilization in the world. continent, nor the world would be the same (Photo by: Fgflores2) after the invention of paved roads, postal office and plumbing, to name but a few. However, Italian contribution to human history does not end with the Romans. It was from the cities of Northern Italy that the sparkle of the Renaissance was lit to spread throughout Europe. Brilliant minds such as Galileo Galilei and Leonardo da Vinci started a powerful revolt of the human mind against old-fashioned dogmatic views and changed the course of history of human society. Unfortunately, as it often goes in human history, changes are often accompanied by social and political unrest and strategically beneficial geographic positions, such as the one of the Italian lands, tend to turn into battlefields every time a political or economic crisis sets in. Therefore throughout its history, Italy has had more than a fair share of struggles and rivalry, especially during the Middle Ages, which led to a troubled, late unification. The emergence of Italy as a political and economic power has seen a number of setbacks in the 20th century, with the light of transparency and democracy often flickering.

Forum Romanum is bustling with tourists.


(Photo by: Benedict Francis)

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First Settlers in Italy

First Settlers in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide History First settlers

The Italic Tribes


Archaeological evidence suggests that human civilization in the lands of modern Italy dates as far back as 3,000 BC. It belonged to the Italic tribes who are believed to be the original population of the Italian peninsula. Little is known today about these early settlers, of whom, often, only a tribal name (Umbrians, Sabinians, etc.) has survived to modern times. A tribe by the name Itali, who populated present-day Calabria region, left its name first to the central parts of modern Italy and later the name spread to include the whole of the Italian lands. The culture of Villa Nova marked the beginning of the Iron Age in Italy , succeeding the Terramare culture (characteristic of the Bronze age) around 1100 BC. Early Villanovans cremated their dead, burying them in urns with a specific double-cone shape. Ornamentation was simple, featuring squares, meanders, etc. Later on, clear signs of Greek influence appeared - ornamentation became more sophisticated as well as the materials used for making jewellery, weapons, etc.

The Etruscans
The Etruscans, one of the many tribes to form the native population of the lands of ancient Italy, emerged as the ones to control its central parts by the 8th century BC. Excellent warriors and sailors, they had conquered large territories, mainly between the rivers Arno and Tiber, their strongest settlements being concentrated (not exclusively) in modern Tuscany, which has kept its Etruscan name even today. Many sides of Etruscan life lie in myth, partly because their language has not been deciphered, partly because, as it turns out, the lands they occupied have attracted many to conquer, and, often, to devastate. What is known for sure is that they lived in city-states, many of which exist today (Perusia - Perugia, Veii Veio, etc.). They worshiped numerous gods, whose intentions and opinions on many subjects they believed could be guessed An Etruscan sarcophagus. by sacrificing animals and "reading" by their livers. The bulk of (Photo by: Riccardo08) their heritage was discovered in tombs (frescoes, pottery). Greek impact in arts prevailed, which may be explained with the fact that the Greeks were their southern neighbours.

The Greek Connection


Great soldiers and merchants, the Greeks were quick to appreciate the advantages the southern coasts of the Apenine peninsula presented for trade. Around the 8th century BC, they had established their colonies along the southern coasts and on Sardinia. They called these lands Magna Graecia and maintained vigorous trade contacts with mainland Greece and many of its islands, exporting largely foods and raw materials to Greece and importing luxury goods, such as pottery, jewellery, weapons, etc. However, their neighbours, the Etruscans, constantly attacked Greek city-states, tempted by their wealth. Although they did not succeed in controlling them, the struggles eased the first steps of a new major player on the scene. Due to the intense trade connections, Greek culture, as by far the most sophisticated one in the Western and Central Mediterranean, spread quickly and started dominating over the cultures of the Italic tribes it came into touch with. Soon, Doric style temples would be found far beyond Greek-populated territories as Greek religion, as well as funeral customs, would prevail over local ones. Literature and fine arts would be eagerly copied, the quality of the original rarely achieved.

The Birth of Rome


In 753 BC, on April 21, a new future power was born - Rome. The true facts surrounding its birth are merged with the popular legend of the two brothers Romulus and Remus, descendants of Venus, who were suckled by a she-wolf as infants on the very spot where the city would later rise. When the brothers grew up, Romulus killed Remus and founded Rome, giving it his name. Of the seven kings that ruled Rome subsequently, three have been historically proven Etruscans. The last Etruscan king, Tarquinius Superbus, was driven away by angry aristocrats in 509 BC, which brought about the Republic of Rome.
Cerere's temple in Paestum.
(Photo by: Chiara Marra)

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Rome - the Republic and the Empire

Rome - the Republic and the Empire


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide History Rome - the Republic and the Empire

The Republic - Political life & Expansion Policies


All roads lead to Rome
The need for fast, secure carriage paths was sensed in Rome when the territories of the city began to expand. Thus, over the centuries, a vast network of roads was created (around 85,000 km in length!) in order to connect Rome to important centres of its provinces. Roman engineers proved masters of their skill - the roads were of such high quality, that some of them have survived to modern times! Bridges and other means of surpassing obstacles had no match in ancient times. Given they had no compasses and other modern instruments, their preciseness astonishes even today. Mark Antony and Caesar commissioned the first road map (itinerarium). Soon, at convenient distances, way stations were built where refreshments were served and fresh horses were provided for the travelers. It wasn't long before the roads became the arteries of Rome, boosting trade and construction, providing fast military movement and facilitating postal services. However, these very same roads facilitated also the attacks that came from the North and brought about the end of the Roman civilization.

Via Sacra, leading to the Roman Forum.


(Photo by: David Paul Ohmer)

Established in 509 BC, after the last Etruscan king was driven away, the Roman Republic was to transform the recently founded city of Rome into a major factor on the political map of the world for more than five centuries. The military and political power in the Republic of Rome was divided between two people - the consuls, the most important magistrates, elected by the assembly of the people for a non-renewable period of one year. The Senate was an assembly, much like modern parliaments, whose members were elected for life and to which initially only patricians (nobles) were admitted, but gradually, as it grew in size and importance, plebeians, especially well-to-do traders, were not uncommon members. The Senate had to decide over crucial matters both in interior and exterior affairs, to pass laws and policies, and,last but not least, to exercise control over the actions of the two consuls. It turned out, however, that often it was not the Senate to control the consuls, but rather the other way round. As for the assembly of the people, it was constituted by all free men in the city and was summoned once a year to elect the new consuls and had otherwise little to do with the political or military policy of Rome. The constitution, or the principal law in the Republic of Rome, among other progressive concepts, first introduced the division of powers, a basis on which modern democracy lies as well. Although the political system of Rome in practice was far from a fairy-tale one, it was extremely efficient in one thing: it ensured expansion, which was the key to wealth and power. Once taken in battle, a city was turned into an ally, which meant that apart from certain taxes, it owed nothing but military support to aid Rome's further expansion. This policy brought even greater and sweeter victories than the ones won on the battlefield as numerous cities voluntarily allied with Rome, preserving their cultural and even political identities. To reach quickly the ones who would, at one point or another, change their minds regarding the Roman rule, the Romans built military centres at strategic points and, of course, connected them by roads. Many of them turned into flourishing trade centres. Around 140 BC, as a result of the Punic Wars, Rome had expanded over Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Spain, mainland Greece, as well as parts of North Africa and Asia Minor. This meant more wealth for the patricians, but the army, constituted largely of poor farmers, was less than satisfied to be constantly on the go, away from their land and families. This, and the reforms carried out by Gaius Marius, often rendered the soldiers more ready to follow their general than be loyal to the city. Taking advantage of the situation, Marius' former protegee, Lucius Cornelius Sula, victoriously entered Rome and established a dictatorship (81-79 BC). The end of the Republic was brought about when a secret alliance, which went into history by the name of the First Triumvirate, was forged. The allies were among the most powerful political and military figures in Rome at the time: Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Crassus. However, as it often happens, jealousy stood in the way of success of the alliance. In 49 BC, after Caesar had conquered vast territories in Western Europe (including the hard-to-get Gaul), instead of an organized Triumph, as was the custom, met the Senate's troops, lead by no other than his former ally, Pompey.
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Rome - the Republic and the Empire

Caesar emerged victorious once more and was appointed dictator for life. Only five years later, tired of his dictatorship, his own followers, lead by Brutus, stabbed him to death. Their goal was to renew constitutional government in Rome. However, a new pact, known later as the Second Triumvirate, was formed, its participants again being three significant citizens of Rome: Octavius (Caesar's legal ancestor), Mark Antony and Lepidus. It turned out that taking over the government of Rome was easier than sharing the power that the victory bestowed upon them. Lepidus was exiled and Octavius, after a long struggle against Mark Antony (who, governing the East provinces fell in love with the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra), managed to defeat the joint forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra in the Battle of Actium, which marked his ascent as a sole ruler of the Roman world.

Spartacus and the Third Servile War


Spartacus most probably belonged to the Thracian tribe Medi. A slave, trained as a gladiator, he and several followers escaped in 73 BC from their camp near Capua to start a rebellion against slavery. Success followed them at first as the Senate underestimated the power of their ever growing numbers. They managed to march throughout the lands of the Republic, defeating the Senate's legions on several occasions, but were finally defeated after Spartacus' death in a battle on the river Silarus. The rebellion paid its toll to a lack of clear concepts and the fact that most of Spartacus' followers were military untrained. However, it stood as a symbol of bravery and free spirit ever since and has inspired many an artist throughout history.

The Empire
Octavius, proclaimed Augustus ("Your Eminence") was in effect the first Roman Emperor, having concentrated the whole political power of Rome. To ensure the loyalty of the aristocracy, he kept some of the republican practices. During his reign culture flourished and much of Rome's glamour, remains of which are visible even today, came into being. He also carried out numerous reforms in the military and social practices with variable success. The century after his death was characterized by wise rule, prosperity and further expansion of the Empire. By AD 14, the Empire had reached its greatest boundaries. After that, Emperor Trajan was the last of the Roman Emperors to lead an expansionist policy, taking over Dacia (in modern Romania) and drawing Armenia as an ally. His successor, Hadrian, turned his attention towards the inner problems of Rome, consolidating its territory to boost the stability of the enormous Empire. By then Roman land stretched over the Iberian peninsula, Britain and Gaul in the west, the Balkan peninsula, considerable parts of the Middle East and North Africa to Egypt and modern day northern parts of Morocco. Hadrian's policy, although unpopular among the high political circles of Rome at the time, since no expansion meant no new means of wealth for them, turned out a long-term success. Due to him, Rome kept its stability until the late 3rd century when, under Diocletian, the Empire showed clear signs of decay: long gone were the days of great military victories, various tribes attacked the boundaries and as if these did not suffice, a new religious movement, Christianity, had started to spread rapidly. Christians were severely, but unsuccessfully, persecuted up till 313 when Emperor Constantine I adopted a new policy and granted freedom of worship to all citizens of the Empire. Later the Empire was divided into Western (the capital remaining Rome) and Eastern, the capital being the small town of Constantinople, on the Bosphorus.

The Oath of Spartacus by Louis-Ernest Barrias.

It was this part of the Empire that would survive long after the glory of Rome had become a distant memory as the last attempts, made by Justinian to restore it to its former status produced no results. In 476 AD the Roman Empire ceased to exist, having been overrun by the armies of the Germanic general Odoacer. This event marked the beginning of the Middle Ages in the lands of modern Italy.

Emperor Claudius. www.bumblehood.com

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People
The Folk and the Rich
According to some estimations, the population of Rome kept soaring, reaching unbelievable 1,500,000 people, great portion of which were lower class and freed slaves, for whom Rome provided nothing but hard life in miserable conditions. They lived in the centre of the city in shabby, cluttered, dirty brick or wooden houses. To win the plebes' inclination, the mighty of the day organized games - extravagant shows of power, often featuring, among other forms of popular entertainment, battles of gladiators versus wild beasts. Appalling as it may seem today, this most popular entertainment drew thousands to the arenas to watch the cruel fights. The patricians, on the other hand, enjoyed and often sponsored the battles but had many other pleasant pastimes such as reading in one of the numerous libraries, exercising in the gymnasiums, socializing in the public or private baths, going to the theatres etc. Their elegant villas on the Palatine hill (in the root of the modern word palace), the most prestigious of the seven hills on which Rome originated, were complete with many of the modern-day conveniences, such as running water (coming from the aqueducts which the Romans invented), flushing toilets (Cloaca Maxima was built in 8th century BC), etc. Many of the rich citizens owned country villas, where their families often spent the summer. Under Augustus the first ever fire brigade and police department were established.

Family
As for family structure - no innovations were introduced there. Just like their neighbours and predecessors, the Romans too, had a patriarchal family, whose head was the father - a financial provider who took care of children's education. He was also the one to choose spouses for his children, the marriage in Rome having a preliminary financial (and in rich circles, also political) importance. Divorce was legal, but the children of a marriage belonged to the family of the husband.

Religion
In traditional Roman religion, every person, object or place had its divine soul, protected by a holy spirit. Altars were placed in every home so that Romans could practice their religious rites on a daily basis. Around 500 BC, however, influenced by the Magna Graecia culture in the south, Greek gods, under different names, came to be worshiped in Rome (Zeus was known as The Colloseum was the largest arena ever to be built by the Jupiter, Ares as Mars, etc.). The Romans used the mythological Romans. It seated 50,000 people and turned into the focal point of Roman entertainment. Numerous gladiator fights, theatre model to invent also completely new cults or to incorporate in it dramas, mock fights, famous hunts, etc. were staged there. Its traditional Italic deities, such as Terminus, who protected the construction started in AD 72 under Emperor Vespasian and was boundaries, Saturn, guardian of the sowers and the seeds, finished only eight years later by his son, Titus. Juventus, the god of youth, etc. Curiously enough, the Romans (Photo by: David Paul Ohmer) managed to produce a myth, according to which, Romulus and Remus, the founders of the city, descended from Aenas, the legendary king of Troy, whose origins were connected to Venus (the goddess of love and beauty). Thus, in an almost miraculous way, they once more proved their superiority over others and a right to conquer their lands and establish their ways over them. Numerous religious festivals, which often turned into large-scale feasts, were held all-year round, the most important being the Saturnalia (celebrating Saturn), the Consualia (in honour of Consus, the protector of the harvests), the Lupercalia (honouring Lupa, the she-wolf who suckled Romulus and Remus, also marking the end of the winter, when evil spirits were driven away) and, there were of course, the ancient, probably Italic cults of the Bona Dea (or Fauna, the goddess of virginity and feminine fertility). Later on, Judaism started spreading, especially in the Eastern provinces, followed by Christianity.

Fun Fact: Wearing purple to theater is considered to be inappropriate in Italy. This custom dates back to the Middle Ages when purple-clad priests of the Catholic Church banned theater plays 40 days prior to every Easter. It is a way to pay respects to poor actors back then.

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The Middle Ages in Italy

The Middle Ages in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide History The Middle Ages

Early Years
The Western Roman Empire came under the Germanic rule of General Odoacer in 476. In 493 the Ostrogoths, under the lead of Theodoric, captured Rome, which urged Justinian, Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire to declare war on them. In the Gothic war that followed, the armies of the Eastern Roman Empire prevailed, but much the Roman infrastructure was ruined, which paved the way for the Lombards, another Germanic tribe to conquest large parts on the Italian peninsula, concentrating their powers in the northern parts. As the Popes were concerned about constant Lombard attacks and as they received little aid from Constantinople, the Papacy adopted a policy of actively pursuing political power. So in 756, the Pope appealed to the Franks for help against the Lombards. After a successful campaign in Lombardy, the Papal states, with a centre in Rome were formed and Charlemagne, King of the Franks, was crowned the first Holy Roman Emperor in 800 by Pope Leo III.

A Tale of Many Cities...


The title of the Holy Roman Emperor was to become a constant subject for ruthless fights, mainly north of the Alps. The holder of the title was expected by the Popes to defend their extensive political interests, an obligation he often seemed to neglect. Moreover, Emperors sought ways of escaping from the authority of the Papacy. This created tension between the two biggest players on the Western European scene - the Holy Roman Emperor and the Papacy. Caught between the interests of the big ones, numerous counties, city-states and municipalities were involved in perpetual struggles over territories and power. They formed and switched political and military alliances by the hour, searching for a formula that would keep them as independent as possible from both the Papacy's ambitions and the Empire's claims. Some of them owed their wealth to trade (Venice, Pisa, Genoa, etc.), others - to crafts and agriculture (Florence, Milan, Verona, etc.). Most of them were governed by town councils in which participated the aristocrats and, increasingly, the upper middle classes.

Venice, Punte della Dogana.


(Photo by: Kieran Lynam)

Venice (Venezia) was the most prosperous of the city-states of Northern Italy. Its benevolent position at the head of the Adriatic where routes connecting the East and the West met gave it a strategic advance over its rivals that the city was to hold for over five centuries. The Reppublica Marinara (La Serenissima) was governed by a town council of ten influential citizens, who elected a Senate of 200-300 citizens, which in turn elected the the Council of ten - the administrative head of the city. Among the council of ten, one was appointed Doge (Duce) for life. Over the centuries, Venice expanded to rule large mainland territories in Northern Italy, partly to guarantee wheat crops, on which its commerce strongly depended, partly to secure its trade routes. As pirates, based in Istria and Dalmatia threatened sea trade, Venice took control over these territories as well.

The Game of the Papacy


Since early days of Christianity the seat of the Pope had been in Rome. However, on the grounds of a supposed donation, made by Emperor Constantine I, the Papacy received a jurisdiction over Rome and certain surrounding territories. From then on, spiritual power would not suffice for the Popes. The Papacy would engage in numerous direct and indirect conflicts to defend its extensive political interests. Around the 11th century influential Roman families began to engage in political battles over domination of the Papacy as they saw what a mighty and yet convenient instrument it had turned into. The Great Schism of 1054 was a result of the increasing differences between the Eastern patriarchs (located in Greece) and the Papacy, which led to forming of a Western Catholic and Eastern Orthodox wings. The Popes would have to limit their ambitions to Western and Central Europe, where Catholicism prevailed. However, Muslim attacks endangered the weakening Byzantine Empire and Emperor Alexius I appealed to Pope Urban II for help. On the other hand, as much of Europe had been christianized and thus pacified, many professional warriors were out of service, filling their time terrorizing peasants. The Pope saw the potential benefits a campaign in the East offered: with the warriors engaged, the lands would prosper and, of course, a liberation the Holy Lands would broaden Catholic influence instantly. So in 1095, the first of the series of four Crusades against the infidels would begin.

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The early 13th century saw the beginning of Papal Inquisition (the 1230s), whose end would not come until six centuries later. It consisted of a series of trials and investigations led by the Papacy to prosecute heresy of all forms, as well as, like in the case of Galileo Galilei, unconventional and potentially dangerous secular views. The Popes moved their seat to Avignon and spent the better part of the 14th century there. In 1517, a movement that started in Germany by Martin Luther, eventually led to the formation of Protestant churches across Western and Central Europe, further narrowing the political influence of the Papacy. It was a serious blow to the Papacy and a signal that reforms were needed. Although the institution was not ready to give up its hard-acquired secular power, a period of reforms would follow.

The Renaissance
The Renaissance (Italian: Rinascimento - rebirth) is popularly defined as a wave of humanistic ideas which deeply affected art, science, religion, politics and social life. Pope Clement VII. Its core ideal, as opposed to Medieval scholastic views, was the belief in man as a rational being, capable of choosing and governing its destiny. It started around the 14th century in the prosperous, highly populated cities of Northern Italy (Florence and Siena are considered its earliest centres) and by the 17th century had bridged Medieval Europe to Early Modern Europe.
Martin Luther.

Factors
By the beginning of the Renaissance, almost all of commerce in Europe was concentrated in the ports of Northern Italy: luxury goods from the East were imported to be resold in markets throughout Europe, while ships being sent in the opposite direction were loaded with wool, grain and other agricultural products from the rich mainland of Northern Italy and Western Europe. Trade peaked around the turn of the 13th century, to be eventually slowed down by climate changes that lead to famine throughout Europe, persistent cholera, strikes and the 100-year long war between England and France. About a third of the population of Europe died, which meant greater wealth concentrated in fewer people, especially in highly urbanized areas like the cities of Northern Italy. In fact, these cities were among the richest in Europe and, with their extensive connections with the East, it was only a matter of time for Eastern influence to be imported (especially after the fall of Constantinople under Ottoman rule in 1453, when many of its scientists and artists fled to settle in Tuscany).

A comparison between Mona Lisa (La Gioconda), probably the most intriguing painting of the Renaissance and Leonardo da Vinci's self-portrait.

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The Reunion and the 20th Century in Italian History

The Reunion and the 20th Century in Italian History


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide History The Reunion and the 20th century

Foreign Domination (1559-1814) and the Reunion


After the Italian Wars (1494-1559), in which almost entire Europe participated, the Italian lands were included into the Habsburg Empire, first as part of Spain (until 1713) and then of Austria (until 1796). This peaceful and relatively prosperous period of Italian history ended abruptly when Napoleon founded the Kingdom of Italy - a client state to the French Republic, a status it would hold until 1814, when the Congress of Vienna restored Austrian domination over Italy. The Italian Reunion (Il Risorgimento) was a long and painful process rather than a deed. It kick-started with Napoleon's Kindom of Italy, the formation of which only further fueled the hopes for unity the Italians had fed ever since the French Revolution. However, too many interests clashed on "the Boot", making Italian reunion more a foreign matter than an internal affair. The Congress of Vienna brought back foreign (largely Austrian) authority to many regions and thus induced a numerous rebellions in the decades to follow. Those in Milan and Venice who opposed Austrian government in 1848 were aided by the Savoy Kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia, but were crushed as the ones preceding them. However, they served to highlight a new path and brought forward new political figures. One of the most notable among them was Count Camillo Benso di Cavour of Turin, who, through the Giuseppe Mazzini was among the leading revolutionaries who aided the birth of modern Italy. newspaper Il Risorgimento, propagated unification ideas. Having considerable political power as the prime minister of the Savoy kingdom parliament, he managed to attract the French and the British to the cause of Italian unification. As a result of his efforts, a two-year war between France and Austria broke out in 1859. It went into history as the War for Italian independence and pushed the Austrians to leave Lombardy and retreat north. Meanwhile, in the south the scene was being set for further unification. Following the lead of revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi, southern Italy and Sicily were seized and handed over to the Savoy king Vittorio Emanuele II in 1860. Cavour and the king, encouraged by recent military developments, were fast to take Giovanni Giolitti, a prominent politician. large parts of central Italy and to proclaim the unification of Italy in 1861. However, it was not until 1871 that unification was complete and the parliament was moved to Rome. Over the next few decades preceding World War I, Giovanni Giolitti emerged as major political figure in young Italy. As one of the prime ministers with longest service, he managed to put the foundations of a strong and independent state.

World War I and Its Aftermath


Although a member of the Triple Alliance (together with Austria and Germany), Italy remained neutral when World War I started in 1914. It was only when it became clear that Austria would not keep to some of the territorial aspects that had been agreed on, that Italy decided to take action; of course, against its former ally. Having shifted sides, Italy signed the London Pact in 1915 and entered the war with a clear goal: to obtain Trieste, Dalmatia and Trento from Austria. During more than 3 years of war with Austria, Italy lost over 600,000 people, its economy was shattered and large parts of its population lived in poverty. It was a high price to pay for regaining Trieste, Trento, Istria and part of Dalmatia. It was these years of post-war misery that brought forward the demagogue figure of Benito Mussolini. He was quick to found a right-wing military formation that transformed into the Fascist Party in 1921 . Having won the elections in 1924, the Fascists severely oppressed their opponents and enemies: other political parties were banned and the press was censored. Gradually, they brought under their control not only politics, but also economy, even the financial sector. Extensive projects were then launched, aiming to turn swamps into arable land.

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The Reunion and the 20th Century in Italian History

Although cautious at first, Duce (as he called himself, meaning leader) soon showed his quick temper in a series of small-scale military actions (against Greece in an attempt to occupy Corfu and against the nationalists in the Italian colony of Libya). When in 1936 Italy attacked Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and the League of Nations strongly protested, Duce made a dramatic manoeuvre towards Adolf Hitler and Germany. The new partners took the side of General Franco in the Spanish Civil War and after that all three of them signed a pact of alliance. Mussolini would enter the Second World War with the clear, although, as it would turn out, unrealistic goal of establishing a New Roman Empire. To this purpose, he also modernized the army.

The Italian Diaspora


The formation of the numerous Italian diaspora saw three waves: the first one followed the Unification of Italy and included mainly population from the North that left Italy to settle in other European countries. The second, and most intensive wave, that started around the turn of the 20th century and lasted roughly until the beginning of WWI, was characterized by a large number of urban population it involved (especially from its then largest city - Naples). Before that it had been a general rule that peasants were more prone to migrations. During this second wave the Italian South, struck by poverty and epidemics, headed in large numbers towards North and South America. Several more millions would be pushed by the severe post-war conditions in Italy after WWI. Under the Fascists, nationalism grew and employment was hard to find. A steady number of around 300,000 people per year left, predominantly from South Italy and Sicily, in search of a new life, mainly in the USA. By the early 1930s, by official estimates, a fifth of the Italian nation lived abroad.

World War II
Italy entered World War II in 1940, at a time when it seemed Hitler would emerge victorious, having already occupied Poland, France and vast territories in the north of Europe. Whether due to ill luck or ill leadership, however, the Italian campaigns on the Balkans and North Africa turned less than successful. Instead, huge Nazi resources had to be relocated to aid the Italians, who even failed to defend their own territory - the Allies landed on Sicily in 1943. At this point, King Emanuel II arrested Mussolini, but the Germans had him reinstated to power the same year.

By then, a powerful left-wing Resistance movement had emerged, with the aid of which Northern Italy was liberated by the Allies in April 1945.

The Cold War Era


After Italy became a republic in 1946 and after a new constitution was voted for in 1948, the Christian Democrats, a right-wing formation led by Alcide De Gasperi, won the first elections and remained in power until 1953. Leftist ideas, represented by the Communist party, at the head of which stood first Palmiro Togliatti, followed by Enrico Berlinguer, played an important part of Italy's post-war political life. However, due to the influence USA politics exercised over the country through the Marshall Plan, the Communists were constantly prevented from governing Italy. Nowadays, it is a common belief that during the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s, foreign interests and the mafia conspired to create the strategy of tension: numerous bombings and other terrorist acts were carried out in order to The Duce and the Fhrer. keep the strongest Communist party in Western Europe away from positions in the government. Recent developments in the investigations have discovered a strong American connection in many of the terrorist organizations and acts. This period will remain in Italian history under the picturesque name the Years of Lead (gli anni di piombo). The beginning of the Years of Lead in Italy was marked by a series of bombings in December, 1969, the most notorious of which was the Piazza Fontana bombing in Milan. 1972 saw an escalation of the conflict in Pisa, and an attack against the Interior Minister Mariano Rumor was carried out the following year. In 1974, following a bombing in Brescia, a neo-Fascist coup was attempted, which triggered a series of arrests of extreme rightist and leftist formations. In 1978, the assassination of the Christian Democrat Aldo Moro under unclear circumstances lead to a new series of political arrests. Early 1980s saw several train bombings as well. A total of 144 people lost their lives in terrorist acts, carried out by left and right terrorist formations such as the Red Brigades, Gladio, Autonomia Operaia, Avanguardia Nazionale, Ordine Nuovo, etc. Although turbulent, gli anni di piombo led to positive changes. Among many reforms carried out in those years was the completion of the system of regional government, introduced earlier to some regions. Divorce became legal and although women had been given the right to vote under the new constitution of 1948, they had to wait till the 1970s for abortion to be legalized and to be able to keep their own names in marriage.

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The Reunion and the 20th Century in Italian History

Modern Times
The 1980s were marked by a period of dramatic economic growth for Italy, rendering it among the world's most developed economies at the end of the period. In contrast, the 1990s saw the beginning of a new major economic crisis. Several subsequent left-wing governments tried to keep public spending in check in an attempt to qualify for the European monetary union; and they succeeded in doing so in 2001. Economic hardships (huge unemployment, galloping inflation and increasing national debt), however, projected in changes and restructuring of the political scene in the country. The changes were triggered by a an intensive, two-year anti-corruption scandal, known as Clean Hands (Mani Pulite). During the course of the investigations corruption on all levels was exposed. Various crimes, ranging from petty bribery to faulty political party funding and even direct connections with the Mafia were brought to light. In the echo of the trials, the Communist party split into two: the Centrists founded the Left Democrats, while the hardcore leftists joined the Refounded Communist Party. The right-wing political formations collapsed, too, under the strength of the corruption accusations. From their remains a new hope for the Italians emerged - Silvio Berlusconi's Go Italy (Forza Italia) which took over in Aldo Moro, Prime Minister of Italy in the 1970s, was 1994, and won a major victory in the election in 2001. It governed in the kidnapped and eventually assassinated by the Red coalition with the Separatist North League and the former Fascist Brigades. formation of National Alliance. Much as it was expected from this government in the field of economy, little was in effect done apart from the adoption of a series of laws, protecting Berlusconi's own strong business interests. Although he and many of his associates, including his brother, have been a subject of investigation ever since the 1990s, court trials have failed to prove Berlusconi's widely believed faulty business practices.

Clean Hands (Mani Pulite)


Clean Hands was the code name for an unprecedented anti-corruption campaign launched in February 17, 1992 in Milan by judge Antonio di Pietro. The campaign found incriminating evidence for numerous politicians of various ranks and positions, as well as leading business figures in a corrupt system, commonly referred to as Tangentopoli (Bribeville). The campaign quickly became nation-wide, growing like a snowball, the first participants exposing others in the line. Within months judge assassinations (Giovanni Falcone, Paolo Borsellino) and politician and businessmen suicides (Sergio Moroni, Gabriele Cagliari) constantly filled the news. In 1993, the Italians were enraged by the "solution" the government came up with, suggesting what was practically amnesty for some of the participants in the bribery. A new wave of arrests and confessions ensued, adding new participants to the trials: important economic subjects such as ENI and FIAT, as well as most of the political parties, were exposed. However, from 1994 on, under Silvio Berlusconi, trials have been slowed down, and public opinion now even criticizes judges for carrying out Clean Hands.

Silvio Berlusconi.

Fun Fact: When in Rome, be nice to cats. The penalty for killing a cat ranges from 10,000 fine up to 3 years in jail!

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Influential Figures

Influential Figures of Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide History Influential figures

Gaius Julius Caesar (100 BC - 44 BC)


Origin
Born into a fairly influential family (his father being praetor, the second highest magistrate position), young Caesar was well educated and prepared to run for the highest posts in the Roman public hierarchy. A huge setback to his rise would be his fathers early, unexpected death, which would put enormous responsibilities on Caesar when still only 16. Apart from financially supporting his family, he also had to raise funds for supporting his political career on his own, which would drive him into debts that would hang upon him for most of his life.

Early Career
After doing military service in Asia, he returned to Rome to become a legal advocate - a position that singled him out as a brilliant orator (rhetorics being appreciated as one of the major skills a successful politician should possess). Even Cicero, a vigorous political opponent and renowned orator, would praise the quality and vibrancy of his speeches. To polish his talent, Caesar sailed to the island of Rhodes, to take lessons from Cicero`s teacher, but never arrived there. Pirates seized him and kept him in captivity demanding ransom. Caesar arrogantly mocked them and told them to demand a higher ransom. After the sum was paid, Caesar returned in command of a fleet and made sure his attackers were crucified. Soon after this unfortunate event Caesar was appointed in the military again - he became a tribune, a position which, after the death of his first wife, he exercised as a questor in Hispania. It was not until 63 BC, however, that Caesar`s influence began to grow. He judged an important political case and earned his first supporters. The same year he was appointed to one of the most influential positions in the Republic: chief priest of the Roman state religion.

Gaius Julius Caesar

Spring to Power
In 59 BC Caesar was elected to his first mandate as a consul. By this time he had managed to reconcile Marcus Crassus and Gnaus Pompey, former opponents, and form with them a mighty alliance to control the business in Rome, known as the First triumvirate. The bloody end of this alliance marked the beginning of the end of Rome as a republic. When Caesar set off to rebellious Gaul and subsequently headed for Britain, his former allies started fearing his growing fame and power. On Pompeys initiative, Caesar was summoned back to Rome. By then Caesar had become a skillful player of the Roman political games and it was clear to him that if he went back to Rome without his army, his political career was over. Therefore, in 49 BC he crossed the river Rubicon (the boundary of the Republic) with his troops and a civil war broke out. He met the Senates armies, led by Pompey, and fought them with varying success until the battle of Phasalus, in Greece, when he won a major victory. Rome welcomed him and the Senate was quick to elect him a dictator, a title he gave up only 11 days after to be elected consul again. However, Pompey was still strong in Africa, which made Caesar take after him. The Egyptian ruler, Ptolemy, gave him Pompeys head as a gift, but Caesar, fearing disapproval at home, sided with Ptolemys sister, Cleopatra VII instead. After defeating Ptolemy, she was left the sole ruler of Egypt. Meanwhile, Caesar and Cleopatra had fallen in love but although their passionate relationship lasted for many years and produced a potential heir for Caesar (a son named Caesarion), they were not allowed to marry under Roman laws, Cleopatra lacking Roman citizenship. After a new series of victories in the Middle East and Africa, Caesar returned to two successive consul mandates. In 45 BC after a military campaign in Hispania he named his heir - his nephew - Gaius Octavius, and, curiously enough, if something was to happen to him before he left, Marcus Junius Brutus was to take his place. A year later, in March 44 BC the same Brutus would be among the 60 or so politicians who would stab Caesar to death (he had 23 wounds!) in an attempt to restore republican values.

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Influential Figures

Augustus (63 BC - AD 19)

The Julian Calendar


The old Roman calendar was based on a 355-day year with 12 months, alternating with an additional 27-day month sometimes inserted between February and March. As there had been a long period of not inserting such an additional month, Caesar ordered 46 BC to be extended by 68 days. It was the last of the so called "years of confusion" as 45 BC was the first year when the reformed calendar would be used. It was based on a 365-day year, where an additional day was added to February every four years.The additional (intercalary) month was abolished and each year consisted of 12 months. Thus no human manipulation was required for the calendar to be aligned with the tropical year. Roman and Medieval rulers often named a month after themselves, (Commodus naming all 12 months after his own adopted names!) but few of the early names have survived: July (after Julius Caesar) and August (after Augustus). Julian calendar was largely in use until 1582, when Gregorian calendar was adopted by Catholic countries. The Protestant countries introduced the Gregorian calendar in the 18th century, whereas Orthodox countries used the Julian calendar until the 1920s, some of the Orthodox churches using an improved version of it even today. The Berber people in the North Africa still abide by the Julian calendar.

Early Life and Spring to Power


Augustus (Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus), or Gaius Octavius, as he was known in his early years, was born into the family of a plebeian father (a governor in Macedonia) and a patrician mother, who happened to be Caesars niece. As he lost his father at the early age of 4, he was brought up by his grandmother (Caesars sister) and later by his mother. By the age of 18 he had proved his military capability taking part in Caesars campaign in Iberia. When in 44 BC Caesar was assassinated, Gaius Octavius learned his uncle had adopted him and named him his heir. However, it would take years for young Octavius to take control, seeing he had little political experience and even less financial funding (what Caesar left him in his will, due to his opponents power in the Senate, would not reach him until much later). Instead he took off to Gaul as a commander of the Senates troops prosecuting Mark Antony - Octavius major rival for influence over the pro-caesarian coalition. Back in Rome, Octavius, supported by the army, made the Senate elect him a consul. To secure his future political strength he allied with Antony and Lepidus, thus founding the Second Triumvirate. As a result the Senate was rendered almost powerless, whereas the three of them took control over the country and soon split it into three: the least powerful, Lepidus, got Africa, whereas Mark Antony got the Eastern provinces and Octavius ruled in the west.

Sole Leader of the Roman World


Octavius knew how to appreciate and honour the power the army gave him over Rome. Therefore, throughout his life, he constantly made sure to provide for his veterans, soldiers and especially generals. He carried out extensive military reforms aimed to optimize the number of the troops and make their maintenance more cost-effective. Meanwhile, he rewarded the veterans not only with honours, but with lands whenever possible. His popularity rose even more after the successful campaign against the pirates, lead by his general Marcus Agrippa. Lepidus, at this point, left Africa to try to take over the leadership of the campaign and thus put and end to his political career.

Octavius and Mark Antony , 41 BC.

Getting rid of Mark Antony would take longer but Octavius bid his time wisely and in 32 BC was able to compromise Antony by exposing his secret will. According to it, the bulk of Antony`s heritage after his death was to go to queen Cleopatra, with whom he lived to the constant disapproval of the citizens of Rome. In the war that followed (formally led against Cleopatra, not Antony) Octavius had the full support of the Senate. It was the Battle of Actium, a year later, that gave Octavius a final victory. After Octavius took Alexandria, Antony, and subsequently, Cleopatra, committed suicide.

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Influential Figures

Augustus
Around this time he took the title of Augustus (Your Eminence). Having ended the last civil war, he made sure his rule would be remembered: numerous temples were renovated, road building was intensified, postal service, as well as a fire-brigade and a police force were established. Public administration efficiency was dramatically improved, too and all this, together with Augustus "modesty" (he refused to be worshipped as a god and it often seemed he tried to minimize his own influence) made him immensely popular with both the people and the senators. However, behind his shrewd political games stood a man who craved power more than any of his contemporaries could perceive. Augustus was among the longest living Roman Emperors. He died in AD 14, at the age of 76, in his bed, demanding an applause by the ones who kept him company in his last hours. Soon after his death the Senate proclaimed him a god.

Trajan (53 - 117)


Early Life
Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus descended from a non-patrician family, but earning credibility as a general, was enforced as an heir to childless old Senator Nerva, who succeeded Emperor Domitian on the Roman throne. After Nerva died only a year after rising to the throne, Trajan took his place smoothly in AD 98.

Rule
After a five-year campaign, Trajan succeeded in taking control over Dacia in 106 AD (in modern-day Romania) and in the following years he continued East, annexing territories, lying as far as in in modern-day Jordan and Saudi Arabia, which had been formerly part of Parthia (Persia). In AD 116 the Roman Empire reached its greatest boundaries with Trajan taking over the city of Susa. The same year, however, Trajan fell ill and a year later died of his illness in the city of Selinus.

Trajan' s forum in Rome.


(Photo by: Allie Caulfield)

Emperor Trajan, revered as the second of the Five Good Emperors.

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Gastronomy and Drinks of Italy

Gastronomy and Drinks of Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Gastronomy and Drinks

Having a taste of Italian cuisine in its natural surroundings is an unforgettable experience at any time and under any circumstances. In fact, one of the biggest mistakes you can make during a visit to this culinary oasis is to neglect its rich gourmet traditions and stick to international dishes and fast-food chains. Whatever your tastes in food and drink may be, Italy is bound to satisfy your palate. Waking up to a foamy, steamy cappuccino, maybe accompanied by a brioche or a plate of freshly baked biscotti is a unique sensation you wish it could last until the multi-course lunch. Beware of the wines - don't be tempted to have a different one with each course or you will not make it through the whole meal! Even though Italians are not generally bothered with garnishing, you will want to take a photo of each meal. You will also probably wish to somehow It all boils down to freshness and exuberance of preserve the flavour so you can continue to enjoy it long after your bowl of colour. minestrone, creamy risotto or steamy pasta are gone. The second main course, if you are able to manage it, is sure to seduce you - meat and fish of numerous varieties, carefully prepared to satisfy all senses. Italian desserts are also manifold, often consisting of cheese accompanied by fruit, followed maybe by a tiramisu or possibly canolli. All this is then topped with espresso, which if taken neat (as opposed to corretto), according to Italian table tradition, just cries for a finishing drop of grappa, sambuca or another digestive. Fortunately, Italians tend to have a lighter supper - usually a pizza or a fresh salad, accompanied by wine, or maybe followed by a refreshing cocktail. Even if you dont seem to have enough time to sit down and enjoy a meal, food on the go, prepared according to local recipes, is delicious too!

Lasagna - one of many delicious Italian dishes.


(Photo by: Paper_or_plastic?)

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Food in Italy

Food in Italy
World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Gastronomy and Drinks Food

Although they say that food is the second important thing in life (and it is up to you to figure out what the first thing is), visiting Italy one might start wondering if food should in fact comes first. Well, this may sound exaggerated, but only to those who have not yet visited Italy and been invited to a traditional Italian meal. Each region of Italy has developed its own palette of recognisable dishes based on fresh local ingredients, combined with such passion only an Italian can invest into food preparation, cooked just enough (al dente) to bring out the best of each ingredient, and served still hot to hush everyone at the table and draw them together in a quiet worship. And make no mistake, the food will not taste so good anywhere else. So if you get lucky enough to be invited to an Italian table, savour every moment of it! Italian breakfast (colazione) is not what Italians would mention when talking food (which seems a topic they could otherwise discuss to great lengths). To many Italians, a cup of strong espresso will suffice to last the until merenda. However, while heavy, English-style breakfasters are rare, some do take time to enjoy a mug of foamy cappuccino with a tramezzino (a double breaded triangle sandwich) a panino (a regular sandwich). Most widely enjoyed breakfast food are differently flavoured, fresh biscotti, whereas a hearty reakfast includes sausages, ham, vegetables, and possibly a frittata (Italian-style omelette).

Bargaining for the best local ingredients is the basis for Italian cooking and an enjoyable ritual of the food preparation process.

Italians are generally not keen on snacking. However, they have a lovely word for the time between 11 and 12 when some (often kids) might have a small bite to last them to lunchtime. This is the merenda, which, although not a hearty meal, has to be tasty. Generally, anything small can do, except for vegetables. Italians even say for people or things that don't go together well that they go together like cabbage for merenda (Come cavoli a merenda). This still leaves plenty of choices such as fruit or sweets (like biscotti, ricotta con ciocolato, zabaglione, etc.). For those who don't want to spoil their lunch with sweets there are pizza di pane all'olive nere (bread pizza with black olives), cazzilli (potato fritters, originally from Sicily), arancini di riso (rice fritters), a piece of focaccia, a bruschetta, polenta crustini, pizza al taglio (pizza sold in slices), grissini (thin bread sticks, sometimes used as a starter to a meal, often wrapped in prosciutto crudo), sciacciata con l'olio (flat bread, topped with olive oil)... Italians have their lunch between 1 and 3 pm, when usually the whole family gathers at the table. A traditional lunch starts with an appetizer, followed by an antipasto. Then comes the first course - primo piatto, usually consisting of soup, pasta or risotto. A sensible eater will stop after the first course, but the second course - secondo piatto is largely appreciated in Italy. It consists of meat or fish and a contorno (a side dish) and is usually accompanied by a glass of Italian wine and, often, some mineral water. The dessert is complex, too. First a plate of fruit (usually featuring local, seasonal fruit) followed by cheese. This would mean the end of a meal if we are to listen to a popular Italian proverb (Siamo arrivati alla frutta - We have come to the fruit), which practically means to hit rock bottom. However, I dolci (the sweets) are yet to come! If you have made it through all these, you will probably need a cup of strong espresso (straight or corretto) to revive your strength. To complete the meal, you only have to squeeze in an amazzacafe - a digestive and call it a day! Don't worry - the dinner (cena) is not such a big deal. It usually features something lighter like a pizza, and is normally around 8 p.m. or even later so you will probably get hungry by then.

Freshly baked grissini make an excellent snack.

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Starters in Italian Cuisine

Starters in Italian Cuisine


World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Gastronomy and Drinks Food Starters

A starter is an introduction to any decent Italian lunch. Whether it is warm or cold, it has to be light, strong-flavoured and well chosen to compliment the main course.

Cold starters
Typical Italian cold starters feature: Carpaccio - finely sliced beef, dressed with lemon juice, olive oil and herbs, topped with a thin slice of Parmesan and served on salad leaves; Prosciutto - cured ham, served finely sliced, sometimes drizzled with olive oil, alone or in different combinations, the most appreciated being the famous Prosciutto al melone (ham and melon); Salumi - cured meat, predominatly pork (Mortadella, Pancetta), but can be beef as well (as in Bresaola), served alone or in combination with other meat cuts and/or vegetables as an appetiser;
Prosciutto crudo wrapped in mozzarella cheese and sprinkled with oregano.

Hot starters
Among the favourites in Italian cuisine are:

Tomato and Mozzarella salad (Insalata Caprese) - a very refreshing salad, invariably seasoned with basil (preferably fresh); Antipasto misto - a variety of pickled, dried or stewed vegetables.

Bruscetta - crisp, freshly grilled slices of bread, flavoured with high-quality olive oil, spiced with fresh or dry finely chopped herbs and topped with a delicious vegetable blend (tomatoes, olives, garlic are the most common ingredients). Mushroom, tuna fish and other bases are frequent as well; Cozze al Gratin - gratinated mussels, often seasoned with parsley, fresh lemon juice and pepper; Calamari fritti - fried squid, often accompanied by a mayonaise based sauce with pepper and lemon juice.
Of course, as far as Italians are concerned, the availability of fresh seasonal ingredients and the creativity of the cook is the limit for starter recipes.

Mouthwatering bruschetti are often a joy to the eye as well as to the tongue.

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Main Courses in Italian Cuisine

Main Courses in Italian Cuisine


World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Gastronomy and Drinks Food Main Courses

Traditional Italian main course consists of two main courses. The first is usually warm, hearty and comforting, and in Italy this doesnt always mean soup. In southern Italy pasta is more often on the menu than soup, whereas in the northern parts rice- and corn-based dishes, such as polenta or risotto. The second main course is what the rest of Europe considers a main course. It usually includes meat or fish and contorni - side dishes, based on vegetables, and prepared in various ways. However, dinner, being a lighter meal, usually consists of just one course.

First Main Course


Although in the rest of Europe the first main course means soup, in Italy soups are somewhat neglected and substituted with a plate of pasta, polenta or risotto. The piato primo or just primo usually features a hearty portion of corns and beans combined with vegetables, spices, fish or meat, often garnished with cheese and butter.

A glass of light white wine keeps excellent company to a vegetable risotto.

Mixed mushroom and spinach pasta.

Pasta
"It will be maccaroni, I swear to you, that will unite Italy", said Italian hero Giuseppe Garibaldi. Pasta is probably among the first three associations when thinking of Italy. What makes these some 600 different shapes of dough so irresistible? Is it the texture durum wheat (semolina) flour, mixed with water, and, in some cases, eggs, cooked al dente (neither undercooked, nor overcooked) in salt water? Or are the savoury, colourful toppings, reflecting the regional differences and the seasonal changes that make it so popular? Or is it maybe the delicious aroma that freshly cooked dough, drizzled with pure extra-virgine olive oil? To Italians pasta is more than just food - enjoying pasta offers them a chance to communicate with their loved ones, share a mutual respect for the cook, sample a glass or two of good wine, and just enjoy it all. Pasta can be dried or fresh (fresca), contain eggs (like lasagne), can be of different colours and flavours, the traditional colour being light beige-yellowish for ordinary pasta, and a bit more intensive yellow for egg pasta. However, alongside naturally coloured and flavoured pasta, there are many different ingridients such as cuttlefish ink, minced salmon, dried tomatoes and spinach are added to dough before it is moulded to produce a colourful pasta palette. However, most important differences remain shape, size, and pasta topping.

Origins of Pasta
Although according to popular belief there would be no pasta if Marco Polo hadnt gone to China. However, centuries before Polo was even born, pasta had been enjoyed in Italy. Surprisingly, the Arabs have more to do with Italian pasta than the Chinese. When they invaded the southernmost parts of Italy, where the tradition of making baked dough layers dating back to Etruscan and Roman times was still alive, the Arab introduced dried semolina noodles, probably eaten with olives, raisins and cinnamon among other things. Another revolutionary breakthrough that would change the way we eat pasta forever was the invention of tomato sauce. Although tomatoes had been brought from the New World a century earlier, the first written recipe combining tomatoes and pasta wasnt published until 1839. The rest, as they say, is history written by Italian emigrants to America and Europe, many of whom survived in their new countries thanks to the mouth-warming pasta they served in their non-pretentious trattorias.

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Main Courses in Italian Cuisine

Pasta Shapes
Although those who recognize all shapes of Italian pasta are few, several large groups can be distinguished by most of people: Solid cylinders: the most famous member of the group are of course the spaghetti, whereas the rest includes the vermicelli, capellini, spaghettini, spaghettoni, maccheroncini, reginette, canalini, bucatini, etc.; Hollow cylinders is another large group, featuring maccroni, penne, manicotti, rigatoni, to name the most widely spread; Among the best known ribbons are: linguine, fettuccine, and tagliatelle; Shaped pasta is very popular, too with farfalle, ruote, and fusilli among the best known ones; Among the most favourite stuffed pasta varieties are ravioli, tortellini, mezzelune, and agnolotti; Lasagne, according to many, is a group of its own as it is basically sheets of dough, which are cut after having been filled and baked.
The making of pasta.

Gnocchi (dumplings) deserve an honourable mention. Although gnocchi can be regarded as a kind of pasta of their own, they can also be depicted as a culinary phenomenon. One reason is them being dumplings, present in almost every national cuisine. In Italy almost every region has come up with its own version of gnocchi - from the most widespread potato gnocchi, to gnocchi prepared from semolina or farina flour, bread crumbs or even ravioli leftovers. Once the dough is prepared, it is divided into small chunks (that is where they got their name) and most often ribbed. Then they are put for a couple of minutes in hot water and as soon as they appear on the surface, they are taken out from the water and, in most cases, sauce is poured over them. Sauces also largely differ - from humble tomato sauce, pesto or butter-cheese (the most preferred being a butter-gorgonzola combination), to rich sauces of lamb or veal.

Pasta Toppings and Fillings


Although pasta can be added to soups, salads, and even some desserts, what has come to be mostly associated with pasta dishes is the first Italian main course - usually a variety of pasta cooked al dente and topped with some kind of sauce. On the other hand, some kinds of pasta are layered with the sauce (lasagne), and others are stuffed with the sauce and baked in the oven (canneloni). Then there are tortellini, which are stuffed with meat, vegetables or mushrooms, and then cooked. Pasta toppings and fillings are colourful and creative, yet, just like pizza toppings or salads, a few carefully selected ingredients can make a huge difference. It is astonishing how delicious a simple topping alla napoletana can be if prepared by a skilled cook, armed with first-class, fresh local ingredients.
Simply dressed potato gnocchi.

Risotto & Polenta


Risotto denotes a type of rice dish, characteristic to northern Italy. It is best prepared with Italian Arborio rice, which gives the dish a creamy texture. Italians are very specific concerning the pan used to make a good risotto - it should have a thick bottom, which would allow the rice to blend with the flavours while simmering. Broth along with rice is the most important ingridient of a risotto. Also, wine is often added in the early stages of cooking. While vegetable risottos are popular first courses, regions bordering the sea tend to make fish and seafood risottos, while meat risottos are favourite in the mountains. Risottos are also distinguished by colour - in the Milano region they make a tasty shaffron risotto with a peculiar, intensely yellow colour, tomato paste is commonly added to achieve a red colour, while seafood risottos are often black from octopus, squid or cuttlefish ink. Parmesan cheese and butter are usually added at the end of the cooking process to boost flavour. While each trattoria will surprise you with creative risottos, here are some of the most widely served risotto versions: Risotto agli asparaghi (asparagus risotto), Risotto Boscaiola (risotto with steak fillet), Risotto alla gorgonzola, Risotto ai funghi (risotto with mushrooms), Risotto coi gamberetti, Risotto al nero di seppie (black cuttlefish risotto), Risotto al pollo (chicken risotto), to name a few.

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Main Courses in Italian Cuisine

Polenta is a corn meal found in numerous cuisines. It is especially popular in northern Italy, abundant in corns (such as the most commonly used maize, and the occasionally employed buckwheat). In some parts of northern Italy it is even prepared more often than pasta. Polenta is a porridge of different density and texture, depending on how the grain has been milled and how much of it is used. The traditional method of cooking takes around an hour of slow cooking and constant stirring. However, there are also quick packaged versions are available on the market. Today, polenta has evolved from a typical peasant food to a delicious high-end meal due to its nutritional values and its ability to blend with cheeses (gorgonzola is a favourite) and butter, porcini mushrooms, sausages, the ubiquitous tomato sauce, and even fish. In some recipes polenta is further baked or used as a base for making gnocchi, crostini di polenta (balls or sticks, made of polenta, and fried until crispy) or even cookies.

Soups
Soup, although not regarded as one of Italys national dishes as pizza and pasta, is worshiped in Italy. Depending on the season, the region and the occasion, hundreds of creative soup recipes are employed in both Risotto tricolore, with the colours of the Italian flag. festive and everyday Italian cooking. According to an Italian proverb, soup does 7 things that are good for you - it satisfies both your hunger and your thirst, fills your stomach, helps you digest, makes your teeth shine, tints your cheeks and aids your sleep. To do all this, soup just needs to be the right temperature - neither cold, nor hot, in order to allow the flavours melt. There are no strict rules regarding soup preparation. It can be thick and hearty (minestrone), lighter (minestrina), bread enriched (zuppa). It usually contains various vegetables, preferably fresh, and pasta or rice. Beans are also often added, as are mushrooms. In some regions hearty fish (brodo di pesce) and seafood soups are prepared. In others, meat soups, (especially prepared with spicey meat balls) are often on the menu. Some soups are made in minutes, whereas others need hours to get to the table (usually because they contain home-made stuffed pasta as in Emilia-Romagna). If you plan to visit Italy, be sure to have a taste of soups - a comfy dinner or a fine lunch starter, it is sure to leave you craving for more!

Second Main Course


A second main course (secondo piatto) or simply secondo may sound ostentatious to someone who is not used to Italian dining. However, a true afficionado of Italian cuisine will just have a bite of the starter, wont entirely fill up with pasta, and will have enough space for a saltimbocca, complemented by a fresh salad or crispy-skinned fish on buttery potatoes. Although almost always this course is based on meat or fish, it is not boring since Italian cuisine employs such a wide range of preparation techniques, numerous herbs and spices, vegetables, cheeses and even fruit. In addition, Italians seem to use virtually every part of an animal, which further broadens the culinary choices.
Polenta topped with sausage sauce.

Common Preparation Techniques


lesso - fish, meat or vegetables boiled in salty water with herbs and served hot, drizzled with olive oil; alla griglia - grilled. Italians will grill anything from meat, and poultry to vegetables, and fish or seafood; al forno / alla fornata - in the oven. There is no ingredient (except for some kinds of pasta), which cannot be prepared in the oven; al cartoccia - another version of oven exploitation, literally meaning "in a packet" (paper or foil). Although vegetables and even pasta can be prepared this way, it is somewhat more common for roasting meat or baking fish;

Rich minestrone is enjoyed in Northern Italy.

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Main Courses in Italian Cuisine

in sale - a technique which is specifically applied to larger fish, giving it a peculiar, tender touch; farcito/ripieno - stuffed. Meat and fish are commonly stuffed with rice, mushrooms and vegetables; fritto/a - fried. Small fish and sometimes vegetables are fried; cotto/a - cooked. Usually polenta, pasta, and vegetables which are included in the second course as a side dish; marinato/a - marinated. An extensively used technique, used to soften hard-textured meats such as beef. On the other hand, vegetables and olives are marinated to gain a more piquant taste; arrosto morto - a pot-roasting Tuscan technique, perfect for tendering beef.

Meat
Natural differences and historical influences have shaped Italy into a colourful mosaic of regions, many of which have little in common culturally and especially gastronomically. Jealously guarded old recipes, and introduction of new ingredients have accounted for the development of Italian cuisine in one of the most appreciated ones in the world. However, this hardly means pasta and pizza, as many would suggest. To truly enjoy an Italian meal one has to taste the second main course, which often includes meat, poultry or game dishes.

Porchetta: a Roman specialty of roast pork.

The food preparation process is very important in Italy. It starts with the cutting, continues with curing and marinating and ends with cooking. Typically for Italian cuisine, the recipes are kept simple, but great attention is put into the meat processing, curing, softening and cooking. There are few animals the Italians would not welcome in their kitchen and on their table. Veal is especially praised, while chicken, beef, rabbit and pork are also very popular. If the occasion requires, a duck or a turkey will decorate the table. Also, rich, savoury recipes featuring all kinds of local fowl and game are extremely liked in some parts of the country. Delicious veal (vitello) dishes include: grilled veal chop with spinach and pecorino (sheep) cheese; Saltimbocca (from the Italian verb saltare jump, im - in the, and bocca - mouth); Vitello Tonnato (veal in tuna sauce); Rotolo di Vitello (rolled veal); Vitello Milanese (breaded veal), Vitello al Limone (veal with lemon), and many others. Popular chicken (pollo) recipes are: Pollo Parmigiano (chicken with parmesan cheese), Pollo a la Grilled octopus. Caccitora (chicken the hunters style), Pollo Sorpresa (chicken with cheese, cream, spinach), Pollo Marsala (in Marsala wine sauce), Pollo di Girello (char-grilled chicken breast in mushroom sauce). You can try rabbit (coniglio) in numerous ways, especially these: rabbit with black olives, rabbit with cream & mushrooms, rabbit alla pizzaiola (rabbit roasted in a pizza oven). Some of the most popular recipes featuring pork are: Filetto al Tartufo, and Filetto al Pepe Verde. Sausages of various kinds are part of several regional Italian cuisines. Salsicce con i broccoli is one of the more known dishes with sausages. Lamb is often enjoyed in the arrosto di agnello con salsa verde variety. Beef is probably best as: fillet mignon with gorgonzola, Bistecca Rustica (beef steak peasant style), Bistecca alla Pancetta (beef steak wrapped in bacon), lesso (boiled beef cuts) and many others.

Fish and Seafood


Fish and seafood are highly praised in Italy and associated with almost all meal courses. The enormous recipe palette varies to include classy, high-end dishes as well as hearty, peasant-style ones as well as simple ancient, fisherman's recipes. Local sea and fresh-water fish is mostly used, but as a result of extensive trade from the Middle Ages on, some northern sea fish species (dried cod, salmon, herring) have acquired a long-preserved place in the Italian fish menu.

Saltimbocca is a traditional veal specialty. www.bumblehood.com

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Main Courses in Italian Cuisine

Fish and seafood soups are praised for their versatillity and aroma and are often included in the primo piatto. Brodetto (an aromatic fish stew, enjoyed in the coastal areas of Emilia-Romagna, Friulia, etc.), Minestra di Fagioli e Vongole (cozze), Vellutata ai Gamberetti, Zuppa alla Siciliana, Zuppa del Pescatore, and Zuppa alla Barese are among the favourites. Numerous risottos are also fish and/or seafood flavoured, such as Risotto con Gamberetti e Zucchine, Risotto al Nero di Seppia, or Risotto alle Cozze e Peperoni. Rich sea flavours are welcome to pasta sauces, too: Canelloni di Mare, Pasta con le Sarde alla Siciliana, Raviolli al Baccala, Bucatini con Sarde e Finocchio, or Spaghetti all'aragosta. Pizzas are not usually made with fish, exception being anchovies and tuna as well as mixed seafood.
Osso bucco: a true Italian beef specialty.

For the second main course (secondo piatto), various techniques are used in preparation of fish and seafood. Commonly, each technique is associated with a specific kind of fish or seafood. For example fine-textured fish, such as dentice, branzino are often boiled (pesce lesso). Larger fish like merluzzo, pesce spada, cefalo, and dentice are enjoyed stuffed as well (pesce farcito). Pesce in sale involves coating a whole fish in sea salt, and baking it in the oven. Orata (sea bass) and pandora (padella) among other fish are prepared this way. Similarly, pesce al cartoccio means simply foil or paper wrapped fish like sea bass. Pesce alla griglia is extremely popular - anything from mackarel, sardines, luccio to seppia is known to be excellent when grilled. Pesce fritto - fried fish. Usually smaller fish like anchovies, small sardines (sardinette) are fried. Particularly liked during the coastal summer festivals is fritto misto (mixed fried fish). Also, almost any fish or seafood (squid, octopus) will be delicious simply baked in the oven over potatoes. Although Italians typically prefer the above mentioned recipes, there are others, in which aromatic spices, cheese, vegetables and even fruit are appreciated as well. Cernia al Pomodoro (dusky grouper with tomatoes), baked salmon with leeks, Razza e Verdure in Salsa (stringrey with vegetables and sauce), Orata all'arancia (sea bream with oranges), trout in pine-nut sauce are just some of the many more imaginative fish recipes. Baccala (dried cod) is probably the most popular northern fish in Italy. Alla Vicentina, alla Cappuccina, Livornese, Montecato... Baccala recipes alone could fill a good-sized cookbook. However, dried cod dishes are usually enjoyed on Christmas Eve.

Salads
Italian salads are invariably made of the freshest (freschissimi) local, seasonal vegetables, and fresh herbs. A simple dressing featuring extra-vergine olive oil, salt and a drop of aceto balsamico (balsamic vinaigrette) is usually enough to bring out the flavour of the ripe vegetables, which are carefully chosen to compliment the non-vegetable ingredients, such as beans, pasta, cooked potatoes, cheese or roast meat. Tomatoes surely make it into most popular recipes, as do olives, onions, bell peppers, aubergines, courgettes, etc. Cheeses (mozzarella, parmesan, etc.) are common in salads, as are bacon, chicken, seafood and fish. Although to some Italian salads amy seem packed with almost everything one could get their hands on, in reality they are carefully combined, usually not consisting of more than 3-4 base ingredients. Depending on the region and the season, salad vegetable choices are huge throughout Italy, and it is probably best to try local varieties as often as possible. Typical salads include:
Austrian-induced fish gulasch from the region of Trieste.

Mozzarella Caprese - served under many names (including just Caprese) this salad is one of the most typical among Italian salads, consisting simply of ripe tomatoes and sliced mozzarella, topped with fresh basil and drizzled with extra-virgine olive oil and balsamic vinaigrette; Caesar's salad - crisp green salad leaves, mixed with croutons (grilled bread pieces) dressed with an aromatic light sauce and Parmesan cheese; Caesar's salad con pollo - the same ingredients as above, enriched with roast chicken fillets; Tricolore salad - rocket salad, endive, radicchio and tomatoes - a good choice if a heartier meal is ahead;

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Spinach salad - somewhat heavier salad, that will probably do if you are not very hungy. Its a generally good dinner choice to go with a glass of red Italian wine. The ingredients are: pancetta, hard-boiled eggs, bread croutons, and mushrooms, all finely sliced and mixed with fresh spinach leaves. Warm balsamic vinaigrette topping usually adds the finishing touch to this abundant salad; Cheese and pine nut salad - lettuce and tomatoes, topped with goat cheese and pine nuts and served with balsamic vinaigrette.

Veggies
Vegetarians and even vegans will not be disappointed by the choice an average Italian restaurant will give them. However, they are even better off opting for a pizzeria or a spaghetteria (in some regions in the North polenterias are available as well). However, this by no means constrains them to pizza and pasta! Beware of some kinds of cheese, which might be made with rennet and therefore be unsuitable for a vegetarian diet. Otherwise, shopping for vegan and vegetarian food in Italy is becoming very easy with an ever-increasing number of young Italians turning to vegetarian and vegan diets. Local fruit and vegetable markets offer a good choice of nuts and beans as well, and super-markets are stocked with plant-derived brands of milk and dairy-substitute products such as tofu. Sticking to fresh fruit and sorbets for desert is probably the wisest thing for vegans as the vast majority of deserts contain eggs, milk or cheese. Beware also of some kinds of bread like focaccia as they might contain eggs and some of them even milk.
Sea bass baked in salt.

Italian sorbetto is a great summer refreshment.

Basil and tomatoes are a beloved salad combination. The refreshing Caprese salad.

Fun Fact: In Italy, most shops close for lunch at 4 or 5 PM. They usually reopen around 8 PM.. During summer, stores are open until very late hours.

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Dessert in Italian Cuisine

Dessert in Italian Cuisine


World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Gastronomy and Drinks Food Dessert

Dessert in Italy may just include fruit, often served with cheese, nuts, and even honey. However, sweets (dolci) are highly appreciated, too. However, almost surely, when "Italy" and "dessert " are mentioned together, it is some of the following that first spring to mind: biscotti - in Italian their name simply means "twice baked" and refers to any kind of cookie. In the past biscotti were appreciated for their durability and made in large amounts, most frequently flavoured with almonds. They are usually dipped into coffee or wine. In fact, it is believed that they were invented in Tuscany to be served with Tuscan wines. Later on, they started to serve as a crucial part of many other desserts; cannoli - fried or baked dough tubes of various sizes, with a ricotta cheese based filling, possibly flavoured with vanilla, chocolate, etc. Traditionally characteristic of Palermo and Sicilian cuisine, cannoli were first prepared to be given out at carnival time. They are a remainder of the Arab domination over Sicily. Nowadays they are welcome in every Italian home all-year round; cassata - a delight of the Sicilian cuisine, the cassata was reportedly made as far back as the 9th century. It is a cake, prepared by elaborate recipes, sometimes for days. The rich ricotta filling is flavoured with candied peel, to which chocolate or vanilla are added. The cake is covered in marzipane and richly decorated with Sicilian fruits; cavallucci - or "small horses" are anise cookies lavishly spiced with almonds, candied fruit, coriander and honey, traditionally made for Christmas. They are believed to have originated in Siena; colomba pasquale - the dough for the "easter dove" is similar to the one used for panettone or pandoro, but instead of raisins, candied fruit is used. Before baking it is shaped into a dove, and sprinkled with sugar and almonds. A typical Italian Easter dessert;

Biscotti continue to be extremely popular as an accompaniment to coffee.

crostata - a fruit topped tart, traditionally with the edges of the dough folded inwards, covering part of the fruit layer. Nowadays many bake it in the form of a fruit tart with a net of long dough cuts partially covering the fruit layer; granita - a summer delight from Sicily, made with sweetened and flavoured ice, and served in a wide glass bowl. Consistency varies from town to town as do the flavourings, some of the traditional ones including lemon, coffee, wild strawberries, almonds, mint, etc.; pandoro - the Veronese counterpart of panettone, traditionally baked in an 8-corner star shape and served covered in custard sugar, usually baked around Christmas and New year; panna cotta - a tasty dessert, popular all over Italy and beyond, which originally comes from the northern, mountainous parts of Italy. Sweetened whipped cream is boiled at low heat with milk and then served chilled in chocolate or fruit flavoured sauces; panettone - a cyllindrical, tall cake of cured yeast dough, enjoyed around Christmas around Italy. Typical flavours include lemon, orange, chocolate, and raisins. A typical Milanese specialty, its origins are often connected to the Sforzi family court. It is usually served with hot, sweet beverages and in some parts of Italy it is accompanied by mascarpone cream or zabaglione;

Traditional rustic look of the apple crostata.

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Dessert in Italian Cuisine

panforte - also known as panforte di Siena. Its name translates as "strong bread". Evidence suggest that crusaders carried it with them to give them strength. In Siena they say a true panforte has to contain 17 ingredients - the number of the traditional contrade (quarters) of Siena. Prepared by mixing together flour with honey, sugar, nuts, fruits and spices, panforte is usually served in small portions with coffee or tea; tiramisu - one of the most popular Italian desserts, made of lady fingers, dipped in coffee, covered with mascarpone cream, and sprinkled with cocoa. It was first made in northern Italy (in Treviso or Siena) to comfort elderly and kids. Its name in Italian means literally "take me high", meaning "cheer me up", and it must have done the trick for many since today it is popular all over the world; zeppole - the Italian version of doughnuts, zeppole are typical of Rome, Naples and southern parts of Italy, and were first prepared for the feast of St.Joseph`s day. As their popularity spread throughout Italy, filling and topping varieties emerged. They vary from a jam or butter-and-honey, to cannoli ricotta based fillings, and in some regions even anchovy-based fillings are prepared. Topped with icing sugar or cream-decorated, zeppole are nowdays available throughout Italy, and are especially loved by kids. In some regions zeppole have come to be associated even with New year celebrations; zuccotto - a dome-shaped cake, which is believed to have derived its name from the Duomo di Firenze Cathedral or from the cardinal's cap of a similar shape, called zuccotto. Zuccotto is a layered, liquor-soaked cake, lavishly filled with sweetened whipped cream, into which chopped nuts and chocolate chips are blended; zuppa inglese - cookies of fine texture, dipped into sweet wine or liquer, covered with whipped cream and sprinkled with candied fruit and chocolate. Although origin of the name and the dessert are unknown, it probably originates form Naples (Napoli).

Tiramissu.

Zeppole, Italian-style doughnuts.


(Photo by: Noe**)

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Pizza & Bread in Italy

Pizza & Bread in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide Gastronomy and drinks Food Pizza & bread

Pizza is a flat, round bread, covered with tomato sauce, topped by mozzarella and sprinkled with oregano. And this is where rules for pizza end and regional and personal preferences begin. Starting from the dough, usually plain bread dough is used, but it can be spiced with dried tomatoes, herbs, olives, garlic, etc. or filled with cheese. It can also be made of cooked, mashed potatoes or of wholemeal flour. While Italy is generally associated with very thin pizzas, Roman pizza has a thicker crust. However, the largest differences are found in the topping. Although in almost all pizza places nowadays you are free to create your own topping, there are still some multi-popular toppings which have become code names for ultimate classical pizza enjoyment worldwide (a tomato base, oregano and olive oil participate in all toppings).

Name in Italian Napoletana Marinara Margherita (Tricolore) Margherita extra Romana Viennese

Name in English Napoletanian Marine see box see box

Ingredients mozzarella, salted anchovies garlic, sometimes basil mozzarella buffalo mozzarella

Roman style mozzarella, anchiovies Vienna style Capricious pizza Four seasons Four cheeses mozzarella, German sausage mozzarella, ham, olives, mushrooms, artichokes The same ingredients as for Capricciosa, but the ingredients form sections on top of the pizza mozzarella, stracchino, gorgonzola, fontina mozzarella, ham and ricotta mozzarella, mushrooms mozzarella, ham mozzarella, olives, a mix of seafood mozzarella, tuna, onions

The Marherita legend


It is believed that the Margherita, or the Tricolore three-coloured: red (tomatoes), white (mozzarella) and green (basil) - first made in honour of the Italian Queen Margherita when she first visited Naples in 1889. By then the marinara version of pizza was already popular food for the masses in Naples and it is believed that the Napoletan pizzaiolo (pizza maker) Raffaele Esposito, the father of the margherita, used marinara as an inspiration, substituting garlic for mozzarella.

Capricciosa Quattro Staggioni Quattro Formaggi

La Marinara
Although the name evokes fish and seafood associations, don't be mislead: the name Marinara comes from the Italian word marinaio (a seaman) and probably refers to the fact that all the ingredients, used for its preparation are durable, making it possible to bake while at sea, bringing home flavour to a hard marinaio's day.

Filled Calzone/Ripieno (crescent shaped) Funghi Vesuvio Frutti di mare Al Tonno Mushrooms Vesuvius Seafood Tuna

La Pizza Bianca (White pizza)


The white pizza is called so as it contains no tomato base in its topping. Instead, pesto or sour cream sauces are used. In Rome, where it is most popular, the topping consists of only olive oil, salt and rosemary leaves, but the dough is unusually bubbly and soft.

Bolognese

from Bologna

mozzarella, minced meat, parmiggiano

Bread
You are probably wondering who has the time to eat regular bread when pizza and pasta are available?! Well, Italian bread is anything but ordinary - it comes in different shapes and flavours to be served with a main course or, some spicier versions, even as starters. Bread dough is often cured with fresh or dried herbs (oregano, basil), dried tomatoes, cheese, garlic, onions, olives. Mushroom. Spinach and minced meat are not uncommon fillings. If you are still not convinced, maybe the mention of use of various kinds of flour will persuade you that it is worth anyone's while.
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Foccacia - flat bread, baked in the hearth of the fireplace since Etruscan times, made from yeast dough, hand-tossed to a thick layer, most commonly topped with olive oil and herbs and sometimes even meat or vegetables. Although prepared in most Italian regions, it remains a true Ligurian specialty, where each small town has its own recipe for the dough, the preparation method and the topping. Focaccia goes well with various dishes, but is eaten on its own as well, as a snack. Schiacciata - the Tuscan version of focaccia, schiacciata in Italian meaning pressed, flattened. A warm recommendation goes to schiacciata con l`uva (a hearty, grape-filled type of bread, whose recipe is believed to go back to Etruscan times) and scchiacciata fiorentina (a sweet variety).

Rosemary-topped focaccia.

Pizzas come in many different sizes and varieties. (Photo by: Foodies)

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Drinks in Italy

Drinks in Italy
World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Gastronomy and Drinks Drinks

Coffee
If you see an Italian drink an espresso, you will probably have no doubt in your mind as to why espresso is named just that. True espresso is drunk in small cups, holding 25-30ml of liquid. It is renowned for its strength, aroma, and the characteristic thin froth layer on top.

Espresso
Espresso was invented at the turn of the 20th century in Italy, but only became popular in the 1940s when espresso machines were first produced. From then on it has become the best loved drink in Italy, drunk straight or in a coffee cocktail. In fact, upon ordering a coffee in Italy, you will get you an espresso. True espresso lovers drink 7-8 cups every day, in different forms, starting from breakfast, and finishing late in the evening. It is believed that the 5M concept is extremely important for a true espresso:

miscella (coffee blend): The right blend is crucial for a good espresso. Some blends contain as many as 14 different kinds of coffee, mainly arabica sorts. Top quality robusta is added in small quantities to boost the all-important espresso froth; macchinadosatore (grinding process): Skilled grinding is necessary to assure the perfect consistency of the coffee too powdery material makes a too strong, bitter espresso whereas not finely enough ground particles will give a weak, thin coffee; macchina espresso (coffee machine): The machine to make espresso must be of high quality and correctly set to match the blend in terms of water temperature, pressure and extraction time; mano dell'operatore (the skill of the bartender): barista, a bartender in Italy, should be skilled, and know the process and the coffee machine very well; manutencione (maintenance): espresso equipment should be maintained in perfect order, cleaned daily, and serviced regularly.

Cafe d'orzo
If for health reasons you have to cut down on coffee, you can always order a cafe d'orzo (barley coffee). It contains no caffeine, and is prepared in the espresso fashion. Almost all coffee cocktails made originally with espresso can be prepared with orzo as well.

Cafe Sospeso
When in Napoli, try ordering a cafe sospeso. It is a local habit for initiating good luck for you and your beloved. What you do is pay for two coffees, but only get one, the other one being the cafe sospeso (in suspence, pending). When somebody who cannot afford a coffee enters the coffee shop and asks the waiter if there is a coffee pending, they can have the one you paid for, and it is believed that it will bring you good luck.

The Mocha Coffee


Espresso coffee coming out of the espresso machine.

The moka or espresso pot was invented in Italy in 1933, and has not left Italian stoves ever since. In it water is poured in the lower tank, and coffee is placed in the middle tank while brew comes out in the top tank. With the temperature reaching above 100 degrees, and the high pressure, you get a stronger cup of coffee than drip coffee but it is still not as dense as true espresso.

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Coffee Reference List


Name of coffee Affogato (drowned) Americano (American) Breve Cappuccino (after the Franciscan brotherhood Cappuccini, whose cappucci (hoods) were the colour of cappuccino) Corretto (cured, spiced) Doppio (double) Espresso con panna (creamed) Caffe freddo (iced coffee) Caffe latte (Milk coffee) Lungo (long) Macchiato (stained) Latte macchiato (stained milk) Ingredients and remarks Espresso served on vanilla ice-cream Equal parts of espresso and hot water; Rumour has it that it was invented during WWII for American soldiers, to provide them with something similar to the drip coffee they were used to A cappuccino, made with half and half (milk with a cream) instead of regular milk Espresso (1 part) with hot milk (1 part) and thick milk foam (1 part). Can be sprinkled with cocoa on top. Traditionally served in a pocelain cup. If more milk is added, it is called cappuccino chiaro, if the milk is less - cappuccino scuro. It is generally considered a morning drink Espresso, to which a shot of liquor is added (grappa, smabuca, cognac, etc.). Italians consume it traditionally after lunch or dinner A double dose (60ml) of espresso Espresso, topped with whipped cream; Another name is Franziskaner and although Wiener melange refers to a different drink, in many coffee shops outside Italy it is equal to Caffe con panna Chilled, sweetened espresso, served in a tall glass with/without ice Espresso (1 part) and hot steamed milk (2 parts) with a tip of milk froth on top. It is served in glasses and regarded as a generally morning drink Espresso with more water than usual, which makes it less strong Espresso with a little "stain" of steamed milk Milk with a little "stain" of espresso

Prepared with the same amount of espresso and steamed milk as caffe latte, but Mocha or Mochaccino (derived with no milk frost. Instead, chocolate powder or chocolate syrup is added. Cocoa from the name of Yemen coffee or cinnamon are popular toppings. White mocha is made with white chocolate. A Mocha) mix of the two chocolates results in a "zebra" Ponce (alla) Livornese (Livornian Punch) Ristretto (restricted, short) Shakerato (shaken) Espresso ristretto with with Italian rum and sugar, with a twist of lemon juice. Consumed usually after a hearty meal or during the winter Espresso, prepared with the standard quantity of coffee, but with less water Sweetened espresso, shaken with lots of ice until it turns into smooth foam. Sometimes chocolate syrup is added

Granita di caffe con panna (icy The same as shakerato, but but topped with whipped cream coffee with cream) Marocchino (Moroccan)
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Espresso with a little steamed milk and cocoa

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Wines
Italy's varied climate and soils, as well as the millennia-long tradition in grape-harvesting, and wine-making have turned it into the largest producer of wine in the world. There are many sorts of grapes being cultivated, and many different wines made from them, that a full list of Italian wines is almost impossible to procure. However, what matters to a curious gourmet is sellecting the right wine for each occasion. You will never go wrong if you choose a local wine with a local specialty. It is as if nature has perfectly matched the local cuisine ingredients to the flavour of the wines produced in the country. While Central Italy and eastern parts of Northern Italy are world-famous for the high quality of the wines they produce, the South has begun to trade in quantity for quality only recently.

Famous Italian wines


Arneis - colour: white; origin: Piedmont; characteristics: a non-pretentious, light, young, semi-dry, full-bodied wine with hints of peaches and pears; dish match: aperitif on its own or with light cold starters like prosciutto crudo con melone; Asti - colour: white; origin: Piedmont; characteristics: a sparkling semi-sweet wine with a slightly peachy taste; dish match: a Wine production in Italy is exclusively based on extensive local grape dessert wine to sample on its own or used supplies. instead of Prosecco in the famous Bellini cocktail; Chardonay - colour: white; origin: Alto Adige; characteristics: a dry wine with a crisp, fruity taste; dish match: creamy sauces, delicate seafood; Frascati - colour: white; characteristics: a dry, light wine; dish match: fish, chicken; Orvieto - colour: white; origin: Umbria; characteristics: a dry wine of strong character; dish match: grilled fish or chicken; Pinot Grigio - colour: white; origin: Veneto; characteristics: a light, dry nut-and lemon flavoured wine; dish match: salads, seafood, grilled fish; Soave - colour: white; origin: Veneto; characteristics: a delicate, fruity wine with a slightly sweet finish; dish match: see Pinot Grigio; Verdicchio - colour: white; origin: Marche; characteristics: a young, semi-dry wine with fresh fruit flavour and a slightly bitter finish; dish match: fish and seafood-flavoured risotti, white meat; Barbaresco - colour: red; dish match: red meat, rich-flavoured dishes; Barbera - colour: ruby red; origin: Piedmont; characteristics: a low-tannic, medium-bodied wine with an intense cherry and berry flavour; dish match: tomato sauce dishes; Barolo - colour: red; origin: Piedmont; characteristics: a full-bodied, rich wine, aged at least 3 years, with a complex flavour of berries, chocolate, tobacco and a hint of vanilla; dish match: red meats, rich-flavoured pasta and risotti; Chianti - colour: red; origin: Tuscany; characteristics: a dry, highly acidic, soft wine with a fruity flavour; dish match: grilled meat, tomato sauce dishes; Lambrusco - colour: red; origin: Emilia-Romagna, Lombardy; characteristics: a dry, young, light, zesty wine; dish match: minced meat, barbeque; Nero d'Avola - colour: red; origin: Sicily; characteristics: a full-bodied wine of a lavish bouquet aroma; dish match: roast lamb, game specialties, piquant hard cheeses. Wine is surely the most important alcoholic beverage in Italy, nowadys closely followed by birra (beer), especially in central and northern Italy. However, after a hearty lunch or in the evening at a local bar, Italians sometimes enjoy a fruit-based hard alcoholic drink.

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Drinks in Italy

Aperitifs
Martini - Italian Vermouth, produced by the Martini & Rosso company. Each of the six varieties - Martini Bianco (white), the most popular one together with Martini Extra Dry, Martini Rosso (red), Martini d'Oro (golden), Martini rosato (rose style, based on both white and red wines), and Martini fiero (blood-orange flavoured) - is based on a fine blend of alcohol-fortified wines, flavoured with herbs. A symbol of classical elegancy all over the world, martini in all six varieties has inspired numerous refreshing cocktails. Cinzano - another tremendously popular Italian vermoth, produced in Turin since 1568. Today there are four flavours: Cinzano Rosso, Cizano Bianco, Cinzano Extra dry and Cinzano Rose. Cizano company is now owned by the Campari group. Campari - a semi-bitter, trendy summer liquor, often served with orange or grapefruit juice. Campari on the rocks is rather strong, while a long drink is prepared by adding soda water, tonic or white wine. In Northern Italy it makes a very popular summer aperitif. Aperol - another Italian aperitif, part of the Camapari group. Traditionally produced in Padua and popularly enjoyed in the Spritz cocktail. Biancosarti - a Campari-group owned, sweet, herb- and spice-flavoured aperitif, consumed neat or on the rocks, as a long drink or blended in refreshing cocktails.

Digestives and Liquors


Iced Aperol aids appetite on hot summer evenings.

Grappa (Nonino, Nardini, Sibona, Berta, Bocchino, Julia, Gandolini, etc.) - a strong digestive liquor (alcohol content from 38 up to 80 per cent), traditionally derived from residue material, left after extracting juice from grapes to produce wine. Usually fragrant, it can be tinted yellow, red or brownish, depending on the material of the cask, used for aging. It is consumed on its own, often after the lunch-finishing espresso (then it is called ammazza cafe - coffee killer), or as a "correction" of cafe corretto;

Stock 84 - the most popular Italian brendy brand. For its production Trebbiano grapes must undergoes a fermentation process in oak casks. Served nead or on the rocks, it is also the base for popular after-dinner cocktails such as Stinger, Sidecar and Alexander. It is often used in cafe corretto and in some roast and sauce recipes; Genepi - a golden coloured strong liquor (about 40%), typically based on vodka, scented with a variety of rare Alpine flowers and herbs with strong flavour; Nero Glaciale (Italian for Black glacier) - an aromatic, herbal scented liquor, made in the Alpine region of Val d'Aosta, typically consumed as a long drink; Strega - a yellow, peculiar-tasting semi-sweet liquor, often used in cocktails; Limoncello (Limoncino) - a semi-sweet, aromatic liquor, made of lemon rinses, soaked in alcohol and sugar. Although most regions in Italy make it, the most appreciated brands come from southern Italy Campania and Sicily in particular; Sambuca (Sambuca Molinari, Sambuca Romana)- a sweet digestive, which can be served as a long drink too, produced with anise, and white elder flowers. When served in restaurants it often has three coffee beans floating on top, symbollising health, happiness and prosperity; Frangelico - a sweet, hazulnut flavoured digestive that goes well with coffee;

Sambuca is sometimes served burning.

Fragolino (Nando Fragolino, Torciano Fragolino)- a semi-sparkling dessert wine from the imported from America Fragola grape (strawberry). light-bodied and refreshing, it has a pronounced strawberry touch; Marascino - a sweet, cherry-derived liquor, widely used for flavouring fruit salads and desserts; Nocino - a digestion aiding liquor, formerly used as medicine, prepared by soaking whole mashed green walnuts, herbs, and sugar;
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Drinks in Italy

Godiva - a sweet chocolate liquor of Belgian origin; Amaretto (Amaretto di Saronno) - a sweet almond scented liquor, popular as a digestive, as well as an ingredient to amarettini (small cookies), and cocktails; Cynar - semi-sweet, artichoke-based liquor, praised for its stress-relieving qualities; Disaronno - an extermely popular, amber-tinted liquor, served neat or on the rocks; Centerba - a bitter-sweet, highly alcoholic digestive liquor, whose name in Italian means a 100 herbs; Fernet Branca - a bitter liquor, used in small portions as a digestive or in cafe corretto. Although the recipe is kept secret, it is known to contain extracts from as many as 27 different plants from four continents; Petrus Boonekamp Amaro (commonly called just Petrus) - a distinctively bitter, digestion-boosting liquor, derived from rare plants, imported from all over the world. It was first distilled in 1777 and was named after composer Petrus Boonekamp; Mezzaluna - an exquisite, extra-smooth, triple-distilled vodka, made on the island of Sardinia, lavishly scented with locally grown herbs such as Myrtle berries, juniper and sage.

Dessert Wines
Marsala is a port-like kind of wine, ranging from quite cheap to high-end, aged brands, which Italians apreciate both as an aperitif, and as a valuable sauce ingredient. Vin Santo is a Tuscan port-like wine, popularly served in winter, after dinner with almond biscuits, whereas Prosecco, a dessert sparkling wine, is made from prosecco grapes and grown in the Veneto region. It is commonly served alone, in a chilled glass or in cocktails such as Bellini or Sgroppino.

Cocktails
Negroni - a cocktail, containing one part of gin, one part of red vermouth, one part of Campari, served in a short glass on the rocks, garnished with an orange peel to aid appetite. It was first prepared in Florence in 1919, and named after its inventor, Count Camillo Negroni. The cocktail has a number of varieties, such as Negroski, Negroni sbagliato, Negroni Zimbabwe among others. Bellini - a famous Italian festive long-drink cocktail, prepared with one part of fresh peach puree, and two parts of red sparkling wine, preferably Prosecco. The cocktail was first served in Venice in the late 1930s or the early 1940s, and its colour strongly reminded its inventor, bartender Giuseppe Cipriani, of the colour of toga, in which a medieval Venetian artist had depicted a saint, that he named the drink after the artist - Giovanni Bellini. Spritz - a cocktail, which originated in the Veneto region after Napoleon Bonaparte gave it to Austria. The locals are believed to had mixed the wine they served to the Austrians with water, as they drank too much. Another popular view is that the Austrians brought the tradition of mixing white wine with sparkling water with them, and that Italians later elaborated it. Whatever the truth about the origin, a spritz today is a cocktail, based on Aperol, Cynar, Select or Campari, blended with white or Prosecco wine and soda water. It is preferably served in a short, bowlshaped glass, garnished with ice, and a piece of orange as an aperitif. Sgroppino - a white, smooth, thick-textured cocktail, traditionally enjoyed in Venice, prepared by blending vodka, lemon sorbet and Prosecco. A predominantly summer choice, served in a tall glass, garnished with a slice of lemon.

Prosecco wine with wild strawberries.

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Dining in Italy

Dining in Italy
World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Gastronomy and Drinks Dining

Eating out is part of Italian way of life. Italians love sitting in couples or large, noisy family groups or with just a few friends and share a meal. Family celebrations, national holidays, a success in the job or just a wish to relax in the pleasant company of close people, good wine and a hearty bite can all be the reason for Italian restaurants being perpetually full. Another reason probably lies in the fact that ubiquitous, non-pretentious trattoria and osteria serve delicious food that most Italians who cannot make it home for lunch can enjoy at a decent price. However, while the culture of eating out is present across the country, a new trend is seen especially in the larger cities of the North of situated couples and young professionals to dine late in the evening in fashionable, expensive bars downtown. And although Italian cuisine is still the most favourite, large cities also host an enormous variety of food from all over the world, Chinese, Japanese, Lebanese and Spanish being among the most preferred. Here is a list of the most widespread kinds of eating establishments: Caff - coffee shops, serving hot beverages, non-alcoholic drinks and alcohol. Many also offer a range of tasty, small-portioned snacks to nibble at while having a drink. The most popular choices include tramezzini, panini and brioche; Birreria - a beer bar, typical for Central and Northern Italy, which sometimes offers sausages, crisps or other small plates to go with beer; Osteria - small, non-formal often family-run places which serve mainly regional specialties. They tend to work late, either opening only for dinner or, if they open for lunch, they usually close by 3 p.m. and then reopen for dinner guests; Paninoteca - a sandwich bar; Pizzeria - a pizza place, invariably featuring open fire pizza preparation; Ristorante - the most refined (and the most expensive) eating establishment, with the most formal atmosphere, detailed menus with a wide choice and rich wine cards; Spaghetteria - specialised in preparing mainly pasta; Trattoria - often family run, small, cosy kind of restaurant.
A picturesque Venetian trattoria.

Table manners
Table manners in Italy are rather important and while some of the Continental rules apply (such as having both your hands above the table and not resting your elbows on it or holding the fork with the left and the knife with the right hand), some are different, or even contrary: Spaghetti is eaten using just a fork and not a fork and a spoon; Hair should not be touched in any case while sitting at the table; An effort should be made that even fruit are eaten with a fork and knife; The hostess sits and starts eating first The hostess is the first to leave the table When one has finished a meal, one puts their fork and knife crossed on the plate to indicate so The hostess is the first to propose a toast but an honoured guest may return the gesture later Gifts in the form of flowers or a bottle of expensive wine are always acceptable Arriving on time for dinner is often crucial as pasta or risotto, which are common on Italian dinner menus should be served and consumed while still warm.
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Italian Gourmets

Italian Gourmets
World Europe Countries Italy Local guide Gastronomy and Drinks Italian Gourmets

Cheese
It is virtually impossible to make a comprehensive list of Italian cheeses without leaving many of them out. However, what follows is an attempt to illustrate, at least vaguely, the wide range of flavours, and tastes Italian cuisine deals with as far as cheese types go. Whatever the occasion, Italian cheeses can boost the taste of each course, from starter to dessert. In fact, many traditional Italian dishes would not exist or would hardly enjoy the popularity status they hold now if it weren't for the perfectly selected cheese hint to them! Ricotta - (recooked in Italian) - a kind of fresh, low-fat cheese, traditionally produced by the whey, left after sheep or buffalo milk processing. It is white, creamy, and somewhat grainy in its original form, a consistency which makes it a good base for sweet cream fillings (like in cannoli or cassata), lasagne fillings or is served on its own, well beaten and mixed with sugar, and flavours like cinnamon, pistachios, etc.

Ricotta affumicata.

Ricotta infornata, or Ricotta al forno is in fact ricotta, baked in an oven until it develops a crust and a yellowish colour. Another version is the Ricotta affumicata - smoked ricotta, where the process of smoking employs an oven an various kinds of wood. Ricotta scanta has a peculiar, piquant aroma, and tastes similar to blue cheeses, thanks to the a 100-day long process of controlled souring. Mascarpone - a kind of fresh, white cheese with a rich, creamy, smooth texture, traditionally from the Lombardy region. It is a key ingredient for the popular tiramisu dessert, and makes it into many cream recipes. Sometimes it is used in risotti to boost their thickness. Mozzarella - a kind of semi-soft, fresh, white cheese, portioned into different sized cubes or balls (from where it most probably takes its name - in Italian the verb mozzare means to cut). It can be made from buffalo`s milk, then it is mozzarella di bufala, whereas mozzarella fior di latte is made from cow`s milk. It can be also made from skimmed milk or can be smoked to produce smoked mozzarella. Pizza toppings, lasagne, and the famous insalata Caprese would be unimaginable without mozzarella. Grana Padano - a hard, ripened, semi-fat cheese, produced in Italy for more than 8 centuries, particularly in northern regions of the country. Its name reflects its texture (grana - grain in Italian and Padano - along the river Po). Its buttery, nutty flavour makes it a desired topping for risottos, soups, pasta, polenta, and even hot and cold starters, including delicious salads. Parmigiano Reggiano - the name of the cheese shows its origin (Parmigiano meaning from Parma and Reggiano - from the region of Reggion Emilia). It is a fat, hard, long-durable cheese with a grainy texture, white-yellowish colour and a rich, piquant flavour. Although most commonly used grated over risottos, pasta, and hot vegetable dishes, gourmets appreciate it also grilled on a toast or in combination with melon and prosciutto crudo as a cold starter.

Grana Padano cheese.

Fontina - whether young (soft-textured) or matured(hard-textured), fontina is renowned for its herbal, nutty flavour and good melting qualities, which make it excellent for cheese fondue, known as Valdostan fonduta, prepared with fontina, cream and eggs.

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Italian Gourmets

Gorgonzola - named after the small town of Gorgonzola, near Milan. This moldy blue cheese is lighter in taste, and has a creamier texture when young, while aged versions tend to become firmer and crumblier. This delicious, salty, strong-flavoured cheese is excellent with full-bodied red wines or champagnes. Fruit, nuts, and raisins boost its natural piquant flavour. In meals it is most commonly used in fondues, salads or meat or gnocchi sauces. Provolone - a semi-hard, whole-milk cow`s cheese traditionally harking from southern Italy, but today it is mainly produced in the regions of Veneto and Lombardy. Its flavour depends on its variety - while the aged version is distinctly piquant (with a "bity", sharp taste), and is known as Provolone Piccante, the Provolone Dolce version is mild and sweetish.
Parmigiano Reggiano production.

Salumi
Salumi is a common term to describe dried, cured meat cuts, indigenious to Italy. While every region will surprise you with its own version or even a whole palette of salumi, here is a humble beginner's list: breasaola - a Lombardian specialty of lean, cured, air-dried beef , served on its own or carpaccio-style as a cold starter; slinzega - another Lombardian specialty of cured, air-dried meat, which was historically produced by horse meat (nowadays substituted with beef, deer or pork). As smaller pieces of meat are employed, the result is an even more intensely flavoured salume; pancetta - a kind of salume, prepared of salted, cured, fatty pork. It is made in two versions: rolled and straight (the latter more popular with home-made pancetta ). Like the other salumi, can be served on its own or can be added to pasta sauces; guanciale - this specialty of central Italy derives its name from the Italian word for cheek - guancia, and is prepared from pepper- or paprika-cured pork cheeks. After having been dried for a couple of weeks, guanciale flavours rich pasta sauces such as all`amatriciana; mortadella - a traditionally Bolognese salume in the form of a thick sausage, made from cooked pork ground meat with at least 15% hard pork lard, ground individually, and added to the mixture. Mortadella is then cured with pepper, myrtle and other herbs and spices;

Rolled pancetta.

prosciutto crudo - a highly appreciated, uncooked, cured ham, dried between nine and eighteen months. Prosciutto crudo (meaning in Italian simply uncooked ham) is enjoyed as a cold starter, thinly sliced on its own or together with melon cubes or grissini. It makes a delicious pasta sauce ingredient, a pizza topping, and makes it into salads, sandwiches, and even vegetable side dishes (contorni).

Olive oil
It is said that the Mediterranean encompasses every region in Europe where olives grow. It has connected Mediterranean cuisines and cultures for centuries. In Italy, where the quality of the ingredients connot be emphasised enough, a bottle of extra virgin olive oil is a must in every kitchen, and is used widely on a daily basis.

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Mainland olive trees tend to harvest less, but the oil derived from them is proved to score higher in organoleptic content. Ligurian, Umbrian and Apulian olive oil are the easiest to find on the market. These areas are among the biggest producers in the country. Apulia alone accounts for as much as a third of Italian production of olive oil.

Use
From ancient times olive oil has been used as a medicine, as fuel for traditional Mediterranean oil lamps, in cosmetics, and for soap making. However, its primary use today is culinary. Italians consume as much as 12,35 kg of olive oil a year per capita, which places them in the third place in the world after only the Greeks and the Spanish. Olive oil use is the basis of the praised Mediterranean diet. So, a bottle of high-quality extra-virgin olive oil (produced by cold extraction only), will probably make a lovely present. Cured fish or seafood in a jar, conserved in olive oil could be great, too. If a cosmetic present is on your mind, look for a soap or natural body oil, based on olive oil.

Colour and density of extra-vergine olive oil differ immensely, and in some Italian regions more than a few colours can be derived.

Aceto Balsamico
Aceto balsamico (balsamic vinegrette) is probably the most famous kind of vinegar in the world, and surely by far the most favourite in Italy. It has been made in Modena and in Reggio-Emilia ever since the Middle Ages, and is much darker and thicker than common vinegars. Its peculiar taste, less sour, with a softly sweet finish, is achieved by a long (sometimes 25 years or more) process of aging. The procedure starts by manufacturing white grapes (trebbiano are mostly used) juice, and letting it evaporate until only about the half is left. Periodically, the must is moved to a smaller cask, and sometimes casks of different wood are employed for the different stages of aging (oak, cherry, chesnut, etc). Expensive brands (a bottle of 100ml can achieve 300 EUR) are labelled traditional and the colour of the label, or alternatively, the cup on it, corresponds to the number of years the aceto has aged. For example, the most expensive bottles will probably sport golden etiquettes, which would mean they have aged for 25 years or more, a silver etiquette will indicate an at least 18-year aging process, a red label guarantees a minimum of 12 years in the casks.

A bottle of olive oil.


(Photo by: Johnnyberg)

Even average quality (non-aged) brands' labels often contain useful information about what the particular kind of aceto is specifically designed for. Some kinds are best as salad dressers, others - for fish and meat dishes seasonings, whereas the finest ones are recommended as ice-cream and fruit drizzling. A small bottle of original aceto balsamico, maybe accompanied by a bottle of extra-virgin olive oil, makes a precious present for a anyone who appreciates fine seasoning and a healthy diet.

The process of acquiring aged aceto balsamico requires long years.

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Popular culture in Italy

Popular Culture in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Popular Culture

Customs and Habits


Ferragosto is in fact a pagan tradition, which in Roman times was called ferriae Augusti, and celebrated on the 15th of August as the culmination of summer. Christian church did not manage to ban or cultivate this pagan celebration by introducing the Assumption of Virgin Mary on the same date. Ferragosto lasts the whole month. If you long to see the streets, squares and churches of Italy, do it in August when they are virtually empty, with no crowds of noisy, rushing Italians on vespas, and beeping Fiats. Everything is closed, and everyone is gone. Italian coast, Croatia, and Greek islands are traditional Mediterranean destinations, while Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco are gaining popularity. For Italians it is not so much where you go but who with. You will probably instantly spot Italians anywhere - a noisy bunch, sitting around a big table with lots of fish and red wine, and kids running around.
Coastal restaurants can't seem to manage Italian appetite in summer.

Greetings
Introducing in Italy is accompanied by buongiorno (good day) followed by a hand shake with a single pump. Friends and young people greet with a simple ciao and it is not polite to address strangers in such manner, unless they do it first. Hand kissing is rare nowadays but it has not completely disappeared. Molto lieto (pleased to meet you) is a phrase used in formal situations when you are being introduced to someone. Shaking hands when you say goodbye is also customary. When you enter a small store or a waiting room, saying buonasera (good evening or good day) or arrivederci before you exit (addivederla when you are addressing only one person) is considered polite. In the south of Italy, buonasera replaces buongiorno after the lunch break (around 2pm), buonanotte (good night) is customary when you go to bed or leave someone's house in the evening. Titles are used when you are addressing or writing to people, especially if the one you are addressing is elderly. Anyone with a university degree should be addressed by dottore (dottoressa if you are talking to a woman). Employers usually address their bosses by direttore (director), while all other proffessionals should be addressed by dottore (doctor), ingegnere (engineer), avvocato (lawyer) or architetto (architect). If you are uncertain of someone's title using plain signore or signora is acceptable.

Kissing
Families in Italy usually greet with a kiss, regardless of sex. If a woman is expecting a kiss, she will offer you her cheek. This kissing ritual is closer to gentle brushing of the cheeks accompanied by kissing sounds, rather than actual kissing. Family and friends usually kiss twice - first the right cheek, than the left. Male relatives and close mail friends usually greet with an embrace as well.
Shaking hands.
(Photo by: Zimurg)

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Popular Culture in Italy

Formal and Informal Addressing


Using the formal form of address lei is considered polite when you talk to a stranger. Do not switch to informal addressing (tu) or to a person's Christian name unless you are encouraged by them to do so. Elderly people are usually entitled to invite you to call them by their first name or to use tu instead of lei. This rigid convention is slowly changing, so many younger people address their colleagues by their first names and use tu. Lei is considered polite when you talk to a shopkeeper, business associates or figures of authority, bank managers, policemen or tax officials.

Invitations
DOs and DONTs
Try not to wrap your gifts into yellow, black or purple paper. Yellow and black are traditionally associated with funerals. Smilarly, purple signifies bad luck. Using first names when you address someone is not customary until you get more acquainted. Wear long trousers or a longer skirt when you visit churches or other 'holy places'. Being invited to dinner by an Italian family is not so common, and it is considered a rare honor. However, if it comes to this, make sure you bring a small present consisting of flowers, chocolates or a pastry. Foreign food or drink will not be welcome as a present (at least not as much as you would want it to), so try to avoid that. Italians however like certain foreign things like single malt whiskey, and that is considered to be an excellent gift. Wine is not a customary present to be brought to dinner but if you know your guests well, this should not propose a problem. This wine however will not be served with dinner because the wine has most likely already been chosen by your hosts. Flowers may be difficult to choose as some flowers are associated only with certain situations in Italy (for instance, chrysanthemums is only to been seen in cemeteries). Make sure you talk to a florist and they will be able to advise you on your choice. Thanking your hosts for their kindness is usually accompanied by a note or a small present sent to them the following day. Like in many other countries people say 'good appetite' (bounappetito) before eating. A toast is common prior to drinking at the dinner table and it is usually the responsibility of the host who says salute!. If you do not see drinks coming, that means that it is time to go home.

Dress Code
Italians have an inborn sense of fashion. Italians pay much attention to bella presenza or bella figura (beautiful presentation or beautiful figure, translated literally), and first impression is considered crucial. Italians tend to be more formal in their attire than the majority of northern Europeans and North Americans and they put a lot of effort into appropriate and nice dressing. Many Italians consider bathing suits and flip flops appropriate only on beaches and swimming pools, and they will hardly be seen walking around in sweatsuits or shorts. By saying that the first impression is crucial, Italians want to say that a person that is dressed nicely and appropriately will always be favored more than an average looking person.

Business Etiquette
All businessmen traveling to Italy are bound to come across some 'regional differences' when it comes to approaching bussiness matters. One of the most distinguished ones is - punctuality. Or rather, the lack of it. Reading a few essential rules might come in handy when doing business in Italy. It may even save you from being angry at the people you are supposed to meet.

Business Communication
Developing a relationship prior to business is essential and very useful. Try to have as much face-to-face contact as possible. Before proceeding to business matters, Italians will probably ask you a thing or two about your personal life (for instance your origin of things about your family). Take some time and do the same by asking your colleagues about their family - building a personal relationship will help build a business relationship. The first impression is crucial in Italy - nice manners and appearance go a long way or can ruin your business efforts if they are not appropriate. Trust is crucial in Italian business - try not to do or say anything that might ruin trust, because Italians usually conduct business by paying attention to their intuition. Networking is also a well-developed activity, to the point that it can be considered a full-time occupation.

Fine clothes are very important in Italy.


(Photo by: Murielle)

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People and culture of Italy

People and Culture of Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Popular Culture People and Culture

La famiglia, which commonly refers to a broader circle of relatives, is what comes first in the life of a typical Italian. This often means everything else, including work, has to revolve around family obligations and rituals and not the other way round. Although many young Italians nowadays opt for a career and postpone forming a family of their own, this does not mean they have no family ties - everyone is involved in crowded, noisy family celebrations, in care after children or elderly people as dumping them in an institution is almost shameful in Italy.

La Dolce Vita
Life is sweet - it sure can be in Italy if one tries to forget much of what has brought with them in terms of mentality and expectations. For example, if you expect that just because your traghetto (ferry boat) is on the verge of departing without you on a hot summer day the ticket seller in the booth will cut short their chat with the customer before you, you can be no farther from reality. What is more, if you, even politely ask, for a card, the least you can get is a spiteful look - YOU will be the one who is rude, trying to deprive two Italians of one of the few things that helps them make it through the day.

Family is sacred in Italy.


(Photo by: Cbcs)

Another such thing is, for sure, espresso. And food. Food in Italy is not just something to fill your stomach and give you strength - hours are spent discussing recipes, products and restaurants and not just at the table! Sometimes one may think Italians can talk of little else, but this is where one is really mistaken! Yes, Italians talk food, but they talk cars, sports (especially football), sex, clothes, politics, music and food again! In fact, it seems they are perpetually talking - they easily step into a conversation with just about anyone about almost anything (the above topics being favorite) and it is not a neutral conversation about the weather well, there is no space for neutrality in Italy as it is passion is put into everything - from talking (which sounds like singing and looks almost like dancing), to food, sports, dance and singing, striking, love-making, hair-styling, gambling, drinking... to name but a few of the common Italian`s favourite activities. And has Italians do not regard traffic regulations as obligatory. somebody said Italians are lazy? Well, just because work rarely has their undivided attention or because they are often late one can hardly label them as lazy, maybe just they have other priorities in life - a good glass of wine in family circle, a chat at the butchers, a glamorous hair-do (we are not just discussing women here!), a plate of the mamas most delicious pasta made of freschissimi (the freshest) ingredients... Making la bella figura (a fine figure) in any possible way and living la dolce vita - is there anyone who does not envy the Italian way of life?

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Italian language

Italian Language
World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Popular Culture People and Culture Italian Language

The Italian language (la lingua Italiana) is an Indo-European language, which belongs to the large group of the Romance languages, and is considered to be closest to their common predecessor, Latin, in terms of vocabulary.

Alphabet and Pronunciation


Italian alphabet consists of 26 letters. The letters K, W, X, and Y from English alphabet are not officially present in the alphabet, and are used for foreign words only. Unlike English, Italian has strict rules for pronunciation, and after learning them one can be pretty sure that even though one may not understand the content, one can read words out correctly. For example the pronunciation of consonants C and G depends on the following letter. In the case of C for instance, if it is followed by O, A or a consonant, it is pronounced as K (as in Catania or chiave - key), whereas if an E or I follows, then C is pronounced like TCH, like in ciao, for example.

Vocabulary and Intonation


English-speaking learners generally have little trouble filling in their vocabulary as a large portion of English vocabulary is Latin-based, so in many cases a change of a vowel or a suffix is all one has to do to turn an English word into an Italian one (costare - cost). In the last few decades A bilingual signpost in Trieste. English has influenced back Latin languages, so in Italian words like chattare - to chat or brunch, have found their way into the language. Mass media tend to even overly use English words, which causes polemics among Italian language specialists. Italian intonation is so characteristic and dominant, that Italian speakers, even when talking in another language, can't seem to shake off their song-like intonation, the effect of which is further strengthened by an unusually high frequency of wide vocals (A, O, E). To a non-Italian speaking listener, it seems that Italians perpetually discuss life-and-death matters, as they tend to emphasise more heavily each word they say. Italians are rendered even more dramatically sounding as Italian is estimated the second (after French) fastest language in the world. And although few will actually admit it, especially the Italian south sounds typically Mediterranean - many people shout through open windows, laugh out or make loud comments or even whole conversations with full details on the phone in public transport, hospitals, stores, and other crowded places.

Grammar
Unlike English nouns and adjectives, Italian ones, as in other Romance languages, can be feminine or masculine, and each plural form is derived from the singular form in different ways, depending on the suffix of the singular form. Fortunately for Italian-learners, the preposition system is highly developed, to make up for the lack of cases.

Italian dictionary.
(Photo by: Ulrik)

Verbs generally fall into three major groups, depending on their suffixes, and have a form (derived according to rules or as exceptions) for each person and verb tense, which is a source for trouble for Italian learners. Advanced learners also report problems understanding and using the reflections, so characteristic of Romance languages, which are part of official Italian but tend to be used in everyday speech in the southern regions only.

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Italian Language

Geographic Distribution
It is estimated that around 63 million people worldwide speak Italian as their mother tongue. While the bulk of them lives in Italy, there is a fair number of Italian speakers in neighbouring Switzerland, San Marino, Monaco, small parts of southern French coast, Malta, Slovenia, Croatia (Istria), Montenegro, and North Africa. Italian emmigrants have distributed the language even farther to Brazil, Argentina, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, UK, Mexico, Venezuela, and many other countries.

History
The Italics, the tribes who originally inhabited Italy, probably had similar languages. However, the only ones of them who managed to affect language development for centuries were the Latins. Based on the Latin language, and probably influenced by other Italic languages, a large variety of Italian versions emerged over the Italian lands. Lack of political union and difference in economic and political conditions further deepened the differences between the regional versions, and according to some scientists, some of these varieties are more correctly labelled as languages than dialects! It was not until Dante Alighieri appeared with his Divine Commedy, that the grounds for a unique standard were set. Tuscan became the language basis, but over time, and after much argument, it gradually included features from other local dialects to become what it is today.

Dialects
Every region in Italy boasts a very much alive dialect form, despite the fact that dialects are not used in mass communication and business correspondence. In fact, until recently, communicating in dialect was considered part of undereducated culture. However, today a new trend can be spotted. Local dialects are a source of pride, even for people under 35, who until recently, were ashamed of their dialect and tried hard to get rid of it. Italian dialects differ largely in terms of phonetics, vocabulary, as well as grammar, as some of what is today regarded as dialects were historically independently developed languages, such as Venetian, Friulian, and Sicilian among others.

Italian Gesticulation
Heavy hand and arm movement is involved in every truly Italian conversation, and although part of it depends on one's personality, a good portion stands for general symbols which strengthen the point of the speaker. So it seems if a non-Italian speaker studies these symbols, they will be able to understand the general topic of most conversations, led by Italians. Here are a few of the popular gestures to start with: stop it - form scissors with index and middle finger; the two of them get along - index fingers are paralel to each other and are rapidly moved forth and back; the two of them don't get along - index fingers are placed opposite of each other; how boring - the gesture comes from the idiom Che barba! (literally: What a beard!): a beard is hand-depicted around one's chin; excellent - the gesture is derived from the Italian word for excellent - ottimo: an O is formed with the thumb and the index finger; I don't care - there are two ways of expressing it: to shrug shoulders and look to the side, or to touch chin with the back of

Fun Fact: Asking someone to pass the salt in Italy is an insult to the cook - it means he/she did not prepare the meal properly.

Gesturing seems to come in especially handy while one's mouth is full!

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Media in Italy

Media in Italy
World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Popular Culture People and Culture Media

Before the arrival of television in Italy, around the 1950s, people mainly were speaking in their local dialect. The media have played a great role in the formation of Italy as a united country, and of Italians as a nation.

Television
Until the 1970s Italian TV scene was entirely dominated by the state controlled television. From then on a lot has changed and although state-owned television (RAI - Radiotelevisione Italiana) with three general public and numerous specialised channels is still widely watched, the Italian public can nowadays choose among a long list of private-owned channels and premium channels (imported channels, translated into Italian). Mediaset (based in Milan and owned by Silvio Berlusconi) is the largest commercial TV network, controlling three national channels in Italy and several DTT and satellite ones. Telecom Italia Media is another large broadcaster, owning three TV channels as well, while other channels are independent or owned by smaller publisher groups.

Radio
Despite the globally growing popularity of television in the last few decades, listening to the radio is still very popular in Italy. Numerous national and regional radio stations have been broadcasting for years. Hundreds of small, local, specialised radio stations, including web-transmitted ones, fill the Italian ether. While state-owned RAI has five channels, most of the private channels are independent. Radio channels often differ in the music they transmit, for example Radio Italia Solo Musica Italiana only plays Italian music, whereas rock lovers stay tuned to Virgin Radio Italia, and fans of electronic music listen to m2o. Other radio stations specialise in themes like religion (Radio Maria Italia) or finance (Radio 24 - Il Sole 24 Ore).
Italian TV is generally criticised for superficial programmes.

Press
The most popular daily newspaper in Italy is, no doubt, Corierre della Sera (The Evening Courier), followed by La Reppublica. Local daily papers (Corriere Adriatico - Ancona, Corriere delle Alpi - Bolzano, Il Giornale di Vicenza, etc.) enjoy great sales as well as they focus on local and regional news. Sports fanatics invariably read Corrierre dello Sport, and football fans prefer its football edition Corriere dello Stadio, but the most important sports daily is surely La Gazzetta dello Sport. Tabloids, such as Il Giorno (Milan) see a general increase, while "serious" financial papers like Italia Oggi and Il Sole 24 Ore remain traditionally popular. Il Mondo is one of Italy's best sold magazines. It generally tackles business and economy topics on a weekly basis. Since Italians are renowned for their taste in all forms of design, magazines such as Abitare and Brava Casa are very popular. Donna Moderna is a general-interest, women-targetted magazine, while Anna and Amica are more fashion-conscious women magazines. The Italian equivalent of Playboy is Max, while the whole family will find something for themselves in Famiglia Christiana Moderna (Modern Christian Family). An increasing number of Italians take off for exotic destinations for their holidays while weekend trips have enjoyed a high popularity among Italians for some time now. Hence magazines like Gente Viaggi and Viaggi e Sapori get the attention of an incresing number of readers. Computer-raged audience opts for magazines like PC Magazine, PC World Italia, PC Professional.

It seems nobody in Italy is immune to human curiosity.

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Religion in Italy

Religion in Italy
World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Popular Culture People and Culture Religion

Almost 90% of Italians consider themselves Roman Catholics, which, combined with the fact that the Vatican is in Rome, provides the main reasons why religion plays such an important part in the life of the average Italian.

Catholicism
For centuries on end there was probably little else that united the population of the country as much as Catholicism, and the love for pasta. Historically, Popes dealt as much with secular as with religious matters, and their word was heard far beyond the peninsula. Although only a third of the modern-day Italians attend Sunday mass on a regular basis, churches are still full at the great Christian holidays, and local saints` festivals are highly popular. Probably few Italians can imagine Christmas without a panetonne or Easter without la Colomba Pasquale, although many of them will fail to explain the religious meaning of these delicious dishes.

The festival of St.John in Sicily in the town of Aci Trezza.

When Christianity became the official religion during Emperor Constantine's reign, it gradually established an elaborate church institution which took control of every aspect of society - government, social services, arts, and so on, enforcing its values and morals as the only ones legitimate. Its power peaked in the Middle Ages, when due to infamous Inquisition allegedly millions of lives were lost throughout Western Europe, many of them in Italy. Only during the Renaissance secularity bounced back, but Catholic Church continues to exercise enormous power over Italians even nowadays. However, criticism on behalf of secular power of the Catholic Church is rather inconsistent.

Other Religions
In recent years, Italy has been target for many foreigners to find work and settle down. Immigrants from Asia, the Middle East and Africa have concentrated into groups, forming real cultural minorities, who often practice their own religion in their own religious sites.

Islam
Historians argue that the Islamic religion started developing in Italy as early as the 7th century when some of the Lombards (Germanic people living in the north of Italy) converted from Arianism to Islam instead to Catholicism. In the 9th century Sicily and some other parts of southern Italy have been brought into the Ummah due to the expansion of some North African states. Ummah was a term for a collective nation of states (or diaspora of the Arab world). In the period between 828 and 1300 southern Italian regions were dominated by a number of Muslim domains. When the last Islamic stronghold of Lucera in Puglia was destroyed, Islam became almost non-existent until the 1970s. Islam became visible in Italy with the immigrants, at first arriving from Morocco, then from Albania, Egypt, Tunisia, Senegal, Somalia, and Pakistan. Today the country has approximately one million of Muslims, of whom around 500,000 have Italian citizenship. The latest statistics show that Muslims make up about one third of the 2,400,000 foreign residents living in Italy as of January 1, 2005. The overall percentage of Muslims living in Italy is still lower than in other EU countries, and considerably lower that in the period between the 9th century and the 13th century - only 1,4 percent. The majority of them live in North Italy, some 25% in the central part, and about 20 percent in the south. Islam is not officially recognized by the state although it is the second largest religion after Catholicism. Official recognition would financially help developing the religion because then it would be given a chance to benefit from a national "religion tax", known as the Eight per thousand. Eight per thousand (otto per mile) law allows Italian taxpayers to vote on the receiver of the 0.8% ('eight per thousand') of the total amount raised by income taxes. This portion can go to either a formally recognized religion or to a social assistance scheme run by the Italian Government.

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Judaism
The history of Judaism in Italy goes back to the time when Jews were allies of the Roman Empire. Many Jews under the leadership of Judah Maccabeus went to the Eternal City (Rome). When the Romans destroyed the second temple in Jerusalem, the Roman-Jewish alliance was broken and Jews were forced into slavery. About ten thousand of them were sent off to Rome to work on the Colliseum. The Jewish society thrived in spite of the slavery, and thirteen synagogues as well as many Jewish cemeteries were built during that period. Taranto, Ferrarra, and Milan also saw the rise of the Jewish community, and thus helped spreading the religion outside of Roman city limits. Religious freedoms were badly restricted in 380 CE when the Edict of Tessa Lonica of The Kuran. Teodosia was put into act. The act had very little tolerance for any other (Photo by: Asifthebes) religion except Catholicism. During feudalism Jews were not allowed into guilds. They could only sell used clothes or lend money. The latter is very notable because Christians were banned from money lending which was not repealed until the fifteenth century with the passing of Monte Di Pieta. This helped Jewish people to survive and eventually even to buy property. Many Jews came to Italy when the Spanish Empire decided to expel all Jews in 1492. By the second half of the 16th century all Jews were to be enclosed in ghettos, and all of their commercial and civil rights were taken away. All Jews were expelled from the Papal State in 1569 (except Livorno, Rome and Ancona). Napoleon tore down the ghettos and gave rights back to the Jewish community. This changed with the defeat of Napoleon when ghettos were re-introduced and rights were again taken away. The government that unified all Italian states in 1848 freed the Jews and gave them their civil and political equality. By 1922 the assimilation process was finished and the Jews did not have to conceal their identity any more. By this time the Fascists came to power and many Jews initially supported their ideas. Mussolini introduced the Falco laws that said that that Italians are a part of the 'pure race' along with the Aryans, which banned Jews from all public services. They were not allowed into the army or to schools which forced a large portion of the community to flee Italy in search of a better life. Today there are close to fifty thousand Jews currently living Italy. This is not a significant number when we know that that the Jewish are the country's oldest religious minority. The are no longer the second largest non-Christian minority in Italy either - Islam has taken that place with its 1,4% portion of the Italian population.

Buddhism
Buddhism is the third-largest religion in Italy with approximately 100,000 adherents. There are two influential Buddhist institutions: the Unione Buddhista Italiana and the Istituto Buddista Italiano Soka Gakkai. The Unione Buddhista Italiana (Buddhist Italian Union) was founded in 1985 and recognized by the Italian government in 1991. It teaches Theravada Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism, and Vajrayana Buddhism. Istituto Buddista Italiano Soka Gakkai (Buddhist Italian Institute Soka Gakkai) was established three years after the Union on the foundations of the Associazione Italiana Nichiren Shoshu (Italian Association Nichiren Shoshu). The institution was formally recognized by the government in 2000 and it has about 33,000 members.

A statue of Buddha.
(Photo by: 13dede)

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Arts of Italy

Arts of Italy
World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Popular Culture Arts

Starting from prehistory, art on the Italian peninsula has always spearheaded innovative movements. One of the first major civilizations on the peninsula were the Etruscans who inhabited it between the 9th and 2nd centuries BC. They left numerous examples of their art, primarily terracotta sculptures, wall paintings, and metal artifacts. Religion was the chief impetus for the production of Etruscan art. What is left of that art was mainly found during excavations of cemeteries, such as at Cerveteri, Tarquinia, Orvieto, etc. The most famous examples of Etruscan art are the sarcophagi, such as the Sarcophagus of the Spouses showing two reclining figures in terracotta. Wall paintings that have survived were also found at burial grounds, primarily in Tarquinia. The Roman domination on the peninsula started in the 3rd century BC. The Romans mainly adopted the forms found in the Etruscan and Greek art. Sometimes they went so far in imitating Hellenistic styles that they just copied the preexisting works of the Greeks. Thanks to the Romans` appetite for Greek art, some examples that would have otherwise been lost forever, are now Italian Renaissance artists greatly contributed to the development safely exhibited in museums around the world. But the Romans of perspective in painting. were not just mere copycats, they further developed some of the forms they took over from other cultures. Thy excelled in the field of wall-painting, and especially in architecture. Frescoes from Pompeii and Herculaneum show that Romans were interested in evolving painting techniques such as naturalistic depiction of scenes, foreshortening and perspective. Sculpture was primarily taken from the Greeks, but the Romans showed great skill in portraiture. Busts and full-size figures were exceptionally true to life, unlike idealized Greek sculpture. Western civilization is indebted to Roman architecture. The Romans were responsible for the invention of the dome that allowed architects to construct enormous covered public spaces, like basilicas, a form that was later used in the building of churches throughout Europe. They also developed methods of concrete building. During the early Middle Ages, Italy was strongly influenced by the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines excelled in the art of mosaic. The best examples of this art are found in the churches of Ravenna such as San Vitale and in Venice in St Mark's Basilica. The Romanesque and the Gothic periods are characterized by religious art that was influenced by the Byzantine two-dimensional representation of figures and scenes. The Gothic period was specific because individual artists began to emerge from the mass of anonymous artisans working on cathedrals and other religious buildings. The most notable artists of that time were Cimabue, Duccio, and Giotto who greatly contributed to the development of art in the direction of more naturalistic representation of reality. The Renaissance period was a time when Italian art and culture as a whole blossomed, freed from the shackles of medieval thinking. Rich families, like the Medicis in Florence, Sforzas in Milan, and the Pope in Rome sponsored numerous artists and gave them enough freedom to further develop artistic forms and ideas behind them. It was a time of the giants of art world such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, Raphael, etc. At this time, musical forms followed the same line of development as visual arts. In the 16th century, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina popularized vocal polyphony through numerous religious musical pieces. The first ever opera, Dafne, was performed in 1598 in Florence written by Ottavio Rinuccini and composed by Jacopo Peri. In the course of the next few centuries, Italian art was going in many different directions. After the Renaissance there was Mannerism that was succeeded by Baroque which was an attempt to counter Mannerisms artificiality and try to restore piety. But Baroque ended in Rococo that was completely opposite to the early Baroque artists efforts to bring simplicity back to art. In the 17th and 18th centuries, music developed even further. It was the golden age of early opera best exemplified in the works of Claudio Monteverdi. The 18th century was characterized by the lightness and playfulness of Rococo forms best exemplified by the works of Antonio Vivaldi. During the 18th and the 19th centuries, Italian art slowly waned and other European countries took the lead in the evolution of art. Germany and especially France were emerging as dominant forces in the world of art. Impressionism and Post-Impressionism were primarily French styles. Italians had artists such as Giovanni Fattori, Silvestro Lega, Telemaco Signorini and Giuseppe Abbati, who formed a group of impressionist artists by the name of Macchiaioli. In the field of music it was a time of great opera composers such as Vincenzo Bellini, Gioacchino Rossini, and Giuseppe Verdi.

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Giacomo Puccini determined Italian music at the turn of the century (19th-20th). During the 20th century, Italian art got a new impetus from the Futurists lead by the poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. Other members of this movement were Umberto Boccioni, Giacomo Balla, Carlo Carra, etc. They celebrated fire, speed, machines, chaos, and war. But there was another movement in the 20th century that was not so radical. This movement was called the Metaphysical Painting and it was led by Giorgio de Chirico. His works greatly influenced the upcoming Surrealism. In the years after World War II, Italian art was best represented by the works of two artists who were at the focus of European art of that time. They are Lucio Fontana and Alberto Burri. In the 1960s and 1970s, the art in Italy was under the influence of the prevalent conceptual art. Artists formed groups but did not lose their own individual identities. One of such groups was Arte Povera. It was actually more of a movement. Artist working in this mode rejected traditional techniques and methods of artistic expression and focused on conveying new and radical ideas. In the postmodern era, Italian artists followed a general trend of the return to figuration after a conceptual period of objectless and figureless art. The most prominent artists belonging to this postmodern melting pot of styles are Sandro Chia, Francesco Clemente, and Enzo Cucchi among others. The film industry in Italy started in Turin at the beginning of the 20th century. It evolved from silent historical and adventure films through Antonio Vivaldi. Fascist propaganda films to Neorealist postwar masterpieces. One of the first film directors that started to make films in this new vein was Roberto Rosselini. Vittorio de Sica filmed the Bicycle Thieves in 1946, a film that best exemplified Neorealism`s concern with the misery of postwar Italy. During the 1960s, Italian cinema experienced a great boom of production. Three directors determined this period. They are Federico Fellini, Michelangelo Antonioni, and Luchino Visconti who also became internationally acclaimed directors. Italian literature started to flourish in the 13th century. It was at this time that the Italian language began to take shape, first in the works of St Francis of Assisi whose vernacular soon spread across Tuscany, at first, and later across the entire peninsula. "The Holy Trinity" of Italian literature is comprised of Dante Alighieri who was active in the 13th century, Francesco Petrarca, also known as Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio, both of them wrote their masterpieces in the 14th century. These three literary giants represent the introductory phase into the humanism of the following centuries. During the Renaissance period, literature blossomed under the patronage of wealthy and powerful families in the Italian city-states. One of the most prominent figures of this period was Niccolo Macchiavelli whose name is now associated with sheer negative ambition. The 16th century was also characterized by the development of different literary forms, one of which was the epic poetry. Ludovico Ariosto and Torquato Tasso wrote two works that now stand as paradigmatic epic poems of that time. Ariosto wrote Orlando Furioso and Tasso wrote Jerusalem Delivered.The period of Baroque was determined by the lack of inventiveness in poetry and literature in general. The progress of thought was held back by the Church that wanted to impose its authority in an attempt to contain the spread of Protestantism. During the age of Enlightenment, the Church`s hold loosened a bit which resulted in a new elan that permeated literary works. Giambattista Vico, an 18th century philosopher, came up with the theory of history that was revolutionary for that time. Carlo Goldoni was the leading figure in the field of drama. Romanticism manifested itself in the works of Ugo Foscolo, Giacomo Leopardi, and Alessandro Manzoni. The other 19th century style, Realism, is best exemplified in the works of Giovanni Verga whose inspiration came from the French naturalists led by Emile Zola. At the turn of the century, Giosue Carducci and Gabriele D`Annunzio distinguished themselves in the field of poetry. Two other prominent figures of this period were the novelist Italo Svevo and the dramatist Luigi Pirandello. During the interbellum period, a movement called the Hermetic Movement developed in literature, and it focused on the simplifying of expression. Giuseppe Ungaretti`s poetry is one of the best examples of this attempt. After World War II, Neorealism became the dominant form of expression. Cesare Pavese was one of the main proponents of this style. His works convey the disillusionment of postwar Italy in a manner unsurpassed. The last few decades of the Italian literature are dominated by the few who managed to reap international success, such as Italo Calvino, Dino Buzzati, Umberto Eco, and Dario Fo.

Italy has a prestigious tradition in the film industry.


(Photo by: Ortonesque)

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Music of Italy

Music of Italy
World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Popular Culture Arts Music

Experts say that the Romans imported Greek music without changing it much. They used practically the same instruments but for different purposes. For example the trumpet and horn were used in military campaigns, public parades, and festivals. The Romans also adopted the Greek system of modes.This system is based on the relationship between music and mathematics.

Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages music changed a lot. One of the first recorded medieval composers was a fourth century Milanese bishop Ambrose. This new manner of singing was known as Ambrosian chant. Around 600, Pope Gregory the Great introduced some new rules into the Church`s liturgy which included the music too. This new and improved religious music came to be known as Gregorian chant and is still sung in Catholic services. In the Renaissance period Italian humanists` tendency towards theorizing stood in the way for music`s further development. Well into the 16th century the popes and rulers brought foreigners, mostly from France and Flanders, to be official musicians in churches and courts. In 1498, a Portrait of Saint Ambrose of Milan. Venetian by the name of Ottaviano Petrucci invented music publication using movable type. It helped in promoting music, and made composers respected in humanist circles. Needless to say, music became more secularized during this period. After 1530, the most popular musical form was the madrigal. By the end of the 16th century Italians took the lead in composing of madrigals. Giovanni Palestrina (1525-1594) was one of the best composers of that time.

Baroque
The most important musical invention of the Baroque period was the opera. The first opera was Dafne staged in 1598 and composed by Jacopo Peri with the libretto written by Ottavio Rinuccini. But it was Claudio Monteverdi who greatly influenced the form of opera which resulted in its popularization and its distinguished status that it has today. In 1637, the the first public opera house was opened in Venice. From then on, opera spread across Europe like a fire. At this early period most operas were comic also called opera buffa, but in the course of the 18th century critics thought it necessary to make opera sound more tragic than comic. From these aspirations arose a new genre in opera called opera seria, meaning serious opera. During the 18th century talented individuals dominated the music scene. One of the earliest musical geniuses was Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741). Even though he is said to have written ninety operas, Vivaldi is best known for his concertos, of which The Four Seasons are the most famous.

19th Century
The 19th century was the age when the giants of opera ruled the music scene in Italy. In accordance with the expression of heightened emotions in all art forms during that period, music, and especially opera, became more imaginative. Gioacchino Rossini (1792-1868) was the first great composer of the Romantic period. In 1816, he composed one of the most famous operas ever written - The Barber of Seville. From 1815 till 1823, Rossini composed twenty operas. In 1929, he produced his last opera Guillaume Tell (William Tell). This stage of the development of opera was called Bel canto opera, meaning beautiful singing. Together with Rossini, two other composers epitomized this era of opera. They are Vincenzo Bellini (1801-1835) and Domenico Gaetano Maria Donizetti (1797-1848). Bellini was a Sicilian working in Naples and Milan. One of his most famous works is I Capuleti e i Montecchi (the Capulets and the Montagues) that came from the same source as Shakespeare`s Romeo and Juliet. His brilliant career tragically ended in 1835 when he died of an intestinal fever.

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Donizetti was born into a poor family in Bergamo in the north of Italy. After he received enough musical education his talent began to emerge and soon after he became a very successful and prolific opera composer. His best and most famous opera is Lucia di Lammermoor from 1830s based on the novel The Bride of Lammermoor written by Sir Walter Scott. Like Bellini and Rossini before him, he tried his luck in Paris, where he moved in 1838. He died of syphilis in 1848 in Bergamo. Giuseppe Fortunino Francesco Verdi (1813-1901) is probably the most famous opera composer ever. His influence stretches outside the mere world of opera and reaches the realms of popular culture. Many of themes, such as La donna e mobile or the theme from La Traviata, are known to all, not only to opera experts or opera enthusiasts. He experienced a succession of tragedies in the first half of the 19th century when his two children died at an early age, followed by the death of his wife soon after. Due to these tragic events, he became desperate and wanted to quit his career in music, but was dissuaded by Bartolomeo Merelli, director of La Scala in Milan. Merelli also encouraged him to compose Nabucco in 1842 which proved to be a right decision for Verdi because it instantly made him a star. 1840s and 1850s are commonly taken to be the middle years of his career. During that period he had composed some of his most famous operas like Rigoletto and La Traviata, both of which were based on literary sources of contemporary writers. Rigoletto was a musical version of Victor Hugo`s play, and La Traviata was based Alexandre Dumas the Younger`s play The Lady of the Camellias. The two most celebrated operas from the later part of his life are Aida written in 1869, and Falstaff written in 1893, which was based on Shakespeare`s Merry Wives of Windsor.

Portrait of Gioacchino Rossini

Giacomo Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria Puccini (1858-1924) was, next to Verdi, the most influential opera composer that has ever lived. He is the author of La Boheme, Tosca, and Madame Butterfly all of which are still the most performed operas worldwide.

20th Century
During the 20th century, Italy, as is case with other European countries, imported many musical styles, mostly from the US. In the first half of the century fascist regime tried to root out these western influences and impose pure Italian music. Government`s repression was to little effect because somehow American jazz and blues melodies managed to become a part of Italian popular music. In 1951, the first Sanremo Festival was held in the city of Sanremo in the north-western part of Italy. It is a musical contest that has been organized annually, and many of the contestants, such as Eros Ramazzotti and Anna Oxa, became stars after their performance at the festival. It also served as the model for the Eurovision Song Contest first held in 1956 in Lugano, Switzerland. In the last few decades, three of the most popular Italian singer-songwriters also became internationally acclaimed artists. They are Eros Ramazzotti, Zucchero (born Adelmo Fornaciari), and Jovanotti (born Lorenzo Cherubini). Eros Ramazzotti became popular in the mid-1980s after performing at the Sanremo Festival. In subsequent years he competed several times and won once more. His music can be characterized as pop-music with light and catchy melodies and non-demanding lyrics. Since the 1990s he has collaborated with many international stars, such as Tina Turner, Joe Cocker, Cher, Anastacia, Luciano Pavarotti, and thus made a name for himself. Zucchero, meaning sugar in Italian, started his career in the 1970s but did not gain very much success until the mid-1980s. In 1988 his album Blue`s became the best-selling album in Italy making Zucchero one of the most popular Italian singers. In the following years he managed to establish himself in the world of music, at home and abroad. He collaborated with some of the greatest musicians in history, like Eric Clapton and Miles Davis.

Sunset in Sanremo.

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Music of Italy

Jovanotti`s music is a bit more progressive than Zucchero`s or Ramazzotti`s. Many of his songs are influenced by hip hop and he also dabbled in electronic music, mainly in italo house which became popular in the 1980s. The instrument that is typical for this kind of house music is a piano. Jovanotti composed an italo house single in the 1990s under the name Gino Latino. Jovanotti was not the only singer whose work was influenced by hip hop. In the 1980s hip hop music began its slow but steady rise in popularity. It started within something called centri sociali, meaning social centers in Italian. These centri sociali cropped up across Italy during the 1980s as a reaction to the current political and economic situation in the country. Young people dissatisfied with the government`s treatment started occupying old and abandoned buildings bringing them back to life. These sites became community centers where young people could gather and share their ideas. One of these ideas was hip hop which was a form of venting for the Italian youth. Through music, they expressed their anger at the social state in which Italy had found itself during the eighties. Italian hip hop is rooted in African American hip hop and reggae and lyrics are mostly political. During the nineties, hip hop started to emerge from the underground scenes of the centri sociali and began to make its way to the mainstream music. Political radicalism became moderate and acceptable to every day people not connected to the extremism of the centri sociali. Singers like the duo Articolo 31 helped to commercialize hip hop by way of using catchy tunes and not so intensely political lyrics. Other notable Italian hip hop artists are Sottotono, Neffa, Piotta, Capparezza, and many others. When it comes to rock music, Italy has a long tradition starting from the early 1960s.Like the rest of the world at that time Italians also experimented with different styles like psychedelic rock in the sixties, punk rock in the seventies, progressive, heavy metal, hardcore, alternative rock from the eighties onwards. One of the most popular Italian rockers in the eighties was Gianna Nannini. She managed to reach international fame and her work influenced many a striving Italian singer who would later themselves. She was also one of the first charismatic female rock performers in Italy and thus entering the mainly testosterone dominated world of rock`n roll. Progressive rock in Italy was conceived at the beginning of the 1970s. Progressive rock was chiefly a British product with bands such as Genesis, Pink Floyd, Jethro Tull, and the Moody Blues as its major proponents. Its roots can found in psychedelic rock of the sixties. The main characteristic of progressive rock is a mixture of influences from different sources such as classical music, jazz, and later electronic music. Italian progressive bands that had some success before completely vanishing from the music scene are Premiata Forneria Marconi (PFM), Banco del Mutuo Soccorso, Cervello, Museo Bosenbach, and many others. In the past few decades Italian music has come to be greatly diversified. Many different musical styles thrive on Italian soil. Heavy metal music is one them. Some of the bands have even managed to reap international success, Lacuna Coil for example. Other prominent bands such as Rhapsody of Fire and Catarrhal Noise stayed famous within Italian borders.

Lorenzo Cherubini, AKA Jovanotti.

Fun Fact: Since the end of World War II, almost 60 governments came to and went from power in Italy.

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Literature of Italy

Literature of Italy
World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Popular Culture Arts Literature

Roman literature, also known as Latin literature, is usually divided into several periods. The early or Old Latin period is the period before 75 BC and not much is left from that time except for some plays written by Plautus and Terence. The period of Classical Latin comes next. It is a time when Roman literature was at its best. The Classical period is also divided into the Golden Age and the Silver Age. Among the many writers of prose and poetry of the Golden Age the best known are Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Cicero, and Vitruvius. Most of these writers used already established Greek forms so Roman literature greatly resembled the literature of their Greek predecessors. For example, Virgil`s Aeneid is an epic poem structured like Homer`s Odyssey. The Silver Age of Latin literature spans the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, and is commonly taken to represent a decline in the quality of literary works. The most notable authors from this period whose works survived are Pliny the Elder and his nephew, Pliny the Younger. During the Middle Ages most of these writers were forgotten or lost, but with the advent of the Renaissance many were resurrected and highly praised. For example, Ovid`s Metamorphoses became the source of inspiration for many painters and sculptors, and Vitruvius` De Architectura was used as an architectural textbook in the early Renaissance. Another thing happened during those dark Medieval times. Sometimes in the 13th century native Italian language began to emerge from a great bulk of early European dialects.

Dante is considered to be the father of Italian literature.

The year 1230 is important for the development of Italian literature and language. In that year the Sicilian School was established. It was a literary experiment approved by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor. A small group of Sicilian poets gathered at his court to produce poetry. This School was important in that it created the first standard Italian language. Religious poetry was also abundant in the 13th century. The most famous verses were those written by St Francis of Assisi. The 13th century is also the time when prose writing was born. One of the oldest texts written in prose is a work of scientific investigation in astronomy and geography by Ristoro d`Arezzo called Composizione del Mondo. Novels produced during that period were based on French examples, but they are not of high quality as their French counterparts. A concept of courtly love appeared during the Middle Ages, more precisely, sometimes in the 11th century. It was a concept that included the elements of earthly sexual desire and a desire to reach high levels of spirituality. This idea was conceived in France and it quickly spread across the rest of Europe in the form of love poems performed by the troubadours, or trovatori in Italy.

Dante, Petrarca and Boccaccio


Towards the end of the 13th century a new school of poetry took the lead in creating new poetic forms and even language. It all began in Tuscany. Four great poets emerged from the shadows of the Middle Ages to take Italian literature to the next level. They are Lapo Gianni, Guido Cavalcanti, Cino da Pistoia, and Dante Alighieri. This new way of writing included a more philosophical view of life and less courtly love-style poems. Cavalcanti`s poetry was infused with metaphysical talk which elevated his work and paved the way for a more demanding literature. Dante (c.1265-1321) was born in Florence and is considered to be the father Italian literature and the starting point of the Renaissance literature. He was born into a respected Florentine family who were politically active, so Dante was destined to become a public figure. Besides poetry, he also dabbled in politics, but to little effect. Nevertheless, his involvement in the Florentine politics almost cost him his life and resulted in him and his family being exiled from Florence. This happened because he was chosen as one of the delegates who were sent to Rome to make peace with the Pope. Peace had been disturbed due to internal fights between the White Guelphs, who wanted less papal influence, and the Black Guelphs, who supported the Pope. Eventually the White Guelphs expelled the Black Guelphs from the city which enraged the Pope who planned to attack Florence. Dante was a member of the White Guelph faction. While Dante was in Rome, Black Guelphs entered the city of Florence and regained the power. Dante was sentenced to two years of exile and in addition he had to pay a hefty fine. He refused, so the Black Guelph government exiled him for life. All of these events were important for the creation of his masterpiece, the Commedia Divina (the Divine Comedy). During the initial time of his exile he was in Rome, and later he settled in Verona, but he spent the final years of his life in Ravenna where his remains still remain.
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The Divine Comedy was written between 1308 and 1321. It is an epic poem describing the afterlife of the poet who travels through the nine circles of Hell in the company of the Roman poet Virgil, and later comes to Purgatory, and finally ends up in Paradise. Each section consist of thirty three cantos with the initial introductory canto that completes the structure of one hundred cantos. On his journey through Hell he realizes that Hell consists of nine circles, each worse than the previous one with the ninth circle reserved for the most wicked sinners, such as traitors of all kinds. The center of Hell is occupied by Satan himself who was punished for having the audacity to go against God. Everything he sees on his way to the pit of the earth is founded in Dante`s real life. The whole story is actually an allegory, a way in which Dante revenged against his trespassers. Every wrong that was inflicted upon him, every person who was the cause of his troubles is properly punished in his narrative. After they manage to get out of Hell, the poet and Virgil arrive to Purgatory that is populated with sinners whose sins are related to the seven deadly sins, but who will eventually go to Heaven. Purgatory itself is constructed of seven terraces each responsible for the purging of sins in that category. When the poet finally reaches Heaven, Virgil disappears because he resides in Limbo, the first circle of Hell, and as such is denied entrance to Paradise. From then on, he is guided by Beatrice, his embodiment of a perfect woman, an eternal inspiration and a guardian angel. Heaven, like Hell, consists of nine parts that are spherical in shape. Souls in Heaven are ordered according to the four cardinal virtues and the three theological virtues. The cardinal virtues are prudence, temperance, fortitude, and justice. The theological virtues are faith, hope and love. In the end, the poet is granted the honor to stand before god himself and accept his his gift of understanding the ways of the world. Other than The Divine Comedy, Dante also wrote La Vita Nuova, meaning The New Life. It is collection of literary works consisting of both poetry and prose. It is dedicated to Beatrice Portinari, who was the love of Dante`s life, even though he only new her vaguely. La Vita Nuova is a work that was written in the medieval tone of courtly love. Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374), was born in Arezzo, Tuscany. He is said to be responsible for the birth of humanism in literature primarily, and later in other arts too, and a general 19th century vision of Dante`s Inferno by Gustave Dore. interest in ancient Roman writers as well. Some of his works are even written in Latin because he had been such a devout student of Roman history. His epic Africa is a work celebrating the life of Scipio Africanus, a Roman general who defeated Hannibal of Carthage. He was a prolific writer and his interests transcended the mere world of love poetry. His opus includes letters to his contemporaries, to significant people of the past like Cicero or Virgil, treatises, biographies, and other literary forms. Even though he wrote a great deal of other works, he will always be remembered for his Canzoniere. It is a collection containing 366 poems mostly dedicated to Laura who was, like Dante`s Beatrice, an idealized source of inspiration and her love forever unattainable. This collection of poems is important because Petrarch perfected the form of the sonnet that remained the official form till the appearance of the Shakespearean, or Elizabethan sonnet in the 16th century. Petrarch was honored during his lifetime by becoming the first poet laureate after the tradition was abolished owing to the fall of the Roman Empire. Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), was an early humanist, like Petrarch. The place of his birth is not certain. Some say he was born in Paris but most of the scholars dismiss this theory and claim that he was probably born somewhere in Tuscany. Anyway, he was raised in Florence and later moved to Naples. Prior to writing the Decameron, his most famous work, he wrote several poems and works of prose. He started to work on the Decameron in 1349 and finished by 1353. It is a collection of one hundred stories told by ten different people who fled Florence and hid in a villa in the countryside in order to escape the Black Death. The telling of stories was a way to pass the time. There were certain rules that the storytellers had to follow. For example, each day had a theme, but only a character by the name of Dioneo, who always told the last story of the day, was granted the privilege to choose a topic to his liking because he was the most skilled storyteller of the group that consisted of three men and seven women. All of these stories have a common denominator. They parody the Catholic Church and all of them have a medieval tone that can be discerned in the use of medieval themes, such as the workings of the wheel of fortune. The influence of the Decameron transcended time and space making its way into the future literatures of many European nations. The works of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio are not only important for their stylistic innovations, but also for the development of modern Italian language. From the 14th century onwards, the Tuscan dialect, in which these works were written, took precedence over other Italian dialects thus leading to the creation of the Italian language that we know today.During the 14th century, a plethora of imitators tried their luck on the literary scene. Some imitated Petrarch`s patriotic poetry, some took the form of Boccaccio`s Decameron, but for a long period of time there were no literary works that could be praised for their originality.

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Literature of Italy

15th and 16th Century


Fifteenth century poets were influenced by ancient Greek and Roman poets to a greater extent. This is seen in the works of Lorenzo de Medici, also known as Lorenzo the Magnificent, and Poliziano. The two of them wrote poetry that was a combination of contemporary Italian poetic expression and classical Greek and Roman poetry. Poliziano is also notable for his play Orfeo. 15th century also saw a rise in the writing of treatises, most often by artists and architects such as Leon Battista Alberti, Piero della Francesca, and Leonardo da Vinci. By the end of the 15th century, Italian literature had taken a more sophisticated form combining elements from antiquity and popular literature of the day. It was a time when some of the greatest Italian writers burst upon the literary scene enriching the history of human kind with remarkable works of art. Among the greatest are Pietro Aretino, Baldassare Castiglione, Niccolo Macchiavelli, and Ludovico Ariosto. Macchiavelli owes his fame, or maybe notoriety, principally to his political treatise The Prince, written in 1513. It is one of the "how to" books that were very popular during that time. It is almost a textbook on how to attain power and stay in power. One of the most famous "how to" books was Il Cortegiano, or The Courtier, written by Baldassare Castiglione. It was published in 1528 and became one of the most widely read works of the 16th century, translated in several languages. It was a textbook on how to be an ideal man of court who possesses great learning and intellectual abilities. Ludovico Ariosto is best known for his epic poem Orlando Furioso, or Orlando Enraged, written in 1516, and is still one of the longest epic poems in the history of European literature. The influence of this work is immense. Many future writers drew their inspiration from Ariosto`s epic. Edmund Spenser, William Shakespeare, Lord Byron, to mention a few. Another great poet of the 16th century was Torquato Tasso, who wrote an heroic poem Gerusalemme Liberata, or Jerusalem Delivered, famous for its flamboyant style that was characteristic for the later period of Baroque poetry. This new style, which included an excessive use of every figure of language, was best exemplified in the work of Giambattista Marino, a Neapolitan born in 1569. His long poem Adone was indicative of a new way of writing that was becoming very popular throughout Europe. Many works of this kind of poetry are often considered to be a mere form without any substance. For the most part, Marino was to blame for this kind of exaggeration exhibited in the 17th century poetry. His influence was so great that scholars of later ages coined a term that best described this sort of poetry, Marinism.

Enlightenment, Neoclassicism and Romanticism


In the 18th century, a movement called the Enlightenment swept through Europe. Italy was no exception. The main characteristic of that period of European history was the emphasis on the reign of Reason, with capital R. One of Italy`s greatest 18th thinkers was Giambattista Vico, whose principal contribution to the overall European Enlightenment was his investigation of laws that govern the events that in turn create human history. Italy`s main poetic figure in these times was Giuseppe Parini who rid his poetry of the excessiveness of the previous period and broke free from Petrarch`s influence. His poems are filled with subtle irony and satire which are used to pass judgment on his contemporaries` way of life. In the second half of the 18th century, Italian literature was greatly influenced by the tenets of the French Revolution. A stronger sense of patriotism and an aspiration for a united Italy began to infiltrate the minds Lorenzo de' Medici and the works of Italian authors. Ugo Foscolo was one such writer whose work exhibited a desire to fuse the sublime modernity of his age with the classical manner. A few other notable classicists were Vincenzo Monti, who translated Iliad, Carlo Botta, who wrote a History of Italy, Pietro Colletta, and Pietro Giordani. At the beginning of the 19th century, a movement called Romanticism spread across the European continent. It was a movement that rebelled against the adoration of reason from the previous century. Romantic poets, writers, and painters marveled at nature and emphasized emotion as the prime source of inspiration. Italy`s most prominent Romantic writer and poet was Alessandro Manzoni. Unlike the rest of Europe, Manzoni`s Romanticism had a different feeling to it. His best known novel, The Betrothed, is a historical novel but with a sense of realism that was to become prevalent in the rest of Europe a few decades later.

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Giacomo Leopardi was another poet who aspired to greatness. He was a bit younger than Manzoni, and he also died young after leading a tragic life filled with illness and disappointment. He started writing at an early age and was very prolific. When he was only eighteen years old, he translated parts of Aeneid and Odyssey. Leopardi was not only a poet, he also wrote philosophical works such as Zibaldone di pensieri in which he explained the origins of his nihilism. He was greatly disappointed in the complete reliance on reason and the rejection of imaginary worlds of religion and myth. Prior to the revolutions of 1848, Italian literature became political. Writers and poets that best exemplified that period were Giuseppe Giusti, Vincenzo Gioberti, Francesco Guerrazzi, and Cesare Balbo. Some of them used the form of the history novel to deal with the enemies of the Italian freedom, some of them used history to the same effect. After a decade or so, political writing gave way to other forms of literary expression such as the psychological novel or the novel of intrigue. Women as well started to be more appreciated, especially in poetry and some of them managed to become respected authors, for example Ada Negri and Vittoria Aganoor. In the second half of the 19th century, another kind of literature became prevalent. It was called the verist literature and it was characterized by the rejection of the preceding period`s obsession with establishing a grandiose national history. Authors writing in this style propagated the usage of a simpler language in the service of realism. This included writing in dialects. Giovanni Verga was one of the leading novelists of this new style.

Portrait of Alessandro Manzoni.

20th century
In the first half of the 20th century, Italian literature showed great diversity. One of the most notorious poets of this period was Gabriele D`Annunzio who was a fervent promoter of Italian fascism, which left a lasting stain on his literary work. Other than that, he was an accomplished playwright and novelist. Another literary figure was important for the development of Italian literature at the beginning of the 20th century. That was Italo Svevo whose real name was Ettore Schmitz. The novel that made him popular, Confessions of Zeno, was written under the influence of Sigmund Freud`s method of psychoanalysis. It was probably one of the first such novels. During this tumultuous period of European history, Italy followed the artistic trends that were cropping up across the rest of Europe. Futurism was one of the movements that fall into the category of modernism. Its founder and most outspoken proponent was the controversial poet and novelist Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, whose opus, like that of D`Annunzio, is forever tainted because of his political involvement on fascism`s side. Benedetto Croce was an important figure in that he left numerous writings on philosophy, history, and literary criticism. He was the one who, after a long period of obscurity, discovered the work of the before mentioned philosopher Giambattista Vico. Croce emphasized the crucial role of intuition in art. Unlike Marinetti and D`Annunzio, he was opposed to fascism and a true believer in free will. The interbellum period is marked by one of the greatest modernist playwrights and novelists, Luigi Pirandello. He became one of the most revered authors of the 20th century owing to his play Six Characters in Search of an Author, published in 1921. It is a play about six people in search of independent identities. He revolutionized theater by bringing in fresh dramatic tools that helped in making the relationship between the audience and actors more interactive. Pirandello won the Nobel Prize in 1934. When World War II ended, Italy was exhausted after years of fascist tyranny but with a sense of new found freedom. A new kind of realism emerged from this situation. This style was dubbed neorealism and it manifested itself in film as well. One of the first writers to accept and develop this style was Carlo Levi, who wrote about the hardships of southern Italian farmers. In their effort to present a realistic image of the postwar Italy, Mario Soldati and Cesare Pavese fall into the category of neorealist authors.

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Some of the novels written by this generation of writers were adapted for the silver screen. One of the most famous adaptations was The Leopard (Il Gattopardo, in Italian), written by Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa. The film was directed by the celebrated Italian director Luchino Visconti, with the cast of international stars including Burt Lancaster, Alain Delon, and Claudia Cardinale. Among other prominent postwar authors such as Natalia Ginzburg, Primo Levi, Dino Buzzati, and others, the most famous one was Italo Calvino whose stories transcended the realism of every day life. He began his career in the neorealist vein, but later turned to the world of magic realism. His novels abound in magical beauty unseen before in Italian literature. During the 1980s, Italy, like many other European countries, succumbed to the forceful onslaught of international postmodernism. It was, or still is, an all-inclusive movement that puts emphasis on the world as melting pot in which history is fused with present, the difference between high-brow and low-brow literature is abolished, elements of pop-culture merge with high culture. One of the most renowned Italian novelists that contributed to international postmodernism is Umberto Eco, whose The Name of the Rose is rated among the best novels of the late 20th century. Among the most celebrated Italian poets of the late 20th century, Antonio Porta holds the highest position.

Front cover of Umberto Eco`s The name of the rose.

A scene from Boccaccio's Decameron, by J. W. Waterhouse.

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Visual Arts in Italy

Visual Arts in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Popular Culture Arts Visual Arts

Italy is the cradle of Western art. Even though Greece is the actual birthplace, it was the Romans who nurtured it and laid the grounds for later development.

Ancient Period
In the age of the Roman Republic, c. 509-44 BC, artistic ideas were mainly expressed through architecture and sculpture. Although painting was also popular, not much of it is left due to its more fragile medium. During this period most works of Roman sculpture were copies of their Greek predecessors, but with the advent of the Imperial Age, c. 44 BC-476 AD, Roman art began to break away from the influence of the Greeks. The innovation manifested itself in the form of the bust and a more naturalistic depiction in portraiture. Naturalism was virtually impossible in Greek art since Greeks considered art to be the means for expressing higher ideas of beauty, honor, and virtue whereas Romans` attitude toward art was more secular. This is why Roman art had a completely different purpose than the art of Greece. Roman emperors exploited art, especially the portrait bust, for self-promotion and other forms of political propaganda.

The ruins of Colosseum.

Narrative Relief

The emperors' appetite for grandeur resulted in the development of narrative art of monumental sizes completely devoid of spirituality that was a characteristic of Greek art. Two of the most famous monuments celebrating imperial personages are the Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace) and Trajan's Column. Ara Pacis is a rectangular marble structure decorated with friezes depicting the first Roman Emperor Augustus and his family. The altar was constructed in honor of Augustus's triumphs that brought about peace in the entire Empire. Trajan's Column was erected to honor the Emperor Trajan for his Dacian conquest. What makes this column special is the spiral relief depicting Trajan's success in battle against the Dacians (a tribe that occupied the area of today's Romania).

Portrait
Tradition of portraits resulted from an ancient custom. When the mail head of the family died, a wax image was made of his face which was then kept in a family shrine. These heads were then displayed at funeral processions. Marble portraits had probably been the result of a desire to leave a more lasting record of one's ancestors. Specific Roman style matured in the first century BC but not much is left from the Republican era whereas the Imperial Age had been a prolific period. Portraits were many and diverse, usually a mixture of simple Republican ancestral images and the Greek-inspired celebration of nobility and emperors. In the later period of the Empire physical likeness had become less important than manifestation of inner spirituality. The most famous of these late portraits is the head of Constantine the Great, the first Christian Emperor.

Painting
Wall painting had flourished for about 200 years, and after that period it seems that the development and progress of form stopped. Almost all of the surviving works can be found in the ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum, towns that were destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. There are four styles The altar panel of Ara Pacis. of Roman wall painting. The so-called First Style appeared in about 100 BC but was soon replaced by a more progressive Second Style. The specific qualities of this style are depiction of architecture in perspective and landscapes. Best preserved examples can be found in a villa at Boscoreale, near Naples, and in the Villa of Mysteries, near Pompeii. The Third Style is characteristic for its preference of decorative and intense coloring of surfaces. The Fourth Style combined the qualities of its precedents to create an intricate web of mythological scenes, landscapes, decorative panels, and architectural vistas.
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The Middle Ages


The trend toward symbolism and spirituality that appeared in the late period of the Roman Empire continued in the following centuries. Medieval art is mainly concerned with conveying religious messages without regard to life-like representation of nature. Byzantine art had a lot of influence on European art after the fall of western Roman Empire in 476 AD. This art was simple and non-illusionistic, that is to say, the artists did not use any of the painting techniques that would enable them to depict a three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface. The best examples of Byzantine art can be found in San Vitale in Ravenna, and St Mark's Basilica in Venice. During this period of history, Europe was one big construction site. Cathedrals and churches were the focuses of artistic production. Painting and sculpture only served to emphasize the magnificence of architecture. Italian art was no different. During the 13th century social order had slowly begun to change which reflected on the philosophy and art of the day. Individual artists emerged from the anonymous mass of medieval craftsmen and artisans. The first three major artists of the Middle Ages were Cimabue, Duccio, but it was Giotto di Bondone (c. 1267-1337) who completely changed the course of painting.He rid his works of the Byzantine influence that had been predominant in the preceding centuries. He started using shadows and foreshortening to create the illusion of three dimensional space. Giotto`s major works are the frescoes in the Cappella degli Scrovegni in Padua and the Life of St Francis cycle in the Upper Church of the Basilica di San Francesco in Assisi. Giotto's influence spread quickly and many schools sprang up across the country. One of those schools was the Sienese School whose major proponents were Simone Martini (1284-1344) and the Lorenzetti brothers, Pietro The Second Style wall painting from a villa at (1280-1348) and Ambrogio (1290-1348). Ambrogio`s most notable work is Boscoreale. Allegories of Good and Bad Government in the Museo Civico in Siena. This is one of the first secular paintings in Italy, and for that matter in Europe, since the fall of the Roman Empire. Unfortunately, the brothers' careers were cut short in 1348 when the plague epidemic known as the Black Death ravaged most of the European continent.

Fun Fact: Macaroni was traditionally considered a simple, down to earth meal, but it gained some prestige during '60s and '70s, making it more of a sophisticated meal.

Giotto's fresco from the Cappella degli Scrovegni.

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Renaissance in Italy

Renaissance in Italy
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The early Renaissance style began to flourish in Florence, Tuscany, in the 15th century and made its way to other corners of Europe by the 16th century. It was a time of exploration in all aspects of life. The term renaissance means rebirth in French. The new spirit of humanism based on the long forgotten ideas from antiquity manifested itself first in architectural and sculptural innovations. Lorenzo Ghiberti`s bronze door panel for the baptistery is taken to be the sculptural work that marked the beginning of the Renaissance. In the domain of painting, Masaccio`s 1428 wall painting of the Holy Trinity, the Virgin, St John and Donors in Santa Maria Novella in Florence is taken to be the first work of art done following the rules of linear (geometric) perspective. Architect Filippo Brunelleschi is credited for being the first to expound the principles of linear perspective which enabled the artists in the years to come to find their own ways of developing that idea even further. This novel approach to art and life revealed numerous possibilities for artists and intellectuals alike after a long period of oppressive religious thought. This is why secular images in painting began to merge with religious ones. The best example of this fusion is the Flagellation of Christ by one of the major masters of the 15th century, Piero della Francesca (c.1420-1492). What is specific about this painting is the fact that the flagellation takes place in the background while the foreground is reserved for Piero`s patron, Oddantonio da Montefeltro. Other than being a painter, Piero della Francesca was also a mathematician. His knowledge and mastery of mathematics made him a perfect combination of artist and scientist. This is characteristic of most of the 15th century painters, sculptors, and architects.

Leonardo da Vinci`s self-portrait.

Free of constraints from the previous centuries, art made a glorious come-back which resulted in prolific artistic production. 15th century Tuscany spawned numerous artists, some more talented than others. A few of the names worth mentioning are Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510) who painted the famous Renaissance masterworks Primavera and The Birth of Venus; Andrea Mantegna (c.1431-1506) who produced his masterpieces for the Marquis of Mantua, Ludovico II Gonzaga; Paolo Uccello (1397-1475) famous for his painstakingly meticulous application of perspective in order to create depth. His best achievements are his battle scenes such as the Battle at San Romano; Fra Filippo Lippi; Domenico Ghirlandaio, and many others. At the beginning of the 16th century Rome and Venice replaced Florence as the centers of artistic production. This was due to the growing power of the Vatican and Venetian merchants. Every major artist of that period was commissioned by the Pope or a wealthy art patron from Venice. Art became a fast growing market and many artists, such as Michelangelo, cashed in on their talent. The other two paradigmatic figures of the 16th century art are Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) and Raphael Santi. What characterized them was their versatility. In addition to being masters of painting, they also excelled in sculpture and architecture. Period between 1490s and 1600 is usually classified as the High Renaissance. This was the time when 15th century theories on perspective and optics were put in practice in a different way. Leonardo da Vinci`s fresco the Last Supper in Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan is said to be the work of art that introduced the principles of of High Renaissance.

Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci was born in the Tuscan village of Vinci on April 15 1452. In 1466 he entered the workshop of Andrea Verrocchio in Florence were he mastered different skills such as painting, sculpting, drawing and modeling. In 1480s and 1490s he was in Milan where two of his most famous works were created - the Virgin of the Rocks and The Last Supper. During his stay in Milan he also worked on several other projects not related to art such as city defense. Leonardo, unlike Botticelli or some other 15th c. masters, did not create his figures by clearly outlining them on the surface. Instead, his method of modeling was that of chiaroscuro (Italian word for "light and dark"). He used light and shadow to create three-dimensional bodies differently from his predecessors. Figures in a composition are no longer distinctly divided by lines, but permeate in order to create a new pictorial unity. Another of Leonardo`s painting techniques was sfumato - a kind of mist that covers the entire composition making it look delicate and soft. Towards the end of his life, Leonardo had become more interested in scientific research. He was also a talented architect although none of his projects were ever realized. He died in France on May 2, 1519.

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Renaissance in Italy

Michelangelo Buonarroti
Michelangelo was born in 1475 in Caprese, Tuscany. He was primarily a sculptor. His painting and buildings are a work of a sculptor. Figures in his paintings have a sculptural quality not seen in other painters of the day. His sculptures seem to break free from the confines of a marble block. This liberation of the figure is best seen in some of his later, unfinished pieces like the Awakening Prisoner. His most accomplished work in painting is of course, the Sistine Chapel, not just the ceiling executed in 1508-1512, but also his vision of the Last Judgment on the altar wall painted in 1534.

Raphael Santi
Raphael managed to combine elements from Leonardo and Michelangelo creating his own unique style. Figures in his compositions are dramatic like Michelangelo`s but at the same time serene and poetic like Leonardo`s. In 1508, he was commissioned by the Pope, Julius II, to decorate the rooms at the Vatican Palace. The result is a cycle of frescoes that depict historical and biblical scenes, allegories of theology, philosophy, law, and the arts.The most famous fresco from this cycle is the School of Athens, a masterpiece that perfectly embodies the spirit of the High Renaissance. He died at the age of 37 in Rome in 1520. In 1527, the Sack of Rome (the troops of Charles V entered Rome and defeated papal forces) marked the end of the High Renaissance, and ushered in a new style that would later be dubbed Mannerism. This style was short-lived but nevertheless left its mark in the history of art.

Raphael Santi, one of the prominent figures of 16th century art.

Sculpture
As stated before, Renaissance art practically began with Ghiberti`s relief for the Baptistery doors in Florence, but the greatest sculptural innovator of the 15th century was Donatello. The best example of his genius is his early sculpture of St Mark for Orsan Michele in Florence. It was the first statue since antiquity that could stand by itself, not bound by architectural frames. Another groundbreaking statue is Donatello`s David, a life size nude meant to be displayed in the open, something that was unimaginable in the Middle Ages. Just as Donatello dominated the 15th century, the same thing happened in the 16th century with Michelangelo. A few other talented and accomplished sculptors appeared in the 16th century but Michelangelo`s personality was omnipresent looming over every sculptural project in Italy. Other great artists of that time were Benvenuto Cellini and Giambologna. Beside his sculptural achievements, Cellini was famous, better to say notorious, for his autobiography. Facts and fiction are intertwined, and truth is hard to discern. He boasts of having committed four murders, of performing satanic rituals in the Colosseum, and of his great artistic achievements.

The Rape of the Sabines.


(Photo by: Ricardo Andre Frantz)

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Baroque in Italy

Baroque in Italy
World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Popular Culture Arts Visual Arts Baroque

The Council of Trent (1545-1563) changed many things especially in the representation of religious scenes in painting and sculpture. Depictions of martyrs, characters from the Old and the New Testaments, Jesus and his family were made more attractive in order to dazzle the impressionable common folk. Figures became more dynamic and their surroundings more elaborate for the purpose of creating grandiose works of art that speak to the illiterate. This larger-than-life effect was achieved by the use sharper contrast between light and shadow, intense and dramatic color, and heightened rhythm in compositions. This flare for drama in the Baroque art was something that was subdued during the age of reason in the Renaissance period.

Caravaggio
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (1571-1610) was one of the most controversial figures in the history of art. An artist of unquestionable and unsurpassed talent, but with a difficult and unpredictable temper, always ready to start a sword fight. He came to Rome in 1592 and made a name for himself a few years later. His work is characterized by the use of dramatic chiaroscuro (also called tenebrism), ordinary people as models that were represented in a naturalistic manner. This naturalism of his was often considered offensive because he employed it in the depiction of saints and religious scenes. Nevertheless, he was the most famous artist of the day in Rome. In 1606, he killed a young man, probably in a brawl, and was forced to flee Rome. First, he went to Naples but after a few months he left for Malta. Due to his tendency to cause trouble wherever he would go, Malta proved to be a place not suited for his temper. After a short stay in Sicily, Caravaggio returned to Naples where he hoped to procure a pardon for his crime. In 1610 he was finally granted pardon so he set out for Rome but he never made it to Rome. He died in mysterious circumstances and his body was never found. His most famous works are Judith Beheading Holofernes, Death of the Virgin, and paintings at the Contarelli Chapel, San Luigi dei Francesi in Rome.

Caravaggio`s use of chiaroscuro emphasized drama in Baroque painting.

Other painters
Annibale Caracci (1560-1609) was born in Bologna where his first works were created. In the 1580s he opened a painter`s studio together with his brother Agostino and his cousin Ludovico Caracci, but his most accomplished work is the Palazzo Farnese ceiling frescoes in Rome executed in 1597-1608. It is a cycle that consists of scenes from the Greek mythology. Caracci`s oeuvre differs from Caravaggio`s in that it insists on the continuation of Renaissance ideals of beauty, unlike Caravaggio`s trend toward brutal naturalism. Artemisia Gentileschi was one of the few women who managed to get in to the all-boys club of art. She painted in the manner of Caravaggio. She was the daughter of the painter Orazio Gentileschi who worked in Rome. At the beginning of her career she was raped by Agostino Tassi, who worked with her father on a project. After Tassi refused to marry her, Artemisia`s father reported him to the authorities. After the trial that lasted for seven months Tassi was found guilty and sent to prison for a year. It is said that this experience made Artemisia`s art so energetic and violent, especially the painting Judith Slaying Holofernes. She also worked in Florence, Venice, Naples, and London. In Florence she became the first woman ever to be welcomed into the Academia del Disegno. Domenico Zampieri also known as Domenichino (1581-1641) was born in Bologna. He was the follower of the Caracci faction of Baroque painting. Together with Annibale he was one of the first landscape artists of the early Baroque period. Giovanni Francesco Barbieri (1591-1666) worked in Rome and Bologna. His painting was influenced by both the Bolognese school and Caravaggio`s naturalism. Guido Reni (1575-1642) was born in Bologna. In 1601 he moved to Rome to work with Caracci. One of his first solo projects was an altarpiece for St Peter`s, the Crucifixion of St Peter. He also worked in Naples but he soon returned to Bologna where he spent the remainder of his life. His paining is characterized by light and clear approach without any of Caravaggio`s deep inquiries of the human psyche.

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Baroque in Italy

Sculpture
Like painting and architecture, sculpture had also become more dynamic and dramatic. The calm rationalism of the Renaissance period was replaced with energetic figures in motion. Renaissance sculptors favored contemplative scenes whereas Baroque sculptors depicted their figures in action. Drapery was also an important participant in the drama of Baroque sculpture. Always flowing around a figure and intruding on the space that surrounds it, drapery was used to emphasize movement.

Gian Lorenzo Bernini


Bernini was among other things a prolific sculptor. His works range from biblical and mythological scenes to portrait busts and fountains. He was very much admired and considered a genius during his lifetime and even more so afterwards. Among his early masterpieces are Apollo and Daphne, a scene taken from Ovid`s Metamorphoses, and David. These sculptures are famous for their revolutionary aesthetic. The figures are shown in the most dramatic moment of the action. Daphne was caught in the moment when she turned into a tree, and David is captured hurling a stone at Goliath. A paradigmatic Baroque sculpture is Bernini`s the Ecstasy of St Teresa in the Cornaro Chapel of Santa Maria della Vittoria in Rome. This particular scene is taken from the autobiography of Teresa of Avila, a reformer of the Carmelite order canonized in 1622, where she described her visions and encounters with angels. And this is exactly what the sculpture shows. Teresa and a young, beautiful angel standing beside her. Bernini tried to convey the full extent of her divine joy upon seeing an angel sent from heaven as a proof of God`s immense love for the human
Some critics claim that Artemisia vented her repressed anger through her painting.

Bernini is also known for his fountains of which the most famous are the Fountain of the Triton and the Fountain of the Four Rivers in Rome.

The Fountain of Triton in Rome.

Fun Fact: There are more than 600 different kinds of pasta shapes produced worldwide.

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Contemporary Art in Italy

Contemporary Art in Italy


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Italians ruled the art scene for about four hundred years and this supremacy ended in the 18th century. The following two centuries (18th and 19th) were dominated by French and German art. During the 19th century Italy excelled in the field of music but painting, sculpture, and architecture did not abound in creative spirit. Before the outbreak of World War I, entire Europe had been overwhelmed with the feeling of modernity that resulted in the break with traditional forms in art. The two chief movements in modern Italian painting and sculpture were Futurism and Metaphysical painting.

Futurism

Memorial plaque for Marinetti

In the beginning, Futurism was not a political movement even though they were very patriotic and admired violence and war. In 1913, Marinetti wrote a political manifesto that clearly stated Italian independence from Austria. He and the rest of his following warmly welcomed the beginning of World War I, and some of them even joined the battle. Boccioni was killed in 1916. After the war, Futurism continued to exist but in a changed form. In 1918 Marinetti established the Futurist Political Party that was soon annexed to the National Fascist Party, and thus Marinetti became one of the first artists who supported Fascism. But this was a common practice in the first half of the 20th century. Many artists took a political stance, be it left or right.

Metaphysical Painting
An art movement that lasted from about 1909 till 1919. Giorgio de Chirico and Carlo Carra were the main creative forces within the movement. They used realistic depictions of objects - statues, city squares, people, buildings - in incongruent contexts making the painting look mysterious and dream-like. For example, de Chirico would juxtapose a Roman portrait and a glove with an urban landscape in the background. Metaphysical art was born out of the necessity to discover the unknown inner life of every day objects that we normally take for granted. In de Chirico`s paintings there is a separate reality that seems illogical from our point of view but it makes perfect sense within the composition. This dream-like and subconscious quality was later taken up by the Surrealism and developed even further.

Art After World War II


During the 1940s and 1950s painting and sculpture was dominated by a French style of abstract painting called Tachisme that was closely related to American Abstract expressionism. This style is characterized by wild brush strokes, dripping, burning of canvas, and use of non-painterly materials. This aggressive and destructive approach was a reaction to post-war madness that caused a sense of isolation among individuals. One of the major Italian proponents of Tachisme was Alberto Burri. Burri`s career started in a camp for the prisoners of war in 1944. After he was released in 1946, he moved to Rome and completely devoted himself to artistic expression. The lines between painting and sculpture are blurred in his work. He used materials such as burlap, plastic, and welded iron sheets. The characteristic of his painting is protrusion of burnt material into space which makes his works three-dimensional thus blurring the distinction between art forms. He was active for almost five decades during which time his creativeness never waned.

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Lucio Fontana did not belong to the same art movement as Burri. Instead he thought of a new "spatialist" art that investigated boundaries of mediums thus exploring the boundaries of art itself. In 1946 he published his White Manifesto where he declared his intention to combine sculpture, painting, and architecture in order to create an art that would be able to express the fourth dimension. Fontana called his experiments Concetti spaziali or Spatial Concepts. The most famous of his spatial experiments is a series of slashed and punctured canvases. By using this method he tried to emphasize the space behind the painting and to reinforce the idea that a painting is merely an object. In the 1960s the dominant art movement was Arte Povera which in Italian means poor art. The initiator of this movement was Germano Celant who was an art critic and a curator. The whole thing started in 1967 with a series of Celant`s texts and exhibitions that promoted a few young Italian artists who expressed themselves in this new mode. These artists used all sort of materials that they could come by such as rocks, dirt, scrap metal, rope. They chose these materials so they could prove that art is not bound by traditional, elitist concepts such as easel, paint, brush,chisel or any other tool of art. This art was also highly conceptual. Many artists belonged to this movement but the most famous ones are Luciano Fabro, Jannis Kounellis, Mario Merz, and Michelangelo Pistoletto. The work that best defined the efforts of this group of conceptual artists was a performance staged by Jannis Kounellis in 1969 in the Galleria l`Attico where he exhibited real horses.

Giogio de Chirico.
(Photo by: Carl van Vechten; PD)

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, after a period of the domination of conceptual art, artist began to return to form and principally figure. This desire to go back to a concrete and tangible art was manifested in many forms throughout Europe. In Italy this movement was called Transavanguardia. This word was invented by an Italian art critic, Achille Bonita Oliva. The best known members of this movement were Sandro Chia, Mimmo Paladino, Francesco Clemente, and Enzo Cucchi.

Photo of Lucio Fontana.


(Photo by: Lothar Wolleh; GFDL)

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Film and Theatre

Film and Theatre


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Film
During the first few years of the 20th century, three film companies took the lead in the process of creating the Italian cinema industry. These were Cines in Rome, Ambrosio in Turin, and Itala Film. In the beginning, Italians preferred to make films about famous people from the past like the Roman Emperors who left a mark on the entire European history, or some other influential figure. And so early Italian cinema abounds in films that portray the lives of Nero, Spartacus, Julius Caesar, Cleopatra, and other prominent historical figures. First national film stars emerged during this period as well. Lyda Borelli and Francesca Bertini became widely known and appreciated actresses, and Mario Caserini made a name for himself by directing several early masterpieces of Italian cinema including the first adaptation of Othello.

10 absolute must see Italian movies Toto, peppino, e...la malafemmina (1956) / Directed by Camillo Mastrocinque Pane e tulipani (2000) / Directed by Silvio Sordini Nuovo cinema paradiso (1988) / Directed by Giuseppe Tornatore Mamma Roma (1962) / Directed by Pier Paolo Pasolini Roma citta apperta (1945) / Directed by Roberto Rosselinni La vita e bella (1997) / Directed by Roberto Benigni Ladri di biciclette (1948) / Directed by Vittorio de Sica Il gattopardo (1963) / Directed by Luchino Visconti La dolce vitta (1960) / Directed by Federico Fellini Il Postino (1994) I Directed by Michael Radford

In the following years, Fascism dictated the rules on how to produce art. Benito Mussolini wanted to create a national art that would be grandiose and magnificent and able to overshadow any past achievements in that field. The only good thing that came out his megalomania was the establishment of Cinecitta. In 1937, Mussolini approved the building of a town that would be used only for filmmaking purposes. A site in southeast Rome was chosen for this great enterprise. In the meantime, Mussolini`s son, Vittorio, founded a production company that brought together a number of the most talented directors, actors, and writers. Prior to Italy`s capitulation, the studios were havily bombed by the allied forces, but Cinecitta recovered and became one of the most famous locations for filming, competing even with the Hollywood giants. Some of the biggest American films of the 1950s and 1960s were filmed at Cinecitta, one of them being Ben Hur. Over the years, Cinecitta has been associated with many directors and film stars who started their careers there and thus making the studios famous. Roberto Rossellini, Federico Fellini, Michelangelo Antonioni, Luchino Visconti, Sophia Loren, to mention a few. When the war ended Italian film, like literature, broke free from the shackles of the Fascist propaganda. Directors were free to show the war devastated Italy and all the poverty and misery that resulted from Mussolini`s dictatorship. The neorealist style was the order of the day. It was created by a group of directors and film critics in the 1940s and 1950s whose work had a huge influence on cinema throughout the world. Chief characteristics of this style are filming on location and not in a studio, depicting reality Most people associate Cinecitta with entire Italian film in a more naturalistic manner, to which end amateur actors were used for production, but in reality, it is just one of the many supporting roles. Directors wanted to show ordinary people`s struggle in studio sets in Italy. this new postwar world. One of the first neorealist films was Roberto Rossellini`s Rome, Open City, about Catholic-Communist joint forces that tried to oust the Nazis from Rome before American liberation. Another great director of this period of Italian film was Vittorio de Sica whose film the Bicycle Thieves is one of the paradigmatic achievements of the Italian neorealism. It is a story that is a critique of Italian society as a whole. Most of neorealist films were under the attack of both conservatives and left-wing parties. Neither of these two political options were satisfied with the crude representation of Italian reality.
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Film and Theatre

At the beginning of the 1950s, Italian audiences were beginning to be fed up with this style, so a lighter and more optimistic way was employed in the film making process. Comedy emerged as a legitimate form in which to express serious themes. Neorealism turned into pink neorealism, a name given to films with the same preoccupations as neorealist films but with a more optimistic tone. Federico Fellini started his career in the 1950s and came to be known as one of the most imaginative film directors of all times. His films are a bizarre combination of dream-like settings and personages that intrude on the reality in the most unexpected ways. The fantastic world of Fellini`s films influenced numerous directors worldwide such as Woody Allen, Martin Scorsese, Tim Burton, Pedro Almodovar, and many others. Michelangelo Antonioni`s films fall into the category of the best artistic achievements in the film industry. His work is often devoid of conversation and a general plot with characters who wander around with no particular motivation. These characters are usually members of upper middle class or intellectuals in search of meaningless pleasure that would, at least for a moment, disturb the emptiness and boredom of their lives. His work mostly influenced art films. He made a few films in English that are considered by some of his piers as masterpieces. In 1966, he made Blowup, starring Vanessa Redgrave and David Hemmings. This film owes its popularity partly to the explicit sex scenes. After this, he also made two other films in English. These are Zabriskie Point and The Passenger with Jack Nicholson, both of which did not manage to reap the same success as Blowup. Among other contributions to the history of cinema, Italians added two other genres specifically Italian. The spaghetti western and the giallo style of horror films. Spaghetti western originated in the 1960s. These films owe their name to the fact that most of the crew members were Italian and Spanish. Most of them were filmed in the Spanish region of Andalucia because it shares geographical similarities with the American West. The most common themes of these films were American-Mexican border disputes, lives of Mexican bandits and everything else that had to do with Mexico due to the fact that almost half of the actors were Spanish. The most famous Spaghetti Western director was Sergio Leone who made a few films with Clint Eastwood thus further popularizing this genre. The production of giallo horror films started in the 1960s and fully developed during the 1970s. The term giallo, meaning yellow in Italian, was borrowed from crime and horror novels that had yellow covers. Some of these films and their directors instantly acquired high reputation with a far-reaching influence. During the 1980s, Italian film was going through a some kind of artistic crisis because most of the films made Federico Fellini was one of the most in that period belong to the category of influential Italian directors. "trash films". As a whole, Italian (Photo by: New York World) authors did not achieve a general artistic excellence, but some individuals succeeded in enriching the world cinema. Bernardo Bertolucci made his The Last Emperor, and Sergio Leone once again showed his talent in Once upon a time in America.

World`s oldest film festival is the Venice Film Festival. It first started in 1932, on the island of Lido, in the Venetian archipelago. A Golden Lion, which is a symbol of Venice, is given to the best.

In the 1990s, Italian cinema got back on its feet. Some films even reaped international success, like Mediterraneo directed by Gabriele Salvatores who won the Oscar for Best Foreign Film in 1992. But the most popular Italian of the nineties was definitely Roberto Benigni, who won three Oscars in 1998 for his film Life is Beautiful.

Theater
Roman theater differed from Greek, unlike other art forms. The beginnings of Roman theater can be traced back to Etruscan theater. It was the Etruscans who passed on their specific theatrical forms to the Romans, together with many other things. It was during the Etruscan reign over the Romans in the 7th century BC that these religious festivals began to take shape of future Roman theater. Plays were incorporated into these festivals that also included carnival and circus performances. These festivities were called Ludi Romani, meaning Roman games. Historical records reveal that the first plays were performed in the mid-4th century. During the 3rd century BC, serious plays entered Roman theater when Livius Andronicus translated two Greek dramas for the festivities. He had also written some plays but they are not known to us today. All that is left of Roman theater are the works of Terence, Plautus and Seneca. Seneca`s plays left a lasting mark because his forms and powerful characters were taken over by 16th century playwrights, most notably Shakespeare and Marlowe. During the Middle Ages, music, architecture, and visual arts took precedence over theater. Most of theatrical performances were of religious content taken from the Bible. Medieval forms continued well into the Renaissance period because Italian humanists put more emphasis on theory than on concrete realizations of their musings. In the beginning, only the works of Roman dramatists were staged, such as Plautus and Seneca. There were no serious attempts at drama among Italian writers.
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The spread of written word was further intensified by the invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century. It was during the High Renaissance that the first great Italian playwrights emerged. Ludovico Ariosto wrote his first comedy at the beginning of the 16th century. Macchiavelli, best known for his work the Prince, also wrote a comedy called the Mandrake. During the second half of the 16th century, the period also known as Mannerism, form of the stage took precedence over the actual content of plays. Historical records show that lavish scenery and outrageous costumes were not uncommon. Some of the most extravagant performances had been held at the court of the Medici family in Florence. But theories of drama began to take shape in this period as well. Most of the theorists formulated their opinions referring to the works of Horace and Aristotle. The first permanent public theater was erected in Venice in 1565. In the 17th century opera became prevalent in theaters around Italy, but the second most popular form was Commedia dell`Arte. This form was specific for actors` improvisations, and plots focusing on love and intrigue.

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Ballet and Dancing in Italy

Ballet and Dancing in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Popular Culture Arts Ballet and Dancing

Ballet developed in the Italian Renaissance court. The word ballet is of French origin but it comes from the Italian word for balletto, a diminutive of ballo, meaning dance. The beginnings of ballet can be traced back to the end of the 15th century. It started off as an imitation of fencing, and it was further developed in France in the course of the next few centuries. During the 19th century, Russians took the lead in evolving and expanding the elements of ballet. There are three main ballet styles - classical ballet, neoclassical ballet, and contemporary ballet. Other than being the place of origin, Italy also contributed to the development of training methods. The famous Cecchetti method is named after Enrico Cecchetti (1850-1928), who was the creator of this strict method. He insisted on evolving dancers` independence from their teachers so they could become more self-sufficient and aware of their movements. The training in this method consists of an inflexible regime with unchanging set of exercises for every day of the week. The students must pass seven grades in order to take the diploma examinations that make them masters of ballet and qualify them to teach the Cecchetti method. The method has spread across the entire ballet world. There are a few versions that evolved from the original method, the most famous being the Australian and the American versions. The method is taught in the UK as well. One of the first and the most renowned ballet companies in Italy is the Corpo di Ballo del Teatro alla Scala in Milan. It is a company that is A graceful ballerina. primarily focused on traditional techniques and classical style. The official (Photo by: English Rose247) date of the founding of the company is the year 1778, but the forming of the group began during the Renaissance period at the court of the Sforza family. Many dancers who danced for the company managed to become internationally acclaimed artists, like Alessandra Ferri and Roberto Bolle. Enrico Cecchetti was at one time employee of the company as well. There is an alternative to the classical style company of Milan. Aterballetto is a contemporary ballet company founded in 1977 by Vittorio Biaggi. The headquarters of the company is in the the city of Reggio Emilia in the northeastern part of Italy. They have managed to achieve international fame. Their success is due to their ability to perform in different styles interchangeably.

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Architecture in Italy

Architecture in Italy
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Ancient Roman architecture, like everything else at that stage of development, owed much to its Greek progenitor. The Romans readily accepted Greek influence and developed it even further. Greeks did not use arches and vaults when constructing their buildings whereas Romans mastered and perfected these architectural elements (which they borrowed from the Etruscans).

Antiquity
The use of arch was indeed of great help in creating magnificent and even grander architecture than that of the Greeks. The usefulness of arch is best exemplified in the building of aqueducts - structures that were used to convey water from one place to another. Many Roman aqueducts are still standing all around Europe. The durability of Roman architecture owes much to the use of concrete. Although not a Roman invention (it was used in Mesopotamia), it was the Romans who perfected the technique for building on a monumental scale.

The use of concrete made possible the building of structures on a monumental scale.

Another technical innovation was the dome. The use of dome enabled architects to construct vaulted ceilings which in turn made the building of large covered spaces such as baths and basilicas possible. The best preserved examples of such constructions are the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla. Roman architecture was also revolutionary in the domain of urban planning. Romans introduced multi-story apartment blocks that were called insulae. Amphitheaters were constructed for public entertainment which included gladiator shows, executions, enactments of battles, either historical or fictitious, and dramas. They were round or oval in shape with the capacity up to 50 000 people. The largest and one of the best preserved is the Colosseum in Rome.The construction of the Colosseum began during the reign of the Emperor Vespasian of the Flavian dynasty in 70 AD, hence the name Amphitheatrum Flavium. It was finished ten years later. Structures for religious worship were also under this megalomaniacal influence. Pantheon in Rome is the perfect example of the Roman desire to make everything bigger and better. The word pantheon is of Greek origin meaning "temple of all gods". It was built around 125 AD under Emperor Hadrian. It is circular in shape with a Corinthian portico, but it is the dome that is the most fascinating element. Together with Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey, it is the largest dome preserved from antiquity. In 609 AD it was turned into a Christian church and has been one ever since.

Medieval Architecture
This was the time of gigantic Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals. Actually, Romanesque, as the name itself suggests, is just the continuation of Roman architectural forms but in a different context. It was a wide-spread phenomenon that lasted for about two hundred years, spanning the 11th and 12th centuries. Romanesque was succeeded by the Gothic that lasted for another two hundred years, longer in some parts of Europe. Italian architecture of that period was never so flamboyant like its French or German counterparts. It can be said that Roman influence never ceased to persist in Italy and that it just waited for the right social conditions to emerge again in all its glory. But there are some impressive examples of medieval architecture in Italy, especially in the north where French and German influences were stronger. Milan abounds in Romanesque and Gothic building of which the most famous ones are Sant Ambrogio, an 11th century church, and Milan Cathedral, also known as Duomo di Milano. It is one of the two largest Gothic cathedrals in the world. The other is the Cathedral of Seville in Spain. The building of the Duomo started in the 14th century and lasted till the 19th century, but technically the work is not yet finished. Romanesque churches in Rome that are worth mentioning are Santa Maria Maggiore, San Giovani in Laterano, San Paolo fuori le Mura. None of these churches are in their original state due to numerous adaptations over the centuries. Saint Mark`s Basilica in Venice, the cathedral of Venice, is the world-famous Italian Medieval building. It is also one of the finest examples of Byzantine architecture.
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Renaissance Architecture
The right social conditions appeared at the beginning of the 15th century. The Renaissance style began in Florence with the building of the new dome for the Cathedral of Florence. The dome was designed by Filippo Brunelleschi, commonly considered to be the first Renaissance architect. He was not satisfied with the Gothic disorder so he sought inspiration among Roman ruins. He observed that the architecture of ancient Rome followed mathematical rules in order to achieve symmetrical compositions. He devised a set of rules and applied them in his designs. His first architectural work was the Ospedale degli Innocenti (1419-1445) or Foundling Hospital. It was the first building that clearly stated its indebtedness to classical sources. Columns, capitals, and rounded arches refer to Roman Imperial architecture. His other notable commissions are the Pazzi Chapel, Santo Spirito di Firenze, Basilica di San Lorenzo di Firenze, and many others. Another great architect of the 15th century was Leon Battista Alberti. He was the quintessential Renaissance man since his interests were not confined solely to architecture. He was also a poet, linguist and philosopher. His most notable works are Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini, the facade of Santa Maria Novella in Florence, Sant` Andrea, San Sebastiano in Mantua, and the facade of the Palazzo Rucellai in Florence. His work in the theoretical field, not only of architecture but of painting and sculpture as well, is as equally important as his contribution to the actual and concrete architecture. He wrote two of the most influential treatises of the Renaissance period - De Pictura, or On Painting, and De Re Aedificatoria, or Ten Books on Architecture. The period of the High Renaissance architecture began at the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th century. Donato Bramante (1444-1514), Antonio da Sangallo the Younger (1485-1546), Raphael, and Michelangelo were the most sought-for architects of the day. Bramante began his career in Milan where he worked for Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. His most notable work in Milan is the addition of crossing and choir to the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie where Leonardo painted the Last Supper. After Milan was conquered by the French in 1499, Bramante came to Rome to work for Pope Julius II. There he designed the seminal High Renaissance building - the Tempietto in the cloister of San Pietro in Montorio. It is a small round temple whose inner space is surrounded by Doric columns. The purpose of this structure was to mark the place where St Peter was made martyr. Bramante also designed the Belvedere palace, and started working on the new St Peter`s Basilica. Antonio da Sangallo the Younger`s best known project was the Farnese Palace for Cardinal Alessandro Farnese. The Palace was completed by Michelangelo in 1534. Michelangelo`s chief architectural achievements are the Laurentian Library in Florence and St Peter`s in Rome. He started working on the St Peter project in 1546 at the age of 69. He improved Bramante`s plan and added some elements that are characteristic of his other projects such as the use of the giant order (one column spans two storeys). His plan for the dome is considered to be one of the greatest in the history of architecture. The Laurentian Library at the convent of San Lorenzo in Florence is the embodiment of Mannerist ideas. It is a space that defies the previous practice of building because it employs architectonic elements in a different manner.
St. Peter`s dome is considered to be one of Michelangelo`s architectural masterpieces.

16th century building abounds in minor and major architects and it is difficult to include them all, but those that are of great importance for some future projects are Andrea Palladio, Giacomo della Porta and Jacopo Vignola.

Baroque
At the beginning of the 17th century art and architecture fell under the influence of Counter-Reformation. In 1517 Martin Luther rebelled against the official clerical policy which resulted in the division of the Church into Protestant and Catholic denominations. In order to keep the congregation and clergy in line, Catholic Church initiated the process of Counter-Reformation. It began with the Council of Trent (1545-1563) where it was decided that the doctrines of salvation, sacraments, and biblical canon had not been disputed by the Protestants. Their decisions affected art and architecture in such a way that they became more extravagant and flamboyant as to make an impression on the common people and display the wealth and power of the Catholic Church. The first architect whose work manifested these new ideas was Carlo Maderno (1556-1629). The facade of his church Santa Susanna in Rome best exemplifies the early Baroque desire to add complexity to basic structures making them dominating and awe-inspiring. Like Michelangelo in 16th century, Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680) dominated the art scene in the 17th century. He was an architect and a sculptor as well. His best known projects are Palazzo Barberini, Palazzo Chigi, Sant` Andrea al Quirinale in Rome, churches in Castelgandolfo and Ariccia. But the commission for which he will always be considered as on of greatest architects in human history is the Peter`s Square in Rome. Gigantic Tuscan columns shape the space in front of the St Peter Basilica accentuating its grandeur and adding to the theatricality of the Roman Catholic Church. Starting from the facade, the columns form a trapezoidal space that turns into an ellipse. Aerial view of the square reveals as a giant key-hole, which is interesting because St Peter is the heavenly gate keeper.

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Francesco Borromini (1599-1667) considered Bernini his nemesis after their fallout following the completion of the Barberini Palace. His projects are characterized by the use of complicated convex-concave forms that create dynamic and dramatic structures, both exterior and interior. His masterworks are San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane and Sant`Ivo alla Sapienza in Rome. After Bernini and Borromini died, Carlo Fontana became the chief architect in Rome but he is more important for the spread of baroque forms across Europe because of his writings and numerous students who trained under him. Rome was not the only creative center in Italy. In the north, three architects proved that Rome did not hold supremacy over talent. "The Holy Trinity" of northern Baroque architecture consisted of Guarino Guarini (1624-1683), Filippo Juvarra (16781736), and Bernardo Vittone (1702-1770). Guarino Guarini mostly worked in Turin. Other than being an architect he was also a priest, a writer, and a mathematician. His most creative works are Palazzo Carignano, the Chapel of the Holy Shroud, and the church of San Lorenzo, all in Turin. During the 18th century Italian artists and architects lost their influence to their French counterparts. Paris replaced Rome as the center of artistic production. Since that time Italian art and architecture lagged far behind more progressive forces.

The fountain in Rome's Piazza Navona is a fine work by Gian Lorenzo Bernini.
(Photo by: Duvallp)

Fun Fact: Approximately abroad. 1,3 million Italians live

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Sports and Recreation in Italy

Sports and Recreation in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide Popular culture Sports and recreation

Italy is one of the most representative countries in the world when it comes to sports. Its long sporting tradition has resulted in many successes with football being the brightest example of excellent results.

Football
Italy is the most successful football nation in Europe with 27 major European trophies. Football is Italy's all time favorite sport. Its national football team is the second most successul team (Brazil being the most successful) in the history of the Football World Cup with four cups won until the present day (1934, 1938, 1982, and 2006).

The Beginnings
Harpastum was the earliest form of football played in Italy during the period of the Roman Empire. It is thought to be one of the most influential forms of football that spread accordingly to the expansion of the Roman Empire. Medieval football originating from Europe is also said to be influenced by harpastum to a great extent. Florence gave birth to another interesting and influential code of football called Calcio Fiorentino.

Italians have always been one of the loudest supporters of their teams - picture showing supporters of the Italian national football team at the European Championship 2000

The game was usually played in the Piazza Santa Croce in Florence. The first official rules of the game were published as early as 1580 by Giovanni de' Bardi, a Florentine count. Similarly to Harpastum, the game involved two teams comprising 27 players using both hand and feet. Goals were scored by getting the ball beyond the designated spot on the field. The game was originally reserved for aristocrats and other noble men. Even popes like Clement VII, Leo XI and Urban VIII were known to play. The Italian term for the game (calcio) was adopted then and has not changed since. The contemporary variation of football was brought to Italy in the late 19th century and the debate about the first Italian football club is still going on. One of the widely accepted theories is that the Genoa Cricket and Football Club was the first to have a football section. The club was formed as a cricket team with the goal of representing England abroad in 1893. The football section was formed three years later with the arrival of James Richardson Spensley, an Englishman that became the first manager of the club. Other evidence suggest Turin as the first football club in Italy. Edoardo Bosio, a merchant worker, was so amazed by the game in England that he decided to form Torino Football and Cricket Club in order to popularize the sport. The first club dedicated solely to football was Internazionale Football Club Torino. The club was the result of collaboration of Duke of the Abruzzi and Alfonso Ferrero di Ventimiglia in 1891.

Italian Football Championship


Concorsi Federali di Calcio was the earliest variation of an annual Italian football championship. It was created by a gymnastics federation called the FGNI in 1896. The first competition took place in Treviso where S Udine GS won over PG Ferrara by 2-1. The Italian Football Federation (Italian: Federazione Italiana Giuoco Calcio, FIGC) was founded in 1898. FIGC created the Italian Football Championship in the same year. The founder clubs were Genoa, FBC Torinese, Ginnastica Torino and Internazionale Torino. The first competition held in Veldormo Umberto in Turin was won by Genoa.

National Championship
Federation Italienne du Football (FIF - FIGC) formed the first proper national football championship with regional tournaments and playoffs in 1898. Genoa Cricket & Football Club won the championship. The first championships were established on the model of the English FA Cup with direct elimination with regional tournaments, qualifications, semi finals and finals. In the beginning, only three regions dominated the Italian football scene: Piedmont, Lombardy and Liguria. Genoa won six scudetti from 1898 to 1904, with a year break when A.C. Milan won it in 1901.

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From 1904, other teams from the north of Italy started winning the championship, and Juventus won its first title in 1905, followed by Milan twice again. Inter won its first scudetto in 1910, interrupting the success of Vercelli which won five scudetti in six years. Meanwhile the championship was changing towards the modern form of the Serie A. Mlan, Juventus, and Genoa started putting the basics for their future glory. Initially, many Englishmen took part in the first Italian clubs, but starting from the first years of the 20th century, new players started coming from Switzerland and Germany, and it was thanks to them that 1906 and 1907 were victorious for Milan. After the first ten years, Italian football started to change radically as the FIF-FIGC decided to implement italianisation of the championship, not allowing foreign players to take part, although football had arrived in Italy thanks to foreigners. Illustration of the game Calcio Fiorentino. However, this decision weakened the greater clubs, and pushed smaller sport unions, not led by the English, but formed by Italian players. This was the era of the Pro Vercelli, and the rise of new clubs like Inter Milan (1908), from A.C. Milan, and Torino from Juventus (1906). The FIGC then, seeing the way things were going, decided to introduce a quota of foreign players, and a revolutionary reform of the championship in 1910, this time on model of the English League, and the Serie A became what it is today: all teams in one group in which every team played all the others twice, at home and away, and the winner was the team that made the highest number of points. The winner of the newly reformed championship was Inter Milan. From this moment on, the championship accepted teams from the north-east of Italy and then, in the following year, from central and southern Italy. However, as the southern clubs could not compete in a championship with north Italian clubs since the two levels were uncomparable, the FIGC introduced a second category, which was later called Promozione. The teams from the lower tournament could be promoted to the higher one, but the teams from the higher league could not be degraded. Football in Italy stopped with the First World War. After the war, the clubs started discussing how to organise and reduce the championship. The idea promoted by greater clubs, but contested by smaller ones. The debate brought no change, so at the beginning of the twenties, all the strongest clubs formed a championship of their own, and in 1922, Italy had two champions: Pro Vercelli and Novese. From that moment, the league was divided into First Division and Second Division. In 1924, Edorado Agnelli, one of the richest men in Italy and owner of FIAT, became president of Juventus. This date marks the beginning of a process which lead to professional football. At the same time, a new club from north of Italy was rising, Bologna, which won the scudetto in 1925, but Juventus won it the year later. The fascist government of Italy abolished the difference between northern and southern championships, and two Roman teams plus Napoli joined the 17 northern teams in the National Division. This was the beginning of professional football. At the end of the twenties, the championship was reorganised in two divisions, Serie A and Serie B. With the end of the Second World War, after further regional divisions, the Serie A returned to be a national tournament as we know it today, and it included twenty teams.

Football goal.
(Photo by: waterlamd)

Italian National Football Team


Being the second most successful national team in the world, the Italian national team, also called the Azzurri, have won numerous cups and other honours. They include four Football World Cups, one European Football Championship, one Olympic Gold Medal, five European Championships U21, three European Championships U18, two European Championships U16, seven Summer Universiades, eight World Military Championships, and one European Football Championship. They reached the finals in two World Cups, one European Championship, two finals of the Olympic tournaments, two European Championships U21, four European Championships U18, three European Championships U16, two Summer Universiades, and four World Military Championships.

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The first time an Italian selection of players took part in a football match was in 1910 in white colour, when the Italian and the French team played each other in Milan, in which Italy won 6-2. A few days after playing France, the Italian team played Hungary, considered to be one of the best teams in the world along with Austria. The defeat was predictable, and that match was the last time Italy wore white as official colour, switching to light blue (azzurro in Italian) which was the colour of the Italian royal family. From that moment on, the Italian team was dubbed the Azzurri (light blues), which today is used to define any sport team representing Italy. The first official tournament Italian national football team took part in was the Olympic Games in Stockholm in 1912, when Italy was knocked out in the first round. But at the Olympic Games in 1920 in Antwerp, the Azzurri managed to achieve good results, and reached the quarter finals. They did the same four years later in Paris, followed by a bronze medal in Amsterdam in 1928. Italy was rising to become one of the best team of all times. The 1930s are considered the golden period of Italian football, and it was also the decade of the first World Cup tournaments, which were decided to be held in even years every four years in alternation with the Olympics. Uruguay was the nation to host and to win the first edition of the tournament in 1930, which Italy did not take part in. Nevertheless, during the rest of the decade, Italy won two world cups in a row (1934 and 1938), and the Olympic Games in between (1936), prevailing the glorious teams of Hungary, Austria, Czechoslovakia, and even Brazil. After winning the first World Cup, the Italian team went to London to face the football world masters. The English team, in fact, considered the World Cup an inferior competition, and their quality far above other world teams. However, considering that Italy was the world champion, they accepted the match. Italy was soon left without one player, and according to the rules in that time, they had no rights for substitution. The game ended with a 3-2 victory of the English, but the Italians gained the respect of their hosts who named the Azzurri the Lions of Highbury, after the name of the stadium where the match was held. After the Second World War, Italy's glorious days seemed to be over, as they did not manage to achieve any outstanding result, and collected heavy defeats. These "dark ages" went on until the late sixties, when Italy hosted the third edition of the European Championship in 1968. Italy knocked out the USSR in the semi-final in Naples, and defeated 2-0 Yugoslavia, who had eliminated the English in the other semi-final match, repeated after a 1-1 draw in the first one. The World Cup of 1970 in Mexico brought Italy back to the peak of international football. Despite losing the final to Pele's Brazil (4-1), Italy proved to be a great team, in particular after an outstanding performance in the semi-final against West Germany, which ended 4-3 in favour of the Italian team after over time. In the World Cup in 1974 in Germany, despite great expectations over a series of great results in previous years, Italy was knocked out in the first round, but in 1978, the Azzurri managed to reach the final, and win the fourth place.

Italian football fans are very passionate.


(Photo by: Alexander Johmann)

Italys great come back happened in 1982. Unlike the former editions of the World Cup, this time Italy had no great expectations, also due to the gambling scandal which hit the Serie A two years before. In addition, the Azzurri did not prove themselves in the first matches of the tournament (three draws), and qualified for the further rounds thanks to a a goal difference opposite Cameroon. However, Italy first knocked out Argentina (2-1), and then Brazil (3-2). Then Italy defeated Poland (2-0) in the semi-final, and West Germany in the final (3-1). Italy was the world champion after 44 years. The following years saw another eclipse of Italy on the international football scene, but in 1990 Italy got to host the World Cup winning the third place, and in 1994 the Azzurri lost to Brazil in the final match in the USA. Another dark period came with the following edition of the cup in France in 1998, after which they changed several trainers. Zoff led Italy to the final of the European Championship in the Netherlands and Belgium in 2000, but the team, then lead by Trapattoni, was eliminated from the 2002 World Cup by South Korea. In 2006, another scandal hit the Serie A, but it seemed that this fact gave further motivations to the Azzurri who were about to face the World Cup in Germany. Lippi's technique and persistence led the team to the semi final against the hosts, Germany, and the game ended 0-0 after 90 minutes. However, in the second half, Italy dominated the game, and in the last minutes of the match scored two goals, one after the other, shattering the German dreams of winning the title at home. The final with the great rival of France was ruined by the skirmish between Italian Materazzi and French star Zinedine Zidane, who got sent off thus ending his career. The game ended 1-1, and the two teams went to the penalty kicks. David Trezeguet, star of the Italian football club Juventus, and scorer of the golden goal that made France win the European title six years before, hit the bar, while Italian players scored all five penalties, and became world champions for the fourth time. The European Championship in Austria and Switzerland saw the Italian team without many important players, one of them being captain Fabio Cannavaro who was injured just before the beginning of the championship. Italy did not play a good football but managed to reach the quarter finals, when they lost to Spain, which later won the title in the final against Germany.

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Favourite pastime in Italy

Favourite Pastime in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Popular Culture Sports and Recreation Favourite Pastime

What do Italians really do in their free time? According to newspapers, Italians are among the people in Europe with less free time. However, Italians have many pastimes, like going to the cinema, musuems, sports shows, nightlife, and theatre. Nevertheless, there is a high percentage of Italians who spend their time watching television or surfing the internet, while those who spend time reading are ever fewer. Although the majority of Italians spend most of their free time watching television, like in other many countries with internal differences, people in Italy have deffering pastimes depending on the age, the sex, the social and financial status, but most of all on the location. However, some pastimes are common for the majority of Italians from all around the country, and they are often associated to the national culture and habbits. Many of these pastimes are offen related to social life and time out, in particular concerning food and drinks, but also sports and shopping. There are three typical things which stress the character of Italians and their way to spend their free time.

Shopping is one of favourite pastimes for Italian women.


(Photo by: Pontonio21)

Aperitivo
The aperitivo is technically what Italians have before dinner. It is usually made with snacks like olives, crisps, pickled vegetables, and peanuts, accompanied by an alcoholic drink, often a cocktail, but also beer, white wine, Campari, etc. Italians do not have aperitivo every day, but it is a must when they have guests over for dinner, or at weekends. In the past few years, many bars in all main Italian cities have started making aperitivo a trend and often turns into something in between a meal and a night out for a drink. Bars have a time for the aperitivo, which usually goes from half past six in the afternoon till early evening, before the regular bar programme begins. The clients pay for their drink, which is often more expensive than usual, and they have access to a real Swedish table, fool of salty cakes, snacks, prosciutto, bruschettas, fruit salads, sorts of cheeses, salmon on toast, tomato and mozzarella, olives, in other words, all kinds of cold dishes you can imagine, and more. More and more bars sometimes may offer aperitivo as an expedient to attract customers on the day of their opening for instance, or on a special occasion. Aperitivo at weekends has gain popularity among people, and often comes to substitute dinner on Saturday nights and represents a meeting point for friends before nights out in clubs. On Sunday, people often have aperitivo before the Sunday evening posticipo of the Italian football league, serie A, usually reserved to the most important match of the weekend. Aperitivo, however, is not exclusively reserved to guests at homes or to friends meeting at weekends before the club or on Sunday night before the match, but it has also become very popular among work colleagues, as a meeting time outside work, to discuss business or even just to have a chat and spend some relaxing time after the working day during the week, before going home. Italian offices, in fact, usually close around five or half past five in the afternoon, just in time to reach the bar and put working colleagues with friends together.
Aperitivo is a traditional part of dinner.
(Photo by: Shuttermon)

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Favourite Pastime in Italy

Happy hour
Happy hour, an American invention, has found good ground to spread in the Italian peninsula, as it perfectly matches the Italian habits of concentrating social life around food and drink, but also because drinks in Italian bars are very expensive. Happy hour is very similar to the aperitivo, and is another good occasion for Italian young people to hang out. However, unlike the aperitivo, it takes place on working days, and later in the evening, and bars generally tend to have happy hour once a week. Happy hour in a bar starts when the bar owner, or the manager, rings a bell, and from that moment on, the bar offers special discounts on drinks, which often means that when you buy a cocktail, you get one for free, or that beer is half price. Happy hour lasts some two or three hours, until the bell is rung again, and things go back to normal. The interesting thing about happy hours, is that in big cities you can find a bar with a happy hour every day of the week, from Sunday to Thursday. But even more interesting is that in smaller towns, where there are fewer bars, usually each bar sets happy hour on a different day, so not to be in contrast with one another, and young people can pick any day of the week to hang out, and save some money on drinks. However, few bars have happy hour during weekends, since they usually get overcrowded. Usually on Fridays and Saturdays, happy hour lasts longer than during the week, and bars offer stronger drinks, like vodka, tequila, and rum, often in shots. This policy aimed at saving money is also practised in discotheques, where they often do not charge the entrance to those who arrive before midnight, as to fill the clubs earlier. This method attracts many people as discotheques in Italy are extremely expensive.

"Calcetto"
Five a side football, in Italian the calcetto, is a very popular pastime among male Italians of all ages, and it is open to anyone who wants to participate. There are many structures, almost in every town, with five a side football fields, which are rented, usually by hours, at a reasonable price to a groups of friends who decide to have a game of football in a proper place. So if you are in Italy with a group of friends for some longer time, like a few weeks, you could try an organise a football match, and you will have no problems in finding someone to play with, the only problem you may run into is to find the football field all booked up for an entire week, considering how popular this pastime is. Some even organize permanent teams, placing their friends in other teams. There are centres equipped with fields that organize tournaments among teams who can participate just by paying a quota. Sometimes, if a team is good, small companies can decide to sponsor them by buying their uniforms and putting their trademarks on them. People in Italy practice many sports, like basketball, waterpolo, volley ball, tennis, and others, but no one would say no to a game of calcetto.

This practice is very popular among schoolboys, but their number is equalled by over twenties. It is also remarkable the number of people of age up to fifty years who enjoy in discharging the stress gathered during the week at work, right on the football field with their friends, their children and their children's friends. The girls rarely share this interest, but often they go to the field to cheer for their friends or boyfriends.
(Photo by: Cmyk)

Calcetto, or "little" football, is extremely popular among male Italians.

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Icons of Italian Sport

Icons of Italian sports


World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Popular Culture Sports and Recreation Icons

Italy is considered a solid nation in several sports, like football, basketball, volleyball, waterpolo, athletics, etc. Throughout the history of Italian sports, there have been several outstanding Italian athletes who have deserved to be included among the world sport legends.

Roberto Baggio
Roberto Baggio is considered one of the best Italian and European footballers ever. He was the leading figure of Italian football all through the nineties, playing in the major clubs of the Serie A (Fiorentina, Juventus, Milan and Inter), scorring over 200 goals, and leading the Azzurri in three world cups (Italy 1990, USA 1994 and France 1998), scoring 27 goals. Former president of Juventus F.C., the late Gianni Agnelli, nicknamed him Raffaello, due to the artistic way of playing. Baggio was commonly known in Italy as il divin codino (the wonderful pony tail, referring to his haircut). During his career he received several awards and recognitions: Platinum Ball (1993), Ballon D'or (1993), Fifa World Player (1993), World Soccer (1993), Golden Foot (2003), and in 1991 he received the Italian Order of Merit from the President of the Italian Republic. Baggio was the tragic hero who led the Italian team to the World Cup final in 1994 in USA failing to score the penalty against Brazil, thus losing the final. In spite of this episode, Baggio was always loved and admired by everyone in Italy, no matter what club he played for.
Roberto Baggio.
(Photo by: unknown author)

Lorenzo Bernardi
In 2001, Lorenzo Bernardi was proclaimed the best volleyball player of the twentieth century, together with American Karch Kiraly. He started his career in the 80s playing for Modena, back then one of the strongest clubs in Europe. He also played for the team of Treviso, winning nine scudetti (title of champion of Italy). In addition, he won five Italian Cups, three Italian Super Cups, four times the Champions League, two European Super Cups, four CEV Cups. He debuted in the Italian national team in 1987, and he won two European Championships, two World Championships, three World Leagues, and the 1995 World Cup, five silver medals (including the Olympic one), and one bronze. His personal achievements include World's Best Player in 1994 and 1995, and being declared the best player of the twentieth century in 2001. In the year 2000, he received the Italian Order of Merit from the President of the Italian Republic.

Primo Carnera
Italian giant Primo Carnera was born in 1906 in Sequals, near Udine, and became famous for his successes as a boxer, and later a catcher, a form of wrestling. Carnera grew up in poverty, and was forced to move to his relatives in France when he was still very young to work as a carpenter. Young Primo, in fact, was enormous according to standards of the early 20th century in Italy - he was 205 cm tall, and weighed around 120 kg. In France he worked in a circus. He started his boxing career in 1928. Although he kept winning one fight after another, the Italian press criticised him for his style and his lack of technique, so he moved to America where he made fortune and became heavy weight world champion on June 29, 1933 at New York's Madison Square Garden against Jack Sharkey in six rounds. Carnera lost the title on June 14 of the next year against Max Baer, falling 12 times before losing in the 11th round. Appearently he broke his ankle during the match, and this was the reason of his falls. After losing the title, Carnera went on winning match after match, with rare defeats that interrupted his series of successes. In 1946, he quit boxing after losing three times to Luigi Messina, and started his career as a wrestler, reaching the same success he had achieved as a boxer.

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Icons of Italian Sports

Carnera's life was characterised by poverty. He lived the life of an Italian imigrant to the US, having to deal with the mafia and with managers who took advantage of him and his naivety. However, the fame he reached as a boxer helped him in achieving modest career as an actor, taking part in several movies. Eventually he died in 1967, after having obtained American citizenship, and granting education to his children who became doctors. The Italian Giant remains an icon in the history of Italy, and of Italians in the USA.

Dino Meneghin
Dino Meneghin is considered one of the legends of Italian and European basketball. He was born in 1950, and started his career in Italy's A1 basketaball league at the age of 16, ending it at the age of 44. He even played against his son Andrea in an official match. In his career he played for Ignis Varese (1966-1981), Olimpia Milano (1981-1990, 1993-1994), and Stefanel Trieste (1990-1993). He played 836 matches and scored 8,580 points, winning twelve Italian championships, six Italian Cups, the Champions League seven times, out of thirteen finals, and four Inter-Continental Cups. With the national team he took part in four Olympic Games, winning the silver medal in Moscow 1980, a well as a gold medal and two bronze ones at the European Championships, in 271 matches and 2,947 points. In 2008, Dino Meneghin became president of the FIP (Italian Basketball Federation). In 1991, Meneghin was named the best European player of all time, and in 2003 he was the first Italian player to enter the Basketball Walk of Fame, and in 1970 he was the first Italian player to be chosen by an NBA team (Atlanta Hawks), however, he never played in the American league.

Article on Primo Carnera.


(Photo by: unknown author)

Reinhold Messner
Reinhold Messner (born in 1944) is a German-speaking Italian alpinist, from the Alto Adige/Sudtirol region, and is considered the best alpinist ever. Throughout his life he carried out several expeditions and became famous for being the first man to reach all fourteen peaks over 8,000 meters above the sea level. In addition, he was the first man to climb the Mount Everest without artificial oxygen in his expedition accompanied by Peter Habeler, which was thought to be impossible at the time. In 1980, Messner outmatched himself by reaching the peak of the highest mountain in the world, without oxygen and on his own. However, Messner did not take part only in alpinist expeditions. One of his most famous expeditions was the one to the south pole when he crossed Antarctica on foot, the one to Greenland (with no motor vehicles or sleighs), and the crossing of the Gobi desert. He never pursued glory and fame, he was not a record hunter, and his only interest was the contact with nature and the spirit of adventure. In the past years, Messner became member of the European Parliament, and wrote several books. He took part in the opening of the Winter Olympic Games in Turin in 2006.

Marco Pantani
Marco Pantani (1970-2004) was one of the most famous Italian cyclists, and one of the best of all time. Pantani, often called il pirata (the pirate, due to the bandana he always war on his head during races), became a legend for his successful sports career with 46 victories, including one Giro d'Italia and one Tour de France. Unfortunately, though, he is also remembered for his tragic death and a drug scandal. Pantani reached his moment of glory in 1998 winning the Giro d'Italia as well as the Tour the France, becoming the last Italian to win the the most prestigious competition in the world. The following year marked the beginning of a dark period for the Italian cycling hero, as he was disqualified from the Giro d'Italia, in which he was leading, because test results showed that the hematocrit level was one percent over the maximum limit allowed. From that moment, Pantani fell in depression, and in 2004 he was found dead in a hotel room in Rimini, Italy. The autopsy showed that his heart had collapsed due to drug overdose. However, Marco Pantanis drug test results never turned out positive. In Italy he is remembered as a hero, and the organisers of the Giro d'Italia dedicated him the hardest uphill part of the tour.

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Federica Pellegrini
Federica Pellegrini is an Italian swimmer and current holder of the world record in the 400 meter and 200 meter front crawl. She is the only Italian, and one of the few European female swimmer to have broken the world record in more than one discipline. In addition, she is the first Italian woman to have gained a gold medal at the olympics in swimming, in 2008 in Beijing (200 meters front crawl). In 2004, at the age of sixteen, she gained a silver medal in 200 meters front crawl at the Olympics in Athens, entering history the first Italian female swimmer to stand on the Olympic podium after 32 years. In the same race she made the national record and became the youngest Italian athlete to stand on an individual Olympic podium. Her success went on in 2005 at the Montreal world championship where she gained the second place. In 2006, she took part at the European Championship in Budapest, Hungary, with no particular result, but the next year in Melbourne at the World Championship, she broke the Italian record in the 400 meters front crawl and the world record three days later in the 200 meters, broken again after twenty four hours. At the European Championship in 2008, in Eindhoven, Netherlands, she gained the gold medal and broke the world record. At the Olympics in Beijing in 2008 she broke the 200 meters world record twice, once in the final, gaining the world medal.

Marco Pantani died in 2004 under mysterious circumstances.

Valentino Rossi
Valentino Rossi, AKA The Doctor, born in 1979, is one of the most succesful motor racers in history, eight times world champions in three classes (one in the 125cc, one in the 250cc, one in the 500cc, and five in the MotoGP class). He started off in 1996 in the 125 cc class and became world champion the following year. In 1998, he switched to the 250 cc, gaining the second place and winning the title the next year. Then, in the year 2000, he moved to the 500 cc class, where he challenged his eternal rival, Italian Max Biaggi, gaining the second place while Biaggi came third. Biaggi never managed to achieve better results than Valentino, and the conflict between the two lasted for many years, with several tense episodes. In 2001, Rossi won his first 500 cc class title, and from 2002 he won the new MotoGP class four times in a row, the first two with Honda, and the last two with Yamaha. in 2006 and 2007 he had a moment of crisis, interrupting his series of success, but in 2008 he had a great comeback and won his eighth world title. Rossi is the only pilot in history to have one the world title in four different classes, and to win the title for two years in a row in the highest class with two different motorbikes, besides the American Eddie Lawson. In addition, he has the record of number of podiums in a row in the MotoGP class; twenty three; he also detains the highest number of victories in the highest class with 70 first places. Valentino is a legend for all lovers of motorbikes and even for those who do not follow this sport. His extravagant character made him very popular and famous all around the world.

Alberto Tomba
Alberto Tomba, born in Bologna in 1966, known by the nick name La Valentino Rossi. Bomba (the bomb), was one of the main characters in the international (Photo by: Ottavio Buletti) Alpine skiing scene between the end of the nineteen eightees and the late nineties, especiall in the slalom skiing and the giant slalom skiing categories. Alberto Tomba recorded 50 overall victories in the World Cup, 26 second places and 12 third places, and is the third most successful male skier ever after Ingemar Stenmark and Hermann Maier, and definitely the greatest skier in Italian history. Regarding his trophies, Tomba won the world cup 1995, two olympic gold medals in giant slalom, the first in 1988 and the second in 1992, and an olympic gold in slalom in 1988. He also won two golds in the giant slalom at the world championship in 1996, and for this is considered one of the greatest slalom skiers of all times. Tomba retired after winning the Crans-Montana world cup in Switzerland on March 15, 1998. After that he toured Europe, contributing to the promotion of skiing among young people, and is still working on his campaign. Alberto Tomba also has also had a short career as an actor in an Italian detective series, but had no success. Tomba was one of main supporters and sponsors of the Winter Olympic Games in Turin 2006.
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Useful Information about Italy

Useful Information about Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Useful Information

Italy is beautiful every day, regardless of weather conditions, tourist invasions or calendar of events. However, planning your trip ahead might help you to get a better taste of Italy - all it takes is some knowledge about when to go to a certain place, and what to do when you get there. Many people are discouraged to go there in August due to overcrowded beaches and hotels. Skipping Italy is a good advice for those who want to have a peaceful vacation lying in a secret cove somewhere in the Mediterranean Sea. This is The Colosseum panorama. particularly the case for the weeks before and after the (Photo by: unknown author) 15th of August, which is the peak of the Italian holiday season. However, if your final destination period is not the beach, but Florence or Rome, than you will not run into hordes of tourists during that time. The vast majority of Italians will head to coast during July and August, so visiting those areas becomes amazingly easy. Traffic becomes almost non-existent, and it is much easier to find a parking space. Then there is nightlife. The new trend emerging in the last ten years is that most cities have many different kinds of entertainment and cultural events organized almost every night. Their streets and squares become vibrant with nightlife happenings - Rome has Estate Roma - the Roman Summer, financed by the city government and the commune di Roma. There are also other cultural events featuring music shows and dancing in many historical places like Castel San Angelo, and near the Colosseum. Ethnic happenings are not rare either - the festival at Fiesta near Via Appia gathers many Latin dance enthusiasts every year. If you like dancing al fresco (under the stars), there are usually four or five places you can go on each night of the week. Many tourists coming to the city do not know about these events or how to find them; therefore the best way to be informed is visiting the local tourist office, or looking at the city newspaper. All cultural happenings are listed in the 'city' section of Roman newspapers. If your Italian is poor, stroll around the city centro and you are bound to stumble across some street entertainment. Another interesting, and in many cases romantic thing would be to pick any of the numerous sidewalk trattorias or restaurants, and indulge in fabulous local cuisine. This goes for any city in Italy, not just Rome. This is also a favourite Italian pastime, and many dining facilities are open until late at night. Another good reason to visit Italy during summer is that all tourist attractions in the cities and elsewhere remain open. Many cities organize evening visiting hours in the museums to secure a suggestive and relaxed atmosphere for tourists wanting to enjoy works of art. Summer opera performances at the ancient Roman ruins of the Terme di Caracalla (the Baths of Caracalla) near the Colosseum are organized almost daily, but the ticket demand is high, and advanced purchases are a must. Shopping addicts may be pleased to know that Italy is their dream destination during July because that is the time of the big sales in every shop. August, however, is not their month because all the big July sales have closed and most retail outlets are closed until the new collection arrives. The only drawback of a summer visit to Italy is the weather, which tends to get quite hot. This can particularly be experinced in southern Italy. These hot summers are, however, more bearable than in northern Europe because the climate is predominantly dry, and the humidity levels are therefore low.

June and September


These months are perfect for visiting the seaside because it is not too crowded and the weather is usually favorable. Visiting cities is also a good idea during that time because it is not too hot, and the weather is altogether better compared to July and August. Nightlife, however, is not. Events like Estate Roma do not take place at that time, but there are a number of happenings interesting enough for you to visit them. One of them is organized at the beginning of September - the famous historic Regatta along the Venice Grand Canal. All information about events taking place in June and October can be obtained at the local tourist office. They are either called Ente per il Turismo or Pro Loco.

April, May, October


These months are perfect for seeing both the countryside and the cities in Italy, particularly Venice (sometimes its canals have an unpleasant odour during August). If Easter occurs in April, book your flight well in advance.

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Useful Information about Italy

November to March
Luck is a huge factor if you are planning to visit Italy during that time. Bad weather and frequent showers are common then, but if you are fine with that, your visit will be pleasant nevertheless. Then again, the possibility of dry and pleasant weather is also not entirely excluded, particularly if you plan to visit Florence or other southern parts of Italy. Sicily is best to visit during 'winter', and the advantage of having your vacation at that time are cheap flights.

Easter
Easter is an extremely important religious holiday in Italy, unlike many other western European countries. Traffic may be very intensive due to the traditional Italian ponti or bridges - extending vacations from Easter weekend to the following one.

Christmas
First are foremost - reserve your flight well in advance if you plan to go to Italy during Christmas time. Prepare yourself to pay expensive tickets, too. Christmas is nevertheless a magical time in Italy - almost every town and city have their centers decorated with Christmas ornaments.

New Year
If you came to Italy for Christmas, you might as well stay for New Year. This holiday is also one of the most important in the country, and Italians usually take time off work on both December 31 and January 1 (to recover). Italians love dancing and being with their friends when they celebrate New Year. Recently, many cities have begun organizing big New Year parties or gatherings in the main squares where everybody is welcome. Smaller towns (in Tuscany, for example) build a huge fire in the central square where it burns all through the night into the next day. Locals and visitors gather around and welcome New Year together.

Epiphany
If you have time to stay after New Years' do so until Epiphany (January 6) when the Christmas season finally ends. Children cannot wait until Epiphany day because they receive gifts from the old benevolent witch, the befana. Squares of many major Italian cities (like the Piazza Navona in Rome) become swamped with numerous stalls selling toys which give children the gimmees.

Skiing
Skiing is naturally best from late December to the end of March. Prices are then higher so if you want to save, make sure you book your trip after this period. However, skiing conditions might not be as good then as they are during 'real winter'.

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Specific Travelers in Italy

Specific Travelers in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide Useful Information Specific Travelers

Although Italy may be a very touristy place with developed infrastructure and all the the commodities a tourist may require, the country is definitely not an easy place for a traveler with disabilities. Wheelchair users may find getting around quite difficult because there are all kinds of obstacles in virtually every Italian city. An ordinary visit to the city center can turn into a major expedition if there are cobblestone streets lying ahead of you. Many buildings have elevators but the vast majority of them are not wide enough for wheelchairs. All in all, one may soon conclude that not many things have been done in order to make life easier for the disabled. Italian Railways issued a small brochure Services for Disabled Passengers, listing facilities at stations and on trains. Some cities also publish accessibility guides, among them Bologna, Milan, Padua, Reggio Emilia, Turin, Venice and Verona.

An Example Route for Disabled Travelers


This example may be useful to travelers with disabilities who want to see as much Italy as possible without worrying about accessibility. The route is organized by Accessible Italy, a company specializing in tourism for individuals with disabilities. Website: http://www.accessibleitaly.com/tournov99.htm.

Details
The price of the tour is from 2,400 per person. The tour is based on the minimum of four people this is flexible - it can be planned both for a smaller and a larger number of participants. The tour is not fixed in terms of destinations, time or duration - all this can be adapted to the wishes of the group. Remember to bring your medical certificate (if you have one) or any other document proving you belong to people with disabilities. For all additional information, tour dates, prices, locations etc., please send an email to: info@accessibleitaly.com. If you are interested in booking your seat on the tour, send the following information by email: number of participants, names and ages, information regarding disability and services required on the tour, health-related issues, preference regarding the accessibility of the hotel room (i.e. roll-in shower needed, etc.), wheelchair and/or scooter measurements, arrival and departure date in Europe, flight information including airline, flight number and the time of arrival and departure, extra services requested each day (i.e. private nurse, etc.), the itinerary with all details. Here is an example of a route designed and adapted for the disabled travelers.

Itinerary:
First day: Rome. Arrival at Fiumicino Airport in Rome. Meeting with the English speaking assistant. Pick up by accessible bus and transfer to the hotel. Accommodation at 3/4 star hotel in Rome. Second day: Rome. Breakfast at the hotel. The accessible bus will pick up the group at 9am. The group will go on a half day tour to the Colosseum, Fori Romani, Spanish steps, Pantheon, Trevi Fountain, Piazza Navona. Return to hotel. Lunch and afternoon at leisure. Overnight stay at the hotel. Third day: Rome. Breakfast at the hotel. The group will be picked up by an accessible bus at 9am. Visit of the Vatican City, Saint Peter Basilica and the Vatican museums with an English speaking guide. Return to hotel. Lunch and afternoon at leisure. Overnight stay at the hotel. Fourth day: A trip to the Amalfi Coast. Breakfast at the hotel. The group will head to the Amalfi Coast by an accessible bus at 7.30am. We will spend the whole day in Sorrento and Amalfi with an English speaking guide. Lunch in an authentic restaurant on the coast. Return to the hotel in the late afternoon. Overnight stay at the hotel. Fifth day: Rome-Florence. After breakfast and check out at the hotel in Rome, a trip to Florence by an accessible bus. The group will have a break at a castle in San Casciano in the Chianti Area for wine tasting and a typical Tuscan lunch. Accommodation: B&B at a 3/4 star hotel in Florence. Sixth day: Florence. Breakfast at the hotel and a half day tour with English speaking guide. Lunch and afternoon at leisure. Dinner in a Florentine restaurant. Overnight stay at the hotel. Seventh day: Excursion to Siena and San Gimignano. Breakfast at the hotel. Heading to Siena and San Gimignano at 8.30am by an accessible bus. Half day visit of Siena with an English speaking guide. Lunch and afternoon at leisure in San Gimignano. Returning to Florence and overnight stay at the hotel. Eighth day: Florence. Breakfast at the hotel. Visiting the Uffizi Museum with an English speaking guide. Lunch at leisure and free afternoon. Overnight stay at the hotel.
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Ninth day: Florence-Verona-Venice. After breakfast and check out at hotel in Florence, departure to Venice by accessible bus. Stop in Verona for lunch in a typical restaurant and free visit of the city. In the afternoon departure to Venice. Accommodation at a 3 star hotel in Venice. Tenth day: Venice. Breakfast at the hotel. Our English speaking assistant will meet us at the hotel at 9am, and the group will be picked up with a private accessible boat. We will then visit the Piazza San Marco, and the Basilica San Marco with the English speaking guide. Lunch and afternoon will be available for resting or any plans you might have with advised itineraries. The group will then return to the hotel by a private accessible boat. Overnight stay at the hotel. Eleventh day: Venice. Breakfast at the hotel. The rest of day is reserved for any plans you might have. Optional visit to Murano with supplement. Good-bye dinner in a authentic restaurant in the centre of Venice. Overnight at the hotel. Twelfth day: Venice. Breakfast at the hotel. You will then be picked up by the accessible bus and taken to the Venice Airport.

The Tour Includes:


4 nights in a 3/4 star Hotel in Rome accommodation in accessible double rooms, half board treatment (breakfast & dinner), 4 nights in 3/4 star Hotels in Florence, accommodation in accessible double rooms, bed&breakfast treatment, 3 nights in 3 star Hotel in Venice, accommodation in accessible double rooms, bed&breakfast treatment, Transportation with private accessible means of transport where indicated in the itinerary (minivan in Rome and in Florence, from Rome to Florence and from Florence to Venice, boat and minivan in Venice), Assistance when arriving in Rome, Florence and Venice, Half day guided tour in the center of Rome, Half day guided tour at the Vatican Museums and Cappella Sistina in Rome, Full day guided tour in Sorrento and Amalfi, Half day guided tour in the center of Florence, Half day guided tour at the Uffizi Museum, Half day guided tour in Siena, Half day guided tour in Venice, Lunch in a typical restaurant in Amalfi Coast, Welcome wine tasting in a castle in Chianti area and typical Florentine lunch, Dinner in a beautiful restaurant overlooking Florence, Lunch in a typical restaurant in Verona, Dinner in a typical restaurant in Venice, Assistance - Tax and agency fee.

The tour does not include:


Lunches and dinners at leisure, All things not explicitly mentioned in the itinerary.

Ferries, Trains, Planes, Cities


Tirrenia's ferries have at least one or two wheelchair accessible compartments on many of their scheduled lines. Italian railway system is well equipped for the disabled in comparison to some of the cities in Italy (Venice). There is about 150 railway stations having a reception service for disabled travelers and this number is constantly getting bigger. If you have special needs regarding your physical inability, notify the railway company at least one day before your journey. If you are able to switch from your wheelchair to a seat, there are many in Italian trains reserved for the disable people. For those who are unable to do that, there are fully accessible special compartments in first class special wagons. The compartments are big enough for two wheelchairs and two companions without disabilities. The compartments also have accessible toilets. No extra cost will be charged for the assistance with portable lifts provided by the railways staff. Venice is known as one of the most complicated destinations for disabled travelers. Its narrow streets are often characterized by inaccessibility but the local tourist board has organized several tours designed specially for the disabled.

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Accessibility in Rome depends on what part of the city you are interested in seeing. Some parts of it are not easy to walk through because of uneven terrain (hills and other uneven surfaces) but fortunately public transportation is pretty much wheelchair accessible. Local buses are designed for people in wheelchairs which makes their holiday much easier. The area around the Colosseum is also considered to be wheelchair inaccessible, but the local government has invested into lift designed for an easier access all the way to the top. If you are planning to see a few destinations and to travel by plane, it is always a good idea to call the airline at least one day in advance and inform them about your special needs.

A Chance for the Blind to 'See' the Gran Paradiso National Park
Gran Paradiso National Park is one of the most popular destinations in Italy. As of 2002 the park's managers have been putting a lot of effort to bring closer its natural beauties to the people who are unable to see or walk. A number of park trails have been adapted for the needs of the disabled people. There is also a one-kilometer route from Ceresole Reale that has a modest upward slope, and can be walked through by the blind with the help of a handrail and a special guide.

Other Useful Sources


Consorzio Cooperative Integrate (COIN)
Address: Via Enrico Giglioli 54, Rome (Management and Administration)

Tel: 0039 06 23269231 Fax: 0039 06 23269231 Email: coinsociale@coinsociale.it


Press office: ufficiostampa@coinsociale.it COIN was founded in Rome in 1988 with the goal of developing professions and job opportunities for the disadvantaged (the physically and mentally disabled and those in danger of social exclusion) through employment-oriented activities of social cooperation. It has proven to be a very useful source of information for tourists with disabilities. The association provides information about transport, access, tours, vacations, architectonic barriers, guides, and conferences in Rome. If you are interested in seeing other destinations, COIN will also provide you with other useful contacts.

Accessible Italy
Address: Via C. Manetti 34, 47891 Dogana, Repubblica di San Marino Callers from Europe: 0037 8 941111; 0037 8 0549 941111 From US: 011 378 0549 941111; 011 378 941111 Fax from Europe: 0037 8 941110; 0037 8 0549 941110 From US: 011 378 0549 941110; 011 378 941110 Website: www.accessibleitaly.com Accessible Italy is a private non-profit company helping tourists with disabilities in terms of accommodation, tours, transportation, restaurants, disabled equipment and special needs, accessible weddings, and other useful information.

Autonoleggio Amico
Address: Via Danilo Paris 17, 38100 Trento, Italy Tel: (0039) 0461 421842 (Office) International enquirers: (0039) 0461 421842 Mobile phone: (0039) 392 4608482, Fax: (0039) 0461421842 Website: http://www.transport-disabled.com/index.htm Email: info@transport-disabled.com, info@trasportodisabili.it, info@autonoleggioamico.it Skype: autonoleggioamico Autonoleggio Amico is a company specializing in providing transport services to disabled people. Trips to airports and theaters, shopping tours around the city and transfers from and to meetings and exhibitions are just a small part of their services. Advanced booking is obligatory. Their vehicles are specially designed to transport up to nine passengers (three or four people in wheelchairs together with three to five caretakers).

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Female Travelers
Traveling on your own, especially if you are woman may seem daunting. There are a lot of things to worry about that you would not normally have to consider if you were traveling in a company. First, there is loneliness. Experiences of seeing all natural and architectural wonders of Italy may seem a bit empty if you have nobody to share it with. Then again, there are difficulties with Italian if you do not speak the language. Communicating with an Italian who does not speak English can become very tiring if you do not have anybody to translate his words for you. This may impose a problem in restaurants and other public places like ticket stands. However, visiting Italy as a solo traveler can turn out to be a very rewarding experience providing you do a little background research on safety considerations and practicalities. Although generalizations and prejudice based on nationalities are never in order, this topic requires stressing certain situations women should be aware of because they occur often in Italy. Described situations will of course not be universally applicable and women tourists should never pass Italy by because of them.

Safety
Although annoyances are pretty often, assaults on women are reasonably rare in Italy. General rules apply here as well - keep out of dark alleys, people you do not know and carry a pepper spray or a whistle with you in case of danger. Have the hotel and police number with you at all times and you should be okay. Although harassment occurs rarely, there have been stories about occasional harassment on overnight trains. If you can, travel during daytime to avoid any hassle. Thefts are more often on night trains and in sleeping compartments than during regular daytime services. Take precaution in tourist areas and stations to avoid theft. Although walking alone at night in Rome is not pleasant, serious threats are reasonably rare. The good thing about many Italian city centers is that they have more housing than an average European city, so all the streets are well-lit and there are always people within earshot.

Booking a Hotel
Before you book a single room check reviews from other single travelers to see how they've found the accommodation. It occasionally happens that single rooms are stuck in tight corners and have bathrooms smaller than a wardrobe. Hotels do not have many single rooms so if you are offered a double for a reduced price, it often pays off to take the room because you will have much more space.

Eating and Drinking Out on Your Own


Dinner for one can often feel a lonesome experience but you will find this option very pleasant when you enter a crowded restaurant and are given a table for two when everybody else is cramping. Solo women rarely feel unwelcome or disapproved-of in Italian restaurants. Although it sometimes happens that you are given a lesser table, more often you will be treated with upmost respect and given a prime seat. Many women find dining alone to be a very pleasant experience on account of the waiter's charm and politeness that sometimes ended with a free glass of wine or a free dessert. Bars in Italy are more about sitting outside and watching people as they pass by, and less about drinking and talking. They are therefore ideal for solo women travelers.

Men
Although 'facts' about Italian men could be listed for hours, women tourists should bare in mind that they are usually harmless. You have more chances of getting hurt in a car accident than being seriously harassed by men in Italy. However, regardless of how Italy is a modern country, many old-fashioned attitudes remain. This becomes even more visible in provincial and rural parts of the country (like southern Italy). Solo women may experience whistles, appreciative comments or hisses. But remember that a woman in Italy is regarded as strong and capable of saying no. Their words are respected in the vast majority of cases because Italian communities are tightly-knit, and the domestic sphere is ruled over by the mamma. Hassles that take longer than ten second are very rare. Comments here do not resemble those from countries like the UK where comments from workmen and drivers are offensive and rude. Comments made by Italians closely resemble simple compliments and are expected to be received as such. Responding with an insult or with rudeness would be inappropriate. If you want to respond, do it with a half-smile or a shy grazie, but the majority of Italian women generally just ignore it. All in all, although solo women travelers may encounter minor problems on their holidays, they will mostly encounter hospitality and politeness with a sort of special royal treatment that Italians are very good at.

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Traveling with Children


Italians love children but the attractions designed specially for their needs are quite rare. The best way to make sure your kids are going to have a great holiday is to ask the tourist office staff about family-friendly accommodation, interesting activities or hotels that cater for kids. Children discounts are readily available for all sorts of services like site visiting or transport. If you are going to travel to Italy with kids, make sure you book your accommodation well in advance to avoid any inconvenience. If you and your family are planning to travel around by train, reserve your seats to avoid standing through the entire trip. Car seats for children can be hired in almost every car-rental agency but these have to be reserved in advance as well. Pharmacies sell all you need to take care of a toddler - baby formula in powder or in liquid form as well as sterilising solutions, and other baby things. Both supermarkets and pharmacies sell disposable baby diapers. If you need to buy fresh cow milk, you can do that in every supermarket where they sell it in cartons or in bars with a Latteria sign. Ultra-high temperature processes milk is usually the only kind available in out-of-the-way areas.

Eating Out with Children


Menus designed specially for children are usually not available but you can ask for a mezzo piatto (half plate) off the dishes offered on the menu. Children are pretty much welcome in the majority of Italian restaurants but high chairs are rare.

Sights and Activities


Italy is a world of imaginary places, so you do not have to worry about your children being bored. However, planning your trip is essential, especially if you want your kids to both learn about Italian art and history as well as enjoy their holiday. Therefore, it would be best to choose sites that might capture their imagination like the Pompeii, the Colosseum or Sicily's volcanoes. Italy abounds in sites that look like they have been taken out from fairytale scenes and put into reality, so your children are bound to be amazed by them. Other activities include beach lolling or snorkeling in numerous Italian summer destinations like the island of Capri or Sardinia. If you are planning to visit museums, make sure your choice will be interesting to children, and that the museum's is good enough to tickle your kids' imagination. Try to choose history museums over an art gallery, as smaller children would probably not be able to appreciate their content. Your boys will probably be thrilled when they enter Venice's Museo Storico Navale whereas the girls may be more interested in doing a bit of shopping with their mums strolling around Milan's Golden quad. Gardaland is a definite must do for every family that finds itself in the north of Italy. This amusement park in the vicinity of Lago di Garda is home to numerous dinosaurs, pirate ships and roller coasters every perfect for a family holiday. Italy abounds in natural beauties and many of them have been declared national parks. One of the most interesting, especially if you are traveling with children, is the Parco Nazionale D'Abruzzo, Lazio e Molise.

Sicily for Kids


Sicily's puppet show (Il teatro dei pupi) is going to challenge any preconceptions you might have about these shows being suitable only for small children. Sicily has a long tradition as being one of the best in terms of traditional puppet theater. Puppet show history has been going on for 3 centuries, and and enthralls both adults and children. The show is based on using about one-and-a-half meter tall puppets which is entirely different from puppet shows featured in the rest of Europe (Pooh bear-style glove puppets). The puppets are usually carved out of beech, lemon or olive wood with very real-looking eyes made of glass and many other distinct features. Their joints are connected with a flexible wire to secure realistic movements.

Rome for Kids


If you ever meet a child who has recently been to Rome, it is probably going to tell you that the city is both interesting and boring. There are numerous activities that are bound to keep your your kid at the edge if its seat, but then again some sites are definitely not worth seeing with your family. Time elevator is located in Via S.S. Apostoli 12, just off Via del Corso 260, and it is one of the most fascinating indoor activities in the city. Thanks to modern technologies, your entire family can learn about the rich history of Rome. This multi-sensorial experience leaves nobody disappointed and because it closely resembles reality by using special effects and a motion base platform, among other things. The show takes place every day from 10am to 10.30pm and it lasts 45 minutes. Tickets cost eight euros for children (0-12 years) and 11 euros for adults. If you plan to use subway on the way there, get off at Spagna using Metro A. Bus lines in the vicinity are 40, 60 and 64.

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Museo Explora is the first one in Italy to be designed specifically for children aged 0-12. It is located in the Via Flaminia 82, in the vicinity of Piazza del Popolo, and it closely resembles a smaller town. The museum is divided into four units. The purpose of the museum is to teach children how to react in certain situations. They are therefore going to 'go through' a mini supermarket, a huge mouth and a petrol station. Visits last for about an hour and 45 minutes and booking ahead is obligatory (call 06 3613776). Tickets are 6 euros for adults, 7 euros for children aged 4-12, and free for children aged 0-3. If you want to save some money on the tickets, go there on any Thursday afternoon when both children and adults pay 5 euros. To get there, take the Metro A and get off at Flaminio or take the following bus lines: 490, 495, 628, 92, 88, 6. Bioparco - Rome's zoo was founded in 1908, and has undergone a series of changes ever since. Its name was changed to Bioparco in 1998 and its philosophy has also been somewhat alternated. Its primal goals are continuous education and the preservation of endangered species in captivity. Bioparco is home to 194 species and more than a thousand animals in the area of 17 acres in the center of Rome. All buildings dating from the beginning of the 20th century have been preserved and they coexist perfectly with newer buildings designed according to modern theories of zoo management. Tickets are 9 euros for adults and 6,5 euros for children aged 3-12. Bioparco's opening hours are 9.30am to 5pm during winter, and 9.30am to 6pm during summer. If you are planning to visit it, take the Metro A and get off on the Flaminio and Spagna station. Bus lines in the vicinity are: 52, 53, 926, 217, 360 and 910. Tram lines number 3 and 19 will also take you there. Luneur - Luna Park Rome, an amusement park, was created in 1953 in the time of the agricultural exhibition that took place in the neighbourhood. Entrance is free of charge but individual fares have to be paid. There are a number of interesting activities for both adults and children and the park is open every afternoon until late at night. The nearest subway station is the Magliana and Fermi (Metro B) while the bus lines running in the vicinity are 706, 707, 714, 717, 765 and 771. Il Fantastico Mondo del Fantastico - this theme park is not within strict city limits, but it is reachable by public transport. Just 15 kilometers from the centre, il Fantastico Mondo is home to theme activities including famous characters like Little Red Riding Hood, Batman or Spiderman. The park's working hours are from 10am to 8pm every day. Tickets cost 9 euros for children aged 3-11, and 11 euros for other children and grownups. The ticket is valid for all activities within the park. How to get there: go to the Stazione Tiburtina (Metro B) and take the bus to Tivoli. Get off in Lunghezza. Or you can use the subway from Rebibbia (Metro B) and take the bus numbered 040 to Lunghezza. Parco dei Mostri a Bomarzo was named after its Parco dei mostri a Bomarzo. grotesque sculptures (the monsters' park) and it was (Photo by: unknown author) founded by Vicino Orsini, a noble man from Rome, in the 16th century. The park is open every day from dawn until dusk and the tickets cost 7 euros for kids aged four to eight, while the entrance is free for smaller children. Older children and adults pay 8 euros. Other activities in the town of Bomarzo include the palio (a horse race between town neighbourhoods), closely resembling the famous palio of Siena. The race takes place on April 25, followed by a costumed parade. How to get there: If you are planning to go there by car, take the A1 highway towards Florence and exit at Attigliano. Then take the SS204 towards Viterbo and follow the sign leading to Bomarzo. Call 0761-924029 for all additional information.

Theme Parks in Rimini


One of the main attractions in the popular tourist area of Rimini are its theme parks. Italia in Miniatura, located in Via Popilia 239 in Viserba, is home to numerous miniatures closely resembling real-life monuments, buildings, rivers, trees and other attractions. Working hours: the park is open from 10am to 6pm from March 15 to June 27, and from September 8 to 30 (up to an hour before park closing time) from 10am to 10pm on June 1 (up to an hour before park closing time), from 10am to 10.30pm from June 28 to September 7, from October 1 to November 2 from 10am to one hour before closing time. Rides close from 1,00 pm to 2,00 pm every day. Playmart and Pinocchio (from May 1) are open non-stop. Visit www.italiainminiatura.com for other information. Delfinario Rimini is located in Lungomare Tintori 2, beside the public beach in Rimini. It is open from Easter to September and the tickets cost 10 euros for adults and 7 euros for children.

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Specific Travelers in Italy

Venice for Kids


The city of romance is not just for hopeless romantics - it can also be a dream family destination if you know what sights to take your kids to. Some of the grown-up attractions may also appeal to your children - a gondola ride, taking some time to enjoy the beach, or a good gelato. Another interesting destination can be the famous Museo Storico Navale or the sculpture garden at the Peggy Guggenheim collection. Another interesting activity is tower climbing - try Torre dell'Orologio or the Campanille. It is a 99-meter tall tower belonging to the basilica, providing some of the most fascinating views in the city. Swings and toboggans can be found in the Giardini Publici or in the Parco Savorgnan.

L'Italia in miniatura.
(Photo by: unknown author)

Homosexual Travelers
Italians are known for being charming, affectionate, and are not afraid to show their emotions in public. Maybe that is why the country has been one of the prime destinations for couples for years: young, old, rich, poor, straight, and even gay. Homosexuality in Italy can be traced back to Roman times when numerous paintings have been made depicting marriage between men. Renaissance also contributed to destigmatization of homosexuality when a large number of artists openly showed their affection to the same sex. This somewhat changed with the onset of Catholicism in Italy and due to the fact that the global center of the Church became Italy. The country has nevertheless stayed on the the map as one of the top gay destinations in the world. Italy has had liberal legislation regarding homosexuality since 1861, and the majority of its cities are tolerant enough to be visited by gay travelers. There are however certain differences between the northern and the southern part of Italy, although it does not mean that these rules are exclusive. North has always been traditionally more tolerant towards homosexuality although Taormina has long been a gay mecca. It is not unusual for gay and lesbian travelers to attract negative attention in smaller towns located on the south. Italy is very much a Catholic oriented country but every major city has a thriving gay life, especially, Rome, Milan an Bologna. The legal age of consent in Italy is generally 16 although this number drops to as low as 13 in some cases. Rome, Milan and Bologna are the cities with the largest number of gay-friendly venues, tourist agencies, hotels and bed&breakfasts. Sicily's Taormina and the Tuscan town of Viareggio are famous gay summer destinations. The best way to be informed about the current state of gay-friendly and gay-only places is to track down the local gay organization like Pride, the national monthly magazine or AUT (www.mariomieli.org). Milan is said to be the gay capital of Italy in addition to being the headquarters of ARCI Gay, the country's biggest gay organization. The International Gay and Lesbian Travel Association (IGLTA) (tel. 800/448-8550 or 954/776-2626; www.iglta.org) is an excellent source of information about gay and lesbian-friendly travel businesses; go to their website and click on 'Members'. The island of Capri is a very popular gay destination and a worthy rival to the gay beaches of Venice. A number of tourist agencies offer travel itineraries specifically for gay and lesbian travelers. One of the exclusive gay and lesbian tourist agencies is the Above and Beyond Tours (tel. 800/397-2681; www.abovebeyondtours.com).

Gay Events
Italy is home to several gay film festivals visited by people from around the world. The most notable ones is the International Gay and Lesbian Film Festival in April, followed by the Festival del Cinema Gay Lesbico e della Cultura Queer in Milan. Florence, being one of the most gay-friendly Italian regions is also home to a gay film festival. The Florence Queer Festival takes place in May and its numerous events have confirmed Tuscany's title as one of the most interesting gay destinations.

Gay Rome
Although the capital of Italy is located in the heart of the Mediterranean, it has a kind of northern feel. Social life in Rome benefits greatly of the mild climate and of the beauty of the city - that is why it is home to numerous street-side cafes and restaurants packed even the weather is not that much favorable. Rome is one of the major cultural, historical and architectural capitals in the world with countless interesting sites and definite must-sees. Its enormous popularity has its downsides - one of them are definitely endless lines in front of museums, and the fact that you would often have to admire a painting or a sculpture behind fifty people. Therefore it is often more rewarding to just stroll around Rome's narrow streets in the center before entering at least one of its twenty thousand magnificent churches. Rome's gay culture consisted of either outdoor walking (side-streets, gardens and parks) or visiting places where 'everybody knew but nobody dared to ask' until just a few years ago. There were only a handful of places that were specifically gay. Nowadays things are rapidly changing as the number of gay clubs, bars, discos and bathhouses/saunas is increasing every day. One of the most popular gay areas the Gay Village located in Testaccio. The area is committed to catering gay population with many discos, bars, open-air theaters and theaters.
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Visas and Regulations in Italy

Visas and Regulations in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Useful Information Visas and Regulations

Entering the Country


If you are a citizen of the European Union, entering Italy is more or less simple. No passport checks are done if you are arriving from neighboring EU countries. Like in many other countries in the world, Italian airport security has also become more strict than in the past. It is advisable to arrive to the airport earlier, allowing at least two hours for international flights. Some airlines allow you to check your baggage online, which is an excellent time saver. Before you embark on your journey check if you are up-to-date with regulations and restrictions regarding hand luggage, liquids and electronic devices. You will most probably be allowed on the plane with one piece of hand baggage and a laptop or a briefcase. If you are carrying baby milk, you will have to taste it in front of airport staff. If you would like to avoid problems, try to pack a very small amount of liquids in your luggage, and just keep the essentials (baby milk or medicine) with you on the plane.

Passport
Citizens of the European Union may travel to Italy using only their national identity cards. All visitors coming from countries which do not issue IDs (Great Britain) have to bring their passports with them. Tourists from non-EU countries must have a full valid passport with them. Visitors applying for a visa have to be certain that their passport is valid for at least a few months.

Visa
Italy signed the Schengen Convention along with a number of other EU member states agreeing to abolish checks at common borders (UK, Ireland and new EU member states since 2004 are excluded). Today, the Schengen convention has been signed by fifteen countries (France, Germany, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Austria, Denmark, Finland, Sweden, and the non-EU members Norway and Island), and others will be joining them soon. Citizens or legal residents of these countries do not require a visa to visit any other country that co-signed the convention. Visas are not required for tourists visiting Italy from Australia, Canada, Brazil, Israel, Japan, New Zealand and the United States, providing they do not stay in the country more than 90 days. All visitors coming from non-EU countries for reasons other than leasure (work or study) should contact an Italian consulate as they may need a specific visa. Those visitors should pay attention to having their passport stamped upon arrival as they may encounter problems when trying to obtain a residence permit (permisso di soggiorno). Tourist visa is usually valid for a period of 90 days, and the Schengen visa is generally valid for visiting other Schengen countries. This visa, however, is not without any restrictions as some countries may impose additional regulations on certain nationalities. Make sure you know about all current regulations prior to your visit to Italy. If you want to obtain a Schengen visa you must apply for it in your country of residence. You are allowed to apply for only two visas in a twelve-month period, but these visas are not renewable outside Italy. For all information about the Schengen visa go to www.eurovisa.info/SchengenCountries.htm. Although citizens of the EU are not required to obtain a work permit in Italy, they may need to report to the police every three months. If their residence in Italy has been uninterrupted for five years, .

Copy Your Documents Just in Case


Before you leave your home and go to Italy, make sure you copy all important documents (passport, credit cards, tickets, driver's license, travel insurance documents etc.), and leave them at home, separate from the originals.

Residence Permit
If you are a citizen of a non-EU country and you are planning to stay for more than one week at one address, you should report to the local police and ask for a permesso soggiorno (residence permit). If you are staying at the hotel you do not have to apply for the permit. Obtaining a permesso is a necessity if you intend to work or study in Italy. Prepare yourself for long lines and the possibility of arriving at the counter without all necessary documents. The problem with the having all required documents is that the list changes, but in general you will need a valid passport (make sure you get the stamp at the border!), a study visa for non-EU residents, four passport photographs and the proof that you are able to financially support yourself. When you will have all the required documents head to the ufficio stranieri (foreigners' office) of the police station in your closest vicinity. Permesso di soggiorno is not required by EU citizens.

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Study Visa
Study visas are necessary for all students from non-EU countries wanting to go to a university or a language school in Italy. Your nearest Italian embassy or consulate will help you obtain it. Documents usually required are the proof of your enrollment to the educational institution in Italy, proof of payment of fees and financial sources proving you will be able to support yourself. This visa can be renewed once in Italy, but only if you obtain a document saying you have continued your education and the proof of your financial independence (bank statements will do).

Taxes - Italian Laws Regarding VAT


Italy is a member of the European Union and it therefore imposes VAT (Value Added Tax or IVA in Italian) on the better part of services and goods. In the majority of cases, VAT is around 20 percent. The tax imposed on hotel services may vary and it is usually somewhere between nine percent (first and second-class hotels) and nineteen percent (deluxe hotels). Visitors from non-European Union countries have the right to an IVA refund if they spend more than 155 Euros in one shop, before tax. If you want the tax to be refunded to you, ask ask the cashier for an invoice. You then have to get it stamped at the airport in the Customs Office (la dogana) prior to your departure. If you are traveling to another EU country before you go home, do not stamp your invoice in Italy; have it stamped in the last EU country you visit before you go home. When you come home, send the stamped invoice to the original vendor within ninety days of purchase. Tax refund will be sent to you by the vendor sooner or later, although it is generally more reliable and faster to deal with established vendors. It sometimes happens that less-honorable stores lose your dossier. It is also possible to ask for the refund to be credited to the credit card you used for the purchase; this is usually faster. Another interesting and fast way of redeeming your money is shopping stores that are a part of the 'Tax Free for Tourists' network. In those stores you will be issued a check along with your invoice when you shop. You can swap the check for cash in the Tax Free Booth after you had your invoice stamped in the Customs Office.

Customs Tips
Duty-free trade has become non-existent within the EU boundaries. However, one can still buy goods without tax on European airports. Non-EU visitors can import: 1 liter of spirits or 2 liters of wine, 200 cigarettes, 250 ml eau de toilette, 50 g perfume, and other goods up to a total of 175 Euros. Anything exceeding the limit has to be declared on customs at arrival and appropriate duty has to be paid. If you are a non-EU citizen you have the right to reclaim any VAT on the purchases you made in Italy. If you are planning to do some serious shopping in Italy, it is best you keep all receipts from your purchases. Sometimes the official may over-tax the goods you bought, so by having the receipts with you you can challenge his estimate. If you feel you were over-charged, you have the right to appeal the assessment or the way your clearance was handled. Make sure you write down the official's number and ask to see his supervisor. Sometimes it is also necessary to write to the port director to settle the misunderstanding. The majority of cities in Italy have information points that allow you to claim sales taxes on the goods you bought. VAT (Value Added Tax) is approximately 20 percent of the price so if you bought a lot of things it pays off to keep your receipts. If you are planning to carry a large quantity of goods while traveling through EU countries, you should be up-to-date with European Community regulations, although you will not have to pas through customs.

Traveling from Italy to the US


Citizens of the United States are allowed to import up to US$ 400 worth of foreign goods duty-free if they have been outside the country for a minimum of 2 days. They have to be at least 21 to bring back one-litre of alcohol duty-free. Regardless of age, US citizens may import 200 cigarettes or 100 cigars (providing the cigars do not originate from Cuba). Original works or art made by hand or antiques classified as more than a hundred years old can be brought back duty-free. Sending back packages to your own address is also allowed, providing that a package does not exceed the value of $200 and that you send only one package per day. The package has to be labeled 'personal use', and perfumes, cigarettes or cigars may not be included in the package. Buying counterfits in Italy may seem like a cheap investment, but if the customs official catches you having them, the fines will amount to more than you would have paid for the legitimate item in an original store.

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Getting There - Italy

Getting There - Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local guide Useful information Getting there

By Plane
Many major Italian airports are directly connected to the majority of European cities. Italian national airline called Alitalia has direct daily lines around the globe. The majority of international flights arriving to Italy will land either to Rome or Milan, two of the most important Italian airports. Many tourists coming to Italy will choose to land in Rome and visit three historically important cities of Rome, Florence and Venice followed by a flight back home from Milan. New York, for instance, is directly connected to Venice by Delta Airlines on a daily basis. People coming from other American destinations may have to switch flights somewhere in Europe before arriving to Italy. If Italy is not your only destination, you could consider using low-cost airlines to travel between countries. A few low-cost airlines like Easyjet or Ryan air offer great deals on one-way tickets which may be very convenient if you are planning to make a European tour. This will help you make a much cheaper itinerary and allow you to see all major European cities without having to think about your budget. Another great thing about low-cost airlines is that you can book your tickets online and print them out at home which saves you the hassle of going to the airline office and buying them. All Americans traveling to Europe should consider flying in to London first and then booking a ticket to Italy at one of low-cost airlines. This can result in considerable savings compared to a flight directly from the United States to Italy.

By Train
Arriving to Italy by train using Eurail passes is another popular and convenient option. Traveling by train gives you an opportunity to see the Alps or other beautiful Italian countryside before arriving to Milan or Venice. Make sure you travel using companies which allow you to make a reservation in order to make your trip as comfortable as possible. Eurail pass is a very convenient option of seeing not just Italy, but many other European countries. Its long tradition (since 1959) has confirmed its convenience and proved to be a very comfortable train travel throughout Europe. There is a number of Eurail passes which you can use. Eurail Global Pass is the most popular option and it enables you to travel to 20 European countries by rail. The system developed from cooperation of 30 European railways and some shipping lines. Eurail passes are designed for people wanting to travel for a number of days within a certain period, and not for those who want to buy point-to-point tickets. Railway companies that a part of the system are: BB (Austria), NMBS / SNCB (Belgium), BDZ (Bulgaria), H (Croatia), CZ (Czech Republic), DSB, and the private train company Arriva (Denmark), VR (Finland), SNCF (France), DB and various private companies (Germany), OSE (Greece), IE (Irish Republic), TRENITALIA (Italy), CFL, including the CFL bus (Luxembourg), ZCG (Montenegro), NS and the trains operated by the companies Veolia, Syntus, Arriva, Connexxion, DB Region Westfalen and Prignitzer Eisenbahn (The Netherlands), NSB (Norway), PKP (Poland), CP (Portugal), CFR (Romania), ZS (Serbia), SZ (Slovenia), RENFE (Spain), SJ and the private train companies Arlanda Express, Connex, Merresor and Tagkompaniet (Sweden), SBB/CFF/FFS and various private companies (Switzerland).

By Bus
Arriving to Italy by bus is also a reliable and cheap option. Eurolines is a consortium of various bus companies operating across Europe. The company has offices in all major European cities. Buses arriving to Italy head to Milan, Florence, Rome, Siena or Venice. All buses are equipped with on-board toilets, reclining seats, large picture windows and comfortable legroom. The company encompasses 32 independent coach companies which makes it Europe's largest regular coach network. It connects more than 500 destinations throughout European territory and Morocco. This allows you to travel from Moscow to Casablanca and from Helsinki to Sicily. Euroline fares are among the cheapest in Europe with all road tolls and travel taxes included in the price. Most lines head straight to the city center, and there is no need to pay expensive transfers.

By Car
All people driving around Europe should carry proof of ownership saying they operate a private vehicle. Another necessity is a third-party motor insurance. If you have a car accident while in Italy, a European Accident Statement (EAS) should simplify matters to a great extent. The form can be obtained form your insurer. In the case of a breakdown, call 803 116, the number operated by the Automobile Club Italiano (ACI). All vehicles crossing an international border should have a nationality plate of its country of registration. Italy's principal border crossings are the Mont Blanc Tunnel from France, the Grand St Bernard tunnel from Switzerland, the new Swiss Lotschberg Base Tunnel connecting the old Simplon tunnel into Italy and the Brenner Pass from Austria. All of them are open year-round, and the majority of them are a safer option as some mountain passes are often closed during winter and sometimes, even in autumn and spring. Snow chains are a must-have during winter. Once you get there arm yourself with patience and tolerance towards Italian driving customs because they are quite different compared to other Europeans' driving habits. Many cities have banned cars from their centers so if you are planning to visit any of them, park your car on the outskirts and head to the city using public transportation.
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By Boat
There are many ferry companies connecting Italy to every Mediterranean country. Traghettionline.com is a useful website containing a search engine that covers all the ferry companies in the Mediterranean. Tickets can be booked online. Prices go up during summer and many routes operate only during that season. Vehicle fares vary according to their size. Italy is connected to Greece through various lines operated by Anek Lines, Superfast Lines, Minoan Lines, Agoudimos Lines, Ventouris Lines, Hml Endeavor Lines, Snav etc. From Venice you can reach Patras, Igoumenitsa and Corfu. Grandi Navi Veloci connects Genoa with Tunisia via Palermo, and Cotunav has lines going from Genoa to France and Tunisia. Grimaldi Ferries connects Civitavecchia, Salerno and Palermo to Tunisia while Medmar Linee Lauro goes from Livorno to Tunisia. Ancona is connected to Split, Korcula, Stari Grad, Zadar and Brbinj by the Jadrolinija ferry company while Bari has lines going to Dubrovnik. Venezia Lines connects Venezia to Umag, Pula, Rovinj and other cities in the region. Split, Hvar and Vis are connected to Ancona through the Blue Line ferry company.

In Venice, boats and ferries are, naturally, quite common.


(Photo by: SpecialKRB)

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Getting around in Italy

Getting around in Italy


World Europe Countries Italy Local Guide Useful Information Getting around

By Plane
Low-cost air traffic has become very frequent in Italy, and there are many internal flights that are becoming increasingly competitive. Many domestic flights take off and land on secondary airports in major cities like Rome's Ciampino, Linate near Pisa and Rome many other smaller airports like the ones in Florence, Venice Cagliari and Bologna. Booking these flights can either be done online or by contacting a tourist agency near you. Low-cost airlines offer only on-line booking. Regular domestic flights can be booked using Lufthansa or Alitalia which offer many deals for younger people, families weekend travelers and seniors. A Spanish low cost airline Spanair also offers some internal flights. All airport taxes will be added to the price of the ticket.
Flying Alitalia.
(Photo by: La Marga)

By train
There are a number of train companies in Italy: TBiz, EurostarItalia, Eurostar City Italia, IntercityPlus, Intercity, Espresso, Interregionale and Regionale. TBiz, and Eurostar Italia are the most luxurious ones. Although the trains that are used by Eurostar Italia and TBiz are newer and more modern, it does not necessarily mean that they are the most comfortable ones. If you cannot travel without your laptop and need to have a power socket everywhere you go, than TBiz and Eurostar Italia are the perfect choice for you. If you are traveling in a group, trains provided by Intercity are the most convenient ones because their carriages are sometimes split into six-seater compartments. Reliability is the main difference trains can be divided by in Italy. If you want a reliable rail company but you are not a tight schedule, than Intercity is a good choice. If you, however, need to catch a flight and do not have very much time, pay a little extra to use the services provided by Eurostar Italia. If you need to catch a train to a remote small station, using either Interregionale or Regionale that usually have more stops. The drawback of this option that these trains are generally less reliable, but that may not be a problem if you have enough time (and a little bit of patience).

Trenitalia train.

Purchasing a ticket in advance is obligatory when you travel using better rail companies like TBiz, Eurostar Italia or Intercity Plus but the good side of planning early is that those trains will never be too crowded because every traveler has a seat that has been allocated to them in advance. A small sum of money will be levied to those who have a ticket without a seat reservation. If you encounter someone sitting on your (reserved) seat, a brief and polite warning will do. Like in many other countries trains tend to get packed with people during holidays, before or after big demonstrations or during commuter hours, especially in the north-south direction. Therefore arm yourself with patience and expect to be sitting in a train hallway. Train types that are more expensive are usually more reliable and faster, but this is not a general rule. The main difference between expensive and budget traveling by train is the number of stops they make on their route. Time spent in the train also depends on the route you are taking; there are a number of routes in Italy which take the same amount of time regardless of which train type you take. The best way to be informed is to check the Trenitalia website (http://www.trenitalia.com/en/index.html) for a detailed timetable, travel time and ticket prices. It is also possible to buy your tickets online. Treni notte are a special train type that takes long overnight routes across Italian territory (Milan-Rome or Milan-Reggio Calabria). The are a number of different categories you can choose from - a couchette, a cabin or normal seats. Although the tickets for normal seats are the cheapest ones, the price difference between them and the sleeping cart tickets is not unbearable, so choosing the latter option may pay off in terms of a good night sleep.

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Every train is marked by a different color in all timetables in Italian train stations. Not all trains operate throughout the year some of them operate only during summer or during holidays. Prepare yourself for long lines in front of cash desks in railway stations. The best way to avoid missing your train due to long lines is to arrive at the station early. Other option is using touch-screen ticket machines, but lines for those can also get long. The Trenitalia website also offers online ticket purchase and it operates on the principle of a code (PNR or codice di prenotatione) which you use when you pick up your ticket at the station. Printing out the ticket by yourself is also a very convenient option but this is only valid for a number of trains in Italy. In general, it is always the best to buy your ticket in advance. Italy has recently introduced bigger fines for those boarding the train without a ticket. Therefore, if you are unable to purchase the ticket before your trip, it is advised to talk to the conductor in front of the train. Validating your ticket in one of the yellow boxes (Convalida) before your trip is obligatory in Italy. Italian conductors generally do not tolerate travelers without a validated ticket. Buying a zone ticket card is the cheapest way of traveling by train in a region. If you are traveling from one region to another, you will have to get of the train and buy another zone ticket card valid for the region you are entering. It generally takes an hour for another train to arrive. Smoking is forbidden in all public places as of January 10, 2005, so paying a fine is very likely if you decide to light up in a train.

By Bus
Numerous companies run the bus system in Italy. General rule that buses are cheaper than trains does not apply in all cases in Italy, but sometimes getting a bus is the only way to reach a small town on the periphery. Local tourist offices usually provide bus timetables to tourists. The majority of intercity bus companies have their ticket offices set up in larger towns or sell tickets via agencies. If you need to buy a bus ticket in a village or a smaller town check the local bar - some of them sell bus tickets. Another option is buying the ticket on board. Buses are generally never late so bear that in mind. As in many other means of transportation, booking in advance during holiday season is highly recommended. Bus tickets can be bought in corner stores and many other shops. The majority of mass transit systems operate on the principle of combined voluntary payment and sporadic control. When you buy a ticket you can use it any time, providing that you use it for level of service you bought it for. Upon entrance, you have to validate the ticket by putting it into the machine. Every so often controllers will ask to see your ticket and you will have a fine if you do not have it. Sometimes you will even have to fill in the formal report in the presence of the police. Daily and multi-daily ticket can be very convenient for tourist that are planning to use buses a lot. This kind of ticket will allow you to use mass transit as often as you want to during the period you bought to ticket for. City cards are available in many major Italian cities, and by using that ticket you can use all means of public transportation without any restraints (except of course the period you bought the ticket for). City Card can also be used as a ticket for certain museums or it provides discount in some shops, restaurants and hotels. Information about City Cards is available at local Tourist's Offices or on cities websites (www.commune.CITYNAME.it).

By Car and Bike


As is many other aspects, the northern part of Italian road infrastructure is generally better and more developed. The Italian south does not have such good roads and as many highways. All highways in Italy are marked by the letter A, followed by a number, and most of them (called le autostrade) are toll roads. Tolls are charged wither at entrance and exits or the stations are placed between sections. Losing your entrance ticket will inevitably result in paying for the longest possible distance, so be careful and hold on to it. For example if you lose a ticket on your way to Milan, traveling only for 50 kilometers, you will be charged for the Napoli-Milano route, the entire 700 kilometers. All blue lanes (marked Viacard) are A minibus. payable either by credit card or by purchasing the (Photo by: ToastyKen) Viacard available at gas stations, Autogrill or at tobacconists. Many Italians invested in buying a passing device that allows them to pay toll just passing through yellow lanes marked Telepass or T. Those lanes are surveilled by camera and all those passing through them will pay a fine in the form of the longest distance toll. The amount of the fine goes up if you are a foreigner due to the costs of locating you in your country.

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Getting around in Italy

Speed and Lights


Speeding is pretty common on Italian highways, but there a number of barely visible surveillance system that register those violating the law. The Highway Patrol (Polizia Stradale) has unmarked cars equipped with radars and cameras. As of 2006, the SICVE or TUTOR system has been introduced in several Italian highways. The system is intended for monitoring average speed of the vehicles over a long distance. The outline box contains the list of sections that are currently covered by the system. A reliable indicator that the road is surveilled by TUTOR is when all cars in front of you suddenly reduce speed, and nobody overtakes. If you see everybody behaving in such manner, it would not hurt to do the same. Like in many other countries, drivers' solidarity is also visible in Italy - when you see flashing lights of other cars passing by or regional roads, it probably means you are approaching a speed check. Speed limits are 130 km/h on highways (autostrade), 110 km/h on freeways (superstrade), 90 km/h on single-lane roads, and 50 km/h inside cities. Five percent above the speed limit is tolerable, but above that will be fined with big sums of money. Switching your headlights on if you are in a car is obligatory outside cities, and motorbikes should have their lights on all the time.

Drinking and Driving


Heavy fines will be paid by those having more than 0.50g of alcohol per liter in blood. Those not obeying this rule will also lose their driver's license, and possibly even go to jail. However, Italians are not significantly worried about that. All passengers have to wear seat belts, and children under ten years of age have to travel in back seats only. Drivers should yield all cars coming from their right from another through fare. Signposts in Italy correspond with EU recommendations, and the majority of them use pictograms with a few minor exceptions. Although it is cheaper to use blue roads, avoid that as much as possible, and use highways, especially if you are traveling longer distances.
Le autostrade.
(Photo by: Chettimar)

Drivers License
Everyone who has a driving license issued by a member of the European Union will not have any problems when driving in Italy; the documents are fully recognized throughout Europe. Others that do not have an EU-license should obtain an International Driving Permint (IDP) which is issued by the national automobile association. The permit is valid for one year, and it has to accompany the person's proper license. Hiring a car or a motorcycle will require you to produce your driving license.

Car & Motorcycle Rental


If you are visiting Italy and want to rent a car, talk to any tourist office or your hotel and they should be able to provide you with all information regarding rental companies. In order to rent a car, you should be at least 25 years of age, and be the owner of a credit car. The majority of companies will accept your IDP or your driving license as an identification document. Renting a small Vespa or a moper should not propose a problem in Italy. If you are interested in renting a bigger motorcycle to use for inter-city touring, there are also a large number of rental agencies that will gladly offer you their services. If you are planning to travel around by bike using a motorcycle, you should not have a bike that has at least 150cc. Helmets are compulsory on all vehicles with two wheels. The average prices for a 50cc scooter are somewhere around 20 Euros per day or 150 Euros per week. Be prepared to leave a sizable deposit in many rental agencies because they have to be certain that you are going to reimburse a part of of the cost in case the bike gets stolen. In majority of agencies you will have to beat at least 18 years of age to rent a

Road Rules
Like in majority of other countries, Italians drive on the right and overtake on the left side of the road. Unless noted otherwise, the cars approaching from your right have the right to pass the intersection first. Wearing front seat belts is compulsory as well as wearing rear seat belts if that car is equipped with them. On-the-spot fines await those who decide not to obey this rule. Like in all other European countries you are obliged to put display a warning triangle if your car brakes down on the middle of the road. Fines ranging from 34 to 138 euros in addition to two demerit points await those who do not wear a yellow or an orange safety vest. Those can be bought in bicycle shops or outdoor stores. Fire extinguisher, a first-aid kit and a set of spare light bulbs are recommended accessories in Italy.

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Getting around in Italy

By Boat (Ferry and Hydrofoil)


A number of private companies operate Italy's well-developed ferry and hydrofoil network. The biggest Italian islands (Sardinia and Sicily) are connected to the mainland with ferries from the ports of Genoa, Civitavechhia, Fiumicino and La Spezia. Smaller islands like the ones in the Bay of Naples, the Pontine islands or the Tremiti Islands are usually reachable for nearby towns in the mainland. Ferries also operate during season on larger lakes on the north, but the number of routes is drastically reduced during winter. Booking in advance is advised during season, especially if you are planning to visit popular islands like Sardinia. Fares are reasonable but beware of timetable impoverishment off-season as many routes are not as frequently serviced when summer ends. All the main ferry companies are listed on www.traghetti.com.

Vespa. (Photo by: Goatling)

Two ferries. (Photo by: Gaby&Peter)

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Regions in Italy

Regions in Italy
World Europe Countries Italy Regions

Italy is subdivided into 20 regions. Five of these regions have a special autonomous status that enables them to enact legislation on some of their local matters. The country is further divided into 109 provinces and 8,101 municipalities. The North of Italy is the country's most populated and developed portion. The North contains the following regions: Piedmont, Liguria, Lombardy, Valle d'Aosta, Emilia-Romagna, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Trentino-Alto Adige, Veneto. Central Italy is the historically the most important part of the country.The regions of Lazio (the region around Rome), Abruzzo, Marche, Tuscany (Toscana), and Umbria occupy the Central Italy. Southern Italy has the regions of Apulia, Basilicata, Campania and Molise. The Italian islands include Sardinia and Sicily , Capri, Ischia, Elba, Procida, Aeolian Islands, Aegadian Islands, Tremiti and Pantelleria.

A view of Venice from the sea.


(Photo by: brockleyboyo)

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Local Guide

Local Guide to Abruzzo


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Abruzzo Local Guide

Those interested in the traditional Italian lifestyle should visit the region of Abruzzo. This part of Italy features beechwood forests, ancient shepherds' pathways, and castles in nested in wilderness. Abruzzo is traditionally considered a remote, mountainous region. However, its eastern border is marked with stretches of sandy beaches along the Adriatic north and south of Pescara. To the west from this area rise the hills, which further rise to the infamous Abruzzo mountains. These mountains host some of the least visited hill towns in Italy. The area is the site of the vast Abruzzo National Park, one of the most important in all of Europe, and the Maiella National Park, along with several regional parks. The southernmost glacier in Europe, the Calderone, extends from Corno Grande to Corno Piccolo. L'Aquila is the capital of Abruzzo. L'Aquila is a charming city set amidst picturesque mountain scenery. Rest of Abruzzo's urban centres include the modern Pescara, lively Teramo, and picturesque Sulmona and Scanno.

Geography
The region of Lazio is occupies the area at the centre of the Italian peninsula facing the Adriatic. It covers an area of 10,794 km2 (4,168 sq mi), and borders the Adriatic to the east, and the Apennines to the west. The rivers crossing Abruzzo are numerous. However, they are all seasonal except for the Pescara and the Sangro, the biggest rivers in the region. The Abruzzo National Park covers 500 km2 (190 sq mi), with rare examples of Mediterranean flora and fauna such as chamois, wolves, bears, and golden eagles. Abruzzo's climate is varied - warm and dry on the coast, while the interior has an alpine climate.

History
The name Abruzzo supposedly derives from the Latin Aprutium, although the area was known as Picenum, Sabina et Samnium, Flaminia et Picenum and/or Campania et Samnium during Roman period. In the Middle Ages, the region was known as Aprutium. A recent etymology explains the name Abruzzo according to the Latin expression "a Bruttiis" (from the Bruttii) meaning the land that began from the Bruzi people, who later occupied Calabria. Until 1963, the area was part of the Abruzzi region with Molise. The term Abruzzi dates back from the time when the region was part of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. During this time, the territory was administered as Abruzzo Citeriore (Nearer Abruzzo), and Abruzzo Ulteriore I and II (Farther Abruzzo I and II ), nearer and farther designated the distance from Naples, the capital of the kingdom. Abruzzo Citeriore is present day Chieti province, whereas Abruzzo Ulteriore II is now the Province of L'Aquila.

Economy and Politcs


Abruzzo used to be a poor southern Italian region, however over the past several decades it has managed to boost its development and become the first region of the Italian Mezzogiorno. Abruzzo has had steady economic growth since the 1950s. By 1994, per capita income of Abruzzo was at 76% of Northern Italy's per capita income, the highest per capita GDP of Southern Italy. The construction of superhighways from Rome to Teramo and Pescara enabled easy access to the region, and also increased state and private investment in Abruzzo. The transformation of the economy based on agriculture to the one based on industry and services occurred. Agriculture modernised and rests upon small holdings offers high-quality products such as wine, cereals, sugar beet, potatoes, olives, vegetables, fruit and dairy products, as well as traditional products like saffron and liquorice. Industry has some weaknesses because there are only a few large businesses in Abruzzo. The region's major institutes and factories are involved in research in the fields of pharmaceutics, biomedicine, electronics, aerospace and nuclear physics. The industrial infrastructure is centred in industrial zones, the most important of which are Val Pescara, Val Sangro, Val Trigno, Val Vibrata and Conca del Fucino. Seaside and mountain tourism occupy a significant part of the economy of the region. The Regional Government (Giunta Regionale) is presided by the President of the Region (Presidente della Regione). The President is elected for a five-year term, and is composed by the President and the Ministers (Assessori), who are currently 10, including a Vice President. The Regional Council of Abruzzo (Consiglio Regionale della Abruzzo) is the legislative branch, and is composed of 40 members, of which 31 are elected in provincial constituencies with proportional representation, 8 from the so-called "regional list" of the elected President and the last one is for the candidate for President who comes second. If a coalition wins more than 55% of the vote, only 4 candidates from the "regional list" are elected and there will be 35 of those elected in provincial constituencies. The Council is elected for a five-year term. However, if something happens to the President, under the simul stabunt vel simul cadent prevision (introduced in 1999), also the Council will be dissolved and there will be a new election. Abruzzo is divided into 4 provinces: Province of Chieti, Province of L'Aquila, Province of Pescara, and Province of Teramo.
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Local Guide to Aosta Valley

Local Guide to Aosta Valley


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Aosta Valley Local Guide

Aosta Valley (Val d'Aosta in Italian, Valle d'Aoste in French) is the smallest and least populated region in Italia with surface of 3,263 square kilometers and a population of 125,000 inhabitants. is located in the north west of the country in the Alpes, and borders with France and Switzerland in the north, and with the region Piedmont in the south. Its capital city is Aosta, which counts less than thirty five thousand inhabitants, and, unlike all other Italian regions, the Aosta Valley is not divided in provinces (provincie) but only in 74 municipalities. The most important of them, other than Aosta, are Chtillon, Saint-Vincent, Sarre, Pont-Saint-Martin and Quart, all of them with less than five thousand inhabitants. The Aosta Valley is one of the autonomous regions of Italy and, despite its small population, in the region there are two official languages, Italian and French, although the latter is much less spoken than the national language. However, the local dialect, a (Photo by: evasar) variety of the Franco-Provencal language called patois, is widly spoken, with over 50% of the population who speak or at least understands it. In addition, in the are of Gressoney there is a wide group of Walser speaking people, descendents of immigrants who arrived centuries ago from German speaking Switzerland, and who still speak their Highest Allemanic dialect. The number of foreign citizens in Aosta Valley is just over four thousand units. The territory of this region includes three of the four heighest peaks in Europea: the Mont Blanc (Monte Bianco), the Matterhorn (Monte Cervino) and the Monte Rosa. In addition, there are a dozen peaks which reach a height above 4,000 meters. The Aosta Valley is one of the richest regions in Italy, and its geographical features makes winter tourism the strongest source of income of the region, and tourism in general quite solid also in other seasons, due to its natural treasure and historical sites.

Administration
The Aosta Valley is an autonomous region with a juridical independent body inside the political unity of the Republic of Italy, in accordance to the Constitution and the Regional Statute. The political organs of the Aosta Valley are: the Consiglio della Valle (the Council of the Valley) and the Regional Government (Giunta Regionale), presided by the President of the Region (Presidente della Regione). The regional territory is divided in municipalities, or districts, of which Aosta is the regional capital. The Council of the Valley is the juridical body and is made of thirty five councilers, directly elected by the people withing nine political parties, most of which have regional character, of the Aosta Valley every five years. The council chooses its president, presidence office and the Commissions among its members. The President of the Region (who also has the office of Prefect), the Government and the ministers (assessori) represent the executive body, they are nominated by the Regional Council. The President of the region elected in 2008 is Augusto Rollandin. The Aosta Valley is the only region, along with Trentino-Alto Adige, to have maintained the indirect election system for the executive body.
Aosta Valley's Official flag.
(Photo by: wikipedia)

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Natural Attractions of the Aosta Valley

Natural Attractions of the Aosta Valley


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Aosta Valley Local Guide Natural Attractions

The natural richnesses and the landscapes of the Aosta Valley represent the real treasure of the region, whose preservation is one of the priorities in the regional administration. The Aosta Valley is an enourmous natural reserve and features numerous sites like botanical gardens, national and regional parks, which offer a direct contact with nature.

Natural Reserves
There are a total of eight natural reserves spread all over the territory of the Aosta Valley, featuring natural richness and often unique characteristics and wonderful landscapes, mountain lakes, fields, glaciers and sublime peaks.

Marais Natural Reserve


The Marais Natural Reserve extends on a surface of 8 hectares at a height of about 900 m above the sea level, which belongs to the municipalities of La Salle and Morgex. This site includes a small fluvial part of the Dora Baltea river, which is the reason for its vegetation, typical of watery environments, with a beautiful forest dominated by willows, poplars and alders, while in the eastern part, the natural reserve featurs a swampy area with beds of rees. This area is used as resting point for birds that migrate to the south and that usually choose humid places, and it is inhabited by many species of water birds, like the wild duck, the cuckoo, and the moorhen; while other species populate this area only in spring and autumn like the little grebe, the great crested grebe, different kinds of herons, and seaguls. This natural reserve was established in 1992 by the Protected Areas Service of the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources of the region.

Cote de Gargantua Natural Reserve


The Cte de Gargantua natural reserve is placed in the Natural treasures of the Aosta Valley. (Photo by: wikipedia) south-west of the Aosta Valley region, on the right side of the Valley, crossed by the river Dora Baltea. It formed by a morainic heap that spreads from south to north-east. Its particular morphology has always been matter of attraction for the local people of this region and from where the legend of Cote has grown, the little finger of the giant Gargantua who remained buried by rocks, which gave the name to the area. The area is significantly exposed to the sun and particularly dry; this characteristic led to a typical Mediterranean and steppe vegetation to spread over this area and the presence of flowers like the Artemisia, the Asters, Tephilium, and other introduced by people like the Papaver, the Hyssop and the Cornflower. The protected area is populated by small rodents, predatory birds, sparrows, but mainly by reptiles like different types of lizards, snakes, and invertabrates. The Cte de Gargantua natural reserve is under the municipality of Gressan, established in 1993 by the Protected Areas Service of the Ministry of Agricolutre and Natural Resources of the Aosta Valley region.

Lake Lazon Natural Reserve


The lake Lazon, in the municipality of Verrayes, is placed on a glacial terrace, including a pond, in a dry climate. The site took its shape due to the action of the glacier that created a basin by carrying rocks and sands, and the turf descending onto the surface beneath the lake is originating aquatic vegetation.

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Natural Attractions of the Aosta Valley

The flora and vegetation of the site is richest in the whole Aosta Valley region due to the particular humidity of the place; the plant species are around one hundred species, some of which are rare and unique for the Alpine environment. The humidity led to the formation of a swampy environment, and most of the basin is covered by a thick stratum of turf which increases the acidity level of the water and a diversification of the flora. Like the flora, the fauna is particularly rich in this reserve and it counts over 30 species including many invertebrates and amphibians. The Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources named this area a natural reserve in 1993.

Lake Villa Natural Reserve


The lake Villa, near the municipality of Verres, is a site with centre in a mountain basin which features a contrast between the swampy environment of the lake and the dry surroundings. The morphology of the area features elements of glacial actions, magnatic rocks of the same kind which are present in oceans. The lake does not have natural affluent and is filled by water from the underground and by a canal. The vegetation is typical of swampy areas, but in the north-west there are dry flowery prairies over a calcarean soil. The fauna is mainly made of amphibians and reptiles like toads, frogs, lizards and different kinds of snakes. Recently they have recorded the presence of little grebes, a bird that lives near swamps. The area was named natural reserve in 1992.

Les Iles Natural Reserve


The Les Iles natural reserve is a humid area placed on the right side of the main valley of the region crossed by the Dora Baltea which extends over an alluvial plane around two lakes. With the presence of 43 species of birds, is one of the last sites natural sites right to host certain species that that populate humid areas. It geographical position, between the central valley of the Dora Baltea and the Gran San Bernardo valley, turns out to be strategic on the main migration routes of hawks and herons. The Les Iles Natural Reserve shows the characteristics of ancient valley landscapes, with swampy vegetation along the side of the lakes, due to regular flooding. The area was made a natural reserve in 1995.

Lake Lolair Natural Reserve


Lake Lolair is placed on a long shaped basin on the left side of the Valgrisenche at a height of 1,175 meters, filled by three sources and surrounded by a vast bed of reeds and glacial rocks. The lake received its shape due to erosion phenomena which filled it with slimy strata of turf. In spite of its small size, the area features a large variety of species and environments. The growth pattern of the vegetation is due to the effect of the lake and features swampy areas, and a sequence of Norway spruce and Scots pine woods alternated to woods of bushes and Angiospermae. Visible is the contrast between the humid and the dry spots of the area. The lake Lolair was named natural reserve in 1993 by the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources of the Aosta Valley Region.

Mont Mars Natural Reserve


The Mont Mars Natural Reserve features a typically Alpine environment with woods, rocky pots, cliffs, lakes and swamps. The reserve takes its name from the Mount Mars, between the Aosta Valley and the province of Biella (Piedmont), and is placed in the valley created by the torrent Pacoulla. The area feature small lakes and turf fields and is characterised by the presence of glacial rocks displayed as if they formed a series of steps. The vegetation of this area is rich and includes blueberries, larches, rhododendron in the dry spots. The fauna is typical of the Aosta Valley and includes, hares, chamois, weasles, golden eagles, northern ravens and white partridges. The area was named natural reserve in 1993 by the Ministry of Agricolture and Natural Resources of the Aosta Valley.

Holay Pond Natural Reserve


The Holay Pond Natural Reserve is a swampy area of extremely small size, but naturally very precious due to the presence of ancient flora and founa, very rare in the Aosta Valley region. The area a small pit of 765 m in depth, on the right side of the Gressoney valley near Pont-Saint-Martin.

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Natural Attractions of the Aosta Valley

In the centre of this put there is a small basin, almost entirely full of water, featuring igrophile vegetation, typical of swampy areas. The natural reserve of Holay is the only site in the Aosta Valley that hosts two the Waterpurslane and the Tufted Forget-me-not. As regards the fauna, the site features lizards, snakes, and amphibians like frogs and fire salamanders. The site of Holay is included in the municipality of Pont-Saint-Martin and was named natural reserve in 1993 by the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources of the Aosta Valley region.

Tsatelet Natural Reserve


The Tsatelet Natural Reserve is set in a interesting archeological site featuring a Neolithic necropolis dated to 3,000 years before Christ, on top of a hill, which presents megalith tombs, similar to those found in the archeological site of Saint Martin de Corleans, in Aosta. The area presents typical montain landscapes, over a rocky side that dominates the plane of Aosta. The particular morphology of the area si due to a glacial mass that exited from the Buthier Valley and flowed into the glacier of Balteo and continued to Mount Mary. The vegetation of the area is typical of dry places, it presents woods of downy oaks and Scots pines, while the rocky sides present Mediterranean and steppe plants like the Valeriana tuberosa and the Achillea. The fauna includes birds like the common buzzards, red kites and peregrine falcons, but also small mammles and insects. The Tsatelet site was named natural reserve in 1993 by the Ministry of Agricolutre and Natural Resources of the Aosta Valley region.

Botanical Gardens
If you want to admire the Alpine flora and take a chance to hear an expert's opinion, the Aosta Valley region offers four Alpine botanical gardens, which are Chanousia, Saussurea, Paradisia, and the park of the Savoie castle, all proof of the sensitivity and the hard work of the region in the preservation of its natural treasure. In 1994, the region decided to ensure yearly donations to all foundations which manage the gardens.

Chanousia Garden
The garden of Chanousia is placed in the area of Colle del Piccolo San Bernardo, at about 800 meters from the Italian-French broder, inside an Alpine environment at a height of 2,710 meters above the sea level on a surface of 10,000 square meters. The climate is characterised by strong wind and frequent snow falls that can last until June or longer as the yearly average temperature is one celsius degree. The garden was founded in 1897 by the abbot Pierre Chanoux, and near the 1920s it reached a number of 4,500 species of plants from all over the world and the garden received a scientific laboratory, a small museum, a library for students of Alpine botanics. With the Second World War, Chanousia was closed and was opened again only in 1978. Now the garden has 1,600 species of Alpine plants. The climate conditions make the vegetetion's life very short, about two or three months in avarage, as snows usually do not melt until July, so the choice of plants that can be grown there is limited, and have to be excusively species from Apline environments.

Saussurea Garden
The Alpine botanical garden of Saussuera, placed on the Mont Blanc at a height of 2,175 meters above the sea level, is one of the highest of Italy. It ccoveres a surface of 7,000 square meters is located in a mountain environment of incredible beauty in Pavillon du Mont Frety. The garden hosts around 600 plants on a rocky soil covered in great blocks of granite. It was founded in 1984 on decision of the Donzelli-Gilberti foundation, in collaboration with the Aosta Valley region, with the target to protect and study the flora of the Mont Blanc in its natural environment. However, the garden has been enriched with flowers from the eastern Alps, Asia and North America. Around the garden's area there are a series of walking paths which lead into the natural environment environment of the Mont Blanc; from this path, tourists can see animal species typical of the Alpine fauna like chamois, Apline ibex and marmots.

Paradisia Garden
The Paradisia garden was founded back in 1955 and its name from a flower, the St. Bruno's Lily (in Latin Paradisia liliastrum). The garden hosts over one thousand species of plants from the regional mountains, but also from the whole Alpine and Appennine area and from mountains world wide (Europe, Asia and America). For students of botanics, the garden offers a laboratory and a library, and inside the garden there are reconstructions of natural environments: a pseudo-steppe, a bog, a moraine, and others.

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Castles

Castles of Aosta Valley


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Aosta Valley Local Guide Castles

Besides nature, one of the most precious treasures of the Aosta Valley are the castles of great historical value and ancient charm. As soon as you enter the region, you are welcomed by the imponent fort of Bard, followed by the castle of Verres, and the castle of Issogne on the other side, ancient residence of the Counts of Challant, the lords of the Aosta Valley. Further on, you reach Castle Fenis, just before the city of Aosta, with its numerous towers, reminding castles in fairy-tales. Up the cliffs of the mountains surrounding the Dora Baltea's basin, you can see several forts, built in order to protect the territory. Many of these castles are very well preserved and are open to public, some of them host museums and exhibitions, while others are visible only from the outside as they are still used as private residences. However, there is a number of them which are still kept in bad conditions, as they were built away from roads and communication.

Fort Bard
The fort got is name after a small municipality of the low Aosta Valley (three square kilometres), famous in history thanks to the presence of the fort, built in the middle ages to dominate the point that guards the valley of the Dora Baltea river. The strategic importance of this fort went down through the years until it completely disappeared and the urban area lost its importance as trading centre. Due to the strategic position in control of the passage, the first fortress on this point was built before Roman times and was first mentioned in the XI century as a fortress belonging to the Viscount of Aosta. In the same century, the fort becomes property of the Lords of Bard, allegedly originary from an ancient family of the Loren.

Castle of Verres.

(Photo by: hedonist)

The fort was built by Ottone of Bard, and remained a property of this family until 1242 when the feud was taken over by the Savoy family. In 1799, the fort was seiged by revolutionary bourgeois and was taken after nine days, and a year later, forty thousand men of Napoleon's army had the Piedmont-Austrian army flee the fort and destroyed it. In 1830 the works for rebuilding the castle started and went on until 1838. The new fort was divided into three autonomous parts, used to ensure mutual defence in case of aggression, it had 283 rooms and could host over four hundred people. The deposits could stock ammunitions and food enough for three months. At the end of the XIX century, the fort starts losing prestige and being used as deposit for ammunitions. In 1975 castle was passed from the armys administration and became regional patrimony in 1990.

Castle of Verres
The Castle of Verres was a military fortress dated to the gothic period. The castle was thought as a defence point, built on a cliff over the torrent Evancon, near Verres, in 1287 and allegedly property of the Lords De Verretio. However, the governor and general captain of Piedmont, Ibleto of Challant, was the one who had the castle completely rebuilt between 1360 and 1390, after the Ayas Valley was freed from subjugations. The fortress was built to be the residence of Ibleto of Challant himself, as for the outside fortification and artillery were added in the XVI century by Count Renato of Challant. After the Count died, the castle became property of the Duke of Savoy and was used with military purposes. By the end of the XVII century it was abandoned for about two and a half centuries, until 1894, when it was bought by Italian state and named national monument. Still today, the castle is considered one of the mightiest manors a vassal was allowed to build inside a sovereign state. The castle has the shape of a on block, thirty meters long with walls two and a half meters thick and equipped with a drawbridge. It was entirely built in stone with gothic windows featuring different decorative motives. In front of the western wall there is a prison building connected to the castle, built on the former fort restored by Ibleto of Challant; the prison was set in the dungeons. Every year, the castle hosts the traditional carnival in honour of the ancient House of Challant.

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Castles

The Castle of Issogne


The castle of Issogne is situated in the urban centre of the same name on the right side of the Dora Baltea river, opposite the town of Verres. The castle was originally owned by the bishop of Aosta, and later overtaken by the House of Challant. The outside aspect of the castle is typical of the Renaissance, and its towers are pretty short. It was restored in 1400 by Ibleto of Challant, and in 1494 Giorgio of Challant had it adapted to become a residence for his cousin Margherita of Chambre and her son Filiberto, transforming the old manor into nowadays residence with rich wall paintings. After passing under the ownership of different families, in 1872 the castle was bought by painter Vittorio Avondo who restored it with the help of other artists. The last works lasted several years and the castle was donated to the Italian state, which donated to the Aosta Valley regional administration.

Castle of Issogne.
(Photo by: wikipedia)

The castle features rich architectonic elements in its interior, with magnificent halls and rooms. The buildings base has a quadrangular shape and is closed on three sides, with the fourth facing the garden surrounded by walls. The courtyard features a famous octagonal fountain with a pomegranate tree in iron, and the west side features a portico. The castle has about fifty rooms, most of them are open to public and furnished. On the ground floor there are several room among which the dining room, the kitchen and the barons rooms with a beautiful fire place in stone with the coat of arms of the Challant, with a lion and a griffon on its sides. The second floor you can see the room of the king of France featuring the royal coat of arms and the motto Vive le Roi (Long live the king). However, the castle mainly features elements of the feudal age.

The Savoy Castle


The works to build the Savoy Castle, designed by engineer Emlion Stramucci, chief architect of the royal family, started in 1900 with the placing of the first stone and was completed in 1904. Queen Margherita meanwhile remained widow of her husband, king Umberto I, killed in Monza, and she moved to the castle where she lived several summers until 1925. The castle is built on three floors, the ground floor with sitting rooms, the living room and the dining room; the first floor hosts the Queens apartments; and the last floors hosts the apartments of the servants. The castle is equipped with five towers and the kitchen is placed in a structure separated from the main building and connected to the castle by a small railway used to transport food. The castle was bought by the Aosta Valley region in 1981 and it is now used to host concerts and exhibitions during the summer. Starting from 1990, the castles park has been enriched with a botanical garden featuring flowerbeds with Alpine and exotic plants.

The Castle of Graines


The castle of Graines is placed above Brusson, with a very simple architectonic composition against a wonderful landscape. The castle was built by the abbots of the Monsastry of San Maurizio d'Agauno, near the urban centre of Arcesaz, in the Ayas Valley, in the 10th century. The building is a typical example of Aosta Valley castle of the middle ages, essentially composed of three elements: wide and irregular walls which follow the ground's nature, a square tower and a chapel dedicated to Saint Martin facing west. This type of castle was mainly thought to protect the nearby population inside its walls. Besides being used as the lords residence, it was the last defensive point, proved by the only entrance, five meters above the ground, only reachable through a ladder. Currently the castle can be visited, and by night it is lit with yellow halogen lamps. Unfortunately, the building is not in a good condition.

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Castles

The Castle of Ussel


The castle was built on order of Ebalo II of Challant in 1343, as a result of an ex-novo construction. The castle was inhabited until 1470, when the last lord of Ussel, Francesco of Challant died, and the family decided to move in more comfortable residence. The building was then turned into a prison, and then into an army base. During the 16th century it was completely deprived of war material and decorations, and eventually abandoned. In the same century it was bought by Captain Paolo di Madruzzo and in 1573 bought back by the Challant. In 1846, when the powerful family died out, the castle was inherited by the Passerin dEntreves family. After World War II, in 1963, the castle of Ussel was reinforced not to have it collapse and in 1983, the Passerin dEntreves donated the castle to the Aosta Valley region which had it restored with the financial help of the Baron Bich. The works were completed in 1999, and the castle was opened to public. The castle of Ussel is the first example of one-body castle in the Aosta Valley and its architecture can be seen as something in between the castle of Verres and the more complex castle of Fenis. It has a great value from a historical point of view because no restoration work has been carried out on it since its construction, which allowed it to maintain its original architectonic characteristics. The castle represents a revolution in military architecture, and the last evolution phase of medieval castles. Probably, the innovative character is more visible in the castle of Ussel than in the others due to the fact that it was built from the beginning, while the others were built over pre-existing castles, built in more ancient times. However, another possibility is that the architect found inspiration in Syrian buildings, maybe seen during the crusades, and from typical Aosta Valley buildings. The castle is placed on a cliff over the municipalities of Chatillon and Saint Vincent and it represents one of the main attractions of the area. It is open to visits during the summer when from the castle you can see a beautiful landscape.

The Castle of Fenis


The castle of Fenis, whose most ancient parts are dated back to 1242, makes the mightiest and majestic scenery in the whole valley, much different to the equally spectacular castle of Saint Pierre. Fenis, unlike other castles built with defensive purposes, is not located on top of a cliff, but on top of a small hill, in the centre of a prairies with spots of woods. The setting reveals that the castles function was mainly aesthetical, proof of which is the fact that it was never assaulted by enemies. The idea was to give a prestigious residence to the House of Challant of the Fenis branch. The war-like structure imposed to the construction though has changed the civil spaces that, although wide, are weakly lit by the few windows that were placed in the XV century instead of original XIV century ones. The family of Challant lost the castle in 1716 and other owners turned it into a farm; its beautiful halls became stables, barns, deposits and residence for the farmers. The castle remained in a degrading state until the end of the 19th century when Alfredo dAndrade, lover of the history of the Aosta Valley, bought it on behalf of the Italian state and had it restored. Later on, the works were carried out by other people who managed to save parts that had gone destroyed returning the castle to its original splendour. Today, the castle of Fenis is property of the Aosta Valley region. From the architectonical point of view, it is one of the most complex castles in the region; the central body is closed by two lines of walls and the access through the first walls is possible through the most ancient tower. The entrance through the second walls is placed half way around the castle and is access to a small courtyard. Across the courtyard there are semi-circular steps which lead to the upper floors, and on the wall aside of the stair there is a beautiful fresco representing Saint George killing the dragon and other religious images dated to the first half of the XV century. The rooms and the halls are displayed on three floors other than the ground floor. All the rooms are furnished with authentic Aosta Valley pieces from the XV and XVI centuries.

The Castle of Quart


The most ancient part of this castle was built in 1185 as a defensive fort by Jacque de la Porte de Saint Ours, head of the Lords of Quart. Throughout the centuries, though, the castle was modified different times. The most significant ones were carried out at the time it was occupied by the Savoy, between 1378 and 1550. It was transformed into a farmstead and lost most of its original features. The castle is still being restored and is not open to public. When the works are completed it will host the Ethnographic Museum of the Aosta Valley. The castles name is related to the main centre, and derives from ad quartum lapidem, that is, on the fourth stone starting from Aosta. In 1968, in Vollein, a characteristic village on the hill of Quart, they found the relics of an ancient Neolithic necropolis, according to the archaeologists left by the first inhabitants of the Aosta Valley. Other important sites in the surrounding of the castle are Fontin and Trois Villes.

Fenis Castle.

(Photo by: wikipedia)

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Castles

The Castle of Sarre


Not far from the city of Aosta, opposite to the entrance to the Valley of Cogne, the castle of Sarre dominates the landscape from a terrace covered in vinyards and exposed to the sun. The present building, no longer features the aspect of a typical medieval castle. The whole building is placed on a terrace leaning on arched foundations, which makes it look as if it were a whole together with the building. The castle is dated to 1242, and was owned by several families through the centuries. Among the first was a descendant of the Bard whose family lost the ownership in 1364 to Enrico of Quart, then to the Savoy for a short time, and finally to the Barond of Ferrod. All these property changes led the castle to several changes and adaptation due to the needs of its many owners. However, the one who radically transformed the castle was Ferrod, who preserved almost only the tower of the whole building. After Ferrod, the castle ended up in possession of other proprietors and one of them was again a descendant of the Bard family. In 1869, King Vittorio Emanuele II bought it to make it his private summer residence during his holidays in the Aosta Valley when he would hunt in the Gran Paradiso national park. The king gave it its final aspect, adding mews and raising the ancient tower, adapting the inside rooms to a royal owner. Evidence of this is the great hall, entirely decorated in hunting trophies, which are also exhibited in the lobby. During World War 2 and in the first years that followed it, the castle of Sarre hosted military troops, the halls and other rooms were partially damaged and deprived of their furniture and decorations. It was then sold by the Savoy to the Societa Moriana of Aosta in 1972, and opened to public as a museum of dynastic memories. In 1989, the Aosta Valley region bought the castle and had it restored. The castle today still preserves features of its residence functions, and is also presented as museum. The entrance to the ground floor is free, the halls were thought as didactic sections with the aim to introduce the visitors to the guided visit to the upper floors. Apart from the Savoy iconography, the rooms also feature hunting trophies and sections dedicated to the history of the castle. On the upper floors there are the royal apartment and the Great Hall of games, the hunting trophy gallery, the private rooms and the rooms of the servants. The second floor regards the history of the Savoy dynasty of the XX century, from Vittorio Emanuele III and queen Jelena of Montenegro, to Umberto II and Maria Jose, a very important figure for the Aosta Valley.

The Castle of Aymavilles


The first records on the feud and castle of Aymavilles are dated back to 1278, when the castle was simply made of one quadrangular tower, surrounded by walls, in accordance to the traditional model, typical of Aosta Valley castles. Today, in the 13th century tower, we can still see the original construction with a great wall that vertically divides the tower in two spaces. Allegedly, the tower featured little towers suspended on its angles. Inside, the tower was closed by a wooden roof, placed on the battlement, and divided in six levels, one of which was underground. This level hosted a chapel, a kitchen, and cellar covered with volts in stone which are still visible today. The other levels were separated by wooden attics. In 1357, Aimone of Challant had the tower reinforced, as he probably considered it vulnerable due to the flatness of the surrounding territory. He had four circle based towers added to the old one, and they differ from one another in diameter and height.

Fort Bard.

(Photo by: wikipedia)

He also reinforced the walls, adding a moat and a drawbridge. Meanwhile, the windows of the quadrangular tower were framed in stone and equipped in stone seats. In 1450, Giacomo Francesco II Count of Challant, created a semi-circular structure to be used as residence in front of the south-west tower. For about three and a half century, the castle remained intact, and in 1713, Baron Joseph Felix of Challant transformed the castle of Aymavilles into a residence for aristocrats, as they no longer needed it as a defensive structure. The works went on until 1728, and by that time the castle features galleries and lodges that connected the 14th century towers with one another, hiding the original tower. The access to the castle is placed on the south-western side, highlighted by double stairs that lead to a portico. In addition, Joseph Felix ordered the demolition of the semi-circular structure build in 1450, and of the external fortifications, as the surrounding territory of about eight hectares was turned into a garden. In 1882, the castle of Aymavilles was bought by Senator Bombrini, and in 1970 was sold to the regional administration of the Aosta Valley. Important restoration works were carried out in the year 2000; however, the inside of the castle is still not open to public.

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Geography of the Aosta Valley

Geography of the Aosta Valley


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Aosta Valley Local Guide Geography

Due to the geographical composition of its territory, besides being the smallest region (3,263 square kilometres), the Aosta Valley is the least populated (about 125,000 inhabitants), and also the region with the lowest population density in Italy (38,6/sq kilometres). Most of the territory is covered by mountains, with several peaks of over four thousand meters, and valleys, the latter usually being the points of higher concentration. In addition, the Aosta Valley features a pretty irregular distribution of population, as over one third of all the inhabitants are settled in Aosta (almost 35,000 inhabitants) and in the municipalities in its surrounding area, while the rest of the people mainly live in the main tourist centres. However, besides Aosta, there is no municipality with over five thousand inhabitants in the whole region. Considering the linguistic affinities with France, the region suffered a fall of population due to the emigration towards the neighbouring country over the Alpes in the nineteen twenties. However, shortly after, the region also recorded a strong immigration from other north Italian regions during the years of fascist regime, and from the south of Italy, especially Calabria after the second world war, especially in the seventies. In recent times, there has been an immigration of foreign citizens to the Aosta Valleys, in particular from north Africa. By the end of 2006, there were about five and half thousand citizens from countries outside the European Union, which is abuto four and half percent of the population. As already mentioned, a strong variety of languanges in relation to the population is spoken in the Aosta Valley. Italian is currently spoken by over 70% of people, while the Franco-Provencal dialect by over 16%. The other official languange, besides Italian, is French but it is spoken only by 0.99% of the population, which is less than the percentage of people who Pont Saint Marti. (Photo by: wikipedia) speak Piemontese dialect (1%) and, paradoxally, of those who speak Calabrese dialect (1.1%), while Walser and other minor dialects are spoken by 8.8% of people. The Franco-Provencal dialect is mainly spread in lateral valleys while Italian is the most spoken language in the centre and in Aosta, also due to the strong immigration from other Italian regions. French is studied in schools and on occasions of cultural activities, and it is studied in all schools as obligatory subject, so, although less than one percent of people speak it currently, the majority of the populations knows it.

Position and Climate


The region's climate is continental, although the seasonal distribution of rains is not typical of continental weather of central Europe, as it has its peak in autumn and a secondary moment in spring, while rains are reduced to minimum in winter. However, the climate could also more precisely defined Alpine, with cold winters and cool summers, with the exception of the central Valley crossed by the river Dora Baltea, which is closer to the typical European continental weather, with warm or even hot summers. Snow falls in large quantity during the winter, in particular on the mountains, in spite of the rains which are rare especially during the winter. The yearly rains are rare in all the region as the high mountains which surround the region create a barrier against winds from the west, with rains that go from 1000 mm down to 600 mm, which is much lower than the Alpine average. In the centre of the region, where the climate is extremely dry, there is an average of 500 mm of water a year in the area between St Vincent and Aosta. Aosta is one of the driest cities in Italy. In the central valley, on the side of the Adret, there are a few xerothermic oases which host plants typical of the steppe and others typical of Mediterranean areas. The temperature goes down a lot during the winter; in the area at the bottom of the valley, where we find the only plane in the region, it gets very hot and humid during the summer as the surrounding mountains stop cold, humid winds from blowing in this area, blocking the air circulation. In the area of Gressoney-Saint-Jean at a height of 1,385 meters over the sea level, the average temperature goes from -5 celsius degrees in winter to 12 degrees in summer, while in protected and dry areas, like in the city of Aosta, the temperature in summer rises sometimes over thirty celsius degrees. However, the significant differences in height between mountains led to the creation of micro-climates.

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Flora and Fauna of the Aosta Valley

Flora and Fauna of the Aosta Valley


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Aosta Valley Local Guide Flora and Fauna

Due to its mountain-like landscape, climate and environmental differences, the presences of wide protected areas, and the low rate of population, a wide variety of flora and fauna characterise the relatively small territory of the Aosta Valley.

Flora
The vegetation of the Aosta Valley records the presents of about 2,000 different species out of a total of 5,600 species which form the flora in the entire Italian territory. The hill part of the region, that is the territories beneath 800 meters of height, host fruit trees, vinyards, downy oak and chestnut tree woods. Along the banks of the river Dora Baltea, there are beds of reeds, poplars and willows. The vegetation changes with the change of height, starting from angionspermae in the lower land, changing from 2,000 meters of height into woods of conifers such as the rare Arolla pine, the mountain pine, the Scots pine, the silver fir, the Norway spruce, and in the highest points you can still find larches. The region's particular botanic richness is visible on wide spaces of grass in June, full of Alp flowers like the edelweiss, protected plants and asters; while on the rocky spots you can find plants of the ericaceae family and junipers. Worth mentioning are also different species of Achilleae, with small and fragrant white flowers, used to make typical Valdostan liquor called Genepy. In the area of Perloz you can find peonies. The typical flora in the wetter areas can be found only in the laky areas, but also in mires and swampy areas, present in many natural reserves.
Scots pine.

(Photo by: micromoth)

Fauna

Among the larger species of mammels in the Aosta Valley we must mention the Alpine Ibex, in Italian Stambecco, which only lives in the heights of the mountains, in particular on Mont Avic, over a heigt of 3,000 meters over the sea level. These animals between 130 and 160 cm long, and can weigh between 50 and 100 kilograms; their colour is grey and brown with red tones in summer, while in winter they get a dark brown fur and they live between fifteen and twenty years of age. The Alpine Ibex eats grass, berries, flowers and moss, and due to its incredible agility, it moves without problems on rocky areas in order to reach green spots. The male's horns are pretty big, characterised by projecting rings, as in the females, horns are similar to those typical of goats. Of the same species you can even find the so called "Snow Flake", an extremely rare albino exemplary, recently found on Mount Emilius. The chamois is present all over the regional territory. The chamois belongs to the same family as goats, it has rough and hard fur in summer, and softer, almost completely black during Alpine Ibex. the winter. They have dark coloured horns that can grow up (Photo by: 54m) to a length of 20 cm and have a shape of a hook, their muzzle is white with horizontal black stripes that surround their eyes. It does not weigh more than 50 kilograms and they eat grass in summer, and moss during the winter. Recently, the Aosta Valley has recorded a growing population of dears and Roe deers, also due to the presence of wide areas of woods. Smaller mammels that inhabit the Aosta Valley are present in a pretty high quantity, although it is rare to spot them, and include ermines (whose fur turns white during the winter), hares, foxes, weasles, martens and badgers. Among the birds, besides feasants, worth mentioning are surely the golden eagle and the bearded vulture, which has been introduced again in its habitat after disappearing for seventy years. Due to the growing number of preys, especially small mammels and birds, another important inhabitant of this part of the Alps has returned: the lynx. The return of this animal is good news due to the preservation of a good natural balance, and due to the attractiveness of this animal.
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Economy and Politics of the Aosta Valley

Economy and Politics of the Aosta Valley


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Aosta Valley Local Guide Economy and Politics

Although the geographical situation of the Aosta Valley makes it difficult to developped agriculture; about 35% of the territory, in fact cannot be used to grow crops. Nevertheless, this sector is one of the strong points of the regional economy, along with animal breeding, of cows in particular, which is developed in the vast area inadapt for growing crops, and is important for the production of cheese, one for all the famous Fontina, a typical regional product. Agriculture is developed in the valleys and is concentrated on the production of potatoes, cereals, wine, apples and pears. Other important sectors are those of the energetic productions, the industry of metal products and there are numerous private construction companies. However, the strong point and the fundamental source of the Aosta Gran Paradiso national park. Valley's economy is surely tourism, which has a long tradition, in particular (Photo by: cieleke) after the discovery of thermal waters in the eighteenth century. the Gran Paradiso National Park has been the main attraction of naturalistic tourism for over a century in the region, as people come to get in touch with the wilderness of Alpine environment, with different species of animals and rare sorts of plants. The valleys are rich in Alpine shelrters and the tracks feature very good signalisation and equipments. Besides the National Park, the Aosta Valley is famous for its many winter sports sites, in particular concerning skiing, with places like Breuil-Cervinia, Champoluc, Cogne, Courmayeur, Gressoney, La Thuile and Pila. Not to mention architectonic attractions such as about one hundred castles in the valleys and archeological sites, especially in Aosta, which features many ancient Roman relics.

Politics
According to the Italian Constitution, the Aosta Valley is an autonomous region with its own juridical identity inside the political unity of the Italian Republublic. The administration of the region is run by two organs, the Regional Council (judiciary) and the Regional Government (executive). The Regional Government (Giunta Regionale) is formed by the president and seven ministers who are in charge of different sectors of the regional administration. The ministers are nominated by the Regional Council (Consiglio della Valle) on proposal of the president of the Regional Government, after a secret voting, and they can be chosen outside the Regional Council. The Regional Government decides the policy the region will follow, in accordance with the policy of the Council and has the power of initiative in law making and in the regional regulations and it presents the financial law and the budgetary administration plan to the Council; it can dissolve the Municipal Councils. The members of the Council are representatives of political parties, some of which are related to national parties, while others are at a regional level. The parties are (in order of representation level): Valdotanian Union, Edelweiss Aosta Valley, Autonomist Federation, Autonomy Progress Federalism Aosta Valley, Valdotanian RenewalLively Aosta Valley, Democratic Party, Rainbow Aosta Valley, Autonomy Liberty Democracy, the People of Freedom.
Symbol of the Valdotatian Union party.

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Historical Overview of the Aosta Valley

Historical Overview of the Aosta Valley


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Aosta Valley Local Guide Historical Overview

The region Aosta Valley was initially populated by Celtic population called Salasses in the fifth century B.C., although archeologists have found megaliths dated 3000 years before Christ. After bloody conflicts with the Romans throughout the II and the I century B.C., who wanted to conquer this bordering part between the translapine Gaul and Helvetia, the Roman emperor Augustus conquered the region in 25 B.C., and there the Romans founded the town of Augusta Praetoria Salassorum, today Aosta. This city was important for the passages over the Alps. In addition, they built roads and significantly modified the natural environment. Still today in Aosta you can see numerous traces of the presence of ancient Roman civilisation in architectonic ruins. Later, starting from the IV century A.D., the region was christianised and Aosta became a bishopric in the V century. From the V century on, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, many populations like the Burgunds, the Ostrogoths, the Byzantines and the Longobards, attempted to conquer this land, but it was eventually conquered by the Franks after defeating the Longobards. In the sixth century, the Aosta Valley was a land of contention until it ended up being part of the dominion of the Franks in 575, until the fall of the Carolingian empire in 888, when it became part of the Kingdom of Burgundy along with other territories of south-east France and Switzerland.

Roman theatre in Aosta.


(Photo by: wikipedia)

When the Kingdom of Burgundy fell in the XI century, the Aosta Valley fell under the influence of the counts of Savoie, whose descendents reinforced their power on the region throughout the following centuries over the local lords. However, they creating a sort of federalism whose elements were urban and rural community, through a document called Charte des Franchise, a bilateral pact between Count Thomas I of Savoie and the citizens of Aosta. This was the first step towards the autonomistic feature of the region, which lived through the century, visible also by the survival of their local language. Throughout the middle ages, from this moment on, the Aosta Valley lived a strong economic development, due to its position of passages over the Alps. The financial prosperity was visible also by the increasing construction of castles in this period, which we can still see today, aimed at maintaining control of the region and avoiding possible rebelions. During the first half of the XVI century, the authority of the Savoie went through a deep crisis due to the economic difficulties, and this favoured the development of local self-governments. In 1536, the Conseil Des Comis, presided by the bishop of Aosta, was born inside the Assembley of the Three States. The new organ could be seen as a predecessor of today's Regional Council. However, during between the XVI and the XIX century, the economic and social conditions kept deteriorating, partially due to the plague and the Franch military campaigns in Italy. Under the reign of Emanuel Philibert, in the second half of the XVI century, the political system went closer to a centralisation of power, that is, in the hands of the sovereign. This policy was continued by his descendants, who had become kings of Sardinia in 1720, reaching its peak in 1770 when the local self-governments were abolished.

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People of the Aosta Valley

People of the Aosta Valley


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Aosta Valley Local Guide Historical Overview People

All through the centuries there have not been many people from the Aosta Valley region whose names have entered the history of humanity for special merits. Nevertheless, some of them are considered the pride of the local population and they are worth mentioning when talking about this region.

Maurice Garin
Maurice Garin was the winner of the first edition of the most famous international cycling competition in the world, the Tour de France, in 1903. He was born in 1871, and, like many people in the Aosta Valley in that time, he migrated to France when he was still very young and started working as a chimney sweeper. Meanwhile he started dedicating his time to cycling and soon gained popularity in France where they called him "le fou", the crazy one. In 1897, he won the Paris-Roubaix race, and again the race later, becoming the first Italian to win this prestigious international competition, after that, in 1901, he became a French citizen, and in the same year he won the Paris-Brest-Paris. In addition, he won the Dinant-Namur-Dinant, Liegi-Thion, Paris-Le Mans, Paris-Mons, Paris-Cabourg, Paris-Royan, Bordeaux-Paris. When he won the first Tour de France, he did 2,428 kilometres in 94 hours and 33 minutes. He took part in the Tour de France the following year and was disqualified; since then he withdrew from cycling and died in 1957.
Maurice Garin.
(Photo by: wikipedia)

Innocenzo Manzetti
Although the invention of the telephone has been matter of conflict between Italians and Americans over who between Bell and Meucci should receive merit, there are documents that prove the important role played by Innocenzo Manzetti, born in Aosta in 1826 and died in 1877. in the invention of this machine. Since 1849, in fact, Manzetti had put together a primitive telephone which he presented to the press in 1865, six years before Meucci's "caveat" and eleven year before Bell obtain a licence for his invention. A few years after his death, some people in America tried to give credit to Manzetti, claiming him the real inventor of the telephone, and, while Meucci and Bell were in the middle of their conflict, Mr August Mathias Tanner who worked for Washington's office for licences, tried to obtain the Manzetti's projects and models from his relatives, but no the latter had been frauded a few years before and had lost them all. In addition, Manzetti also worked in other fields such as acoustics, electricity, mechanics, astronomy, and especially hydraulics, as he invented efficient machines for pumping water. His first invention was a mechanical flute player, some sort of robot made of around five hundred mechanical devices that was able to play the instrument on its own.

Anselm of Canterbury
One of the most outstanding figures in history with origins in the Aosta Valley was Saint Anslem, archbishop of Canterbury. He was war born in the city of Aosta in 1033, which was then part of the kingdom of Burgundy, and later migrated to France. In 1059, he entered the Abbey of Notre Dame of Bec in Normandy to carry on his philosophical studies, becoming a monk in 1060. In 1078, the Abbot of Notre Dame of Bec died, and Anselm was proclaimed Abbot taking his place. He remained in Bec until 1092, and during this time he produced most of his theological and philosophical works. In 1093, he was made archbishop of Canterbury and in the years on and he had several conflicts with kings William II and Henry I. His firm opposition to men in power led to his exile after travelling a lot from England to Rome, and during the time spent in exile he continued his studies and works which later gained him recognition from the Church, some of which were used as basics for many philosphers centuries later, like Immanuel Kant. Anselm died in 1109 in Italy, he was canonised in 1494 and proclaimed Doctor of the Church in 1720.

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People of the Aosta Valley

Marcel Bich
Baron Marcel Bich, born in Turin in 1904, had origins in the Aosta Valley as his family came from Valtournenche, and became famous for BIC pens, which were named after him. He followed his father, a civil engineer, to italy, Spain and France where he gained citizenship in 1931. After the war he entered the pen business and in 1949 he invested in the production of a revolutionary type of ballpoint pen, which was already being produced in the USA. In 1953, he bought rights from Hungarian Biro, inventor of the ballpoint pen. He had enormous siccess and reached a production of 10,000 pens a days, and in three years the demand passed 250,000 samples. In 1957 he started exporting and managed to buy the English company Biro-Swan. The following year, he bought 60% of the American company Waterman, conquering the world market; oday, about twenty million BIC pens are sold every day. In 1973, Marcel Bich started to expand his activity by creating the BIC lighter with adjustable size of the flame. The quality of these practical lighters ensured him another success, followed by the creatino of disposable rasors with one blade in 1975, and later by the double-bladed rasors. Today, BIC is world leader in the lighter and rasor market with a production of four million lighters and eight million rasors a day. Before his death in 1994, Baron Bich donated the castle of Ussel to the Aosta Valley region along with a large sum of money in order to have it restored.

Innocenzo Manzetti.
(Photo by: unknown)

Natalino Sapegno
Natalino Sapegno, born in Aosta in 1901, was a great Italian literary critic, whose works have been used as text books by several generations of students. Sapegno entered the faculty of philosophy (liberal arts) of Turin at the age of 17, as he managed to end high school a year earlier, graduating in 1922, still not 21 years old. When fascism came to power in Italy he started teaching and continued his literary studies. In 1930, he became professor at the University of Padua and in 1936, he became professor of Italian literature at the University of Rome. Between the late 1930s and 1950, he joined young anti-fascist groups and within the faculty of philosophy in Rome, and some of his comrades took part in the resistance conflict in Italy during the Second World War and became protagonists of the Italian political life after the liberation. Sapegno himself became member of the P.C.I. (Italian Communist Party), but left it in 1956, after the Soviet invasion of Hungary. In the years that followed he produced a large number of quality literary critics and, in the 1950s, was completely devoted to tcriticism of the Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri; his comment became a model which is considered to be the best critical model still today. In 1976, he abbandoned his teaching career, dedicating his life to critics writing essays and articles, reviewing new editions of his former works. A year before he died in 1990 in Rome, Sapegno donated his rich library to the Aosta Valley region. Today he is buried in the city of Aosta.

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Local guide to Aosta

Local Guide to Aosta


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Aosta Valley Cities Aosta Local guide

Aosta, in French Aoste, is the largest and the administrative capital city of the Aosta Valley region with 34,672 inhabitants. The city presents interesting historical features, in particular ancient Roman ruins and ancient churches. It si situated in the middle of the Aosta Valley region in the place crossed by the main river in the region, the Dora Baltea, and is surrounded by mountains like Becca di Nona, Monte Emilius, Punta Chaligne and Becca di Viou. The city is crossed from north to south by the river Buthier, one of the affluents of the Dora Baltea. The city was founded in 25 B.C., after the Romans invaded the region defeating the Salasses and called it Augusta Praetoria. However, the area of Aosta was already inhabited by Celtic tribes of the Salasses and, according to the legend, it was founded in 1158 B.C. under the name of Cordelia, after Cordelo, son of Statielo, descendant of Saturne, and friend of Hercules, who had settled in the Valley ahead of the Salasses.
Aosta.
(Photo by: wikipedia)

Aosta

An interesting thing about Aosta is that, besides being the capital city of the region, it is the only city in the Aosta Valley; the other municipalities are considered towns or villages, so Aosta has the functions of regional capital and provincial centre. Being the Aosta Valley an autonomous region, Aosta has all the characteristics of a small wealthy capital, centre of administration, with an elegant centre, historical heritage, its own university and two hospitals. The official languages of the Aosta Valley are Italian and French, although native French speakers are only a minority. However, the Patois, a Franco-Provencal dialtect, is widely spread in all the region, and is still spoken in everyday life by a consistent part of the population, about 16%. In addition, there is a minorty of people who speak Walser language, a German dialect spoken in some areas of Italy, Switzerland and Austria.

Transport in Aosta
City Name: Latitude and Longitude: Other name: Constituent Country: State: Mayor: Total Area: Population: Population Density: Time zone: Established: Landmarks: Aosta 45 44 14 N, 7 19 14 E Aoste (French), Aota or Veulla (Patois) Aosta Valley Italy Guido Grimod 21,37 sq km 34.672 (2007) 1622,56 / sq km CET, UCT 1 25 B.C. Ancient Roman archeological site The city is connected to the surrounding mountains and other important centres of the region by good means of transports, like a cable car that connects the city to the skiing resort of Pila. It is crossed, from east to west, by the state road SS27 that connects Aosta to the Swiss border near the Gran San Bernardo tunnel, and crossed by the motorway A5, Turin-Courmayeur. In addition, Aosta can be reached by plain to the airport of Corrado Gex, and from Turin by train.

Economy of Aosta
Aosta is the capital of one of the richest regions in Italy. The GDP of the Aosta Valley region is over four million euros and the per capita GDP is of over 32,000 euros, with life standard the and the regional average is above the national average. Aosta is the regional and provincial capital of the autonomous region of the Aosta Valley. Being the only city and province in the whole region, besides hosting the administrative centre of its own municipality (the town hall), Aosta is the centre of the regional administration, the see of the president, of the regional government and of the Council of the Valley (legislative organ). The president of the Aosta Valley region is Augusto Rollandin, member of the Union Valdtaine party, while the the mayor of the city of Aosta is Guido Grimod of the centre-left. The main sources of the economic richness of the region are the breeding of cows and the production of Fontina cheese.

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What to See and Do in Aosta

What to See and Do in Aosta


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Aosta Valley Cities Aosta Local Guide What to See and Do

Being the centre of a region that is very jealous of its traditions and Alpine culture, the calendar of Aosta features events that can not be missed if you are there on a visit in the right time. Important events in the city of Aosta, attract people from all the region, but also many tourist who enjoy in places that still have not been invaded by complete modernisations.

Fair of Sant'Orso
There are two days a year, January 30 and 31, when the city of Aosta breaks its regular routine. During these days, the historical centre is invaded by numerous stands and is filled with colours, fragrances and voices. The fair of Sant'Orso, or la Foir, like the Aostan people call it, is a tradition of over a thousand years and takes place every year for forty eight hours. On this occasion, craftsmen from Aosta and the whole Aosta Valley region come to exhibit their works, attracting many local people, but also many tourists. The city's streets, large and small, are crowded with thousands of people. The saint the fair is named after is an important figure, in between religion and legend, who became a strong presence in the city of Aosta. During the last two days of January, the city of Aosta shows its best features: its Sant'Orso Fair. people, its art treasures and, most important of all, its crafts and traditions. (Photo by: www.bblaroche.it) There are craftsmen and works from all fields, from blacksmiths to carpenters, from objects in stones to those in leather and texture, but you can also see toys, masks, tools and furniture. The fair is like an announcement of carnival, due to the stress put on traditions, celebration and colours. Besides the arts and crafts exhibition, in this time, there are presentations of Aostan poets and their works in local dialect and organised tours of wine sellars of the historic centre and there are stands that offer typical food and drinks.

Bataille des Reines


The Bataille des Reines, in English the Battle of Queens, is a folkloric event that takes place in all towns of the Aosta Valley. The event is presented as a proper tournament and consists in two cows of Aosta Valley black piebald breed fighting, pushing each other backwards with their horns. The winner is the cow that first moves the adversary back. The cows have to be pregnant and are divided into categories according to their weight. The first modern edition took place in 1947 in the stadium of Aosta. This event usually starts on August 15, and takes place every year touring several towns in the region, and, after the fair of Sant'Orso, is probably the event that attracts most people to the city of Aosta. The tournament's final takes place in the Croix Noir arena of Aosta in October.

The Desarpa
The Patois word "desarpa" means the return of the herds from the heights of the regions to the valley; it is an event that marks the end of a significant season for cattlemen: a hundred days of hard work and getting in contact with aniimals and nature in order to produce the typical gastronomic prododuct of the Aosta Valley, the Fontina cheese. This event is not an annual events, but it takes place every two years in the city of Aosta, organised by the Association Regional Eleveurs Valdotains (Regional Association of Aosta Valley Cattlemen) and the Association Regionale Amis des Batailles de Reines (Regional Association of Friends of Battles of Queens). The event took place for the first time in 2000. Every two years herds of cows descend the valleys, crossing the city to return to their stables. The parade of 120 passes through corso Battaglione, piazza delle Repubblica, via Aubert, via de Tillier, piazza Chanoux, via porta Pretoria, via Vevey, via Festaz; it usually is led by the "reines" of the Bataille, representing the communities of the Aosta Valley region, and closed by 60 goats and sheep of Aosta Valley and Rosset breed. The event is accompanied by traditional Aosta Valley choirs, placed in different points along the streets crossed by the herds.

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Dining in Aosta

Dining in Aosta
World Europe Dining Countries Italy Regions Aosta Valley Cities Aosta Local Guide What to See and Do

Aosta is a city, like the whole Aosta Valley region, of gastronomic tradition strictly bond to its territory and its fauna. Compared to other Italian cities, Aosta is probably one of the most exclusive as regards food, and influence of French cuisine are visible in its typical dishes, which are mainly based on cheese and game (meat of wild animals) prepared in numerous ways likes soups, meat sauces and fondues. Typical dishes of Aosta are "fonduta e gnocchi", "costolette alla valdostana", "polenta concia", "soupe alla valpellineintze", accompanied by dishes based on chamoix and Apline ibex in salmi, and troute dishes.

Fonduta e Gnocchi
To prepare this dish for four people you need 400 grams of Fontina cheese, four yolks of eggs, a glass of milk and a spoon of white flour. First cut the Fontina in cubes and place them in a pot with a spoon of flour, then stir it up with a wooden spoon and add cold milk. After mixing together, leave the mixture aside for a couple of hours. Then you cook the mixture on mild fire, always stirring it up with a wooden spoon. Mind the Fontina does not boil. When the Fontina melts, remove the pot from the fire and add the yolks and mix the whole lot together with a riding crop; then put the pot back on the fire, without bringing the mixture over 70 degrees celsius and, when the fondue becomes velvety. Meanwhile, to prepare the gnocchi, you boil 1200 grams of potatoes in salty water. When they are ready you mash them and mix them with 300 grams of flour and four yolks of egges. Then prepare the gnocchi and boil them in salty water. When the gnocchi are ready, drain the water from the gnocchi, place them on a plate and cover them with the fondue.

Frozen Gnocchi .

Costolette alla Valdostana


To prepare Costolette alla Valdostana for four people you need four veal cutlets with bone, four slices of Fontina cheese, four slices of ham, two eggs, 250 grams of butter, flour, bread crumbs, salt and pepper. First turn on the oven and set the temperature on 180 degrees celsius. Whip the eggs and hit the meat with a kitchen hammer to make it softer, adding to them a lot of salt and pepper. Cover the meat in flour and dip them in the beaten eggs and then in the bread crumbs. Then fry them a little in butter making them crispy on one side, then turn them around on the other side, covering the crispy side with a slice of ham and a slice of Fontina cheese, in this order. when the cheese starts melting, put them in the oven until the fontina cheese starts leaking, then take them out and serve them immediately. According to the tradition, the cutlets are best served on a piece of polenta baked in the oven.

Polenta Concia
To prepare the polenta concia for four people you need 600 grams of yellow flower, 1.8 liters of water, 200 grams of fresh Toma cheese, 150 grams of Fontina cheese, 200 grams of butter. First you boil the flower in salty water, better if poured gradually, and constantly stirr it with a wooden spoon to stop lumps of flour from forming, having the polenta boil on mild fire. When the polenta is about to be ready, add the cheese and the butter cut in small cubes; leave them melt and serve the dish immediately. The polenta concia is a typical winter dish, and is best to have in cold winter days. According to the tradition, the yellow flour should be a bit gross and be cooked in a copper pot inside a wood-burning stove.

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Religious and Modern Architecture of Aosta

Religious and Modern Architecture of Aosta


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Religious and Modern Architecture Aosta Valley Cities Aosta Local Guide What to See and Do

The city of Aosta offers master pieces of architecture in two monuments of religious art (the cathedral and the Collegiata di Sant'Orso church) among the most beautiful in the region and in the whole country. However, there are also more recent works that are worth seeing when visiting the ancient city.

The Cathedral
The Cathedral of Aosta is placed in Piazza Giovanni XXIII and it is one of the most beautiful elements of religious art, along with the Collegiata of Sant'orso, in the city of Aosta. The architecture of the building is not easy to define as it was constantly modified between 12th century and 1848. However, the church has even more ancient origins. The first of many construction phases dates back to the 4th century B.C. from the adaptation of an ancient Roman structure, probably a domus, of the 3th 4th century to religious activity. During the following centuries, the structure was modified several times until, in the 9th century, they built a completely new building entitled to Saint Mary of the Assumpion and Saint John the Baptist. The crypt is divided in three naves that end in three abses. The pillars have different size as some of them were added later with functional purpose and they support the groin vaults. In the 13th century they made important changes in the area of the apside: the choir was separated from the central nave, behind the major apside they built ambulatory that leads to three new apsides. This space host the Museum of the Cathedral's Treasure. During the first years of the 15th century, the bishops of Aosta continued works on the cathedral and the last one dates between 1846 and 1848, when they added a neo-classic front: four doric semi-pillars supporting and epistyle. The facade is divided in three parts vertically; the laterl ones have two niches that contain statues of Saint Anslem of Aosta and Saint Giocondo, while in the middle, the empty space in front of the entrance is closed by a gothic arch. Beneath the cathedral there is the ancient floor of the first Aostan cathedral. In the middle there are the remainings of the floor in marble. Above the renaissance vaults there beautiful frescos discovered in 1979, but open to public only in 2000. The choir of the church presents two mosaics on the floors in different colours, dated to the late Middle Ages. The inferior one is dated to the second half of the 12th century, while the superior one is dated to a period between the end of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th century.

Collegiata di Sant'Orso
The Collegiata di Sant'Orso church in Aosta is the most important monument of art in the religious history of the Aosta Valley. The construction works of the church started at the time of Anselm, bishop of Aosta between 994 and 1025. It was built in romanic style with three naves, walls entirely covered with frescos on the remainings of a paleo-Christian basilica and of another religious building from the Carolongian age. What we have left of the church from the time of Bishop Anslem are the walls, the pillars, the cript and the precious frescos, placed in the superior part of the central nave and partially covered by the vaults. The construction of the romanic cloister, with its famous capitals, was build in the years after 1133, as written on the capitals, date from which the Augustinian community of Sant'Orso was recognised by Pope Innocent II, on request of Eriberto, bishop of Aosta. The cloister's current archs and vaults are the result of later works, that took palce at the time of Giorgio of Challant, in the second half of the 15th century; all but one of the minor sides, built in the 18th century. In that time, the cloister received many elements of late gothic that have remained until the present time. The Priory is composed by three bodies in renaissance style surmounted by an octagonal tower. The Romanic bell tower is made of enormous squared blocks, allegedly taken from ancient Roman buildings. The superior part is probably dated to the 13th century, while the clock to the 17th century.

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Religious and Modern Architecture of Aosta

The Chapel of Santa Croce


The Chapel of Santa Croce in Aosta is placed in the city's historic centre, in Via Edouard Aubert, near the angle with Via Torre del Lebbroso. The chapel was built in 1682 and its most interesting elements are a beautiful baroque altar placed inside of it, and the facade in trompe-l'oeil style with a fresco that represents the finding of the Jesus' real cross by Saint Helen, mother of the Roman Emperor Constantine I.

Calvin's Cross
Calvin's Cross is a monument placed in the historical centre of the city of Aosta, in Via Croix de Ville; it was built in 1541 in the place that formerly hosted the Cross of San Grato, to celebrate the drive out of Calvinists from the Aosta Valley. According to a legend, Swiss protestant Jean Calvin secretly arrived in the region in 1536 in order to impose his protestant religion to the inhabitants of the Aosta Valley and become part of the Swiss Confederation. The city authorities and the clergy reacted in order to limit the heretic activity of Calvin's followers, and drove him out from their territory. In order to celebrate the victory over the protestants, the clergy and the authorities ordered the citizens of Aosta to paint the name of Jesus on all the doors of the city and later they had a stone cross built to remember this event. The monument is made by a cross placed on top of a pillar in grey stone of about six meters. The basis is decorated with hieroglyphics and religious symbols, and bears a writing in Latin that reminds of the drive out of Calvin from Aosta. A fountain has been added to the monument in 1841.
Collegiata di Sant'Orso.
(Photo by: wikipedia)

Santa Croce.

(Photo by: wikipedia)

Piazza Chanoux
Piazza Emilio Chanoux is the main square in the city of Aosta, placed in the centre of the city and has a rectangular shape, with its long sides facing north and south. The square is the meeting point of via Jean Baptiste de Tillier, Via Porta Praetoria, Via Xavier de Maistre and Viale Conseild des Commis. This square once bore the name of Carlo Alberto and now is named after a martyr of the resistence in the Aosta Valley, Emile Chanoux, allegedly murdered by nazis and fascists in 1944. In 1352, Amedeo VI of Savoy built a monastry entitled to Saint Francis on the area that today is covered by the square. The monastry had a church with three naves, a tower bell almost forty meters high, and a cloister. The building remained almost untouched until 1835 when they started building the city hall. The remainings of the monastry were torn down the next year, when the tower bell was blown up. Today, the square placed north of the city hall is called Piazza San Francesco (Saint Francis' Square). The city hall (Hotel de Ville in French, Municipio in Italian) was designed in neo-classic style by architect Michelangelo Bossi and built on the same spot of the Monastry of Saint Francis. The works to build the city hall went on until 1841. The facade of the building faces south on the Dora Baltea and the Buthier torrent, rivers that touch the city of Aosta. The roof of the building holds up the city clock, on the western part, and a sundial on the easter part. The inside of the palace features interesting elements such as the Duke's Hall, whose roof is entirely covered by frescos, with a painting of the Duke Amedeo VI of Savoy in the middle. Another interesting building present in the square is the Hotel des Etats, in the western part of the northern side of the square. It was built on one floor at the beginning of the XVIII century, while other floors were added later. The building hosted the Estates-General and the Conseil des Commis, a sort of local legislative assembley, subordinate to the Savoy, which had the authority in matters of taxes, health and public order. Other buildings that marked the history of the city between the XIX and XX century are placed in Piazza Emilio Chanoux, like the building that once hosted the Hotel de la Couronne et de la Poste, once one of the most luxury hotels in the whole region and the house once belonged to writer Xavier de Maistre.

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Museums in Aosta

Museums in Aosta
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Being a small city, Aosta is not rich with museums and art galleries. However, there are two museums, which are definitively worth seeing if you are planning to take a tour of the city: the Aosta Valley Regional Archaeological Museum and the Museum of the Aosta Cathedral's Treasure.

Regional Archaeological Museum


The Aosta Valley Regional Archaeological Museum is placed in a historical building of the XVII century (1633); it features many temporary exhibitions and an interesting theme route that leads to the discovery of the regional history, from the ancient phase of the Mesolithic (7000-6000 B.C.) until the VII century A.D. The first elements chronological order are those from the different phases of civilisation, found in the archaeological site of Saint-Martin-de-Corleans. Then there are tools in green rock, objects like bracelets and a sword from the bronze age, followed by jewellery from the iron age, with a rich collection of hand-made ceramic objects. The Roman period is the time that left the most, in quantity of objects; in the hall dedicated to the the territory, there is a model of the Roman city of Augusta Praetoria, along with video support on the Aosta Valley territory throughout history, from the Via delle Gallier until the rise of medieval castles. The exhibition continues with specific themes; one part is dedicated to the cult of the dead and funerals in different ages. Another part is dedicated to public constructions, with parts of frescos, led water pipes and parts of sculptures; another part is dedicated to domestic life and features vases, ceramics, tools, lanterns, keys, etc. There is also one part dedicated to free time with a game table featuring a chess board and pieces in glass, dice, etc. Another part is dedicated to working activities. The museum's rout ends with some collections: ancient Roman, Greek, Bizantine, Celtic and Medieval coins, and a collection of Sumerian writing boards.

Museum of the Cathedral's Treasure.


(Photo by: wikipedia)

Museum of the Aosta Cathedral's Treasure


The Museum of the Aosta Cathedral's Treasure is placed in the ambulatory of the church and features incredible pieces of religious art, both from the cathedral itself and from other churches in the region. This museum is particularly interesting due to a variety of precious objects, including paintings, sculptures, windows, relics, works in gold, and other treasures dated between the XIII and the XVIII centuries, in particular from the Western Alps area. Among the most ancient and precious works there are a Roman cameo of the I century A.D., with a frame in gold, precious stones and pearls; and the dictic in ivory from the late Roman period, first years of the V century A.D. There is alsoa rich collection of works in gold that includes high quality handworks like a crystal cross of the XIV century, from rhemes, a box with relics of the XIII century and, in particular, the relics coffin of San Grato, a work from the XV century by Guglielmo di Locana and Jean de Malines. An indicator of the artistic development in the Aosta Valley in the XV century are funeral sculptures in marble, works by Stefano Mossettaz. Intereting a collection of wooden sculptures, some of which are production of local artists and others result of commercial exchange with people from France and the Netherlands.

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History and Culture of Aosta

History and Culture of Aosta


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Aosta Valley Cities Aosta Local Guide History and Culture

Aosta was inhabited in ancient times by a prehistoric megalithic population, and then was populated by the Salasses, a Celtic-Ligurian tribe. The legend says that in 1158 B.C. Cordelo, progenitor of the Salasses, descendent of the god Saturn and friend of Hercules, founded the city of Cordelia where Aosta is today. The only documentations of the presence of the Salasses in the area of Aosta are the 3rd millenium B.C. necropolis in the area of Saint-Martin de Corleans, and some megaliths that were used as tombs. After the Second Punic War and the victory of Rome over Hannibal, the Romans started spreading towards the Alps, where the Gauls, who had helped Carthage in the war against them, still represented a threat. Forts placed in valley of Aosta was purely strategic at the beginning, as Rome had to consolidate its dominion on the north Italian plane and pre-Alpine territories, using the Alps as natural defence against foreign invations. Hence, a series of fortified towns were founded in strategic points. However, in the 1st century B.C., the progressive conquest of north of Italy and France, reduced the strategic importance of the passes of the Piccolo San Bernardo and Gran San Bernardo, moving the centre of control in the centure of the Valley along the Via delle Gallie, inhabited by the Salasses. The loca tribe was defeated and its people were sold as slaves. Here the Romans founded the city of Augusta Praetoria on the cross of the road of the Piccolo and the Gran San Bernardo, near the Buthier, in the point where it enters the Dora Baltea river. Aosta, which was a fortified town, was built in a short time on model of Roman castra. The Romans surrounded the town with great walls that protected a territory of 415 thousand square meters, while four doors gave access to the town. The central street, Decumanus Maxiums (today Via Porta Pretoria, Via de Tillier and Via Edouard Aubert) was nine meters long and was the natural extension of the Via delle Gallie thac connected Milan to the Piccolo San Bernardo. The access to the city was enabled by a bridge built over the river Buthier, covered by a flood several centuries on, and digged out in the XX century. Inside the town there were residential areas, a theathre, a square (forum) and the amphitheatre.

(Photo by: wikipedia)

View of Aosta.

(Photo by: wikipedia)

Detail of Aosta's Cathedral.

After several centuries of Roman dominion and its Christianisation, the city manage to escape massive barbaric invasions after the fall of the Roman Empire. According to the legend, Augusta Praetoria was destroyed by the Arabs and European tribes. However, the Roman city was more damaged during its reconstruction in the Middle Ages, as they used blocks of stones taken from the Roman buildings, for the construction of towers and churches. The city then became see of a bishop towards the end of the IV century, becoming part of the diocese of Vercelli and then to the metropolis of Milan until the VIII century. At the beginning of the VI century, the city became part of the Kingdom of the Goths, then contended between the Franks and the Longobards, and finally ended up being part of the Kingdom of Burgundy in 575. Aosta remained part of the Kingdom of Burgundy until 1032 when it became possession of Umberto Biancamano, who had become Count of the Aosta Valley. From this moment, Aosta and the whole Aosta Valley region remained under the dominion of the House of Savoy. In 1496, Aosta becomes the see of the governor and lieutennant of the Duchy of Aosta, while in 1536, Francis I, king of France, defeated the Savoy and the inhabitants of Aosta founded the Conseil des Commis, a legislative organ. The following years, the Aosta Valley became part of the kingdom of France, but later returned to the House of Savoy. In 1861, Aosta became a town of the new Kingdom of Italy, maintaing French as second official language. At the time of fascism, local schools were closed and French langue, along with other dialects, were abolished, but Aosta obtained its own province, separating from the province of Turin. After the war, in 1945, Aosta became the regional capital of the new autonomous region of Aosta Valley, obtaining a special statute for the region in 1848.

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Great Minds of Aosta

Great Minds of Aosta


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The city of Aosta was surely not the home town of great minds of human history as other Italian cities such as Florence, Naples, Milan or Rome. However, even this small town was the place of birth of some important characters in history.

Anselm of Canterbury
Anselm of Canterbury was born in Aosta in 1033, and died in Canterbury in 1109. He was an important figure in the history of the Christianity due to his significant philosphical and theological works. In his life he attempted to define the relation between faith and reason, one of the hinges of Christian religion. He lived for many years in Normandy, where he became Abbot of the Abbey of Bec. Later, he often visited England, as ambassador of his own Abbey, becoming the Arch Bishop of Canterbury in 1093. In England his work as highest religious figure and representative of the Pope in the country was very hard, and was often in conflict with English sovereigns William II and his successor Henry, who opposed to the hinges of the Gregorian reform. In his life he wrote many works. Worth mentioning are: Monologion, Proslogion, De grammatico, De veritate, De libertate arbitri, De casu diaboli, Epistola de incarnatione Verbi, Cur deus homo.

Innocenzo Manzetti

Innocenzo Manzetti.

Innocenzo Manzetti, born in Aosta in 1826, contributed to the creation of the telephone many years before those, Alexander Graham Bell and Antonio Meucci, who received merit for its invention. He managed to put together an electronic device that enabled long distance communication already in the 1850s. Manzetti's sensational discovery received a great attention in Italy and abroad, due to a series of articles that appeared on Italian, French and American newspapers between 1865 and 1866, after a public presentation of his invention. Unfortunately, in spite of the events, the name of Manzetti did not manage to firmly step into the history of tele communications and science. Due to his early death at the age of 51, he had no time to make publicity to his invention, as Bell and Meucci did. In addition, Aosta was an outlying city in the Kingdom of Italy and was excluded from the cultural and scientific development in Italy and on the international scene. The natural events of history led the figure of Manzetti to gradually dissappear from the history books.

Natalino Sapegno
Natalino Sapegno was born in Aosta in 1901 and was a great Italian literary critic. After living his first years in Turin, where he attended school, he moved back to Aosta after the beginning of the First World War. In Aosta he attended high school but he went back to Turin to study Liberal Arts in 1918. In Turin he attended cultural circles and started friendship with important figures of the literary scene. After graduating in 1922, he moved to Ferrara in 1924, where he taught in a middle school for twelve yeras. In these years, he carried on with his literary studies and wrote essays and articles for several magazines. In 1930 he started teaching at the University of Padua, and three years later he wrote the Literary History of Italy that made him famous among the accademics. After a year at the University of Palermo, he became professor of literature in Rome. During the war he got close to the anti fascist movement of the Faculty of Liberal Arts of Rome, and signed in for th Italian Communist Party, which he quit in 1956 after the Soviet invasion of Hungary. His most famous work was released in the 1950s and was a great critical study of Dante's Commedia, one of the best ever written. In 1989, just before he died, he donated his library to the Aosta Valley region.

Federico Chabod
Federico Chabod was born in Aosta in 1901 and was a famous historian, probably the greatest in Italy in the first half of the 20th century. He studied in Turin and initially dedicated his studies to Machiavelli, criticising his narrow minded vision of politics. In 1928, Chabod became editor of the Enciclopedia Italiana (Italian Encyclopedia). In 1935 he became a professor at the University of Perugia, and then at the University of Milan in 1938. Despite the quick rise in his accademic career, he was not particularly keen on the fascist regime. During the war he took part in the resistence movement, and later in the political life of the Aosta Valley region, as he fought against secessionism and in favour of a strong autonomy.

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Literature of Aosta

Literature of Aosta
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The Valdostan culture has produced important figures of the literary scene who have left an undeniable trace in their field outside the borders of the reiong, like Anselm of Canterbury, one of the most important theologists of the XI, who left important works in Latin to the treasure of religious literature; or more recently, historians Federico Chabod and Ettore Passerin d'Entreves, philosopher Alessandro Passerin d'Entreves. The supremacy of French language in Valdostan literature went on for many centuries since the middle ages. In 1460, the Chronique de la Maison de Challant by Pierre Du Bois, is the first historic work in the region with an interesting literary value. In 1561, official documents are written in French and so is the Costumes gnrales du Duch d'Aoste, dated in 1588, a work on Plaque dedicated to Emile Chanoux. the juridical life of the Aosta Valley, used until the 1750s. Albert (Photo by: unknown) Bailly, bishop of Aosta between 1659 and 1691, was a remarkable man of literature and writer. He wrote l'Etat Intromontain in 1673, taking for model the Dclaration gallicane du clerg valdtain, introducing the concept of intramontanism, important element of the Valdostan peculiarity. In the first half of the XVIII century, the cultural scene of the Aosta Valley is dominated by Jean-Baptiste de Tillier, whose massive work was set in a historic period of conflicts between the Aostan secessionists and the Savoy. His works, among which are l'Historique de la Valle d'Aoste, the Chronologies and the Nobiliaire du Duch d'Aoste, were censored and published over a century after his death in 1744. After a long period of isolation from the cultural events of bordering places, the XVIII century is also a time of revival of literature in the Aosta Valley, due to more intense communication with the outside, brought by the growing tourism towards the region. However, the French Revolution slowed down this new trend, and the first significant work was published only in 1839, and this was the Historique du Pays d'Aoste by Flix Orsires. In those years Aosta saw the rising of cultural circles, one for all the so called Pliade valdtaine, led by the brothers Bochet. The local press started spreading in the 1840s and the first newspaper, La Feuille d'annonces d'Aoste, was printed in 1841. In 1855 the Acadmie Saint-Anselme was founded on initiative of Jean-Antoine Gal ahead of many important works like Histoire de l'glise d'Aoste by Joseph-Auguste Duc, Pierre-Etienne Duc's monographies and works by Franois-Gabriel Frutaz. Gal kept in contact with figures fromt the Italian and European cultural scene. In the second half of the XIX century, the Aosta Valley developed genres like short stories, novels and poetry, but what is most interesting in this period we record a production of works written in Franco-Provencal patois, the local dialect of the Aosta Valley, thanks to the works by Jean-Baptiste Cerlogne. Ame Gorret's Ours de la montagne (the bear of the mountain) is an important legendary figure in the cultural context of the Aosta Valley. Gorret also contributed to the regional literature with other works like Victor Emmanuel sur les Alpes and Guide de la Valle d'Aoste, which represent the peak of Alpine literature in the Aosta Valley. The literary genre the authors of the early 20th century preferred was that of the short story, and in this period were written works like gendes et rcits recueillis sur le bord du Lys by Jean-Jacques Christillin or le Veilles valdtaines illustres by Tancredi Tibaldi, who also wrote the first work on local history in Italian language, La regione d'Aosta attraverso i secoli, published in five volumes between 1900 and 1916. The literary production in the years of the Fascist regime in Italy was conditioned by the new regulations against the use of French language or Franco-Provencal dialect. In this context, Emile Chanoux was working out his federalist project. In 1968, Andre Zanotto published the Histoire de la Vallee d'Aoste which had great success. In 1976, Lin Colliard, director of the Regional Historic Archives, published his Culture Valdotain au cours des siecls, a work on the history of culture of the Aosta Valley.

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Useful Information in Aosta

Useful Information in Aosta


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Aosta Valley Cities Aosta Local Guide Useful Information

The Aosta city transports are managed by the SVAP company. Fourteen lines serve the entire regional capital and some of the near by towns and villages. In 2007, the SVAP bought thirteen gas-fuled buses for almost three and a half million euros, partially paying with money assigned by the regional funds. The new buses are recognisable by the simble representing a green Alpine Ibex. The city is reachable by road through the SS 26 that crosses the city of Aosta from east to west and connects it with the Passo del Piccolo San Bernardo. The state road SS 27 connects Aosta with the Swiss border near the Gran San Bernardo tunnel. This road is part of the international road E27 that connects Belfort, France, to Aosta. Aosta is also near the Turin-Courmayeur motorway. In terms of distance from the major Italian cities, Aosta is 114 kilometres from Turin, 186 kilometres from Milan, 247 kilometres from Genoa, 771 kilometres from Rome and 970 kilometres from Naples.

Railway.

(Photo by: johnnyberg)

By train, the city of Aosta is served by Trenitalia, the national railway company, that uses diesel diesel trains in part between Chivasso and Pre-Saint-Didier, where the railway is not equipped with electric cables. Aosta is connected to Ivrea, Chivasso, Turin and Pre-Saint-Didier. In Aosta there are three railway stations, but only one, in Piazza Manzetti, is in function. The other two are Stazione di Aosta Istituto and Stazione di Aosta Viale Europa. There is one airport, the Municipal Airport Gex of Aosta which is being expanded. Due to the works, the airport is closed for the year 2008. The airplane companies which serve routes to and from the Corrado Gex airport are Air Vallee and Helops.

Climate and Weather


Aosta is set in the centre of the main valley crossed by the Dora Baltea river at 583 meters above the sea level. The main characteristic of the area of the city of Aosta in regards to the climate is the weak yearly rains. Due to its dry climate and its position shielded by the Alps, make the climate of Aosta different from the climate on the surrounding mountains. Here summers are dry warm and often hot, while in winter it gets cold with abundant rains. According to the data recorded between the first 1960s and 1990, the avarage temperature in the coldest month of the year, January, with 0.6 degrees celsius, while the avarage temperature in the hottest month, July, is of 21 degrees celsius, with over 20 degrees celsius temperature range throughout the year.
(Photo by: marcoz)

Surroundings of Aosta.

Here are the highest and lowest temperature for every month of the year in degrees celsius: January (max 4.5; min -3.2), February (max 7.0; min -0.8), March (max 11.5; min 2.8), April (max 15.4; min 6.5), May (max 20.9; min 10.5), June (max 24.1; min 13.6), July (max 26.7; min 15.8), August (max 24.7; min 14.3), September (max 20.8: min 12.0), October (max 14.5; min 6.8), November (max 8.4; min 1.8), December (max 5.5; min -1.4). The maximum and minimum temperature by season in degrees celsius are: winter (max 5.7; min -1.8), spring (max 15.9; min 6.6), summer (max 15.2; min 14.6), autumn (max 14.6; min 6.9); while the yearly avarages are maximum 15.3 and minumum 6.6 degrees celsius.

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Local guide

Local Guide to Apulia


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Apulia Local Guide

Apulia is one of Italy's regions occupying the country's "heel". From its earliest history, it has been the gateway to and from the East, and as such conquered by many foreign rulers. Apulia is a fascinating region known for its wines and olive oils. Besides acres and acres of vineyards and olive groves, Apulia offers a host of millennium-old cathedrals, several Greek and Roman ruins, charming fishing villages, one of Europe's largest forests, medieval hilltowns, and Europe's cleanest beaches and water. The region boasts its own architectural type, called barocco leccese, characterized by extremely ornate carvings usually covering the entire surface of churches and palaces. There are also whitewashed cones made of stones held together without mortar. These are found in almost every wheat field and olive grove. They are used as miniature barns. However, in Alborello, they are clustered together in the hundreds, forming a town.

Geography and Climate


Apulia is situated at the south-eastern tip of the Italian peninsula, covering some 19,357 km2 of mostly broad plains and low-lying hills. The region's only mountainous areas are the Gargano promontory and the Monti Dauni, and they do not exceed 1,150 m. These are located in the north of Apulia, the country's least mountainous area. The region of Apulia is very dry with few rivers, which are centred on the Tavoliere delle Puglie, a tableland at the foot of the Gargano promontory. Throughout the rest of the region, rainwater permeates the limestone bedrock forming the underground watercourses that resurface near the coast. Hence there are many caves and potholes in the area. The caves at Castellana Grotte are especially spectacular. The region's climate is hot and dry in the summer, with most rainfalls during the winter months, and with average of no more than 500 mm per year.

History
In the past, the name of Apulia had only the northern part of the region. The southern part was named Calabria. Apulia is known as one th erichest parts of Italy in archeological findings. Illyric and Italic peoples inhabited it from the 1st millennium BC. During the later periods, the Greeks got to the area of Taranto and the Salento. During the 4th and 5th centuries BC, a distinctive style of pottery, the Apulian vase painting, was developed in the Greek settlement at Taras. Romans conquered Apulia during the wars against the Samnites and Pyrrhus in the 3rd and the 4th century BC. After the Carthaginians left the area, the Romans seized Brindisi and Taranto. Apulia's production of grain and oil bloomed during the Imperial age. It did not take long for Apulia to become thee most important exporter to the Eastern provinces. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Apulia was being conquered by the Goths, the Lombards, and the Byzantines. Bari was the capital of a province that extended to modern-day Basilicata. It was ruled by a capetano (governor). From 800 on, although Saracen domination in the area was recurrent, Apulia was mostly under Byzantine rule until the 11th century, when the Normans seized it. The duchy of Apulia was set up by Robert Guiscard in 1059. During the Norman conquest of Sicily in the late 11th century, Palermo became the center of Norman power, and Apulia became a mere province. At first as part of the Kingdom of Sicily, then of the Kingdom of Naples. Apulia was a favorite residence of the Hohenstaufen emperors between the late 12th and the early 13th century. Under the Angevine and Aragonese/Spanish rule, the region was dominated by a few powerful landowners (Baroni). In 1734 at Bitonto, the Spanish beat Austrian forces. The Turks occupied the coast of Apulia, as well as the Venetians. Between 1806 and 1815, the region was under the French control. This ended in the abolition of feudalism and the reformation of the justice system. During the 1820s, liberation movements began to grow. In 1861, when Two Sicilies fell, Apulia joined Italy. Social and agrarian reforms that had started in the 19th century, accelerated in the mid-20th century.

Economy and Politics


Apulia's economy is characterised by an emphasis on agriculture and services, whereas industry plays a smaller part. In the last 20 years small and medium-sized firms, most of them financed by local capital, gradually expanded, and now provide some 70% of the jobs in the region. This allowed highly specialised areas to develop, producing food, vehicles, footwear, textiles, wood, furniture, and rubber. A major contribution to the region's economy are important research and development centres such as Tecnopolis-CSATA, the Cittadella della ricerca (Centre for research and new materials) and the new software development centres. Apulia has a good network of roads and many ports, which make this region an important terminal for transport and tourism. Traditionally, Apulia is a right wing region. It is divided into seven provinces (the 6th province Barletta-Andria-Trani, instituted in 2009, will be available only after the 2011 census): Province of Bari, Province of Brindisi, Province of Foggia, Province of Lecce, and Province of Taranto.
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Local Guide to Basilicata


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Basilicata Local Guide

Basilicata is a small mountainous region, located in southern Italy. Basilicata has two short coastlines on the Ionian and the Thyrrenian Sea, and only two provinces. Volturino at 2005 m, and Sirino at 1835 m are the major mountains in the region. The rivers Gravida, Bradano, Basento, Cavone, Agri, Sinni cross Basilica that also has the lakes of San Giuliano, Pietra del Petrusillo and Abate Atonia. The region of Basilicata experienced massive emigration in the past, the result of which is underpopulation. This poses a problem, especially in the eastern and central areas of the region. Agriculture is the base of the region's economy, while industrial development is low. However, there are prospects of successful tourism along the Thyrrenian coast.

Geography and Climate


Basilicata covers a large part of the southern Apennines. It is situated between Ofanto in the north and the Monte Pollino massif in the south. A large part of the Bradano river depression, which is traversed by numerous streams and declines to the coastal plains on the Ionian sea, borders Basilicata on the east. The region's coastline on the Tyrrhenian sea is rather short. This is the most mountainous region in the south of Italy. 47% of its area is covered by mountains, 45% is hilly and 8% is made up of plains. A significant part of Basilicata was devastated by an earthquake in 1857. Landslides, which are caused by the lithological structure of the substratum and bythe lack of forested land, also present a large problem. The region's climate is varied, influenced by three coastlines (Adriatic, Ionian and Tyrrhenian), and the complexity of Basilicata's physical features. Continental climate prevails in the mountains and Mediterranean along the coasts.

History
Basilicata was originally known as Lucania, named after the Lucani (Lucanians) tribe, who were the first known settlers of the region. The area had also been inhabited by the Samnite tribes before the Greeks invaded in the 7th century BC and established settlements at Siris, Metaponto and Heraclea, including the region in Magna Grecia. The Romans came to Lucania during the expansion of their empire. By the 2nd century BC the region was under the rule of Rome. The Romans exploited the massive forests of the region. This went on for and nearly exhausted this natural resource. The Byzantines arrived after the Romans, and named the area Basilicata. The Normans and Swabians invaded Basilicata during the subsequent centuries. The 13th century Anjou domination established a feudal system which stalled economic recovery for the region, which remained in poverty. After a 100 years or so under Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the region became part of the Kingdom of Italy in 1860. During this time the State confiscated and sold off vast parts of Basilicata's territory formerly owned by the Church. Since the owners of the land were several wealthy aristocratic families, the common people had no immediate economic and social improvements after unification and poverty continued. The phenomenon of brigandage occurred due to it under the Church's encouragement to rise up against the nobility and the new Italian State. Things slowly started to look up after WWII thanks to land reform. In 1952, the state re-housed the inhabitants of the Sassi di Matera. However, many of Basilicatas population had emigrated leading to a demographic crisis. In 1994, UNESCO declared Sassi di Matera a World Heritage Site, Fiat established a huge factory in Melfi, and the Pollino National Park was established.

Economy and Politics


Basilicata's economy is based on agiculture. Most of cultivation consists of sowables with 46% of the total land. There are also large herds of cattle (77,711 heads in 2000). The manufacturing sector contributes to the gross value added of the secondary sector with 64% of the total, while the building sector contributes 24%. Within the services sector, the main activities are business activities, distributive trade, education and public administration. Recently, manufacture, transport equipment, furnishing, and oil extraction ahve developed. Although Basilicata has many natural attractions, tourism is poorly developed due to lack of facilities and inadequate transport facilities. Basilicata is divided into two provinces: Province of Matera, and Province of Potenza. The Regional Government (Giunta Regionale) is presided by the President of the Region (Presidente della Regione), who is elected for a five-year term. The Regional Council of Basilicata (Consiglio Regionale del Basilicata) has 35 members, and is elected for a five-year term.

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Local Guide

Local Guide to Calabria


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Calabria Local Guide

The Italian region of Calabria is a heaven on earth for people a bit tired of the "usual Italian experience" of cities filled with art galleries and palaces, fashionable seaside resorts and fairy-tale-like towns by lakes. What Calabria has to offer are spectacular coast, cliff-hung villages, and art treasures in the most unexpected places. Calabria is located in southern Italy, south of Naples, occupying the "toe" of the Italian peninsula. It borders Basilicata to the north, Sicily to the south-west, the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west, and to the east the Ionian Sea. The capital of Calabria is Catanzaro.

History
Italic Oscan-speaking tribes, including the Oenotri and the Itali, were the first to settle Calabria. Early on, Greeks settled along the coast and founded several settlements, including Rhegion (Reggio Calabria), Sybaris, Kroton (Crotone), and Locri. These were included among the leading cities of Magna Graecia during the 6th and 5th centuries BC. The Romans conquered the region in the 3rd century BC, a venture from which the region never recovered. The region was then named Brutium. The Oscan tribes conquered the Greeks by the 3rd century BC. These tribes included the Lucanians (a branch of the Samnites) and an offshoot of the Lucanians called the Bruttii. Theyi established the main cities of Calabria, including Cosenza (then called Consentia). Malaria was the main reason for inhabitants fleeing inland after the fall of the Roman Empire. Another big reason for population displacement were pirate raids from the early Middle Ages until the XVII century. The Gothic War devastated Calabria, which then came under the rule of a local dux for the Byzantine Empire. During the 9th and 10th centuries, Calabria acted as the borderland between Byzantine Empire and the Arab ruled Sicily, and as such it was raided and depopulated. The Normans came to the area during the 1060s, and organized a government run by the local Greek magnates of Calabria. The medieval administrative division, Calabria Citeriore (or Latin Calabria) in the northern half and Calabria Ulteriore (or Greek Calabria) in the southern half, lasted to unification with Italy. Calabria as part of the Kingdom of Naples was under Angevin rule from Naples until unification with Italy. The kingdom was ruled by the Habsburg dynasties of both Spain and Austria, the Franco-Spanish Bourbon dynasty, Joseph Bonaparte, and French Marshal Joachim Murat. As part of the European Revolutions of 1848, many peasant revolts occurred and prepared the kingdom for unification with the rest of Italy in 1861 by Giuseppe Garibaldi. Southern Italy was among the poorest regions of Europe well intil the mid 20th century, and in the early 1900s, a great deal of Calabria's population moved to the industrial centres of northern Italy, the rest of Europe, Australia and the Americas. Since the 1970s, economy based on modern agriculture, tourism, and a growing commercial base has been improving, and although the per capita income is still below that of rest of Italy, it is approaching the European Union median.

Geography and Climate


Calabria is situated at the very south of the Italian peninsula. The Monte Pollino massif connects the region to the rest of Italy. Calabria is surrounded on the east, south and west by the Ionian and Tyrrhenian seas. Around 42% of the region's total area is covered with mountains, 49% of the area is hilly, while plains take up 9% of the region's territory. The Strait of Messina separates Calabria and Sicily. Pollino, La Sila and Aspromonte are the three mountain ranges in Calabria. All three of them have unique flora and fauna. Parts of the Pollino Mountains in the north are heavily wooded, while others have little vegetation. These mountains are known as home to a rare Bosnian Pine variety, and are part of the Pollino National Park. La Sila is a plateau, some 1.200 metres above sea level stretching for nearly 2,000 square kilometres along the central part of the region. The Aspromonte range is the southernmost tip of the Italian peninsula, and is bordered by the sea on three sides. This massiff is full of wide, man-made terraces sloping towards the sea. Most of plains in Calabria have been cultivated for centuries, and the lowest slopes are covered with vineyards and citrus fruit orchards. Olives and chestnut trees appear moving upwards from the plains, whereas dense forests of oak, pine, beech and fir trees are found in the higher regions. The area of Monte Pollino has cold climate, temperate climate prevails in the area of Aspromonte, while the Sila and Serre massifs enable humidity on the Tyrrhenian coast and a drier climate on the Ionian coast.

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Economy and Politics


Agriculture in Calabria is characterized by the high fragmentation of the farm structure. Olive tree with 29.6% of UAA and 70% of tree crops is the major cultivation in the region. The main branches of the manufaturing sector are foodstuff, beverage and tobacco. The main Calabrian ports are in Reggio Calabria, with five loading docks, and in Gioia Tauro, with seven landing docks. The Gioia Tauro port is the seventh largest container port in Europe. Two national highways along the coasts and the A3 motorway, between Salerno and Reggio di Calabria serve the region, as well as two main airports: one is situated in Lamezia Terme and the other in Reggio di Calabria. Calabria is divided into five provinces:Province of Catanzaro, Province of Cosenza, Province of Crotone, Province of Reggio di Calabria, and Province of Vibo Valentia. The region of Calabria has a presidential representative democracy. The President of Regional Government is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the Regional Government, whereas legislative power is vested in both the government and the Regional Council. The President of the Region (Presidente della Regione) is elected for a five-year term, and is composed by the President and the Ministers (Assessori). The Regional Council of Calabria (Consiglio Regionale della Calabria) is composed of 50 members, and is elected for a five-year term.

Gastronomy
Calabria features a typical southern Italian Mediterranean cuisine based on pork, lamb, goat, vegetables (especially eggplant), and fish. Pasta, as anywhere else in Italy, is also very important part of Calabrian cuisine. Calabrians cuisine is characterized on the preservation of food, partly because of the climate and potential crop failures. So there is a tradition of packing vegetables and meats in olive oil, making sausages and cold cuts, and curing fish. Fried, honey-sweetened pastries like Cudduraci, scalille or scalidde, or baked biscotti-type treats such as 'nzudda are traditional Calabrian desserts. Caciocavallo Cheese, Cipolla rossa di Tropea (red onion), Frttuli or Curcci (fried pork), liquorice (liquirizia), Lagane e Cicciari (a pasta dish with chickpeas), Pecorino Crotonese (Cheese of Sheep), and Pignolata are just some of the region's specialties.

Wine
Over 90% of wine production in Calabria is red wine, mostly made from the Gaglioppo grape. The region of Calabria has 12 Denominazione di origine controllata (DOC) regions. Many Calabrians immigrated to the United States and Argentina after WWII, and those who stayed in Calabria developed wine industry with only the red wines of Cir receiving international attention. Today Calabrian wines have high alcohol levels and are sold to co-operatives who transfer them to the northern Italian wine regions to use as blending component. The Cir wine region is located in the eastern part of the La Sila region and extends to the Ionian coast. The wines of this egion are predominantly red. Ross and white wines are also made in Cir but in very limited quantities. Red Cir is very tannic with full body, and is meant to be consumed 3-4 years after vintage.

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Local Guide

Local Guide to Campania


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Campania Local Guide

Campania is a region in Italy known for its pleasant climate, fertile land and beautiful landscapes. All of this urged the Romans to dub the region Campania Felix. The territory of Campania is mostly hilly, except the Matese mountains on the border with Molise and the rugged area of Irpinia. Mount Vesuvius is located on the Gulf of Naples, and is one of active volcanoes in Europe. The gulfs of Naples and Salerno are famous for their high cliffs, grottoes and islands of Ischia, Procida, and Capri.

Geography and Climate


Italian region of Campania has an area of 13,595 sq km and a coastline of 350 km on the Tyrrhenian Sea. The region is known for its gulfs of Naples, Salerno and of Policastra, and also for its three islands Capri, Ischia and Procida. Campania borders Lazio to the northwest, Molise to the north, Apulia to the northeast and Basilicata to the east. Campania's mountainous area is scattered over separate massifs, measuring up to 2,000 metres (Miltetto of 2,050 m). Volcanic massifs of Vesuvio (1,277 m) and Campi Flegrei are located closer to the coast. The climate of Campania is typically Mediterranean along the coast. The region's inland has continental climate, with low temperatures in winter.

History
Three defined groups of ancient peoples of Italy, the Osci, the Aurunci and the Ausones originally inhabited Campania. The Cumaeans, people from Euboea in Greece, started establishing colonies in the area surrounding the modern day province of Naples during the 8th century BC. The warlike Samnites came from central Italy and took over the cities of Capua and Cumae, the most prosperous area in Italy at the time. During the 340s BC, the Samnites waged war with the Roman Republic. Neapolis was the major Greek independent settlement, but when the Samnites captured it, the Neapolitans needed help. Philip II of Macedonia was busy fighting further east, and could not help them. The Neapolitans were forced to call on the Romans, starting the Second Samnite War. By 326 BC, Rome recaptured Neapolis, which was allowed to remain a Greek city with some autonomy as a civitas foederata while strongly aligned with Rome. The Second Samnite War ended with the Romans seizing control over southern Campania and other regions further to the south. By the end of the 4th century BC, Campania was a full-fledged part of the Roman Republic. The region was very important for its pastures and rich countryside. Campania due to its Greek background was a centre of Hellenistic civilization, where the first traces of Greco-Roman culture were created. Although Rome controlled the entire peninsula, the Pyrrhic War and the rebellion of the major Magna Grcia cities under Pyrrhus of Epirus in the south shook the peace. A battle at Maleventum was victorious for the Romans, who renamed the city Beneventum. In 216 BC, Capua demanded more power but was rejected. This caused Capua to ally with Carthage against Rome. Doing this, the Capuans were isolated from the rest of Campania. Capua was eventually retaken by the Romans, who were victorious in the overall wars. All of Campania, except Naples, was romanised. Being part of the Roman Empire, Campania with Latium formed the most important region of the Augustan divisions of Italia. Campania was also a favourite holiday destination of Roman Emperors. During the Roman period, Christiniaty arrived to Campania. This peaceful period was interrupted by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79. The eruption completely wiped out the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The last Roman emperor Romulus Augustus was put in a manor house prison near Castel dell'Ovo in 467. The Hohenstaufens took control over the Kingdom of Sicily, which was a Norman kingdom. With the founding of the University of Naples Federico II by Frederick II, Naples became the intellectual centre of the kingdom. In 1266 Pope Innocent IV crowned Angevin Dynasty duke Charles I as the king of the kingdom after the conflict between the Hohenstaufens and the Papacy. Charles I moved the capital from Palermo to Naples. During this period much Gothic architecture in and around Naples was constructed. In 1281 the kingdom split in half. The Angevin Kingdom of Naples included the southern part of the Italian peninsula, whereas Sicily became the Aragonese Kingdom of Sicily. The wars were stopped with the peace of Caltabellotta in 1302, when Frederick III was recognised as king of the Isle of Sicily, while Charles II was recognised as the king of Naples. The split did not stop Naples' growth in importance, attracting merchants from Pisa and Genoa, bankers from Tuscany, and some of the most famous artists of the time, such as Boccaccio, Petrarch and Giotto. Alfonso I conquered Naples, which was briefly unified with Sicily again. In 1458 Sicily and Naples were separated, but remained as dependencies of Aragon under Ferrante. The new dynasty established relations with the Iberian peninsula thus boosting Naples' commerce. The city also became a Renaissance centre.
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This lasted for four years. Spain won Naples at the Battle of Garigliano, which became part of the Spanish Empire throughout the entire Habsburg Spain period. Spain sent viceroys to Naples to directly deal with local issues. Pedro lvarez de Toledo was the most important one. He was responsible for considerable social, economic and urban progress in the city. During this period Naples became the second largest city in Europe after Paris. Being home to artists such as Caravaggio, Rosa and Bernini, philosophers such as Telesio, Bruno, Campanella and Vico, and writers such as Battista Marino, the city was also a cultural centre. A local fisherman Masaniello started a revolution and formed a brief independent Neapolitan Republic, but only months later Spanish rule was regained. The Spanish ceased to rule Naples as a result of the War of the Spanish Succession by 1714, when Austrian Charles VI ruled it from Vienna. However, with the War of the Polish Succession, the Spanish regained Sicily and Naples as part of a personal union. In 1738 in the Treaty of Vienna they were recognised as independent under a cadet branch of the Spanish Bourbons under Charles VII. During the time of Ferdinand IV, the French Revolution arrived to Naples when Horatio Nelson, an ally of the Bourbons, came to Naples in 1798 to warn against the revolution. Ferdinand was forced to retreat and fled to Palermo, where British fleet protected him. The lower classes (lazzaroni) in Naples were pious and Royalist and favoured the Bourbons. In the conflict that followed, they fought the Neapolitan pro-Republican aristocracy, causing a civil war. Castel Sant'Elmo was conquered by the Republicans who proclaimed a Parthenopaean Republic, secured by the French Army. Lazzaroni counter-revolutionary religious army raised with great success. The French surrendered the Neapolitan castles and returned to Toulon. Ferdinand IV was restored as king. But only seven years later, Napoleon conquered the kingdom and instated Bonapartist kings. The Austrian Empire and allies helped in defeating the Bonapartists and Bourbon Ferdinand IV once again regained the throne and the kingdom. In the 1815 Congress of Vienna the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily were used to form Two Sicilies. Naples was the first city in Italy to have a railway in 1839.

Economy and Politics


The industry in Campania is mainly based upon the agro-food industry. Fruit and vegetables are the main products of the region, which has also expanded its production to the production of flowers. The region of Campania produces over 50% of Italy's nuts and leads in the production of tomatoes. Campania's agriculture is weakened, however, with the very reduced size of farms, equal to 3.53 hectares. Animal breeding is in over 70,000 farms. Over 74,604 hectares of the agricultural land are covered with olive trees. Campania has a well developed network of road and motorways, a system of maritime connections and an airport. Naples, the capital of Campania, is one of the most populated cities in Italy. The port connects Campania with the whole Mediterranean. 78% of the region's gross domestic product is made up by the services sector. The Regional Government (Giunta Regionale) is presided by the President of the Region (Presidente della Regione), and is composed by the President and the Ministers (Assessori), who are currently 10, including a Vice President. The Regional Council of Campania (Consiglio Regionale della Campania) has 60 members, of which 47 are elected in provincial constituenciesn, 12 from the "regional list" of the elected President and the last one is for the candidate for President who comes second. If a coalition wins more than 55% of the vote, only 6 candidates from the "regional list" will be elected. Campania is divided into five provinces: Province of Avellino, Province of Benevento, Province of Caserta, Province of Naples, and Province of Salerno.

Cuisine
The most famous dish of Campania is probably the pizza, conceived in Naples. The Naples' original pizzas are pizza fritta (fried pizza), Calzone (literally "trouser leg"), pizza Marinara (pizza seamans' style), and pizza Margherita. Spaghetti is another famous dish from southern Italy. In fact, Neapolitans were among the first Europeans to use tomatoes as both food and garnish. Campania is also known for its wines and cheeses, including Lacryma Christi, Fiano, Aglianico, Greco di Tufo, Pere 'e palomma, Ischitano, Taburno, Solopaca, and Taurasi. The cheeses of Campania include Mozzarella di Bufala (buffalo mozzarella), fiordilatte ("flower of milk"), ricotta from sheep or buffalo milk, provolone from cow milk, and caciotta made from goat milk. Campania's cakes include pastiera pie, casatiello and tortano, bab cake, a well known Neapolitan delicacy, sfogliatella, zeppole, and struffoli. Another known dish from Campania is the so-called Russian salad, made of potatoes in mayonnaise garnished with shrimp and vegetables in vinegar. Russians call it Olivier Salad, and Germans call it Italian salad. Campania is home to some other seafood-based dishes, such as "insalata di mare" (seafood salad), "zuppa di polpo" (octopus soup), and "zuppa di cozze" (mussel soup), "frittelle di mare" (fritters with seaweed), "triglie al cartoccio" (red mullet in the bag), and "alici marinate" (fresh anchovies in olive oil).

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Local Guide

Local Guide to Emilia-Romagna


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Emilia-Romagna Local Guide

Emilia-Romagna is a culturally rich region featuring exquisite cuisine and wines, fashionable resorts, and fantastic examples of medieval architecture. During the Renaissance several powerful families set up courts in the region, namely the Farnese in Parma and Piacenza, the Este in Ferrara and Modena, and the Bentivoglio in Bologna. Bologna is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna. The city features the oldest university in Europe, and a stunningly beautiful medieval centre.

Geography
Emilia-Romagna covers an area of 22,124 km. On half of the region consists of plains while the other half is hilly to mountainous. The section of the Apennine Mountains within Emilia-Romagan is characterized with areas of flisch, badland erosion and caves. Only three peaks rise above 2,000 m - Monte Cimone (2,165 m), Monte Cusna (2,121 m) and Alpe di Succiso (2,017 m). The Padan Plain, an extremely fertile alluvial plain crossed by the river Po, covers half of the region of Emilia-Romagna. All the rivers rise locally in the Apennines except for the Po, which has its source in the Alps in Piedmont. Vegetation in Emilia-Romagna is divided into belts: the common oak belt which is now covered with fruit orchards and fields of wheat and sugar beet, the pubescent belt and Adriatic oak belt on the lower slopes up to 900 m, the beech belt between 1,000 and 1,500 m, and the final mountain heath belt.

History
The name of the region has roots in the Roman legacy. Emilia refers to Via milia, an important Roman way connecting Rome to the northern part of Italy, while Romagna is a corruption of Romnia. Emilia-Romagna was under the Etruscan rule, then under the Gauls and then the Romans who built the Aemilian Way. The coastal area of Emilia, which was under the Byzantines from 540 to 751, was known as the separate region of Romagna. Trade, culture and religion flourished during the Middle Ages. In this period, the region's monasteries and the University of Bologna, its bustling towns, and its politics grew. During the Renaissance, seigniories such as the House of Este of Ferrara and the Malatesta of Rimini chose the region as their seat. In the following centuries, Emilia-Romagna was divided between the rule of the Papal State, the Farnese Duchy of Parma and Piacenza, and the Duchy of Modena and Reggio. In the 16th century, most of these were included into the Papal States. However, Parma, Piacenza, and Modena remained independent until Emilia-Romagna was included into the Italian kingdom in 18591861.

Economy and Politcs


Emilia Romagna today is one of the richest European regions and the third Italian region by GDP per capita. The region has a well balanced economy based on the biggest agricultural sector in Italy, and automobile, motor and mechanic productions. Emilia-Romagna's farming contributes 5.8% of the regional agricultural product. Cereals, potatoes, maize, tomatoes and onions are the most important products, as well as fruit and grapes for the production of wine. Cattle and hog breeding are also highly developed. Industry in the region is located along the Via Emilia. The food industry is centred in Parma, Modena and Bologna as are the mechanical and automotive industries. Tourism is also important for the region's economy. Emilia-Romagna has a very well developed transport, with 574 km of motorways, 1053 km of railways and airports in Bologna, Forli and Rimini. Emilia-Romagna was historically a stronghold of the Italian Communist Party. Today with Tuscany, Umbria and Marche, Emilia-Romagna forms the famous Italian political "Red Quadrilateral". Emilia-Romagna is divided into nine provinces: Province of Bologna, Province of Ferrara, Province of Forl-Cesena, Province of Modena, Province of Parma, Province of Piacenza, Province of Ravenna, Province of Reggio Emilia, and Province of Rimini.

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Local Guide

Local Guide to Friuli-Venezia Giulia


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Friuli-Venezia Giulia Local Guide

Friuli-Venezia Giulia is one of Italy's most versatile regions. Almost atypically Italian, this region features snow-capped mountains, sandy beaches, lagoons with water birds, alpine hamlets, Roman ruins, country villas, coastal cliffs, busy seaports and picturesque fishing villages. All these elements are further enrinched with the Habsburg, Slavic and Venetian influences that are still present today. Friuli-Venezia Giulia is divided into four provinces: Province of Gorizia, Province of Pordenone, Province of Trieste, and Province of Udine.

Geography and Climate


Friuli-Venezia Giulia is the most North-eastern region in Italy covering an area of 7,856 km2. This is the fifth smallest region of the country. It borders Austria to the north, Slovenia to the east, the Adriatic Sea to the south, and the Veneto region to the west. The region has a variety of climates and landscapes, including the mild Mediterranean climate in the south to Alpine continental in the north. 42.5% of the total area is mountainous-alpine terrain, 19.3% is hilly, whereas the remaining 38.2% comprises the central and coastal plains. Morphologically the region can be subdivided into four main areas: the mountainous area in the north; the hilly area, situated to the south of the mountains and along the central section of the border with Slovenia; the central plains are characterised by poor, arid and permeable soil; the coastal area can be further subdivided in two, western-eastern, subsections separated by the river Isonzo's estuary. To the west, the coast is shallow and sandy, and to the east, the coastline rises into cliffs. The Karst plateau extends to Trieste and Muggia on the border with Slovenia. The region's rivers flow from the north and from Slovenia into the Adriatic. The two main rivers are the Tagliamento, and the Isonzo. The Timavo is an underground river that resurfaces near its mouth north-west of Duino.

History
There are traces of Roman origin all over the region, and the unifying element of the two parts is the X Regio Venetia et Histria. Cividale del Friuli was the capital of the first Lombard Dukedom in Italy. The Franks arrived a couple of centuries later, and favoured the growth of the church of Aquileia. The patriarchate of Aquileia was created in 1077. The patriarchate held both religious and temporal power and this was extended temporarily even to the east. However, Gorizia became independent in the 12th century, while Trieste, with some other coastal towns, organized itself as a free city-state. Although Friuli became Venetian territory in 1420, Trieste and Gorizia remained under the Austrian Empire. Pordenone was a "corpus separatum". It remained under Austrian influence until 1515, when it also came under the Venetian rule. After the 1797 peace treaty of Campoformido, Venetian domination ended and Friuli was ceded to Austria. After being dominated by Napoleon for some time, it again became part of the Austrian Empire and was included in the Lombard-Veneto Kingdom. At the same time, Gorizia joined with the Illyrian Kingdom and Trieste, together with Istria, became part of the Austrian Coastal Region. The enlightened policy of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire encouraged economy boom that made Trieste the empires port. After the war of independence, Friuli alone became part of the unified Kingdom of Italy. During WWI, the region suffered serious damage. After the war, these lands were again united, although Venezia Giulia was the subject of the explosion of contradictions regarding the borders. WWII led to the Anglo-American Administration in Trieste. However, in 1954, the border was fixed with the Memorandum of London. After Trieste was reunited with Italy, the Autonomous Region of Friuli Venezia Giulia was established. The Italian Constitution assigned it the status of Region with a Special Statute, although Friuli Venezia Giulia obtained administrative autonomy and the special statute only in 1963. The reasons for this can be found in the international problems of the second postwar period and in the regions different historical, ethnic, and linguistic components. In 1975 the Treaty of Osimo was signed dividing the former Free Territory of Trieste between Italy and Yugoslavia.

Economy
The region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia has one of the most developed economies in Italy. It is based on small- and middle-size enterprises, on specialized farming and on high-quality tourism with inclination towards exports. Agriculture and farming also hold an important role in the economy of the region, and its high quality products are exported worldwide. There are four industrial districts where a multitude of such highly specialised enterprises are concentrated. These districts are centred around the towns of Manzano, San Daniele del Friuli, Maniago and Brugnera. There are also many large enterprises present in the region in both the industry and services sector. Trieste holds a leading position in the services sector as activities such as the regional government, large banking and insurance companies are concentrated here. Trieste also plays an important role in the trade sector with its commercial Free Port. Friuli-Venezia Giulia has always has an important role in connecting Italy to Central and Eastern Europe. The motorway network has more than 200 km running from North to South and from West to East, connecting the region to Austria and Slovenia. The railway network consists of around 500 km of track. Both the motorway and railway networks are linked to the ports of Trieste, Monfalcone and Porto Nogaro. The regional airport of Ronchi dei Legionari is connected to the motorway and railway networks, and offers regular national and international flights.
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Local Guide

Local Guide to Lazio


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Lazio Local Guide

There is so much more to the region of Lazio than Rome, the capital city of Italy. Lazio connects Italy's south and north. The region borders Tuscany, Umbria, and Marche to the north, Abruzzo to the east, Campania to the south, and the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west. The countryside of Lazio is diverse. Lazio Maremma is a region of lush grasslands, vineyards and olive groves. The terrain in the north-east of the region is wooded and with rolling hills and reminds of Umbria and Tuscany. The south of Lazio closely resembles Campania, with a countryside of cactuses and bleached rock scarps. For those in search for more than just a lovely scenery, Lazio has in store an abundance of cultural treasures. Rome alone is considered a treasure, being the centre of Christianity, the capital of Italy, and the centre of one of the most influential ancient empires the world has ever seen (if not the most influential empire ever). The northern province of Viterbo, called Tuscia, features Etruscan necropolises, medieval villages, castles and Renaissance villas. The cities of Tarquinia, Cerveteri and Tuscania host amazing necropolises. In Tivoli the impressive ruins of Hadrians Villa and the Renaissance residence of Villa dEste are located. The south-east of Rome is the region of Ciociaria with beautiful medieval cities of pre-Roman origin, such as Anagni, Alatri and Ferentino, and ancient abbeys of Subiaco, Casamari, Montecassino and Fossanova.

Geography
Lazio is bordered by Tuscany, Umbria, Abruzzo, Marche, Molise, Campania, and the Tyrrhenian Sea. The coast of the region of Lazio is low-lying and sandy. The Pontine Islands are part of Lazio, and are located opposite the southern coast. The Latium Maremma is located to the north, interrupted at by the Tolfa Mountains, in the centre by the Roman Campagna and to the south by Agro Pontino. This area used to be swampy and unhealthy but since the 1930s it has been reclaimed for repopulation and agriculture. The Latium Preapennines include three groups of mountains of volcanic origin: the Volsini, Cimini and Sabatini. The Bolsena, Vico and Bracciano lakes are located within their craters. The Alban Hills, and the Lepini, Ausoni and Aurunci Mountains are located to the south of the Tiber and form part of the Preapennines. The Latium Apennines are part of the Abruzzo Apennines, whose highest peak is Gorzano Mount at 2,458 m.

History
According to Roman mythology, king Latinus gave his name to the region of Lazio (Latium). The name probably comes from the Latin word "latus", meaning "wide", conveying the idea of "flat land". Latium was originally inhabited by the Latins. However, with the Roman conquests, its boundaries extended to the territories of the Sanniti, the Marsi and Campania. This newly acquired territory was called Latium Novi. Latium - together with the present region of Campania - was to become the first Italian region. After the Gothic War (535-554) and the Byzantine conquest, the area reclaimed its freedom. However, it was weakened by the long wars against the Longobards, and the Roman Bishop, who already had several properties in those territories, seized it. The strengthening of aristocracy led to continuous struggles for power between lords and the Roman bishop until the mid-16th century. Innocent III tried to strengthen his own territorial power. He wanted to assert his authority in Tuscia, Campagna and Marittima through the Church's representatives, thus reducing the power of the Colonna family. However, when the papacy resided in Avignon, the feudal lords' power increased. Small communes with Rome opposed the lords' increasing power. However, the papacy recalimed Latium and other Papal states between 1353 and 1367, and starting from the mid-16th century, politically unified Latium with the Papal States. This regime was interrupted with the short-lived Roman Republic and the region's annexation to France, by Napoleon I. In 1870 the French troops abandoned Rome. General Cadorna occupied Rome on 20 September, incorporating Latium into the Kingdom of Italy.

Economy and Politics


Lazio's main sources of income are agriculture (the cultivation of wine grapes, fruit, vegetables and olives), crafts, animal husbandry and fishery. Industry in Lazio is centred in the areas south of Rome. Firms in Lazio are small and deal with the building and building materials, paper, petrochemical, textile, engineering, automobile, and electronics. Some 73% of the working population are employed in the services sector. Rome is the centre of public administration, banking, tourism, insurance and other sectors, as well as host to headquarters of many national and multinational corporations. Rome is traditionally center-left politically, whereas the rest of Lazio is center-right oriented. Lazio is divided into five provinces: Province of Frosinone, Province of Latina, Province of Rieti, Province of Rome, and Province of Viterbo.

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Local Guide

Gastronomy
Cuisine of Lazio is very renowned in Italy. It is mainly based on olive oil, cheese and wine. Vegetables, such as artichokes, and pulses are used in abundance. Starters usually include the bruschette, toasted bread slices seasoned with a variety of ingredients, soups with lake fish, and seasonal vegetables, whereas pasta dishes include the Amatriciana, Carbonara and classic gnocchi. Lamb and pork are the most popular for meat dishes. The entrails of the cow are also widely used. The fish dishes are based on fish from Lake Bolsena, whitefish and eel. Typical cheeses of the region include Pecorino, Caciotta and Ricotta.These are all made from sheep milk. Red wine Aleatico and white Orvieto are produced in Tuscia. Castelli Romani wines are the most popular in Rome, and are mostly white. The main labels include Frascati, Marino and Colli Albani.

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Local Guide to Rome

Local Guide to Rome


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide

Facts about Rome


Rome is the capital city of the Italian Republic and of the region Lazio. It is located in central Italy. The city itself counts over 2.7 million inhabitants over surface of 1,285 square kilometers, which make it the largest municipality in Italy, it is six times larger than Milan or Naples by surface, and the fourth in the European Union. Its metropolitan area counts about 3.7 million inhabitants and by surface it can be compared to the northern Italian region Liguria. Rome is crossed by the river Tiber and includes the Vatican State, the heart of the Catholic Church. The city was founded 753 years before Christ and in its two thousand and eight hundred years of history it got rich with cultural and artistic inheritage from the past, which is one of the reasons why it is one of the world's most visited sites. Rome is located in central Italy about 24 kilometres from the Tyrrhenian coast, and it is the capital of the region Lazio. The city was built on-: the Aventine, the Caelian, the Capitoline, the Esquiline, the Palatine, the Quirinal, and the Viminal. The climate in the region is mediterranean. Winters are not particularly cold and snowing is rare, autumns and springs are warm and are the seasons of most rain, while summers are often hot and dry.

Rome

City Name

Rome

Latitude and 41 53 35 N, 12 29 0 E Longitude

History
The legend says that Rome was founded by two brothers Romulus and Remo, children of Mars, the god of war, who were raised by a female wolf as they were abandoned just after they were born. Romulus became the first of seven kings who ruled the city before it became a Republic. Initially the Romans had to fight neighbouring populations such as the Latins and the Etruscs, and expanded its territories conquering the whole italian peninsula after three wars against the Cartagenians, and later dominated a large part of Europe, Asia Minor and North Africa. The Republic then became and Empire under Augustus and thus it remained until its fall in 476 under Flavius Romulus Augustus, the last emperor deposed by the Goths. However, the Eastern Roman Empire lived on until the fall of Constantinople by hand of the Ottoman Empire in 1453. With the first emperors, Rome lived its maximum splendor, unseen before for beauty and richness, and became the centre of the world (Roma Caput Mundi, Rome head of the world) and in the first century it counted over one and a half million inhabitants, which made it the most populated city in the world.

Other name Roma (Latin and Italian) Constituent Italy Country State Mayor Total Area Population Population Density Time zone Italian Republic, region Lazio Gianni Alemanno 1.285,30 sq km 2.718.768 (December 31, 2007) 2.115,3/sq km CET

Established April 26, 753 B.C. Landmarks [Enter landmarks here]

With the fall of the empire and the arrival of the Dark Ages, Rome lived through centuries of decadence, but later recovered with the growing power of the Catholic Church, after the Christianisation of barbaric population. Rome became the centre of the Vatican State which occupied a large part of central Italy for centuries until the unification of Italy by the royal family of Piedmont, who reduced the Vatican State to an enclave inside the city and made Rome capital of the Kingdom of Italy. After WWII and the fall of the monarchy, Italy became a republic and since then Rome has been the capital of the Italian Republic.

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Capital and Foreign Relations


As the capital city of the Italian Republic, Rome is the centre of the government (Palazzo Chigi) and seat of the Italian Parliament, both of the House of Deputies (Palazzo Montecitorio) and the Senate (Palazzo Madama), of the Presidential Palace (Palazzo del Quirinale), and of all ministries. In addition, Rome hosts the headquarters of the National Television, RAI, and cinecitta', the centre of the Italian film industry. In Rome is also the largest university in Italy by number of students is La Sapienza (Rome State University), founded in 1303, with about 150,000 students. Besides La Sapienza, there are three other state and twelve private universities, besides other institutes and accademies. Rome has many bilateral relations with other cities in the world, such as Beijing, Belgrade, Kiev, New York, Tokyo, and others, but Rome's only sister city in the world is Paris, and vice versa, according to the old saying Solo Parigi degna di Roma; solo Roma degna di Parigi in Italian, which means Only Paris is worthy of Rome; only Rome is worthy of Paris. Being Italy one of the countries that founded the European Community, later European Union, Rome has played an important role in the formation of the first European economical and political union, as it all started in Rome in 1957 with the Treaty of Rome signed by Italy, France, West Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxemburg. In 2004, Rome hosted the signing of the European Constitution. However, Rome's most important foreign relation is with the Vatican State. Rome is the only city in the world with a foreign state as enclave.

Montecitorio Palace hosts the 'Camera dei Deputati' (House of Commons). (Photo by: freedog)

Arts and Culture


Rome is a place where every single stone breathes history. Rich with art works, from architecture, sculpture to paintings, the Italian capital has among the highest concentration of artistic and cultural heritage in the world. The history of Rome has left marks from all eras, starting from the the Roman Republic, the empire, the middle ages, but most of all from the renaissance and the baroque, when many artists came from all over Italy to work for the Church. The city features an incredible number of works by Bernini (starting from the pillars of Saint Peter's Basilica), and works by masters like Michelangelo and Caravaggio. The city features monuments of architecture from the ancient period, like the Colosseum, the Pantheon and the Roman Forum, fountains such as the Fontana di Trevi, the fountains of Piazza Navona, and the Piazza di Spagna, beautiful squares like Piazza Navona, Piazza di Spagna, Piazza del Popolo, an incredible number of churches (about 900 christian churches), starting from the Basilica of Saint Peter, the largest church in the world, along with the three other major basilicas, the Basilica of St. John Lateran, Santa Maria Maggiore and St. Paul outside the Walls, which are property of the Vatican State, and many theatres.

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What to See and Do in Rome

What to See and Do in Rome


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide What to See and Do

It's impossible to do Rome justice on a single visit. Twenty five centuries of glorious history have bestowed the city with a mind-boggling diversity of sights, and just in order to visit all the must-sees you would have to stay in the city for months and do nothing else but go from one major sight to another. A Roman sight-seeing binge could begin at the Capitoline Hill (Campidoglio), nowadays a late Renaissance square adorned with sumptuous medieval palaces. Campidoglio, situated between the Forum and the Campus Martius, is the smallest of Rome's seven hills, but it's served as the religious and political center of the city since its foundation more than 2500 years ago. Apart from the Piazza del Campidoglio other not to miss sights of the Capitoline Hill include: Palazzo Nuovo, Palazzo Senatorio, Palazzo dei Conservatori and the Church of Sanra Maria in Aracoeli. Having basked in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance it's time to unveil the ancient Rome and there's no better place to start but the Roman Forum - the political and economic centre of the Roman An areal view of Rome. (Photo by: Robelio-Robert Babiak) Republic. The Forum was founded in the 7th century BC, and slowly developed into the focal point of Rome's public life. After the fall of the After the fall of the Roman Empire in 446, the Forum fell into disuse. It being the heart of the pagan Rome - Forum is awash with numerous Roman temples, all of them in a charmingly dilapidated state. Yet another remainder of the glorious pre-Christian past of Rome are the arches of Forum. But if the Forum was the heart of Republican Rome, than the nexus of the empire was certainly the Colosseum. The Roman Colosseum is the largest building ever to have been built in the Roman Empire. It was also the first permanent amphitheater built in Rome. This remarkable work of Roman architecture and engineering was built in the 1st century AD. The construction of the building started between 70 and 72 AD during the reign of emperor Vespaisan and finished in 80 AD during the rule of emperor Titus. The structure could comfortably hold an audience of 50,000 spectators. Once you're done with the ancient Rome, a plethora of Roman piazzas is still waiting to be discovered. Apart from the Piazza del Campidoglio three other popular squares are: Piazza Navona, Piazza di Spagna, and Piazza del Popolo. But, of course, there's more to Rome than the imperial and the medieval legacy - as the matter of fact Rome is the only city in the world that boasts a separate sovereign country within its city limits. The smallest country in the world - Vatican is a treasures house of Rome. The immense wealth accumulated by the Catholic church over the centuries is clustered on these 0.44 square kilometres that make a prime sight-seeing location for all the visitors to Rome. This is where the sumptuous Basilica of St Peter, the largest Christian place of worship in the world, is found. But, of course, the impressive size is not the only thing that makes St Peter one of the most impressive sights of Rome. A yet more impressive sights are the famous Vatican Museums. This collection of museums holds probably the highest concentration of art in Europe. But a visit to Vatican wouldn't be complete without admiring the Sistine Chapel and its ceiling painted by Michelangelo. If all this sightseeing seems too much to deal with, maybe you should consider taking an organized tour of either Rome or Vatican.

Lanterns and windows of Rome; just walking the streets of the eternal city is a sight unto itself. (Photo by: David Paul Ohmer)

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Calendar of Events in Rome

Calendar of Events in Rome


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide What to See and Do Calendar of Events

Here are the main events that take place in Rome throughout the year, month by month.

January
New Years Day in the Piazza del Popolo is all about children, featuring clowns and other performers on stilts, papier-mache masks, fire-eaters, and more. Underground Market - a subterranean parking lot near the Via Sistina is the site of this monthly antiques market, catering to collectors. Roman Purim - this Roman Jewish holiday, also known as Moed di Piombo, dates from 1793 AD (5553 in the Hebrew calendar). Romes Jewish Temple is illuminated at night while the rabbi explains the meaning underlined in the celebration.

February
Piazza del Popolo. Rome Independent Film Festival - Romes number one cinema event, (Photo by: wikipedia) the Independent Film Festival, features more than 40 artists arriving from some 25 countries. Screenings are in situated in theaters around the town, at Cinema Pasquino, Cinema Roma and the Ripa Hotel.

March
Eurochocolate - during Eurochocolate week everything revolves around chocolate. Some 500 participating stands, a Chocobookshop, a Chocofarm, and a chocolate-flavored film competition. An additional charm of the fair - the famed Trinita dei Monti staircase gets covered completely with 3,000 pure chocolate eggs.

April
Romes Good Friday Procession - on Good Friday, a torchlit procession moves from the Via Crucis, from the Colosseum and up the Monte Palatino, re-enacting the 14 station of the cross, starting from the death of Jesus and ending with the placement of his body in the tomb. Monthly Bargain Market - la Soffitta Sotto I Portici is a monthly bargain market taking place on the third Sunday in April. The market holds a number of collectibles, memorabilia and more up for grabs.

May
May Day Musical - on May 1, Rome celebrates arrival of the spring, starting with a world-class music festival in Piazza San Giovanni. Spring Antiques Market - the Grande Mercato di Primavera (Great Spring Market) features memorabilia and various collectibles for all tastes. Tennis Masters Series - Rome's tennis tournament, belonging to the Masters Series gathers about 120 players who compete for the top prizes. Susan G. Komen Race for the Cure - Susan G. Komen Race is a well known breast cancer awareness fund-raiser, involving a mini-marathon at the Stadio delle Terme di Caracalla.

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June
Dolce Vita Jazz Festival - Dolce Vita Jazz Festival takes place in Romes Palma Club and the Auditorium Parco della Musica, and features about 60 jazz artists. FotoGraphia - a massive festival of contemporary photography in Rome, FotoGraphia, has works displayed throughout the city. Estate Romana Festival - running from late June through early September, Estate Romana Festival offers various types of music, including jazz, rock, and classical music, plus film, sport, theater and childrens fun.

MayDay Concert in Rome in 2007.


(Photo by: wikipedia)

July
Festival of Latin-American Music & Culture - from late June through early August, this festival dedicated to the Latin sounds and Cuban accents, is situated at the Ippodromo delle Capannelle. Festa deNoantri - Saturday after the Festa del Carmelo on every year, the Vergine del Carmine statue is removed from the church of SantAgata for a procession through the streets of the Trastevere district before arriving at San Crisogno for eight days of display. Gay Village - from late June through August, the Testaccios becomes a site where many gay, straight, young and old Romans gather to enjoy various events, like pop concerts, discos, comedy, theater, dining.

August
Festival of Latin-American Music & Culture - from late June through early August, this festival dedicated to Latin sounds and Cuban accents, is situated at the Ippodromo delle Capannelle. Estate Romana Festival - running from late June through early September, Estate Romana (Roman Summer) Festival offers jazz, rock, and classical music, plus film, sport, theater and childrens fun.

September
International Urban Theatre Festival - the annual Festival Internazionale del Teatreo Urbano, is situated all around Rome, featuring many theatrical plays from around the world. White Night - Roman Notte Bianca features music, dance and theater events, and during this period many bars and restaurants stay open until late night hours. RomaEuropa Festival - RomaEuropa Festival features various theater, music and dance events throughout the city.

October
Celebration of St. Francis - St Francis, the patron of Italy, is celebrated throughout the city on his feast day, on October 4th. Great Autumn Market - in October, one of Italys largest antiques fairs takes place at the Autodromo di Vallelunga.
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Rome Jazz Festival - international artists enjoy the eclectic Rome Jazz Festival, in many venues all around the city.

November
100 Painters in Via Margutta - in April (sometimes May) and November, bi-annual art market of the Cento Pittori Via Margutta, is staged in scenic Via Margutta. Hundreds of artists apply, but only hundred artists are selected to exhibit.

December
Piaza Navona Christmas Market - Rome's Piazza Navona becomes a stage for Christmas market with Santa Claus and nativity scenes. New Years Eve - on the final day of the year, Romans celebrate the upcoming new year and end of the old year in many venues around the city, especially popular is the stage at the Piazza del Poplo where the program includes fireworks, rock and classical music concerts.

Notte Bianca in Rome.


(Photo by: flickr)

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Organised Tours in Rome

Organised Tours in Rome


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide What to See and Do Organised Tours

Taking a guided tour is one of the best ways to tour a town or entire country and see the most significant sights. The following are some of the tours offered by Viator, tourist agency on which Internet pages you'll be able to book and pay your tour. You can visit their page on url: www.affiliate.viator.com

1-day Imperial Rome Afternoon Tour


Exploring Rome's ancient Roman Imperial-era attractions in an afternoon tour that combines a walking with a relaxed sightseeing by coach. This afternoon tour, lasting half a day is the perfect introduction to Rome's famous Imperial sights: the Roman Forum, Colosseum and St Paul's Basilica. Imperial Rome tour includes the following highlights: Piazza del Campidoglio, designed by Michelangelo, with fantastic views over the Roman Forum Circus Maximus and Pyramid of Caius Cestius Inside visit of the Basilica of St Paul, the largest patriarchal basilica in Rome after St Peter's, built over the burial place of St Paul the Apostle and one of the five great ancient basilicas of Rome Imperial Rome tour concludes outside, but doesnt enter, the Colosseum. Dates: Daily
Campidoglio Square.
(Photo by: wikipedia)

Location: Tour departs from centrally located Rome hotels. If you're staying outside the Aurelian Walls or did not confirm hotel pickup - all tours will depart from 5/a Via Farini, located off Via Cavour, Rome. This departure point is a few minutes walking distance from Termini Railway Station and easy to locate. Time: March 1 to October 31 From Rome hotels: 2:00pm From central meeting point: 3:00pm November 1 to December 31 From Rome hotels: 1:30pm From central meeting point: 2:30pm Hotel Pickup: Hotel pickup is available from all Rome centrally located hotels ONLY. To view a full list of Rome hotels pickups, click on the 'View Map' icon above. Please list your full hotel name and address at time of booking. If you are staying outside of the central city area, please make your own way to the departure point (5/a Via Farini, Rome). Cruise Port Pickup: For passengers arriving into Rome on a cruise ship, you must book separate cruise port transfers between Civitavecchia and Rome. If you choose to combine transfers with a scheduled tour commencing in Rome, take into consideration the traveling time from the Port of Civitavecchia to Rome. It is approximately 1 hour and you should allow minimum 30 minutes to disembark cruise. Return Details: Tour concludes at 5/a Via Farini (centrally located and close to Termini Railway Station). In some cases, it is possible to be dropped off nearby your hotel but this cannot be guaranteed until the day of the tour as it depends on Rome traffic conditions and the location of your hotel. Please ask your tour guide on the day of travel. The trip includes: hotel pickup from Rome centrally located hotels only, an escort by a multilingual local guide with commentary and transportation in air-conditioned coach (maximum 50 people). It doesn't include: optional gratuities, an entrance to the Colosseum and food and drinks, unless specified.
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Additional information: This tour must be booked at least 24 hours in advance of your travel date. Confirmation for this product will be received at time of booking. Tour is operated in English unless otherwise specified. There can be a considerable amount of walking on Rome tours, (often on uneven, cobbled surfaces) due to coach regulations. It is possible for clients to remain on the coach, however this means that many of the sights will be missed. Please note, entrance to St Paul's Basilica requires appropriate attire. No shorts, miniskirts or uncovered shoulders. It is also advisable to wear comfortable shoes. Tour is suitable for wheelchair users provided passenger is traveling with a companion who can assist them on and off the bus. Wheelchairs will be stored in the luggage area of the bus. Pricing Policy: Infants aged 2 years of age and under are free of charge Child prices are applicable for children aged 3 - 8 years Travel Voucher: For every confirmed booking you will be required to print a voucher which is presented at the destination. You will receive a link to your voucher via email once your booking is confirmed. Local Operator Information: Complete Operator information, including local telephone numbers at your destination, are included on your Confirmation Voucher. Our Product Managers select only the most experienced and reliable operators in each destination, removing the guesswork for you, and ensuring your peace of mind.

3-Day Italy Trip: Naples, Pompeii, Sorrento and Capri


Take time out on this three-day excursion from Rome and see the highlights of some of Italy's most popular cities: Naples, Pompeii, Sorrento and Capri. You'll combine a love of food, history and coastal delights on this fascinating multi-day trip, and your friendly and knowledgeable guide will ensure you get a local feel for this engaging region. Departing Rome, you will travel to Naples, UNESCO Heritage Listed and famous for delivering the humble pizza to the rest of the world. It is a brazen yet vibrant city and the capital of the Campania region. Next, you'll visit another fascinating UNESCO Heritage Listed site at Pompeii. You will have the opportunity to delve into the now restored Pompeii to discover traces of ancient Roman daily life. Due to a lack of air or water, amazing frescoes and objects buried from Mt. Vesuvius' volcanic eruption have remained intact for almost two thousand years. Overlooking the bay of Naples, Sorrento's sea cliffs are lined by luxury hotels and a tangle of lemon trees. Perhaps that's the secret to their locally produced lemoncello, an alcoholic aperitif and the locals' drink of choice. And how can one go past the Isle of Capri? A resort since the rule of the Roman Empire, Capri lures yearly crowds to its Blue Grotto, so named for the azure limestone glow beneath its waters. Departs: Daily Departure Point: Tour departs from most centrally located Rome hotels Departure Time:Tour departs between 6:30am - 7:15am, exact time to be advised on reconfirmation. Return details:Tour returns to original point of departure at approximately 9:00pm to 9:30pm. (Day 3) Hotel Pickup: Tour departs from most centrally located Rome hotels. Please include the details of your hotel at the time of booking. You MUST call the tour operator at least 24 hours prior to tour commencement to reconfirm all tour and departure details. If the tour operator does not pickup from your hotel, they will advise you of the meeting point when you call. The contact details will be listed on your voucher. Itinerary

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DAY 1: Rome, Naples, Pompeii and Sorrento (L, D) Departing Rome, you will drive along the 'Sun Route' motorway and cross the regions of Lazio and Campania. Once in Naples, enjoy a short city tour before continuing towards Pompeii where lunch in a restaurant is provided. A UNESCO World Heritage listed site, Pompeii is one of the must see attractions of Italy. You will visit the excavations of this world-famous Roman town, destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 A.D. Next you will travel along the Sorrentine Coast enroute to to Sorrento for dinner and overnight. DAY 2: Sorrento, Capri, Sorrento and Rome (L, D) After breakfast and weather permitting, arrive in Capri for a visit of the Blue Grotto via row boats. On the way back from Marina Grande harbor make your way to Anacapri, a tiny and picturesque Mediterranean-style village with beautiful Gulf of Naples views. After lunch is served in a restaurant in Capri, wander down quaint little streets and explore the famed Piazetta. Later, embark on the coach back to Sorrento for dinner and overnight. In the event of adverse weather conditions, the Blue Grotto trip will be replaced by a visit to the Faraglioni. DAY 3: Sorrento and Rome

Pompeii.

(Photo by: lady74)

After breakfast enjoy free time to discover the magnificent beauty of Sorrento's peninsula, famous for its orange, lemon and olive groves. Later this afternoon return to Rome where your tour concludes. For exact pricing information for the 3-Day Italy Trip: Naples, Pompeii, Sorrento and Capri view the price guide. Prices are listed as a guide only. For an exact price quote, select a date Child prices are not applicable. Adult prices apply to all travelers. Prices are per person. Currency is set to USD. Change currency Our pricing is updated constantly to ensure you always receive the lowest price possible. Learn more about our low-price guarantee. Inclusions: Local guides Entrance fees Accommodation (2 nights) Hotel pickup and dropoff Meals as per itinerary (B = breakfast, L = lunch, D = dinner) Transportation in air-conditioned coach Escorted by an English-speaking guide Exclusions: Gratuities (optional) Additional Info: This tour must be booked at least 48 hours in advance of your travel date Confirmation for this tour will be received within 48 hours of booking, subject to availability Tour is operated in English unless otherwise stated Please dress for all dinners in a suitable manner In the event of adverse weather conditions, the Blue Grotto trip will be replaced by a visit to the Faraglioni Please note only one piece of check-in luggage per person is permitted on this tour

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Local Operator Information: Complete Operator information, including local telephone numbers at your destination, are included on your Confirmation Voucher. Our Product Managers select only the most experienced and reliable operators in each destination, removing the guesswork for you, and ensuring your peace of mind.

Crypts and Catacombs: Small Group Half-Day Walking Tour


Avoid the queues and crowds with an exclusive private tour of the Capuchin Crypt and Catacombs. Limited to just 24 people, this small group private tour of underground Rome offers a personalized experience. Plus, by pre-booking this tour you'll skip the lines and crowds at the Capuchin Crypt, which is very small and crowded when open to the general public. The Catacombs of the early Christians, underground fountains and crypts filled with literally thousands of bones are just a few of the wonders awaiting you on this incredible experience. You will see the most interesting and mystifying sites of Rome's underground sights on this small group walking tour. Highlights include: The Capuchin Crypt: chapels decorated entirely by human bones Catacomb. this tour skips the line and you can enjoy a private, exclusive viewing (Photo by: paiviti) of the chapels Domitilla Catacombs: ancient Christian burial ground Church of San Clemente: built over an ancient 4th-century church, which in turn was built over an older Roman house containing Christian artifacts and a pagan temple As you descend into the Eternal City's subterranean burial chambers, winding catacombs and ancient crypts, you'll discover the secrets of imperial and early Christian Rome. You'll travel to a time when Christianity was considered a cult, and whose members were executed as pagans and buried as martyrs. Schedule Details: Capuchin Bone Chapel, Rome Departs: Monday, Wednesday, Saturday and Sunday Unavailable Dates: December 25 (Christmas Day) January 01 (New Years Day) Departure Point: Tour commence at the fountain in the centre of Piazza Barberini at the metro station Barberini (Line A of the metro system). The meeting point is easy to locate and your guide will be waiting for you. Departure Time: Departs at 2:30pm. Please be ready at 2:15pm. Return details: Tour concludes at San Clemente Basilica (300 meters from the Colosseum) Hotel Pickup: Not provided For exact pricing information Skip the Line: Crypts and Roman Catacombs Small Group Half-Day Walking Tour, view the price guide. Prices are listed as a guide only. For an exact price quote, select a date Infants aged 2 years and under are free of charge. Prices are per person. Currency is set to USD. Change currency Our pricing is updated constantly to ensure you always receive the lowest price possible. Learn more about our low-price guarantee.

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Inclusions: Commentary in English Conducted by a qualified guide-interpreter Transportation by minibus Private viewing that guarantees skipping the long lines at the Capuchin Crypt! Entrance tickets to Domitilla Catacombs and Church of San Clemente Personalized small group (maximum 24 people) Exclusions: Optional gratuities Food and drinks, unless specified Additional Information: This tour must be booked at least 48 hours in advance of your travel date. Confirmation for this product will be received at time of booking. Tour is operated in English unless otherwise specified. Local Operator Information: Complete Operator information, including local telephone numbers at your destination, are included on your Confirmation Voucher. Our Product Managers select only the most experienced and reliable operators in each destination, removing the guesswork for you, and ensuring your peace of mind. For additional info on booking, dates, prices and accommodation, contact the tour operator on www.viator.com

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Vatican City Tours

Vatican City Tours


World Europe Countries Vatican City Tours Italy Cities Rome Local Guide What to See and Do Organised Tours

Taking a guided tour is one of the best ways to tour a town or entire country and see the most significant sights. The following are some of the tours offered by Viator, tourist agency on which Internet pages you'll be able to book and pay your tour. You can visit their page on url: www.viator.com.

Skip the Line: Vatican in One Day


Skip the Line: Vatican in One Day offers guided walking tours of the Vatican Gardens and Vatican Museums, as well as the Sistine Chapel, combined in one single day. The Vatican grants special permission to enter the gardens for this combination tour package. It is available for purchase up to 24 hours before travel on Tuesdays and Thursdays only. Skip the Line: Vatican in One Day Highlights: Vatican Museums Raphael Rooms Sistine Chapel St. Peter's Basilica St. Peter's Square Vatican Estate and Gardens - Courtyard of Damasus, Park of Villa Pia, Vatican gardens. (Photo by: chris27) Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Piazza Santa Marta, Mosaic Studio, Palazzo del Governatorato, St. John Tower, The 'Casina' of Pope Pious IX, and Papal Heliport, the Apparition of Our Lady of Guadalupe , Statue of Our Lady of Fatima, Replica of the Grotto of Lourdes, Fountain of the Eagle and Fountain of the Sacrament and various other sites of interest. Schedule Details Departs: The Skip the Line: Vatican in One Day package is available on selected Tuesdays and Thursdays only. Unavailable Dates: January 1 (New Years Day) December 25 (Christmas Day) December 26 (Boxing Day) Departure Point: Departs between 10:00am and 11:00am. The exact departure time must be reconfirmed upon your arrival in Rome. Departure Time: Tour commences at the foot of the steps across the street from the entrance of the Vatican Museums. The meeting point is easy to locate and your guide will be waiting for you. Return details: The afternoon tour concludes at St. Peter's Square. Hotel Pickup: Hotel Pickup not available Itinerary: Skip the Line: Vatican Gardens Walking Tour (2.5 hours) The only tour in Rome that explores the private Papal Gardens and property! Cultivated by the Popes since the ninth century, the rarely seen gardens boast a harmonious mix of art, architecture, and nature. Discover the secluded areas of the Vatican with a walking tour of the Vatican Gardens and Vatican City in one single day! Spanning over 44 acres the Vatican Gardens account for almost half of Vatican City and boast history and botanical diversity from all corners of the globe. Amidst the peaceful quiet of the Vatican property you will observe the functional features within Vatican City; Administrative headquarters of the Palazzo del Governatorato, Vatican Radio Station which transmits in 40 languages to 61
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countries worldwide, the Renaissance founded Pontifical Academy of Sciences and even the Papal heliport. Enjoy this serene oasis of tranquility on the rarely seen side of the Leonine Walls. Following the tour, time has been allocated for lunch or additional sightseeing before beginning the second half of the tour - the Vatican Museums, Raphael Rooms, Sistine Chapel & St. Peter's Basilica. Skip the Line: Vatican Museums Walking Tour (3 hours) Stroll through the Vatican Museums which house over 9 miles of the most extensive collection of art in the world. Experience Michelangelo's famous Creation of Adam with your own eyes as you explore the Sistine Chapel and wander Raphael's Rooms. Be humbled by the imposing beauty of Saint Peters Basilica, where you will encounter another of Michelangelo's masterpieces, La Pieta. Admire the magnificent Saint Peters Square, as your guide points Bernini's ingenious use of optical illusion. For additional pricing information for Skip the Line: Vatican in One Day, view the price guide. Prices are listed as a guide only. For an exact price quote, select a date Infants aged 5 years and under are free of charge. Child prices are applicable for children aged 6 - 18 years. Prices are per person. Currency is set to USD. Change currency Our pricing is updated constantly to ensure you always receive the lowest price possible. Learn more about our low-price guarantee. The tour includes: Vatican Estate and Gardens Tour (2.5 hours) Vatican Museums and Sistine Chapel Tour with headsets to facilitate hearing the guide lasting for three hours Guaranteed skipping of the long lines! All entrance tickets and reservation fees Guaranteed English speaking tour guides Personalized small group (maximum 20 people) The tour doesn't include: gratuities as well as hotel pick up and drop off. Additional Information: This tour must be booked at least 24 hours in advance of your travel date. Confirmation for this product will be received at the time of booking, unless you are booking within 5 days of travel date. In this case, confirmation will be received within 48 hours of booking, subject to availability. The climb to the top of the dome at St Peter's Basilica is not part of this tour, however customers are encouraged to climb on their own, after the tour concludes. By pre-booking this tour it enables you to skip the long lines (which can take up to two hours!) where you will proceed directly to the Vatican Gardens. All visitors must pass through metal detectors at the security check point. Please expect to wait 20-30 minutes to clear security. Please note, entrance to Saint Peter's Basilica and Vatican City require appropriate attire. No shorts, miniskirts or uncovered shoulders. It is also advisable to wear comfortable shoes for both visits. Vatican Gardens Tour is conducted by official Vatican guides. We cannot assure the quality or content of the tour, which is at the discretion of the Direction of the Vatican Museums. The Vatican reserves the right to cancel the tour without notice if the Vatican Gardens are reserved for official matters. Please note, we provide a booking service for this tour and the price includes the ticket and tour with guaranteed commentary in English. Information for invalids: Only for private tours. On this group tour we cannot because wheelchair users must use alternate routes to move about the corridors of the Vatican Museums. In a private tour you will be more flexible to take the appropriate routes because you will have your own guide. For passengers who need a wheelchair, refer to Skip the Line: Private Vatican Museums Walking Tour. If you do decide to book our private tour and need a wheelchair the Vatican Museums provide chairs free of charge in the main lobby. You can easily pick one up after entrance with your guide, but before starting your tour.

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Skip the Line: Vatican Museums Walking Tour including Sistine Chapel, Raphael's Rooms and St Peter's
Vatican Museums offer exploring of the world's most extensive collection of art. Brilliantly decorated and lined with masterpieces, the museums are brimming with treasures and history. Your guide will lead you through the 2000 rooms that stretch over almost nine miles, and share the stories and secrets contained within the Vatican's walls. Highlights of the museums are Michelangelo's famous Creation of Adam fresco in the Sistine Chapel and Raphael's Rooms. After taking in the Vatican Museums, you will encounter another of Michelangelo's masterpieces, La Pieta, in St Peter's Basilica. For a fascinating finish to your small group guided walking tour, stop to admire magnificent St Peter's Square, as your guide points out Bernini's ingenious use of optical illusion. Schedule Details Departs: Daily, except Sunday. Unavailable Dates: January 1 (New Years Day) April 13 (Easter Monday) December 25 (Christmas Day) December 26 (Boxing Day) Departure Time: 9:30am or 2:30pm STANDARD (maximum 20 people) 8:10am UPGRADE (maximum 8 people) Departure Point: Tour commences at the foot of the steps across the street from the entrance of the Vatican Museums. The meeting point is easy to locate and your guide will be waiting for you. Return details: Tour concludes at St. Peter's Basilica. Hotel Pickup:Hotel pickup not available For additional pricing information for Skip the Line: Vatican Museums Walking Tour including Sistine Chapel, Raphael's Rooms and St Peter's guided tour, view price guide. Prices are listed as a guide only. For an exact price quote, select a date Infants aged 5 years and under are free of charge Child prices are applicable for children aged 6 - 18 years Prices are per person. Currency is set to USD. Change currency Our pricing is updated constantly to ensure you always receive the lowest price possible.

Sistine chapel.

(Photo by: wikipedia)

Inclusions: Guided walking tour (3 hours) Vatican museum entrance fees Guaranteed to skip the long lines! Headsets to hear the guide clearly Personalized tour and commentary

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The tour doesn't include optional gratuities as well as hotel pickup and drop off. Additional Information: This tour must be booked at least 24 hours in advance of your travel date. Confirmation for this tour will be received at the time of booking, unless you are booking within 5 days of travel date. In this case, confirmation will be received within 48 hours of booking, subject to availability. Tour is operated in English unless otherwise specified. The climb to the top of the dome at St Peter's Basilica is not part of this tour, however customers are encouraged to climb on their own, after the tour concludes. By pre-booking this tour it enables you to skip the long lines (which can take up to two hours!) to enter the Vatican Museums. Please note, all visitors must pass through metal detectors at the security check point. Please expect to wait 20-30 minutes to clear security. If you are interested in booking this tour on a Wednesday (morning tour only), there is the possibility that you will be unable to include St. Peter's Basilica and St. Peter's Square in your itinerary. This is due to the weekly Papal Audience during which access to St. Peter's Basilica could be blocked off from the Museums. As an alternative you will be offered an extended itinerary within the Vatican Museums, which still includes the Sistine Chapel and Raphael's Rooms. We are sorry for any inconvenience this may cause. If you would prefer a tour with St. Peter's Basilica and Square guaranteed to be included, please do not select Wednesday as your travel date. Information for invalids: Only for private tours. On this group tour we cannot because wheelchair users must use alternate routes to move about the corridors of the Vatican Museums. In a private tour you will be more flexible to take the appropriate routes because you will have your own guide. For passengers who need a wheelchair, refer to Skip the Line: Private Vatican Museums Walking Tour. If you do decide to book our private tour and need a wheelchair the Vatican Museums provide chairs free of charge in the main lobby. You can easily pick one up after entrance with your guide, but before starting your tour.

Skip the Line: Crypts and Roman Catacombs Small Group Half-Day Walking Tour
Avoid the queues and crowds with an exclusive private tour of the Capuchin Crypt and Catacombs. Limited to just 24 people, this small group private tour of underground Rome offers a personalized experience. Plus, by pre-booking this tour you'll skip the lines and crowds at the Capuchin Crypt, which is very small and crowded when open to the general public. The Catacombs of the early Christians, underground fountains and crypts filled with literally thousands of bones are just a few of the wonders awaiting you on this incredible experience. You will see the most interesting and mystifying sites of Rome's underground sights on this small group walking tour. Highlights include: The Capuchin Crypt: chapels decorated entirely by human bones this tour skips the line and you can enjoy a private, exclusive viewing of the chapels Domitilla Catacombs: ancient Christian burial ground Church of San Clemente: built over an ancient 4th-century church, which in turn was built over an older Roman house containing Christian artifacts and a pagan temple As you descend into the Eternal City's subterranean burial chambers, winding catacombs and ancient crypts, you'll discover the secrets of imperial and early Christian Rome. You'll travel to a time when Christianity was considered a cult, and whose members were executed as pagans and buried as martyrs. Tour Highlights Three-hour small group walking tour of the Capuchin Crypt and Roman Catacombs, with skip the line entry to the Capuchin Crypt Private viewing guarantees youll skip the long lines at the Capuchin Crypt Entrance tickets to Domitilla Catacombs and Church of San Clemente Commentary in English by a qualified guide-interpreter Personalized small group (maximum 20 people) Tour departs from Piazza Barberini and concludes at San Clemente Basilica, near the Colosseum
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Transportation by minibus Schedule Details Departs: Monday, Wednesday, Saturday and Sunday Unavailable Dates: December 25 (Christmas Day) January 01 (New Years Day) Departure Point: Tour commence at the fountain in the centre of Piazza Barberini at the metro station Barberini (Line A of the metro system). The meeting point is easy to locate and your guide will be waiting for you. Departure Time: Departs at 2:30pm. Please be ready at 2:15pm. Return details: Tour concludes at San Clemente Basilica (300 meters from the Colosseum) Hotel Pickup: Not provided For additional pricing information for Skip the Line: Crypts and Roman Catacombs Small Group Half-Day Walking Tour guided tour, view the price guide. Prices are listed as a guide only. For an exact price quote, select a date Infants aged 2 years and under are free of charge. Prices are per person. Currency is set to USD. Change currency Our pricing is updated constantly to ensure you always receive the lowest price possible. Learn more about our low-price guarantee.
(Photo by: paiviti)

Inclusions: Commentary in English Conducted by a qualified guide-interpreter Transportation by minibus Private viewing that guarantees skipping the long lines at the Capuchin Crypt! Entrance tickets to Domitilla Catacombs and Church of San Clemente Personalized small group (maximum 24 people) The tour doesn't include optional gratuities as well as food and drinks, unless specified. Additional Information: This tour must be booked at least 48 hours in advance of your travel date. Confirmation for this product will be received at time of booking. Tour is operated in English unless otherwise specified.

Viator Exclusive: Private Viewing of Sistine Chapel and Vatican Museums


This tour gives visitors an exclusive viewing of the Sistine Chapel and Vatican Museums. Michelangelo's masterpiece will leave you captivated as you enjoy it minus the huge crowds. A once in a lifetime opportunity so secure a place on this magical tour in Rome.

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Please note: This is a private two-hour small group tour of the Sistine Chapel and Vatican Museums, for selected nights only. Seeing the Vatican's galleries when they are closed to the general public is a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. Tickets are limited and each group will consist of 20 people maximum with your own guide - and are only available through Viator. The Sistine Chapel and Vatican Museums are notorious for the crowds of people passing through during the day. With this exclusive two-hour tour you will have a unique chance to escape the crowds and, once the Vatican Museums close to the public, explore the artistic and architectural treasures. All entrance fees are included in the tour price. Book your spot on this exclusive tour (instant confirmation!) and see the official residence of the Pope, in Vatican City. The evening is hosted by an English-speaking guide/art historian specializing in the Italian Renaissance. Please list any special interests you have (art, architecture, history, culture) at time of booking to alert our guide, so that he or she can better prepare for your private tour. Not traveling to Rome on one of these days? That's OK, we plan to offer additional dates for this exclusive private tour of the Vatican and Sistine Chapel. Please keep checking back as new dates are added. Departs: Daily (We are currently accepting booking requests for all desired travel dates in 2009. Expressions of interests are being taken, so book now and advise of the dates you want! The exact list will be announced in February 2009). Departure Point: Meet your tour guide by the Vatican Museums main entrance, located on Viale Vaticano. The meeting point is easy to locate, and your guide will be waiting for you. Departure Time: Entrance is strictly limited and you must arrive at least 20 minutes prior to departure time. The Vatican Museum doors are opened specifically for our group so arriving late means you will miss the visit. Duration: 2 hours (approx.) Return details: The tour guide will escort you to the Vatican Museums exit, where the evening concludes. Hotel Pickup: Hotel pickup is NOT available. Please advise your local contact details in Rome including full hotel name and address at time of booking. Itinerary: Viator has organized an exclusive private visit of the Sistine Chapel and Vatican Museums, for selected evenings in 2009. This is your opportunity to visit the Sistine Chapel and Vatican Museums when they are closed to the general public. The tour starts in the Museo Pio Clementino, home to the Pope's collection of magnificent Greek and Roman statues including the Apollo Belvedere and the Laocoon. The Laocoon was actually discovered in the deep earth in the forum - and Michelangelo, then frescoing in the Vatican, was asked to come and check if and how it should be lifted from the earth. Next you will visit the Papal Apartments, which Raphael created for Pope Julius II. Raphael's work is sublime - you will see in the lunettes against the walls the Dispute over the Sacrament, The School of Athens and the Parnassus, each scene set in the grandest and most beautiful Renaissance perspective. Next you will visit the Cappella Sistina (Sistine Chapel) -- imagine standing beneath Michelangelo's masterpiece without the herds of crowds, it is magical. As your tour guide leads you inside let the vivid colors and bold figures of the Sistine Chapel's ceiling take your breath away. The impact is so much greater when viewed in silence and minus the crowds that normally fill the chapel. Take as long as you need to absorb these frescoes, considered one of the most renowned artworks of the High Renaissance. For security reasons guests are accompanied by Vatican security throughout the tour, and the Vatican reserves the right to make last-minute changes to the tour schedule. The standard itinerary is listed above, however we cannot guarantee visits to any room other than Cappella Sistina (Sistine Chapel). The rooms may be closed at the last minute due to restoration or at the general discretion of the Vatican Museums. For additional pricing information for Viator Exclusive: Private Viewing of Sistine Chapel and Vatican Museums, view the price guide.

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Prices are listed as a guide only. For an exact price quote, select a date Child prices are not applicable. Adult prices apply to all travelers. Prices are per person. Currency is set to USD. Change currency Our pricing is updated constantly to ensure you always receive the lowest price possible. Learn more about our low-price guarantee. Inclusions: Exclusive private viewing of Sistine Chapel and Vatican Museums English-speaking guide specializing in the Italian Renaissance Vatican Museum entrance tickets Headsets to hear the guide clearly A personalized small group and commentary limited to 20 people maximum Exclusions: Optional gratuities Food and beverages Additional Information:
Vatican Museum.

(Photo by: wikipedia)

This tour must be booked at least 48 hours in advance of your travel date Tour is operated in English unless otherwise stated. This tour involves a fair amount of walking on site. Please advise at time of booking if assistance is required.

For additional info on booking, dates, prices and accommodation, contact the tour operator on www.viator.com

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Pompeii Tours from Rome

Pompeii Tours from Rome


World Europe Pompeii Tours Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide What to See and Do Organised Tours

Taking a guided tour is one of the best ways to tour a town or entire country and see the most significant sights. The following are some of the tours offered by Viator, tourist agency on which Internet pages you'll be able to book and pay your tour. You can visit their page on url: www.affiliate.viator.com

Naples and Pompeii Day Trip from Rome


On this fascinating day trip to Naples and Pompeii, you'll discover history, art and culture. The journey takes you from Rome to the Gulf of Naples, where Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 A.D., devastating the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum. On your full-day tour from Rome you'll travel along the Highway of the Sun, crossing the area known as Castelli Romani filled with enchanting medieval villages. During the journey you will pass the ruins of Abbey of Monte Cassino, destroyed during the Second World War. After a photo stop at Naples' impressive Castel dell'Ovo (Egg Castle), you'll take a look of Naples' historic center and pass Naples' historic sights, including the Royal Palace, Basilica of San Francesco di Paola, San Carlo Opera House, Gallery of Umberto I and imposing Castel Nuovo. After leaving Naples, you will cross the valley of Mount Vesuvius, passing through the villages of Ercolano (Herculaneum), Torre del Greco and Torre Annunziata before arriving in Pompeii for lunch. After lunching, you will take a two-hour walking tour of the ancient city of Pompeii with a local guide. As you walk through the ancient ruins which were buried in ashes after Mount Vesuvius erupted almost 2000 years ago, a thrilling story unfolds. You'll discover the everyday life of Rome's Imperial age at this UNESCO World Heritage Site, and try to imagine the panic felt by the people in those last few minutes before the city was so disastrously buried. On the trip back to Rome (approximately lasting for three hours), you'll stop at a coral and cameo factory, where you will get the opportunity to purchase examples of this ancient craft that dates back to the Greek period. Tour Highlights Full-day trip from Rome to Naples and Pompeii Naples' spectacular views and historic sights Lunch at a traditional Pompeii restaurant Two-hour guided walking tour of Pompeii led by a local expert Shop for Roman coral and cameo jewelry Multilingual local guide Pick-up from centrally located Rome hotels Departs: Daily Unavailable Dates: January 01 (New Years Day) March 26 (Rome Marathon) December 25 (Christmas Day) December 31

Pompeii.

(Photo by: unknown)

Departure Point: Tour departs from centrally located Rome hotels. If you're staying outside the Aurelian Walls or did not confirm hotel pickup - all tours will depart from 5/a Via Farini, located off Via Cavour, Rome. This departure point is a few minutes walking distance from Termini Railway Station and easy to locate. Departure Time: From Rome hotels: 6:30am From central meeting point: 7:30am Return details: Tour concludes at 5/a Via Farini (centrally located and close to Termini Railway Station). In some cases, it is possible to be dropped off nearby your hotel but this cannot be guaranteed until the day of the tour as it depends on Rome traffic
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conditions and the location of your hotel. Please ask your tour guide on the day of travel. Hotel Pickup: Hotel pickup is available from all Rome centrally located hotels ONLY. To view a full list of Rome hotels pickups, click on the 'View Map' icon above. Please list your full hotel name and address at time of booking. If you are staying outside of the central city area, please make your own way to the departure point (5/a Via Farini, Rome). Cruise Port Pickup: For passengers arriving into Rome on a cruise ship, you must book separate cruise port transfers between Civitavecchia and Rome. If you choose to combine transfers with a scheduled tour commencing in Rome, take into consideration the traveling time from the Port of Civitavecchia to Rome. It is approximately 1 hour and you should allow minimum 30 minutes to disembark cruise. For additional pricing information for Naples and Pompeii Day Trip from Rome tour,view the price guide. Prices are listed as a guide only. For an exact price quote, select a date Infants aged 2 years of age and under are free of charge Child prices are applicable for children aged 3 - 8 years Prices are per person. Currency is set to USD. Change currency Our pricing is updated constantly to ensure you always receive the lowest price possible. Learn more about our low-price guarantee. Inclusions: All Pompeii entrance fees Transportation in air-conditioned coach Lunch in Pompeii at a local restaurant Hotel pickup from Rome centrally located hotels only Escorted by a multilingual local guide with commentary Transportation in air-conditioned coach (maximum 50 people)

Positano.

(Photo by: maxsomma)

Pompeii and Amalfi Coast Small Group Day Trip from Rome
View Pompeii and the beautiful Amalfi coast villages, as a part of a small group day trip from Rome. You'll travel in a comfortable air-conditioned minivan and receive individual attention from your expert tour guide. first you'll stop at scenic viewpoints as you travel along the stunning coastline in order to reach Positano, one of the most famous charming old fishing towns along the Amalfi coast. After a walking tour and spending some free time in Positano, you will travel on to Amalfi aboard a shared public boat. Amalfi is a labyrinth of narrow lanes and alleyways, featuring typical Mediterranean village architecture. Here you can sample the local Limoncello liqueur or visit the celebrated Moorish-style Paradise Cloister, dating back to the 13th century. Youll also enjoy lunch at Amalfi, at a traditional local pizzeria, and then follow the road uphill away from the coast for a last glimpse of this enchanting part of Italy before continuing on to Pompeii. At the amazing ruins of Pompeii you will take a two-hour guided walking tour conducted by a local expert guide. You'll discover the everyday life of Rome's Imperial age as you walk through the ancient ruins which were buried in ashes after Mount Vesuvius erupted almost 2000 years ago. You will visit the homes of Pompeii's wealthier citizens and ancient street cafes where locals dined, hear numerous anecdotes about daily life in Pompeii, as well as see the graffiti dating back to Roman times. Tour Highlights Full-day small group tour by minivan to Pompeii and the Amalfi coast villages Scenic photo stops along the Amalfi coast Walking tour and free time in Positano Boat trip to Amalfi Guided visit, free time and lunch at Amalfi Two-hour guided walking tour of Pompeii led by a local expert Smaller number of tour members ensures a more personalized experience Pickup and drop-off from centrally located Rome hotels Transportation in an air-conditioned minivan (13 passengers)
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Departs: Seasonal * March 16 to November 7 on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays * November 8 - March 15 on Saturdays Departure Point: Tour will depart from your centrally located hotel in Rome. Departure Time: 6:45am - 7:15am Return details: Tour concludes with drop off at your centrally located Rome hotel. Hotel Pickup: Hotel pickup is available from selected Rome centrally located hotels. All hotels must be located in the city center (within the Aurelian Walls). Please advise your full hotel name and address at time of booking. Any hotels located near the airport and outside the city center will attract a small supplement, payable directly to the driver on the day of tour. For additional pricing information for Pompeii and Amalfi Coast Small Group Day Trip from Rome tour, view the price guide. Prices are listed as a guide only. For an exact price quote, select a date Child prices are not available, adult prices apply to all travelers Prices are per person. Currency is set to USD. Change currency Our pricing is updated constantly to ensure you always receive the lowest price possible. Learn more about our low-price guarantee. Inclusions: Shared boat ride along the Amalfi Coast Escorted by a local English speaking expert driver Walking tour of Pompeii with expert local guide including headphone commentary (2 hours) Transportation in an air-conditioned minivan (13 passengers) Lunch and a soft drink at a traditional local pizzeria with sea-views in Amalfi The tour doesn't include optional gratuities as well as Pompeii entrance fee (approx 11 euros). Additional Information: This tour must be booked at least 48 hours in advance of your travel date. Confirmation for this product will be received within 48 hours of booking, subject to availability. Tour is operated in English unless otherwise stated. Comfortable walking shoes and a windbreaker are recommended. This tour requires a minimum number of 5 passengers to operate. The tour accommodates 6 to 13 passengers per minivan. The exact size of your group depend on the day. The public boats operate subject to weather conditions and along the Amalfi Coast until the end of October only. A minivan will be used for the transfer outside of seasonal boat operating months.

3-Day Italy Trip: Naples, Pompeii, Sorrento and Capri


Take time out on this three-day excursion from Rome and see the highlights of some of Italy's most popular cities: Naples, Pompeii, Sorrento and Capri. You'll combine a love of food, history and coastal delights on this fascinating multi-day trip, and your friendly and knowledgeable guide will ensure you get a local feel for this engaging region. Departing Rome, you will travel to Naples, UNESCO Heritage Listed and famous for delivering the humble pizza to the rest of the world. It is a brazen yet vibrant city and the capital of the Campania region. Next, you'll visit another fascinating UNESCO Heritage Listed site at Pompeii. You will have the opportunity to delve into the now restored Pompeii to discover traces of ancient Roman daily life. Due to a lack of air or water, amazing frescoes and objects buried from Mt. Vesuvius' volcanic eruption have remained intact for almost two thousand years. Overlooking the bay of Naples, Sorrento's sea cliffs are lined by luxury hotels and a tangle of lemon trees. Perhaps that's the secret to their locally produced lemoncello, an alcoholic aperitif and the locals' drink of choice. And how can one go past the Isle of Capri? A resort since the rule of the Roman Empire, Capri lures yearly crowds to its Blue Grotto, so named for the azure limestone glow beneath its waters. Departs: Daily Departure Point: Tour departs from most centrally located Rome hotels.

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Pompeii Tours from Rome

Departure Time: Tour departs between 6:30am - 7:15am, exact time to be advised on reconfirmation. Return details: Tour returns to original point of departure at approximately 9:00pm to 9:30pm. (Day 3) Hotel Pickup: Tour departs from most centrally located Rome hotels. Please include the details of your hotel at the time of booking. You MUST call the tour operator at least 24 hours prior to tour commencement to reconfirm all tour and departure details. If the tour operator does not pickup from your hotel, they will advise you of the meeting point when you call. The contact details will be listed on your voucher. Itinerary: Day 1: Rome, Naples, Pompeii and Sorrento (L, D) Departing Rome, you will drive along the 'Sun Route' motorway and cross the regions of Lazio and Campania. Once in Naples, enjoy a short city tour before continuing towards Pompeii where lunch in a restaurant is provided. A UNESCO World Heritage listed site, Pompeii is one of the must see attractions of Italy. You will visit the excavations of this world-famous Roman town, destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 A.D. Next you will travel along the Sorrentine Coast enroute to to Sorrento for dinner and overnight. DAY 2: Sorrento, Capri, Sorrento and Rome (L, D) After breakfast and weather permitting, arrive in Capri for a visit of the Blue Grotto via row boats. On the way back from Marina Grande harbor make your way to Anacapri, a tiny and picturesque Mediterranean-style village with beautiful Gulf of Naples views. After lunch is served in a restaurant in Capri, wander down quaint little streets and explore the famed Piazetta. Later, embark on the coach back to Sorrento for dinner and overnight. In the event of adverse weather conditions, the Blue Grotto trip will be replaced by a visit to the Faraglioni. DAY 3: Sorrento and Rome After breakfast enjoy free time to discover the magnificent beauty of Sorrento's peninsula, famous for its orange, lemon and olive groves. Later this afternoon return to Rome where your tour concludes. For additional pricing information for 3-Day Italy Trip: Naples, Pompeii, Sorrento and Capri tour, view the price guide.

Naples.

(Photo by: casch)

Prices are listed as a guide only. For an exact price quote, select a date Child prices are not applicable. Adult prices apply to all travelers. Prices are per person. Currency is set to USD. Change currency Our pricing is updated constantly to ensure you always receive the lowest price possible. Learn more about our low-price guarantee. Inclusions: Local guides Entrance fees Accommodation (2 nights) Hotel pickup and dropoff Meals as per itinerary (B = breakfast, L = lunch, D = dinner) Transportation in air-conditioned coach Escorted by an English-speaking guide The tour doesn't include optional gratuities.

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Pompeii Tours from Rome

Additional Information: This tour must be booked at least 48 hours in advance of your travel date Confirmation for this tour will be received within 48 hours of booking, subject to availability Tour is operated in English unless otherwise stated Please dress for all dinners in a suitable manner In the event of adverse weather conditions, the Blue Grotto trip will be replaced by a visit to the Faraglioni Please note only one piece of check-in luggage per person is permitted on this tour

Mt Vesuvius and Pompeii Day Trip from Naples


Take a full-day tour from Naples to explore Pompeii and Mt Vesuvius, the only active volcano in continental Europe. It's a trip not to be missed by any visitor to this region of Italy. Your guided tour of Pompeii (approximately two hours) takes you to the Forum, the Thermal Baths, Vetti's House and the Lupanare brothel, buried by volcanic ashes from the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 A.D. After a break for an hour to enjoy a pizza lunch, you'll then board your coach to transfer to Mt. Vesuvius, to view first-hand the source of the devastation that destroyed the city of Pompeii almost two thousand years ago. You can choose to climb Mt, Vesuvius (approximately 45 minutes), accompanied by your guide, and walk around the crater at 3,900 feet (1,200 meters). From the summit you'll have panoramic views of the picturesque Bay of Naples from east to west. Peering down into the depths of the crater, you may see plumes of steam issuing from the sleeping, but still active, volcano. A medium to high level of fitness is required to complete the climb. Remember to wear comfortable walking shoes! There is a rest point where you can choose to wait for your group if you do not wish to climb all the way to the top. Tour Highlights Combined tour of Pompeii and Mt. Vesuvius from Naples Guided tour of Pompeii: the Forum, Thermal Baths, Vetti?s House and Lupanare Pizza lunch Hike to the summit of Vesuvius and peer into the crater Panoramic views of the beautiful Bay of Naples Hotel pickup and dropoff Departs: Daily Unavailable Dates: January 01 (New Years Day) March 24 (Easter Monday) May 01 (Labour Day) December 01 - February 28 Departure Point: Tour will commence upon pickup at your hotel in Naples Departure Time: Departs at 10:30am. Please be ready at 10:15am. Duration: 6 hours (approx.) Return details: Tour returns to original departure point Hotel Pickup: Tour departs from selected Naples hotels. Please include the details of (Photo by: krzysiuc) your hotel at the time of booking. You MUST call the supplier at least 24 hours prior to tour commencement to reconfirm all tour and departure details. If the supplier does not pickup from your hotel, they will advise you of the meeting point when you call. The contact details will be listed on your voucher. Cruise Port Pickup: A cruise port pickup can be arranged for passengers arriving and departing Naples. For passengers arriving into NAPLES CRUISE PORT you must advise the cruise line, ship name, docking and departure details at time of booking. Please allow at least 30 minutes from cruise arrival to disembark and meet the tour guide for your pickup. All pickups are strictly available from Naples. Cruises arriving into Sorrento cannot be accommodated.
Vesuvius from Naples. www.bumblehood.com

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Pompeii Tours from Rome

Rail Pickup: If arriving in Naples by train, your pickup point is just outside the railway station on the left of the Star Hotel Terminus at 10:45. Your driver will display a sign with the lead traveler's name on it. For additional pricing information for Mt Vesuvius and Pompeii Day Trip from Naples tour, view the price guide. Prices are listed as a guide only. For an exact price quote, select a date Infants aged 2 years and under are free of charge Child prices are not available, adult prices apply to all other travelers Prices are per person. Currency is set to USD. Change currency Our pricing is updated constantly to ensure you always receive the lowest price possible. Learn more about our low-price guarantee. Inclusions: Pizza lunch with drink Entrance fees as specified Hotel pickup and drop off Narration by a professional driver/guide Exclusions: Optional gratuities Food and drink, unless specified Additional Information: This product must be booked at least 48 hours in advance of your travel date Confirmation for this product will be received at time of booking Tour is operated in English and Italian. Spanish and French are available if requested at time of booking Walking shoes and a coat are recommended when climbing Vesuvius Local Operator Information: Complete Operator information, including local telephone numbers at your destination, are included on your Confirmation Voucher. Our Product Managers select only the most experienced and reliable operators in each destination, removing the guesswork for you, and ensuring your peace of mind. For additional info on booking, dates, prices and accommodation, contact the tour operator on www.viator.com

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Eating in Rome

Eating in Rome
World Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide What to See and Do Eating

Here are some suggestions for deciding what to have for lunch or dinner when in Rome, a city with a rich gastronomic tradition, worth experiencing.

Starters
Bruschetta is an appetizer consisting of toasted bread, rubbed with garlic and olive oil, and possibly with tomato. This simple yet very tasty dish is known worldwide. Filetti di baccala is a fish meal, usually served as an appetizer, and basically consists of deep-fried cod fillets. Fiori di zucca fritti denotes a dish made of deep fried courgette flowers, stuffed with mozzarella cheese and anchovies. Interesting dish, a bit peculiar, but very tasty. Suppli' is a typical Roman dish made of fried rice croquettes stuffed with mozzarella cheese Antipasto misto is a dish that may include olives, anchovies, cured meats, seafood, grilled or preserved vegetables (artichokes, peppers, tomatoes), greens, depending on the area and restaurant where it is served.
Bruschetta.
(Photo by: spiridus)

Pasta
Spaghetti cacio e pepe is a traditional Roman pasta dish. It contains a very simple recipe where boiled spaghetti are dressed with abundant sharp Roma pecorino cheese and plenty of pepper. Spaghetti alla Carbonara is nowadays a world wide dish, consisted of spaghetti dressed with beaten egg yolk and parmigiano, added to a mixture of fried bacon. Spaghetti aglio, olio, peperoncino denotes a dish with spaghetti dressed with a sauce of olive oil, chopped garlic, parsley and chili. Simple, yet delicious. Bucatini alla Amatriciana is a dish made of the bucatini, longish pasta tubes, similar to spaghetti. The bucatini are dressed with a sauce, composed of hog jowls or bacon, white wine, tomatoes and spicy peppers. It is traditionally served topped with aged pecorino (famous Roman cheese). Matriciana comes from Amatrice a small town near Rieti, home to this recipe. Gnocchi alla Romana consists of sliced semolina dumplings served with butter and grated cheese. Cannelloni denotes a pasta dish made of special sheets of egg pasta, stuffed with a ricotta and spinach or meat filling, and then topped with a light, fresh tomato sauce and baked. Penne all' Arrabbiata really is a short pasta dressed with a spicy tomato sauce. Rigatoni con la pajata is a pasta dish made of square pasta tubes called rigatoni, with a sauce based on milk-fed calfs intestine. These are cooked with tomatoes, salt pork, garlic and spices; and finally topped with grated Pecorino cheese.

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Eating in Rome

Meat, Fish and Seafood


Abbacchio is a characteristic dish belonging to the Roman cuisine. Abbacchio is milk-fed lamb prepared in several different ways: oven-roasted, or hunters' style with rosemary, with white wine, anchovies and peppers. Lamb chops in lemon egg sauce is a dish traditionally prepared in Rome, usually during Easter. The dish is made of a leg of lamb, topped with a specific lemon egg sauce such as in this recipe. Saltimbocca alla Romana denotes a dish made of veal, cooked together with Parma ham and sage, served rolled and skewered. Coda alla Vaccinara is a main dish consisted of braised oxtail with tomatoes, celery and white wine. Involtini is a typical Roman dish made of tender beef rolls, stuffed with celery and carrots are cooked in a robust tomato and wine sauce. Pollo alla Romana is a dish made of chicken cooked with green peppers, tomato and garlic. Porchetta is a traditional dish made of roasted pork dressed with aromatic herbs. Cozze alla marinara is a seafood dish, consisting of sauteed mussels Coratella con carciofi denotes a main dish made of lamb or kid liver, heart and lungs. The meat is braised in olive oil and white wine, and finally served with artichokes. Trippa alla Romana consists of a tripe cooked with tomato sauce, Roman mint, celery and onion.

Lamb chops.

(Photo by: sardinelly)

Salads
Carciofi alla Romana is made of a typical variety of Roman artichokes, called "mammola". The stems are severed and minced fine with mint, garlic, salt and pepper, then used to fill the artichokes, which are then cooked atop the stove with water and olive oil. Carciofi alla guidia denotes a vegetable dish made of tender artichokes flattened flower-like and deep fried. Puntarelle denotes a traditional vegetable dish, made of a member of the chicory family. This dish is sure to be found among the side dishes at any Roman restaurant, and most likely nowhere else in Italy. The dish is prepared in the following way: the hollow spears of the puntarelle are sliced very thinly lengthwise, and set into a large quantity of cold water for some hours. This causes the thin strips to curl up in an extraordinary manner. The crispy curls are served raw, dressed with olive oil, vinegar, garlic and minced anchovies. Fave al guanciale is a dish prepared with fresh springtime fava beans cooked with bacon and onion. Fava beans with pecorino consists of springtime fava beans served with Roman pecorino cheese. Fagioli con le cotiche is a dish consisted of stewed white beans, mixed with pork rind, olive oil, rosemary, onion and garlic. Pomidori ripieni is a dish prepared from large tomatoes stuffed with their pulp, rice, garlic and basil.Very healthy and tasty.

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Desserts
Maritozzo alla panna is a typical Roman sweet. It is made of soft sweet buns with raisins and candied peels, filled with whipped cream. Frappe e castagnole is a typical Roman carnival sweets; made of fried pastry ribbons and balls.

(Photo by: antoniog)

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Shopping in Rome

Shopping in Rome
World Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide What to See and Do Shopping

Rome is knowns as an expensive city, so shopping with bargains is a rare thing. Rome is quite known as the site of many world famous clothes labels, as well as for various sorts of leather goods (shoes, bags, gloves and belts) and certain decorative items (lamps, Italian modern designer goods and glassware). Shops in Rome usually open at 9.00-13.00 and once again in 15.30-19.30pm (or 16.00-20.00 in the summer period). The shops are closed on Sundays and Monday mornings. Grocery shops are also closed on Thursday afternoons. Some bookshops and clothes shops (like those around Campo dei Fiori) are opened on Sundays, from 10.00 or in the afternoons from 15.00 19.00. August is traditionally the month when most of Italians are on holidays (the so-called Ferragosto), and many small business take their annual holiday. In Rome, most shops and restaurants close for two weeks, mostly around 15th August.

Shopping in Rome.
(Photo by: rubenam)

The best shopping areas in Rome are around Piazza di Spagna (boutiques containing women's clothing, jewellery, shoes, etc.), Via Borgognona containing many worldwide labels of clothing like Prada, Valentino, Gucci, Fendi, Missoni and Armani. The more prestigious antique shops, as well as several smart restaurants, are situated in Via Margutta, Via del Corso. Contemporary Roman designers and stylists are placed mostly in Via del Banbuino. Rome's secondhand and antique shops, as well as art galleries,can be found in the famous Porta Portese flea market held in Rome's Trastevere district.

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Landmarks of Rome

Landmarks of Rome
World Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide What to See and Do Landmarks

Capitoline Hill
The Capitoline Hill or Campidoglio, situated between the Forum and the Campus Martius, is the smallest of Rome's seven hills, but it was the religious and political center of the city since its foundation more than 2500 years ago. The hill contains few ancient ruins, but they are almost entirely covered up by medieval palaces: Palazzo Nuovo, Palazzo dei Conservatori and Palazzo Senatorio, now the Capitoline Museums. A significant portion of the architecture in this area, as well as the Piazza del Campidoglio was designed by Michelangelo in the 16th century.

Campidoglio by night. (Photo by: nikonphotoslave)

The Capitoline hill is the site of many famous events in Roman history: the place where Brutus and the assassins locked themselves inside the Temple of Jupiter after murdering Caesar; the site where Gracchi plotted and died; here the triumphant generals overlooked the city for which they fought; the place where the Gauls, creeping to the Citadel, were let in by the infamous Vestal Virgin Tarpeia.

Even before there was Rome built, the Capitoline hill was an important location. It's the site where at some point in the hill's history, a human skull (caput in Latin) was found buried. That's way the hill was named the Capitoline, or Capitol Hill in English (and Campidoglio in Italian). Although Romulus, the founder of Rome, decided for the Palatine as the site of the future city, the Capitoline was long the defensive center of Rome. This is due to its characteristics: it is the highest and rockiest hill in Rome, bordered from all sides by sharp cliffs. The western side of the hill is known as the Tarpeian Rock, served at one point as the place from which criminals were thrown as a means of capital punishment. The reason for being a defensive stronghold lies in the fact that the Capitoline could be accessed only by means of a narrow path leading up the southern side of the hill. This is why even at the height of Rome's power, the Capitoline was considered the citadel of the city. It was a place where Romans could escape even in case the city's walls were breached by an invading army. For example, when the Celtic Gauls raided Rome in 390 BC, the Capitoline Hill was the one part of the city which evaded capture by the barbarians.

In addition to being the most defensive point in Rome, the Capitoline was the religious center for the city, and in extension, of the entire Empire. On Capitoline hill the Temple of Jupiter (Jove), the Best and Greatest (or TEMPLUM IOVUS OPTIMUS MAXIMUS, in Latin) was erected during the reign of Rome's last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. This temple of Jove, the high king of the gods, was among the most magnificent pagan temple built by the Empire. The design of the temple resembled the Parthenon in Athens, Greece, both in size and shape, and a massive statue of Jove inside the temple was very similar to those of Athena which then stood in the Parthenon. The appearance of the statue of Jove was remarkable: the statue was built of expensive materials, for example ivory and gold; and is was dressed in richly garments. The temple got destroyed several times by invading armies, for sure in AD 69 by Romans themselves in a civil war. After the fall of the Roman Empire and the invasion of barbars, the temple was destroyed and disappeared almost completely. Nowadays, only pieces of the foundations remain, but they are covered by the modern construction of the Capitoline buildings, namely the Church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli. There is only one vague remembrance: a street running up the southern side of the hill is named Via Tempio Giove. Besides the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus Capitolinus, several important temples were built at the Capitoline Hill by the Romans: the Temple of Juno Moneta and the Temple of Virtus (also known as the Capitoline Triad). Also on the hill was the Tabularium, built in 79 BC and used as the empire's main archive. The Capitoline hill, and the temple of Jupiter in particular were the symbols of Rome as Caput Mundi, capital of the world. During the Middle Ages the Capitol remained the political center of Rome. Afterwards, Monte Caprino (Goat Hill), as the hill was called, fallen into ruin. But in Renaissance, Pope Paul III (1468-1549) decided to restore its grandeur for the visit of Charles V (1500-58), the Holy Roman Emperor. Michelangelo Buonarotti was given the task of renovating the face of Rome, by creating the staircase ramp, the buildings and facades on three sides of the Capitoline Hill, the slightly convex pavement and its decoration, and the pedestal for the bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. With his design, he thus created a distinctive mark which can be seen everywhere in modern Rome. He was responsible for designing the Piazza del Campidoglio and Coronata, the broad steps leading up to the square. Up the northern slope of the hill he created a broad, shallow staircase,
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something between a stairway and a ramp. When climbing up the steps, you reach the top of the hill, which consists of a piazza fronted by three palaces. Palazzo Nuovo and the Palazzo Dei Conservatori, located on the left and the right are part of the Musei Capitolini, and house a vast collection of antiquities, and are one of the oldest public collections of art in the world. Directly opposite the stairs is the Palazzo Senatorio, which houses government offices, but nowadays is open to the public. In the center of the square is an equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. Well, it used to be, because nowadays there is only a casting of the original statue. The original statue is placed inside the museum, where it was moved in the 1970s for restoration. It is now behind glass, due to its great value: it is the only statue preserved from the pagan Rome.

Piazza del Campidoglio


In ancient times, the Capitoline Hill's main features were the Temple of the Capitoline Triad and the Tabularium. Afterwards, the hill's main landmark was a tall tufa structure that forms the foundation of today's city hall, the Palazzo Senatorio. But most of the buildings on the Capitoline Hill that are nowadays present date from the Renaissance. The long, sloping steps and a perfectly proportioned square at the top, Piazza del Campidoglio, were designed by Michelangelo Bounarotti. The design of this piazza really sums up all the majesty of High Renaissance Rome. The square is centered by the bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius and on three sides bounded by three palaces: by the Senatorium or Palazzo Senatorio (Town Council), the statuary-filled Palazzo dei Conservatori (Curators), and the Capitoline Museum or Palazzo Nuovo. The existing design of the Piazza del Campidoglio and its surroundings was created by Michelangelo in 15361546. His first designs date from 1536. But, what is so special about Michelangelo's design? Michelangelo came up with an original design for the entire square, including an intriguing ground pattern. He reversed the facing of the entire square: the classical orientation of the Capitoline was in the opposite way, facing the Roman Forum. This reversal marked a symbolic gesture turning Romes civic center to face away from the Roman Forum and instead in the direction of Papal Rome and the Christian church in the form of St. Peters Basilica. He redesigned the Palazzo Senatorio, seat of the Roman senate, made designs of a new faade for the Palazzo dei Conservatori and designed a completely new building, the Palazzo Nuovo. He introduced the so-called "cult of the axis", a new urbanistic way of planning which was dominant in Italian architecture for centuries after his death. He also planned a monumental staircase, called the Cordonata, leading from the bottom of the hill to the new square. Not only this, but the laying of the plan was itself difficult due to the poor configuration of terrain. When he designed the new facades Not only this, but the laying of the plan was itself difficult due to the poor configuration of terrain. When he designed the new facades centering them at the rear, he got a trapezoid space, and the facades did not face each other squarely. The whole site also sloped, which gave an even more sense of disharmony. But, Michelangelo's solution was radical. Since no "perfect" forms would work in this square, he designed an apparent oval in the paving, which is actually egg-shaped, narrower at one end than at the other. The design set into the paving is perfectly level with its center springs slightly, achieving a sence that a giant egg is positioned in the center of the square. An interlaced twelve-pointed star in the middle ( a reference to the constellations) further emphasizes the name of this site: Caput mundi, the "head of the world." The shallow staircase, called the Cordonata, was envisioned as gently raising ramp, adorned with granite statues of Egyptian lions at the foot and two large classical statues of Castor and Pollux at the top.
(Photo by: rucativava)

Climbing up the Cordonata.

Although the design was finished, the construction of the entire Piazza really ended in 1940. The construction started in 1546 but only the staircase at the entrance of the Palazzo Senatorio was completed when Michelangelo died in 1564. The project was only finished in the 17th century, mostly in accordance with Michelangelo's plans. The paving of the square was finished by Benito Mussolini, who ordered the paving completed to Michelangelo's design in 1940.

Palazzo Nuovo
In order to close off the piazza symmetrically and cover up the tower of the Church Santa Maria in Aracoeli, the Palazzo Nuovo, or "New Palace" was constructed. When arriving from the Cordonata, the building is situated to the left. The building was designed by Michelangelo and its construction began in 1603, but it was finished by the brothers Carlo and Girolamo Rainaldi in 1654. Its facade is the exact duplicate of of Palazzo dei Conservatori's. The later architects copied the original Michelangelo's blueprint when he redesigned the Palazzo dei Conservatori a century earlier. In 1734, pope Clemens XII opened the building to the public, creating the world's first public museum.
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Palazzo Nuovo, nowadays one of the Capitoline Museums, contains very valuable pieces of classical sculpture. The stars of this museum are definitely: Dying Galatian, a Roman copy of a Greek sculpture dating from the 3rd century BC; Discobolus, a sculpture by an 18th century artist who used the twisted torso from a Greek statue of a discus thrower; Alexander Severus as Hunter, a 3rd century AD marble statue, portraying the emperor Alexander Severus as a mythical hero Perseus, holding up the head of Medusa the Gorgon after he had killed her; Mosaic of the Doves, a 1st century AD naturalistic mosaic, which served as a floor decoration of the Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli; Hall of the Philosophers, a hall in the museum containing Roman copies of portrait busts of Greek politicians, scientists and poets, once a part of homes of wealthy Romans.
The casting of a bronze statue of Marco Aurelius, situated at the center of Piazza del Campidoglio. (Photo by: Manjeet Bawa)

Palazzo Senatorio

The central building on the Piazza del Campidoglio is the Palazzo Senatorio ("Senatorial Palace"). The name of the palace originates from its function: it was a seat of the Senate until 1870, when it became the palazzo senatorio seat of the City of Rome. It was originally built as a fortress in the 11th century on top of the ancient Tabularium (which housed the archives of ancient Rome). Later on the palace was rebuilt in the 13th and 14th century, by using the peprino marble blocks from the Tabularium, placing them in the left side of the palace and a corner of the bell tower. The current design is a slightly adapted version of the 16th century design by Michelangelo. He was responsible for the new facade, its double ramp of stairs and the fountain situated in front of the staircase, featuring the river gods of the Tiber and the Nile as well as Dea Roma (Minerva). The palace's bell tower was designed by Martino Longhi the Elder and built between 1578 and 1582. The current facade was finished by Michelangelo's successors Giacomo della Porta and Girolamo Rainaldi.

Palazzo dei Conservatori


The building opposite the Palazzo Nuovo is the Palazzo dei Conservatori ("Palace of the Conservators"). It was originally called the Palazzo Caffarelli, because it was built in the Middle Ages for the local magistrate. The building was erected on top of a sixth century BC temple dedicated to Jupiter "Maximus Capitolinus". The palace later on served as the seat of the city government during the Middle Ages. Its facade was renovated by Michelangelo in the 1530s, as a part of the renovation and construction of the Palazzo del Campidoglio and again later numerous times. Nowadays, it is the part of the Capitoline Museums, with a collection mainly consisting of sculpture and paintings. The palace is open for public. Its frescoed halls are occasionally the site of political meetings. The ground floor retained its political, administrative function: it houses the municipal registry office. A large portion of the palace, as the other two, is dedicated to art, especially sculpture. There are some very valuable pieces, including the fragments of a huge sculpture of Constantine; works by famous artists like Veronese, Tintoretto, Caravaggio, Van Dyke and Titian. The stars of the museum are Caravaggio's St John the Baptist, a sensual portrait of a young saint; Bernini's Medusa, a bust of the mythological Medusa the Gorgon; Pietro da Cortona's the Rape of the Sabine Women, portraying the mass abduction of Sabine women by the Romans dating from 1625; and a charming bronze sculpture named Spinario dating from the 1st century BC, portraying a boy trying to remove a thorn from his foot.

The Capitoline Wolf, one of several famous artefacts placed inside the Capitoline Museums. (Photo by: Allie Caufield)

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Church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli


Santa Maria in Aracoeli ("St Mary of the Altar of Heaven") is a titular basilica church in Rome, located on the Capitoline hill, adjacent to Piazza del Campidoglio. The church is the designated Church of the Italian Senate and the Roman people (Senatus Populusque Romanus). Originally the church's name was Santa Maria in Capitolo, because of its position on the Capitoline Hill (Campidoglio) of Ancient Rome. In the 14th century it was renamed into Santa Maria in Aracoeli. Some researchers claim that the church was built over the temple of Juno Moneta, and others that the church was built on the site of an ancient auguraculum, which served as the seat of augurs. What is certain is that the church was built on top of a Byzantine abbey mentioned in Palazzo Senatorio at Piazza del Campidoglio. (Photo by: rucativava) 574. It was later taken over by the papacy until the 9th century when it was handed over to religious orders: first the Benedictines, then to the Franciscans. Also during the 13th century, the church was renovated in Romanesque-Gothic style. In the Middle Ages, the church became the center of Rome's religious life. This is especially seen during the 14th century, when Cola di Rienzo inaugurated the monumental stairway of 124 steps in front of the church. The steps were designed by Simone Andreozzi in 1348, on the occasion of the Black Death. During the 16th century, the church was the site of many celebrations: Marcantonio Colonna's victory in the Battle of Lepanto over the Turkish fleet was commemorated by painting of the church's ceiling as a means of thanks to the Virgin Mary for the victory in the battle. An unexpected turnover marked the end of the 18th century: in 1797 the basilica was deconsecrated and turned into a stable! The main feature of this Church of the Roman People and Senate are its unfinished facade (mosaics and frescoes which decorated the main facade got lost through the time); the Gothic window, which remains as the only Gothic ornament and different Roman columns (because they were taken from various other Roman monuments). But, its true beauty is revealed in the vast majority of very valuable art pieces, hidden in its interior. Some of the valuable artefacts the church possess include: Pinturicchio's 15th-century frescoes depicting the life of Saint Bernardino of Siena (located in the Cappella Buffalini, one of the church's three chapels); Transfiguration painted on wood by Girolamo Siciolante da Sermoneta; frescoes by Pietro Cavallini, Benozzo Gozzoli and Giulio Romano. There are also tombs of Famous romans: the tomb of Cecchino Bracci designed by Michelangelo and the tombstone of Giovanni Ceivelli made by Donatello, as well as the tombs of Pope Honorius IV and Queen Catherine of Bosnia. The church also contains a sculpture very important to Romans: the wooden statue of the infant Jesus (Santo Bambino) which is carved from an olive wood from the Gethsemane garden. The statue, dating from the 15th century, is believed to Palazzo dei Conservatori by night. possess healing powers, and was very important to Romans through (Photo by: nikotinphotoslave) centuries. The statue is taken out every Christmas, when it is placed into the Nativity crib, symbolizing the newly born Christ. The church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli houses a vast number of relics: the relics of Constantine the Great are the most interesting ones.

(Photo by: Dave Hamster)

The interior of church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli.


(Photo by: Gaspa)

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Roman Forum (Forum Romanum) in Rome

Roman Forum (Forum Romanum) in Rome


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The Roman Forum (Forum Romanum in Latin) was the political and economical center of the Roman Republic. The forum was founded in the 7th century BC, and slowly developed into the most important place of Roman life. Through time, the forum had several functions: it was the marketplace of Rome, a business district and civic center, and with the building of temples, a senate house and law courts became the center of Roman political powers. After the fall of the Roman Empire in the 4th century, the former political and cultural center was left desolate and forgotten: during the Middle Ages it served as a cattle pasture. Through time, most of the building which constituted the forum were ruined. From numerous temples only several stone blocks remained, and the only preserved building are the arch of Titus and the arch of Septimius Severus. The reason for this lies in the View of the Roman Forum from Circus Maximus. (Photo by: arnishah) "recycling": the stone foundations of many Roman building were used in the construction of later buildings, especially churches and palaces! The Roman Forum is located in a valley, situated between the Palatine hill and the Capitoline hill, which used to be a marsh. The Romans drained the entire area by using a large sewer, called "Cloaca Maxima", and laid the foundations of the first forum in Rome. The valley is surrounded by other Roman hills: the Capitoline Hill on the west, the Palatine Hill on the south, the Velia on the east and Quirinal Hill and the Esquiline Hill to the north. Although the Forum was first the site of many temples, through time many more public buildings were erected: the Regia which was the residence of the kings, and later of the rex sacrorum and pontifex maximus; the Curia, the meeting place of the Senate; and the Comitium and the Rostra, site of public meetings. Major temples situated in the Forum include the Temple of Castor and Pollux, the Temple of Saturn and the Temple of Vesta. Commercial and judicial activities took place in the basilicas. The only two remaining basilicas are the Basilica Aemilia and the Basilica Julia. The current image of the Roman Forum is a result of the changes made by Julius Caesar, who was responsible for the construction of the Basilica Julia on the site of the former Basilica Sempronia, the building of a new Curia and the renovation of the Rostra. During the reign of Augustus the Temple of Divus Julius was erected. During the period of the Roman Empire, the importance of the Forum as a political center was diminished, but it remained a center of commerce and religious life. The building and restoration continued, but mostly in the form of honorary monuments, like the Arch of Augustus, the Arch of Titus and the Arch of Septimius Severus. Other arches, such as the Arch of Tiberius, were completely destroyed. New religious buildings erected in this period were the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina and the Temple of Vespasian and Titus. The Basilica of Maxentius, dating from the 4th century, was one of the last major additions to the Forum. The Column of Phocas was the last monument erected in the Forum in 608 AD, when almost all surrounding buildings turned into ruins! After the fall of the Roman Emire, the area was abandoned and many temples were converted into churches, including the Curia, the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina and the Temple of Divus Romulus. The rest of the Forum became Campo Vaccino, the cattle field, used by local shepherds as a pasture. Many of the buildings also served as quarries for other construction sites in the city during the Renaissance and later. This resulted in dirt amounting to five to seven meters, thus covering the tallest buildings. Archaeological excavations didn't begin until 18th century. The site was excavated systematically in the 20th century, and nowadays the whole area has the status of an archaeological site, open to visitors.
Roman Forum.
(Photo by: icelight)

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Temples in Roman Forum

Temples in Roman Forum


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As centre of Republican Rome, the Forum was also used as religious centre, hence the explenation of the high number of temples once present in this area, whose ruins are still visible today.

Temple of Castor and Pollux


The temple of Castor and Pollux (Templum Castorum or Aedes Castoris) , dating from the 5th century BC, was originally built by Postumius, a Roman dictator, in gratitude for victory at the battle of Lake Regillus. It was located between Basilica Julia across the Vicus Tuscus, the Temple of Divus Julius, the Arch of Augustus and the Temple of Vesta. The name of the temple, Castor and Pollux (Greek Polydeuces) were the Dioscuri, the "twins" of Gemini, the twin sons of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leda, brothers to Helen and Clytemnestra. Their cult originated in Greece, and came to Rome via Magna Graecia and the Greek culture of Southern Italy. The current ruins date from its last reconstruction in 6th century AD. During the period of the Roman Republic, the temple served as a meeting place for the Roman Senate. In the 2nd century BC, the temple had a speaker's platform: the front part of the podium served as the place for deriving speeches. In the period of the Roman Empire, the temple was the site of the office for weights and measures, as well as a depository of State treasury.

In the course of time the temple was renovated several times: in 117 BC by Lucius Cecilius Metellus Dalmaticus after his victory over the Dalmatians; in 73 BC by Gaius Verres and in 14BC by Tiberius after it was . damaged by a fire. As the rest of the Roman Forum, the temple underwent destruction through times. The preserved parts of the temple are its three Corinthian columns and a piece of the architrave, but nothing is known when the rest of the temple was destroyed. The original building was consisted of thirty-eight columns (8x11), a podium and a stairway to access the podium. It was also originally covered in tuft. The remaining pieces of the temple, nowadays are the most famous features of the Roman Forum. The street running past the three columns was conveniently named Via Trium Columnarum.

The temple was built by the Roman dictator Postimus, as a sign of thanks for the victory in the battle against the last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, and his allies the Latins. According to legend, the mythological twin brothers, Castor and Pollux, appeared on the battlefield as two able horsemen aiding the Romans. The legend also states that this two horsemen appeared on the Forum in Rome watering their horses at the Spring of Juturna. (Photo by: irene)

Temple of Saturn
The Temple of Saturn (Templum Saturni or Aedes Saturnus) is the oldest temple in the Forum Romanum. It dates from the 5th century BC, and it was officially consecrated at the beginning of the Roman Republic, in 498 BC. It is located in the western end of the Forum, behind the Rostra and the Basilica Julia, across the Clivus Capitolinus from the Temple of Vespasian and Titus. The temple was dedicated to the to the agricultural god Saturn. There were originally three temples dedicated to Saturn in the forum: an archaic Etruscan temple, this one and the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on the Capitoline hill. The current ruins of the temple date from 42 BC. The temple was at one point used as the state treasury (Aerarium), and also as the storage place for the banners of the legions and the senatorial decrees. During the reign of Diocletian the temple was renovated. It was destroyed after a fire, but the ground plan and podium from 42 BC was retained. In 20 BC a tall column, the Miliarum Aureum, was placed in front of the temple by emperor Augustus. Originally the temple was built in Ionic style, with six columns on the frontal side. Nowadays, only eight columns got preserved, made of red and grey granite. These eight columns however come from another temple, due to the recycling system of later Roman construction. The remaining architrave, part of the frontal side of the temple, holds an inscription "Senatus populusque romanus incendio consumptum restituit"; meaning "The Roman senate and people restored what fire had consumed", signaling it dates from the renovation under the reign of Diocletian. The podium of the temple had two separate rooms; one served as the state treasury, storing the Republic's reserves of gold and silver. Also the state archives, the insignia and the official scale for the weighing of metals were kept in the temple. Later, the archives were transferred to the nearby Tabularium.

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Temples in Roman Forum

In front of the temple was an altar dedicated to Saturn, the so-called Ara Saturni. The remains of this altar are now placed in front of Umbilicus Urbis Romae, near the Arch of Septimius Severus. Inside the temple was a statue of Saturn, carried during the feast of the Saturnalia. Saturnalia was held on December 17th, as a part of the cult of Saturn.

Temple of Vesta
The Temple of Vesta (Aedes Vesta) was dedicated to the goddess of Vesta, Roman goddess of hearth. The temple is placed between the Temple of Castor and Pollux, the Temple of Caesar, the Regia and the House of the Vestal Virgins. The Temple of Vesta in the Forum Romanum was built in the 3rd century BC, although the current temple dates from 191 BC, when restoration was made during the reign of Septimius Severus.
Remains of the Temple of Saturn.
(Photo by: misterjingo)

The original temple was built in a Greek style, with twenty Corinthian columns surrounding a cella. It was modelled after the first Roman houses (round huts made of straw), due to the fact that Vesta was predominately worshipped inside Roman homes. All temples to Vesta were round with an entrance facing the east. This symbolized the connection between Vestas fire and the sun as sources of life (the sun rising in the east). The circular cella was surrounded by twenty columns, placed on a marble covered podium, fifteen meters in diameter. Cella's interior housed the sacred hearth where the Vestal Virgins kept the eternal fire burning.The temple didn't contain any statue of the goddess Vesta, only her sacred flame and the Palladium, a statue of Athena or Minerva, believed to originate from Troy. Since fire was placed inside the temple, there was risk of burning. The Temple of Vesta burned twice: in 64 AD during the reign of Nero and in 191 AD. The temple was closed by Teodosius in 394 BC, when all non-Christian cults were banned. Afterwards, the temple was looted several times and during this time all of its marble was stolen. The present day remains were reconstructed in the 1930's.

Temple of Venus and Roma


The Temple of Venus and Roma (Templum Veneris et Romae) was known as the largest temple in Ancient Rome. It was the only one with ten Remains of the circular cella of the Temple of Vesta. columns placed across its main frontal facade; also known as the (Photo by: jamiejohndavies) decastyle. The temple was situated in the eastern side of the Forum Romanum near the Colosseum. The temple was dedicated to the goddesses Venus Felix (Venus the Bringer of Good Fortune) and Roma Aeterna (Eternal Rome). It was designed by Hadrian himself, who began construction in 121 AD.The temple was probably consecrated in AD 135 and later finished by Antoninus Pius in 141 AD. The Temple burned in 307 AD and was restored by emperor Maxentius, into a double temple with two cellae, one holding the statue of Venus Felix, the ancestress of the Roman people, which faced the Colosseum (the apse can be seen above); and the other, Roma Aeterna, the genius of the city, looking toward the Forum. The temple was erected on the remains of Nero's Domus Aurea. In order to make room for the temple, the emperor had the Colossus of Nero moved and placed near the amphitheater, which shortly afterwards became known as the Colosseum. The author of the Historia Augusta relates that twenty-four elephants were required to transport the huge bronze figure, which was about 37 metres high (Life of Hadrian, XIX.12; Suetonius, Life of Nero, XXXI.1, Pliny, XXXIV.45 indicates that the statue was 32,5 metres high). At the beginning of the 9th century, the temple was destroyed by an eartquake, and Pope Leo IV ordered the building of a new church, Santa Maria Nova, on the ruins of the temple shortly afterwards. After a major rebuilding in 1612, this church was renamed Santa Francesca Romana. From the original temple, the church retained the cella, which serves as the bell tower. The original temple's dimensions were huge (145 metres long, 100 metres wide, and 29.7 metres tall ). It consisted of two main chambers or cellae, containing a cult statue of a godVenus, the goddess of love, in one cella and Roma, the goddess of Rome, in the another one. Both figures were seated on a throne. The cellae were placed symmetrically, back-to-back; as well as the statues (Roma spelled backwards is Amor), which created further symmetry inside the temple. The west and east sides of the temple had ten white columns (decastyle), and the south and north were consisted of eighteen white columns, all 1.8 metres wide.

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Temples in Roman Forum

Temple of Antoninus and Faustina


The Temple of Antoninus and Faustina (Templum Divi Antonini et Divae Faustinae), dating from the 2nd century AD, was built by the emperor Antoninus Pius shortly after the death of his beloved wife Faustina. After the death of the emperor, the temple was renamed into the temple of Antoninus and Faustina. There is even a dedicatory inscriptions, saying "Divo Antonino et Divae Faustinae Ex S.C." which means To the divine Antoninus and to the divine Faustina by decree of the Senate. The temple wass located on the Via Sacra between the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica Aemilia, in front of the Regia. Sometimes in the 7th century, the temple was converted to a church, known as San Lorenzo in Miranda. It was named probably after the benefactoress, and dedicated to St Lawrence, due to the belief that he died on this site. During the Middle Ages, the pillared portico was dismantled, but also a staircase was built on the Forum side. During the 15th century, the church and the temple were given by Pope Martin V to the Collegio degli Speziali (College of Chemists and Herbalists), at the time known as the Universitas Aromatorium. For the Roman visit of Emperor Charles V in the 16th century, the church was partially demolished and the side chapels were removed, because the aim was to revail the ancient temple.The church was remodelled in 1602 by Orazio Torriani, who designed a single nave and three new side chapels. The main altar was decorated with a canvas by Pietro da Cortona, featuring the Martyrdom of St. Lawrence (1646), while the first chapel on the left has a Madonna and Child with Saints(1626) by Domenichino. Nowadays, the church is closed, but could be briefly visited every Tuesday between 10,00-12,00am.

Temple of Caesar
The Temple of Caesar (Aedes Divi Iulii or Templum Divi Iulii) was dedicated to the deified Julius Caesar, by his adopted son Augustus. The temple was begun in 42 BC, after the Senate deified Ceasar, and was finished in 28 AD, and was erected after the famous Battle of Actium. The temple was located on the east side of the main square of the Roman Forum (Forum), between the Regia, Temple of Castor and Pollux and the Basilica Aemilia. This was the historic site of Caesar's cremation. When the building of the Temple of Caesar started, many older buildings, like the Regia and the Temple of Vesta, were excluded from the Main Square of the Forum. The temple was connected to the Basilica Aemilia by a portico dedicated to Gaius Caesar and Lucius Caesar, and by the Arch of Augustus to the Temple of Castor and Pollux. Together with the Basilica Julia and the Curia Julia, Forum's main square of the Forum was strongly dominated by the Gens Julia.

The temple of Antonius and Faustina, remodeled into a church of San Lorenzo in Miranda. (Photo by: jamiejohndavies)

The temple itself was built in Italian style, with a tall podium and access stairways on both sides of the temple, surrounded by Corinthian style columns. In front of the temple stood a speakers platform, the so-called Rostra Julia. It was decorated with a rostra, featuring prows of war ships, probably taken from the conquered navy of Antonius and Cleopatra from the Battle of Actium. Very little remains of this platform, but it was depicted on the reliefs Plutei of Trajan. In the front of the platform was a semicircular niche and an altar, marking the site of the Caesar's funeral pyre. Julius Caesar was the first resident of Rome (after Romulus) to be deified. After his murder, the body was carried to the Forum, near Regia, in his official residence as pontifex maximus. A funeral pyre was built and his body cremated. Initially a commemorative column was erected on the spot with a dedication to the "father of the fatherland", but soon after his adoptive son Augustus started the construction of a temple in his honor. On August 18, 42 BC Julius Ceasar was declared a god by the Roman Senate. The remains of the altar, the site of his funeral pyre, is still filled the flowers, displaying the respect to the great leader of Roman world.

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Temples in Roman Forum

Temple of Vespasian and Titus


Built after the death of Vespasian in 79 BC and dedicated also to Titus after his death in 77 BC, the Temple of Vespasian and Titus (Templum Vespasiani et Titi) was placed between the Temple of Concord and the Portico of the Dei Consentes, on the Clivus Capitolinus behind the Temple of Saturn. The temple was probably begun by Titus immediately after Vespasian's death, but after his death completed and dedicated the temple to Titus and Vespasian by Domitian, Titus's brother, in approximately 87 AD. The Temple of Vespasian was built as a hexastyle (a portico containing six columns), and a prostyle (free standing columns).It measured 33 metres in lenght and 22 metres in width. In a space between this temple and the Concord, there was a small vaulted room dedicated to Titus. The temple's interior was richly decorated, with a frieze depicting sacred symbols of the various priestly collegia in Rome. Later restorations of the temple were made during the reign of emperors Septimius Severus and Caracalla. Later renovations, namely the podium and the stairs, occurred in the 19th century, by Giuseppe Valadier. During the Middle Ages, the temple was significantly damaged, especially at the beginning of the 14th century, by Pope Boniface VIII and Pope Nicholas V. The latter one initiated the remodeling of the Forum. Both angles of the temple on the Forum side were demolished then and the frontal part was remodeled as a fortress, with two side towers. Nowadays, very little is left of the temple; a part oft he podium and the cella, and only three columns together with a piece of entablature with fragments of an inscription. The inscription survived only in fragments, but the complete text was transcribed by a pilgrim in the 8th century: "Divo Vespasiano Augusto S P Q R Impp. Caess. Severus et Antoninus Pii Felices Augg. restituer."

Temple of Concord
The Temple of Concord (Templum Concordiae) was the Rome's primary temple dedicated to the goddess Concordia, celebrating the concept of concord in general, as well as the concord achieved between the Patricians and the Plebeians in 367 BC. It was located at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, in the wester end of the Forum; on the Clivus Capitolinus between the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, the Arch of Septimius Severus and the Mamertine Prison. According to some sources, the temple was dedicated in 367 BC by Marcus Furius Camillus and later restored by L. Optimus in 121 BC. During the period of civil disturbance, the temple was occasionally used During the period of civil disturbance, the temple was occasionally used for meetings of the Senate. It is famous as the site of Cicero's fourth Catilinarian oration! Afterwards, the temple was rebuilt by later emperor Tiberius, who had torn down the old temple and the adjacent Basilica Opimia and built a new large temple, richly decorated in marble. During his reign, the temple was also used as a museum of Greek sculpture and painting. Tiberius's restoration was described in Natural History by Pliny the Elder.
Remaining fragments of the temple dedicated to Vespasian and Titus. (Photo by: misterjingo)

Nowadays, little of the original temple has been preserved. The only surviving parts are the podium and the threshold of the door of the cella, as well as a fragment of the entablature (kept in the Tabularium) and a Corinthian capital (kept in the Forum's Antiquarium).

Shrine of Venus Cloacina


The Shrine of Venus Cloacina (Sacrum Cloacina), was dedicated to Cloacina, the patron deity of the Cloaca Maxima, Forum's draining system. The shrine was placed at the sewer's entrance, which served to drain the area of Roman Forum. Cloacina was later identified with Venus. The temple was located on the Via Sacra, near the area of the Tabernae Novae, which was later torn down to make place for Basilica Aemilia. According to historical sources, the shrine consisted of a circular marble wall, 2.4 metres in diameter, enclosing a statue of Cloacina and Venus. Nowadays, only the foundation of the circular enclosing wall was preserved. The origin of the cult of Venus Cloacina dates back to the founding of Rome and the rape of the Sabine women. According to Pliny the Elder, the Romans and the Sabine women established peace at the location of the shrine. On this site they laid down their weapons and performed an act of purification by splashing springs of myrtle. That's why Cloacina began to be worshiped by the Romans as the goddess of the Cloaca Maxima (the main sewage drain). They believed in a good sewage system, which as a result will give them physical health and ensure the future of Rome.Additionally, they also worshipped Cloacina as the goddess of purity and filth. The origin of Cloacina's name lies in the Latin verb cloare meaning to purify or to clean, or it is derived from the Latin word cloaca, meaning sewer.
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Arches on Roman Forum

Arches on Roman Forum


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Here are the arches located in the Forum Romanus.

Arch of Septimius Severus


The Arch of Septimius Severus (Arcus Septimii Severi) is a triumphal arch, situated in the northeast part of the Roman Forum. The arch was erected in 203 AD to celebrate the victories of emperor Septimius Severus and his sons Caracalla and Geta in the two wars against the Parthians and the Osroeni, in 194/195 and 197-199 AD. It was located in the Forum Romanum between the Curia and the Rostra, stretching from the Via Sacra on the route of the triumphal processions just before the ascent of the Capitoline Hill towards the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. The Arch of Septimius Severus is a three way triumphal arch, with respectable measures: 20.88 meters in height, 23.27 meters in width and 11.2 meters in depth. It is build in brick and travertine, originally approached by steps from the Forum's ancient level, and with an attic, 5.6 meters high with four chambers. The central archway has lateral openings, later copied in many Early Modern triumphal arches. The three archways rest on piers, and the staircase in the south pier, leading to the top of the monument, is decorated with statues of the emperor and his two sons in a four-horse chariot (quadriga), accompanied by soldiers.

The Arch of Septimius Severus.


(Photo by: misterjingo)

In general, the arch is very well preserved. During the Middle Ages, it was incorporated into a church and into a fortress, while some of the parts were lost through the centuries, like the quadriga. Also, some reliefs lost its original beauty in the course of time. The main feature of the arch's decorations are the portrayals of the wars in Parthia and the triumph which followed. Four huge reliefs portraying the wars in Parthia, placed above the lateral arches on both sides, are the main elements of decoration. The reliefs represent a continuous narrative, starting on the left side towards the Forum Romanum, and moving rightward around the arch, with every panel consisting of two or three registers, read from the bottom up. The first panel depicts the detail preparations for war; in the middle battle the scenes between Romans and Parthians; and in the last part the emperor's speech to the troops and the liberation of a besieged city. The second panel shows scenes from the war against the Osroeni, while the third panel shows the attack on the city of Seleucia on the River Tigris, and the defeated Parthians fleeing on horseback towards the right; and the Parthians surrendering to the emperor and his entry into the conquered town. The fourth panel depicts the siege of Ctesiphon, the capital of the Parthians, and the flight of the defeated enemy king. The final register portrays the emperor addressing the victorious troops in front of the captured city. The inscription on the arch of Septimius Severus says: "To the Emperor Septimius Severus, Son of Marcus, Pius, Pertinax, Pater Patriae, Parthicus Arabicus, Parthicus Adiabenicus, Pontifex Maximus, having held the tribunician power eleven times, acclaimed emperor eleven times, Consul three times, Proconsul, and Emperor Marcus Aurelius (Caracalla), Son of Lucius, Antoninus, Augustus Pius, Felix, having held the auspicious tribunician power six times, Consul, Proconsul, Pater Patriae, Highest and Strongest Princes for having restored the State and enlarged the Empire of the Roman people, by their visible strengths at home and abroad, the Senate and People of Rome." Originally the inscription mentioned both the emperor Septimius Severus and his two sons Caracalla and Geta. After the death of Septimius Severus, and Geta's murder in 212 AD, a condanatio memoriae was issued, and all images or mentions of Geta were to be removed from all public buildings and monuments.

Arch of Titus
The Arch of Titus (Arcus Titi) is a triumphal arch situated at the eastern entrance to the Forum Romanum, on the Via Sacra, south of the Temple of Amor and Roma, close to the Colosseum. The arch was built as a sign of commemoration of the victory of the emperors Vespasian and Titus in Judea in 70 AD, which lead to the conquest of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Jewish temple there, and the triumphal procession the two held in Rome in 71 AD. It is a Pentelic marble triumphal arch with a single arched opening, originally constructed by the emperor Domitian shortly after the death of his older brother Titus. Some historians, however, argue that the arch was built later, by Trajan, because of stylistic similarities with the Arch of Trajan at Benevento. It is a single arch, measuring 15.4 meters in height, 13.5 meters in width and 4.75 meters in depth, containing four semi-columns on each side. It is decorated with statues of Victoria with trophies and images of Roma and the Genius of Rome.
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Arches on Roman Forum

The arch's corners are articulated with a line of Corinthian columns, standing on high base, and a wide central arch, on top of which is an attic bearing an inscription. The inside of the archway is decorated with reliefs in marble. The southern side of the arch portrays the beginning of the triumphal entry into Rome of the victorious emperor and his troops. The soldiers, walking left to right, are depicted holding the spoils of war, which include the seven armed candelabrum and the silver trumpets from the temple of Jerusalem. The signs carried by some soldiers bear the names of the conquered cities and people. To the right the procession is entering the city through the Porta Triumphalis. The northern side of the arch is decorated with a relief portraying the emperor in the triumphal procession. The emperor is riding a quadriga, a four-horse chariot, lead by the goddess Roma, and he is crowned by Victoria flying above him. In front of the chariot are the lycies, bearing long ceremonial axes. After the emperor is depicted a young man representing the Roman people, and an older man in toga, representing the senate. Under the vault is a small relief, displaying the apotheosis of Titus, flying to the heavens on the back of an eagle.

A detail of the arch of Septimius Severus.


(Photo by: misterjingo)

During the Middle Ages, the arch was turned into a fortified tower the Frangipani family. Another historical curiosity states that Pope Paul IV made it the place of a yearly oath of submission for the Jews in the New Roman ghetto. Modern restorations, by Raffaello Stern in 1817 and by Valadier under Pius VII in 1821, were done. They inserted new capitals and with travertine masonry, distinguishable from the original. The main inscription on the arch of Titus was inscribed letters made of silver or gold, and it said: SENATVS POPVLVSQVEROMANVS DIVOTITODIVIVESPASIANIF(ILIO) VESPASIANOAVGVSTO The inscription translates: "The Senate and People of Rome (dedicate this) to the divine Titus Vespasianus Augustus, son of the divine Vespasian." The opposite side of the Arch of Titus, after restoration during the pontificate of Pope Pius VII by Giuseppe Valadier in 1821, had new inscriptions saying: INSIGNE RELIGIONIS ATQVE ARTIS MONVMENTVM VETVSTATE FATISCENS PIVS SEPTIMVS PONTIFEX MAX(IMVS) NOVIS OPERIBVS PRISCVM EXEMPLAR IMITANTIBVS FVLCIRI SERVARIQVE IVSSIT ANNO SACRI PRINCIPATVS EIVS XXIIII "(This) monument, remarkable in terms of both religion and art, had weakened from age: Pius the Seventh, Supreme Pontiff, by new works on the model of the ancient exemplar ordered it reinforced and preserved. (In the year of his sacred ruler ship the 24th)"

Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum.


(Photo by: jon keen)

Arch of Tiberius
The Arch of Tiberius (Arcus Tiberi) was built on the Vicus Jugarius between the Temple of Saturn and the Basilica Julia. It was erected to commemorate the return of Roman standards, recovered by Germanicus in 15/16 AD, which were lost to Germanic tribes by Varus in 9 AD. The arch was officially dedicated to Tiberius, since only the emperor could celebrate a triumph, so as a matter of fact the victory of Germanicus was celebrated as a triumph of Tiberius. The original designs and feature of this monument remain lost. The only available data comes from various literary sources, which claim it was a a single arch, like the later Arch of Titus, flanked by two columns of the Corinthian order. The arch is also mentioned on a relief, situated on the Arch of Constantine. Nowadays, only the foundations of the arch can be seen on the Roman Forum, and the rest of it is lost for good.

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Arches on Roman Forum

Arch of Augustus
The triumphal arch, the Arch of Augustus (Arcus Augusti) was dedicated to Augustus, and was erected to commemorate the victory of the great battle of Actium against Anthony and Cleopatra, which occurred in 31 BC. The arch stretches over the road between the Temple of Castor and Pollux and the Temple of Caesar, near the Temple of Vesta.The arch was consecrated in 29 BC. It was the first Roman arch with three-way passage. Nowadays, very little is left from the original arch. However, its appearance was saved on the numerous coins dating from this period. The original design of the arch included three passageways, which was quite new in Roman construction. As such, the arch served as a model for the Arch of Septimius Severus, which was the model for the later Arch of Constantine. This three way arch, had a vaulted central archway, and lateral passages had flat ceilings and gabled roof. According to the portayal from the Roman coins, on top of the central archway was a four horse chariot, or quadriga, and the side archways were decorated with statues.The middle archway, the central passage, was richly decorated in reliefs, portraying goddess Victoria. Fragments of the arch's decoration can be seen in the Antiquarium. According to some sources, the arch also contained marble tablets on the sides of the lateral arches, which had a list of the consuls and generals, awarded in the triumphal processions. These fragments can be seen in the Capitoline Museums, while the relief portraying Victoria is kept in Ny Carlsberg Glyptoteket in Copenhagen, Denmark.

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Other Monuments on the Roman Forum

Other Monuments on the Roman Forum


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Here is a list with description of the most important remaining monuments in the Roman Forum.

Regia
One of the oldest buildings on the Roman Forum was Regia, situated between the Temple of Vesta, the Temple of Divus Julius and Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. According to some sources, the Regia dates from the period of Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome. Numa Pompilius erected this building as his royal residence, which is signaled in the name regia, which means royal residence. From this period a number of various buildings date: the temple and house of Vesta and the Domus Publica, which were the centers of the Roman political and religious life of the period. The Regia continued to be the royal residence of many Roman kings, and later on became the office of the Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of Roman religion. The original design featured a trapezoidal building with an enclosed courtyard, with simple interior, consisting of three rooms. The West Room was the shrine of Mars, a god of agriculture as well as war, (sacrarium Martis), housing the shields of Mars (ancilia) and lances The Romans had a belief that if the lances in the Shrine of Mars start dedicated to god Mars (hastae Martiae). The shield, said to have fallen vibrating something terrible would happen. They vibrated on the night of from heaven, and the spears were the sacred weapons.The East 14 March, 44 BC; which is the date of Caesar's death. Caesar, who was the High Priest at the time, in spite of the vibrating lances went at the Room housed a sanctuary of Ops Consiva, the consort of Saturn and meeting of the Senate at the Curia of the Theater of Pompey. There he goddess of plenty, only allowed to the pontifex maximus and the Vestal was assassinated by a group of senators, conspired with Brutus and Cassius. Virgins. Here, on August 25, annual harvest festival and the storage of (Photo by: sense_des) crops, dedicated to the goddess Ops, were celebrated. The Regia also housed numerous archives of the pontifices, and many other items related to the Roman religious life: formulas of prayers, vows, sacrifices, the state calendar of sacred days, the Annales, the laws relating to marriage, death, wills, and many other. After a fire in 148 BC, the Regia was restored; and once more in 36 BC by Domitius Calvinus, when it was paved in marble. Some historians claim that Calvinus decorated the outside walls with lists of the consuls and triumphators from Romulus to Augustus (fasti consulares et triumphales) that were found nearby and now are in the Palazzo dei Conservatori.

Rostra
The Rostra or Rostra Vetera was the platform from which orators spoke to the assembled people. It was located within the Comitium of the Roman Forum beside the Curia. It's name was derived from the bronze ships' beaks, called rostra, that decorated the front of a ship, which began to be put on ships after the victory at Antium in 338 BC. It was first planned by Julius Caesar, but achieved its final form during the reign of Augustus (the so-called Rostra Augusti). It was the place where many famous speeches were made: Cicero's diatribes, Antony's funeral speech for Caesar, and many others. In fact, there were several rostra's built in Rome. During the Republican Era, Rostra Vetera was built; then during the reign of Caesar, new rostra was erected, placed at the foot of the steps to the Temple of Saturn; then during the reign of Augustus an enlarged rostra, known as Rostra Augusti, was built; and later on Rostra Juli, at the foot of the steps to the Temple of Caesar, and finally Rostra ad palmam, dating from a later time period of the Empire. The original, or the first, Rostra Vetera, dating from the 4th century BC, was a circular building, raised on arches, with a stand or platform and two flights of steps, one on each side. It was decorated by a number of honorary columns and monuments. When Diocletian visited Rome for the first time in 303 AD to celebrate the twentieth year (vicennalia) of his reign and the tenth year (decennalia) of the Tetrarchy, five honorary columns were erected behind the Rostra: a taller one in the middle, carrying a statue of Jupiter (the patron god of Diocletian), the others, the Augusti and Caesars. Only one of the decorated column bases, possibly portraying Constantius, is preserved. Rostra of Augustus (Rostra Augusti) was built over the rostra that Caesar had built. During his reign, Augustus also erected Rostra Juli, which he placed at the foot of the steps to the Temple of Caesar; consisting of a niche, with an alter marking the spot in which Julius Caesars body was cremated. The ruins of the Rostra on the present day Roman Forum, are an early twentieth-century restoration, commonly believed to be that built by Julius Caesar and later Augustus.
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At the northern end of the Rostra was the so-called Umbilicus Romae (Navel of Rome), which represented the official center of Rome and the Roman world. At the other end was the Milliarium Aureum (Golden Milestone), erected by Augustus in 20 BC, made in gilded bronze, marking the point where all the roads leading to Rome converged. According to some sources, all major cities of the Roman Empire and their distance from the city were inscribed on this milestone.

Curia
The Curia (also under the name Curia Hostilia, Curia Cornelia and Curia Julia) was the place where the original Senate House of Rome was seated. The first building of this sort was erected, according to many historians, during the reign of Tullus Hostilius, in the 7th century BC, and was called Curia Hostilia after its builder. Afterwards, the Curia was rebuilt by other rulers, and thus got the name Curia Cornelia and Julia. In 80 BC, Lucius Cornelius Sulla demolished the original building in order to build a larger one, to accomodate the increased number of Roman senators. The last complete renovation occurred during the reign of Julius Caesar, who started the building of Curia Julia, and which was finished during the reign of Emperor Augustus. About the initial Curia, named Curia Hostilia after Tullus Hostilius, little is known. Almost all sources mentioned the defining feat, depicting the victory of Manius Valerius Maximus Corvinus Messalla over Hiero and the Carthaginians in 263 BC. Pliny the Elder mentions this painting and claims to be the first painting of this sort in Rome. The rest of the building's architecture remains relatively unknown, but not the location. Historians agree taht Curia Hostilia was situated on the north side of the Comitium, on a dominating position, overlooking the entire Forum Romanum. Due to its position, they claim that the Curia Hostilia represented the strength of the Roman Republic. Curia Cornelia dates from 80 BC. Lucius Cornelius Sulla decided to enlarge the existing Curia Hostilia due to the increased number of senators. He demolished the existing curia, as well as Comitium (a rounded seating area). During the riots at the funeral of Publius Clodius Pulcher in 52 BC, Curia Cornelia got demolished. Faustus Sulla, a descendant of L. Cornelius Sulla, rebuilt it in the later period. During the reign of Julius Caesar, the curia was converted into a temple. This was done in 44 BC, as a part of Caesar's plan of rebuilding and redesigning of the entire Roman Forum. An exact date when the existing Curia Cornelia was demolished remains unknown. Some historians argue that Curia Julia was finished by Caesar's grandson, emperor Augustus, since Caesar's plan were interrupted by his assassination. Curia Julia, (Curia Iulia), as afore mentioned, was the third Senate house, still existent on the Roman Forum. In fact, the Curia Julia is the largest brick building that still has a roof in the Forum, and the original marble floor made out of Egyptian marble, as well as the tiers that held the seats of the senators are still preserved. The reason for its complete preservation lies in the fact that from the 7th century AD up to 1937 it served as the Church of St Adriano. It was built in 44 BC by Julius Caesar, Curia Julia, in the middle foreground, viewed from the Palatine hill. but its construction was interrupted by his assassination at the (Photo by: antmoose) Theater of Pompey where the Senate temporarily held its meetings during the works on Curia Julia. The building was The building was completely finished by Caesar's grandson, emperor Augustus in 29 BC. Through time, the Curia experienced several reconstructions: it was restored during the reign of Domitian in the period 81 AD up to 96 Ad; then under Diocletian in the period from 284 AD up to 305 AD and during the rule of Urban Prefect Flavius Annius Eucharius Epiphanius in 412 AD. The existing Curia on the Roman Forum dates from the time of Diocletian. The original features of the Curia Julia include an exterior consisted of brick-faced concrete facade with a huge buttress at each angle, and several parts decorated with slabs of marble; a single stairway with large bronze door at the entrance. The present-day doors are a replica; the original doors were placed in the Basilica of St John Lateran by Pope Alexander VII in 1660. The original interior consisted of a round of three broad steps, on which the senator's chairs were placed; and they could accommodate about three hundred senators. The original walls were once decorated with marble. But, the main features of the Curia were the so-called Altair of Victory and the beautiful floor made of Egyptian marble. Altair of Victory was dominated by a statue of Victoria, standing on a globe, extending a wreath. Goddess Victoria symbolizes victory; and it was placed there by Julius Caesar to celebrate Romes military power and mostly his own victory at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. The Curia's floor is a remarkable example of the Roman art technique of opus sectile, in which materials are cut and inlaid into walls and floors in order to create pictures of patterns.

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Interesting facts about the Curia: The construction of the Curia Julia, the home of the Roman Senate, coincided with the end of Republican Rome In 1923 the Italian government purchased the Curia Julia and the adjacent convent of the Church of St Adriano from the Collegio di Spagna for approximately 16.000 Lira A coin was found within the bronze doors of the Curia, which gave archaeologists valuable insight into the original appearance of the Curia Julia Altair of Victory was removed in the 4th century as a part of the practice of removing all the pagan traditions of ancient Rome Curia Hostilias Tabula Valeria and the Curia Julias altar of Victory in the Curia Julia, attest to the enduring strenght of Romes military power, despite the changing role of the Senate Fascist leader Mussolini restored the Curia in 1937-1938, in honor of the 2000th anniversary of the birth of Augustus, Rome's first emperor The construction of Curia followed the prescription of Vitruvius, which prescribed that the height of the Curia is half the sum of its length and width, resulting in a construction of a building correct for proper acoustics.

Tabularium
The Tabularium or the official record office of ancient Rome was built in 78 BC, possibly by order of Sulla or maybe even Pompey the Great. It was situated on the front slope of the Capitoline Hill, below the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, to the southeast of the Arx and Tarpeian Rock. This building served as the repository for official State archives, as well as housed the offices of many city officials. Through time, the Tabularium experienced many restorations and renovations: in 46 AD the building was restored by emperor Claudius and around 1300 a tower was built. But, the biggest changes occurred in the 16th century, when Michelangelo demolished the upper storey of the Tabularium in order to build the Palazzo del Senatore in its place. The original building from the 1st century BC featured a building with a facade of peperino and travertine blocks, dominated by an arcade of eleven large arches providing a dramatic ending of the western end of The Tabularium, on the right, incorporated in the Palazzo Senatorio on the the Forum. The rear facade, facing the ruins of Temple of Julius Capitoline hill. Caesar in the Roman Forum, consisted of three floors. The upper two (Photo by: antmoose) floors were made of stucco. The second floor had an arcade consisted of Doric columns, and a part of them is preserved. The third floor had a colonnade of Corinthian columns, which are not preserved. This design of triple floors with a different order and of different styles had a strong influence on later architecture, for example, the Colosseum. Within the Tabularium, remains of the temple of Veiovis. Nowadays, the Tabularium can be only accessed through the Capitoline Museum.

Gemonian Stairs
The Gemonian Stairs (Scalae Gemoniae) were a stairway infamous in Roman history as a place of execution, hence the name "Stairs of Mourning". They led from the Arx of the Capitoline Hill down to the Roman Forum, past the Tabularium and the Temple of Concord on the left side, and past the Mamertine Prison on the right side. According to several sources, the stairway is believed to be built before the rule of Tiberius (1437), because there is no previous record of them. They served as the place of execution, which is mostly connected to executions during the reign of Tiberius. According to Suetonius, the stairs ran alongside the carcer from the Forum up to the Capitoline and on which the bodies of traitors and political prisoners, such as Sejanus (and his children), were thrown. According to the same author, Tiberius was proud of the fact that he had his daughter-in-law Agrippina strangled and her body displayed on the Stairs, exiling her to Pandataria instead, where she starved herself to death. The steps were probably an extension of the Gradus Monetae, which led from the Temple of Concord to the Temple of Juno Moneta. Scalae Gemoniae replaced them approximately during the time Tiberus reconstructed the Temple of Concord, which he dedicated in 10 AD. The usage of a stairway as the place of execution wasn't new in Rome. The Tarpeian Rock, a steep cliff at the southern summit of the Capitoline Hill, was used for similar purposes during the period of Roman Republic. Murderers and traitors, if convicted by the quaestores parricidii, were flung from the cliff, along with those who suffered from mental or significant physical disability (they were thought as being cursed by the gods). The condemned were usually strangled before their bodies were bound and thrown down the stairs. The Gemonian Stairs were the places of death for many famous Romans, like the Praetorian Guard Lucius Aelius Sejanus and the emperor Vitellius.
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Sejanus, and his children, were strangled and cast down the Gemonian stairs, where the mob abused their corpses for three days due to the fact that he planned a conspiracy against emperor Tiberius. Vitellius was a Roman general who became the third emperor in the so called Year of the Four Emperors in 69 AD, but his succeeded in being an emperor for only eight months when he was defeated by Vespasian and killed at the stairs.

Spring of Juturn
At the spot of Spring of Juturn, also known as Lacus Juturnae, was a small shrine (aedicula) marking a spring that fed the pool (lacus) sacred to Juturna, where Castor and Pollux miraculously were seen watering their horses after the victory at the Battle of Lake Regillus in 496 BC. The lacus, itself, was placed in front and to the right of the shrine just opposite the three surviving columns of the Temple of Castor and Pollux. The springs, bringing water from the river Tibers, were numerous around the city. The Romans believed that springs like the springs of the Camenae, of Apollo, and of Juturna have healing powers, and can cure the sick ones. In 168 BC, Lucius Aemilius Paulus in celebration of his victory over the Macedonian Greeks at the Battle of Pydna, decorated the spring's basin with statues of the twins Castor and Pollux holding their horses, who again were thought to have appeared at the pool. The basin at the spring was a originally of rectangular shape, but during the renovation by Paulus, it was turned into a square with a small pedestal, holding the two figures. During the reign of Tiberius, the basin was reduced in size, and during the reign of emperor Augustus it was decorated with marble. After the fire of AD 283, the shrine, itself, was rebuilt, by using the original architectural elements.
(Photo by: flickr)

Gemonian Stairs.

The spring, situated in the Forum, was one of its principle sources of water, but it also served for religious purposes, as it was close to all major temples. In front of the shrine, is a marble well head (puteal) with an inscription commemorating a first-century BC restoration by Marcus Barbatius Pollio. The head probably belonged to nymph of ponds and streams, Juturna. The inscription on the spring, dating from the early fourth-century AD, on the base of a statue was dedicated to Constantine by the curator aquarum which suggests that the site became the official headquarters for the Statio Aquarum (water board of Rome). The spring was lost up to 1900, when it was discovered and in 1982 restored. The Vestals or Vestal Virgins (sacerdotes vestales) were between six and ten years of age when they were appointed by the emperor, who was also the chief priest (Pontifex Maximus), to serve for thirty years. In the first ten years they would dedicate themselves to learning of the sacred rites, performing them during the second ten, and teaching them during the last ten. During this time, the duties of the Vestals were: remaining chaste, tending to the eternal flame, safeguarding the sacred objects within the Temple of Vesta, and preparing the grain mixed with salt for sacrifice. In return, they enjoyed privileges which no other women were allowed. At the end of their service, they were free to marry, although few did so. They could own property, and injuring a Vestal Virgin was punishable by death. When they went out to participate in sacrifices and ceremonies, they were transported in a carpentum, a covered two-wheeled carriage, preceded by a lictor, and had the right-of-way. A condemned man, if met on the way, could be pardoned. A Vestal who lost her virginity was thought to jeopardize Rome, and a priestess who did not remain chaste was subject to terrible penalties.

House of the Vestal Virgins


The House of the Vestal Virgins (Atrium Vestae), as its name denotes was the home of the Vestal Virgins, situated just behind their circular Temple of Vesta at the eastern edge of the Roman Forum, between the Regia and the Palatine Hill. It was a palace consisted of three floors, with about fifty rooms. The building was built around an elegant elongated atrium, dominated by two pools. In the eastern part of the building was a hall containing a statue of Numa Pompilius, considered to be the mythological founder of the cult. After the great fire in 64 AD during the Imperial period, the house was rebuilt again several times in the period of the Roman Empire. The Atrium Vestae was begun by Domitian and completed by Trajan, according to some sources in 113 AD. Today, the only preserved part are the remains of the statues of the Vestals, which can be seen in the Atrium Vestae. The statues were all found in a pile, so their original arrangement or even whether they have been placed on the correct pedestal is not known.

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Other Monuments on the Roman Forum

Column of Phocas
The Column of Phocas is the last monument built on the Roman Forum. It is a Corinthian column 13.6 meters tall, placed on a cubical white marble base. The column was placed on the Roman Forum, just before the Rostra. It was erected in honour of the Byzantine emperor Phocas on August 1, 608 AD. The inscription on the pedestal of the column indicates that the gilded statue on top was dedicated in 608 AD by Smaragdus, the governor of Italy, to the Byzantine emperor Phocas. The emperor Phocas is remembered however in the Roman history as the royalty who formally donated the Pantheon to Pope Boniface IV. The column was recycled from a former statue supporting a statue dedicated to Diocletian, and the former inscription was chiseled away. Atop the column's capital was erected a gilded statue of Phocas, which probably only briefly stood there. This was due to the fact that Phocas was treacherously captured, tortured, assassinated, and grotesquely dismembered several years later, in 610 AD, and afterwards all the statues representing him were thrown away. Phocas had murdered his predecessor to usurp the throne in AD 602, and this column was probably erected by Smaragdus, the Exarch of Ravenna, as a personal mark of gratitude. Nowadays, the column stands on an isolated, free-standing position among the ruins. The column has always been a landmark in the Roman Forum, and often appears in many vedutes and engravings.

Bishop of Nikiu, provides a vivid account of Phocas's death, in John's Chronicles: "And all the officers and senators had taken up a position near the palace, and they were lying in wait for Phocas. But when Phocas and Leontius the chamberlain became aware that they sought with evil intent to slay them as they had slain the depraved Bonosus, the two arose and seized all the money that was in the imperial treasury which had been amassed by Maurice, and likewise that which had been amassed by (Phocas) himself from the Roman nobles whom he had put to death, and whose property he had confiscated, and likewise the money of Bonosus, and they cast it into the waves of the sea, and so thoroughly impoverished the Roman empire. And thereupon the senators and the officers and soldiers went in and seized Phocas, and took the imperial crown from his head, and (they seized) Leontius the chamberlain likewise, and conducted them in chains to Heraclius to the church of S. Thomas the Apostle, and they put both of them to death in his presence. And they cut off the privy parts of Phocas, and tore off his skin right down to his legs because of the dishonour and shame he had brought on the wife of Photius because she was consecrated to the service of God, for he had taken her by force and violated her, although she was of an illustrious family. And next they took the bodies of Phocas and Leontius and Bonosus and they conveyed them to the city of Constantinople, and they burnt them with fire, and scattered the ashes of their bodies to the winds; for they were detested by all men" (CX.4-7). (Photo by: DanielHP)

Tullianum
Tullianum or Mamertine Prison was a prison (carcer) located in the Forum Romanum, on the northeastern slope of the Capitoline Hill, facing the Curia and the imperial fora of Nerva, Vespasian, and Augustus. Between the prison and the Tabularium (hall of records) are the so-called Germonian stairs. This prison was the carcer, traditionally thought to be built by Ancus Marcius, the fourth king of Rome in the period from 640-616 BC. It was later enlarged by Servius Tullius, the sixth king, who added a dungeon, the Tullianum. The carcer was the place where the condemned were incarcerated until execution. In the carcer, many foreign kings and Roman officials awaited death: Jugurtha, king of Numidia, was starved to death in 104 BC; Vercingetorix, was beheaded in 49 BC; Sejanus, praetorian prefect under Tiberius, was strangled in 31 AD, as well as Lentulus and his accomplices in the Catiline conspiracy of 63 BC. The execution itself took place in the lower cell, the so-called Tullianum, accessible only through a hole in the roof. The Tullianum, or this chamber beneath the ground, was originally used as a cistern, hence the name: it was derived from tullus, meaning a spring. Another sources claim that the name is derived from the name of one the Roman kings Tullus Hostilius or Servius Tullius. During the Middle Ages, the site was called Mamertinus (the Mamertine) after the Sabine god Mamers (or Mars). The Romans believed that there was a temple nearby dedicated to Mamaers, and that temple was the site where Peter, later a Christian saint, was imprisoned. The site of the prison was used for Christian worship since medieval times, and nowadays is occupied by two superimposed churches: St Giuseppe dei Falegnami (in the upper position the church of Saint Joseph of the Carpenters) and St Pietro in Carcere (the lower position).

Roman Streets
Clivus Capitolinus was a street on the Roman Forum, starting at the Arch of Tiberius, around the Temple of Saturn, and ending at Capitoline Hill; considered as the main approach to the Arx and Capitolium or Capitoline hill. The street was originally a path, a continuation of the Via Sacra. In 174 BC, the streets was paved by the censors, Q. Fulvius Flaccus and A. Postumius Albinus, and also a porticus was built on the right side of the road, stretching from the temple of Saturn to the Capitoline hill. In 190 BC, a decorative arch at the top of the clivus was built by Scipio. Clivus Capitolinus was in fact the only means of access to the Capitoline hill except the flights of steps, known as Centum Gradus, or Gradus Monetae. Nowadays, some paved pieces of the street still exist, like the parts of the lava pavement near the bottom of the ascent, including a small piece dating from 174 BC and another attributable to Sulla; and some pieces of Augustan paving, in the front of the Temple of Saturn. Via Sacra or the Sacred Way (Road) is the main street and the widest street in the Roman Forum, stretching from the Capitoline Hill to the area of the Colosseum, and thus connecting some of the most important monuments on the Forum. The course of the

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road changed several times through history, and according to some sources it is possible that there were several paths named Via Sacra leading throughout the Forum. The most ancient part of the Via Sacra is between the Regia (residence of Roman kings and later of the pontifex maximus, the high priest), and the Domus Publica. In the 5th century BC, the road was supported in order to protect it from rain. During the reign of Nero, Via Sacra was paved and lined with colonnades. Via Sacra is generally known as a processional street, linking the the Atrium Vetae with the Colosseum. It served as a site of many religious festivals, of many magnificent triumphs of generals, as well as the daily assembly place of Romans. A longer stretch of the road started on the Arx on the Capitoline Hill, passed the Comitium and the Basilica Aemilia, and ended in front of the Regia and the Domus Publica. After the construction of the Basilica of Maxentius and the Temple of Amor and Roma, Via Sacra was moved in order to make room for the buildings. Nowadays, there are several sections of the road preserved: the part passing under the Arch of Titus and ending in front of the Arch of Constantine. It's also interesting to note that remains of two older roads were found under the today's visible paving. Lapis Niger, meaning Black Stone, was a shrine situated in the Roman Forum and the site of the oldest known Latin inscription, dating from the Roman Republic and the early days of the Roman Empire. It was placed between the Roman Forum and the Comitium, but it fell through the ground due to a combination of overbuilding during the era of the Roman Empire and the chaos of Rome's fall. It was as rediscovered in the very late 19th century by Italian archaeologist Giacomo Boni. The inscriptions on the shrine refer to the king (rex), or to the early Roman Republic; while some historians argue that it refers to the rex sacrorum, an early Republic high religious official. There are several stories related to the origin of Lapis Niger: it was believed to be the grave of the first king of Rome Romulus; the grave of Hostus Hostilius, father of King Tullus Hostilius; or the location where Faustulus, foster father of Romulus, fell in battle.

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Trajan's Forum and Markets in Rome

Trajan's Forum and Markets in Rome


World Europe Countries Forum and Markets Italy Cities Rome Local Guide What to See and Do Landmarks Trajan's

The last and most magnificent of the imperial fora, Trajan's Forum or also known as the Forum Ulpium, from Ulpius, Trajan's family name, was a architectural complex built during the rule of Emperor Trajan (98-117) and completed during the reign of his successor Hadrian. The forum, situated in the heart of Rome, now situated mostly below the street level, dates from the 1st century AD. It was funded from the war spoils, achieved in the Trajan's conquests in Dacia, Romania. The forum was inaugurated in 112 AD. In order to built such a large complex; many excavation works were needed. The excavations probably started during the reign of emperor Domitian, and as a result the sides of the Quirinal and Capitoline (Campidoglio) Hills were dug out, forming a valley lined with the Imperial forums toward the Campus Martius. According to historical evidence, the official designer of such an endevur was architect Apollodorus of Damascus. The architect Apollodorus, wanted to surpass all the previous architectural achievements, in both the plan and scale. The result was outstanding: he created a forum following the plan and scale (and lines of trees) of the Temple of Peace, the colonnades and hemicycles improving upon the Forum of Augustus, the curved ends taken from the Forum Transitorium, and the Basilica Ulpia larger than Aemilia and Julia. The complex included not only the Trajan's Forum, but also the Markets of Trajan; Basilica and Bibliotheca Ulpia as well as the Trajan's Column.

During his visit to Rome, in 357 AD, emperor Constantinius II was mostly amazed by the grandeur of Trajan's Forum and Markets. He was especially amazed by the huge equestrian statue of Trajan and also by the surrounding buildings. The historian Ammianus Marcellinus (330-395 AD) described this imperial visit as well as the complex as "a gigantic complex...beggaring description and never again to be imitated by mortal men". Nowadays the few remains convey very little of its past glory. (Photo by: iessi)

Trajan's Forum
The forum was built on a vast square, 200 metres long and 120 metres wide; with a main entrance on the southern side. The entrance was marked by a triumphal arch, dominated by a statue of Trajan riding in a six-horse chariot. The square was completely covered in blocks of white marble, which was later taken out and recycled. East and west of the forum's central part were Corinthian colonnades, and behind each of them was a hemicycle, or a semicircular hall. In the northern part was Basilica Ulpia, which served as a law court. Curved around the eastern hemicycle of the forum were the Trajan's Markets, a complex of offices or possibly shops displaced by construction of the forum. Further north from the Basilica Ulpia was a smaller square, with a temple (Temple of the Divine Trajan) dedicated to the deified persona of Trajan. There were also two libraries, known as Bibliotheca Ulpia, filled with various Latin and Greek works and documents. They were decorated with a continuous spiral relief that chronicled emperor Trajan's conquest of Dacia in the period between 101-106 AD.There, between the libraries, stood Trajan's column, a 38 metres high column, inaugurated in 113 AD. The destruction of the forum began in the fourth century. First the relief panels were incorporated into the Arch of Constantine, and in the 7th century some bronze statues and ornaments from the Forum were removed by Byzantine emperor. An earthquake in 801, destroyed most part of the Forum. In the 11th century, a church was built which incorporated the base of the Column of Trajan as one of its walls. During the Middle Ages, much of Forum's colored marble was removed and other marble robbed for use in contemporary buildings or sculpture. The decree, issued in 1162, prescribed that Trajan's column is to be preserved; and the penalty for destruction of the monument was death. In the Renaissance, and during the 16th century, many parts of the complex were further exploited in the construction of many churches, as well as church of St Peter's in Vatican. Systematic excavation of the Trajan's Forum started by the French in 1811-1814, after the occupation of Rome by Napoleon. Further exploration continued during the rule of Mussolini, when they spanned across half the forum by the Via dell' Impero, a triumphal avenue inaugurated in 1932. Nowadays, little of the previous grandeur of Trajan's complex is left: the only remaining parts are a section of the markets and the column of Trajan.

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Trajan's Forum and Markets in Rome

Basilica Ulpia

This lavishing basilica was a part of the complex of a forum and markets, built during the reign of emperor Trajan. The basilica consisted of a central part, a nave; surrounded by a collonade. It was used as a public place: it served as a law court and a place of business. Its architectural designed was typical for the Roman architecture of the period: it had a design of a Christian church; but it was the largest and the richest basilica of them all. The design of the forum was different from the Roman Forum, because the basilica was placed in the northern part of the square, while originally it was placed in front of the square. The basilica was closed by two ambulatory collonades; and two apses on every side. The central part of the basilica's facade was a four-columned porch; surmounted by a two-horse charriot made of gilded bronze. According to the image depicted on the Roman coins of the period, the basilica was paved with polycrome marble. The decorations were dedicated to Trajan's endevours: they commemorated Trajan's legions, as well as the life of the emperor. This numismatic evidence also shows that the basilica has stylized eagles placed on the eave of the roof. Unfortunately, nowadays none of the glorious basilica is preserved. After some numismatic evidence, an appearance of the basilica Ulpia has been recreated, so this is the only way you could see it!

Trajan's Forum is a clear example of political propaganda. The extensive use of expensive, imported colored marble "showed off" imperial power and wealth. The forum's decorations, in terms of reliefs, combined symbols of Trajan's victories in Dacia, together with those of deification and worship of the emperors. The simplicity of its forms highly resembled the design of Forum of Augustus, the empire's founder, which resulted in a strong visual link between the two monuments. The entire forum was a biography in stone, telling a story, one after another, of the life of the heroic Trajan as he progressed from mortality to divinity. (Photo by: teandkb)

Temple of Divine Trajan


Even further to the north from the Basilica Ulpia, was situated a small temple, dedicated to the deified persona of emperor Trajan. The temple was built after a temple of Mars Ultor, and it was approximately the same size. It is often described as an octastyle peripteral temple; meaning that it had eight columns in every side, and also an inner row of columns surrounding a central part which was a cella. According to the inscription; the temple was dedicated to deified Trajan and his wife Plotina. The date of the temple's inauguration vary: probably in the period from 119 to 128 AD. Many historians agree that the temple was built in order to complement the column. The numismatic evidence (Roman coins of the period depicting the temple) show that the temple was built on a podium, which was flanked by stairways and statues of Victory and Peace. On every side of the temple were the collonades.The dominant feature was a large figure, probably of Trajan, resembling a cult statue; decorated with winged victories on each end.

panoramic view Trajan's Forum and Market. A panoramic view ofof Trajan's Forum and Market. (Photo ChrisYunker) (Photo by: by: ChrisYunker)

Nowadays, the temple still hasn't been excavated, so every possible information of the outward appearance of the temple can be found from numismatic evidence and occasional inscriptions and descriptions.

Bibliotheca Ulpia
Bibliotheca Ulpia was the most famous of all the Roman libraries, as well one of the most famous libraries in Antiquity along with those in Alexandria and Pergamum. The library, or more exactly two libraries were built as a part of the complex built during the reign of Trajan. The library dates from the 1st century AD, when the whole complex was built. It housed many Greek as well as Latin works and documents, which were separately organized. So the Greek library and the Latin library were facing one another; and in the middle was a small courtyard dominated by the Column of Trajan. This famous library was completely preserved until the middle of the fifth century; as it was mentioned by the writer Sidonius Apollonius. The following years and destiny of the library remain unknown.
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A view of Trajan's Forum and Market.


(Photo by: goforchris)

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Trajan's Forum and Markets in Rome

Unfortunately, today only few remains of the library were preserved: several portions of the floor and the podium of one of the walls, as well as fragments of the store rooms, which were found beneath Via dei Fori Imperiali. The only available insight in the previous appearance of the library are the computer reconstructions, based on the prescriptions of Vitruvius and descriptions of authors like Venantius Fortunatus. More about Trajan's endevours and his famous column: "And he set up in the Forum an enormous column, to serve at once as a monument to himself and as a memorial of his work in the Forum. For that entire section had been hilly and he had cut it down for a distance equal to the height of the column, thus making the Forum level." Cassius Dio, Roman History (LXVIII.16.3)

Column of Trajan
Raised in the honour of emperor Trajan by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus after an order by the Roman Senate, the Column of Trajan is a unique monument in whole Rome due to its spiral base relief. The column, situated in the Trajan's Forum, near the Quirinal Hill and north of the Roman Forum, built in order to commemorate emperor Trajan's victory in Dacia, today's Romania. The column, itself, was completed and dedicated in May 113 AD, more than sixteen months after the forum. The column is 38 metres tall, with a large pedestal. Column's shaft consists of twenty drums, made of Carrara marble, with a diameter of about 4 metres and weight of 40 tons. Inside the shaft is a spiral staircase; consisted of 185 stairs, which lead to a platform at the top. At the top of the stairway was a statue of the emperor Trajan, made of gilded bronze. The shaft is wrapped in a 190 metre frieze, winding around the shaft for 23 times; depicting Trajan's two victorious military campaigns against the Dacians, in AD 101-102 and AD 105-106. The relief on the shaft most likely illustrates the emperor's own commentary on the wars. There was also a book dealing with the same topic, now lost, which was housed in the adjacent library. The lower half of the relief illustrates the first campaign against the Dacians (101-102), and the top half illustrates the second (105-106). The two parts are separated by a personification of Victory writing on a shield flanked on either side by Trophies. The relief is generally divided into one hundred and fifty-five scenes, in which more than twenty-five hundred figures are represented, no less than sixty of Trajan, himself. Only eighteen scenes actually depict battles; most scenes are dedicated to the day-to-day activities of the army, like setting out to battle, as well as constructing fortifications and listening to the emperor's addresses. The relief is thus a valuable source of information for historians on Roman and barbaric arms and methods of warfare. The column's base is covered with reliefs of trophies of Dacian weapons, symbolizing the defeat of the Dacians (the defeated soldiers would dump their weapons in a pile as a term of surrender).

With abbreviations expanded, the inscription at the base of the column reads: The Senate and people of Rome [give or dedicate this] to the emperor Caesar, son of the divine Nerva, Nerva Traianus Augustus Germanicus Dacicus, pontifex maximus, in his 17th year in the office of tribune, having been acclaimed six times as imperator, 6 times consul, pater patriae, to demonstrate of what great height the hill [was] and place [that] was removed for such great works. * The last two lines refer to the excavation of the Quirinal hill, which was cut back one-hundred Roman feet to provide level ground for the Markets of Trajan. (Photo by: goforchris)

According to numismatic evidence, the top was decorated by a statue of a bird, presumably an eagle; and later on by a nude statue of Trajan himself; which disappeared during the Middle Ages. This "obscene" statue was then replaced by a statue of St Peter, according to the orders by Pope Sixtus V. The column was originally placed between the two libraries (Bibliotheca Ulpia) and enclosed by a peristyle. Although many historians believed that the column was erected in propagandistic purposes, only the decorated base could be clearly seen, and it is not certain if these scenes were appreciated or even were ignored after the column had been erected. Another fact supporting this thesis is that the frieze is 190 metres long and placed on a 38 metres high column, so it makes it rather difficult to follow it completely. After Trajan's death in 117 AD, the Roman Senate decided to place Trajan's ashes and those of his wife, Plotina, into the column's square base, in golden urns.
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Trajan's Forum and Markets in Rome

Trajan's Markets
Trajan's Market (in Latin Mercatus Traiani) was a huge complex located on the Via dei Fori Imperiali, at the opposite end to the Colosseum. It was built and designed by an architect Apollodorus of Damascus in the period from 100-110 AD. The complex consisted of more than 170 rooms, as well as a large vaulted hall, known as the "Hall of Trajan". They served most probably as offices and shops. In the Middle Ages, several floor levels as well as defensive elements such as the Torre delle Milizie (dating from the beginning of the 13th century) were added to the complex, which are still visible today. There was also a church erected on the site, but it was torn down when the excavations of the markets started. The entrance to the complex is through Via IV Novembre. As you The remains of the Trajans markets. enter, you could see the complex of markets from every side; (Photo by: goforchris) ended with a hall and a large balcony which offers a beautiful view on the markets. This part was originally the Via Biberatica (Latin word biber means drink) the road that starts from the entrance and divides Trajan's Market. The upper levels of the markets served as offices; while shops selling oil, wines, seafood, groceries, vegetables and fruit were placed in front of the Trajan's Forum. The lower levels of the market are consisted of a ground floor level reserved for shops, with an entry made in travertine, surmounted by an arch. The second level consisted of a line of adjoining shops selling wines and oil. A third level, today only as some walls remain, served probably as the site of the grocers' shops. On the lower part there are also two large halls, probably served for auditions or concerts. A concrete roof covered the markets, but it was raised on piers which enabled both protection and light.

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Colosseum in Rome

Colosseum in Rome
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The Colosseum or Roman Colosseum, also known as the Flavian Amphitheater, after the family name of its builders (Amphitheatrum Flavium in Latin), is the largest building ever built in the Roman Empire, situated in the center of Rome. It was also the first permanent amphitheater built in Rome. This remarkable work of Roman architecture and engineering was built in the 1st century AD. The construction of the building started between 70 and 72 AD during the reign of emperor Vespasian and finished in 80 AD during the rule of emperor Titus. The monument was erected between two Roman hills, the Esquiline and Caelian Hill. It served for public purposes, as the site of gladiator contests and various spectacles, like mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, Colosseum nowadays. re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical (Photo by: Argenberg) mythology. It had space for about 50,000 spectators, seated around an elliptical arena. The amphitheater's arena had a wooden floor, surrounded by a complex of rooms and passageways, which served as the storage places for wild beasts and also for various other provisions for re-enactments and gladiators. There is total of 80 walls encircling the arena, all enclosed by an outer wall, divided into three levels. These three levels are constructed of a line of arcades and columns (Doric style in the first level, Ionic style in the second level and Corinthian in the third level), and all topped with an attic floor, decorated in Corinthian columns. During the Middle Ages, the building stopped to be an entertainment area and served as a housing area, site of workshops, a quarter for a religious orders, a fortress, a quarry, and finally a Christian shrine. It also became the source for building material for many Christian churches around Rome; so a part of the external wall is today missing. Nowadays, the Colosseum is a first class tourist attraction and a site of a famous procession during the Good Friday, led by the Pope.

Trivia about the Colosseum: The whole monument covers an area of roughly six acres! Together with the fourth part (the attic) the monument reaches almost 50 meters. According to historical evidence, more than 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheater!!! In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV declared the Colosseum a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He thus consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross. The monument was sanctified due to the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there. In the antiquity, the Romans referred to the Colosseum as to "Amphitheatrum Caesareum" or the hunting theater. Pope Sixtus V in the 16th century planned to turn the Colosseum into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes. This proposal fell through due to his premature death. This pope also founded the famous procession held on Good Friday, starting from the church of Santi Cosma e Damiano, going on the Via Sacra through the Forum and reaching the amphitheater. Sixtus V wanted to use the amphitheater as a milling factory, with the machines on the ground floor and the houses of the workers on the top floors! According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people!!!

Colosseum's History
The Colosseum's history began with the great fire in 64 AD, which burned down the buildings in the area where Colosseum is later built. The fire had burned the complex erected during the reign of Nero: a grandiose Domus Aurea with an artificial lake and surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes, together with Aqua Claudia aqueduct and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero in front of the Domus Area. After the fire, emperor Vespasian commissions the construction of the Colosseum of Rome in 72 AD as an entertainment center for citizens of Rome and a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories. The large amphitheater was finished two years later during the reign of Titus. Emperor Titus opened the nearly completed Colosseum of Rome in 80 AD with 100 consecutive days of public events, including bloody gladiator fights and non-gory theatrical productions (with around 9,000 wild animals killed during this period). After the initial construction, the Colosseum was reconstructed and renovated several times; extensive works were performed during the reign of emperor Domitian when the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves, were added to the complex. In 217 AD, the Colosseum's interior was greatly damaged and it was fully again repaired until 240 AD, and again in 250-252 and
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Colosseum in Rome

in 320. Also some repair works occurred again in the 5th century, during the reign of Theodosius II and Valentinian III. The Colosseum remained in service for four and a half centuries, but gradually the taste of the public changed, and the military and financial crisis of the western part of the empire, together with the many invasions were the main reason why the amphitheater was abandoned. This made the function of the building obsolete, so it had many various other purposes. Especially, after the Western Roman Empire had fallen to the Goths in 476 AD, and the spectacles at the Colosseum of Rome ceased and a period of deterioration began. The Colosseum served as a church, a fortress, a residence for the Roman barons, and once even as a bullfight arena! During the Middle Ages, the local construction firms quarried some of the large Colosseum of Rome stone building blocks for use in other sites, including the famous St Peters Basilica in Vatican (and many other like Palazzo della Cancelleria, Palazzo Farnese, the Palazzi Senatorio and dei Conservatori on Capitol Hill, Church of San Marco and Palazzo Venezia, and Palazzo Barberini). This so-called recycling of the Colosseum started, according to some historical evidence, as soon as the fourth century. This habit of recycling lasted until the 19th century when a restoration of the Colosseum of Rome began in order to preserve it for the incoming generations. Most significant works occurred around 1901-2, but not until 1938-40 the arena was fully excavated light was brought to the underground of the arena. These works were performed under the supervision of Luigi Cozzo, who also demolished all the underground structures that had been added to the original construction. Recent renovation works were finished by 2000, and future works include the rebuilding of the arena, in wood, also to protect the exposed underground structures from the weather. What is left of the original building today? The north side of the outer wall is still standing (including 31 of the original 80 entrances, together with the part of the construction between it and the inner wall supporting the top floor colonnade), and the original skeleton of the structure between this inner wall and the arena.

Colosseum's Design
The Colosseum is roughly elliptical in shape, measuring 188 meters in length and 156 meters in width. This is a completely self-standing building, grandeur in dimensions and the only amphitheater of this sort in Rome. According to some estimations, the outer wall required over 100,000 cubic meters of travertine stone which were set without mortar, and were held together by 300 tons of iron clamps. Due to extensive devastation of the building itself, the original interior wall is the only remainder of the original outer wall. The whole building was erected on the base of two steps. These steps were topped by three levels of arcades and a fourth attic floor with windows. Every floor contained eighty arches, divided by half-column pillars. The arcades were framed by half-columns (Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian style), while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters and pierced by windows. The arches in the second and third floor were also decorated with The external wall of Colosseum. (Photo by: Dan Kamminga) statues and figures from the Roman religious and cultural life. The Colosseum also was covered by a net-like structure made of ropes and covered by canvas, also known as the velarium. What is also fascinating that specially listed sailors were housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, who were in charge of handling the velarium. The podium was the terrace around the arena, raised 3.60 meters. The floor of the arena was made of masonry and wood, with several removable sections, which served as the entrance and/or exit of scenarios, beasts and materials. Besides wood, the arena was also covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), topping an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum. The hypogeum consisted of a network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests.The arena's podium was decorated in marble, especially the entrances and niches above the entrances. Under the arena were services necessary for the shows: cages for the animals, stores, tools, and lifts that raised the beasts to trapdoors placed on the floor of the arena. The Colosseum also has eighty entrances at the ground level (76 entrances were for the ordinary people), which enabled quick exit of about 50,000 to 75,000 spectators, as it is estimated the amphitheater can hold. Entrances and exits were numbered, and the four ones reserved for the emperor and the elite were also decorated with painted stucco reliefs. The spectators had even numbered seating: they had numbered pottery shards which contained the information of the right section and row. The best view of the arena had, of course the emperor and the Vestal Virgins, and the senators, who were placed on a platform in the same level as the emperor and could bring their own seats. The lower part was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part was reserved for the poor citizens. There were also a number of adjoining buildings around the Colosseum, like the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators, connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, which also contained a miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators; other training school like Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), for fighters of animals and the Dacian and Gallic Schools; the Armamentarium, a storage of weapons; the Summum Choragium, storage of machinery; the Sanitarium, a hospital for wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of. The spectators in the Colosseum accessed their seats via vomitoria (in Latin singular vomitorium), which were the passageways that opened into a tier of seats, either from below or behind. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin term denoting a rapid discharge, and from which the English word vomit later derived.
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Colosseum in Rome

Colosseum's interior or what remained of it: the underground constructions have been excavated in the first half of the 20th century under the supervision of Luigi Cozzo. (Photo by: Alaskan Dude)

Colosseum's Games
It was a right of the citizens of Rome to join banquets offered by the rich and famous, and to enjoy shows in the circus or the amphitheater, so they considered the spectacles in the Colosseum as their privilege and right. The games first started as a religious rite, and soon there was a yearly schedule of games of the ludi, the games in honor of the gods, regulated by law. Through the passage of time, the games were organized and sponsored by the wealthy, so they lost their initial religious character. The most popular games were the ludi circenses, or chariot races, which took place in the circus, then the naumachiae, naval battles reproduced within special facilities; ludi gladiatori, associated with a venatio, which was a staged hunt of wild animals or even of condemned criminals; the silvae, in which animals populated a scenery of woods and forests, and dramas, reproductions of famous mythological tales. Damnatio ad bestias is yet another peculiar form of entertainment in Rome: people were being mauled to death by ferocious beasts. The condemned criminals were tied to a pole and exposed to the beasts, and were eaten alive by them! An additional thrill to the sport was them being tortured by smaller beasts, so their suffering was longer!!!

Naumachiae
The naumachiae (or also known as the navalia proelia) were reproductions of famous naval battles, like the historical battles between the Greeks and the Persians at Salamina or the battles between the Corcyrean and Corinthian fleet. They were staged, obviously, in a place that could be flooded, like the Colosseum. The actors were generally criminals condemned to death, which gave an additional thrill to the show. Criminals or troupes, or sometimes even real sailors and soldiers were set to fight one another; of course, to the death. These shows were very expensive, because the ships had to be complete in all their details and they manoeuvred in life-like mode; and due to this fact these shows were quite grandeur and imposing. First View of the several layers of walls and passageways. naumachiae in the Colosseum, according to Martial, were held in the (Photo by: begal*foam*) first years after the inauguration, but some modern historians reject this thesis. The first naumachiae in Rome were held during the reign of Julius Caesar, as a part of the celebration of his triumph in Egypt. They were held in a temporary basin excavated in the Campus Martis, and recreated a fake battle between Egyptians and Phoenicians. This was so revolutionary and successful that new shows were later organized by Augustus in the Septa, a monumental complex (300 x 120 meters) with an aqueduct constructed to bring the water from the lake today called Martignano. In the first Augustus' naumachiae thirty ships together with three thousand men participated. Another example of Roman's lewd character were Claudius' naumachiae, held on the Fucino lake in 52 AD. He ordered a building of a drainage tunnel of the lake and then set rafts full of praetorians to prevent the escape. Around 19,000 men (gladiators) took part in this show, and this time mercy was shown to the surviving ones.

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Colosseum in Rome

Venationes
Venationes, a staged hunt of wild animals, were first held after the second Punic War against the Carthaginians, according to the historian Livy.This custom was taken over from the Carthagians, who used to expose fugitive slaves to the wild beasts. They also had a religious dimension: they were dedicated to the goddess of the hunt Diana, or to Jupiter. They could be ordinary, held on the birthday of the Caesars and anniversaries of glorious victories or extraordinary, held in occasion such as the crowning of a new Emperor, their weddings, the promotion to consul, the dedication of a public building, pro salute Caesaris (to the health of Caesar), wars, victories, triumph and funerals. The "actors" in this show, besides wild animals, were the so-called venatores, who were slaves, criminals, or ordinary men under contract, trained in the ludi like the gladiators. For this Roman entertainment all sorts of wild beasts, like elephants, bears, bulls, lions, tigers and even giraffes were captured all over the Empire, transported to the different locations and kept there until the day of the show. Each emperor tried to outdo its predecessor and thus many exotic animals were brought, and quite considerable size of them were killed. According to some evidence, more than several thousands animals were killed at the inauguration of the Colosseum. After the show was over, the meat of the animals was prepared and served to the public. More of unbelievable facts: at first, the animals were chained, but after Sulla the animals were freed and special defenses had to be built for the safety of the audience. In the Colosseum the podium was erected, which prevented the beasts from climbing on. There was also a system of nets which provided an additional safety measure. If the animals refused to enter the arena, they were driven out by the attendants, called magistri, with blazing straws. There were also two different forms of hunts: men with weapons against the wild beasts, and men condemned to death thrown to the beasts without any defense. The shows usually ended with a number of animals performing tricks, which were held in a kind of zoo, called the vivarium. The organization of this events, from catching an animal in one part of the Empire, transport, training and finally the fighting itself is quite unbelievable

A view of Colosseum's outside wall, used for construction of numerous buildings in Rome. (Photo by: irene.)

Ludi gladiatori
Gladiator games (also known as the munera, munus) were at first connected to the religion and magic, but with progression of time, this dimension was forgotten. The first record of these games dated from 264 BC, when Brutus Pera's sons organized these games in honor the memory of their father. The popularity of such spectacles rose through centuries, and in 105 BC they became a public event. The last game of this type in the Colosseum occurred in 438 AD, and afterwards the games were abolished by the emperor Valentinian III. An entire organization stood behind this shows: there were gladiator schools, as well as gladiators held by private persons, like the emperor or the senators. The games were held on fixed days, and there were ten days annually dedicated to this kind of entertainment. By the era of Julius Caesar, they became almost an everyday matter, and hunting of the wild animals were added to them to complete the "fun".The grandeur of this shows also rose through time: during the rule of Julius Caesar more than three hundred pairs of gladiators fought. The spectators also wanted to be astonished, so many "special effects" were added to the fights, like silver armors, exotic animals, choreographies and music. During the games gifts were thrown to the spectators; small tablets with the image of the gift stamped on it. Gifts were various: from food, a slave, to a house or a ship. In order to refresh the spectators petals of flowers and perfumes were thrown from above, which was known as the sparsio.

A re-enactment of the so-called ludi circenses or chariot races, well beloved by the Romans. (Photo by: hans s)

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Palatine Hill in Rome

Palatine Hill in Rome


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The Palatine Hill (Collis Palatium or Mons Palatinus) is one of the seven hills of Rome, situated above the Forum Romanum, between the Velabrum and the Circus Maximus. It is one of the oldest parts of Rome, and according to excavations made in the recent times, people had lived there since approximately 1000 BC. The excavations had found traces of archaic houses dating from the 10th century BC, which makes Palatine hill the site of the first settlements in Rome. The etymology of the name Palatine is believed to originate from two Latin words: palus, which means marsh or swamp, referring to the areas of the Forum Romanum and the Velabrum before they were drained by Cloaca Maxima; and the word palatium, which can be associated with the abundance of imperial palaces built on the hill. With time, the word extended its meaning to palace, and nowadays in many Romance languages we can recognize it: Italian "palazzo", French "palais", English "palace". Some authors, like Livy, argue that the name of the hill originated from the Arcadian settlement of Pallantium, while writer Eunius mentioned the word palatum as heaven, or sky.

With the further development of Rome and the Roman Forum, the Palatine hill, due to its close proximity to the Roman centers of power, became "the place to live". During the period of the Roman republic (510 BC c. 44 BC), the Palatine Hill was the site where the ruling elite built its residences, and this tradition continued in the period of Roman Empire. This resulted in the fact that the whole hill was covered in imperial palaces. Nowadays, ruins of major palaces, like those of Augustus (63 BC 14 AD), Tiberius (42 BC 37 AD) and Domitian (51 96) are still be seen on the Palatine hill. Nowadays, the House of Livia, the House of Augustus, and the House of the Griffins were preserved from the period of the Roman Republic. The palaces preserved from the period of the Roman Empire are the Domus Tiberiana, the Domus Flavia, the Domus Augustana and the Domus Severiana (the Baths of Septimus Severus). The site is now a large open-air museum, and the places like the House of Livia and the Farnese gardens can be visited by tourists. The House of Livia was built by Livia, the wife of Augustus, in the period from 58 BC 29 AD. Near to Livia's palace was the so-called Temple of Cybele, still not fully excavated, and the House of Tiberius. During the reign of the Flavian dynasty (69 96), including rulers Vespasian, Titus and Domitian, many major palaces were built. The first was the Flavian Palace, situated across the Palatine Hill and looking over the Circus Maximus, which was enlarged and modified by many Roman rulers. The dominant building was the palace built during the reign of emperor Septimius Severus (146 211). Next to it are the ruins of the Hippodrome of Domitian, resembling a Roman Circus, but smaller in size. During the reign of Septimius Severus, the hippodrome was used as the site of sport events, but originally it seems that it was built as a garden resembling the shape of a stadium. At the top of the Palatine hill, are the Farnese Gardens (Orti Farnesiani), designed by the Renaissance architect Vignola for a member of one of the great papal families, Cardinal Alessandro Farnese. The gardens contain many varieties of plants including boxwoods, orange trees, rose bushes, and oleanders.

According to Roman mythology, the Palatine Hill is believed to be the location of the cave, known as the Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus were found by the she-wolf. After the she-wolf kept them alive, they were found by the shepherd Faustulus. The shepherd and his wife, known as Acca Larentia raised the children. The legend then continues, that the children killed their great-uncle, because he seized the throne from the father and later on founded a new city on the banks of the River Tiberus. The brothers afterwards had a fight and Romulus killed his brother. The only remaining sibling was Romulus, and thus the city they built was given the name Rome. In order to protect his city, Romulus ordered the construction of a large wall around Rome. This wall, also known as the Wall of Romulus, is one of the best-preserved monuments of Ancient Rome. The wall circles the Palatine, and probably originates from around 600 B.C. and still exists today as a popular tourist attraction. (Photo by: runneralan2004)

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Palatine Hill in Rome

Flavian Palace
Flavian Palace, also known as Domus Flavia, was a residential complex dating from the reign of Titus Flavius Domitianus or emperor Domitian, situated on the Palatine Hill, between the Domus Augustana, the House of Augustus and the Circus Maximus. This imperial palace was built at the end of the 1st century AD, as an addition to the Domus Tiberiana. Its purpose was to display the imperial power, and as such it contained no living quarters, only public rooms. Domus Augustana, a lavishly ornamented palace, placed south of the Flavian Palace, was the Emperors residence and living quarters. The design of the palace was attributed to Domitian's master architect, Rabirius. The palace closely resembled the design of a typical Roman house, but of course, it was much grandeur. The entrance of the palace was placed at the end of the Clivus Palatinus, the road that connected the Roman Forum to the Palatine Hill. The frontal part consisted of three rooms: the so-called Lararium, the Aula Regia and the Basilica. The Basilica is a group of three rooms, situated in the first part of the palace visible from the Clivus Palatinus. Aula Regia was one of the biggest rooms in the palace, and during the reign of Domitian was very richly decorated: the walls were covered in marble, with Phrygian marble columns and an elaborately carved frieze. It probably served as the place where the emperor would meet with his councilors, while the Basilica probably served for audiences. Lararium was the smallest room in the The Flavian Palace was one of Domitians many architectural projects. The palace, with a staircase accessing Domus Augustana. It probably buildings during his reign include the so-called Domus Augustana or August's served as the entrance and an ante-chamber of the imperial palace. Palace, a contribution to the Circus Maximus, a contribution to the Pantheon, and three temples deifying his family members: the temple of Vespasian and Behind these public rooms was a large Peristyle and a Triclinum, Titus, the Porticus Diuorum, and the Temple of the gens Flavia. with two elliptical fountains on every side. The Peristyle was a large (Photo by: OliverN5) courtyard, lined with a collonade, and containing a labyrinth of low walls in the middle. The Triclinium is the last major room in the palace, containing an elaborate marble floor. Under the Lararium remains of the House of the Griffins were found, while under the Triclinium the remains of the previous Domus Transitoria were found. Nowadays, very little is left of the palace, except the ground plan which can be clearly seen. The site is open to the public, and tourist can take a look at the ground remains.

House of Livia
The best preserved building on the Palatine hill is the House of Livia, built by empress Livia, the wife of emperor Augustus. The excavation of this palace was completed in 1911. The original design of the palace highly resembles a typical Roman home. The House of Livia consisted of an atrium, a reception hall, a dining room, a kitchen, distributed on two floors. The bottom level of the palace is nearly perfectly preserved, including many paintings and room decorations.

Palace of Septimius Severus


Septimius Severus was the first Roman ruler of African descent, and thus strove to gain recognition for himself and his family. The first step towards this recognition was building a palace that would bear his family name. Severus decided to build a palace on a location beyond Domitian's Stadium, on a part of the Palatine hill that slightly slopes. The location of the palace thus resulted in a spectacular view: to the east was the Colloseum, and to the west were the Baths of Caracalla. The palace itself was also grandoise: extension of the complex stretched over the south-east angle of the hill, dominated by arcades and buttresses, which were built in order to hold the whole construction. Baths of Septimius-Severus (Balneum Palatii) were addition to the whole complex, situated close to the Pulvinar, or imperial loggia in Domitians Stadium.

Ruins on the Palatine hill. (Photo by: Sebastian Bergmann)

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Piazzas in Rome

Piazzas in Rome
World Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide What to See and Do Landmarks Piazzas

Piazza Navona is the most famous Roman Baroque square, known for its design as well as the sculptural masterpieces of Bernini and Borromini. The square was built on top of the 1st century Stadium of Domitian. The square took it spresent shape in the 15th century, when it was defined as a public space. The Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi or "Fountain of the Four Rivers" is situated in the center of the piazza, in front of the Church of Sant'Agnese, and it's considered a Baroque masterpiece. Another prominent landmark of the piazza is the Pamphili Palace situated next to the Church of Saint Agnese and erected between 1644 and 1650. Other monuments on the Piazza Navona include: Stabilimenti Spagnoli, Palazzo de Cupis, Palazzo Torres Massimo Lancellotti, Church of Nostra Signora del Sacro Cuore and Palazzo Braschi (now housing Museo di Roma).Another well known Roman square is Piazza di Spagna. This Fontana del Moro. square got its named after the Palazzo di Spagna built in the 17th century (Photo by: RaSeLaSeD) in order to house the Spanish Embassy to the Holy See. The square is shaped as a crooked bow, and is dominated by the so-called Spanish Steps and an early Baroque fountain called La Fontana della Barcaccia ("Fountain of the Old Boat"). Piazza del Popolo is situated inside the northern gate in the Aurelian Walls, once known as the Porta Flaminia and nowadays called Porta del Popolo. This square was for centuries the first place to be spotted by travllers journeying to Rome. The square got its present-day shape in the 19th century, when it was designed by the architect Giuseppe Valadier in Neoclassical style. Valadier's design incorporated the verdure of trees as an essential element; and this he achieved by forming two semicircles by demolishing several buildings which stood in the previous trapezoidal square. The entrance to the square is marked by the two churches, also known as the twin churches (chiese gemelle): church of Santa Maria in Montesanto (on the left) and church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli (on the right), both dating from the 17th century. The churches were started by Carlo Rainaldi and finished by Bernini and Carlo Fontana. The twin churches are not exactly the same, but vary in details, offering variety within their symmetrical balance; which is a mark of the Baroque fashion. Between these two churches is Via del Corso, one of the tridente. Il tridente is the name for the three streets springing from the square: the Via del Corso in the center, the Via del Babuino on the left (opened in 1525 as the Via Paolina), and the Via di Ripetta (opened by Leo X in 1518 as the Via Leonina) on the right. Via del Corso follows the course extended beyond the city gate as the ancient Roman Via Flaminia, Via Flaminia, also known as the Via Lata during the Middle Ages and nowadays as the Via del Corso leads to the Piazza Venezia; Via di Ripetta goes past the Mausoleum of Augustus to the Tiber, to the riverside landing called the Porto di Ripetta, which was in function until the late 19th century; and the Via del Babuino ("Baboon") links Piazza di Spagna with Piazza del Popolo. The name of this latter street was taken from a grotesque sculpture of Silenus that gained the popular name of "the Baboon".

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Around Piazza Navona in Rome

Around Piazza Navona in Rome


World Europe Countries Around Piazza Navona Italy Cities Rome Local Guide What to See and Do Landmarks Piazzas

Piazza Navona is the most famous Roman baroque square, famous for its design as well as sculptural masterpieces of Bernini and Borromini. The square was built on top of the Stadium of Domitian, which dated from the 1st century AD. The stadium was a place where games (agones) took place and many various sport competitions. The current appearance the square achieved in the 15th century, when it was defined as a public space. Additional reconstruction and renovation, piazza got during the period of Baroque, when Gian Lorenzo Bernini created the famous Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi (Fountain of the Four Rivers, 1651) in the center of the square; Francesco Borromini and Girolamo Rainaldi designed the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone; and Pietro da Cortona painted the galleria in the Pamphili (Pamhililj) palace. The Piazza Navona has also two additional, smaller fountains, called the Fontana di Nettuno (dating from 1574), in the northern part of the piazza; and the Fontana del Moro (dating from 1576), lin the southern part of the piazza. Both fountains are works by Giacomo della Porta, a famous sculptor. The Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi or "Fountain of the Four Rivers" is situated in the center of Piazza Navona, just in front of the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone, and is quite a masterpiece of Baroque style and architecture. It was designed by Gianlorenzo Bernini, after the order by Pope Innocent X. The fountain was erected in 1651. The erection of this fountain was quite an event in these time: a special unveiling was organized and also a celebration followed. This wouldn't be so strange if it hadn't been for the vast opposition of Romans for the construction of the fountain: the Romans were resentful because the fountain was built at public expense during a period of famine in Rome!!!

The name of the square Navona has roots in the ancient Rome. The stadium of Domitian, on top of which the square was built, was well-known as the site of playing and watching agones or games. The expression in agone through time turned into navone and finally into navona, so thus is Piazza Navona. (Photo by: Aschaf)

The other Piazza Navona's landmark is the baroque church of Sant'Agnese in Agone, a masterpiece of two other famous artists Francesco Borromini and Girolamo Rainaldi. The church was completed in 1657, and it was dedicated to Saint Agnes, a Christian martyr died in the Circus of Domitian. The church was orginally designed by Girolamo Rainaldi, and commissioned by Pope Innocent X. Rainaldi envisioned it as a Baroque church, a kind of private chapel of the Pamphili family, to which the Pope belonged. The Pamphili Palace was also adjacent to the church, so this was quite doable. The facade of the church was made by Francesco Borromini, in the period from 1653-1657. The church was fully completed by Rainaldi's son, Carlo. The design of the church is quite common: it was shaped in the form of a Greek cross, with a ornate facade. The church's interior is filled with valuable works of art, like Martyrdom of St. Agnese (1670-1689) by Ciro Ferri and Sebastiano Corbellini, and a marble relief in the main altar with a setting installed by Carlo Rainaldi and Ciro Ferri, depicting the Miracle of SantAgnese, a work by authors Alessandro Algardi, Ercole Ferrata and Domenico Guidi. There is also the altar dedicated to SantAlessio, a work by Giovanni Francesco Rossi; an altar depicting the Martyrdom of SantEmerenziana, a masterpiece by Ercole Ferrata; an altar depicting the Death of Santa Cecilia, a masterpiece of Antonio Rag; an altarpiece of the Martyrdom of SantEustachio by Ercole Ferrata and Giovanni Francesco Rossi; a statue of Saint Stephen Martyr by Pietro Paolo Campi and many others. The Pamphili or Pamphilj Palace (Palazzo Pamphili) is yet another interesting monument on Piazza Navona. Situated next to the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone; and facing Piazza Navona, this palace was erected between 1644 and 1650. This was one of many properties by the Pamphili family, and after one of its members, Giovanni Battista Pamphilj became Pope Innocent X, a construction of a larger palace was commissioned. The new palace incorporated some neighboring buildings: the former palace of the Pamphilj and the near-by Palazzo Cybo. The new palace was remarkable: it had three courtyards and a lavish interior filled with works by famous artists, like Giacinto Gimignani, Gaspard Dughet, Andrea Camassei, Giacinto Brandi, Francesco Allegrini and Pier Francesco Mola. The most lavish part of the palace is the gallery, painted by Pietro da Cortona and designed by Francesco Borromini. The gallery in the Pamphili Palace was completed in the period from 1651-1654. The most valuable part aredefinitely Pietro da Cortona's paintings depicting Enea's Histories. Through time the palace served as the home of Accademia Filarmonica Romana, and since 1920 as the home of Brazilian embassy in Italy. In 1964, the building became the property of the Federative Republic of Brazil.

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Other monuments on the Piazza Navona include: Stabilimenti Spagnoli, Palazzo de Cupis, Palazzo Torres Massimo Lancellotti, Church of Nostra Signora del Sacro Cuore and Palazzo Braschi (now housing Museo di Roma).

Santa Maria in Vallicella or Chiesa Nuova


Santa Maria in Vallicella or better known as Chiesa Nuova is an Oritorian church situated around Piazza Navona, near-by Corso Vittorio Emmanuele. This church was erected in 1561, by St Philip Neri, as the principal church of the Oratorians. On the site of this church, was another church dating from the 12th century, dedicated to Santa Maria in Vallicella (Our Lady in the Little Valley). But, during the age of Counter-Reformation in the 16th century, the church was given to the new religious order, who named it Chiesa Nouva. The church followed the design of the Ges church, with a very important collection of masterpieces in its interior. The works situated in this church include Barocci altarpieces, Cortona frescoed ceiling, and Rubens's slate and copper altarpiece. There are also Pietro da Cortona's works: 'Trinity', 'Isiah', 'Jeremiah', 'Daniel' and 'Ezechiel' as well as the 'Assumption of the

A detail of the Fountain of the Four Rivers.


(Photo by: David Paul Ohmer)

A view of Piazza Navona, with Fountain of the Moor in front.


(Photo by: Scott Denham)

Virgin', fresco of the 'Miracle of the Madonna della Vallicella' aided by Paolo Veronese. The ceiling and the church's nave are filled with Episodes of the Old and New Testament by Lazzaro Baldi, Giuseppe Ghezzi, Daniele Seiter, Giuseppe Passeri, and Domenico Parodi. There are also several altairpieces: Crucifixion by Pulzone with a ceiling fresco painted by Lanfranco, Ascension by Girolamo Muziano, a Pentecost by Giovanni Maria Morandi, an Assumption by Cerrini; together with Rubens' altairpiece. The church contains works by many other famous artists of the area, as well as Europe.

Palazzo Braschi
Palazzo Braschi is a large Neoclassical palace, located between Piazza Navona, Campo de' Fiori (and Corso Vittorio Emanuele II), and the Piazza di Pasquino. This edifice was built by the papal nephew Luigi Braschi Onesti and designed by Cosimo Morelli at the end of 18th and at the beginning of 19th century. It served as the palace of mayor during the Napoleon's occupation of Rome, and later as a property of the Italian state. In the 20th century, the palace became the home of Museo di Roma. The palace is well-known for its beautifully decorated interior, featuring various masterpieces of art and architecture of the period, like the monumental staircase, lined with eighteen red granite columns acquired from the gallery built by emperor Caligula on the banks of the Tiber, and a line of ancient sculptures and fine stuccoes by Luigi Acquisti, inspired by Achilles myth.

Palazzo Madama
This current home to the Senate of the Italian Republic, known as the Palazzo Madama or Palace Madama dates from the end of 15th century. The palace was built on top of the ruins of baths of Nero, for the Medici family. Later on, the palace was the home to two popes, each from the Medici family, Leo X and Clement VII, as well as Catherine de' Medici, Clement VII's niece, for some time. The building was named after Madama Margherita of Austria, who was the wife of Alessandro de' Medici and, after his death, Ottavio Farnese. This lavish edifice was filled with numerous art pieces, part of the art collection of the Florentine Medici family. A part of this collection was later inherited by the Farnesi family.

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The building's exterior is dominated by a faade, dating from the mid 1650s and designed by Cigoli and Paolo Maruccelli, who also added the decorations in form of cornices and urns. Through time, the building housed Ministries of Finances and of the Public Debt, as well as the Papal Post Offices. Since 1871, the palace is the official seat of the Roman Senate.

Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza


Pasquin (Italian Pasquino, Latin Pasquillus) was the colloquial name given to an ancient statue dug up in the course of paving the Parione district, erected on the west side of Piazza Navona in 1501, near-by Piazza di Pasquino and Palazzo Braschi. The statue through time became a symbol of free speech: it became the custom to criticize the pope or individuals in his government by writing satirical poems in broad Roman dialect (called "pasquinades" from the Italian "pasquinate") and attach them to this statue. Pasquinade also denotes a personal attack. (Photo by: antmoose)

Church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza is a masterpiece of Roman baroque church architecture, designed by the famous architect Francesco Borromini in the period from 1642-1660. This famous church was first a chapel of the University of Rome palace, called La Sapienza and devoted to Saint Yves: hence the name. This existing palace/chapel was reconstructed according to Borromini's designs into a church shaped in a star of David, which embodied the courtyard of the palace together with the facade of the church. He also reconstructed a dome with a lantern, which was something new in the tradition of church architecture. The interior was decorated with a mixture of organic and geometric patterns, giving it a sense of rational architecture mixed with dazzling details. The star of the church's interior is definitely Pietro da Cortona's alterpiece, depicting the St Yves, a patron saint of the jurists.

San Luigi dei Francesi


Church of San Luigi dei Francesi is a Roman church, designed by Giacomo della Porta and built by Domenico Fontana between 1518 and 1589. This church is known as the national French church of Rome, entitled to the Virgin Mary, to St Dionigis Areopagitas and St Louis IX, king of France. The church is governed by the "Administrative deputy" named by the French ambassador to the Holy See. The devotion to France also can be seen in the church's facade, decorated in statues from the French history, like Charlemagne, St Louis, St Clothilde and St Jeanne of Valois. It was also the final resting place of the French clerical community, so there are tombs of Pauline de Beaumont, erected by her lover Chateaubriand, the classic liberal economist Frdric Bastiat and that of Cardinal de Bernis, ambassador in Rome for Louis XV and Louis XVI. The church's interior contains many fine works of artists of the period, like Domenichino's frescoes portraying the Histories of Saint Cecilia, decorations by Cavalier D'Arpino, Francesco Bassano il Giovanni, Muziano, Giovanni Baglione, Siciolante da Sermoneta, Jacopino del Conte, Tibaldi and Antoine Derizet. However, the absolute star is the Contarelli chapel decorated by Caravaggio, featuring three world-renowned canvases of The Calling of St Matthew, The Inspiration of Saint Matthew, The Martyrdom of Saint Matthew.

Santa Maria della Pace


Situated not far from Piazza Navona, in Via di Santa Maria della Anima, the church of Santa Maria della Pace dates from the 15th century, and was built after the commission of Pope Sixtus IV. The church was built on the foundations of the church of Sant'Andrea de Aquarizariis, and dedicated to the Virgin Mary, as a sign of remembrance of the miraculous

The Baroque church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza.


(Photo by: euthman)

bleeding of a Madonna's image in 1480. In the 17th century, the building was restored by the famous artists Pietro da Cortona, who added the famous Baroque faade. During this restoration period, several houses were demolished and this resulted in forming of a small piazza, where the church is the central element. The monumental effect of the edifice was further enhanced by the concave and convex forms at varying scales of the main facade, and thus created a remarkable appearance. The church's interior is also quite remarkable: it is consisted of a nave, vaulting and a cupola; dominated by both octagonal coffering and vertical lines radiating from the cupola. The interior is also filled with various works of authors of the period: Carlo Maderno's design of the altar, Raphael's fresco of the four Sybils, the Cesi Chapel designed by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, and frescos the Creation of Eve and the Original Sin by Rosso Fiorentino.

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There are also works by Carlo Maratta, Peruzzi, Orazio Gentileschi, Francesco Albani and others. However, the main feature of the Santa Maria della Pace's interior is the cloister, from the beginning of the 16th century, designed by Donato Bramante. The cloister was one of his first works in Rome; commissioned by Cardinal Oliviero Carafa.

Other Monuments Worth Visiting


Palazzo Altemps: this 15th century palace, originally built for Girolamo Riario, a nephew of Pope Sixtus IV, is now home to a branch of Museo Nazionale Romano. The palace was bought in the 16th century by the Altemps family, hence the current name. The Altemps family were great collectors of art, and gathered a valuable collection of painting and sculptures by many renown artists. The star of their collection is the marble statue of Galata's Suicide, a copy of the bronze original as well as the Ludovici Throne, a carved relief of Aphrodite from the 5th century BC. Palazzo della Cancelleria: Palazzo della Cancelleria is a 15th century Renaissance palace, financed by Raffaele Riario, a nephew of Pope Sixtus I, involved in a conspiracy against the powerful Medici family. The Medici revenged by taking this palace and turning it into a papal chancellery, hence the name. Campo de' Fiori: Campo de' Fiori, literally field of flowers, is a famous piazza in Rome, well-known as the "it" place of the Medieval and Renaissance Rome. This was the site of many important events in Rome's history, and at one point was a place of execution!!! Nowadays is a lively square, lined with restaurants and bars, with a statue of Giordano Bruno in the center. Campo de' Fiori is the site where he was burned for heresy after claiming that the Earth moves around the sun!!! Palazzo Spada: this Renaissance palace is mostly famous for the extravagant reliefs and stucco works, and for the Galleria Spada. Galleria Spada contains many valuable works of art, previously owned by the Cardinal Bernardino Spada, including works by Guercino, Durer and Artemisia Gentileschi.

Chuarch of Santa Maria della Pace, restored by Pietro de Cortona.


(Photo by: Gaspa)

The livelihood of Campo de' Fiori. It is hard to imagine that once this piazza served as an execution site!!! (Photo by: Darren Copley)

Ghetto and Tiber Island: Ghetto is a historical district of the Jewish community in Rome. Through Via del Portico d'Ottavia, you can reach Rome's central synagogue. Tiber Island was known in the ancient times as the place of healing. In 293 BC there was a temple erected , dedicated to Aesculapius, and nowadays there is a famous medical center.

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Around the Pantheon in Rome

Around the Pantheon in Rome


World Europe Countries Around the Pantheon Italy Cities Rome Local Guide What to See and So Landmarks Piazzas

Here are the most important and interesting landmarks placed around the Roman Pantheon.

Largo di Torre Argentina


Largo di Torre Argentina, also known as Area Sacra di Largo Argentina is a square, situated near-by Pantheon, and the site that holds remains of the four temples dating from the era of Republic. These temples are among the oldest ones in Rome and for the purpose of identification were marked as Temples A,B, C and D. These remains were discovered in 1920s, along with the remains of Pompey's Theater: famous as the place where Julius Caesar was killed as well as the spot he was believed to be assassinated is situated on the square. These remains are located in the ancient Campus Martius, but in the present a busy bus terminal and a road junction. The four temples, named temples A, B, C, and D, were surrounded by the Hecatostylum (one-hundred columns porch), and the Baths of Agrippa in the north, by buildings which were part of the Circus Flaminius in the south, by the great porched square of Porticus Minucia Frumentaria in the east and by the Theatre of Pompey in the west. The temples were surrounded also by a paved road, which was reconstructed later in the Imperial era.

Area Sacra di Largo Argentina, and area wh the oldest monumnets in Rome were found. (Photo by: mysticchildz)

Temple A dates from the 3rd century BC, and is probably the Temple of Juturna, erected by Gaius Lutatius Catulus after his victory against the Carthaginians in 241 BC. The building was rebuilt into a church of San Nicola di Cesarini during the Medieval period, and there are two apses from this church still remianing. Temple B was a circular temple, built by Quintus Lutatius Catulus in 101 BC to celebrate his victory over Cimbri. The temple was dedicated to Aedes Fortunae Huiusce Diei or literally the "Luck of the Current Day". From this temple six of the columns are still preserved. During the excavations, a colossal statue of the goddess herself was found and placed in the Capitoline Museums. Only the head, the arms, and the legs of the statue of goddess were made of marble, while the other parts, covered by the dress, were made of bronze. Temple C, the oldest temple of them all, dates from the 3rd century BC. It was probably dedicated to goddess Feronia, an Italic goddess of fertility. The temple was placed on a high platform, which was preceded by a altar. This design is typical for Italic architecture, which makes this temple different from others which followed the Greek model. After a fire in 80 AD, the temple was restored . White and black mosaic found in the temple's interior dates from this period. Temple D is the largest of the four and dates from the 2nd century BC. The design of the temple, goes back to the period of Late Republican restorations, and was devoted to Lares Permarini. Only a small part of this temple is yet excavated. Behind the temples B and C, a part of the (in)famous Theater of Pompey was also found. This building, also known as the Curia of Pompey was the place where the Roman Senate regularly met, during the period of the Republic. This building is also known as the place where Julius Caesar was assassinated by Brutus, Cassius and their accomplices in March 15, 44 AD!!!

Church of the Gesu


The Church of the Ges, also known in Italian Chiesa del Sacro Nome di Ges, or literally "Church of the Holy Name of Jesus", located in the Piazza del Ges, is the mother church of the Jesuit religious order (the Society of Jesus). The church was commissioned by Saint Ignatius of Loyola, the founder of the Jesuits Society of Jesus, in 1551. After its construction, it remained the home of the Superior General of the Society of Jesus until the suppression of the order in 1773. The main architects of this remarkable edifice, with its "the first truly Baroque faade" designed by Giacomo della Porta, were Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and Giacomo della Porta. They set a pattern of Jesuit church all around the world which lasted until the twentieth century.

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The Jesuit Mother Church was built according to the new requirements, formulated at the Council of Trent, which required that the visitor is projected immediately into the body of the church, which is achieved by a single nave without aisles, but a series of identical interconnecting chapels behind arched openings. In this way, the congregation is immediately brought together and they focus their attention to the central part of the church, the altar. The plan of the church thus synthesizes the central planning of the High Renaissance, dominated by the grand scale of the dome as well as the tradition of previous construction of Franciscan and Dominicans churches. The church's interior is filled with valuable pieces of art and sculpture of the period. These include the grandiose ceiling fresco by Giovanni Battista Gaulli named Triumph of the Name Church of the Gesu, with its beautiful facade designed by Giacomo della Porta. of Jesus as well as the venerated 15th-century Madonna Della (Photo by: Gaspa) Strada. Most artwork is hidden inside the side chapels. There is the Cappella di Sant'Andrea, dedicated to St Andrew, with works by Agostino Ciampelli, depicting numerous saints and marytrs, and an altarpiece depicting the Martyrdom of St Andrew; the Cappella della Passione with works by Giuseppe Valeriani and Gaspare Celio, and a bronze urn with the remains of 18th century Jesuit St Giuseppe Pignatelli; the Cappella degli Angeli with a ceiling fresco of the Coronation of Virgin and altarpiece of Angels worshiping Trinity by Federico Zuccari, as well as several works by Silla Longhi and Flaminio Vacca; the Saint Francis Xavier Chapel, designed by Pietro da Cortona, depicting Francis Xavier welcomed to heaven by angels by Carlo Maratta and by Giovanni Andrea Carlone. There is also the presbytery designed by Bernini; Cappella di San Francesco Borgia, with an altarpiece, Saint Francesco Borgia in Prayer by Pozzo, surrounded by works by Gagliardi, several works by Nicol Circignani and by Marchesi Ferrari; then the Chapel of Nativity or Cappella della Sacra Famiglia with an altarpiece of the nativity made by Circignani and frescoes by Magni; the Cappella della Santissima Trinit, named after the main altarpiece by Francesco Bassano the Younger, and other works by Giovanni Battista Fiammeri, Ventura Salimbeni and Durante Alberti; and the Chapel of the Madonna della Strada, designed by Giuseppe Valeriani, with works by G.P. Pozzi, depicting painted scenes from the life of the Virgin.

Remains of the so-called Hecatostylum, a large portico of 100 columns. The name of the square Largo di Torre Argentina comes from the two dominant towers, or torres. The first one is Torre Argentina, which takes its name from the city of Strasbourg, whose original name was Argentoratum. The second tower bears the name Torre del Papitto ("Little Pope's Tower"), attributed to Antipope Anacletus II Pierleoni, allegedly not a tall person. (Photo by: Eugenia y Julian)

The Church of the Ges's masterpiece is definitely the imposing St Ignatius Chapel, designed by Andrea Pozzo and containing the tomb of St Ignatius. The altar depicts the Trinity, surrounded by a line of columns that enclose the colossal statue of the saint made by Pierre Legros. Initially the design was first done by Giacomo della Porta, afterwards by Pietro da Cortona, but ultimately Andrea Pozzo won a public contest to design the altar. There is also a bronze urn designed by Algardi that holds the body of the saint, surrounded by statues depicting Religion defeating heresy by Legros, and Faith defeating idolatry by Jean-Baptiste Thodon.

Pantheon
The Pantheon, literally meaning "Temple of All the Gods", is a Rome's landmark, dedicated to all the gods of Ancient Rome and dating from the period of Hadrian's reign, around 125 AD. It is probably the best preserved Roman monument, despite the continuous use throughout its history ( from the 7th century it served as a Catholic church). The design of edifice is quite unique, and according to some historical evidence, it was designed by Trajan's architect Apollodorus of Damascus or even perhaps emperor Hadrian's architects. It is the oldest standing domed structure in Rome; with quite similar parts of construction: the height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same, which in the end creates an extraordinary result. The first Pantheon was built by Agrippa in 27 Bc, after the famous Battle of Actium.

A glimpse of the remarkable interior of the Church of the Gesu, filled with masterpieces of the period. (Photo by: Darren Copley)

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Around the Pantheon in Rome

It was destroyed during a large fire in 80 AD, and not before the rule of Hadrian it was rebuilt. Emperor Hadrian reconstructed the building, together with the original inscription, saying "Marcus Agrippa, Lucii filius, consul tertium fecit" translated to "'Made by Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, in his third consulship", which was added into the facade. Some restoration works were done during the reign of Septimius Severus and Caracalla in 202 AD, which were marked by a smaller inscription, saying "pantheum vetustate corruptum cum omni cultu restituerunt" (with every refinement they restored the Pantheon worn by age). In 609 Ad, the monument was turned into a Christian church, called Santa Maria ad Marytres (nowadays Santa Maria dei Martiri). The turning the Pantheon into a church preserved it from destruction, which happen to many Roman monuments in the period of Middle ages, and Renaissance. From the period of Renaissance, the Pantheon was used as a tomb, with quite a few of celebrities were buried: painters Raphael and Annibale Carracci, the composer Arcangelo Corelli, and the architect Baldassare Peruzzi. In the 17th century, Pope Urban VIII ordered a melt down of the Pantheon's portico bronze ceiling, which was later used to make bombards for the fortification of Castel Sant'Angelo, and according to some by Bernini for the baldachin above the high altar in the St Peter's Basilica in Vatican. In the Pantheon, were also buried Vittorio Emanuele II and Umberto I, kings of Italy, as well as Umberto's Queen, Margherita. Nowadays the Pantheon is still a church, and masses are still celebrated here, particularly on important Catholic holidays and for weddings. The Pantheon's exterior is quite unique: it is circular in shape, with a line of granite Corinthian columns placed under the dome, with a central opening on top, known as the Great Eye. Although it seems self-standing, there was a building behind it on which it was leaned. There are also a set of niches, probably left for the statues of gods. The cella was once plated with gold, but this had vanished through time. The interior is dominated by decorative panels, also known as coffers; a series of brick-relieving arches, as well as the great opening the Great Eye. This type of architecture had greatly influenced the architecture of the Western civilization, especially from the period of Renaissance onwards. Examples of buildings influenced by the Pantheon are numerous, including the Panthon in Paris, the Temple in Dartrey, the British Museum Reading Room, Manchester Central Library, Thomas Jefferson's Rotunda at the University of Virginia, the Rotunda of Mosta, in Malta, Low Memorial Library at Columbia University, New York, the domed Marble Hall of Sanssouci palace in Potsdam, Germany, the State Library of Victoria, and the Supreme Court Library of Victoria, both in Melbourne, Australia, the 52-meter-tall Ottokr Prohszka Memorial Church in Szkesfehrvr, Hungary, Holy Trinity Church in Karlskrona by Nicodemus Tessin the Younger, Sweden, as well as the California State Capitol in Sacramento. The works of art contained inside the Pantheon are numerous. There are the high altar by Alessandro Specchi, choir by Luigi Poletti, canvas by Clement Maioli of St Lawrence and St Agnes, a fresco of the Annunication attributed to Melozzo da Forli, Incredulity of St Thomas (1633) by Pietro Paolo Bonzi, frescoes belonging to the Tuscan school of art, tomb of King Victor Emmanuel II by Manfredio Manfredi, a sculpture by Il Lorenzone depicting St Anne and the Blessed Virgin, 15th-century paintings of the Umbrian school of art, a statue of St. Anastasio (1725) by Bernardino Cametti, Assumption by Andrea Camassei, a statue of St Joseph and the Holy Child by Vincenzo de Rossi, paintings by Francesco Cozza, 17th-century canvases by Ludovico Gimignani; Moses by Francesco Rosa; Eternal Father by Giovanni Peruzzini; David by Luigi Garzi and finally Eritrean Sibyl by Giovanni Andrea Carlone; a statue of St Agnes by Vincenco Felici, a chapel of St Thomas the Apostle by Giuseppe Sacconi and Cirilli, a tomb of Raphael by Antonio Munoz; a statue Madonna del Sasso (Madonna of the Rock) by Lorenzetto as well as numerous others.

Sant'Ignazio di Loyola
Church of Sant'Ignazio di Loyola a Campo Marzio is a Roman Baroque church, dating from the 17th century. The church is dedicated to Ignatius of Loyola, the founder of the Jesuit order. It was designed by Father Orazio Grassi, a Jesuit also, on the plans laid by Carlo Maderno and associates, and all funded by Cardinal Ludovico Ludovisi.
A high altar in Pantheon, placed inside one of the niches.

Sant'Ignazio is built in a shape of a Latin cross, with numerous side chapels, closely resembling the Gesu church. The interior is dominated by a line of Corinthian columns, surrounding the entire space; with a high altar; all paved with colored marble and decorated by animated stucco reliefs. The church is also decorated by extensive gilding, richly decorated side altars and range of beautiful paintings and reliefs at church's ceiling, which produce an extraordinary effect. The church's masterpiece is definitely the painted frescoes on the nave ceiling by Andrea Pozzo. The frescoes depict the work of Saint Ignatius and the Society of Jesus in the world, as well as their welcoming in heaven by Christ and the Virgin Mary.

(Photo by: samuraijohnny)

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Pozzo manages to transform the actual surface of the nave, and paints the characters as if they're floating underneath a giant cupola. This cupola was never actually built, but a canvas with a perspective projection of a cupola was placed on its spot. There are also frescoes depicting the life and apotheosis of St Ignatius by the same author, sculptures Magnificence and Religion by Alessandro Algardi and several stucco works; a huge statue of St Ignatius, in stucco, by Camillo Rusconi, an altarpiece depicting St Joseph and the Virgin and a lunette and The Last Communion of St Luigi Gonzaga by Francesco Trevisani; an altarpiece of The Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple by Stefano Pozzi; a relief St. Aloyzius Gonzaga in Glory by Pierre Legros; a marble altarpiece of the Annunciation by Filippo Della Valle, works by Pietro Bracci and Delattre, and numerous others.

Santa Maria Sopra Minerva


Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, located in the Campus Martius, nowadays on Piazza della Minerva, is considered to be the only Gorthic church in Rome. This main Dominican church in Rome was erected on top of foundations of a temple dedicated to the goddess Minerva, known as the Delubrum Minervae, at the end of the 13th century. According to some historical evidence, the temple of Minerva (perhaps underneath it even the temple to Isis and Serapeum) was still present in the 8th century, when the site was taken over by the Eastern monks. The present day church was built by the Dominican friars, Fra Sisto Fiorentino and Fra Ristoro da Campi, in 1280 and the church was completed in 1370. During the 17th century, it was renovated in Baroque style, hence its present day Baroque facade; and once again in the 19th century, giving it a Neo-medieval appearance. It's interior contains the tomb of Pope Paul IV and the Medici popes Leo X and Clement VII; the tomb of Saint Catherine of Siena, as well as the interior of here room, reconstructed above the sacristy by Antonio Cardinal Barberini in 1637. There are also some notable works of art contained in this church, like Michelangelo's Christ the Redeemer, frescoes by Antoniazzo Romano and many others.

Pantheon's interior, with the Great Eye on top, which serves as both cooling and warming device. Ingenious! (Photo by: stanrandom)

Sant'Ignazio di Loyola
Palazzo Doria Pamphilj (Pamphili), a palace dating from the 15h century, containing a chapel as well as a theater. Besides this, the building is home to a wonderful collection of art, including a portrait of Pope Innocent X by Velasquez, and works by many other prominent authors, like Tizian, Guercino, Caravaggio and Claude Lorrain. The private rooms of the palace also contain original furnishings, with precious tapestries and Murano chandeliers. Piazza Colonna is dominated by Palazzo Chigi, official residence of the prime minister, and by Column of Marcus Aurelius, erected after his death in 180 AD, in order to commemorate his victories over the Barbarians by the Danube. Piazza di Montecitorio's main feature is the obelisk in the center of the square, which is a part of a giant sundial brought from Egypt, during the rule of Augustus. The obelisk was erected in the 16th century, after being lost for centuries. the other main feature of the piazza is the facade of Palazzo di Montecitorio, designed by Bernini, and finished by Carlo The beautiful frescoes on the ceiling in the church of Santa Maria Sopra Minerva. Fontana. The palace was the official seat of the chamber of Deputies until (Photo by: Gaspa) late 19th century. La Maddalena is a 17th century church situated near by Pantheon, famous for its Rococo facade. Although quite small, the church's interior is filled from floor to the top with ornaments, decorations and paintings. Palazzo Altieri is a 17th century palace, known for its ghost. There is a tale reporting of a hovel of an old woman who refused to demolish her house in order a palace is built, so it haunts the existing palace!

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Around Piazza di Spagna in Rome

Around Piazza di Spagna in Rome


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Here are the most interesting landmarks located in the surroundings of Rome's Piaza di Spagna.

Santa Maria del Popolo


Church of Santa Maria del Popolo is situated between the ancient Porta Flaminia (one of the gates of the Aurelian Walls and the starting point of the Via Flaminia, the most important route to the north of Ancient Rome) and the Pincio park on Piazza del Popolo. This is one of the first Renaissance churches in Rome, as well as an Augustinian church. The church was built in the 15th century, commissioned by Pope Sixtus della Rovere, on the site of a chapel from the 11th century. In the 17th century, several renovation works were made, especially interesting is the modification of the facade by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, giving it a Baroque flare. This wonderful example of Italian Renaissance architecture contains numerous masterpieces by famous artists, including the Cerasi Chapel canvases of Caravaggio (Crucifixion of St. Peter and Conversion on the Way to Damascus), and the Assumption of the Virgin by Annibale Carracci, the Chigi Chapel designed by Raffaello Sanzio and finished by Bernini, Nativity by Pinturicchio and many others. The church also contains tombs of many influential people, like the banker Agostino Chigi and the Cardinal Savo Millini.

Trevi Fountain
The Trevi Fountain or in Italian Fontana di Trevi is the largest fountain in Rome as well one of Rome's famous landmarks, with the height of 25.9 meters and width of 19.8 meters. Located in a small Piazza di Trevi, this Baroque fountain is a true masterpiece. The fountain was placed on the site of Acqua Vergine, which revivified Aqua Virgo, one of the ancient aqueducts that supplied water to ancient Rome. According to a legend, Roman technicians located a source of pure water about 13 km from Rome, with the help of a virgin, hence the name (!), and this scene is depicted on the present fountain's facade, Aqua Virgo led the water into the Baths of Agrippa, and served Rome for more than four hundred years as a source; until the Goth seige in the 6th century.

The Chigi chapel in the church of Santa Maria del Popolo, designed by Raffaelo Sanzio. (Photo by: Gaspa)

This fashion of building a fountain at the end of an aqueduct was revived in the 15th century, when Pope Nicholas V mended the Acqua Vergine aqueduct and built a simple basin. In the 17th century, Bernini and later Pietro de Cortona made sketches of the fountain, but the project fell through. Finally the fountain was started in 1762, designed by Nicola Salvi, with Pietro Bracci's Oceanus (god of all water) set in the central niche; and finally completed in 1762 by Giuseppe Pannini. The fountain is dominated by a robustly modelled triumphal arch, a niche with Oceanus, and statues of Abundance spilling water from her urn and Salubrity holding a cup from which a snake drinks, surrounded by bas reliefs, flanked by tritons and horses. The main theme is taming of the waters, with all the scenes mixed up with water and stone. The overall result is astonishing!!

Piazza di Spagna and the Spanish Steps


Piazza di Spagna, most popular of the Rome's squares, takes its name from the Palazzo di Spagna built in the 17th century, to house the Spanish Embassy to the Holy See. The square is shaped as a crooked bow, and is dominated by the so-called Spanish Steps and an early Baroque fountain called La Fontana della Barcaccia ("Fountain of the Old Boat"). La Fontana della Barcaccia was designed in the 17th century by allegidly Pietro Bernini, father of Gian Lorenzo Bernini, a famous sculptor. The piazza is lined by a number of palaces and houses; one of which is the house where English poet John Keats lived and died in 1821 and nowadays houses a museum dedicated to this famous poet. The Spanish steps or in Italian Scalinata della Trinit dei Monti are the most dominating feature of the Piazza di SPagna, placed on a high slope of the Pincio Hill, one of Rome's seven hills.
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The steps lead to the church Trinit dei Monti, which were under the patronage of the Bourbon kings of France. The stairway consist of 138 steps, and are considered to be the the longest and widest staircase in all Europe. They were built in the period from 17231725, in order to link the Bourbon Spanish Embassy to the Holy See. Their construction was funded by French diplomat tienne Gueffier, in the amount of 20,000 scudi. The design was trusted to Francesco de Sanctis, under the patronage of Pope Clement XI Albani. The steps bear several sculptural details, which were decorated by the Bourbon fleur-de-lys and Innocent XIII's eagle and crown, and are composed like terraced garden stairs. Nowadays, the Spanish steps are one of the most popular places in Rome, as well as the beloved site of Romans and tourists.

A Roman legend says that if visitors throw a coin into the Trevi fountain, they will surely return to Rome. A legend also says that two coins thrown will lead to a new romance and three coins tossed will ensure either a marriage or divorce. Also one should throw three coins with one's right hand over one's left shoulder into the Trevi Fountain. (Photo by: Gaspa)

Villa Medici

The architectural complex on top of Pincio Hill, next to church of Trinit dei Monti, also known as the Villa Medici was founded by Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. The complex was home to the French Academy in Rome since 1803. The complex was built on top of an ancient gardens of Lucullus, which were later possessed by the Imperial family. These gardens were also known as the place where Mesallina was killed. In 1576 the property was acquired by Cardinal Ferdinando de' Medici, and Villa Medici was one of their first possessions in Rome. Bartolomeo Ammanati designed the complex and in his design successfully incorporated many of the Roman bas-reliefs and statues found in the area, thus creating a kind of open-air museum. As a part of the complex, a huge garden was planted, containing numerous pines, cypresses and oaks. The complex contains also about one hundred seventy pieces of Roman sculptures, gathered from the collections of the the Capranica and the della Valle families. Like the Villa Borghese that adjoins the complex, the Villa's gardens are more accessible than the formal palaces; as well as one of the most elegant and worldly settings in Rome and the seat of the Grand Dukes' embassy to the Holy See. After the family Medici died out, the complex was possessed by the house of Lorraine, and thus briefly into possession of Napoleon Bonaparte, who turned into into the French Academy. Since then the villa housed the winners of the prestigious Prix de Rome, and many other distinguishing personalities.

A typical view of Piazza di Spagna: this beloved Roman square is filled with people, day and night. (Photo by: boobooo)

Sant'Andrea al Quirinale
Sant'Andrea al Quirinale is a Jesuit church, situated on the Roman Quirinal Hill, dating from the 17th century. It is considered one of the finest examples of Roman baroque architecture and a masterpiece of Gian Lorenzo Bernini.The church was designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini and Giovanni de' Rossi, on the site of a 16th century church San Andrea a Montecavallo. It was commissioned by Pope Alexander VII and Cardinal Camillo Pamphilj. The church, dedicated to St Andrew, is shaped like an oval, with an entrance and altar placed on the narrower part. The central part of the church is Bernini's combination of sculpture and painting, depicting St Andrew ascending to heaven, where the Holy Spirit and the Cherubs await him.
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Villa Medici.

(Photo by: Nicholas Esposito)

Around Piazza di Spagna in Rome

The interior is dominated by a series of stucco decorations, designed by Bernini and executed by Antonio Raggi and others; as well as the ornaments portraying the coat-of-arms of the Pamphilj family. The church's interior is also filled with many valuable works of art, including the Martyrdom of Saint Andrew by Borgognone placed on the altar; Death of San Francesco Saverio and two other canvases by Baciccio, the Deposition, the Flagellation, and the Road to Calvary by Giacinto Brandi, Madonna with child and Saint Stanislao Kostka by Carlo Maratta, Glory of the Saints by Giovanni Odazzi, a ceiling fresco; Madonna and child and Saints by Ludovico Mazzanti, Glory of the Angels by Giuseppe Chiari; all placed in the side chapels. Sant'Andrea al Quirinale also contains several tombs of distinguished persons, among which is the tomb of Carlo Emanuele IV, King of Sardinia and Piedmont and the remains of St Stanislaus Kostka.

San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane


Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, also known as San Carlino, dates from the 17th century, and is a true masterpiece by architect Francesco Borromini. The church is world known as one of the iconic masterpieces of Baroque architecture. The building of this church was commissioned by Cardinal Barberine, as a part of the complex of buildings located on the Quirinal Hill, for the Spanish Trinitarian Order (also known as the "Discalced", or "shoeless"), an order dedicated to the freeing Christian slaves. The name of the church refers to the four fountains, located at the corners at intersection where the church stands. The church's exterior is very complex and rich: it is decorated with a complex geometric pattern of coffers of crosses, ovals, octagons and hexagons; with a dome and an upper lantern, portraying clouds opening to show a descending white dove. The complexity of patterns is seen in the church's interior: the floor plan is unusually cross-shaped, with a concave and convex facade which manages to maximize the usage of space, which is quite small in fact. The interior is dominated by statues, including Saint Charles Borromeo by Antonio Raggi, and of St John of Matha and St Felix of Valois, the founders of the Trinitarian Order.

Palazzo Barberini
Palazzo Barberini is a famous grand family palazzo of the Barberini family, designed as a typical country villa overlooking the Piazza Barberini in the Trevi Rione. The palace is the work of three architects, Carlo Maderno, Francesco Borromini and Gian Lorenzo Bernini, which created a unique, but harmonious edifice. The palace was built on the previous property of a An apse inside Sant'Andrea al Quirinale. garden-vineyard of the Sforza family, which was bought by Maffeo (Photo by: Gaspa) Barberini, later known as the Pope Urban VIII. Carlo Maderno was commissioned to enclose the Villa Sforza within a vast Renaissance block along the lines of Palazzo Farnese; but in the end his design resulted in a suburban villa with a semi-enclosed garden. Works were done by his nephew Francesco Borromini after Maderno's death. But, the project was later given to young artist Gian Lorenzo Bernini, and the two master artists work briefly together, which is quite interesting due to the fact that for the rest of their lives were rivals!! This huge palace surrounds a forecourt, placed in the center of Bernini's grand two-storey hall which contains an oval salone. There is also an extended wing which fully dominates this small piazza. At the back is a long wing of the palace, surrounded by a garden, and a bastion-looking basement. The frontal facade is dominated by a three layers of windows, which are arched with arcades which in the end give them a Venetian look. The last layer of windows is designed in order to provide a false sence of perspective to the observer, which is something new in architectural design of the period. This novelty was designed by Bernini, and was quite imitated in the architecture of the 19th and 20th century. The hall is surrounded by two sets of stairs; one is designed by Bernini and another one by its rival Borromini. Another feature that later dominated the modern architecture was Bernini's unified composition, where he managed to unify a central two-storey hall, backed by an oval salone with the symmetrical wings which are extended forward from the main block. The palace's interior is quite exquisite as well: the ceiling of the oval salon is considered to be one of Pietro da Cortona's masterpieces. The ceiling features a Baroque fresco depicting the Allegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power, which successfully combines an allegory with decoration. This fresoe was hugely influential on the other Baroque masters and their work, like the frescoed ceilings at Sant'Ignazio by Andrea Pozzo; or those at Villa Pisani at Stra, the throne room of the Royal Palace of Madrid, and the Ca' Rezzonico in Venice by Tiepolo. Another important feature is the painting Divine Wisdom by Andrea Sacchi,
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providing a contemporary critique of Pietro da Cortona's style. There are also some notable works, like frescoed ceilings by Giuseppe Passeri and Andrea Camassei, detached frescoes by Polidoro da Caravaggio and his lover Maturino da Firenze, as well as many others. A dominating feature of this complex is the semi-enclosed garden, also known as giardino segreto or the secret garden, due to the fact it is concealed from the nosy eyes of observers. The garden is known for the monument to Bertel Thorwaldsen, a 19th century artist. Nowadays, Palazzo Barberini is home to the Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, featuring one of the most important painting collection in Italy. The collection contains masterpieces, such as Raphael's portrait La fornarina, Caravaggio's Judith Beheading Holofernes, and a Hans Holbein portrait of Henry VIII. The palace also houses the Italian Institute of Numismatics.

Santa Prassede
The church bearing the name Santa Prassede, dedicated to two Christian martyrs Saint Prassede and Pudenziana, the daughters of St Pudens, traditionally thought of as St Paul's first Christian convert in Rome, dates from the 9th century. The church was commissioned by Pope Hadrian I around the year 780 in order to house the bones of the two saints. It was built on top of the remains of a 5th century structure, and later enlarged and renovated by Pope Paschal II in the 9th century. This was quite important due to the fact that Pope Paschal II was a predecessor of the Carolingian Renaissance, and believed in going back to the roots of Christianity, both theologically and artistically. Thus, the church is richly decorated in glittering mosaics, works by Byzantine artists. The Pope Paschal II also recovered the martyrs' bones from the catacombs of Rome, as well as remains of many other martyrs and contained them inside this church. The most important feature of the church's interior are the mosaics, which are placed throughout the apse as well as the arch, featuring numerous scenes from the lives of the two saints, like Prassede and Pudenziana in front of the God, surrounded by Jesus Christ and St Peter or others depicting symbols of the four Gospel writers: Mark, the lion; Matthew, the man; Luke, the bull; and John, the eagle, as they surround a lamb on a throne, a symbol of Christ's eventual return to Earth. The stars of the church's interior are Capella di San Zeno, a funerary chapel Pope Paschal II built for his mother Theodora and 8th century frescoes depicting the St Prassede.

A fountain in front of Palazzo Barberini, home to Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antiqua. Several ancient monuments were found around Piazza di Spagna. Among them is the so-called Ara Pacis, the Altar of Peace, which dates from the period of Augustus. The altar was commissioned by the Senate in 13 BC. This exquisitely carved monument depicted a procession that took place on July 4, 13 BC of the emperor's family. The altar was erected in honor of the peace established throughout the Mediterranean by emperor Augustus. The other important monument is Mausoleum of Hadrian, dating from 28 BC, containing the tomb of himself and his descendants. This once prestigious Roman burial place was built as a circular monument, with four concentric passageways in which the urns of the Roman imperial families were placed, including the urn of Augustus. (Photo by: antmoose)

San Pietro in Vincoli


The church of San Pietro in Vincoli, literally meaning Saint Peter in Chains, or also known as Basilica Eudoxia, is best known as the place where Michelangelo's magnificent statue of Moses is saved. The church's name derives from the relic that is kept in a reliquary under the main altar in the basilica, which are the chains that bound Saint Peter when he was imprisoned in Jerusalem. The chains were gift of Empress Eudoxia, wife of Emperor Valentinian III, to Pope Leo I, who in turn erected a basilica in the period from 432-440 AD. Through time, the church underwent several reconstructions and renovations, including the ones by Pope Adrian I, Pope Sixtus IV and by Pope Julius II, and by Baccio Pontelli who added the front portico and by Giuliano da Sangallo who added the cloister. The basilica's interior is dominated by a nave, with two aisles, which have three apses divided by Doric columns. There also several notable works of art by 18th century artists, like frescoed ceiling Miracle of the Chains by Giovanni Battista Parodi, two canvases of Saint Augustine and St. Margret by Guercino, the monument of Cardinal Girolamo Agucchi designed by Domenichino, a sacristy fresco depicting the Liberation of St. Peter also by Domenichino, the altarpiece Deposition by Pomarancio, the tomb of Nicol Cardinal da Cusa with a relief depicting Cardinal Nicholas before St Peter by Andrea Bregno and many others. The most valuable treasure inside the church of San Pietro in Vincoli is Michelangelo Bounarroti's Moses, a marble statue depicting the Biblical figure of Moses.

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Santa Prassede
The statue of Moses is incorporated into a marble tomb of Julius II, which was originally intended to be placed inside the St Peter's Basilica. The tomb of Julius II was intended to be a colossal structure in three levels, containing about forty different statues; but in time the funds were decreased and a simple project was finally specified. Although in the end the project consisted only of a simple wall tomb with fewer than one-third of the originally planned figures, Michelangelo's talent was fully disclosed. The whole tomb is dominated by the statue of Moses. Moses is depicted with horns on his head, which has roots in the mistranslation of the Bible by St Jerome, who instead of radiated light translated the Hebrew word "karan" into horns. A popular legend says that Michelangelo, upon completing of the statue, was so astonished with its life-like appearance and perfection, that he made a small cut on the Moses' knee to make it less perfect, and thus be a mere statue.

Santa Maria della Vittoria


Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria is a small intimate Baroque church , placed Via XX Settembre in Rome. The church was first began as chapel The wonderful gilded Byzantine mosaics inside Santa Prassede. dedicated to Saint Paul for the Discalced Carmelites at the beginning of (Photo by: Laurea) the 17th century, but later was rededicated to the Virgin Mary. The church was first funded by the Discalded Carmelites, but after a statue of Borghese Hermaphroditus was found during construction; the Borghese family took over the funding in return for the statue. The church's facade was completed under the designs by Giovanni Battista Soria, but in fact is the only structure designed and completed by the early Baroque architect Carlo Maderno. The church's interior is quite simple: there is a single nave, with three side chapels behind arches separated by colossal Corinthian pilasters with gilded capitals.There are several notable works inside the church, like the frescoes the Virgin Mary Triumphing over Heresy and the Fall of the Rebel Angels by Giovanni Domenico Cerrini, a sculpture the Dream of Joseph by Domenico Guidi, the funeral monument to Berlinghiero Cardinal Gessi, relief panels by Pierre Etienne Monnot, and other works of prominent artists like Guercino, Nicolas Lorrain, and Domenichino.But definitely, the church's masterpiece is the Cornaro Chapel with the Ecstasy of St Teresa by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Ecstasy of St Teresa is composed from a number of statues, depicting a moment described by Saint Teresa of Avila in her autobiography, of a vivid vision of an angel piercing her heart with a golden shaft, causing her both immense joy and pain.

Museo Nationale Romano


Museo Nazionale Romano or the National Museum of Rome, founded in 1899, is one of world's best museums of Classical art and home to most of antiquities found in Rome up to 1890. It is basically a set of museums, stretched across Rome, in five distinguished branches:
The interior of San Pietro in Vincoli.
(Photo by: Manelzaera)

the Palazzo Altemps, the Baths of Diocletian, the Aula Ottagona, the Crypta Balbi and the Palazzo Massimo. The first collection for this museum was formed from the fundus of the Museo Kircheriano and numerous sites which sprung up at the end of the 19th century. The collections were initially intended to be shown in Museo Tiberino, but this project was never realized. Instead, the State granted the institution the Villa Ludovisi and the important national collection of ancient sculptures. The base of the collection was established on the site near-by Baths of Diocletian, in a cloister built by Michelangelo. The Palazzo Altemps contains the sculptures from Renaissance collections such as the Boncompagni-Ludovisi and Mattei collections, including masterpieces like the Ludovisi Ares and the Suicide of a Gaul, from the same Pergamon group as the Dying Gaul, as well as the Egyptian Collection, featuring sculptures of eastern deities. The palace also includes also the historic private theater, at present used to house temporary exhibitions, and the church of Sant' Aniceto.

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Around Piazza di Spagna in Rome

This 15th century palace, originally built for Girolamo Riario, a nephew of Pope Sixtus IV, was bought in the 16th century by the Altemps family, hence the current name. The Altemps family were great collectors of art, and they gathered a valuable collection of painting and sculptures by many renown artists. The collection features many masterpieces like the marble statue of Galata's Suicide, a copy of the bronze original as well as the Ludovici Throne, a carved relief of Aphrodite from the 5th century BC. The Baths of Diocletian site consists of Cloister of Michelangelo and within it a 16th century garden, featuring an outdoor display of altars, funerary sculptures and inscriptions. There are also the main hall of the baths, used for temporary exhibitions; the Aula of Saint Isidore, a former chapel. Aula Ottogona features sculptures found on baths sites in Rome, including the bronze Athlete and Boxer from the Baths of Constantine. The Crypta Balbi was discovered during excavation works in 1981, on the site in the Campus Martius between the churches of Santa Caterina dei Funari and San Stanislao dei Polacchi. A colonnaded porticus of the Theatrer of Lucius Cornelius Balbus, as well as the nearby statio annonae and evidence of later occupation of the site was discovered by archaeologist Daniel Manacorda and his team. The Crypt houses the archaeological remains and finds found during this excavation works, as well as numerous other artefacts coming from the collections of the former Kircherian Museum, the Gorga and Betti collections; numismatic material from the Gnecchi collections and the collection of Vittorio Emanuele III of Savoia, the collections from the Roman Forum, in particular a fresco and marble architrave from the late-1930s Fascist deconstruction of the medieval church of Sant'Adriano in the Curia senatus, Museum of the Palazzo Venezia, the Capitoline Museums, the communal Antiquarium of Rome as well as the frescoes removed in 1960 from the church of Santa Maria in Via Lata. On the ground floor is the section named "Archaeology and history of an urban landscape" featuring the remains from the site itself, as well as the history of Monastero di Santa Maria Domine Rose, artefacts describing the medieval merchants' and craftsmen's homes, of the Conservatorio di Santa Caterina dei Funari (built in the mid-16th century by Ignatius of Loyola to house the daughters of Roman prostitutes), and of the Botteghe Obscura. The second section named "Rome from antiquity to the . middle ages" features the life and transformations of Rome as a whole between the 5th and 10th centuries AD. The Palazzo Massime alle Terme, erected in Neo-Renaissance style in the 19th century by the architect Camillo Pistrucci to house a Jesuit seminary, nowadays is home to sculptures from the Republican, Empire and late empire period as well as to coin and jewelry collections. The latter portrays an evolution of currency in Italy, featuring very rare coins, like the Theodorics medallion, the four ducats of Paul II with the navicella of St Peter, and the silver piastre of the Pontifical State with views of Rome.Inside the museum is also a mummy, found in 1964 on the Via Cassia, placed inside a richly decorated sarcophagus with several artefacts in amber and pieces of jewelry around it. The collection of sculptures contains many valuable pieces like the famous Tivoli General and Via Labicana Augustus, as well as the Ludovisi Gaul Killing Himself and His Wife (sometimes called "The Galatian Suicide"), a Roman marble group depicting a man in the act of plunging a sword into his breast, while he supports the dying figure of a woman with his left arm, a copy of the of a Hellenistic original from the early 2nd century. There is also a fine collection of frescoes dating back to the 1st century BC. The frescoes, discovered in 1863 and dating back to the I century BC, depict a luscious garden with ornamental plants and pomegranate trees in a very lifelike manner.

Michelangelo's Moses.

(Photo by: Sebastian Bergmann)

Sculptures placed inside a 16th century garden, a part of the Baths of Diocletian. (Photo by: antmoose)

The complex of baths of Diocletian.


(Photo by: antmoose)

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Around Piazza del Popolo in Rome

Around Piazza del Popolo in Rome


World Europe Countries Around Piazza del Popolo Italy Cities Rome Local Guide What to See and Do Landmarks Piazzas

Here is a list of the main monuments and landmarks placed around Rome's Piazza del Popolo.

Santa Maria Maggiore


Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, also known as Church of St Mary Major, is one of the four major or four papal basilicas in Rome. These five churches (Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, church of St Lawrence outside the Walls, church of St John Lateran, church of St Peter and church of St Paul outside the Walls church) were referred to as the five "patriarchal basilicas" of Rome, associated with the five ancient patriarchal sees of Christendom. This ancient Catholic basilica is the only Roman basilica that retained its original structure, despite the renovation works done through time. The name of the basilica refers to the fact that it is the largest (major) church in Rome dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary. In one period of time, the basilica was the seat of the Palace of the Popes due to the deteriorated state of the Lateran Palace. As it is a papal basilica, the basilica Santa Maria Maggiore is often personally used by the pope; especially in the period of the year when the annual Feast of the Assumption of Mary is celebrated. There is also a high altar dedicated to the pope, and is used by the pope alone. The basilica Santa Maria Maggiore was constructed in the 4th century, around 360 AD, and was commissioned by Pope Libertius. There is a legend about its construction, saying that Pope Liberius wanted to build a shrine at the site where an apparition of the Blessed Virgin Mary appeared. Frontal facade of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. These dreams of apparition had the Pope himself, as well as a local (Photo by: CFuga) nobleman and his wife. According to these dreams, the Pope carefully chose the place where to lay the high altar and foundations of the church, but this happened during a snowfall. This event was later noted as the Miracle of the Snow, and depicted by by Masaccio and Masolino about 1423 in a triptych commissioned by a member of the Colonna family for the Basilica. The annual Feast is thus dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary under the title of Our Lady of the Snows, and then the local Roman Catholics commemorate the miracle, by dropping white rose petals from the dome during the feast mass. The precise location of the first church from the 4th century, built by Pope Libertius, is unknown and the present-day edifice dates from the 5th century, from the period of Pope Sixtus III. Many ancient mosaics from this period are still preserved in the present-day church. This 5th century church was built as an imperial basilica, with a line of Athenian marble columns supporting the nave (probably coming from another Roman edifice or the first basilica from the 4th century). These columns were renovated by Ferdinando Fuga, who made them even and provided them with identical gilt-bronze capitals. Several additions were made through time: the campanile date from the 14th century and the coffered ceiling dating from the 16th century. The basilica itself was restored and renovated during the reign of various popes, like Eugene III (1145-1153), Nicholas IV (1288-92), Clement X (1670-76), and Benedict XIV (1740-58). The latter pope in the 18th century commissioned Ferdinando Fuga to build the present facade and to modify the interior. There were also broad renovation works, especially on the altars, in the period between 1575 and 1630. The basilica's facade was reconstructed several time, and thus is a blend of several architectural styles. It was first designed in the 12th century, and in the 18th century a loggia was added. The facade is mostly done after the designs of Ferdinando Fuga, with several sections performed by Flaminio Ponzio, like the sacristy and the right wing of the frontal facade. The basilica's exterior is also dominated by a medieval bell tower, which is one of the highest towers in Rome (it is about 75 meters high). To the right of basilica is a memorial representing a column, erected by Pope Clement VIII. The memorial probably commemorates the St Bartholomew's Day massacre of Protestants while some historians claim that it commemorates the end of the French Wars of Religion. There is also a Marian column, built in the 17th century, and designed by Carlo Maderno. This column is the model for many Marian columns in the world, also erected as a sign of thanks for the end of plague in Europe. This column is also the only remaining column from the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine in the Roman Forum. The column is dominated by a fountain at the column's base, decorated with the armorial eagles and dragons of Paul V. The basilica's interior is dominated by a coffered ceiling, dating back to the 16th century, when it was designed by Giuliano da Sangallo. There is a legend saying that the ceiling was built in Inca gold, which was a gift by Ferdinand and Isabella to the Spanish pope Alexander VI, but several historic evidence disputes this claim. The basilica contains a number of valuable works by masters of the period, like the apse mosaic, the Coronation of the Virgin, by Jacopo Torriti; frescoes by Giovanni Baglione and
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Around Piazza del Popolo in Rome

many others. There are also numerous artwork from other periods, like an early Christian mosaic cycle depicting Old Testament events dating from the 5th century, the Salus Populi Romani, a much venerated early icon of the Virgin and Child, a funerary monument of Clement IX (1671) designed by Carlo Rainaldi, featuring the papal bust is by Domenico Guidi; a temporary catafalque for Philip IV of Spain designed in 1665 by Rainaldi; a funerary monument of Pope Nicholas IV, designed by Domenico Fontana from the 1574; a bust of Costanzo Patrizi by Algardi, a number of sacristy frescoes by Passignano and Giuseppe Puglia, a statue of Saint Cajetan holding the Holy Child, by Bernini; the high altar sculpture by Pietro Bracci from the 18th century; a bust of Pius IX (1880) by Ignazio Jacometti; a number of Pauline Chapel frescoes by Guido Reni as well as frescoes for the monument of Clement VIII painted by Lanfranco; the Cesi Chapel tombs designed by Guglielmo della Porta and an Altar, confessio and Presepio (crib) sculptures made by Arnolfo di Cambio, from the end of the 13th century.

Paolina chapel with works by notable artists of the period.


(Photo by: Gaspa)

Definitely, the star of the Basilica Santa Maria Maggiore is the Crypt of the Nativity or the Bethlehem Crypt and the Sistine chapel of Santa Maria Maggiore. The Crypt of the Nativity served as a burial place of many prominent Catholics, like Saint Jerome, known as the author of the Vulgate, the first translation of Bible into Latin; and the famous Baroque architect and sculptor, Gian Lorenzo Bernini. The chapel is also known as the place where St Loyola held his first mass as a priest. Another famous part of the Santa Maria Maggiore basilica is the Sistine chapel, which shouldn't be confused with the famous Sistine chapel of the Vatican. This chapel was commissioned by the Pope Sixtus V, and designed by Domenico Fontana. The chapel was built in order to contain the relics of the Nativity crib, gathered through visits to the Holy Land. The chapel has the original Nativity Oratory placed below the chapel, while the chapel itself contains the tombs of the Pope Sixtus V and his early patron Pius V. These two chapels contains several notable works of art, like the Mannerist interior decoration by Cesare Nebbia and Giovanni Guerra; the statue of Sixtus V by Giovanni Antonio Paracca; the main altar by Sebastiano Torregiani; the tomb of Pius V by Fontana and the statue of Pius V by Leonardo Sarzana, and many others.

Piazza del Popolo


Piazza del Popolo, or translated from Italian "square of the people", is situated inside the northern gate in the Aurelian Walls, once known as the Porta Flaminia, and nowadays called Porta del Popolo. These gates were the starting point of the famous Via Flaminia, which led to Rimini or Ariminum in the Ancient Rome; and which was the most important route from Rome to the north. This square was for centuries the first place which a traveler would encounter in Rome, and also at the same time a very famous place of executions. The square got its present-day appearance in the 19th century, when it was designed by the architect Giuseppe Valadier in Neoclassical style. Valadier's design incorporated the verdure of trees as an essential element; and this he achieved by forming two semicircles by demolishing several buildings which stood in the previous trapezoidal square. The entrance to the square is Piazza Santa Maria Maggiore. marked by the two churches, also known as the "twin" churches (Photo by: Gaspa) (chiese gemelle): church of Santa Maria in Montesanto (on the left) and church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli (on the right), both dating from the 17th century. The churches were started by Carlo Rainaldi and finished by Bernini and Carlo Fontana. The twin churches are not exactly the same, but vary in details, offering variety within their symmetrical balance; which is a mark of the Baroque fashion. Between these two churches is Via del Corso, one of the tridente. Il tridente is the name for the three streets springing from the square: the Via del Corso in the center, the Via del Babuino on the left (opened in 1525 as the Via Paolina), and the Via di Ripetta (opened by Leo X in 1518 as the Via Leonina) on the right. Via del Corso follows the course extended beyond the city gate as the ancient Roman Via Flaminia, Via Flaminia, also known as the Via Lata during the Middle Ages and nowadays as the Via del Corso leads to the Piazza Venezia; Via di Ripetta goes past the Mausoleum of Augustus to the Tiber, to the riverside landing called the Porto di Ripetta, which was in function until the late 19th century; and the Via del Babuino ("Baboon") links Piazza di Spagna with Piazza del Popolo. The name of this latter street was taken from a grotesque sculpture of Silenus that gained the popular name of "the Baboon".
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Around Piazza del Popolo in Rome

The Piazza del Popolo's dominant features are also the church of Santa Maria del Popolo in the northeast corner of the piazza and the famous Egyptian obelisk of Ramses II from Heliopolis in the center of the Piazza. The obelisk, also known as the obelisk Flaminio, is the second oldest obelisk in Rome and one of the tallest ones. It arrived in Rome around 10 BC, by order of emperor Augustus. It was originally placed in the Circus Maximus, but later was transported and re-erected in the piazza del Popolo in the 16th century. It was placed by the architect-engineer Domenico Fontana, as a part of the urban plan of Pope Sixtus V. Besides the obelisk, the piazza also contained a fountain, which was moved to the Piazza Nicosia in 1818. During the reconstruction works on the piazza, the obelisk was decorated with a fountain base, depicting lions. The other features of the piazza are the Porta del Popolo, in its northern part, which was commissioned by Pope Alexander VII in 1655 (in order to celebrate Queen Christina of Sweden's conversion to Roman Catholicism and abdication and arrival in Rome) and designed by Bernini; and several fountains standing on each side of the square to the east and west; depicting the Seasons and Neptune with two Tritons. The fountains were deigned by Giovanni Ceccarini in the 19th century; and are dominated by a central figure flanked by two attendant figures. The center of the square is dominated by the Fontana dell' Obelisco; which is a group of four mini fountains, with a lion on a step plinth surrounding the obelisk.

Overview of the Piazza del Popolo.


(Photo by: lostajy)

Twin churches: Church of Santa Maria in Montesanto and Church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli
The churches Santa Maria dei Miracoli and Santa Maria in Montesanto are . situated on the southern part of the Piazza del Popolo, opposite the Aurelian Walls, separating the "trident" streets Via del Babuino, Via del Corso and Via di Ripetta. They are often referred to as the twin churches, due to the similar appearance they share, but in fact, the churches differentiate in several details. The church date from the 17th century, when they were built after the commission by Pope Alexander VII. The original plan included two churches with central plant; but the configuration of the terrain modified the initial design. The building of the church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli was started in 1675 and finished in 1681. The church's dominant feature is an elegant 18th century bell tower designed by Girolamo Theodoli and an octagonal cupola. The church's interior is filled with various artworks, like the stucco decoration by Antonio Raggi, the monuments for Cardinals Benedetto and Gastaldi designed by Carlo Fontana, the cupola and the lamp by Carlo Fontana and several works by Girolamo Lucenti. The church of Santa Maria in Montesanto was built on top of a church which bore the same name, which was situated at the beginning of Via del Babuino and occupied by Carmelite monks.

Piazza del Popolo with an Egyptian obelisc in the center.


(Photo by: polline)

The name of the church (Montesanto meaning the Holy Mountain) referrs to Mount Carmel in Israel. The construction of the present church started in 1662 and finally completed finished in 1679. The church was originally designed by Carlo Rainaldi, but subsequently redone by Gian Lorenzo Bernini and finally completed by Carlo Fontana. The most interesting features of the church are the statues of saints, attributed to Bernini; Miracle of the saint painted by Ludovico Gimignani; altarpiece of the Madonna with Child and Saints Francis and Jacob by Carlo Maratta; Assumption fresco by Giuseppe Chiari; the altarpiece of the Deposition by Biagio Puccini; and many others.

Twin churches on Piazza del Popolo.


(Photo by: Ruth L)

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Vatican

Vatican
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Vatican is an unusual place: both by size and population. It's the smallest country in the world, yet its influence far surpasses its meager size and its tiny economy. As the principal caretaker of the souls of 1.2 billion Catholics spread over all six continents, Vatican's monarch - the Pope exercises a considerable influence on global politics since his (it is always a he) attitudes towards issues such as abortion, gay rights and religious tolerance serve as relevant guidelines for the policy makers of many European, American and African countries. Another prominent peculiarity of this microstate includes the fact that Vatican is the only absolute monarchy in Europe. Other examples of absolute monarchy still in existence today include: Swaziland, Brunei, Oman, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia. Modern day Vatican came into being in the 20th century as a much diminished successor the Papal States. Until the unification of Italy in the late 19th century, Popes ruled (not only spiritually) large chunks of central and northern Italy, but once the rising tide of the Italian nationalism swept the Apennine Peninsula, the leadership of the Catholic Church found itself confined to the palaces and gardens behind the Saint Peter's Square in central Rome. But precisely due to its specific location and the limited size, Vatican today has the highest concentration of art treasure per square kilometre in the world. With their unsurpassable historic and artistic value St Peter's Basilica, the Vatican Museums and the Sistine Chapel are a must-see for all visitor to Rome - anarchists and atheists included.

Readying the Saint Peter's Square for the believers.


(Photo by: Argenberg)

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Basilica of St Peter's

Basilica of St Peter's
World Europe Countries Basilica of St Peter's Italy Cities Rome Local Guide What to See and Do Landmarks Vatican

The Basilica of Saint Peter, also known as Basilica Sancti Petri, Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano, and St Peter's Basilica, one of four major basilicas of Rome (the other three are Basilica of St John Lateran, Santa Maria Maggiore and St Paul outside the Walls) located within the Vatican City and referred to as "the greatest of all churches of Christendom". This basilica is the most prominent building in Vatican, and Rome as well; and the largest Christian church of all. The basilica covers an area of 2.3 hectares (5.7 acres), and has a capacity for over 60,000 people. This "mother of all Christians" is according to the tradition the burial site of Saint Peter, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus Christ and the first Bishop of Antioch, the first Bishop of Rome and originally the first Christian Pope. According to the tradition, the tomb of this saint is situated below the basilica's altar and there is also the burial place of many Popes through centuries. Thus, the Basilica of St Peter is one of the most famous pilgrimage places in the world. The appeal to numerous pilgrims and tourists lies in its historical significance and its countless artwork connected to many famous artists, like Michelangelo, Bernini, Bramante and others. The first edifice on this place was a 4th century church, which was there until the 16th century, when this whole complex was built. According to the Christian belief and certain historical evidence, Simon known as Peter, a fisherman from Galilee, took a leading position among Jesus' followers and founded the Catholic church. Peter is believed to be executed in the year 64 A.D. during the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero. According to the belief, Peter was crucified head downwards, by his own request, near the obelisk in the Circus of Nero. This obelisk is placed in the center of Basilica of St Peter's from a distance, with many pilgrims and tourists Saint Peter's Square and is thought of a "witness" to Peter's death. Peter's walking towards it. remains are believed to be buried just outside the Circus, on the Mons (Photo by: closelyobserved.com) Vaticanus across the Via Cornelia from the Circus, not far from the site of his death. The grave was first marked only by a rock and a shrine, and later on this place Old Saint Peter's Basilica was built. In the 20th century, Saint Peter's tomb was found under the crypt of the basilica, which was inaccessible since the 9th century. This tomb is shaped as an underground vault, with a structure above, probably built by Pope Anacletus in the 1st century. Human remains were discovered, but of course there is no way to determine for sure if they really belong to St Peter. All around the site were also numerous human remains found, which can be explained by the fact that the area was a cemetery before the Circus of Nero was built as well with the fact that numerous executions in the Circus were done and for many years after the burial of Saint Peter many Christians chose to be buried near him. The Old St. Peter's Basilica built during the reign of Emperor Constantine between 326 and 333 AD, in the shape of a typical basilical Latin Cross, consisted of an apsidal end, the chancel, a wide nave and two aisles on every side. The church was quite big; about hundred meters long, with an entrance preceded by a large colonnaded atrium. It contained numerous burial places and memorials, belonging to most of the popes coming from this church. This lasted until the 15th century, when building of the new complex of St Peter's basilica started. By the 15th century, the old Basilica was in bad shape, and a need for reconstruction occurred. The initial renovation works began during the Pope Nicholas V (1447 55) in the 12th century, and then he commissioned an overall plan of redesign. The architects Leone Battista Alberti and Bernardo Rossellino designed a plan for an entirely new basilica, or an extreme modification of the old. Nothing major was done at this period, besides the fact that 2,522 cartloads of stone were transported from the Roman Colosseum! In 1505, Pope Julius II decided to demolish the ancient building and replace it with something grandeur, but he was the first in line. In order to achieve the present day appearance of the basilica it took more than a hundred years and a whole line of architects, which were employed by a succession of Popes, starting from Leo X (1513 1521), and continued by Hadrian VI (1522 1523), Clement VII (1523 1534), Paul III (1534 1549), Julius III (1550 1555), Marcellus II (1555), Paul IV (1555 1559), Pius IV (1559 1565), Pius V (saint) (1565 1572), Gregory XIII (1572 1585), Sixtus V (1585 1590), Urban VII (1590), Gregory XIV (1590 1591), Innocent IX (1591), Clement VIII(1592 1605), Leo XI (1605), Paul V (1605 1621), Gregory XV (1621 1623), Urban VIII (1623 1644) and and finally ending with Pope Innocent X (1644 1655). The building of the new edifice actually started on April 18, 1506 and was finally completed in 1626.

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Basilica of St Peter's

There was a competition for the design of this grandeur edifice, and Bramante's design won. The design consisted of a huge basilica, shaped as a Greek Cross with a dome; which was inspired by the dome of the huge circular Roman temple, the Pantheon. The difference between these two monuments was that the Pantheon was supported by a continuous wall, while the new basilica was supported only by four large piers. The design of the dome was partially influenced by the Early Renaissance lantern of Florence Cathedral designed for Brunelleschi's dome by Michelozzo: the central dome was surrounded by five lower domes with an equal chancel, nave and transepts and at each corner of the building a tower. Bramante was succeeded by Giuliano da Sangallo, Fra Giocondo and finally Raphael. The latter made several changes in the overall design: he changed the design of the nave, and number of side chapels as well; the size of the towers and thus created a more compact whole. After Raphael, the main architects were Peruzzi, Antonio da Sangallo, known as "Sangallo the Younger"; and after him Michelangelo. Michelangelo is considered to be the the principal designer of a large part of the today's basilica, although the task wasn't his favorite. According to historical evidence, Pope Paul III forced this task upon him. But despite this fact, Michelangelo left his trace, especially on the dome.

(Photo by: iessi)

St Peter's Design
The idea of Pope Julius to make grandest building in Christendom was realized in a competition, for which a number of entries remain preserved in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence. The design that won was Bramante's, and for which the foundation stone was laid in 1506. His design envisioned a basilica in a shape of an enormous Greek The dome of St Peter's. Cross with a dome inspired by the Pantheon, with a dome (Photo by: Dave Hamster) surmounted by a lantern with its own small dome, similar to the lantern of Florence Cathedral designed for Brunelleschi's dome by Michelozzo. After the death of Pope Julius in 1513, Bramante was replaced with Giuliano da Sangallo, Fra Giocondo and Raphael. Raphael contributed the most to the original design, by reducing the size of the towers, and changing the chancel and the transepts. His successor Peruzzi reverted to the Greek Cross plan and other features of Bramante, but his plan wasn't realized to the end. Antonio da Sangallo (known as "Sangallo the Younger") submitted a plan which combined the features of Peruzzi, Raphael and Bramante's design. After him came Michelangelo, who was regarded as the principal designer of a large part of the building as it stands today. Michelangelo did not simply dismiss the ideas of the previous architects, but he drew on them in developing a grand vision, managing to recognize the essential quality of Bramante's original design. He blurred the definition of the geometry by creating massive proportions and filling in every corner with details, and also created an interesting exterior which was set as a giant order of Corinthian pilasters, placed at slightly different angles to each other. Michelangelo is mostly credited with finishing the basilica's dome, which is the tallest and the widest dome in the world, raising to a total height of 136.57 meters. Michelangelo redesigned the dome, taking into account all that had gone before, creating an ovoid dome in shape, rising steeply as it does the dome of Florence Cathedral. Giacomo della Porta and Fontana brought the dome to a completion in 1590, after Michelangelo's drawings. On top of the dome was a lantern, and Pope Clement VIII, had the cross raised into place, and put in the arms of the cross two lead caskets, one containing a fragment of the True Cross and a relic of St. Andrew and the other containing medallions of the Holy Lamb. In 1606, the demolition of the remaining parts of the Constantinian basilica began and Pope Paul V appointed Carlo Maderno as the chief architect. He created a basilica in shape of the Latin cross, by building a nave that encompassed the whole space. Basically, Michelangelo's designs of the building were extended into a nave. The works on the building began on May 7 1607 and proceeded at a high speed, with 700 labourers being employed. The following year, the facade was started and by December 1614 the final touches were added to the stucco decoration of the vault and early in 1615 the partition wall between the two sections was pulled down. The basilica's facade was designed by Carlo Maderno. It was built of travertine stone, with a giant order of Corinthian columns and a central pediment rising in front of a tall attic topped by statues of Christ, John the Baptist, and eleven of the apostles. Behind the facade of St. Peter's stretches a long portico or a "narthex", which was also designed by Carlo Maderno. This portico is consisted of long barrel vault, decorated with ornate stucco and gilt and small windows between pendentives.

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Basilica of St Peter's

At each end of the narthex is a space framed by Ionic columns, and in each space is an equestrian figure: Charlemagne by Cornacchini (dating from the 18th century) to the south, and figure of Emperor Constantine by Bernini (1670) to the north. The entrance in the basilica is through five portals, of which three are framed by huge salvaged antique columns. An ancient Egyptian obelisk was erected in the square, which wasn't aligned with Michelangelo's building, so Maderno aligned it with the Basilica's facade. Maderno also designed the nave, with huge paired pilasters. The interior is quite grandiose, and it is even hard to get a sense of scale within the building. The nave is decorated with the four cherubs who flutter against the first piers of the nave, which are two meters tall. The aisles each have two smaller chapels and a larger rectangular chapel, called the Chapel of the Sacrament and the Choir Chapel, which are lavishly decorated with marble, stucco, gilt, sculpture and mosaic. There aren't many paintings: the most precious painting is a small icon of the Madonna, removed from the old basilica. Underneath the dome is another Maderno's design: a crypt-like space or "Confessio", where the Cardinals and other privileged persons descend in order to be nearer the burial place of the apostle.
The main nave with the main altar.

Artwork in St Peter's
The nave features artworks, like:

(Photo by: cfwee)

two Holy Water basins held by pairs of cherubs each 2 meters high, commissioned by Pope Benedict XIII from designer Agostino Cornacchini and sculptor Francesco Moderati, dating from 1720s; markers showing the comparative lengths of other churches, starting from the entrance; medallions with relief depicting the first 38 popes on the decorative pilasters of the piers of the nave; statues depicting 39 founders of religious orders in niches between the pilasters; a statue of St. Peter Enthroned, sometimes attributed to late 13th century sculptor Arnolfo di Cambio, probably dating from the 5th century, with one foot of the statue is largely worn away due to centuries of pilgrims kissing it; the sunken Confessio leading to the Vatican Grottoes, containing a large A detail of the basilica's dome. kneeling statue of Pope Pius VI by Canova, who was captured and (Photo by: David Paul Ohmer) mistreated by the Napoleon's army; the High Altar, surmounted by Bernini's baldacchin; the four piers supporting the dome in the niches, containing the statues associated with the basilica's holy relics: St. Helena holding the True Cross, by Andrea Bolgi); St. Longinus holding the spear that pierced the side of Jesus, by Bernini (1639); St. Andrew with the St. Andrew's Cross, by Francois Duquesnoy and St. Veronica holding her veil with the image of Jesus' face, by Francesco Mochi. The north aisle features masterpieces, like: Michelangelo's Piet in the first chapel; monument of Queen Christina of Sweden, who abdicated in 1654 in order to convert to Catholicism; he second chapel, dedicated to St. Sebastian, which contains the tombs of popes Pius XI and Pius XII; the large chapel on the right aisle, known as the Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament, which contains the tabernacle by Bernini (1664) (resembling Bramante's Tempietto at San Pietro in Montorio) and with a painting of the Holy Trinity by Pietro da Cortona behind it; monuments of popes Gregory XIII by Camillo Rusconi (1723) and Gregory XIV; an altar containing the relics of St. Petronilla and with an altarpiece "The Burial of St Petronilla by Guercino (Giovanni Francesco Barbieri) from 1623.

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Basilica of St Peter's

The south aisle features more masterpieces, like: the baptistry, commissioned by Pope Innocent XII and designed by Carlo Fontana; the font, which was previously located in the opposite chapel, is the red porphyry sarcophagus of Probus, the 4th century Prefect of Rome, surmounted with a gilt-bronze figure of the "Lamb of God"by Carlo Fontana; the Monument to the Royal Stuarts, James and his sons, Charles Edward, known as "Bonnie Prince Charlie" and Henry, Cardinal and Duke of York, a Neo-Classical design by Canova; and the memorial of Charles Edward Stuart's wife, Maria Clementina Sobieska; the chapel of the Presentation of the Virgin, containing the tombs of Pope Benedict XV and Pope John XXIII; the tombs of Pope Pius X and Pope Innocennt VIII; the Choir Chapel which contains the altar of the Imacculate Virgin Mary; the tomb of Pope Pius VIII, near the entrance to the Sacristy; the altars of St. Thomas, St. Joseph and the Crucifixion of St. Peter in the south transept; the tomb of Fabio Chigi, Pope Alexander VII, designed by Bernini; occupying an awkward position in a niche above a doorway into a small vestry, portraying Pope Alexander kneeling upon the tomb, facing outward. The tomb is supported by four female figures, which represent Charity and Truth, with the foot of Truth resting upon a globe of the world, her toe being pierced symbolically by the thorn of Protestant England and with the skeletal winged figure of Death, with its head hidden beneath the shroud and with an hour-glass in its right arm. The towers and the narthex include: the towers on each side of the facade contain two clocks: the clock on the left is operated electrically since 1931;

Bernini's baldacchino above the main altar. (Photo by: Eugenia y Julian) Gianlorenzo Bernini (15981680) is considered to be the greatest architect and sculptor of the Baroque period. His masterpieces inside the Basilica of St Peter's include the baldacchino, the Chapel of the Sacrament, the plan four the niches and loggias in the piers of the dome and the chair of St. Peter.

the oldest bell which dates from 1288; one of cathedral's most important treasures, a mosaic set above the central external door, called the "Navicella", based on a design by Giotto (dating from the early 13th century), representing a ship symbolising the Christian Church; at each end of the narthex is an equestrian figure: to the north is the figure of Emperor Constantine sculptured by Bernini (1670) and to the south is the figure of the Charlemagne by Cornacchini (dating from the 18th century); three portals with notable doors: the central portal with the Renaissance bronze door by Antonio Averulino (1455), enlarged to fit the new space; the southern door, also called the "Door of the Dead", designed by 20th century sculptor Giacomo Manz, including a portrait of Pope John XXIII kneeling before the crucified figure of St. Peter.

Piazza di San Pietro


Piazza di San Pietro, or St Peter's Square was constructed between 1656 and 1667 by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Bernini already inherited a site with an Egyptian obelisk from the 13th century BC, centrally placed to Maderno's facade; and with a large fountain designed by Maderno in 1613, set to one side of the obelisk in order to make a line parallel with the facade. But, despite this fact, Bernini created an ingenious design, entirely baroque in its concept. He envisioned the square created in two sections, with the nearest part as a trapezoid, narrowing from the facade, giving the effect of countering the visual perspective and appearing greater in proportion to its width; and with the second section, in form of a huge elliptical circus, gently sloping downwards to the obelisk at its center. These two distinct areas are framed by a colonnade formed by doubled pairs of columns supporting an entabulature, placed in a simple Tuscan Order. The approach to the square used to be through a jumble of old buildings, but a long wide street, called the Via della Conciliazione, was built by Mussolini after the conclusion of the Lateran Treaties, leading from the River Tiber to the St Peter's square.

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Basilica of St Peter's

A view of the Piazza di San Pietro from the dome. (Photo by: dearbarbie)

Michelangelo's Pieta inside the basilica of St Peter's, a true masterpiece. (Photo by: David Paul Ohmer)

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Vatican Museums in Vatican, Rome

Vatican Museums in Vatican, Rome


World Europe Countries Vatican Museums Italy Cities Rome Local guide What to see and do Landmarks Vatican

The complex of Vatican Museums, one of the world's greatest museums.


(Photo by: Leo-seta)

Vatican Museums or Musei Italian in Italian, established in 1506 by Pope Julius II, are definitely one of the greatest and most memorable museums in the entire world, holding a priceless collection of world's most famous masters. The museums display works from the immense collection built up by Roman Catholic Church throughout the centuries, including noteworthy works like the Sistine Chapel, the Stanze della Segnatura by Raphael better known as Raphael's Rooms, the Borgia Apartment and Vatican's Pinacoteca. The idea of an museum originated when a sculpture of Laocon and his sons in the grips of a sea serpent was found on 14 January 1506, in a vineyard near the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. The pope purchased the sculpture from the vineyard owner, after Giuliano da Sangallo and Michelangelo Buonarroti's advice. The Vatican Museums, from today's point of view, are a complex of different pontifical museums and galleries that began under the patronage of the popes Clement XIV (1769-1774) and Pius VI (1775-1799). But, they first originated as a group of sculptures collected by Pope Julius II (1503-1513) and placed in the Cortile Ottagono, a part of the palace.

The major part of the curatorial section of Pio-Celementine museum (named after these two popes) consists of the collections gathered by pope Clement XIV and Pius VI. Later on, pope Pius VII (1800-1823) expanded the collections of Classical Antiquities, to which he added the Chiaromonti Museum and the Braccio Nuovo gallery; as well as the Epigraphic Collection, which is nowadays conserved in the Lapidary Gallery. The Etruscan Museum (1837) with archaeological finds discovered during excavations carried out from 1828 onwards in southern Etruria, was founded by Gregory XVI. The latter also founded the Egyptian Museum (1839),with ancient artifacts from explorations in Egypt and other pieces already conserved in the Vatican and in the Museo Capitolino, as well as the Lateran Profane Museum (1844), containing statues, bas-relief sculptures and mosaics of the Roman era. The Lateran Profane Museum, comprised of ancient sculptures (especially sarcophagi) and inscriptions with ancient Christian content, was expanded under Pius IX (1846-1878), with the addition of the Pio Christian Museum. Under the pontificate of Saint Pius X (1903-1914), the Hebrew Lapidary was established, containing 137 inscriptions from ancient Hebrew cemeteries in Rome mostly from via Portuense and donated by the Marquisate Pellegrini-Quarantotti. The collections in Gregorian Profane Museum, Pio Christian Museum and the Hebrew Lapidary were transferred under the pontificate of Pope John XXIII (1958-1963) from the Lateran Palace to their present building within the Vatican. The Vatican Museums also the Gallery of Tapestries, a collection of various 15th and 17th century tapestries; the Gallery of Maps, decorated under the pontificate of Gregory XIII (1572-1585) and restored by Urban VIII (1623-1644); the Sobieski Room and the Room of the Immaculate Conception; the Raphael Stanze and the Loggia, which were decorated by order of Julius II and Leo X (1513-1521); the Chapel of Nicholas V (1447-1455), painted by Fra Angelico; the Sistine Chapel, which takes the name of its founder, Pope Sixtus IV; the Borgia Apartment, where Pope Alexander VI lived until his death (1492-1503); the Vatican Pinacoteca, created under Pius XI (1922-1932) in a special building near the new entrance to the Museums; the MissionaryEthnological Museum, founded by Pius XI in 1926. In 1973 the Collection of Modern and Contemporary Religious Art was added and inaugurated by Pope Paul VI (1963-1978) in the Borgia Apartment. The Vatican Historical Museum was founded in 1973, housing a series of papal portraits along with objects of the past Pontifical Military Corps and of the Pontifical Chapel as well as Family and historic ceremonial objects no longer in use. The Carriage and Automobile Museum is also a section of the Vatican Historical Museum.

Pinacoteca Vaticana
Pinacoteca Vaticana is a Vatican's art gallery, which houses an admirable collection of 15th to 19th century artwork; especially Renaissance art, including masterpieces of Michelangelo, Raphael and Fra Angelico.. The collection was first housed in the Borgia Apartment. Afterwards Pope Pius XI commissioned the construction of a new, larger building, designed by Luca Beltrami in 1932. The new museum building was was built in the nineteenth century Square Garden, surrounded by avenues, in a place considered best for lighting conditions in order for the correctly preservation of the works as well as for their best enhancement in terms of visuality. This way the question of the exhibition of the paintings was solved. Until then, the paintings were moved across the Papal palace, because there weren't any room for them to be hung at the same time.

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Vatican Museums in Vatican, Rome

A first collection, consisting of only 118 paintings, was collected by Pope Pius VI around 1790. But due to the Treaty of Tolentino, two years later in 1797, some of the greatest masterpieces were transferred to Paris. The idea of an art gallery, (in its the modern sense; as an exhibition open to the public) occurred in 1817. The defining events was the fall of Napoleon and the consequent return of a large part of the works to the Church State. The collection continued to grow over the years through donations and purchases. The current collection consists of 460 paintings, distributed among the eighteen rooms on the basis of chronology and school, from the so-called Primitives (12th-13th century) to the 19th century. The collection contains some masterpieces of the greatest artists in the history of Italian painting, like Giotto, Beato Angelico, Melozzo da Forl, Perugino, Raphael, Leonardo, Tiziano, Veronese, Caravaggio and Crespi. Most memorable rooms are Room II, featuring works of Giotto and his contemporaries:

The statue of Laocoon, found by accident, was the first statue of the Vatican Museums. (Photo by: jmaximo)

Bernardo Daddi, Our Lady of the Magnificat Gentile da Fabriano, Stories of St. Nicholas of Bari Giotto di Bondone, Stefaneschi Triptych Giovanni di Paolo, Lament over the dead Christ Giovanni di Paolo, Agony of Jesus in the garden Giovanni di Paolo, Annunciation, table of "biccherna" Pietro Lorenzetti, Christ before Pilate Simone Martini, The Redeemer conferring a blessing Lorenzo Monaco, Events from the life of St Benedict Lorenzo Monaco, St Anthony Abbot meets the hermit Paul Niccol di Tommaso, St Brigid of Sweden and the vision of the Nativity Sano di Pietro, Nativity and the announcement of the shepherds Sano di Pietro, Flight into Egypt Sassetta, Vision of St Thomas Aquinas Sassetta, Madonna of Humility Room VIII, containing Raphael's paintings and tapestries: Raphael, Crowning of the Virgin (Oddi altarpiece) Raphael, The annunciation, The adoration of the Magi, The presentation in the Temple (Predella Oddi altarpiece) Raphael, Faith; Charity; Hope (Baglioni Predella) Raphael, Madonna of Foligno Raphael, Transfiguration Raphael / P.Van Aelst (Brussels) Miraculous draught of fishes Raphael / P.Van Aelst (Brussels) Handing over of the keys Raphael / P.Van Aelst (Brussels) Stoning of St Stephen Raphael / P.Van Aelst (Brussels) Conversion of St Paul Raphael / P.Van Aelst (Brussels) Blinding of Elymas Raphael / P.Van Aelst (Brussels) Healing of the lame man Raphael / P.Van Aelst (Brussels) St Paul preaching in Athens Raphael / P.Van Aelst (Brussels) frieze of the Hours Raphael / P.Van Aelst (Brussels) frieze of the Seasons Flemish manufacture, The Last Supper Flemish manufacture (Brussels) frieze with coat of arms of Clement VII Flemish manufacture (Brussels) frieze with coat of arms of Clement VII

The memorable stairway inside the Vatican Museums.


(Photo by: cfwee)

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Vatican Museums in Vatican, Rome

Room X, featuring 16th century paintings, belonging to the school of Raphael and Venetian painting, with works like: Paris Bordon, St George killing the dragon Garofalo, Apparition of the Virgin to Augustus and to the Sibyl Garofalo, Holy Family and St Catherine Giulio Romano and Giovan Francesco Penni, Crowning of the Virgin (Madonna of Monteluce) Moretto da Brescia, Madonna and Child and Sts Jerome and Bartholomew (called Madonna of the Pear) Titian, Madonna of St Nicholas of the Frari Titian, Portrait of the doge Niccol Marcello Veronese, Allegory of the Free Arts Veronese, Vision of St Helen Room XI containing among others Caravaggio's and Guercino's works: Caravaggio, Deposition from the cross Domenichino, Communion of St Jerome Guercino,St Mary Magdalene penitent Guercino, Incredulity of St Thomas Nicolas Poussin, Martyrdom of St Erasmus Guido Reni, Crucifixion of St Peter Guido Reni, Madonna with Child and St Thomas and St Jerome (Olivieri altarpiece) Guido Reni, St Matthew and the angel Andrea Sacchi, Vision of St Romauld Andrea Sacchi, Mass of St Gregory Jean Valentin, Martyrdom of St Processo and St Martiniano

The map of Rome of the Vatican museums.


(Photo by: OliverN5)

Room XVII, featuring Gian Lorenzo Bernini's preparatory models made of clay mixed with straw on a framework of iron and cane for the bronze figures of St Peter's Chair: Gian Lorenzo Bernini and Antonio Raggi, right-hand angel, model for a statue of the altar of St Peter's Chair (first version) Gian Lorenzo Bernini and Ercole Ferrata, left-hand angel, model for a statue of the altar of St Peter's Chair (first version) Gian Lorenzo Bernini, left-hand angel, model for a statue of the altar of St Peter's Chair (final version), Gian Lorenzo Bernini, right-hand angel, model for a statue of the altar of St Peter's Chair (final version) Gian Lorenzo Bernini, head of St John Chrysostom, model for a statue of the altar of St Peter's Chair Gian Lorenzo Bernini, head of St Athanasius, model for a statue of the altar of St Peter's Chair

Museo Pio-Clementino
Museo Pio- Clementino or Pio-Clementine Museum is sculptural museum, featuring the finest of Vatican's classical statues, including masterpieces like Apollo Belvedere, which is a copy of a marble statue of a 4th century BC Greek bronze statue. The museum was One of the beautiful hallways inside the museum. founded by Pope Clement XIV in 1771. The original (Photo by: malouette) intention was to house only the Renaissance and antique works, but through time the collection was enlarged by Clement's successor Pius VI with a number of notable works. Nowadays, the museum is consisted of fifty-four galleries, featuring the Sistine Chapel which is the last "sala" in line. The most noteworthy galleries, besides the Sistine chapel are Sala a Croce Greca, with the sarcophagus of Constance and Saint Helen, daughter and mother of Constantine the Great; Sala Rotonda holding several ancient mosaics and statues; Gallery of the Statues (Galleria delle Statue) featuring important statues like Ariadne sleeping and Meandrus, and the Barberini Candelabrums; the Bust Gallery (Galleria dei Busti); the Mask Cabinet (Gabinetto delle Maschere) with several famous statues like the Three Graces; Sala delle Muse containing the group statues of Apollo and the nine muses, and many statues from important Greek sculptors; Sala degli Animali, due to the fact it houses several statues of animals.

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Vatican Museums in Vatican, Rome

Gregorian Egyptian Museum


Gregorian Egyptian Museum was founded in 1839 by Pope Gregory XVI; and houses a collection of monuments and artefacts of ancient Egypt partly coming from Rome and from Villa Adriana (Tivoli). Most of the artefacts were acquired in the Imperial age and from private collections which were purchased by nineteenth century collectors. The Museum consists of nine rooms, which are divided by a large hemicycle. This hemicycle opens towards the terrace of the "Niche of the Fir Cone", in which there are numerous sculptures. The last two rooms of the Museum are home to various finds belonging to the period of ancient Mesopotamia and Syria-Palestine. The most notable artefacts are: Funerary stelae with "false door" of Iry, administrator of the Necropolis of Giza Commemorative stelae of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III Statue of the priest Udja-Hor-res-ne Case and lid of the sarcophagus of Djet-Mut Mummy in its case The Serapeum And The Canopus Of Hadrian's Villa, featuring priestesses and an offerer : a group located on a bridge over the canal portraying the Nile; Galleria delle Statue in the Museo- Pio Clementino. Four divinities associated in mythology with Osiris/Apis, Nefertum and (Photo by: stringbot) Ptah of Memphis Isis and Horus of Canopus, and two Osiris/Antinous, all situated in the niches beside the bridge; Fountain statue of Hapi, genius of fecundity, from Rome, 1st century AD Statue of the Nile recumbent, from Rome, 1st-2nd century AD Painted terracotta with landscape of the Nile, from Rome, Church of S. Sabina, 1st-2nd century AD Statue of the dog-headed Thot, the so-called "Cacco" of the Church of S. Stefano,159 AD Statue of the god Anubis, 1st-2nd century AD Three statues of the god Horus-Zeus Casios of Pelusio, from Tivoli, Cassius Villa, 2nd century AD Fragment of the trunk and capital of an Egyptian column, from Rome, Iseus of Campus Martius, 1st century AD Head of Mentuhotep II, from Thebes, 9th dynasty, reign of Mentuhotep II, 2010-1998 BC, cat. 22680 Head of a statue of the lioness goddess Sekhmet, Temple of Mut in Karnak, 18th dyn., reign of Amenofi III, 1390-1352 BC Statues of the lioness goddess Sekhmet, Temple of Mut in Karnak, 18th dyn., reign of Amenophis III 1390-1352 BC Statue of the high priest of Ra Hor-Udja, from Heliopolis, 16th dynasty, circa 600 BC Statue of a primordial divinity, ("Geb of the earth" or "Shu of the air") or of an anthropomorphic form of the god Seth, 18th dynasty, circa 1350 BC. Colossal statue of queen Tuya, from Thebes, Ramesseum, reign of Ramses II, 1279-1213 BC Pair of statues of the baboon of the god Thot, from Karnak, 19th dyn., 1300-1250 BC Trunk of a statue of Nectanebo I, found 1838 in Nepi (northern Lazio), reign of Nectanebo I, 380-362 BC Colossal statues of Ptolemy Philadelphos and of Arsinoe II, from Heliopolis Greek-Roman period 285-246 BC Colossal statue of "Drusilla - Arsinoe", from Rome, Sallustian gardens, reign of Caligula 37-41 BC Statues of Isis - Fortuna, from Tivoli, Hadrian's Villa, 2nd century AD The god Bes, patron of pregnant women, from Rome, 1st -2nd century AD Trunk of an anthropomorphic statue of the Bull Apis, from Memphis, late era, 6th-4th century BC Bust of Serapis, from Rome, 2nd century AD

Gregorian Etruscan Museum


The Gregorian Etruscan Museum, founded by Pope Gregory XVI, is a Vatican museum containing many artefacts found in the excavations at the beginning of the 19th century, held in the ancient cities of southern Etruria (today northern Latium and then part of the Pontifical State). Other artefects come from the collections purchased and donated after 1870: the purchase of the Falcioni collection (1898), the donations of Benedetto Guglielmi in 1935 and of Mario Astarita in 1967, the purchase of the Giacinto Guglielmi collection in 1987. Artefacts in this museum come from the period between the 9th and the 1st century BC, from the beginning in the iron age until the progressive and definitive transformation of the Etruscan cities into the structure of the Roman state. There are many ceramics, bronzes, silver and gold items, which are a permanent document of a flourishing craft structure and a special artistic civilization. An integral part of the museum is the large collection of Greek vases (found in the Etruscan necropolises), and of Italiot vases (produced in the Hellenised cities of southern Italy).

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Vatican Museums in Vatican, Rome

Next to the Etruscan Museum is a section dedicated to Roman antiquities (Antiquarium Romanum), from Rome and Lazio, consisted of a collection of bronzes, glass, architectural terracottas and ceramics for everyday use. The Gregorian Etruscan Museum is situated in the Palazzetto of Innocent VIII (1484-1492) as well as in the adjacent building, dating from the time of Pius IV (1559-1565). The buildings itself have a museum quality themselves: they contain considerable parts of the original decoration, among which frescoes by Federico Barocci and Federico Zuccari (1563) and by Santi di Tito and Niccol Circignani delle Pomarance (1564). The artefacts are divided into twenty-two rooms, each featuring a segment of Etruscan past. The most notable are: Room III, with bronze statues, filled with works like: Mars of Todi, late 5th cent. BC Tripod, late 6th cent. BC Series of eleven buckles with protomes of lion or Achelous, from Tarquinia, late 6th cent. BC Carrara putto, late 6th cent. BC Graziani putto, 2nd cent. BC Figurine of Haruspex, IV cent. BC. Mirror with engraving of Chalcas, late 5th cent. BC Complete suit of armour of a warrior (helmet, shield, greaves) from Bomarzo, late 6th-5th cent. BC Anatomic armour from Bomarzo, mid 4th cent. BC

Helmet with Silenus head, from Atella, 4th cent. BC Mirror with Eos and Kephalos, from Vulci, circa 470 BC Oval cist decorated with battle between Greeks and Amazons, from Vulci, late 4th cent. BC Collection of candelabra, beginning 5th - mid 4th cent. BC. Funerary furniture of Laris Harenies, from Bolsena, mid 4th cent. BC.

Rooms V and VI featuring architectural and votive terracottas, like Acroter with winged horse, early 5th cent. BC; high reliefs from a pediment from Tivoli, late 4th-3rd cent. BC ; a frieze with floral decoration and human heads, 4th cent. BC; an antefix to female figure, 2nd cent. BC and a female bust, from 3rd cent. BC; Room XIX featuring a collection of Vases, Attic ceramics with black figures and with red figures: Panathenaic amphora by the Berlin Painter, 500-480 BC Attic hydria with black figures by the Leagros Group, approx. 500 BC "Bi-lingual" kylix, approx. 530 BC Exekias amphora, 540-530 BC Attic amphora with red figures by the Troilos Painter: fight for the tripod and procession of musicians; from Cerveteri, first decades of the 5th cent. BC Three kylixes with red figures by the Brygos Painter, 480 BC Lekythos (cruet for unguents, used by athletes and in funerary ceremonies) with red figures by the Brygos Painter, 470 BC: death of Orpheus at the hands of the women of Thrace. Two kylixes (goblets) with red figures by the Makron Painter, from Vulci, first quarter of the 5th cent. BC Two kylixes of the Epeleios Painter, from Vulci, approx. 500 BC: gymnasium scene. Attic hydria with red figures by the Eucharides Painter, from Vulci, approx. 500 BC Achille ed Ettore. Attic amphora with red figures attributed to the Hector Painter, from Vulci, 450 BC approx., cat. 16570: Hector carries out libations before the battle, while he takes his leave of his parents, Priam and Hecuba; B side: old man between two women. Attic kylix with red figures by Duris, 490-480 BC Attic kylix with red figures by Duris, 480 BC Kylix attica a figure rosse della maniera di Douris, circa 480 BC Attic kylix with red figures attributed to the Oedipus Painter, approx. 480-470 BC Room XIV, featuring Antiquarium Romanum, with bronzes and silvers: Male statue, late 1st century BC Head-portrait of the Emperor Trebonianus Gallus, 251-253 AD Engraved foot of a folding table, 1st century AD Headboard (fulcrum) of a bed, 1st century BC - 1st century AD Silver vases with dedication to Apollo from the thermal springs of Vicarello, near Bracciano, late 1st cent. AD

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Trastevere

Trastevere
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Here is a list of the main landmarks of the area of Rome's Trastevere.

Villa Farnesina

Villa Farnesina is a Renaissance villa, located in the central district of Trastevere in Rome. This artistically and architecturally influential edifice, was built in the 16th century for a rich Sienese banker and the treasurer of Pope Julius II by the name Agostino Chigi. The villa was designed by the Sienese artist and pupil of Bramante, Baldassarre Peruzzi, who was aided by Giuliano da Sangallo. This villa is different from its contemporaries by its design: as opposed to the other Renaissance villas which were shaped as decorated versions of defensive castles, mostly featuring rectangular blocks with rusticated ground floors and enclosing a courtyard; this villa is a true example of an urban palace or palazzo. Originally, this villa was intended to be a summer pavilion (or more precise: a place for lavish banquets because Agostino Chigi was fabulously wealthy), with an open entrance of the loggia and rear wings open to the garden. Nowadays, these parts are closed. The interior of the villa is filled with works of art, also mostly commissioned by Agostino Chigi. There are works by many famous and notable artists, like works by Raphael, Sebastiano del Piombo, Giulio Romano, and Il Sodoma. The stars of the villa are definitely Raphael's frescoes in the Loggia depicting the classical and secular myths of Love and Psyche, and The Triumph of Galatea; frescoes by Sebstiano del Piombo; Peruzzi's decorations of Sala della Prospettiva; the vault of the main hall; as well as the Sala di Galatea. The themes of paintings and frescoes were inspired by the Stanze of the poet Angelo Poliziano, a key member of the circle of Lorenzo de Medici; so most of the works depict near naked nymphs and other mythical creatures.

The villa got its name after the second owners: in 1577 Chigi died and his business collapsed, so the Farnese family bought the property. Later on the villa was a property of the Bourbons of Naples and in 1861 to the Spanish Ambassador in Rome. Nowadays, the villa is a property of the Italian state, and is home to Accademia dei Lincei, a renowned Roman academy of sciences, and the Roman Gabinetto dei Disegni e delle Stampe (print room or Department for Drawings and Prints).

Raphael's Galatea, placed inside Villa Farnesina. According to an urban legend, the Villa Farnesina was a place where many artists, poets, cardinals and also royalty were entertained in Agostino Chigi's famous parties. The villa was also a place where Agostino Chigi met with his lover, the courtesan Imperia. (Photo by: mykaul)

Palazzo Corsini (Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica di Palazzo Corsini)


The Palazzo Corsini is a 18th century Baroque palace, placed in the Trastavere district in Rome, just beside the Villa Farnesina and was built for the Corsini family. The villa was as an extension of the previous edifice, the villa of the Riario family. The villa was built in the period between 1730-1740 in late Baroque style, based on designs of Ferdinando Fuga. The previous building, the villa of the Riario family, was home to Christina, Queen of Sweden, who arranged there the first meetings of the Roman Accademia dell'Arcadia. Afterwards, the Florentine cardinal Neri Corsini, nephew of Clement XII (formerly Cardinal Lorenzo Corsini), bought the villa and land, and commissioned the new villa. Nowadays, the palace is home to the National Academy of Science (Accademia dei Lincei) and the Galleria Corsini. The gardens of the villa, are nowadays the property of the Orto Botanico dell'Universit di Roma "La Sapienza", a botanical garden. Galleria Corsini, or more precisely the Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica di Palazzo Corsini' or National Gallery of Antique Art in the Corsini Palace, is situated in the first floor of the palace and features the national Arte Antica collections, which is the typical art from the 11th century onwards, mostly Italian art from early-Renaissance to late-18th century. Several other places in Rome hold the same collection, like the Palazzo Barberini and Galleria Borghese. Most of the gallery's collection comes from the collection of the Corsini family, and from collections of Pope Clement XII and his nephew. Since 1883, when the property was sold to the Italian state, the collection is displayed in its original location.

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Trastevere

Santa Maria in Trastavere


Santa Maria in Trastevere, one of the oldest churches in Rome, with its foundations dating probably from the 4th century. According to some historical evidence, the basic floor plan and wall structure of the church date back to the 340 AD; and this is most probably the first church in which mass was celebrated. There was a Christian house-church founded by Pope Saint Callixtus I (217-222) around 220 AD, whose remains are preserved under the altar, known under the name Titulus Callisti. The house-church was erected on the site of the Taberna meritoria, which served as an asylum for retired soldiers. The area was given over to the Christians by the Emperor Septimius Severus; when he settled a dispute between the Christians and tavern-keepers. In the 4th century, Pope Julius I (337-352) rebuilt the church-house Titulus Callixti, and it became the Titulus Iulii commemorating his patronage, one of the original twenty-five parishes in Rome. The edifice was restorated two times in the fifth and eighth century. In the period between 1140-43, the church was once again rebuilt on the old foundations under Pope Innocent II; and the richly carved Ionic capitals reused came from the ruins of the Baths of Caracalla. The present day edifice is a Romanesque church, dating from the 12th century. It was built by Pope Innocent II and was dedicated to Virgin Mary. The church retained the original plan of the previous basilica, and the original foundations as well as the granite columns with Ionic and Corinthian capitals which came from the ruins of the Baths of Caracalla.

The hall of busts inside Palace Corsini.


(Photo by: antmoose)

The beautiful apse mosaic "Coronation of the Virgin" by Pietro Cavallini in the Santa Maria in Trastevere. (Photo by: Mossaiq)

The church's facade originates from the 18th century, when it was done by Carlo Fontana. He designed a Classicistic facade as well as the octagonal fountain in the piazza in front of the church (Piazza di Santa Maria in Trastevere). The only early part of the facade is the image of Mary, considered the earliest iconographic depiction of the Virgin nursing Jesus. The church's interior is filled with a number of works by many famous authors, like late 13th-century mosaics by Pietro Cavallini called the "Coronation of the Virgin", ceiling paintings by Domenichino called "Assumption of the Virgin".There are also a number of relics, like a relic of Saint Apollonia, her head, a portion of the Holy Sponge, the relics of Pope Callixtus I and the body of Lorenzo Cardinal Campeggio.

Santa Cecilia in Trastevere


Church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, originates from the 5th century and as the name says is devoted to St Cecilia. The church was founded, according to the archaeological evidences, sometimes in the 5th century by Pope Urban I. According to a legend, the church was built on top of the saint's house; but during excavation works under the Chapel of the Relics the churc's baptistery as well as the remains of a Roman Imperial house were found. At the end of the 5th century, the church was awarded with the title Titulus Ceciliae. The church was rebuilt in the 9th century by Pope Paschal I, who moved the relics of St Cecilia from the catacombs of St Calixtus, and once again in the 18th century. From this period dates the church's facade, which was designed by Ferdinando Fuga. His design featured a courtyard decorated with ancient mosaics, columns and a cantharus (water vessel), as well as the Francesco Cardinal Acquaviva d'Aragona coat-of-arms. The church's interior, as many other Roman and Vatican churches, is filled with numerous masterpieces by many famous artists. Most notable are the mosaic depicting the Final judgment from the 13th century, based on designs by Pietro Cavallini, placed inside the chorus of the monks; the ciborium by Arnolfo di Cambio, also from the 13th century, placed in the presbitery; 9th century mosaics depicting the Redeemer with Saints Paul, Cecilia, Paschal I, Peter, Valerian, and Agatha portraited on the apse; Cappella dei Ponziani with a painted ceiling depicting God the Father with evangelists by Antonio del Massaro (Antonio da Viterbo or il Pastura) from the 18th century; Cappella delle Reliquie with frescoes and an altarpiece by Luigi Vanvitelli; Apotheosis of Santa Cecilia by Sebastiano Conca dating from the 18th century as well as Saints Valerian and Cecilia and a Decapitation of Saint Cecilia, two altarpieces by Guido Reni from the 17th century. The star among this masterpieces is the graphic altar sculpture of St. Cecilia by Stefano Maderno from the 17th century; which was allegedly modeled upon the saint's body, which was exposed at the end of the 16th century (!). This sculpture is quite special because it is considered to be proto-Baroque and it precedes by decades the similar high-Baroque sculptures of Gian Lorenzo Bernini (for example, his Beata Ludovica Albertoni) and Melchiorre Caff (Santa Rosa de Lima).

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Trastevere

San Francesco a Ripa


Church of San Francesco a Ripa is a Roman church, dedicated to the Saint Frances of Assisi. This peculiar name of the church derives from the Franciscan convent existing in the Trastevere quarter of Rome since the 10th or the 12th century, while the last part a ripa refers to the nearby river-edge of the Tiber. The construction of the present church started in the 17th century by Onorio Longhi. The facade was designed by Mattia de Rossi and finished in the period from 1681-1701. The most notable part is the church's interior which holds a number of works by distinguished authors, like frescoes by Fra Emanuele da Como and monument to cardinal Michelangelo Ricci by Domenico Guidi; "San Giovanni from Capestrano", a fresco by Domenico Maria Muratori, an altarpiece by Stefano Maria Legnani; chapel of the Rospigliosi-Pallavicini by Nicolas Michetti and by Ludovico Rusconi; Saint Francis by Fra Diego da Careri, the Trinity canvas by Paris Nogari; the chapel Paluzzi-Albertoni designed by Giacomo Mola, a painting of Saint Anna and the Virgin by Giovanni Battista Gaulli, a bust of Laura Frangipani sculpted by Andrea Bolgi, frescoes by Giovanni Battista Ricci, "Annunciation" by Francesco Salviati, a sculpture by Camillo Rusconi, painting by Marten De Vos, an Assumption by Antonio della Cornia, a Birth of the Virgin by Simon Vouet; which are situated all around the numerous side chapels. The star of this collection is definitely the statue of the Blessed Ludovica Albertoni by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. The sculpture captures Blessed Ludovica in her death throes, portraying her as suffering but also in the light of her religious ecstasies as she awaits union with God. According to the popular belief, the Blessed Ludovica experienced a special nuptial union with Christ as portrayed in Bernini's work.

Orto Botanico in Rome is filled with exotic and rare species of plants. (Photo by: Yannick Carer)

San Pietro in Monitorio and the Tempietto


The church of San Pietro in Montorio is a church in Rome, mostly known for its courtyard called Tempietto, which is a small commemorative martyrium designed by Donato Bramante. The church itself was built on top of a 9th century church on the Janiculum hill, which was dedicated to Saint Peter. The church was believed to be erected on the exact spot of Saint Peter's crucifixion, by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. The most interesting is the church's interior, which is decorated with prominent works of 16th and 17th century artists. These works include Sebastiano del Piombo's Flagellation and Transfiguration, made after the drawings of Michelangelo; Il Pomarancio, a fresco by Niccol Circignani; frescoes coming from the Renaissance school of Pinturrichio; works by Baldassarre Peruzzi; Conversion of St. Paul by Vasari and several others; an altarpieces by Giulio Mazzoni; the funerary monument of Cardinal del Monte and Roberto Nobili are by Bartolomeo Ammannati; Baptism of Christ by Daniele da Volterra, frescoes by Giulio Mazzoni. The church also includes works by the famous Dutch Caravaggisti, Dirck van Baburen's Entombment for the Piet Chapel and David de Heen's The Mocking of Christ and The Agony in the Garden. Definitely, the most interesting is Gian Lorenzo Bernini's the Raimondi Chapel, decorated with Francesco Baratta's "Saint Francis in Ecstasy" and sculptures by Andrea Bolgi and Niccol Sale. The church contains tombs of Irish princes, like the tombs of Gaelic Chieftains Hugh O'Neill, The O'Neill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone and Prince Rory O'Donnell, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell.

The frontal facade of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere.


(Photo by: Gaspa)

The Tempietto, as mentioned before, is a small commemorative martyrium built by Donato Bramante, considered to be a masterpiece of High Renaissance architecture. This is due to the fact that Tempietto is quite harmonious building, almost a piece of sculpture. Its appeal lies in the harmonious structure and perfect proportions, consisting of Doric columns, a Doric entablature modeled after the ancient Theater of Marcellus, and a dome. This 16th century edifice stands in the courtyard of San Pietro in Montorio, and marks the traditional spot of Saint Peter's martyrdom.

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Aventine Hill in Rome

Aventine Hill in Rome


World Hill Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide What to See and Do Landmarks Aventine

Here are the best sights to see in Rome's Aventine Hill.

Forum Boarium
The Forum Boarium was the oldest forum in Rome, situated between the Capitoline, the Palatine and Aventine hill. At first the forum was a cattle forum venalium (or the cattle-market for ancient Rome), but through time it gained importance and gradually evolved to a large trading and religious center. The Boarium was a very important port of Rome (Port Tibernius), the place where the first bridges were built, and a religious center housing the Temple of Hercules Victor, the Temple of Portunus, and the massive 6th or 5th century BC Great Altar of Hercules. At first, the Forum Boarium was the site of the first gladiatorial contest at Rome. This contest was held as part of aristocratic funerary ritual (a munus or funeral gift for the dead). The first contest occurred in 264 BC, when Decimus Junius Brutus Scaeva put on a gladiatorial combat in honor of his deceased father with three pairs of slaves serving as gladiators. The most important buildings on the Forum Boarium were the two temples: Temple of Hercules Victor (T. Herculis Victoris) and the The circular temple of Hercules Victor, and the Temple of Portunus in the back. (Photo by: antmoose) Temple of Portunus. The Temple of Hercules Victor or Hercules Olivarius is considered to be the earliest surviving marble building in Rome, dating from the 2nd century BC, and is of circular shape or more clearly a monopteros, which is a round temple of Greek peripteral design (which means that the temple is surrounded by colonnades on all sides). The temple is dominated by a colonnade of Corinthian columns arranged in a concentric ring around the cylindrical cella, resting on a tuff foundation, and all topped with a roof and an architrave. The latter were lost through time, so the original wall of the cella and the columns remain while the current tile roof was added later. In the 12th century, the temple was turned into a church under the name St Stephen 'of the carriages'. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance several renovation works occurred. In the 17th century, the temple was once more renamed into Santa Maria del Sole or church of St Mary of the Sun. In 1935, the temple was recognized as a ancient monument. The Temple of Portunus was located overlooked the Port Tiberinus at a sharp bend in the river in the Forum Boarium. The temple was the main temple dedicated to the god Portunus in Rome, dating from around 100 BC. It was built as a rectangular building, consisting of a tetrastyle portico and cella, raised on high podium reached by a flight of steps, built of tuff and travertine with a stucco surface. The original coating of stucco over tuff and travertine construction was lost through time.The four Ionic columns of the portico were free-standing, while the six columns on the longer sides and four columns in the back were placed along the walls of the cella. This type of temple is known as a pseudoperipteral, due to the fact that isn't all surrounded by free-standing columns. The temple was turned into a church in 872 AD, dedicated to Santa Maria Egyziaca (Saint Mary of Egypt).

Santa Maria in Cosmedin


Santa Maria in Cosmedin, also known by the name de Schola Graeca, is a Roman basilica located in the rione of Ripa, dating from the 6th century AD. The church was built on the site of the former Templum Herculis Pompeiani in the Forum Boarium and of the Statio annonae, which served in the ancient Rome as a food distribution center. The basilica was in close proximity of several Bynzantine buildings, so in the 7th century it was named de Schola Graeca. Around 782, the church was taken over by the Greek monks, who redecorated and renovated the basilica.

The church was rebuilt with three naves and a portico, which gave the church the adjective cosmedin (from Greek kosmidion), which means beautiful. In the 9th century, after the order of Pope Nicholas I, the church was once more redecorated, and a sacristy and an oratory dedicated to St Nicholas were added inside the basilica. The same pope built himself a residence in the close proximity of the basilica, but the residence was destroyed in the 11th century. Several renovations also occurred in the 12th century by Alfanus, the camerarius of Pope Callixtus II, but the
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Forum of Portunus surrounded by flowers. (Photo by: antmoose)

Aventine Hill in Rome

most important ones occurred in the 18th century when the basilica was redone in Baroque style, which were removed again one century later, giving the basilica once again its simple, yet elegant appearance. The today's basilica is consisted of a nave with two aisles, divided by four pilasters and eighteen ancient columns, with several old columns of the Statio Annonae. The church's interior is mostly famous for the La Bocca della Verit located in the basilica's portico; for the bell tower, which is the tallest medieval belltower in Rome; and by its artwork. The interior is home to several interesting paintings from 8th-12th century placed in the upper part of the nave and in triumphal arch, the main altar carved from red granite dating from the beginning of the 12th century; Easter candelabrum from the 13th century; a precious 8th century mosaic fragment inside the sacristy, the Schola cantorum from the 13th century as well as several fragments from the ancient buildings inside the crypt. The church retained a number of decorations belonging to the Cosmati artwork, like the canopy above the main altar, the raised choir and the bishop's throne.

Santa Maria in Domnica


The church of Santa Maria in Domnica, also known by the name Santa Maria alla Navicella, is a church originated sometimes in the 7th century. The church was originally built close to the barracks of the 5th cohort of Vigiles, during the ancient period. It was renovated in the 9th century by Pope Paschal I. The Pope rebuilt the church in 818-822, and gave it an outstanding artistic splendor.

Due to the fact that the Romans lost the art of making mosaics, Pope Paschal I imported mosaicsists from Byzantium, who created an exquisite apse mosaic portraying the Virgin, Child and angels placed inside the paradise, with a portrait of Pope Paschal I kneeling at the Virgin's feet. After the Byzantine work, the church was renovated by Pope Leo X in the 16th century. In that period, Andrea Sansovino created a facade portico decorated with lion's heads and tuscan columns, which were recycled from an ancient temple and crowned with Corinthian capitals. Perin del Vaga, based on designs of Giulio Romano, painted beautiful frescoes on the church's ceiling.

The famous bell tower of the church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin. (Photo by: Il conte di Luna)

Santo Stefano Rotondo


Very interesting is a 2nd century mithraeum, located beneath the church. This mithraeum belonged to Castra Peregrinorum, and was related to the cult of Mithras, which was especially popular among soldiers. Castra Peregrinorum, or the baracks of the peregrini (officials detached for special service to the capital from the provincial armies), were found right under Santo Stefano Rotondo, and the mithraeum probably belonged to it and was attended by the soldiers of Cohors V Vigilum, who lived in the barracks nearby on the other side of Via della Navicella. Although the remains of the Roman military barracks (from the Severan Age) and the mithraeum under the church are still closed from the public, a colored marble bas-relief, under the name "Mithras slaying the bull", dating from the 3rd century, can be seen inside the Museo Nazionale Romano. In 1454, Pope Nicholas V entrusted the ruined church to the Pauline Fathers, the only Catholic Order founded by Hungarians and that's why the church is considered to be the unofficial church of the Hungarians in Rome. In 1579, the Hungarian Jesuits followed the Pauline Fathers and established Collegium Hungaricum, by Istvn Arator, which soon merged with the Collegium Germanicum in 1580 and became the Collegium Germanicum et Hungaricum. Inside the church of Santo Stefano Rotondo was built a Hungarian chapel by Pope Pius VI, according to designs by Pietro Camporesi. The chapel was dedicated to King Stephen I of Hungary, in Magyar Szent Istvn, who was the canonized first king of the Magyars. The most notable was the Renaissance burial monument of the archdeacon Jnos Lszai, canon of Gyulafehrvr, with an inscriptions "Roma est patria omnium" (Rome is homeland to everybody). Santo Stefano Rotondo, also known by the name Santo Stefano al Monte Celio, is a Roman basilica oroginated in the 5th century Ad and located on the Caelian Hill. The church was built 468 and 483, consecrated by Pope Simplicius, and it had quite an original design. It was built as a circular building, with four chapel in form of a crucifix, with an inner circular area enclosed by two concentric corridors. The three concentrical ambulatories flanked by twenty-two Ionic columns surrounded the central circular space, which was surmounted by a tambour. This tambour originally had twenty-two windows, which were walled up during renovating works in the 15th century.
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Aventine Hill in Rome

It was the first circular building in Rome, inspired by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. The church was dedicated to St Stephen, whose body was discovered a few decades before in the Holy Land and brought into Rome. In the 6th century, the church was redecorated by Pope John I and Pope Felix IV, while in the 12th century PopevInnocent II added the three transversal arches. The most important renovation occurred in the middle of the 15th century, when the church was restored by Bernardo Rossellino, probably under the guidance of Leon Battista Alberti. The church is most famous for the numerous works of art, such as famous frescoes by Niccol Circignani (Niccol Pomarancio) and Antonio Tempesta portraying 34 scenes of martyrdom, commissioned by Gregory XIII in the 16th century; the 15th century altar by Bernardo Rosellino; the mosaic and marble decoration from the 6th century depicting the martyrs St Primus and St Felicianus flanking a jewelled cross; a tablet recording the burial of the Irish king Donough O'Brien of Cashel and Thomond; the chair of Pope Gregory the Great from the 6th century; mosaics from the 7th century inside the Chapel of Ss. Primo e Feliciano.

La Bocca della Verit, literally meaning the Mouth of Truth is a sculpture placed in the portico of the church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin in Rome. The sculpture is basically a grotesque image of man, carved in Pavonazzetto marble. The sculpture is considered to be a part of a former Roman fountain, or even a drain or manhole cover, which represented an image of a pagan god. The sculpture got its name after a folk belief, which had started in the Middle Ages, that if one told a lie with one's hand in the mouth of the sculpture, it would be bitten off. This sculpture was the favorite lie detector of suspicious husbands: a very useful way to test the faithfulness of your wife! If you don't believe it, just try it when you come to Rome!! (Photo by: ZeroOne)

Santi Quattro Coronati


The church of Santi Quattro Coronati is a Roman basilica, dating from the 4th (or 5th) century, dedicated to four anonymous saints and martyrs. This basilica, as well as the adjoining complex of two courtyards, the fortified Cardinal Palace with the St. Silvester chapel, and the Monastery with its cosmatesque cloister is situated between the Colosseum and church of San Giovanni in Laterano. The church was originally founded by Pope Miltiades on the north side of the Coelian Hill, on the site of a Roman villa, of which historical evidence was found beneath the church. The church of Santi Quattro Coronati was one of the first churches in Rome, and first bore the name of Titulus Aemilianae, derived from the name of the foundress of the Roman villa. The church was completed the end of the 6th century and soon became prominent due to its proximity to the medieval papal residence of the Lateran Palace. Renovation works started in the 9th century, during the rule of Pope Leo IV, who built the crypt under the nave, added to side aisles, enclosed the coutyard before the facade, and built the belltower and the chapels of St Barbara and St Nicholas in the Carolingian style. This church was unfortunately burned in the 11th century, and instead of rebuilding the original basilica, the current Pope Paschal II decided to build a smaller basilica with a two courtyards, one in front of the other; with the first courtyard corresponding to the original 9th century courtyard and the second one placed over the initial part of the nave. The church's two aisles were included in the Cardinal Palace and in the Benedictine Monastery, also founded by Paschal. The original apse of the basilica was thus preserved and incorporated into the new edifice.

In 1454, Pope Nicholas V entrusted the ruined church to the Pauline Fathers, the only Catholic Order founded by Hungarians and that's why the church is considered to be the unofficial church of the Hungarians in Rome. In 1579, the Hungarian Jesuits followed the Pauline Fathers and established Collegium Hungaricum, by Istvn Arator, which soon merged with the Collegium Germanicum in 1580 and became the Collegium Germanicum et Hungaricum. Inside the church of Santo Stefano Rotondo was built a Hungarian chapel by Pope Pius VI, according to designs by Pietro Camporesi. The chapel was dedicated to King Stephen I of Hungary, in Magyar Szent Istvn, who was the canonized first king of the Magyars. The most notable was the Renaissance burial monument of the archdeacon Jnos Lszai, canon of Gyulafehrvr, with an inscriptions "Roma est patria omnium" (Rome is everybody's fatherland).

During the renovation works in the 13th century, a Cosmatesque cloister was added, and the Cardinal Palace, on the right of the church, was enlarged after the designs of Cardinal Stefano Conti; as well as the Chapel of ST Sylvester. The chapel is well known for the frescoes depicting the stories of Pope Silvester I and Emperor Constantine I, which were painted during troublesome times in the history of the Catholic church. In the 14th century, the Cardinal Palace fell into ruin, and the basilica lost its importance when the Papal residence moved from the Lateran to the Vatican palace. In the 16th century, the basilica was handed to the Augustinians, to whom it still belongs. The interior of the church has several notable works: the frescoes (1630) by Giovanni da San Giovanni of the four patron martyr saints, Severo, Severiano, Carpoforo e Vittorino in the apse; the altarpiece S.Sebastiano curato da Lucina e Irene by Giovanni Baglione; frescoes by Raffaellino da Reggio and medieval frescoes in the second courtyard of the church.

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Aventine Hill in Rome

Basilica di San Clemente


The Basilica of Saint Clement or Basilica di San Clemente is a Roman basilica, dedicated to Pope Clement I, built several times through time on the remains of a previous buildings. The first edifice built at the site of the basilica was a first century insula belonging to T. Flavius Clemens who was one of the first among the Roman senatorial class to convert to Christianity. According to historical evidence, his house served as a secret gathering place for Christians, who were banned at the time. The next edifice was a second century Roman pagan temple, dedicated to Mithras and erected by members of a Mithraic cult, used for initiation rituals. This temple was used until about the third century, and afterwards a fourth-century Christian church dedicated to St Clemente was erected at the site. The church expanded and turned into a grand public basilica by the sixth century, reflecting the emerging Catholic Church's growing legitimacy and power. This new basilica was dedicated to Pope Clement I, a first-century Christian convert and considered by patrologists and ecclesiastical historians to be identical with Titus Flavius Clemens. This church was burned to the ground during the Norman sack of the city under Robert Guiscard in 1084, and a new basilica was built by Cardinal The cupola inside the church of San Clemente. Anastasius between 1099 and 1120. In the 17th century, the Irish (Photo by: juandesant) Dominicans became the caretakers of basilica of St Clement and they began several excavations works on the church. The most notable was in 1850s and 1950s when they found layers of the pre-existing edifices. In the 18th century, a new facade was made by Stefano Fontana. The carved and gilded ceilings of nave and aisles also date from this period. The Basilica of St Clement is one of the most richly adorned churches in Rome, with the largest collection of Early Medieval wall paintings. The basilica includes several masterpieces of art, like the 12th century mosaic named Triumph of the Cross placed on the apse, featuring animals and acanthus leaves; the Paschal Candlestick, which is a 12th century spiralling candlestick, decorated with a multicolored mosaic by the Cosmati; then the Triclinium, featuring an altar dedicated to the god Mithras; frescoes depicting the life of St Clemente in the lower church as well as the Cappella di Santa Caterina, with beautiful 15th century frescoes by Masolino da Panicale depicting the life of St Catherine from Alexandria. The lateral chapels contain a shrine with the tomb of Saint Cyril, who created the Glagolithic alphabet and christianized the Slavs with St Methodius.

The beautiful Paschal candlestick.


(Photo by: Mossaiq)

Santa Sabina
The basilica of Santa Sabina, also known as Santa Sabina all'Aventino, dates from the 5th century (between 422 and 432 AD), and is the center of the Dominican order. It is located on the Aventine Hill, originally near to a temple of Juno, and nowadays close to the the headquarters of the Knights of Malta. It was an early Christian basilica, thus its simple rectangular plan, with modest, mostly white decorations. Due to its simplicity of form, the basilica of Santa Sabina is a representative of a style between a roofed Roman forum to the churches of Christendom. The basilica was built by Priest Petrus of Illyria, on the site of the house of the Roman matron Sabina, later St Sabina. In the 13th century, Pope Honorius III handed the church to Saint Dominic, who founded the Order of Preachers, now commonly known as the Dominicans and since then it remained their headquarters.

The original wooden doors in Santa Sabina, dating from the 5th century AD. (Photo by: Allie Caufield)

The simplicity of this basilica is seen in its interior and exterior. Very interesting is the wooden door, which date from the 5th century, with its wooden panels depicting scenes from the Bible, but in somewhat unusual imagery. Most interesting is one of the earliest certain depictions of Christ's crucifixion. The decorations in its interior include frescoes by Taddeo Zuccari from 1559, which replaced the original 5th century apse mosaic; the Chapel of St Dominic and the original dining room where the famous Thomas Aquinas dined.

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Lateran

Lateran
World Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide What to See and Do Landmarks Lateran

Here are the most interesting monuments located in Rome's Lateran.

Basilica of St John Lateran (San Giovanni in Laterano)

The impressive interior of Basilica of St John Lateran.


(Photo by: edwin.11)

The beautiful 13th century cloisters in the complex.


(Photo by: Allie Caufield)

The Basilica of St John Lateran or also known Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano (officially named Archibasilica Sanctissimi Salvatoris et Sancti Iohannes Baptista et Evangelista in Laterano meaning "Archbasilica of the Most Holy Saviour, St. John Baptist and St. John the Evangelist at the Lateran"), is the official cathedral of the Church of Rome. This cathedral is also the official ecclesiastical seat of the Bishop of Rome (the Pope), containing the papal throne (Cathedra Romana) as well as the oldest basilica among the four major ones in Rome. Due to the fact that this is the Pope's cathedral, the church ranks above all other churches in the Roman Catholic Church and holds the title of ecumenical mother church (mother church of the whole inhabited world) among Roman Catholics. The basilica was built on top of the remains of the Castra Nova Equitum Singularium, the fort of the imperial cavalry bodyguard, established by Septimius Severus in 193 AD, and partly on the site of the palace of the gens Laterani, which was there during the early Roman Empire. The remains of the fort are still present directly beneath the basilica nave. After the Battle of the Milvian Bridge by Constantine I the guard were abolished and the fort demolished, so the Laterani palace was built. The laterani were administrators for several emperors, and one of the members of the family, Sextius Lateranus, was the first plebeian to attain the rank of a consul. After the Laterani, the palace was taken over by emperor Constantine I, who named it the "Domus Faustae" or "House of Fausta"; who gave it to the Bishop of Rome. The palace basilica was converted and extended, and finally became the cathedral of Rome, the seat of the popes as bishops of Rome. The official dedication of the basilica happened in 324 by Pope Sylvester I. The basilica was declared as the House of God and its primacy to all churches was marked by the Papal Throne was placed, which made it the Cathedral of the Bishop of Rome. Since then, the basilica was home to every Pope of the Christian church until Pope Clement V, who in 1309 decided to transfer the official seat of the Catholic Church to Avignon. During this period, the basilica lost its importance and due to two large fires, the Lateran Palace and the basilica lost their former splendor. After the end of Avignon papacy, the Lateran Palace and the basilica were deemed inadequate considering the accumulated damage, and the residence was turned into Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere and later at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. After the palace and the basilica were reconstructed, the Pope's residence was returned there. The largest renovation works occurred during the rule of Pope Sixtus V, when he tore down the original Lateran Palace, rebuilt it and thus made the Lateran Palace and the Basilica separate entities. Nowadays, the Lateran Palace is home to the Pontifical Museum of Christian Antiquities. Sixtus V also took back the obelisk from Circus Maximus, and re-erected in 1587 on its present site, on the square in front of the Lateran Palace. This red granite obelisk was the largest obelisk in the world, erected by Thutmose III in Karnak.

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Lateran

This project, continued by Pope Innocent X, included the best artists of that time: architect Domenico Fontana oversaw the project; renovation of the interior was ensued under the direction of Francesco Borromini; Borromini's niches were filled by works of famous Rococo sculptors, like Camillo Rusconi (Andrew, Matthew, James the Greater, John the Evangelist), Francesco Moratti (Simon), Angelo de' Rossi (James the Less), Giuseppe Mazzuoli (Philip), Lorenzo Ottoni (Thaddeus), and the Frenchmen Pierre-tienne Monnot (Peter, Paul), and Pierre Le Gros the Younger (Bartholomew, Thomas). During the rule of Pope Clement XII, a new facade was commissioned and it was completed in 1735 by Alessandro Galilei; who removed all vestiges of traditional ancient basilica architecture and created a neo-classical facade. The basilica is filled with remains of the original buildings, like the apse, lined with mosaics belonging to one of the most famous halls of the ancient palace, the "Triclinium" of Pope Leo III; a large wall decorated with paintings behind the Lancellotti Chapel; the pavement of medieval Cosmatesque work; the statues of St. Peter and Saint Paul in the cloisters; the baldacchino over the high altar and many others. The decorations are in cosmatesque style. and many others. Through time, the basilica retained its ancient form. It is divided by rows of columns into aisles, with a peristyle surrounded by colonnades with a fountain in the middle in the front; with a Neo-Classical faade, featuring three windows and decorated with a mosaic representing Christ, the Saviour of the World. The basilica is famous for the cloisters, especially the 13th-century cloisters, surrounded by graceful twisted columns and inlaid marble mosaics, featuring a style between the Romanesque proper and the Gothic, by Vassellectus and the Cosmati. There is also the Papal Altar, a Gothic baldacchino, decorated with 14th century frescoes, rising over the papal altar. Somewhat apart from the basilica, is the Lateran Baptistry, founded by Pope Sixtus III, for many generations the only baptistry in Rome. It's octogonal style became a model for others throughout Italy, and even an iconic motif of illuminated manuscripts, "The fountain of Life". Inside the basilica are several tombs, like the tomb of Alexander III (right aisles), Sergius IV (right aisles), Clement XII Corsini (left aisle), Martin V (in front of the confessio) by Simone Ghini I ; Innocent III (right transept); and Leo XIII (left transept), by G. Tadolini (1907), toms of Pope Agapetus II, Pope Celestine III, Pope Honorius II, Pope Innocent V, Pope John X, Pope John XI and Pope Sylvester II; tombs of Cardinals Vincenso Santucci and Carlo Colonna, and so on.

The Papal Altar, with a Gothic baldacchino.


(Photo by: Gaspa)

Baths of Caracalla
The Baths of Caracalla, dating from the 3rd century AD (around 212 to 216 AD), were Roman public baths, or thermae. The baths were built during the reign of the Emperor Caracalla, and were quite impressive: they extended on approximately 13 hectares, and the main building (228 meters long and 116 meters wide) could take about 1,600 bathers. This complex was more than simple baths, it was more complex to today's spa centers. The baths also consisted of a public library within the complex; which held Greek language texts and Latin language texts in two separate rooms. The libraries were located in exedrae on the east and west sides of the bath complex, while the entire north wall of the complex was devoted to shops.
San Giovanni in Laterano.
(Photo by: Allie Caufield)

The strictly bath part consisted of a central cold room (or frigidarium) underneath three 32.9 meter high groin vaults; of a double pool tepidarium (medium) and a 35 meter diameter caldarium (hot room), of two palaestras (gyms for wrestling and boxing), and of a natatio or swimming pool. The swimming pool was placed inside the northern part of the baths, with bronze mirrors mounted overhead to direct sunlight into the pool area. The bath building was placed on a 6 meter high raised platform, to enable storage and furnaces under the building. The building was heated by a hypocaust, a system of burning coal and wood underneath the ground to heat water, which was in use up to the 19th century. On the south wall of the complex were the reservoires, which fed with water from the Marcian Aqueduct. The entire complex was decorated with various works of art. The most notable was a 4 meters high statue of Aesclepius. There are also columns of the frigidarium, which were made of granite and weighed close to 100 ton, which gave the place an impressive look.
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Pyramid of Cestius
The Pyramid of Cestius is a Roman monument, built for Gaius Cestius Epulo, dating from 12 BC. The pyramid was located between two ancient roads, the Via Ostiensis and another road that ran west to the Tiber along the appoximately line of the modern Via della Marmorata. It was originally built as a tomb for Gaius Cestius Epulo, around 18 BC to 12 BC. Gaius Cestius Epulo was a Roman senior magistrate and member of Septemviri Epulonum, but historically quite insignificant. According to the style at that time, Egyptian was the most prestiguous one. The pyramid was built from white marble, on a travertine foundation, with 22 meters base, and a 27 meters high upright part. It originally stood in a low-walled enclosure, flanked by statues, columns and other tombs, in an open countryside, because the tombs were forbidden within the city walls. During the construction of the Aurelian Walls between 271 and 275 AD, the pyramid was incorporated into the walls, and still forms part of a well-preserved stretch of the walls, situated a short distance from the Porta San Paolo. The interior of the pyramid is a burial chamber, 5,95 meters long, 4,10 meters wide and 4,80 meters high. It was decorated in frescoes by Pietro Santi Bartoli, but nowadays there are only some traces left. According to some historical evidence, the work was completed, in accordance with the will, in 330 days.

The Baths of Caracalla occupied 13 hectares.


(Photo by: teandkb)

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Outdoors in Rome
World Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide What to See and Do Outdoors

Here is a selection of the best outdoor sites to visit all around the city of Rome.

Villa Borghese Gardens


Villa Borghese Pinciana or Borghese Villa on the Pincian Hill, also known under the name the Casino Nobile is a Roman suburban villa, built for the wealthy and well-known Borghese family. The villa was designed by Flaminio Ponzio, an Italian architect during the late-Renaissance or so-called Mannerist period, serving in Rome as the architect for Pope Paul V, in 1605. The villa was commissioned by Scipione Borghese, a cardinal and a nephew of Pope Paul V, as well as an extravagant patron of arts. He collected one of Europe's finest collections of arts: including paintings, sculptures and antiquities, which are nowadays a part of the famous Galleria Borghese. The villa was originally built to house his fine collection of arts, as well as the notable gardens and park surrounding it. The design of the gardens and grounds surrounding the villa was also entrusted to Flaminio Ponzio, who was, after his death, replaced by architect Vasanzio and his collaborator Jan Van Senten.

The park was one of this kind in Europe, organized as a formal garden, in the naturalistic English manner, with a number of buildings, museums attractions, divided by avenues and decorated with antique sculptures. It was the second largest public park in Rome, spreading over 80 hectares or 148 acres; the second largest after the gardens of the Villa Doria Pamphili. Cardinal Scipione Borghese, who was also the patron of Bernini, turned the former vineyard at this site into the most extensive gardens built in Rome since Antiquity. The vineyard, according to some historical evidence, was on the site of the gardens of Lucullus, the most famous gardens in the late Roman republic. It was quite exotic for this period: it contained around 400 trees, as well as numerous statues sculptured by Pietro Bernini, father of the most famous Roman sculptor and architect Gian Lorenzo Bernini. There were also numerous fountains, secret flower gardens, numerous wild and exotic animals and bird species. The special attractions were the grotto with artificial rain, a speaking robot and a trick chair which trapped anyone who sat in it. At first, the park was opened to the public, but due to a large number of exotic species and plants, Pope Paul V made it a private garden. In 1773, the park was redesigned, as the large landscape park in the English manner, and enriched with several villas. There was a balustrade erected, dating from approximately 1816, in the gardens, which was taken later to England in the late 19th century, and installed in Cliveden House, a mansion in Buckinghamshire, in 1896. The redesigned garden thus contained: the Galleria Borghese (nowadays housed in the Villa Borghese itself; the garden Casino Borghese, built on a rise above the Villa by the architect Giovanni Vasanzio and set up by Camillo Borghese to contain sculptures by Bernini from the Borghese collection (including his David and his Daphne), and by Antonio Canova (Paolina Borghese), with paintings by Titian, Raphael and Caravaggio; the Villa Giulia adjoining the Villa Borghese gardens, dating from the period between 1551 - 1555, built as a summer residence for Pope Julius III; now it houses the Etruscan Museum (Museo Etrusco); the Villa Medici, now home to the French Academy in Rome, and the Fortezzuola, which is a Gothic garden structure, housing a collection memorializing the academic modern sculptor Pietro Canonica (Diego Velzquez painted several depictions of this Villa's garden casino festively illuminated at night); other villas scattered through the Villa Borghese gardens, which are remains of a world exposition in Rome in 1911; the Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna located in its grounds, featuring a collection of 19th and 20th century paintings emphasizing Italian artists; a 1911 exposition English pavilions which are designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens (who later designed New Delhi), now housing the British School at Rome. In the northern part of the garden was the so-called Museo Zoologico, as well as small zoo named Bioparco, specialized in conservation of the plant varieties.

Villa Borghese, a Mannerist villa built for Scipione Borghese, an extravagant patron of arts. (Photo by: roblisameehan)

The Villa Borghese Gardens.


(Photo by: iessi)

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The garden was linked to the city center by the Spanish Steps which directly lead up to this park. There was another entrance at the Porte del Popolo by Piazza del Popolo. The Pincio (or the Pincian Hill of ancient Rome), in the south part of the park, offers one of the greatest views over Rome. Finally, the garden and the surrounding grounds were bought by the commune of Rome and given to the public in 1903. Together with Villa Giulia, the Villa Borghese and the Villa Borghese gardens form one large park, known as the Giardino del Lago, which has even a small artificial lake in its center. The small island in the center of the lake has a fake Ionic temple, dedicated to a Greek god of health, Aesculapius, designed by Antonis Aspurucci. There is also a circular temple dedicated to Diana, situated between the Porta Pinciana and Via Veneto. In the northwest part of the park is the Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna, containing a large collection of 19th century and 20th century art.

(Photo by: euthman)

The Temple of Aesculapius inside the Villa Borghese Gardens.

Borghese Gallery
The Borghese Gallery or Galleria Borghese is an art gallery, housed in the former Villa Borghese Pinciana also known as Casina Borghese, containing a substantial part of the Borghese collection of paintings, sculpture and antiquities, collected by Cardinal Scipione Borghese, the nephew of Pope Paul V (reign 16051621). The Villa Borghese, in which the gallery is housed, was built by the architect Flaminio Ponzio, developing sketches by Scipione Borghese himself, who used it as a villa suburbana. Scipione Borghese, was an extravagant patron of Gian Lorenzo Bernini, which collected many masterpieces of art: works by Caravaggio, represented in the collection by his works Boy with a Basket of Fruit, St. Jerome, Sick Bacchus and others; Titian's Sacred and Profane Love, Raphael's depiction of the Entombment of Christ and works by Peter Paul Rubens and Federico Barocci.

Caravaggio's masterpiece inside the Borghese Gallery.


(Photo by: Cebete)

The Villa Borghese was placed on the outskirts of Rome, surrounded by wonderful garden and grounds, filled with fountains, sculptures, and wonders: the Vivarium; that housed ostriches, peacocks, swans and cranes "and divers strange Beasts"; fountains of sundry inventions, Groves and small Rivulets of Water, as it was described by 17th century poet John Evelyn. Prince Marcantonio IV Borghese (1730-1800) began the redesign of the park's formal garden architecture into an English landscape garden around 1775, under the guidance of the architect Antonio Asprucci. He commissioned the renovation of the Casina, restaging the Borghese sculptures and antiquities in a thematic new ordering that celebrated the Borghese position in Rome. The Borghese Gallery is spread throughout the Villa, in in twenty rooms across two floors. The first floor contains classical antiquities, dating from the 1st3rd centuries AD (including a famous 320-30 AD mosaic of gladiators found on the Borghese estate at Torrenova, on the Via Casilina outside Rome, in 1834 and classical and neo-classical sculpture such as the Venus Victrix). The decorations of this floor include a trompe l'oeil ceiling fresco in the central hall, also known as the Salone, in the first floor by the Sicilian artist Mariano Rossi. The largest part of the collection were works by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, which include a large percent of his lifetime output of secular sculpture, starting with a juvenile works like the Goat Amalthea with Infant Jupiter and Faun (1615) to his dynamic Apollo and Daphne (162225) and David (1623), which are considered outstanding works of the baroque sculpture. There are also three busts by this sculptor in the gallery: the two of Pope Paul V (161820) and an interesting portrait of his first patron, Cardinal Scipione Borghese (1632). There are also several mannerist works such as Aeneas, Anchises and Ascanius (161819) and the Rape of Proserpine (162122). The upper floor of the Galleria houses a collection of Baroque and Renaissance masterpieces, like Raphael's masterpiece the Deposition, several works by Caravaggio, the interesting painting by 16th century artist Correggio, and other notable works by masters Pinturicchio, Barocci, Rubens and Titian. The Villa also houses the National Museum of Musical Instruments, featuring a collection of instruments from not only western cultures but also instruments from ancient cultures (such as Egyptian, Greek, and Roman) and instruments from America, Africa, and Oceania; which was largerly donated by opera singer Evan Gorga. As a matter-of-fact, this collection of musical instruments is the largest collection ever given to the museum in the world.

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Villa Giulia
Villa Giulia was a Roman villa, built by Pope Julius III in 1550155 on Rome's outskirts, an area of Rome known as the 'Vigna Vecchia'; and is nowadays housing the Museo Nazionale Etrusco, an impressive collection of Etruscan art and artifacts. Pope Julius III was an extravagant patron of arts, who also took a direct interest in the villa's design and decor and spent vast amounts of money on enhancing its beauties. The building was designed by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola in 15511553, while the nymphaeum and other garden structures were designed by Bartolomeo Ammanati, under the supervision of Giorgio Vasari. It had an urban entrance (on the Roman Via Flaminia) and a formal but rural garden entrance. The villa si considered to be one of the most beautiful examples of Mannerist architecture, with a wonderful two story facade with each story being given equal value, with Doric pilasters at each end and and with a triple rhythm of a richly detailed rusticated triumphal arch flanked by symmetrical wings of two bays. It is considered to be the reolemodel for many 18th century Georgian villa, reproduced as far away as the Tidewater region of Virginia. At the back the villa has a arge hemispherical loggia overlooking the first of three courtyards; enclosed by a paired flights of re-entrant marble steps which give access to the heart of the villa complex: a two-story Nympheum for alfresco dining during the heat of the summer. This composition of three-levelled structure of covered loggias, decorated with marble statuary, reclining river gods in niches, and

Beautiful scenery of Villa Borghese Gardens.


(Photo by: David Paul Ohmer)

balustrading, is constructed around a central fountain. The central fountain, Fontana dell'Acqua Vergine, was designed and sculpted by Vasari and Ammannati, depicting river gods and caryatids; supplied by the Acqua Vergine. Inside the villa are various masterpieces. The rooms 1-10 feature various artefacts from sites like the Vulci (mostly Warrior's Tomb) and Bisenzio, Veio nad Cerveteri. In the rooms 11-18 is the Antiquarium collection, featuring domestic and votive objects and ceramics, including the Chigi vase from 6th century BC; Room 19 holds the Castellani collection, including an early 6th century ceramics nad bronzes; Rooms 24-29 contain finds from the Ager Faliscus, which is an area between Tiber and Lake Bracciano; Rooms 30-34 feature finds from many various sites including the Temple of Diana at Nema. The most interesting were the Villa's gardens, which consisted of more that 36,000 trees, surrounded by pavilions and fountains. There was also an outstanding collection of sculptures. The grandeur of this place could be seen in the fact that after the death of Pope Julius III, the founder of villa and gardens, when 160 boats filled with statues and ornaments were sent to Vatican!!

Sant'Agnese Fouri le Mura


The basilica of Sant'Agnese fuori le Mura, literally meaning "Saint Agnes Outside the Walls" is situated on the Via Nomentana at some distance outside the Aurelian Walls, which encircled the ancient city, and dates from the 4th century AD. The church is dedicated to St Agnes, whose bones are entombed inside this basilica. The basilica was built above the crypt of the 13 year old marytr St Agnes. In the fourth century the soft rock was hollowed out around Saint Agnes's tomb to create a gathering space, probably for her family to observe the anniversary of her death, but through time it became a pilgrimage site and finally a church was built. Constantina, daughter of Emperor Constantine, enlarged the underground area around 340 AD and built a large private mausoleum over it, which is now known as the "mausoleo di Santa Costanza". The basilica was rebuilt by Pope Honorius I in the middle of the 7th century. The floor level of the 7th century church were at the level of the catacomb floor, and the public street entrances were at the level of the second floor gallery. From the period of Honorius' renovation are still present some mosaics. It is interesting that, this church was also built with a separate upper gallery for women (matronaeum), which is similar to that of San Lorenzo fuori le mura. Nowadays, the basilica is a part of a complex, which also includes the mausoleum of Santa Costanza. The complex stands on top of an important cemeterial complexes in Rome, with over 10 kilometres (6 miles) of corridors, of which only a couple are accessible.

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Santa Constanza
Church of Santa Constanza, dates from the reign of Emperor Constantine I and was built as a burial place (mausoleum) for his daughters Constantina and Helena (Constantina was venerated as saint with the Italian name of Costanza). The church was built next to the cemetery of Sant'Agnese fuori le mura. The reason for this site lies in the legend that there, Saint Agnes, who allegedly had healed Constantina, was buried. The mausoleum was consecrated as a church in 1254 by Pope Alexander IV, and Constantine's daughters Constantina and Helena were buried there.Today's building rests at the southern flank of the cemetery basilica of Sant'Agnese fuori le mura, not far from the Via Nomentana some three kilometers north of the gates of the Aurelian Walls. The building is circular, with a central circular chamber and a ring-shaped ambulatory, which is separated from the central chamber by twelve pairs of radiating columns. There was also an outer ambulatory, but through time it was lost. The church's interior is decorated by a number of ornaments, with marble and tesserae mosaics, which are a kind of mixture of both pagan and early Christian provenance. The twelve pairs of columns which divide the central chamber from the ambulatory, are of fine green and red marble. The ambulatory's ceiling is vaulted, and decorated with mosaics, depicting classical themes of Bacchic myth and early Christian beliefs. These are probably the world's earliest surviving Via Appia Antica, the queen of the roads. Christian mosaics. According to several experts, the mosaics were (Photo by: iessi) probably copied from a secular Roman floor. The mosaics depict various flowers, animals and birds, with even a scene of Roman grape-harvest, alluding to the wine as a symbol of Christ's blood. The church was restored in the 17th century by Cardinal Fabrizio Veralli. The magnificent porphyry sarcophagus of Constantina, carved with cherubs crushing grapes, was then moved to the Vatican Museums, where it can be seen today.

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There are also the tabernacle of the confession of Arnolfo di Cambio from the 13th century, the statue of Pope Boniface IX; and a 13th century cloister built by Vassalletto in 1205-1241, with beautiful double columns decorated in mosaics. As a matter-of-fact, the basilica was the official seat of the Latin Patriarch of Alexandria from 1215 until 1964.

The simplicity of Santa Constanza.


(Photo by: unknown)

The impressive interior of the basilica.


(Photo by: Allie Caufield)

The beautiful 13th century cloister with double spiralled columns decorated with mosaics. (Photo by: Allie Caufield)

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History and Culture of Rome

History and Culture of Rome


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide History and Culture

The history of Rome began with a long golden period started with the foundation of a small city, and went on through the creation of a republic, military conquests, all the way to the dominion of Europe and the empire. After a peak of two centuries, during which Rome was the greatest empire in the world, the barbaric invasion put an end to the empire, reducing Rome to regression, but lived on as the capital of the lands of the Church until it became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy in the 19th century. The city of Rome started off as a settlement ruled by monarchs about 750 A.D., in continuous war with neighbouring tribes in today's Italian region of Lazio. Soon the Romans prevailed over these populations, dominating them and instaured the republic. The history of this city which became symbol of power was always marked by wars, initially of expansions, and later by wars of defence against foreign aggressors. As the centuries went by, and as Rome went stronger, spreading its dominion over the borders of Italy and defeated Carthage, the Romans came in contact with foreign population they had conquered, and they took the best of other people's culture and skills. Later, with the arrival of Augustus, Rome had become a vast, multi-ethnic empire that went from Spain, through north Africa, Egypt to central and eastern Europe and down to Asia minor. the city of Rome was the absolute center of this Empire, and there you could find people from different countries and different continents, exotic animals, all sorts of foreign products, languages and religions. Rome's strategy to enrole barbaric warriors in the Empire's army was useful in many ways as it enriched the Roman military system with new methods, brains and arms, and at the same time made allies from potential enemies which could have threatened the empire.

Coat of arms of the Roman Empire

However, in the 5th century the Western Roman Empire fell, and the Goths took Rome deposing the last emperor Romolus Augustus. That year, 476 A.D., not only marked the end of the Empire, but also the end of the supremacy of the city of Rome, as the new kingdom of Italy had capital Ravenna, and the Eastern Roman Empire still flourished with Costantinople as centre. Rome had remained the capital of Christianity, the city of God on earth, but the pressures from pagan invadors tested and often threatened the Church. Another threat came from Costantinople, the Second Rome, the capital of the Eastern Empire which claimed the supremacy over Rome. This conflict ended with the separation of the Orthodox Church from Rome in 1054. Meanwhile, the Church had survived the barbaric invasions and became the patron of the Holy Roman Empire; since the coronation of Charlemagne, Christianity became the crutch of the kings, the only thing that kept together European kingdoms and Europe. Rome then started to rise again and the Church State had acquired the possession of central Italy, receiving money from taxes in all Europe and form its property abroad. The popes started rebuilding Rome again bringing back the ancient glory with the help of Italian Renaissance artists. The history of Rome as capital of the Church State ended with the unification of the Kingdom of Italy and the reduction of the Vatican as an enclave in the new Italian capital. Rome did not lose its might, and fascist leader Benito Mussolini invested effort and money to return the glory of the Republic and of the Empire back to Rome. Today, the Italian capital tells its history through monuments and arts, and shows its past splendour.

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Brief History of Rome

Brief History of Rome


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide History and Culture Brief History

Rome is the capital of Italy with the population of over 2.7 million. Geographically, it is in the center of the Italian peninsula, and metaphorically, it is in the center of Western civilization. Rome, also known as the Eternal City, is located in the region of Lazio at the junction of Aniene and Tiber rivers. Due to its location, the climate is very rewarding with mild winters and sometimes hot summers.

The Antiquity
According to legend, Rome was founded on the Palatine Hill on 21 April 753 BC by two brothers, Romulus and Remus. The story goes like this: Augurs were ancient Roman and Etruscan priests whose chief function people who managed to escape from Troy during and after the war settled was to understand the will of the gods by close inspection of birds` behavior. the Italian peninsula. They formed a society ruled by kings. One of those (Photo by: Attilio_82) kings was Numitor, the king of Alba Longa, who was later overthrown by his more powerful brother Amulius. But Numitor had a daughter, Rhea Silvia who was ordered by Amulius to become a Vestal Virgin because of Amulius` fear that she would give birth to children who would dethrone him. And he was right. Rhea Silvia was knocked up by Mars, the god of war, and eventually gave birth to twin brothers, Romulus and Remus. Amulius was of course beside himself with rage so he demanded their death. Now, the servant who was in charge of the boys` execution could not do it because he thought them beautiful and innocent, so instead of killing them he put them in a basket and left them to the mercy of the Tiber river. The twins were protected by the river god Tiberinus, who eventually led them to the Palatine Hill where they were nursed by a she-wolf. After that they were found by a shepherd who raised together with his wife. When they grew up, they became noble, fair, proud and always ready to resolve any kind of dispute or to help the suffering. But, one day, Remus was taken prisoner by Numitor`s shepherds who had been injured by the twins. They took him to Numitor who decided not to punish him and eventually realized that Remus was his grandson. In the meantime, Romulus had been informed about the events that took place while he was making a sacrificial offering. He quickly gathered an army and marched against Alba Longa. Meanwhile, Remus managed to make the people of Alba Longa rebel against Amulius who was eventually killed during the battle. They restored their grandfather as king and left the city in order to found their own. But soon they started arguing on the exact location of their city, so they agreed to resolve their conflict by assessing their capabilities as augurs. Romulus saw twelve vultures and Remus saw six. Remus was angry with his brother for winning so he started making fun of his brother` efforts to build a city. At one point he jumped over a trench, which was considered to be a bad omen, and as a consequence, he was killed. And thus Romulus became the first out of seven mythical kings who ruled Rome from the 8th to 6th century BC.

The Roman Republic


At this point in Rome`s history, the Etruscans exerted great power over the Romans, but sometimes around 500 BC, the Etruscan influence started to wane, and so the Romans freed themselves and established their republic instead of a monarchy as it was the case with the Etruscans. Nevertheless, the Etruscans permanently affected the development of the Roman society. The Romans adopted their building techniques and their religion. The Republic was ruled by the Senate that consisted of the city`s nobility. They elected two Consuls who would jointly rule the Republic. But during crises, the Senate chose a dictator who would replace the two Consuls and ran the Republic by himself. In the next centuries, Roman power grew steadily until Rome became the only superpower of the ancient world. During the Republican age, the Romans spread across the entire peninsula conquering other Latin tribes and assimilating everyone they came into contact with. But, the defining event, that would later prove crucial for the spread of Roman power across the Mediterranean, was the First Punic War (264 BC -241 BC), fought

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against the Carthaginian Empire. After the victory over Carthage, the Romans began to spread outside of the peninsula for the first time. They took Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, and by the end of the Third Punic War in the 2nd century BC, the Roman Republic gained control over the entire Mediterranean. But not everything was rosy since the Republic faced major issues in the form of slave rebellions and occasional conflicts with allies, especially during the 1st century BC. Then, in the second half of the first century, came Julius Caesar. In 49 BC, after the dissolution of the First Triumvirate due to deaths of the other two members, Caesar managed to take control of Rome and become the sole ruler for life, which was not very long because he was assassinated five years later. This incident marked the beginning of the Roman Empire.

The Roman Empire


The Second Triumvirate, consisting of Octavian, Marc Anthony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, was established after a failed attempt by the Senate to reinstate the Republic. The second try at three-men rule also proved to be a failure. The struggle for supremacy between Marc Anthony and Octavian was the death of the Triumvirate, but the birth of the Empire. On 2 September, 31 BC, Marc Anthony was defeated by Octavian in the Battle of Actium. Octavian changed his name to Augustus and became the first Roman Emperor. During the next couple of centuries, Rome was ruled by a succession of good and bad emperors. The year 180 AD is taken as the beginning of decline of the Roman Empire. That is the year when Marcus Aurelius died and his son Commodus took over. Marcus Aurelius was considered Rome is home to many magnificent architectural achievements. to be the last of the Five Good Emperors. The other four Emperors (Photo by: Gaspa) included in this category are Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius. They all came one after the other. The third century proved to be the Empire, especially at the end when the Emperor Diocletian reformed the political system so much that he practically abolished Rome`s function as the administrative center of the Empire. In the year 330, Constantine the Great made Constantinople the second capital lessening Rome`s importance even further. Constantine will always be remembered for making Christianity the official religion of the Empire and thus changing the initially peaceful and humble religion into an Imperial force that conquered the entire continent. The year 476 is taken to be the year when the Western Roman Empire finally succumbed to constant attacks from many Germanic tribes. The same year is also taken to be the beginning of the Middle Ages.

The Middle Ages


In the course of the 6th century, Rome was left in ruins due to constant incursions of Germanic tribes coming from north. Its previous splendor was tainted by chronic neglect of the city`s infrastructure, namely the water supply, turning it into malaria-ridden cesspool. Population of one million during the golden age of the Empire was cut down to less than 50,000 by various diseases and wars. Due to its complete state of ruin, the city was ruled from Ravenna, a Byzantine stronghold on the Adriatic coast of Italy. Nevertheless, there was a new power arising from the ashes of once the most powerful city in the world, the Pope. The 7th and some of the 8th centuries passed under the Byzantine rule, which was preferable to the Lombard rule from the north. But the dispute over some religious issues between the Pope and the Emperor led to a deterioration of relations between Rome and Constantinople. The Pope was forced to ask the Franks for help. This resulted in the Pope making Pippin the Younger, the French king, the protector of Rome. Pippin helped in defeating the Lombards who were constantly plotting against the Pope in order to take Rome from him. At the end of the 8th century, the Lombard Empire was finally crushed by Charlemagne. Furthermore, around this time, the Papal States were created. On December 25, 800, Pope Leo III made Charlemagne the first Holy Roman Emperor. The crowning took place in St Peter`s Basilica. In the course of the next couple of centuries, Rome was in dire need of order. In the mid-12th century, the citizens of Rome led by Giordano Pierleoni, a wealthy Roman merchant, rebelled against the Pope and thus the Comune of Rome was created. The commune was never as successful as those of Florence or Milan because of the never-ending skirmishes between the Pope and noble families. For the most of the 14th century, popes were not residing in Rome, instead they were moved to Avignon in France. In the mid-14th century, Cola di Rienzo began his brief rule over Rome. He was a very ambitious ruler which later cost him life. He wanted to unite Italy under the Roman rule similar to that of the antiquity.

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No one was happy about it so the Pope and everyone else denounced him. He was eventually killed during a rampage caused by the Colonna family. In 1377, the Pope finally returned to Rome.

The Renaissance
In the mid-15th century, the Renaissance came into town. Pope Nicholas V surrounded himself with artists and intellectuals who helped in making Rome one of the greatest centers of Humanism. Nicholas was the first Pope who implemented the sole rule of the Papacy. He was also responsible for the (Photo by: sorinetzu) beginning of the construction of a new St Peter`s Church according to Leon Battista Alberti`s designs. His true successor was Sixtus IV who continued Nicholas` work in the field of art. The few Popes who came before him did not do much to promote art. Sixtus IV was responsible for the reconstruction of a number of churches and other secular buildings, but the most important project he was involved in was the building of the Sistine Chapel. One of the most notorious Popes of that period was Pope Alexander VI Borgia whose sons were employed by the Church. Alexander was a skillful politician who inspired Niccolo Macchiavelli`s principal work, The Prince. He was succeeded by Pope Julius II who was a great patron of arts and whose love of art made Rome the most important artistic center in the world. In 1517, Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of a church in Wittenberg creating protests against the Pope and his policies on a massive scale. Pope Leo X was the ruler at the time and he excommunicated Luther and all his followers. The Popes who came later tried to lessen the importance of Protestantism by Counter-Reformation. In 1527, Charles V, king of Spain, invaded Rome. This event is now known as the Sack of Rome. The city was in shambles for a long time, and even Pope Clement VII was taken prisoner by Charles` troops. This event changed everything ending the golden age in Rome`s history. Much of the rest of the 16th century was characterized by the Counter-Reformation. One of the most devout reformers during this time was Pope Sixtus V who in the course of his brief reign, managed to change unruly Rome into a more organized city. He reformed the administration, cleansed the city of criminals, and reorganized the appearance of Roman streets making them wider and healthier. He was the last of the great Renaissance Popes. During the Baroque period, nothing significant happened. Rome and the Popes were mainly involved in the Counter-Reformation. At this time Rome`s population began to grow slowly, reaching 100,000 in the 17th century.

Unification
At the end of the 18th century, Napoleon established the Roman Republic which was a part of France. This Republic lasted only for a brief moment from 1798 to 1800. After European monarchies had stopped Napoleon`s conquests in a joint venture, several new states were created on the Italian peninsula. Most of them were under the Austrian rule until the Unification in the mid-19th century. In the course of a few decades, Giuseppe Garibaldi together with Camille Cavour, prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, through battle and political maneuvering managed to unite all of the regions of the peninsula except Rome because the Pope was not happy about it. Rome and Lazio joined the rest of the country in 1871, after the people voted in favor of unification. Rome became the capital in the same year.

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Brief History of Rome

The Twentieth Century


First half of the 20th century was marked by World War I and subsequent rise of Fascism. In 1922, Benito Mussolini triumphantly entered the city and made himself the new ruler of Italy under the auspices of Nazi Germany. During this time the population grew rapidly reaching one million by World War II. Mussolini was overthrown in 1943 and after a brief imprisonment, he fled Rome in an attempt to recapture the parts of the country that were not under the control of the Allied forces. He was eventually caught trying to escape to Switzerland, executed and displayed in Milan. In the meantime, Rome was fairly devastated by bombing from both sides. After the war, the city began its progress towards modernization becoming one of the most visited places in the world. During the 1950s and 1960s, Rome experienced a population boom that stopped in the 1980s. Nowadays, over 2,7 million people live in the city.

During the Renaissance and Baroque, Rome was the most important center for art. (Photo by: iessi)

Giuseppe Garibaldi.
(Photo by: wikipedia)

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Origins of Rome

Origins of Rome
World Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide History and Culture Origins

Rome was founded in 753 B.C. by two brothers called Romolus and Remo. The legend assigns them divine origins from the god of war Mars, to mark the future military based state of Rome, and according to the legend, the two brothers were raised by a female wolf. The poet Virgil describes the founders of Rome as legacy of Eneas, a Troyan prince who fled Troy after its fall against the Greeks. Romolus became the first king of Rome and he was followed by six more before the city became a republic. In the monarchic period, the Romans had to fight other tribes in Lazio, in particular the Etruscs, and the latters' influence in Rome was significant. This is proved by the fact that the last three kings of Rome were most likely from this population.

The Seven Kings of Rome


According to Roman writer Marcus Terentius Varro, Rome was founded in 753 B.C. by two brothers called Romolus and Remo. The legend assigns them divine origins from the god of war Mars, to mark the future military based state of Rome, and according to the legend, the two brothers were raised by a female wolf. The poet Virgil describes the founders of Rome as legacy of Eneas, a Troyan prince who fled Troy after its fall against the Greeks. Romolus became the first king of Rome and he was followed by six more before the city became a republic. In the monarchic period, the Romans had to fight other tribes in Lazio, in particular the Etruscs, and the latters' influence in Rome was significant. This is proved by the fact that the last three kings of Rome were most likely from this population.

The founders or Rome, Romulus the first king and his brother Remus, being fed by a wolf. (Photo by: wikipedia)

Archeologists confirm the period given by the legend. The first settlements in the area of modern Rome are dated even befor the VIII century B.C., probably in the X century, but a necropolis that was used for all settlements dates back to the time mentioned by Varro. Romolus could have been the one who united all the settlements in one urban centre and started the

Romulus
Romulus realised that he had to find allies to make independent Rome survive the Etruscans, who were strong in all northern and central Italy, and he found it in the king of the Sabines, Titus Tatius, who ruled Rome with Romulus for a short time as he died very soon, and left Romulus the only king. Rome became a multiethnic city composed by Latins, Sabines and Etruscans. This division was accomplished at a political level, as the three ethnic groups were given a tribal division: Ramnes (Latins), Tities (Sabines) and Luceres (Etruscans). Each of the three tribes was divided into ten Curiae, who would gather in assemblies to make important decisions, and grant Rome its army: each Curia would provide a Centuria of 100 footmen and 10 equestrian soldiers; the army was under the direct command of the king. Another important organ was a council form by the heads of the most important families of Roma, called Patres (which gave origin to the name Patricians), the council was called Senate and helped the king rule and was responsible for his elections. Romulus divided the city population in two classes, the Patricians, descendants of the most important families, and the Plebeians, composed by all the others. The division was based on the origins of the people, and not on their richness, and in politics, the Plebeians had no political rights and the only way for them to gain protection was to become Clientes of the Patricians, offering them their services. Besides being a good statesman, Romulus proved to be an excellent military leader, as he expanded his kingdom, conquering Etruscan and Latin territories. Romulus died at the age of 55, after having ruled for 37 years. The legend tells that he disappeared during a solar eclipse, followed by a storm, explaining the fact with his divine origins as son of Mars. However, probably the king was killed during a conspiracy planned by some members of the Senate, making his body disappear.

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Origins of Rome Numa Pompilius

When Romulus went missing in 716 A.D., the Senate started a long period of conflict in order to elect the new king. However, the heads of the most important Roman families continued to rule the country through some sort of oligarchy, and their real aim may have been not to elect a new king and keep the power in the hands of the Senate. However, the people of Rome wanted a new king and the Senate was forced to elect the new king a year later, Numa Pompilius, on will of the people. The new king was a foreigner, from the Sabine tribe, but was very appreciated for being very religious. A foreign king seemed to be the only way out to a long battle among the families who supported their own candidate, so the Senate decided to approve the choice of the people. The new king put order in the Roman society, mainly ruled by the Patricians who made their own rules and laws, ignoring the laws of Rome. The conflicts among families made it hard for Numa Pompilius to reach a compromise that would be accepted by everyone, so the king had the gods decide the laws which everyone had to respect. Numa Pompilius received instructions from a nymph, and the new Roman society got its order on religious basics. During Numas reign, Rome lived an economic growth and a long period of wealth. The king used the will of the gods to reduce the power of the Patricians in favour of a sense of community and the superiority of the law over all citizens, religion, which was formerly a private practice of every family, became a public practice and temples became important centres of public life. Numa Pompilius died in 673 A.D., and thanks to him, Rome had eliminated internal conflicts and stabilised its social order and economic power, ready to expand and dominate neighbouring peoples.

Rape of the Sabine Women.


(Photo by: wikipedia)

Tullus Hostilius
Tullus Hostilius was elected king of Rome in 672 A.D., after the death of Numa Pompiliues and was very different from his predecessor. Unlike Numa Pompiliues, Tullus Hostilius was not deeply religious and he made war the strong point of his kingdom. He declared war to the neighbouring city Alba Longa, which was living a period of decadence, but still represented danger for Rome. The war fought against Alba Longa, though, was not fought on the battlefield between the two armies. Instead, the two cities presented their champions who would fight each other in duel: The Horatii, three brothers for Rome, and the Curiatii, three brothers for Alba Longa. The Curiatii brothers killed two of the Horatii, and the last one of them faced the three enemies alone and managed to prevail by eliminating them one by one. This episode shows actually how much Rome and Alba Longa were close, even by blood line relations, as the duel was organised in oder to avoid the mass killing of a war. In adittion, when the winner of the duel returned home he killed his own sister because she was mourning the death of her lover, one of the Curiatii brothers. The champion of Rome was then put to death for murdering his sister, but is saved in extremis by his father. The relationship between two members of the two families was also and indacator of the strong relations between the families of Rome and Alba Longa. After the victory of Roma, the two cities signed an alliance and Rome set off a military campaign to conquer Etrcuscan territories, covered by Alba Longa. However, the latter betrayed Rome and the king of Alba Long backed the Etruscans. Rome won the war and completely destroyed the enemy city, executing its king and deporting its population to Rome, as Tullus Hostilius realised the importance of a demographic growth in order to expand the territories of Rome. However, the kings negligence of religious practices is followed by a pestilence and natural events cause the death of the king in 641 A.D. His death is interpreted as a punishment to the sovereign of Rome from Jupiter, offended by his disrespect for the gods.

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Origins of Rome

Ancus Marcius
In 639 B.C., Ancus Marcius, grandson of Numa Pompilius, was elected new king of Rome. His family relations with the religious king pushed his candidature in a moment in which Rome, scared of the rage of the gods provoked by the former king, was looking for salvation in a king related to the king elected by will of the gods. Tullus Hostilius had eliminated any link between politics and religion, using the source of his power in war. Besides having deep respect for religion, Ancus Marcius carried on an aggressive and expansionist foreign policy. Ancus Marcius' military policy was successful and victories on the battlefield over the latins were followed by deportations of the defeated population to Rome. Following the tactic of Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius managed at the same time to expand Roman territories and to increase the population of Rome.

The oath of the Horatii.


(Photo by: wikipedia)

The new king was initiator of important architectonic its colony Ostia, called Via Ostiensis, a port on the river Tiber and the first bridge over the river. From that moment, the area around the bridge became an important trading centre, a meeting point for traders from the areas at the north and the south of Rome, connected by new roads. In addition, he built a fortress to defend the new centre. Ancus Marcius died in 616 B.C., and marked the end of the Sabine dynasty of Rome. After him, the last three kings of Rome Etruscans, probably because of the growing influence of this population in Lazio, and according to some theories, they even came to conquer Rome, which would explain the origins of the new king.

Tarquinius Priscus
Tarquinius Priscus was the son of a rich merchant from Greece, and a noble Etruscan woman. Despite his richness, he could not take part in the political life of Tarquinia due to his non Etruscan origins. So he married an Etruscan aristocrat, Tanaquil, who had political ambitions. Tarquinius left his city to find a place where he could succede as a political man, and moved to Rome. Some hitorians even claim that Tarquinius invaded Rome with his followers and took power by force, but other theories say that he managed to build his political career without the use of the force, and with the support of his friends. His popularity led him even to the sympathy of king Ancus Marcius. When the king died, Tarquinius Priscus, gained popularity in spite of the king's sons, and was elected king in 616 B.C. with a strong support from the people of Rome. Immediately, the king showed his intentions to finally defeat the Latins and the Sabines, in order to take control of the commercial ways. Many cities surrendered without even fighting, and some others fell after long bloody wars. The conquered people were sent to Rome to populate the city; those who accepted the Roman dominion without restisting were rewarded with Roman citizenship, while the others were deported and turned to slaves. During Tarquinius' reign, Rome became a real power in central Italy, imposing the Etruscan-Roman, in spite of the Latin culture. Rome also lived through a strong economical development, as the king favoured smaller merchants, craftsmen and peasants, who spread their production, and raised their importance in the political life of Rome. Tarquinius used this strategy of creating new politica forces, in oder to maintain his power and have constant support in political circles. Many of these new men from smaller classes, in fact, had Estruscan origins, and the Etruscan presence in Rome grew coming to the birth of Etruscan neighbourhoods. The king also contributed to the modernisation of the city through the construction of architectonic structures; Tarquinius built the city's new walls, the king's residence, new temples, he started bonification processes in the Forum, the area of the future Roman Forum, and started the construction of sewers, the future Cloaca Maxima. With Tarquinius Priscus, Rome lived an ethnical and cultural fusion with the Etruscans, picking up many features from the Etruscan religion and their humanlike gods (also typical of the Greeks). The king continued the internal policy of Numa Pompilius, reducing the importance of family religion and pushing the public practice in temples, giving the priority to Etruscan divinities with the intention to give one religion to the whole state, but leaving freedom to Latin populations to practice their own religion in the public temple. The cultural influence of the Etruscans had also effects on symbology, on the way of dressing, with the introduction of heavy clothes, togas and sandals, which would become distinctive features of senators and priests. However, with the economic expansion all through the Mediterranean, Rome absorbed many cultural aspects of many populations other than the Etruscan. This peculiarty of Rome's open mind became a key factor in the cultural richness typical of the Roman Empire.

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Origins of Rome

Lucrezia by Sandro Botticelli. Servius Tullius.

Servius Tullius
The legend tells that when Tarquinius Priscus died in 579 B.C., his wife feared that the descendents of Ancus Marcius would regain power, so she announced that the king was in danger of life and that the throne would be taken temporarly by her son in law Servius Tullius. When the latter had consolidated his power in Rome, she announced the king's death and, as the people were already used to having Servius as king, they accepted his reign without passing through the election procedure. The new king was the son of a Latin aristocrat who was made a slave after the wars against Rome and served in the house of king Tarquinius Priscus. Servius Tullius gained the sympathy of the king's wife Tanaquil, who wanted him to succeed on the throne, so Servius was raised as a prince and married one of Tarquinius' daughters. Servius Tullius had gained the throne without being elected, and this fact generated disapproval in the higher class of Rome, and among the claimers to the throne. In these circumstances, the king's policies were dictated by the needs to gain the sympathy of the people, so Servius initiated a series of social reforms in favour of the Plebeians and the poorer class. First, he abolished slavery as results of debts, then he distributed the lands conquered in war among the poorer people, and reformed the tax system in favour of the Plebeians, in accordance to the level of richness. Although Servius' new policies granted him the favour of the mass, the discontent grew among the Patricians and the rich people, so the king needed to be elected king and receive the legitimacy from the people of Rome. Therefore he held a speech saying he would resign from his position, due to the continuous threats of Patricians who were only interested in power, careless of the needs of the people. His words had effect on the people gathered who immediately raised his popularity and the people of Rome elected him king of Rome. Servius still had many enemies among the Patricians, but at least his throne was consolidated by legitimacy and could be no longer contested. The king also reformed the army, changing it from a system based on census, which privileged the rich class and their clients, extending the army to the Plebeians. The soldier-peasant was a new figure that came with Servius Tullius, as the soldiers' services for the Roman army were rewarded with a share of the land conquered in battle, and with the right to vote. This new system attracted many of those who had nothing to lose, who had the chance to create a new life by serving in the army. This policy led to the formation of large army, thus to the introduction of new military techniques based on the number. The king also reorganised the political structure of the city dividing it in circumscription, extending the right to vote to the emerging classes, like traders and craftsmen, who were also responsible for the economic growth of Rome and the development of trade. Servius Tullius also granted a further expansion to Roman territoris, also thanks to the new military system. Rome leads a war which lasted twenty years against expanding Etruscan cities, which ended with a Roman expansino to the north, and to the south taking territory from the Latins. However, Servius Tullius still had to face enemies inside the walls of Rome, and the legend says that the end of his reign came when Lucius Tarquinius, descendent of Tarquinius Priscus and husband of one of Servius' daughters, sat on the king's throne stating that Servius had illegally taken the throne of his father which belonged to his family. The old king reacted to the accusations and Lucius Tarquinius threw him down the stairs. The king was injured and tried to escape, but was then killed by his own daughter, Lucius Tarquinius' wife. The cruelty of Lucius Tarquinius and his family, the last king of Rome, described by the legend, earned him the name of Tarquinius Superbus (the superb).

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Origins of Rome

Tarquinius Superbus
The last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius (534 B.C. - 509 B.C.), known as Tarquinius Superbus, is remembered as a negative character in the history of Rome. After getting rid of Servius Tullius, with the help the king's daughter, his wife, he ruled Rome as a tyrant. He turned the Roman Plebeians to slaves in order to built a great temple dedicated to Jupiter and removed all power from the Senate, becoming absolute sovereign of Rome. His internal policy caused great discontent among the people and the Patricians themselves, who were deprived of all powers. Tarquinius Superbus was a skilled military commander and diplomatic as he contributed to the expansion of Rome in central Italy through military victories and alliances with other cities, granting Rome the supremacy in Lazio. However, his success in foreign policy was completely unbalanced with his oppressive policy inside the city. Plebeian and Patricians, even members of his family, had decided to get rid of him. As the king led a military campaign against the Latin city of Ardea, the people of Rome, led by Lucius Brutus (of the same family of the king) rebelled against the tyrant and sent Taruinius Superbus away. According to some historians though, the legend does not correspond to the real facts which saw Rome invaded by an Etruscan king who deposed Tarquinius Priscus. However, the Romans managed to stop the Etruscan expansion and preserve the rule of their city. After the end of Tarquinius Superbus' reign, the Roman Patricians, who had proved to be capable of grant safety to Rome in battle, and who had experienced the rule of Etruscan kings as a weakening of their power in Rome, decided to abolish monarchy in order to avoid the arrival of another foreign king and break any bond with the Etruscans. The end of the monarchy and the Etruscan rule of Rome marked the beginning of the republic. Historians, though, have proved that in that time Rome had become an Etruscan city itself.

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Republic of Rome

Republic of Rome
World Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide History and Culture Republic

With the end of the monarchy in 509 B.C., Rome starts its republican period which lasted of almost five hundred years until the first century B.C. In this period, the city lived a great economic and political development, besides territorial expansion as through many wars. Around the year 439 B.C., the Romans founded the Latin League, an alliance aimed at protecting their territories from neighbouring populations, especially the Etruscans. The Romans used the, in appearance, defensive league in order to pursue an aggressive policy aimed at territorial expansion. After defeating the minor cities, Rome led a long war against the Etruscan city of Veio which was blocking their expansion to the north. In the year 396 B.C., Rome attacked and destroyed Veio. This defeat was a sign of decadence of the Etruscan civilisazion and their power in Italy. But Rome had to face other enemies, the Celts, or Gauls, nomad tribes from France who had settled in the north of Italy. The Gauls attacked the lands occupied by the Etruscans and reached Rome in 387 B.C., occupying the city. However, fortunately for the Romans, the Gauls were not interesting in maintaining their dominion on Rome, and, as many other nomad population, they only raided the city, and Rome was freed under the payment in gold. Rome organised the conquered territories in different levels, giving to some cities the privilege of citizenship and of vote in assemblies, to others just citizenship without the right to vote, and others had only the status of allies. In this way, Rome created some sort of confederation with the conquered people, who did not feel as subjugated and slaves of Rome, but part of it, as allies. This system had much more success than if they had submitted them, and did not cause Rome trouble in maintaining their dominion. The system also helped the republican power of Rome to get stronger.

The Structure of the Republic


The Roman constitution defined the rights of the citizens and everyone, except women, slaves and foreign residents, was considered a citizen. The Roman Republic was some sort of confederation of states controlled by a representative of the central authority. The Romans had realised that experimented system of Latin League. government of the past had failed, so they tried to put three systems in one with Monarchy (represented by the Consuls), Oligarchy (Senate), and Democracy (popular assemblies). The ideal constitution was to avoid that all the power ended in the hands of one man or of a restricted group of people. In other words, the Roman Republic was a balanced system in which each component would be an obstacle to the other. However, the real political power was the family, as the only the most powerful family could decide who would take offices and how they should run their policy. The political structure of the Republic of Rome was structured according to the division of powers, and the main organs were the following: The Consuls, two of them, were elected by the people and they had the same powers the king had at the time of the monarchy, that is political, military and judiciary, but not religious powers, who were competence of the Pontefix Maximus. The Senate, was the main organ in the republic, not the one with the most power, but the one with the highest prestige as it was the oldest organ in the political history of Rome and was formed by people who had already had a political career and who came from the most important families, and its members were in office for life, unlike other political offices which generally lasted a year, or anyway a determined time limit. Their duty was to advice magistrates in making their decisions, which actually meant they passed decrees, but especially decided about wars and peace. The Senate initially counted 100 members, but later the number was raised to 300. Its members were initially the heads of the oldest and most important families, but later accepted Plebeians who had become rich. The Assemblies of the Centuries had the duty to elect the consuls, the censors, the Pretores and high magistrates in general. They had legislative power, but only in particular matters. However, the final word was taken by the Senate. The Censors established the taxes among the citizens according to the census, they compiled the notes of the senators and administrated the state budget. The Pretores were in charge of running the judiciary, and, if necessary, they substituted the consuls in the government of the state and in command of the army.
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Republic of Rome

The new Republican Constitution had put the power in the hands of Patricians, who formed the Senate and mainly occupied magistrates positions, and formed the majority in the Assemblies of the Centuries. In addition, as Rome extended its territories, the Patricians increased their richness, as most of the conquered lands were assigned to Patrician families, and also through the loan of money. The laws on debts, in fact, were still very strict, and it allowed creditors to confiscate their debtors goods and even of their person, turning them to slaves. This tense social situation led to a long conflict on a political and economical level between Plebeians and Patricians, which lasted for almost two centuries, from 509 B.C. to 300 B.C.

The Social Conflict: Patricians and Plebeians


One of the most important social events in the ancient history of the Roman Republic was the conflict between Plebeians and Patricians. Between 500 and 300 B.C., the Roman citizens were divided in two classes, the Patricians and the Plebeians. The former were a small group of citizens, about 10% of the entire population of Rome, socially superior to the majority of the citizens. The Patricians descended from the oldest families of Rome, the had social, political and economic power, and built their richness through the land and war conquests. As for the Plebeians, they represented all the rest of the citizens of Rome; they had no political, economic or social power and included peasants with no land and extremely rich people who wanted to become Patricians. Being part of one class or the other was a matter of juridical division and was not based on the amount of money one had. In 494 B.C., the Plebeians rebelled and threatened to create a new independent state inside the state of Rome called concilium plebis. Their aim was to protect themselves from the abuses and the injustices of the Senate and the Consuls. Eventually, the Roman Constitution was modified in order to satisfy some of the requests of the Plebeians. However, the Patricians continued to be the holders of power. The Plebeians obtained the right to elect their own representatives, the Plebeian Tribunes, who had absolute power of veto. They could not be summoned to respond of their actions in front of justice, they could not be even touched by anyone. The only things the Tribunes could not stop were those of military commanders or dictators. In 450 B.C., the Plebeians won another important battle and obtained the issuing of a series of laws which regulated the relationship between citizens and the members of families. Five years later they also obtained the right of marriage between citizens of different classes. This allowed rich Plebeians to become Patricians themeselves and cover important offices of the political life. The most important victory for the Plebeians, however, came in 367 B.C., when the Tribunes issued laws which stated that one of the two Consuls had to be Plebeian, that Pretors were deputy Consuls and they limited the amount of land one citizen was allowed to own. In the 287 B.C., finally the Assemblies of the Centuries received full legislative power, and their decisions no longer had to pass the approval of any other political organ. However, Rome's political system was far from being the democracy built in Athens, where all free citizens had equal political weight. In Republican Rome, the privileges formerly an exclusive of the Patricians, were extended to the Plebeians, but not to all of them, just to the rich ones who could allow themselves to dedicate time and money to a politcal career. Those who had to work for a living, and those who had not clientes who would support them, had no chance of being elected. Republican Rome was actually more similar to an aristocratic regime rather than a democracy. Unlike Sparta, though, the Roman aristocracy counted members both of Patrician and Plebeian origin.
(Photo by: hannahgleg)

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Expansion of the Republic of Rome


In the years of the Republic, Rome had flourished economically and expanded its territories. Its military tactics, diplomacy and administration led Rome to the dominion of the Italian peninsula, absorbing the Latin and the Italics, and reducing the power of Greek colonies and taking the dominion of the Mediterranean Sea from the Cartagineans. Their foreign policy of aggression was compensated by their open minded behaviour to all subjugated peoples of Italy, who contributed to the military supremacy of Rome.

The War against the Samnites


After defeating the Latins and the Etruscan cities, Rome had become the major military terrestrial power in Italy, more organised and united than the Etruscan league and stronger than the powerful Greek cities of southern Italy (Naples, Taranto and Syracuse, often in war with one another). Rome could also count on a real army of citizens, much more faithful and motivated than mercenary soldiers used by the Etruscans and the Greeks. The Samnites, a population of the mountains of central and southern Italy, represented a danger for Rome's further expansion. These warrior-like tribes were almost invincible in their own territory, and they used them for handbushes and to protect themselves from the attack of armies. Just like Rome, the Samnites aimed to expand towards southern Italy and the conflict, started in 343 B.C., was inevitable. Rome could count on the support of Naples, constantly threatened by Samnites, who immediately found allies in the Etruscans and Celts, who wanted to stop Rome's spreading military power in Italy. Rome's military action was decisive and extremely efficient. They attacked the three national armies separately and defeated them one by one: the Gauls fell in Sentino, then the Etruscans and the Samnites, who were forced to become allies of Rome.

The War against Pyrrhus


After defeating the Samnites, Rome planned to expand to the south, towards the lands controlled by rich Greek cities, and some of them were very powerful, like Naples and Taranto. Naples decided to support Rome, as Taranto decided to resist to the Roman invasion. This was a rich trading city who had good relations with the kingdom of Epirus, in Greece, ruled by king Pyrrhus, who often helped Taranto in defensive wars against the Samnites. Rome declared war to Taranto in 281 B.C., and the latter asked Pyrrhus for help. The latter, who wanted to extend his influence in southern Italy, sent his troops who used elephants wearing heavy armors in battle. The Romans, shocked at the sight of what they thought were monsters, initially lost to Pyrrhus. However, the Greek king had lost a high number of men and could not replace them, as he was far from his homeland and also because his kingdom itself was not highly populated. In addition, Taranto had counted on the help of other Greek cities, Syracuse included, which eventually backed Rome. In 275 B.C., Pyrrhus was finally defeated in Benevento and was forced to flee Italy. Taranto, and other territories in southern Italy, occupied by other Italic populations, were included in the lands of Rome. After the war against Taranto, Rome ruled over a territory that went down to the southern point of the Italian peninsula and was populated by over four million inhabitants.

The Administration of the Roman Territory


Rome's number one problem in administrating such a large territory and different ethnic populations, controlled by one city, was to make sure that the subjugated people would not stand against the republic. First of all, Rome did not impose taxes to conquered cities, showing a different behaviour from other conquerors of the time, and some sort of cooperative relation rather than a dominion aimed at the exploitation of their enemies, and asking military support to them only in case of war as to create a common defence. Another important strategy was to divide the new territories in different categories: municipalities, colonies and allies. The colonies were cities that were founded in strategic points in order to ensure defense to the Rome, they were populated with Roman citizens or Latin people and their inhabitants had the same rights as other Roman citizens. The colonies allowed poorer citizens to improve their life conditions thanks to their distance from the city of Rome and they actually guarded the territories and populations who had been defeated in order to ensure their faith to Rome. The municipalities were cities conquered by Rome which maintained wide administrative autonomy. They had their own governments and their own magistrates, and their inhabitants had the same rights as the Roman citizens. However, they did not have political rights and had to contribute with regular troops to the army, and grant food and war material. The allies were cities linked to Rome with special treaties, which actually made them Roman federates. These treaties were mainly aimed at the control of their foreign policy in matters of war and peace, but left them autonomies over their government.

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The conquered people were allowed to practice free trade with one another and with Rome, to own private property and practice their own religion. The most important and richest families could receive Roman citizenship and even move to Rome. With this tactic, Rome had it easy in spreading its culture, Latin language, building roads and new cities in order to facilitate their control over the new lands. This policy resulted in a further economic development, helped by the intense trading network. Unlike the Greeks, the Romans did not demolish traditional institutions, languages, religions or cultures, but they let the conquered run their lives, politics and economy as they wanted, with the only obligation to pay tributes and assist Rome in war. The Romans had realised that it was easier to rule over a vast territory if the people who lived in it felt as part of a larger organism.

Rome and Carthage


As Rome expanded its dominion in the Italian peninsula, Carthage, a Phoenician colony founded in 814 B.C. on the northern African coast, near today's Tunis, was spreading its supremacy in the western Mediterranean. Carthage was had a great fleet which controlled the sea and its colonial expansion reached many lands in the Mediterranean: Spain, Sardinia, Corsica, western Sicily. The trade of this powerful state was also addressed to the east, down to Persia, and towards west, crossing the strait of Gibraltar, exploring the African coasts and England. The Carthaginians were aware of the Roman expansion and had already signed several commercial and political treaties with Rome, also in occasion of the war against Pyrrhus. However, it was clear that the two states would meet each other in some point of their expansion. However, Carthage had political and military defects. Unlike Rome, the Carthaginians led a policy of repression and absolute power on the conquered people, and, despite having a powerful fleet and army, often discontent ruled the spirits of foreign soldiers from the colonies.

The First Punic War


The first conflict between Rome and Carthage, the First Punic War, started almost by accident. The city Sicilian city of Messina, near the Italian coast, had been occupied former mercenary rebels of Italic origin, causing the reaction of Syracuse which moved its army against them. The Italics then urged Rome to defend them and in 264 B.C., the Roman Republic sent an army to back the rebels against Syracuse. The Carthaginians were worried that Rome could occupy the entire island of Sicily, so they sent troops to stop them, but the Romans defeated both Syracuse and Carthage in a short time. Rome, now backed by Syracuse and other Greek cities, defeated the Carthaginians again, this time on the sea, and occupied further Sicilians cities in 261 B.C. In these sea battles, the Romans experimented a new war machine: a bridge which was let down from their ships on the ships of their enemies in order to transfer Roman soldiers to the other side. Motivated by the series of victories over the Carthaginians, the Romans decided to send it fleet and army to Africa, as to strike the enemies in their own territory. The first expedition had success, both on land and sea, while during the second one, the Roman fleet was heavily damaged by a storm, and part of the army was lost with it. However, the Romans built another fleet and gave the final strike to Carthage in 241 B.C. near the Aegadian Islands, putting an end to the war. Carthage had to completely leave Sicily, return all Roman war prisoners and pay over forty thousand kilograms of silver as war damages.

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Hannibal and the Second Punic War


Rome continued to expand in Spain, Corsica and Illiria, today's Dalmatia, and in the north of Italy, where they defeated the Celts, and took Mediolanum (Milan). On the other side, the Carthaginians started occupying Spain from the south, as to compensate the loss caused by the First Punic War. Between 237 B.C. and 222 B.C., Carthages generals Hamilcar and his son Hasdrubal, managed to conquer all Spanish territories south of the river Ebro, the north limit of non trespass imposed by the treaty of peace with Rome. In 219 B.C., General Hannibal, Hasdrubals brother, Carthagenean territories at the breakout of the First Punic War. attacked a city allied of Rome, but when the Romans urged him to leave the city, Hannibal refused, starting the Second Punic War. The Carthaginian general then decided to cross the Alps and invade the north of Italy with almost 30,000 men, where he found good allies in Celtic tribes who hated Rome and with their help, the Carthaginian army marched south towards Rome, recording a series of victory against the Roman army. Hannibal had counted on the support of Italic population, but they did not want to rebel to Rome, so he had to continue to move south, reaching todays Italian region Puglia. There, his army, backed by many southern cities and King Philip of Macedonia, faced 80,000 Romans in a great battle in Cannae, where he reported a great victory. However, Rome and central Italian allies, refused to surrender and decided to take time, hoping that the Carthaginian army, away from their homeland, would weaken. Meanwhile, Hannibals family in Carthage had to face internal problems with other powerful family who hoped to reduce his power and who refused to send the reinforcement that Hannibal had sent for. The Romans started regaining southern Italian cities and Romes fleet conquered Syracuse, while a third army, led by Publius Cornelius Scipio, fought in Spain and in only three years he conquered New Carthage, defeating Hannibals brother Hasdrubal, stopping him from joining Hannibal in Italy. In 207 B.C., Hannibal was left completely isolated in southern Italy, as Scipio reported a series of victories which forced the Carthaginian troops to flee Spain. In 204 B.C., Scipio was authorised by the Senate to land in Africa, and Carthage, threatened, recalled Hannibal to come and protect the city. Hannibal returned and lost the battle to Scipio in 202 B.C. in Zama. This time, Roman conditions to Carthage were even harsher than after the first war: Carthage had to leave all colonies in Europe, maintaining only the land in Africa, its fleet was reduced to ten ships, and the Carthaginians had to pay 100,000 kilograms of silver to be paid throughout fifty years. Hannibal had to flee Carthage and went to hide at the court of eastern kings, enemies of Rome, but the Romans defeated them and Hannibal committed suicide by poisoning in 183 B.C. After settling things with Carthage, Rome had to deal with the cities that had backed Hannibal during the invasion of Italy, punishing them. Then they reorganised their colonies in Italy and Spain, reinforcing already existing colonies and founding new ones.

The Conquest of Greece and the Third Punic War


The end of the Second Punic War had left the Romans free to interfere also in Greece and in the east. First, Rome sent troops to Rome in order to punish King Philip V of Macedonia, who had backed Hannibal and Carthage, so between 200 and 197 B.C., the Roman army defeated the Macedonian troops and forced King Philip to abandon the territories conquered in Greece. The Romans then presented themselves as those who had freed Greece from the Macedonians, and announced that they intended to leave the Greek states their independence. However, the Macedonians led the conflict against the Romans, but were defeated in 168 B.C., and Macedonia became Roman province. The Roman troops in Greece did not retreat after the conquest of Macedonia, de facto imposing their dominion on the independent cities of Greece. In 146 B.C., the some of the Greek cities formed a league against Rome but were defeated and Greece became Roman province. Meanwhile, Carthage had recovered from the defeat. They actually did not represent a danger for Rome, but the memory of the wars was still alive in Rome, so the Romans were determined to find an excuse to give the final strike to their enemies. Rome saw the right occasion to move war against the Carthage when the king of Numidia, Massinissa, ally of Rome, attacked Carthage to expand his kingdom. Carthage attacked the Numidians and Rome sent an army led by Scipio Aemilianus, adopted grandson of General Scipio hero of the Second Punic War, in order to defend Numibia. After two years of war, Carthage asked peace, but the Romans refused and in 146 B.C. Scipio destroyed the city and had the land covered in salt, to stop anything from ever growing again on that soil.

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Culture, Economy and Political Administration


For the first time in ancient history, one republic had managed to create a vast state similar to an empire. The influence of new colonies, the arrival of new richness and a need to expand caused deep changes in the political, social and economic life of Rome and Italy.

The Influence of Greece


The sudden flow of gold and richness from the new conquests with the contact with Greece and the east deeply changed the lifestyle of Romans from the upper classes. Generals like Scipio, Senators, Patricians, and rich Plebeians had picked up the habits and traditions of the Greeks, living in luxury, and were accused by traditionalist Romans of betraying the real Roman culture and simple lifestyle of the Republic. A strong artistic and literary influence from Greece brought big changes in the culture of Rome, that some even saw the Greeks as the real conquerors of Rome, and not the other way round. Until that moment, the Latin culture had been much simpler than the Greek traditions. The Romans had developed useful sciences such as architecture or law, while the figurative arts, poetry and theatre became more present in the life of Rome, only after the contact with Greece. The Greek language even became the language of culture and it started spreading in Rome among learned people who often spoke Greek with one another. Roman religion is often mistaken with Greek religion. This is due to the strong influence from the Greek culture in general. However, there were several differences, as cities of Lazio worshiped Jupiter even before the conquest of Greece, and Jupiter was the main divinity, the protector of the cities, the home, the work, and he was the (Photo by: wikipedia) dominator of nature. Mars was the god of war and other feminine divinities resembled those of the Greeks such as Juno, the queen of gods, Minerva, goddess of knowledge, Diana, goddess of hunt and Venus, goddess of love. Each home had their own gods like the spirits of the ancestors, Mani, the protectors of the house, Lari, and the protectors of family, Poenati. The head of the religion was called the Pontefix Maximus, and other priests were called Auguri, who were some sort of interpreters of the will of the gods through natural phenomena. Then the female priests, the Vestals (from the name of the goddess Vesta) guarded the fire in the temple of Vesta, protection of the Roman people. When the Greek culture spread in Rome, the Greek divinities assimilated to the pre-existing Roman gods and goddesses with similar characteristics, so Jupiter identified with Zeus, Minerva with Athena, Venus with Aphrodite and so on. In addition, the Romans absorbed new Greek gods such as Mercury and Apollo. However, the Roman custom to integrate the religion of conquered people with their own was an older tradition, but the Greek cultural invasion was however the strongest.

Economic Situation
The long wars led by Rome resulted in an economic disaster for small landowners of the Italian peninsula, forced to enrol and leave their lands. Many of them had to sell their property to rich proprietors, and this caused the formation of vast cultivated lands worked by slaves, who cost less than free citizens, as they were not paid and were exempted from military service, and due to the territories conquered during the war there was a high number of them. The new land acquired with the war became ager publicus (public land), which was property of the Senate. This land was then sold to individuals who had right on a certain part of it. However, the rich proprietors, violating the law, had bought much more land than they were allowed, also because small proprietors could not afford to buy it.

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Political Administration
The conquered provinces were forced to pay annual tributes to Rome, while Italy was exempted from paying taxes. Large amounts of money then started flowing to Rome and were employed to finance further wars and conquests, and the rest was invested in the construction of Rome and other Italian cities. Crafts and minor industrial activities developed in Italy where the number of weapon factories, war clothing, furniture and texture started growing. Many private construction companies were founded due to the need of experts to built civil constructions such as roads, bridges and buildings, while other companies provided war materials. In addition, as the Senators were not allowed by the law to take part in commercial activities, a new class of managers called the Publicans who would run the state commercial activities, such as collecting taxes, purchase goods and make contracts with private construction companies. The Publicans became an influential political party, something between Patricians and Plebeians, and later they obtained recognition by the law, and were obliged to serve in the army in the cavalry, so their social class was called of the cavaliers. Rome had extended its dominion to Africa, Spain, Macedonia, Greece and Asia Minor between 205 and 148 B.C. The final result was the division of the Roman state into provinces. Rome managed, through diplomacy and by reinforcing the borders, to gain the alliance with bordering countries and gradually subjugated them strengthening their control in the provinces. The Romans, however, never interfered in the internal affairs of their allies, and the new peoples were made allies of Rome, which asked them only financial support through taxes and troops for the army. The system of provinces was an efficient way to administrate the new conquests. Each province was under the jurisdiction of a magistrate, called governor, who was nominated by the Senate and dominated the province with absolute power. A defect of this system was that the governors would establish a certain sum of taxes which would be sent to Rome, and then imposed much higher taxes to the people of the provinces, keeping the difference for themselves.
A Greek temple in Paestum.
(Photo by: vinzit)

Roman possessions after the Third Punic War.

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Political Conflicts and Civil Wars in Rome

Political Conflicts and Civil Wars in Rome


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The last two centuries of the history of the Roman Republic were marked by the birth of violence in politics which resulted in political conflicts, murders and civil wars. This period ended with the assassination of Julius Cesar, the end of the Republic and the birth of the Roman Empire.

Tiberius and Gaius Sempronius Gracchus


Tiberius descended from an old aristocratic family, from both his parents, he had had an honourable military career and he had been a war hero. His Gaius Gracchus. political goals were to introduce reforms which would protect the veterans and improve the life of active soldiers. He was not a revolutionary man, but an expert commander who felt the need for changes. The army, in fact, was mainly composed by so called citizen-soldiers, who had the possibility to buy armours and weapons, which meant that the Roman army was mainly composed by small landowners, while the military service was avoided by poor peasants and city workers. From the second century before Christ, Roman citizenship had been extended to all those cities which had earned the favour of Rome and to the colonies founded by the veterans. Military service was a heavy burden for Roman citizens and, due to the many wars which took place between 250 and 150 B.C., it was most likely for young peasants to remain in the army until their old age, leaving his property in debts and unused. It often happened that, returning from war, the soldiers had no more land to go back to, ending up as vagabonds with no job. As the small properties stopped working, the large properties kept growing bigger and bigger, increasing the patrimony of the richer Romans. The problem became visible after the Macedonian war and the Third Punic War, in 146 B.C., as a great number of war veterans had not place left to go to. Tiberius then came up with a solution, deciding to give large pieces of land to Roman veterans who would cultivate it according to the Roman traditions and form families. With this reform, Tiberius had solved the problem of the quality of the army and of the wide unemployment originated by the end of the wars. But the problem was that the Senate, composed by rich people and aristocrats, had no intention to give up the common land gained through the wars, which belonged to the state, without receiving anything in return, and the Senate stated that the Republic could not afford implementing this reform. However, in 133 B.C., the king of Pergamon (one of the kingdom formed after the break-up of the empire of Alexander the Great) died with no heirs and left his kingdom in heritance to Rome, as he feared that his kingdom would be ravished by civil wars or be conquered by his enemies after his death. The royal treasure went to fill up Romes state budget and could be used to pay for Tiberius reform. However, the Senate tried to stop him in every move. Tiberius then decided to submit his candidature and become a tribune, although this was usually an office of the Plebeians, but it was not forbidden to Patricians to take it. Tiberius was elected and had the agrarian reform pass. The members of the Senate were furious with Tiberious open rebellion, as no one before had ever put in doubt the will of the Senate and its traditional influence of the tribunes decision. When the agrarian reform was approved it would have had to be implemented, organised and administrated, and these duties were in the hands of the Senate. Tiberius knew that, and that he had only taken one small step, so he decided to do things on his own, submitting his candidature for tribune for the second year, although it was not a common practice to run two terms as tribune. The Senate feared that Tiberius was trying to put down the ground stone to build his personal political career and gather as much power as possible. When the time came to judge whether the reform was in accordance with the constitution in the Forum, a large group of supporters of Tiberius were there, so the Senators, armed with swords and sticks moved towards the Forum and murdered Tiberius and 300 of his supporters, saying they had to save the Republic. The reform was simply ignored and never passed. However, Tiberius' younger brother, Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, tried to carry out hi brother's policy, gaining the support of the large number of immigrants from the countryside and of the cavaliers. He became tribune in 123 B.C. and again the following years, with no resistance from anyone. Gaius pushed the agrarian reform of his brother and had it implemented, adding other reforms in favour of the poor, and pushing the cavaliers into taking juridical offices instead of the Senators.

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His reforms increased his popularity among the people and earned him the opposition from the Senate. In 122 B.C., then he proposed a reform according to which all peoples who lived under the control of Rome should acquire citizenship. However, the Senate used Gaius proposal to have the citizens of Rome march against him, making them believe that Gaius was trying to take their privileges in favour of other Italic populations, so the other tribune, backed by the Senate, put his veto on Gaius proposal. The Senate then, allowed the Consuls to let the army inside the city, who slaughtered Gaius followers, and the tribune himself ordered one of his servants to kill him not to fall in the hands of the Senate. The episode of the two brothers Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus marked the beginning of a period in which the Roman political life is characterised by violence and political murders, which ended with the murder of Julius Cesar and the end of the Republic.

Gaius Marius and Sulla


Between the second and the first century B.C., Rome started recording several military defeats in Africa, where the king of Numidia rebelled against Rome and threatened the African province, and the Germanic and the Gauls started threatening the Roman armies between 113 and 105 B.C.

Gaius Marius
Many criticised the Roman army for being an elite group, in the hands of the aristocracy, and blamed this system and the corrupted Senate for the failures in Africa as the consuls kept returning to Rome empty handed. But in 107 B.C., Gaius Marius, a Plebeian, managed to win the elections and became consul thanks to the support of the people who he claimed to represent as one of them. Marius was also a skilled general and in 105 B.C. he defeated Giugurta, prince of Numidia in Africa. His military successes earned him more popularity and the election to the Consulate, in particular because he promised he would defeat the Numidians once for all. Marius took advantage of his position to reform the army and in 105 he defeated the king of the Numidians, brought him back to Rome and had him executed. Then Gaius Marius was re-elected consul (he was elected consul five times in a row) and moved to France, where Germanic tribes had defeated the consular army, there he defeated them. Marius took advantage of this campaign to implement a radical reform of the army, transforming the former army of rich people into an army of professional soldiers who had chosen war as their job. This system solved the problems to many unemployed people and the army was no longer Bust of Gaius Marius. monopoly of the Senate. In addition, the soldiers were bond to their (Photo by: wikipedia) commander and no longer to the interests of the state. The new army defeated the Gauls in northern Italy completely annulling the Celts as threat for Rome. Marius was a hero and the defender of Rome, but many Senators despised him for his humble origins and never considered him as one of them but more like a threat to their privileges. While Marius was busy taking care of barbaric invasions in Asia Minor, in Rome, one of the tribunes picked up the idea of Gaius Gracchus and proposed to spread citizenship to all peoples of Italy. However, the Senate feared to lose privilege in favour of the Italians, so the tribune was assassinated. The Italian cities, then, organised a rebellion against Rome which ended in a bloody war. The rebels created an independent state called Italia, defeating the Roman armies several times. The Senate then asked Sulla, second in command of Consul Gaius Marius, to solve the situation and stop the rebellion. Sulla put together an army and before the year 87 he crushed all the rebels. Then he issued a law which granted citizenship to faithful cities of Italy and Greece and to all those who had surrendered. The war was then concluded and the Italic obtain what they wanted. These events brought up the figure of Sulla in the political life of Rome. The Senate then, in sign of gratitude, gave Sulla the command in the war in Asia Minor, which made Marius angry as he though he should have been the commander. So he forced the senate to change their orders, but Sulla refused to send the army home, marching against Rome instead. He entered the city and declared Marius enemy of Rome. Marius ran away leaving Sulla strong in Rome before leaving to fight in Asia Minor. Gaius Marius then returned to Rome with his army and started eliminating all his enemies, confiscating their property and sharing it among his veterans. However, Marius died in 87, leaving the control of Rome to his ally Cinna until he was murdered in 84.

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Sulla
Sulla refused to cooperate with the Senate and signed peace with the enemies in Asia Minor in 85 B.C., so he was then free to dedicate completely to politics. The Senate declared him outlaw two years later and this act caused another civil war. Had he submitted himself to the law his enemies would have probably sentenced him to death so he decided to fight. He returned to Italy with his army and clashed with the Senates army which counted 100,000 men trained by Marius veterans. Sulla crossed Italy without strong resistance defeating the armies of the Senate and recording the final victories at the walls of the city. As he entered Rome he took revenge on all his enemies and had all Marius veterans killed immediately, since he considered them as the source of any kind of resistance against him. He had himself nominated dictator with the duty to reform the state constitutions. He reinforced the aristocratic party, returning to the Senate all the powers it had lost in the past years, and he reduced the power of the tribunes, removing them the right of veto. After bringing the order back in the Republic of Rome, Sulla suddenly deposed dictatorship and retired to private life in his villa in Cuma, and died the following year.

Triumvirate and Civil War

Bust of Sulla.

(Photo by: wikipedia)

After the death of Sulla, three important generals took power in Rome becoming Consuls and radically changing the history of Rome. For the first time Rome had three Consuls and for the first time in history, Rome lived a civil war fought between consular armies. The events of the first century before Christ led to the end of the Roman Republic.

Crassus, Pompeius and Cesar


Marcus Licinius Crassus was one of the wealthiest men in Rome, a member of the cavaliers and had military ambitions. He became a skilled commader and wanted to build a political career on his military success. In the 70s before Christ, he found a chance to prove himself by defeating the rebellion of slaves led by gladiator Spartacus. In 71 B.C., Crassus had become the hero of Rome and was ready to gain power. Gnaeus Pompeius was a young general in the army of deceased Sulla, who became head of the aristocratic party, strong of his victories against the democrats in Sicily and Africa. Pompeius received the command of the army in the war against the Spanish rebels between 76 and 72 B.C. and defeated him. Then he was involved in a war against the priates of the Mediterranean sea, and in three months he reported a brillian victory. Then he was given to finish off the war in Asia Minor in 66 B.C. and defeated them, spreading the roman territories to a new province. Then he conquered Palestine and Syria, making another province. In only three years, Pompeius managed to conquer all Asia Minor and the middle east, moving the Roman border to modern Iraq. Crassus and Pompeius put their armies together and Pompeius candidature to the Consulate was accepted and became Consul. Gaius Julius Cesar was the third, and maybe the most important, character in this phase of the history of Rome. Cesar, unlike Pompeius and Crassus, tried to build his political career with his money. He financed urban construction and public games. He became very poopular, but he was left without money so he had to start a military career. Pompeius, deceived by the Senate, made an agreement with Crassus and Cesar forming the Triumvirate, a governemnt with three consuls. Cesar then received the important mission tp take the command of an army aimed at the conquest of Gaul in five years. He turned out to be a great general and between 58 and 51 B.C., he conquered Gaul until Belgium and the channel. Cesar became the hero who defeated the legendary Gaul chief Vercingetorix, submitting Gaul, from which Cesar took gold and precious metals which made him one of the richest men in Rome and bought him the loyalty of his men.

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The Civil War: Cesar against Pompeius


As Cesar fought in Gaul, the political situation in Rome had changed in a negative way for him. Crassus had fought the Parthians and was defeated in 53 B.C. in Mesopotamia. Pompeius, worried about Cesars military power, made peace with the Senate challenging the rival and in 49 B.C., the Senate ordered Cesar to leave Gaul and send the legions home unless he wanted to be declared enemy of Rome. However, Cesar moved with his army towards Rome, trespassing the Rubicon (the river that marked the borders of Rome in which no army was allowed) and marching towards the city. Pompeius and the Senate fled Rome for Illyria, while Cesar entered Rome in triumph. Then he chased Pompeius who had gathered a strong army, but first he defeated Pompeius men in Spain, and then Pompeius himself and defeated him. Pompeius fled to Egypt to young king Ptolemy. The latter, however, wanted to gain the favour of Cesar and had him murdered. When Cesar arrived, he honoured Pompeius with solemn funerals and deposed Ptolemy substituting him with Cleopatra who became queen of Egypt in 47 B.C. Then he defeated all supporters of Pompeius in Africa and Spain in 45 B.C. After eliminating Pompeius and all his supporters, Cesar became the absolute master of the Republic. He became dictator, like Sulla did before him, gaining all powers in spite of the Senate, and the title of Absolute Emperor (emperor the word use to indicate the commander of the army). The Romans knew what Marius and Sulla had done when they found themselves in the same position as Cesar was, and unlike them, Cesar seemed to be a cold blooded politician and did not eliminate his political enemies. Cesar only asked his enemies not to go against him again and those who refused were punished. He rewarded his veterans and founded new colonies for them to take. With the gold accumulated during his campaigns, Cesar paid for public works, giving a job to the unemployed. He reduced the taxes from the provinces, gave Roman citizens to all north Italian Gauls and to many Gauls in France and Spain.

Gaius Julius Cesar.

The Death of Cesar

Most of Cesars reforms were against the Patrician Senators, as many of them were dead or in exile, and the others remained quiet, fearing the new master of Rome. All of Cesars reforms were passed by the Senate. Cesar replaced the missing Senators with new ones, and he doubled the number of the members, in a way to protect himself from those Senators who were against him, because he would always be granted the support from the majority. Despite his social policy, Cesar had many enemies, especially among the young nobles. As dictator, he nominated the magistrates without elections, so the only way to make a career was to be one of his men. Cesar had no intention to leave power like Sulla had done, and started taking an autocratic behaviour, ignoring the Senate, and this raised fear that the Republic was in danger. When Cesar announced another campaign in Asia to take revenge for the humiliation inflicted to Crassus and his army, his opponents thought they had to act immediately, because once he had gone to war he would return stronger than before. In addition, Cesar had renounced having a body guard; sure he no longer had any opponents in Rome. Brutus and Cassius, two young Roman nobles, feared that Cesar would become a tyrant, destroying the Roman Republic, so they organised a conspiracy in which they had the support of other senators, and on March 15, 44 B.C., Gaius Julius Cesar was murdered after being stabbed twenty times. However, the news of his death was not as welcomed as the conspirers had expected, and some of the Senators ran away, while Rome found itself with no leader. The Senators were still scared and did not how to behave, fearing the revenge of Cesars partisans. Disorder ruled the city of Rome, and the political parties were on the edge of a new conflict.

Octavian and Marc Anthony: the End of the Republic


Cesar's general, Marc Anthony, was the only one in Rome, after the death of the dictator, who had clear ideas on what to do. He summoned the Senate in a sitting and asked the conspirers to be forgiven and to grant Cesar a public funeral. Both moves were brilliant as Anthony was in no position to punish Brutus and Cassius, and he would have risked causing a bloody civil war, and the funeral would have given him a good occasion to raise the rage of the Romans. He ensured the Senators nothing would happen at the funeral, so they accepted, submitting themselves to the authority of Anthony.

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The Heirs of Cesar


During the funeral, Anthony showed Cesars body, still wrapped in the bloody toga pierced by the blades. He held a touching speech and he read out the testament of Cesar which read that a high sum of money was meant to be distributed to the citizens in sign of gratitude for their loyalty to Cesar. The speech worked, and the people stood up against Brutus and Cassius who murdered their benefactor. The two conspirers fled Rome for Greece where they found protection. Anthony ruled for the following few months but he started to spend the state money on trivial things, despising the Senators and gained more enemies than he had before. A new figure emerged in those months, Octavian, who was Julius Cesars adoptive son and who was only eighteen. At the time Cesar died he was in Epirus, when he was recalled by his friends back to Rome to protect his interests. Octavian thought that, as Cesars adoptive child, he was the rightful heir of Cesar, and Anthony, as Cesars best friend was hoping to be the won to succeed the dictator. The two came to a clash and the result was another civil war. Octavian played all his cards and urged Cesars war veterans to fight for him, and gathered a strong army. Cicero, who thought that Octavian would be easier to manipulate in politics as he was still very young, nominated him champion of the Republic and declared Anthony enemy, and so the Senate declared Anthony outlaw in 43 B.C. Marc Anthony fled to Gaul where he gathered twenty two legions and entered Italy in summer. Meanwhile in Rome, the Senate grudged Octavian because he did not behave as the puppet Cicero thought he would be, and Octavian, seeing Anthony coming forth with his army, thought it would be the right time to get rid of the Senate, occupying Rome with his army, forcing the Senate to revoke the amnesty conceded to Brutus and Cassius, and turned to face Marc Anthony. The two clashed near Modena and Octavian persuaded his enemy to get together instead of fighting each other.

The Second Triumvirate


The two and Lepidus, a strong and powerful man, got together to form the second Triumvirate, and to make the bond between the two generals even stronger, Marc Anthony married Octavia, sister of young Octavian. The Triumvirate then forced the Senate to pass a law which granted them Consular powers for five years. Lepidus received Spain under his command, Anthony Gaul, and Octavian Africa and Sicily, but they all decided to reside in Rome where they had supreme power. The second Triumvirate swept the Republic away for ever. Then three consuls named the magistrates, filled the Senate with their men and had full control of the armies and the state budget. Octavian had over two thousand people declared outlaw and sent to exile. Once order was brought back in Rome according to Octavians will, he moved against the conspirers and in 42 B.C., he and Anthony moved against Greece where Brutus and Cassius had found support and became the champions of the old republicans. The army of the triumvirate and the one of the republicans form Greece clashed and Brutus and Cassius were defeated one after the other, and they committed suicide, and many Senators died during the war with them. Octavians first battles revealed how faithful was his army to him and that he could count on skilled men who one the war for him. Almost immediately after the war against the Republican forces, Octavian and Anthony drastically Painting of Anthony and Cleopatra. reduced the role of Lepidus and shared honours, offices and territories leaving him out. The Roman territories were divided in two parts, the West was under the influence of Octavian, and the East was controlled by Anthony. A period of peace then followed the civil war and in 38 B.C., the Triumvirate was renewed for five more years, although Lepidus saw his powers widely reduced. Octavian wanted to avoid a military conflict with Anthony because he was still not ready to face his power, due to rebellions in the provinces, especially in Spain, where he had to face the army organised by Pompeius son, a conflict which lasted four years. After winning in Spain, Octavians power grew and Lepidus rebelled but was defeated and retired to private life, leaving Anthony and Octavian alone in command. Octavian reached the peak of his power in 35 B.C. and he gathered an army of 45 legions and 500 ships, which was much superior than Anthonys forces. Marc Anthony, however, was sure in victory as he thought Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, would give her the support of her powerful kingdom.

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Political Conflicts and Civil Wars in Rome

Marc Anthony and Octavian at War


Anthony fell in love with Cleopatra, a proud and strong woman who took command of Egypt after Julius Cesar had taken it from her brother during the war against Pompeius. Marc Anthony married her and had a child with her, divorcing Octavia, Octavians sister and gave most of the eastern provinces of Rome to Egypt. The Romans saw his actions as treason and feared that Anthony wanted to make Cleopatra queen of Rome, submitting it to Egypt. Octavian himself was deeply offended by Anthonys behaviour with his sister and started sharing the public opinion that Anthony wanted to move the centre of Europe to Egypt. Another war was about to start. Octavian, who had complete control over the Senators, had the Senate declare war to Egypt and moved with his army against Anthony in Greece, the civil war took place in 31 B.C. in Epirus in Actium. Octavian had more men and a better army, but Cleopatra had ensured Anthony that her fleet would have destroyed the Romans on the sea and grant him victory. However, the battle was led in a wrong way by Egypt, and after a series of mistakes, they remained trapped in Actium. Anthony and Cleopatra ran away, leaving the army and the navy which were completely destroyed. Octavian chased them, and when the two realised they had no chance to stop Octavian they both committed suicide. Octavian had Cleopatra's children killed and ended the Pharaoh dynasty of Egypt after four thousand years, declaring the kingdom Egypt, and its enourmous treasure, his personal property. Octavian, at the age of 32, had become the most powerful man in Rome, he had 60 legions at his command and was owner of entire nations as part of his personal property. Most of the Senators had died, having backed Octavian, there were no longer consul, and that was the end of the Republic of Rome.

Statue of Octavian Augustus.


(Photo by: wikipedia)

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Great Minds of Rome

Great Minds of Rome


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide History and Culture Great Minds

Here are some of the great people of Rome who have left their signature in the history of humanity.

Augustus
The first Emperor of Rome was born on September 23, 63 BC and died in the year 14 AD. His real name was Gaius Octavius Thurinus but he changed to Augustus upon the creation of the Roman Empire. Julius Caesar was his adoptive parent and he inherited his estates following Caesar`s assassination. Prior to becoming the sole ruler of Rome and its provinces, Octavian was a part of a political-military entity known as the Second Triumvirate whose other two members were Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Octavian eventually managed to get rid of his competition through political manipulation and military prowess. The year 27 BC is commonly taken as the beginning of his imperial rule. It was also the beginning of something called the Pax Romana, meaning Roman Peace in Latin. It was a period of couple of centuries when the Roman Empire enjoyed continuous peace, not taking some minor conflicts into account. Augustus implemented many changes that benefited Roman citizens. Among other things, he made the system of taxes better, established the police and the fire department in Rome, made sure that all roads leading to Rome are maintained properly, created an early postal system, and a regular army with 170,000 troops. He was also responsible for the creation of the Praetorian Guard, an organization that served as Emperors` personal bodyguard squad during battle but they also had enormous political power which was sometimes detrimental to the Emperor. They were disbanded in the 4th century by Constantine the Great. He achieved his standing as the greatest Roman Emperor by generous giving to his soldiers and veterans, and civilians as well. Augustus was revered by his people so much that it was decided that one month would be named after him, August. He was even made god by the Senate after his death. His legacy also includes numerous architectural projects that changed the appearance of Rome significantly. The use of marble in building increased during his reign. The buildings built with his sponsorship are the Ara Pacis, Altar of Peace, Temple of Caesar, Baths of Agrippa, Forum Augustus, among many others.

(Photo by: wikipedia)

Octavian Augustus.

Cicero
Cicero`s career was very diverse. He was a philosopher, statesman, lawyer, and a political theorist, but he will always be remembered for his extensive ability as an orator. He showed great talent for learning early in his life, a fact that distinguished him from other students. His proficiency in Greek allowed him to translate numerous philosophical works thus incorporating Greek thought into flourishing Latin philosophy. He also translated Homer`s works. Cicero was born in Arpinium which was located 100 kilometers south of Rome. Thanks to his father`s Roman connections and his own personal standing as a great scholar, he managed to begin his career in Rome studying Roman law. At the very beginning of his professional life he managed to make a name for himself by taking on a case that was considered as scandalous in those times. He defended a man accused of killing his father. Thanks to his supreme knowledge of law and his outstanding rhetorical capabilities the accused man was successfully acquitted. Cicero did not do himself any favors by this early success because enraged the current dictator, Sulla. Due to this fact, he embarked on a journey that took him to Greece and Asia Minor. While he was in Greece he met with some of the contemporary Greek philosophers who broadened his already extensive knowledge of Greek thought. Upon his return to Rome, he was offered the office of the quaestor. His duties included the supervision of state finances. He was left in charge of the province of Sicily where he was asked to prosecute Gaius Verres, governor of Sicily, who was accused of mistreatment of the Sicilians. Cicero prevailed against his opponent making himself known across the entire empire as the greatest orator of all.
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Cicero made a reputation of an honest and fair man. Due to this fact, he was elected Consul in the year 63 BC. His greatest success while his was holding the office was the preemptive strike against a conspiracy to topple the Roman Republic concocted by the man whom he beat in the elections for the office of Consul, Catiline. Catiline attempted a march on Rome but was stopped because Cicero exposed him as a traitor. Eventually, Catiline was sentenced to death by Cicero, but without a trial which later proved to be a bad decision on Cicero`s part because it was forbidden to execute anyone without them first being tried. This act cost him his life in Rome because he was exiled to Greece a few years later. This state of affairs did not last long because the Senate pardoned him and returned him his confiscated property. In the course of the next few years, he constantly changed sides in the Pompey-Caesar struggle for supremacy. In the end, he was forced to side with Caesar in order to continue his political career. After Caesars assassination, Cicero strenuously opposed Mark Antony whom he did not respect at all. Cicero bent over backwards to undermine Mark Antony, and he jumped at every opportunity to punish his followers. This also proved to be a bad decision because after the creation of the Second Triumvirate, he became the most wanted enemy of the Triumvirs. After he fled Rome, he was caught trying to escape to Macedonia. He was beheaded in the year 43 BC, and his head and hands were publicly exhibited on a platform in the main Roman square.

Bust of Cicero.

(Photo by: wikipedia)

Enrico Fermi
Enrico Fermi was born on September 29, 1901, and died in 1954. He was a physicist whose primary field of research was the nuclear physics. He participated in the creation of the first nuclear reactor at the University of Chicago in 1942. He won the Nobel Prize in physics in 1938 for his achievement in induced radioactivity, which means he made non-radioactive materials radioactive by exposing them to radiation. Shortly after he and his family fled to New York because his wife was Jewish. He got a tenure at the Columbia University where he continued his researches in nuclear physics. His development of a nuclear reactor was eventually incorporated in the Manhattan Project that resulted in the creation of the first nuclear bomb. Enrico Fermi died of cancer, on November 28, 1954.

Horace
Quintus Horatius Flaccus was the most famous poet of the Augustan age. He was born in the south of the Italian peninsula but he moved to Rome in order to get better education. In the course of his studies he even went to Athens to broaden his knowledge on Greek language and philosophy. After Caesar was killed, Horace joined general Brutus in the fight against Octavian. When Octavian won, he pardoned his enemies, including Horace who upon his return to Rome found his possessions taken by the new government. Despite this fact, he managed to secure himself a position with the Treasury, which enabled him to pursue his poetic career. Horace was friends with Virgil whose connections with Maecenas and Augustus himself proved to be of great use to Horace. Horace is thought to be one of the most notable poets of ancient Rome. Other than poetry his opus includes a theoretical work on poetry called Ars Poetica, which is considered to be, alongside Aristotle`s Poetics, the most important treatise on poetry from antiquity. His best poetry is found in the Odes that consist of four books. He also wrote the Satires in two books, and Letters in two books as well. He is the author of the famous Latin saying, carpe diem.

Maecenas
Caius Cilnius Maecenas was a wealthy man who was the greatest sponsor and supporter of poets of his time. Because of his generosity toward poets, he name was to be used for future patrons of the arts. He was also close to Octavian and often advised him on some important governmental issues. His most famous proteges were Virgil and Horace, both of whom dedicated some of their finest work to their patron. For example, Horace Georgics by Virgil, and Odes by Horace.
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Marcus Aurelius
Marcus Aurelius belongs to the group of successive emperors called the Five Good Emperors. His death is considered to mark the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire. Marcus ascended to the throne of the Empire in 161 AD, when Antoninus Pius, his adoptive father passed away. Being a fair and loyal person, Marcus insisted on a joint rule with his adoptive brother Verus because Antoninus wished it so. The two of them governed together until Verus` death in 169. This was a rare case of loyalty among the Roman rulers. Throughout the course of his rule, Marcus spent most of his time on battlefields fighting mostly Germanic tribes trying to invade northernmost territories of the Empire. Nevertheless, he always found time to implement laws for the betterment of the population. Other than being an Emperor, Marcus Aurelius was also a philosopher. His chief accomplishment in this was the twelve books of the Meditations, which he wrote between 170 and 180 AD while stationed on numerous battlefields across the Empire. In this work he expounds his adherence to Stoicism, a school of philosophy that professes a restraint of harmful emotions that otherwise damage an individual and his or her relationships with other Atomic explosion. individuals. Stoics primarily believed in the power of reason, they did not ask for total annihilation of emotions. They considered rationality to be the best defense in the face of adversity. Marcus was of an opinion that emotions take hostage of a man making him vulnerable to the ever changing chaos of pain and pleasure. He thought that by freeing oneself of that kind of bondage, one can achieve a higher state of moral awareness. Marcus` principal idea focuses on the insignificance of on an individual in the vast infiniteness of time. He did not believe in life after death, instead he advocated complete oblivion, which in turn made everything one does in this world totally irrelevant. Marcus Aurelius died in 180, leaving his son Commodus in charge of the Empire.

Seneca
Lucius Annaeus Seneca was born around the year 4 BC and died in 65 AD. He was a philosopher of Stoicism, politician, playwright, and emperor Nero`s consultant. Not much is known about his childhood and early life except that his parents came to Rome from modern-day Spain sometimes at the turn of the millennia. Throughout his lifetime, he occasionally suffered from fits of poor health. During his life, he was considered somewhat of a hypocrite because he was prone to bending the rules of Stoic philosophy. He participated in several scandals that shaped the public opinion of him. For example, he was exiled to Corsica by emperor Claudius for having an affair with one of Caligula`s sisters. During his stay there, he wrote the Consolations. There is also evidence that he wrote several letters to the Emperor entreating him to end his banishment and allow him to return to Rome. This kind of behavior is inconsistent with his Stoicism. He was eventually allowed to come back. From the year 54 to 62 AD, Seneca was employed as Nero`s consultant and Statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome. he exerted great power over the young Emperor in the beginning. As the years (Photo by: wikipedia) went by, he slowly kept losing his impact on Nero, which resulted in his retirement after a scandal involving some financial misconduct. In the year 65 AD, he was accused of plotting against Nero who, as a consequence, demanded Seneca`s suicide. He slit his veins but due to his age, the blood was slow to exit his body making his death a very painful one. In order to quicken his demise he took poison, but that too was of no use. Finally, after conveying his last words to a notary he plunged into a pool of hot water in an attempt to speed up the process of blood drain. His entire opus is permeated with Stoicism. The subject matter of his tragedies is usually the life of a Greek tragic figure such as Agamemnon, Oedipus or Phaedra which shows influence from Greece but to a certain extent. His tragedies differ from those of the Greek origin in that they are written in five acts instead of three. Seneca`s tragedies left a lasting mark on the works of future playwrights such as Shakespeare, Corneille, and Racine. He also wrote a number of essays on various subjects ranging from different moral issues to different everyday issues. Unlike most of the ancient philosophers, Seneca fared well with the upcoming Christian Church because someone had spread a rumor that he converted to Christianity with the help of St Paul.

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Virgil
Publius Vergilius Maro was a Roman poet born in the year 70 BC, and died 51 years later. He was celebrated as the greatest Roman poet of all times by later generations. His principal body of work consists of three epics: the Bucolics, the Georgics, and Aeneid. Virgil was supposedly born in the vicinity of modern-day Mantua and moved to Rome in search of better education. In Rome he studied rhetoric, medicine, and astronomy, but soon crossed over to philosophy. He began writing poetry early on, but the works from that period of his life are difficult to attribute. His major contribution to the literature of the Western civilization is, of course, the Aeneid which he wrote during the last decade of his life. This epic poem was written in twelve books in which the adventures of the hero, Aeneas, are described. The story goes like this: Aeneas, a Trojan hero, escapes from war-devastated Troy and sets out for Italy. On his way there, a storm changes his course and he ends up on the shores of Carthage where he is welcomed by the Carthaginian queen, Dido. She falls in love, but he, of course, has to continue his journey in order to fulfill his destiny. Dido kills herself. When he finally reaches Italian coast, he seeks out advice from the local oracle who leads him into the Underworld where his destiny is made known to him by his own father. He is supposed to be the founder of the city of Rome. All of this takes place in the first six books. Virgil obviously drew his inspiration for this part of his epic from Homer`s Odyssey, and other six, unfinished books take their inspiration from the Iliad. He never finished his life`s work because on the way to Greece he got sick and died. Ignoring Virgil`s last request that the poem be destroyed, Augustus ordered its publishing despite the fact that it had not been finished. Virgil`s reputation grew over the centuries until he became the most celebrated of all Latin poets.

Picture of Virgil.

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Defining Events in Roman History

Defining Events in Roman History


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide History and Culture Defining Events

There have been certain events that have marked the history of Rome by changing its course. Here are the most important ones.

The Fall of the Roman Empire


By the end of the 5th century, Rome had become seriously degraded by preceding power struggles among emperors which resulted in the mismanagement of the city and the Empire as a whole. This situation was worsened by frequent assaults by Germanic tribes coming from north. Sometimes in the course of the 4th century, Rome lost the status of the capital of the Empire. In fact, it was Constantine the Great who favored Byzantium over Rome so he moved the entire administration there. From then on, the Italian peninsula was governed from Ravenna, a city on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. Nevertheless, Rome was still the largest city and the most important economic center in the known world. During the first half of the 5th century, Rome suffered two major attacks from barbarians. In the year 410, the Visigoths pillaged and plundered for three days leaving the city in shambles. In the year 455, the Vandals repeated the same scenario. Rome was left weak and defenseless and therefore it was easy for the next tribe to claim it for themselves. This occurred twenty years later when Odoacer, the leader of the Ostrogoths, entered the city and declared himself the king of Rome. Prior to this event, he dethroned the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, Romulus Augustus on September 4, 476. This date is generally taken to be the day when the Empire fell.

The Holy Roman Empire

Italian city of Ravenna.


(Photo by: wikipedia)

Rome became the center of the Church as early as the 4th century when Constantine the Great officially recognized Christianity as a legitimate religion. From then on, the Pope`s power, both on religious and secular matters, increased steadily reaching a climax in the late 8th century when Pope Stephen II managed to break away from the Byzantine Empire. The separation from the Empire was made possible by the Frankish king Pepin the Short because the Pope asked for his help in defeating the Lombards who invaded most of the northern Italy and were heading for Rome. Pepin succeeded in overpowering the hostile northern tribe giving the Pope the conquered territories which later became the Papal States. This act is called the Donation of Pepin. In exchange, Pope Stephen went to Paris and anointed the Frankish king. Pepin`s son, Charlemagne, was to become the first Holy Roman Emperor in the year 800, on Christmas day when he was crowned by Pope Leo III. It is still unclear how the connection between the Popes and the Emperors worked or how were they related to each other. The creation of the Holy Roman Empire was important in Rome`s history in that it enabled the Pope to exert even greater power over the rest of the country than before. It was the beginning of an age that would last for centuries to come during which the Pope was not only the head the Church, but also a very influential secular ruler. During the 14th century, a brief hiatus in the Pope`s rule in Rome was created due to the power struggles between the most powerful Roman families. This short period of time was spent in Avignon, France, and is now referred to as the Babylonian captivity.

The Babylonian Captivity


This period is also known as the Avignon Papacy and it lasted for over seventy years, from 1305 until 1376. Major characteristic of this period is the fact that the seven Popes who were all French took their residence in Avignon, in the south of France instead of Rome. Pope Clement V decided to leave Rome because he felt unsafe being caught in the middle of power struggles between two of the most dominant Roman families, the Orsinis and the Colonnas. The moving of the Church`s headquarters solved only the Italian part of the problem. The Pope was no longer under the influence of the Roman families, but his adversary was much
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more powerful now. French court started to exert immense influence on the Papacy. Over the years, the Papacy became deeply dependent on the decisions made by the king of France. This was the time of the Hundred Years` War with England and the Pope was forced to side with the French. In 1376, Pope Gregory XI decided to return the Papacy to Rome in hope of breaking free from the influence of French kings. This period was called the Babylonian captivity, presumably by Petrarch in one of his letters from Avignon. He compared the Papal court of Avignon to that of Babylon referring to the Pope`s love of extravagance and lack of spirituality. The entire expression refers to the Jewish exile from Babylon that lasted roughly the same as the Papacy`s exile from Rome. During this time, Rome was left without a single authoritative figure that would control the nobility and rule the city together with the surrounding territories in a more appropriate manner. It was a time of constant battles for supremacy that were very detrimental to the general public, and coupled with the Black Death, occurring in 1348, the city`s population was once again decimated.

Risorgimento, or the Unification


During the 19th century, in the newly awakened spirit of nationalism, Italians began to hope for a unified Italy under the rule of the Italian king (Photo by: wikipedia) and not the kings from other European dynasties. After Napoleon`s defeat Italy was ruled solely by the Austrian dynasty, the Habsburgs who adamantly suppressed every nationalistic outburst in Italy and throughout the rest of the Austrian Empire as well. In this pre-revolutionary time, the Pope was actually against unification because it would mean he had to relinquish most of his secular power to the new Italian king. Papacy`s rejection of the unification would later prove to be a tough nut to crack, leaving Garibaldi no choice but to march on Rome.
Avignon Cathedral.

By 1867, most of the Italian peninsula was under the rule of the Savoy dynasty from Piedmont, except Rome that had the support of the French Emperor, Napoleon III. The Pope was adamant in his decision not to let Garibaldi`s forces enter and capture the city. In the same year, Garibaldi attempted to do just that but failed because the Pope had the protection of the French army. This state lasted for the next three years. Italian revolutionaries got lucky in 1870 when France started a war with Germany, so the French contingent in Rome could not be spared. On September 20, 1870, after a failed resistance from the Papal army, Italian forces finally entered Rome and claimed it for the newly established Kingdom of Italy. Pope Pius IX again refused to acknowledge any rights over his territory to the new king and so he proclaimed himself a captive in the Vatican. Actually his movements were not restricted, he was free to do as he pleased. The Pope`s continual insistence on the keeping of his previous powers led to a situation generally called the Roman question, which was resolved in 1929 when Mussolini gave Vatican City independence. By signing the Lateran Pacts, Mussolini created an independent state within the Eternal city. In exchange, the Pope recognized the legitimacy of the Kingdom of Italy. Rome was made capital in July 1871.

Mussolini`s March on Rome


Benito Mussolini founded the Italian Fascist Party in 1919. He lost in the elections of the same year, but managed to win in 1921. During the following year, he succeeded in eliminating his opponents, primarily through intimidation, courtesy of the Blackshirts who were a subsection of the Fascist Party. In November 1922, the current Italian Prime Minister, Luigi Facta, decided to hold a celebration in Rome to honor the Italian victory in the recent World War I. Mussolini jumped at the opportunity and decided to organize a march in order to overtake the government. The actual march was led by four of Mussolini`s leading men within the Fascist Party, Emilio De Bono, Italo Balbo, Michele Bianchi, and Cesare Maria de Vecchi. The march was held on October 18, 1922, and consisted of about thirty thousand men. A few days later, the Prime Minister, realizing the threat coming from the Roman fascists, issued a call for the implementation of the martial law for the city of Rome. His wishes were not granted because the king Victor Emmanuel III rejected to sign the ordinance, but sided with Mussolini instead. By then Mussolini had the support of the military, the economic section, and the entire right-wing population. Luigi Facta had no choice but to step down. Il Duce, meaning the leader in Italian, formed his own government on October 29, 1922, thus legitimizing his dictatorial ascension to power. On that day, Rome was veiled in black because some 25,000 Blackshirts were marching across the city.

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Useful Information about Rome

Useful Information about Rome


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Rome Local Guide Useful Information

Rome has two major airports. The first one is Leonardo da Vici, or Fiumicino, as it was called before; is used for scheduled flights. The other one, Ciampino serves mainly for charter flights and business aviation.

Leonardo da Vinci (Fiumicino)


Leonardo da Vinci or Fiumicino has three terminals, known under the names Terminal A, B and C. Terminal A is used for domestic flights, while terminal B is used for international flights as well as for a number of domestic services. Terminal B was also modernized with a range of shopping and catering areas. The new terminal, Terminal C serves for major international flights. This high-tech terminal is also linked to a satellite. This terminal is also connected to the so-called Satellite C, a mini-terminal filled with a full range of shopping, catering and other services. The satellite is connected to Terminal C by the "Skybridge" automated rail shuttle, the first of its kind in Italy. This is quite different from the old system when passengers first boarded the bus which took them to their airplane.

Fiumicino airport.

(Photo by: wikipedia)

This Rome's airport is handled by the airport operator, Aeroporti di Roma, which invested a great deal of money and effort in the recent years to meet the needs of growing traffic numbers and to enhance the previous airport's rather modest reputation. Rome's Fiumicino or recently Leonardo da Vinci airport was built recently late: it was opened in 1961. Until then, Ciampino airport was Rome's main airport, but with the growth of passengers and greater demand for airplane service, a bigger airport had to be built. Renovation works occurres in the early 1970s when the two existing runways were lengthened and construction work started on a third, Terminal C. In 1974, all airport services were brought together under the present operator, Aeroporti di Roma, which became responsible for development and growth.

Getting There by Train


Rome 's main airport Leonardo da Vici or Fiumicino is well-connected to the center of Rome, both by an express train and other, slower, trains during the day. There is a direct non-stop train service to Fuimicino Airport Station from Roma Termini station and the trains run every half hour during the day, from 05:51 to 22:51. Journey lasts approximately around 32 minutes. There is also the Metropolitan FM1 train service from Roma Tiburtina station, which runs from 05.06 then every 15 minutes from 05:36 to 20:36, then half hourly until 22.36. Journey lasts approximately around 42 minutes. The express train operating between Fiumicino Airport and Termini station (main railway station in Rome) costs 11,00 and takes approximately 30 minutes. This train departs from and arrives at track 26 to 29 at Termini station. Tickets for the express train can be bought at any tobacco shop and newsstand inside the train station, at vending machines at both Termini and Fiumicino stations or at the ticket window on the platform at Fiumicino airport. The first train from Fiumicino to Roma Termini departs at 6.35 am, and then departs every 30 minutes until the last train at 11.35 pm.The first train from Roma Termini to Fiumicino airport departs at 5.52 am, and then departs every 30 minutes until the last train at 10.52 pm. Another train that connects Fiumicino Airport to central Rome is slower train than the express train, and it costs less. When you are at the airport train station, look for the train with the destination Orte or Fara Sabina. The train stops at several smaller local stations on the way into Rome , but doesn't stop at Termini. To get to central Rome, you should get off at the Ostiense station, or Tiburtina. Ostiense station is closer to the major sightseeing sights, while Tiburtina station is closer to the main train station and hotels. Metro B as well as many buses connect Ostiense and Tiburtina stations with the center of town, which leave every 15 minutes (every hour on Sundays) and cost 5. The trip from the airport to Ostiense station takes about 25 minutes, while the trip from the airport to Tiburtina station lasts for about 45 minutes. The first train from Fiumicino Airport - Trastevere Station Ostiense Station - Tiburtina Station departs from 5.57 am to 11:27 pm. The first train departing from Tiburtina Station - Ostiense Station - Trastevere Station - Fiumicino Airport departs from 5: 06 am to 10:36 pm. In order to get to the Termini station (the main train station in Rome) from the Ostiense station, you should take Metro Line B or bus 175.From Tiburtina station you should take Metro Line B or bus 492, and from Trastevere station you should take Tram 8 to Largo Argentina and bus 40 or bus 64.
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Useful Information about Rome

For arrivals and departures between 11:30pm and 6am, there is a night bus running between Fiumicino airport and Tiburtina station, run by COTRAL (info 800 150008). It stops at Termini station along the way, across the street from Palazzo Massimo. Departures from Fiumicino are at 1:15am - 2:15am - 3:30am - 5am; while departures from Tiburtina take place at 12:30am - 1:15am - 2:30am - 3:45am.

Getting There by Bus, Car or Taxi


There are several bus services, departing from various areas around Rome, all arriving in Leonardo da Vinci (Fiumicino) airport. There is a bus departing from Magliana metro station, from 06.15 to 21.45 every day. The journey lasts approximately 40 minutes, and the fare is around 3. The bus departing from Lepanto metro station goes from 06.35 to 21.15 every day. The journey approximately lasts about 30 minutes, and the fare is around 3. Another bus route departs from Roma Tiburtana rail station, and this one operates by night. The night service begins from 00.30 and lasts to 03.45. The fare is around 5. Rome's Leonardo da Vinci (Fiumicino) Airport is situated in the south-western part of the city. The G.R.A. encircling Rome leads to the A12 Rome-Fiumicino highway direct to the airport. Then the only thing you must do is to follow the signs from the airport approach road, which will lead you directly to your terminal. Journey from central Rome to Leonardo da Vinci airport lasts approximately around 45 minutes.

Train.

(Photo by: sankla1)

Rome Fiumicino Airport has multi-level parking garages in front of the terminals as well as a Long Stay car park on the airport access highway. There is a Short Stay multi-level car park, located in front of the terminals and is split into four adjacent buildings. To get there you should simply follow the signs directing you to the terminal and Parcheggio Multipano A-B-C-D. Walkways link the car parks with the terminals. There is also a disabled car park, for users who have reserved easy access areas on the first level of buildings B & C and on the fourth level of building D. The Long Stay car park is located on the main road from Rome to Fiumicino highway, which is approaching the airport, and is signed Parcheggio Lunga Sosta - Long Term Parking. There is a shuttle bus operating every 15-20 minutes between the Long Stay car park and the terminals, 24 hours a day and is free of charge. The average fare for a taxi ride from Fiumicino or Ciampino to central Rome is 35-45 during the day, and it gets more expensive at night. After exiting the arrival halls at Fiumicino airport, you'll find the taxi stand and a taxi which will lead to your final destination. You should beware the illegal taxi drivers in the stations and at the airports. Be advised if you need a taxi, that it is better to look for the official yellow or white metered taxis. There are taxi stands at both Fiumicino Airport and Termini station. In case of an argument over the fare or you feel you have paid too much, you should take down the taxi driver's name and number, which can be found on the door of the taxi, as well as make sure that your taxi has a meter. It is also advisable to insist on the metered fair rather than an arranged price.

Giovan Battista Pastine (Ciampino) Airport


Roma Ciampino Airport (Giovan Battista Pastine Airport) Address: Via Appia Nuova 1651, 00040 Roma Ciampino, Italy Telephone: 06 65951 E-mail: info@adr.it Website: www.adr.it Giovan Battista Pastine airport, known also by its former name Ciampino; is Rome's second airport, nowadays mostly used by budget airlines, like Ryan Air and Easy Jet. The airport used to be Rome's only airport before the construction of the Leonardo Da Vinci International Airport in Fiumicino. The airport has three passenger terminals (departures, arrivals and general aviation) and one cargo terminal.

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Getting There
The airport is located 15 kilometers (about 9 miles) to the southeast of the Rome's center. In order to reach the airport, if you are coming from Rome, you should take the Via Appia Nuova in the direction of Castelli Romani. If you come from the direction of the Fiumicino airport, you should take the Fiumicino/Rome motorway, then the Rome city ring road (GRA), then the Via Appia and finally onto the Via Appia Nuova in the direction of Castelli Romani. All those travelers coming from the main motorways should take the Roma Sud exit, get onto the GRA ring road and then choose Via Appia Nuova in the direction of Castelli Romani. You can park your car at the numerous parking lots (tel: 06 6595 Ciampino airport. (Photo by: wikipedia) 9353) located a short walk from the terminal building, with eight parking spaces designated for disabled travelers. In case you need to rent a car, there are several companies on the airport offering this; like EasyTerra offers car hire at Rome Ciampino Airport, combining the results of multiple companies. Other companies offering car hire are Auto Europa, Avis, Europcar, Hertz, SIXT and Thrifty Car Rental. In case you are using public transport in order to reach the airport, the best way to arrive by bus is by using Terravision's shuttle coaches (tel: 06 7949 4572), which run between the airport and Roma Termini Railway Station and correspond with flights from nine airlines. The seats on this buses are reserved for travelers who use these airlines. There are also Schiaffini buses (tel: 800 700 805), which run every thirty minutes between the airport and Ciampino train station. There are also buses running every 40 minutes during the day between the airport and Anagnina Metro Station. The traveling time takes about 5 minutes. From Anagnina there are metro trains running into central Rome every 5-10 minutes, as well as direct shuttle coaches between Roma Termini Railway Station and the airport, which are not very frequent. These shuttle coaches operate every 2 hours during the day and less frequent in the evening and night. In order to get to Fiumicino airport, there is a non stop service available departing from outside of the terminal, which takes about 45 minutes; but there are just two services each way during the day. If you are traveling by train, the ride takes about twelve to fifteen minutes between Ciampino and Roma Termini railway station. The trains depart every 15-20 minutes. The nearest rail station to Ciampino airport is Ciampino Citt, which is connected to the airport by the Cotral or Schiaffini buses, which depart every 30 minutes. The traveling time is about 5 minutes. There is also a light metro that connects Ciampino railway station to Termini railway station. The metro departs around every fifteen minutes. If you decide to arrive or depart by taxi, at the Ciampino airport taxis are available opposite the arrivals hall; and the service costs 30 euros, with baggage included, for a maximum of four passengers, to all the destinations inside the Mura Aureliane which fall into the central area of the city. The cost of the service is the same for the contrary way from Rome to Ciampino. The taxi cars of the City of Rome are white and are identified by the sign "TAXI" on the top and by the identifying license number on the doors, on the back and inside the car. Of course, for different destinations the price will be indicated by the taximeter on each taxi, and the baggage fee shall be added. In front of the airport exit is a rent service, marked by the letters NCC. This rent service is carried out by blue or grey cars and different fees depending on the destination are charged. This service can be used by the authorized structures inside the airport and therefore is not alternative to the taxi service. In case you find some difficulties with your luggage, the lost luggage office (tel: 06 7949 4225) is open from 07.00 am -23.00 pm each day and is located at the information desk in the arrivals area. For any property lost inside the airport, passengers can contact the found property office (tel: 06 7934 8320) on the first floor of the departures terminal.

Public transportation
The Rome Metro or Metropolitana di Roma in Italian is Rome's underground public transportation since 1955. There are currently two metro lines operational: A line, identified by the orange color and B line, identified by the blue color. There is also a planned third line, the so-called C line, in future identified with the green color, but which is still under construction.

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Useful Information about Rome

Metro
The main operator of Rome's metro system is Metropolitana di Roma S.p.A., also known as the Met.Ro., which operates the two existing lines as well as several suburbal rail lines, like the Roma-Lido, the Roma-Pantano and the Roma-Nord lines. Roma- Lido line connects Rome with Ostia; and is similar in service as the two main city lines. The RomaPantano line is a railway (but, in practice more a tram line), while the Roma- Nord line is a suburban railway. Although used my many people and the fact that Rome is quite a vast city; the metro lines stretch only for 38 kilometers, which is comparing to other main European cities, quite small. The current network is shaped as an x, with two main lines intersecting at the main train station in Rome, known as the Termini Station. Line A The line A (Linea A), identified by the orange color, connects the north-west of the city with the south-east, and contains 27 stations with terminals at Battistini and Anagnina, stretched along this line. The line currently carries 450,000 people a day. This is also Rome's second metro line, approved for in 1959 and finally completed in February 1980, when it was put in service. In the 90's the line was renovated, and added a stretch of railways connecting to Prati to Battistini. Although the approval for this line was decided in the late 50's, and the works began in 1964, there were many serious delays of works, especially in the Tuscolana area, due to organizational defects. Problems also arose in the the originally planned method of construction of cut and cover , which brought serious problems for road traffic in south-east Rome. Work on the metro was suspended for 5 years later, when the problem was solved by using bored tunnels. Works were also interrupted by many archaeological works, especially in the area around Piazza della Repubblica. Trains in line A provide 486 rides a day, and pass every 3,30 minutes during rush-hour, and every 5-6 minutes during the less crowded hours of the day. There are also two shuttles (supplied by Trambus) on duty from Monday to Friday; including holidays from 9:00pm to 11:30pm, and on Saturday until 0:30am. Gates open daily at 05:30am and close usually at 11:30pm, except on Saturday evenings when the closing time is at 0:30am. Line B

Subway in Rome.

(Photo by: Mr_Ristoo)

Line A stations: Valle Aurelia Cipro/Musei Vaticani Ottaviano Lepanto (COTRAL) Flaminio Spagna Barberini Repubblica Termini Vittorio Manzoni San Giovanni Re di Roma Ponte Lungo Furio Camillo Colli Albani Arco di Travertino Porto Furba Numidio Quadrato Lucio Sestio Giulio Agricola Subaugusta Cinnecita' Anagnina (COTRAL)

The line B (or Linea B), identified by the blue color, is Rome's first metro line. The line connects the north-east of Rome with the south-west, and contains 22 stations with terminals at Rebibbia and Laurentina. Despite the second letter it carries, the metro line B, the first Rome's metro line, was officially opened on 9 February 1955 by the then President of the Republic Luigi Einaudi, and began regular service on the following day. This metro line was actually first planned during the 1930s by the Fascist government. The reason for this innovation was a wanting for a connection between the main train station, Termini and a new district to the south-east of the city, E42, with the planned location of the Universal Exposition (or Expo), which was to be held in Rome in 1942. Due to World War II, the exposition never was held, and the plans fell through; although some parts of the line were completed, like the tunnels which had a practical purpose during the war: they were used as bomb shelters!! After the war, the works continued and were directed to the new area, a new commercial district under the name EUR placed at the site of Expo. The works were completed in 1955. The line was modernized in the '90s, when the metro line was extended from Termini to Rebibbia. The blue line or line B carries over 300,000 passengers a day, in 337 rides per day. Gates open daily at 05:30am and close at 11:30pm, except Saturday evenings when closing time is postponed to 0.30am. During the rush-hour, trains pass every 4-5 minutes, while during less crowded hours of the day, they pass every 6 minutes. Rome-Lido Rome-Lido line is Rome's regional railway, connecting Rome to Ostia and the seaside. It runs from the Roma Porta San Paolo station (beside the Pyramide metro B line station) and runs alongside the B line as far as EUR Magliana, where it further continues separately to the town of Ostia. The line terminates beside the end of Via Cristoforo Colombo. The service starts daily at 05:18am and ends at 11:30pm, providing up to 12 rides per hour during rush-hour. The trains on this line carry over 90,000 passengers a day. The full length of the line is 28,359 km, and it has 13 stops. The total trip lasts approximately 37 minutes.
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The construction of this line began shortly after the end of World War I and was completed in 1924. It was first fully operational as a steam locomotion railway, but electrification was completed less than a year later, in 1925. Nowadays is operated an integrated part of the metro system, but is entirely overland.

Rome-Pantano
Underground train in Rome.
(Photo by: ereignis)

Line B stations: Laurentina Eur Fermi (COTRAL) Eur Palasport Magliana (Ostia Antica) San Paolo Garbatella Piramide Circo Massimo Colosseo Cavour Termini Castro Pretorio Policlinico Bologna Tiburtina (COTRAL) M. Tiburtini Pietralata S. M. de Soccorso Ponte Mammolo Rebibbia (COTRAL)

Rome-Pantano, also known as the Roma-Giardinetti line, is a railway line, but in practice it is narrow gauge tram. The line connects Laziali (a regional train station some 800 metres from Temini's main concourse) with Giardinetti in the east. The line originally ran to Frosinone, about 137 km from Rome, but has been gradually reduced in length. The section from Giardinetti to Pentano, once a part of this line, will become in the future a permanent part of the new C line. This regional railway carries 35,000 passengers a day, and a full length of the line is 17.8 km. The line has 25 stops and each trip is approximately 30 minutes long. Metro service starts every day at 05:30am and ends at 09:30pm, providing trips every 6 minutes during rush-hour.

Rome-Nord Also known as the Roma-Civita Castellana-Viterbo line or simply Roma-Viterbo, the Rome- Nord line is a railway, connecting the following parts of Rome and its suburbs. The line first started as a narrow gauge tram, connecting Piazza della Libert in Rome and Civita Castellana. The next stretch of the line to Viterbo, was built as a railway. In the following years the original section was also turned into a railway, and finally the Roman terminus was moved from the street-level terminus at Piazza della Libert across the river to a new underground station in Piazza Flaminia, near-by line A. The line currently operates as an urban service from Piazza Flaminia to Montebello, and as an suburban service from Piazza Flaminia to Viterbo. The service on the urban section starts at 05:45am and ends at 10:54pm, except for Sundays and public holidays when rides run from 05:50am to 10.10pm. This line provides 188 daily trips with a train leaving every 8 minutes during rush-hour. Each trip lasts approximately 20 minutes. The suburban service operates less frequently, and thus a trip from Rome to Viterbo lasts approximately two and a half hours (155 minutes). The service on the suburban section starts at 05:45am and ends at 11:06pm, except for Sundays and public holidays when trains run from 06:13am to 11.33pm. This line provides 43 daily trips with a train leaving every 25 minutes during rush-hour.

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Useful information about Rome

Useful bus lines in Rome: 40 Express: Termini (Viale Einaudi) - Via Nazionale - Piazza Venezia - Largo Argentina - Chiesa Nuova - Piazza Pia (for Castel S. Angelo and St. Peter's) 64: Termini (Viale Einaudi) - Via Nazionale - Piazza Venezia Largo Argentina - Corso Vittorio Emanuele - Stazione S. Pietro (basically the same route as the 40 Express except it's smaller, more crowded, and makes many more stops) H: Termini (Viale Einaudi) - Via Nazionale - Piazza Venezia Largo Argentina - Ponte Garibaldi - Viale Trastevere - (then continues into the western suburbs, ending at Via Capasso) 8 Tram: Connects the historic center with Trastevere. Largo Argentina - Ponte Garibaldi - Piazza G.G. Belli - Piazza Mastai - Piazza Ippolito Nievo - Stazione Trastevere - Monteverde Casaletto 492: Stazione Tiburtina - San Lorenzo - Termini - Piazza Barberini - Piazza Venezia - Corso Rinascimento - Piazza Cavour - Piazza Risorgimento (for the Vatican Museums) 23: Piazzale Clodio - Piazza Risorgimento - Ponte Vittorio Emanuele II - Lungotevere - Ponte Garibaldi - Lungotevere Via Marmorata - Piazzale Ostiense - Basilica di S. Paolo 170: Termini - Via Nazionale - Piazza Venezia - Via del Teatro di Marcello - Bocca della Verit - (then south to Testaccio and EUR, ending at Piazzale dell'Agricoltura) 714: Termini - Piazza S. Maria Maggiore - Piazza S. Giovanni in Laterano - Viale delle Terme di Caracalla - (then south to EUR, ending at Piazzale P.L. Nervi) 660: Largo Colli Albani - Via Appia Nuova - Via Appia Antica (near the Tomb of Cecilia Metella). 910: Termini - Piazza della Repubblica - Via Piemonte - Via Pinciana (Villa Borghese) - Piazza Euclide - Palazzetto dello Sport - Piazza Mancini 590: Handicapped facilities. Same route as Metro Line A, but it runs every 90 minutes (schedule posted at the bus stop).

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Local Guide

Local Guide to Liguria


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Liguria Local Guide

Liguria is one of the smallest regions in Italy. Favourite to the likes of Ezra Pound, Lord Byron, P.B. Shelley and his wife Mary Wollstonecraft, and Ernest Hemingway, Liguria features charming seaside resorts, strands of sand, forests of lemon and olive trees, and largest naval and commercial ports. This part of Italy covers a narrow stretch of coast from France, and its capital is Genoa, the birthplace of Christopher Columbus.

History
In very ancient history, the area of Liguria was inhabited by the Neanderthal Man and the Cro-Magnon Man whose traces were discovered in the region of Loano, and in Ventimiglia, in the grotto of "Balzi Rossi". The written sources claim the presence of the Ligurians, the people of Mediterranean origin, dates back to the first millennium B.C. on most of north-western Italy. The first Punic War divided the ancient Ligurians and most of them sided with Carthage. The rest sided with Rome, whose allies included the future Genoese. After the Roman conquest of the area, the so-called X regio - Liguria, was created, and in the reign of Emperor Augustus, Liguria was expanded from the coast to the banks of Po River. The Roman roads of the coastal Aurelia and Julia Augusta, and inland Postumia and Aemilia Scauri strengthened the territorial unity and increased trade. For six centuries between the 4th and the 10th centuries, the region was under by the Byzantine, the Lombards of King Rothari and the Franks, while also being invaded by the Saracens and the Normans. In the 10th century, Liguria was divided into three marches: Obertenga (east), Arduinica (west) and Aleramica (centre). In the 11th and 12th centuries these were split into fees. The main coastal Ligurian towns became city-states, while the inland fees survived for a very long time. Between the 11th century and the 15th century the Republic of Genoa became politically and economically very important, and it was the most powerful maritime republic in the Mediterranean from the 12th to the 14th century. When the title of doge for life was introduced in 1339, Genoa continued to fight against the Marquis of Finale and the Earls of Laigueglia and it conquered again the territories of Finale, Oneglia and Porto Maurizio. However, despite these successes, Genoa was weakened by the internal factions. Being so weak, the rule of the republic was given to the Visconti family of Milan. However, after they were expelled by the popular forces, the republic remained in Genoese hands until 1396, when the doge Antoniotto Adorno surrendered the title of Seignior of Genoa to the king of France who held power until 1409. Milan took over control over Liguria in 1421. This changing of French and Milanese dominions over Liguria continued until the early 16th century. The French influence finally ceased in 1528. The 17th century international crises during which Genoa was bombed by King Louis XIVs fleet in 1684, restored the French influence. Austria occupated Genoa in 1746, but the Habsburgic troops were driven away by a popular insurrection in the same year. Napoleons first campaign to Italy ended the secular republic which was transformed into Ligurian Republic. In 1805, Liguria was annexed to the French Empire and divided by Napoleon into three departments: Montenotte, with capital Savona, Genoa and the department of the Apennines, with capital Chiavari. In 1814, the Congress of Vienna decided that Liguria should be annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia, after being independent for a while. Genoa uprose against the House of Savoy in 1821, but this uprising was put down in bloodshed. The start of the 20th century was marked with great economic flourishment, whereas the WWII period will be remembered after great hunger and two years of occupation by the German troops, and the liberation struggle against them.

Geography and Climate


Liguria is the third smallest region of Italy. It borders France to the west, Piedmont to the north, and Emilia-Romagna and Tuscany to the east, and lies on the Ligurian Sea. The region of Liguria is a narrow strip of land, enclosed between the sea and the Alps and the Apennines mountains. Its total area is 5,416.03 square kilometers, of which 3524.08 km are mountains and 891.95 square km hills. The Ligurian coastline is 315 km long, and not very jagged. The most important watercourses are the Roja, the Nervia, and the Magra. Liguaria ahs the mild climate the whole year round, with average winter temperatures of 7-10 and summer temperatures of 23-24. Rainfall can sometimes be very abundant, so Genoa can see up to 2000 mm of rain in a year.

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Local Guide

Local Guide to Lombardy


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Lombardy Local Guide

The Italian region of Lombardy is located between the Alps and the River Po. This is is the wealthiest, most industrially developed, and most densely populated region in Italy. All of this makes Lombardy one of least expected destinations of any tourist. However, only seemingly because this region has some of Italy's extraordinary cultural, artistic and natural heritage. The region's capital is Milan, economic and financial centre of Italy, as well as country's trendsetter in fashion and design. Lombardy is one of the most varied regions in Italy featuring landscape of snow covered mountains, many rivers and magnificent lakes.

History
The area of what is today known as Lombardy has been inhabited since the 2nd millennium BC, to which many archaeological findings of ceramics, arrows, axes and carved stones attest. Several Etruscan tribes inhabited the area in centuries to come. The Etruscans founded the city of Mantua and spread the use of writing, then, starting from the 5th century BC, the area was invaded by Celtic tribes. The Celts founded several cities, Milan being one of them. They also expanded their rule to the Adriatic Sea. The Romans extending their empire in the Po Valley from the 3rd century BC onwards stopped the Celtic development. Following many centuries of fights, the whole of Lombardy became a Roman province bearing the name of Gallia Cisalpina (literally - "Gaul on the nearer side of the Alps") in 194 BC. The Romans boosted Lombardy's development, and the area became one of the most developed and rich areas of Italy. The region's importance further grew when Mediolanum (Milan) temporary became the capital of the Western Empire. It was in this city that emperor Constantine issued the famous edict that gave freedom of confession to all religions within the Empire in 313 AD. Lombardy was severely devastated by invading tribes during and after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The Lombards, or Longobardi, were the last tribe to wreak havoc in Lombardy. They came around 570s and their long-lasting reign gave the current name of Lombardy to the region. Following some initial struggles, the Lombard people and the Latin-speaking people settled their differences causing the Lombard language and culture assimilating with the Latin culture, the evidence of which there are now in many names, the legal code and laws. In 774, Frankish king Charlemagne conquered Pavia and annexed the Kingdom of Italy to his empire. This marked the end of Lombard rule. During the 11th century the region's economy boomed under improved trading and agricultural conditions. The cities' wealth increased enabling them to defy the feudal power. In the 12th and 13th centuries different Lombard Leagues, led by Milan, defeated the Hohenstaufen Emperor Frederick I, at Legnano, and his grandson Frederick II, at Parma. However, other important Lombard centres, like Cremona (then a rival to Milan in wealth), supported the imperial power in exchange to some advantage. The area around the Po River expanded its industry and commerce and soon became the economic centre of the entire Europe. Until the 15th century, the name "Lombardy" was being used to designate the whole of northern Italy. Starting from the 14th century, internal and external struggles caused the creation of noble seignories, the most important being those of the Viscontis (later Sforzas) in Milan and of the Gonzagas in Mantua. The Duchy of Milan was one of major political, economical and military forces of Europe in the 15th century. This wealth was very attractive to forces like France and Austria, which battled over Lombardy in the late 15th and early 16th century. After the Battle of Pavia, the Duchy of Milan came under Austrian rule, and passed on to the royal Austrian Hapsburgs of Spain. The new rulers imposed taxes in order to support their wars throughout Europe. The eastern part of the region was ruled by the Republic of Venice. Pestilences and the declining of Italy's economy during the 17th and 18th centuries slowed down the further development of Lombardy. In 1706 the Austrians came to power and things began to look up. However, their rule ended in the late 18th century by the French armies, and Lombardy became one of the semi-independent province of Napoleonic France. The 1815 restoration of Austrian rule as the puppet state called Kingdom of LombardyVenetia, contended to the Napoleonic ideals. In the period leading to the unification of Italy, Lombardy was one of the intellectual centres. Lombardy was annexed to the Kingdom of Italy in 1859 after the Second Italian Independence War. From the late 19th century onwards, and especially after World War II, Lombardy was the most economically developed area of Italy. On January 1, 1927, Varese became independent by subtracting to Como some 40 towns up to the Lake Maggiore and to Milan the Busto Arsizio's and Gallarate's cities as instructed by a general setup of the Fascist regime. On March 6, 1992, two other provinces had been constituted, whereas, in 2004, the Monza and Brianza province were also constituted.

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Local Guide

Geography and Climate


Lombardy borders Switzerland and the Italian regions of Emilia-Romagna, Trentino-Alto Adige/Sdtirol and Veneto, and Piedmont. There are three distinct natural zones in Lombardy: mountains, hills and plains, which are divided in Alta (high plains) and Bassa (low plains). The most important mountainous area in Lombardy is the Alpine zone with the Lepontine and Rhaetian Alps, the Bergamo Alps, the Ortles and Adamello massifs. The Alpine foothills zone Prealpi follows. The great Lombard lakes, Lake Maggiore, Lake Lugano, Lake Como, Lake Iseo, Lake Idro, and Lake Garda, are located in this zone. South of the Alps lie the hills and a small plateaux. The plains of Lombardy are divided into the upper northern zone, theAlta, and the lower zone, the Bassa. Lombardy is crossed with a number of rivers, all direct or indirect tributaries of the Po. The Ticino, the outlet of Lake Maggiore, the Lambro, the Adda, outlet of Lake Como, the Mincio, outlet of Lake Garda, and the Oglio, the Lake Iseo outflow are the major rivers in the region. The climate of the region of Lombardy is continental, but it varies depending on altitude or whether there are any inland waters or not. The climate is more accentuated on the plains, with variations in high annual temperature, and thick fog between October and February. The Prealpine zone has more frequent precipitations than the plains and Alpine zones. The plains have been intensively cultivated for centuries, and because of that little of the original environment remains. Olive trees, cypresses and larches, as well as varieties of subtropical flora such as magnolias, azaleas, and acacias can be found in the area of the lakes. The mountainous area has more or less the same vegetation as the rest of the Italian Alps. At up to approximately 1,100 m, oak woods or broadleafed trees grow, beech trees grow at up to 2,0002,200 m, whereas shrubs such as rhododendron, dwarf pine and juniper are native to the zone beyond 2,200 m. Lombardy has a number of protected areas, including the Stelvio National Park, the largest Italian natural park, and the Ticino Valley Natural Park, protecting and conserving one of the last major examples of fluvial forest in Northern Italy.

Economy and Politics


The gross domestic product in Lombardia accounts for almost one quarter of the total gross domestic product of Italy, or 31,600 per inhabitant. Part of Lombardy's development can be found in the growth of the services sector since the 1980s. The industrial sector in Lombardy, however, is still strong, and Lombardy remains the main industrial area of the country. The region of Lombardy can be divided into three areas regarding to the productive activity. These areas are Milan, where the services sector makes up for 65.3% of the employment; the highly industrialised provinces of Varese, Como, Lecco, Bergamo and Brescia; and the provinces of Sondrio, Pavia, Cremona, Mantova and Lodi with a consistent agricultural activity, and an above average development of the services sector. Lombardy has a semipresidential representative democracy, where the President of Regional Administration is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the Regional Government, while egislative power is vested in the Regional Council. Lombardy is divided into 12 provinces: Province of Bergamo, Province of Brescia, Province of Como, Province of Cremona, Province of Lecco, Province of Lodi, Province of Mantova, Province of Milan, Province of Monza and Brianza, Province of Pavia, Province of Sondrio, and Province of Varese.

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UNESCO World Heritage Sites

UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Lombardy


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Lombardy Local Guide UNESCO World Heritage Sites

Santa Maria delle Grazie


Santa Maria delle Grazie is a church and Dominican convent in Milan, famous for the mural of the Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci, in the refectory of the convent. The Duke of Milan Francesco I Sforza ordered its construction in the place where a small chapel dedicated to St. Mary of the Graces used to be. The main architect was Guiniforte Solari. The convent was completed in 1469, but the completion of the church needed some more time. The new duke Ludovico Sforza designated the church to be the Sforza family burial place. During the bombings of the night of 15 August 1943 the church and the convent were hit and a great deal of the refectory was destroyed. However, some walls survived, including the one with the Last Supper.

Mantua
Mantua is a city in Lombardy and the capital of the province of Mantua as well as one of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Lombardy. The city is surrounded with three lakes created during the 12th century. These are Lago Superiore, Lago di Mezzo, and Lago Inferiore. Mantua was founded around 2000 BC, on the banks of the Mincio, and in the 6th century BC, the settlement was an Etruscan village. After being conquered by a Gallic tribe of Cenomani, it was taken over by the Romans between the first and second Punic wars. The Byzantines, Longobards and Franks invaded the city after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The city became a possession of Boniface of Canossa, marquis of Toscana, in the 11th century. When the last ruler of the Canossa family, Matilde of Canossa died, Mantua became a free commune. However, between 1215 and 1216, Mantua got under the podesteria of the Guelph Rambertino Buvalelli. During the struggle between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, Pinamonte Bonacolsi seized the power over Mantua in 1273. His family ruled Mantua for the next century. Under their rule, the city prospered. On August 16, 1328, the last Bonacolsi was overthrown in a revolt that was backed by the House of Gonzaga. Luigi Gonzaga was elected "People's Captain". Gianfrancesco I was appointed marquis of Mantua by Emperor Sigismund in 1433. The first duke of Mantova was Federico II Gonzaga. He commissioned Giulio Romano to build the famous Palazzo Te and improve the overall image of the city. Francesco IV moved the ducal seat to the Villa della Favorita in 1624. In 1627, the direct line of the Gonzaga family ended, and the town slowly declined under the new rulers. During the War of the Mantuan Succession, an Imperial army besieged Mantua, bringing the plague with them. It was a disaster from which Mantua never recovered. Mantua went through a revival during the Austrian rule. On June 4, 1796, the French besieged the city. Austrian and Russian attempts to break the siege caused the French to stop the siege on 31 July . However, the siege resumed on August 24, but in early February Mantua surrendered, only to be retaken by the Austrians in 1799. Later, the city came uder Napoleon's control again, but in 1814, Mantua returned to Austria. The revolt against Austria lasted from 1851 to 1855, and was finally suppressed by the Austrian army. Mantua was incorporated in united Italy by the king of Sardinia in 1866. Main sights of Mantua include: the Palazzo Te, the summer residential villa of Frederick II of Gonzaga, hosting the Museo Civico; the Palazzo Ducale with a number of buildings, courtyards and gardens surrounding the Palazzo del Capitano, the Magna Domus, and the Castle of St. George; the Basilica of Sant'Andrea; the Duomo; the Rotonda di San Lorenzo; the Bibiena Theater; the church of San Sebastiano; the Palazzo Vescovile ("Bishops Palace"); the Palazzo degli Uberti; the Torre della Gabbia ("Cage Tower"); the Palazzo del Podest hosting the museum of Tazio Nuvolari; the Palazzo della Ragione with the Torre dell'Orologio ("Clock Tower"); the Palazzo Castiglioni Bonacolsi; the Palazzo Valenti Gonzaga, decorated with frescoes attributed to Flemish painter Frans Geffels.

Rock Drawings in Valcamonica


The rock carvings of Val Camonica are one of the largest collections of prehistoric petroglyphs in the world. They were the first World Heritage recognized by the UNESCO in Italy in 1979. More than 140,000 figures have been recognized. However, with the new discoveries the total number of incisions may as well be as much as 300,000. The petroglyphs are concentrated in the areas of Darfo Boario Terme, Capo di Ponte, Nadro, Cimbergo and Paspardo. The incisions in the rock were made over a time period of eight thousand year.
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UNESCO World Heritage Sites

Most of them have been made with the technique of "martellina". The petroglyphs often depict a religious rite or a hunting scene or fight. Each of the images is an ideogram that is not the real object, but rather its "idea". The petroglyphs were used in celebratory rituals. One of Valcamonica's image, the so-called "Rosa camuna" (Camunian rose), was adopted as the official symbol of the region of Lombardy. The archaeologist Emmanuel Anati was among the first to systematically study the area in thw 1960s. Anati drew up a chronology of rock carvings. The earliest rock carvings date back to epipaleolithic (or Mesolithic). They were made by nomadic hunters and depict large animals. During the Neolithic, the carvings represented human figures and geometric elements. The wheel, the wagon and the first forms of metallurgy appeared in the Copper Age. During this period, the images on the rock depicted celestial symbols, animals, weapons, plowing, chains of human-beings and other signs. In the Bronze Age, images of weapons appeared. Geometric shapes (circles and variants) were also still being carved into rock. The engravings of the Iron Age are attributed to the people of Camunni and depict the representations of duels and human figures, flaunting their weapons, the muscles and genitals. During the Roman rule, the Valcamonica rock-carving entered a phase of latency. During the Middle Ages the rock engravery revived and depicted images such as Christian symbols of crosses and keys. In 1909, Walther Laeng warned the National Committee for the Protection of Monuments two decorated boulders around Cemmo (Capo di Ponte). However, the carvings cought the scholars' interest in the 1920s. Between 1935 and 1937 Franz Altheim and Erika Trautmann conducted an extensive campaign of studies. Franz Altheim interpreted the carvings (in a Nazi spirit) as a witness to the supposed ancestral Aryan race. The post-WWII mapping and cataloging was conducted by scholars of the infant Museum of Natural Sciences of Brescia. The work on preserving the rocks began in 1955. In 1956 Emmanuel Anati discovered new petroglyphs, and in 1960 printed the first volume of general summary about: "La civilization du Val Camonica". In 1964 Anati founded the Centro Camuno di Studi Preistorici (Camunian Center of Prehistoric Studies). The first "Valcamonica Symposium", first in a long series of conferences,was held in 1964. The site was included in the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1979.

Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy


The Sacri Monti ("Sacred Mountains") of Piedmont and Lombardy include a series of nine groups of chapels and other sacral buildings built in northern Italy during the late 16th and 17th century. These buildings are dedicated to different aspects of Christianity. They are also considered as places of great beauty since they have been very skillfully integrated into the surrounding natural landscape. The Sacri Monti contain many important wall paintings and statuary. In 2003, they were included in the UNESCO World Heritage Site list. The model of the Sacred Mountain is a Christian creation that dates back to the late fifteenth century. This Sacred Mountain phenomenon spread from Italy across the world during the Counter-Reformation and presents a devotional complex located on the slopes of a mountain, with a series of chapels with scenes from the life of Christ, the Virgin Mary or the Saints. Sacred Mountains re-created Jerusalem offering pilgrims an opportunity to visit the Holy Places on a smaller scale. The Sacred Mountains are located on high ground, far from the town centre, surrounded by nature. The Sacred Mountains are usually reached by pilgrimage via route reminiscent of the Via Dolorosa, the road leading from Jerusalem to Calvary along which Christ carried the Cross. The nine Sacri Monti are: the Sacro Monte or Nuova Gerusalemme (New Jerusalem) of Varallo Sesia (1486), Varallo Sesia, province of Vercelli; the Sacro Monte of Santa Maria Assunta, Serralunga di Crea (1589), province of Alessandria; the Sacro Monte of San Francesco, Orta San Giulio (1590), province of Novara; the Sacro Monte of the Rosary, Varese (1598); the Sacro Monte of the Blessed Virgin, Oropa (1617), province of Biella; the Sacro Monte of the Blessed Virgin of Succour, Ossuccio (1635), province of Como; the Sacro Monte of the Holy Trinity, Ghiffa (1591), province of Verbano-Cusio-Ossola; the Sacro Monte and Calvary, Domodossola (1657), province of Verbano-Cusio-Ossola; the Sacro Monte of Belmonte, Valperga (1712), province of Turin.

Crespi d'Adda
Crespi d'Adda in Capriate San Gervasio in the region of Lombardy is a wonderful example of the 19th and early 20th-century "company towns". These settlements were built across Europe and North America by erudite industrialists to satisfy their workers' needs. Crespi d'Adda is mostly intact and to some extent is still used for industrial purposes. The site was included on UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites in 1995. A textile manufacturer Cristoforo Benigno Crespi bought the valley between the rivers Brembo and Adda in 1875. Cresi meant to install a cotton mill on the banks of the Adda. The settlement was built in 1878 next to the cotton-mill. This village contained a residential area provided with a clinic, a school building, a theatre, a cemetery, a wash-house and a church. Crespi d'Adda was the first village in the country to have electric public lightning.The village was built upon the English model with houses lined up in order along parallel roads to the east of the factory. Ernesto Pirovano designed and constructed the village. The great depression of 1929 and the fascist fiscal policy drove the Crespi family to sell the entire village to STI, the Italian textile enterprise. STI later transferred it to the Rossarl e Varzi company in 1970. Crespi d'Adda then passed to the Legler company, which sold off most of the houses. Lastly, the village found itself in the hands of the Polli industrial group, employing some 600 people (during the years of maximum activity it had 3200 employees). Today a community largely descended from the original workers inhabits the village, whereas the production at the factory in 2004.
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Local Guide

Local Guide to Marche


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Marche Local Guide

La Marche is a region in central Italy, nested between the Adriatic Sea and the Apennine mountains. Much of this region is remains unspoilt by mass tourism, and is visited by those wanting to experience the "real Italy". Leaving the favourite destination for sun-bathing holiday makers, the Adriatic coast behind, and venturing inland, you will find charming mountain villages where time has stood still, like Recanati, Cingoli, Jesi, Camerino, San Leo and Fermo. Almost all of these places, including some bigger towns like Urbino, Ascoli Piceno, Macerata, and Ancona feature wonderful examples of Renaissance art and architecure, and their share of cultural attractions. However, if you are not a big fan of art, this region offers some exquisite scenery perfect for hiking, mountain biking or horseback riding.

Geography
La Marche has an area of 9,694 km2. The region extends over central Adriatic slope bordering Emilia-Romagna to the north, Tuscany and Umbria to the west, and Lazio and Abruzzo to the south, with the entire eastern boundary being the Adriatic. Most of the region's terrain is mountainous, formed by the Apennine chain along the western boundary and an extensive system of hills descending towards the Adriatic coast. The highest peak in the region is Monte Vettore at 2,476 m, but the rest of La Marche's mountains do not exceed 2,000 m. The hills extend over two-thirds of the region, and are crossed with numerous but rather short rivers and alluvial plains. The coast is 173 km long and is relatively flat and straight. The only exceptions being the hilly area between Gabicce and Pesaro in the north, and the eastern slopes of Monte Conero near Ancona.

History
In antiquity the region of La Marche was known as the Picenum territory. The Senones, a tribe of Gauls, settled the coastal area. The Romans conquered the region after the Battle of Sentinum in 295 BC, and founded numerous colonies. These colonies were connected to Rome by two roads, the Via Flaminia and the Via Salaria. During the Social War, between 91 and 88 BC, Ascoli was a seat of Italic resistance. When the Western Roman Empire had fallen, the Goths invaded the area. After the Gothic War, it was included in Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna. After the fall of the Exarchate, the region was briefly under the rule of the Lombards. However, Charlemagne conquered it in the late eighth century. Between the 9th and 11th centuries, the region got its modern name when the marches of Camerino, Fermo and Ancona were created. La Marche nominally belonged to the Papal States. However, most of the territory ruled by local lords, whereas the major cities were free communes. In the 12th century, Ancona, as a maritime republic, resisted the imperial authority of Frederick Barbarossa and the Republic of Venice. Gil de Albornoz attempted to restore papal suzerainty in the 14th century, but this attempt was short-lived. In the Renaissance, rival aristocratic families, such as the Malatesta of Rimini, Pesaro, Fano and the house of Montefeltro of Urbino, fought over the area. The Duchy of Urbino, as the last independant entity, was dissolved in 1631. From this time onwards, the Marche was part of the Papal States. This period was interrupted in 1797, when the Republic of Ancona was created, the merging of the region with the Roman Republic and the Kingdom of Italy between 1808 and 1813, and lastly by Joachim Murat's short occupation. When Napoleon was defeated, the Marche returned to Papal rule. On November 4, 1860, the region was annexed to the unified Kingdom of Italy by a plebiscite.

Economy and Politics


Although La Marche had stable agricultural sector, still some 30 years ago this region was considered a rather poor part of Italy. Today, however, the contribution of agriculture to the economy of the region is not as important as before and has less impact on gross value added. La Marche never experienced the extremes of fragmented land ownership or 'latifondo'. Region's main products are cereals, vegetables, animal products and grapes. Fishing also does its share since the sea has always been abundant in fish. The main fishing centres are Ancona, San Benedetto del Tronto, Fano and Civitanova Marche. During the last 30 years the economy of the Marche has been radically transformed, with small rural craft workshops modernising and becoming small businesses. Some of these even became major brands known all over the world such as Indesit, Tod's, Guzzini, and Teuco. This caused the emergence of 'specialised' industrial areas: footwear and leather goods in the provinces of Macerata and Ascoli Piceno; furniture in the Pesaro area; household appliances and textile industry in the province of Ancona. Tourism is becoming more and more important, with ever-increasing number of visitors who come to the region to enjoy heritage of history and monuments, and seaside resorts. La Marche, Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany and Umbria form the Italian "Red Quadrilateral", a strongly left-wing area. The region is divided into five provinces: Province of Fermo, Province of Ancona, Province of Ascoli Piceno, Province of Macerata, and Province of Pesaro and Urbino.
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Local Guide

Local Guide to Molise


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Molise Local Guide

Molise is the youngest Italian region. It was established in 1963, when the region "Abruzzi e Molise" was split into two regions. These two regions still share a common identity both geographically and in their historical and traditional heritage. The region is administratively split into two provinces, Campobasso, the regional capital, and Isernia, and comprises 136 municipalities. The region of Molise is mostly mountainous. The region's economy has depended on agriculture and livestock raising for centuries.

Geography and Climate


Molise is bordered by Abruzzo to the north-west, Lazio to the west, Campania to the south, Puglia to the south-east and the Adriatic Sea to the north-east. Molise has an area of 4 438 km2, and is the smallest region in Southern Italy. This inland and mountainous region has 35 km of coast on the Adriatic. Some 55% of the region's territory is mountainous, and the remaining 45% consists of uplands. The predominance of mountainous areas acts like a natural barrier to the social and economic development of the region. Maritime climate dominates in the narrow coastal strip, a temperate one in the uplands and a continental climate in the more inland and mountainous areas.

History
The area of Molise has been inhabited for thousands of years. Until Romans came, the region was inhabited by the Samnites, and the Frentani. When the Western Roman Empire fell in 476, the area was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 535. In 572, the Lombards conquered it, and annexed it to the Duchy of Benevento. Isernia, Telese, Alife, Sepino, Boiano and Venafro were destroyed by the Saracens in 860. Nine countdoms, Venafro, Larino, Trivento, Bojano, Isernia, Campomarino, Termoli, Sangro, and Pietrabbondante, had been created by the 10th century. The most powerful of them, Bojano, came under the rule of the Norman lord Hugo I of Molhouse in 1095. The province went through a period of resurgence towards the end of the 13th century, being part of the Kingdom of Naples. Molise was incorporated into the province of Capitanata (Apulia) in the 16th century, and in 1806 it became an autonomous province. During the 19th century the economic conditions of the population worsened, leading to uprisings of the people and a massive emigration. During World War II the region experienced massive destruction. In September 19343 the Allied forces landed at Termoli. Molise was established in 1963, when the region Abruzzi e Molise was split in two. It became effective in 1970.

Economy and Politics


Although a large Fiat plant is based in Termoli, the industrial sector is dominated by the building industry. Food processing with pasta, meat, milk products, oil and wine, is also an important industry in Melise. The services sector is characterized with distribution, hotels and catering, transport and communications, banking and insurance. The earthquake of 2002 brought upon a generous government policy which contributed state money to individuals willing to make their homes more resistant to seismic activity. International tourism is growing due to international flights from other European states, Great Britain, and North America which enter Pescara not far to the north in Abruzzo. Unspoiled beaches, lack of congestion, and the gentle pace of life attracts tourists. The Regional Council of Molise (Consiglio Regionale della Molise) has 30 members. The Council is elected for a five-year term. The region of Molise has two provinces: Province of Campobasso, and Province of Isernia.

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Local Guide

Local Guide to Piedmont


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Piedmont Local Guide

The Italian region of Piedmont looks a lot like Tuscany, lots of vineyards and rolling hills but without so many tourists. However, Piedmont gets its share of visitors through foodies who come here to seek truffles, hazelnuts, chocolate, and wines. The 2006 Winter Olympic Games in Turin, the region's capital, brought some international attention and caused the city to reinvent itself as a chic and modern city. But despite these efforts, Piedmont is still a (somewhat) hidden jewel of north-western Italy.

History
During its earliest history, Piedmont was inhabited by Celtic-Ligurian tribes who were later submitted by the Romans. When the Western Roman Empire fell, the region was being repeatedly invaded by the Burgundians, the Goths, Byzantines, Lombards, Franks. Also, during the 9th and the 10th century, Piedmont was further attacked by the Magyars and Saracens. It was during this period that Piedmont, as part of the Kingdom of Italy within the Holy Roman Empire, was subdivided into several marks and counties. Oddo of Savoy added Piedmont to Savoy in 1406, which became a duchy in 1416, and Duke Emanuele Filiberto moved the seat to Turin in 1563. In 1720, the Duke of Savoy became King of Sardinia. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was created thus increasing Turin's importance in Europe. The end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century was marked with creation of two client republics. In 1796, the Republic of Alba was created, but it was annexed by France in 1801. In June 1802, the Subalpine Republic was established. However, this one was also annexed. During the Congress of Vienna, the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was restored. It also received the Republic of Genoa as a barrier against France. Piedmont was the starting point for the unification of Italy between 1859 and 1861. This process followed two earlier wars against the Austrian Empire in 1820-1821 and 1848-1849, and is known as Piedmontisation. The House of Savoy became Kings of Italy, and Turin briefly enjoyed reputation of Italy's capital city. However, this enlargement of Piedmont's territory reduced its importance to the kingdom, resulting in the capital being moved to Florence, and then to Rome.
Kingdom of Sardinia in 1839.

Government
The President of Regional Government is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the Regional Government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Regional Council. The Regional Government (Giunta Regionale) is presided by the President of the Region (Presidente della Regione). The President of the Region is elected for a five-year term. The Regional Council of Piedmont (Consiglio Regionale del Piemonte) is composed of 60 members, 47 of which are elected in provincial constituencies, 12 from the "regional list" of the elected President and the last one is for the candidate who lost the election for President, usually the leader of the opposition in the Council. Piedmont is divided into eight provinces: Province of Alessandria, Province of Asti, Province of Biella, Province of Cuneo, Province of Novara, Province of Turin, Province of Verbano-Cusio-Ossola, and Province of Vercelli.

Geography
The region of Piedmont is surrounded on three sides by the Alps, including Monviso, and Monte Rosa. It is bordered by France, Switzerland and the Italian regions of Lombardy, Liguria, Aosta Valley and for a very small fragment by Emilia Romagna. Piedmont is 43.3% mountainous, and is the second largest region of Italy (the largest region in Italy is Sicily). The region is broadly contiguous with the upper part of the drainage basin of the river Po.

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Local Guide

The area of the region slopes down from the high peaks to hilly terrain, and then to the upper, and then the lower the great Padan Plain. Risorgive, springs typical of the pianura padana which supply fresh water both to the rivers and to a dense network of irrigation canals make up the boundary between the first and the second. The result is very varied countryside. Besides having eight provinces, Piedmont geographically also includes the distinct regions of Langhe, Monferrato and Roero Hills. These (sub)regions lie in the centre of Piedmont and are a mixture of limestone and sandstone deposits laid down by the retreating Adriatic some 3 million years ago. Today, however, these three regions are cut by numerous rivers and are the area where most of famous Piedmont's wines are grown.

Piedmont's vineyard covered hills.


(Photo by: unknown)

Langhe - located in Cuneo Province to the south and west of the river Tanaro. Langhe is famous for its wines and its truffles. The hills of Langhe are covered with some of the finest vineyards that can be found in Piedmont. The grapes grown in the region of Langhe are primarily nebbiolo, dolcetto and barbera. The nebbiolo is used to make the red wines of Barolo and Barbaresco. Barolo, La Morra, Monforte, Serralunga d'Alba and Barbaresco are the towns situated in this region. Monferrato - spreads from Turin to the eastern border of Alessandria. It is bounded by the Po River to the north and merges into Langhe in the south. This region is divided into northern and southern areas, Asti being in the centre. The Monferrato area another known wine area, especially for Barbera d'Asti. Monferrato is also known for the Gavi, one of the rare white wines of the region. White truffles is another thing that puts the region of Monferrati on the map. These truffles are found in autumn and celebrated in local festivals each Sunday. Roero is a hill-covered region situated on the west bank of Tanaro River between Alba and Asti. It si known for light Nebbiolo wines as well as the best white variety in Piedmont the Arneis. Roero is also noted for its honey, as well as peaches. The Eco-museum of the Roero rocks, or the great path of the Roero a hiking trail stretching from Cisterna to Bra which incorporates the Roero rocks, ancient lime and sandstone cliffs, also make Roero interesting to visit.

Language
The main local language (dialect) of the region of Piedmont is Piedmontese. This is a Romance language spoken by over 2 million people in Piedmont. Piedmontese is geographically and linguistically included in the Northern Italian group , and is part of the western group of Romance languages, including French, Occitan, and Catalan. Although many European and North American distinguished linguists acknowledge Piedmontese as an independent language, in Italy it is still considered a dialect. Today, Piedmontese has an official status recognized by the Piedmont regional government, but not by the Italian national government.

White truffles.

The first documents in the Piedmontese language were written in the 12th century, these were sermones subalpini. During this time, Piedmontese was very close to Occitan. Literary Piedmontese developed in the 17th and 18th centuries, and although Piedmontese never had the literary importance of French or Italian (other languages spoken in Piedmont), the production of literature in Piedmontese was continuous and includes poetry, theatre pieces, novels, and scientific work. Some of the most relevant characteristics of the Piedmontese language are: 1. The presence of clitic subject pronouns verbal pronouns. There are no verbal pronouns in the imperative form and in the Piedmontese interrogative form. 2. The agglutinating form of verbal pronouns. 3. The interrogative form, which adds an enclitic interrogative particle at the end of the verbal form. 4. No ordinal numerals. 5. Three ways to say yes. 6. No voiceless postalveolar fricative / / for which an alveolar S sound is usually substituted. 7. The presence of a S-C combination. 8. The presence of a velar nasal N-sound [], which usually comes before a vowel. 9. The presence of the third piedmontese vowel . 10. No phonological contrast that exists in Italian between short and long consonants. 11. The existence of a prosthetic sound.
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(Photo by: unknown)

Local Guide

Italian, being the official language, dominates everyday communication in the region of Piedmont and is spoken by far more people than Piedmontese. In 2004, Piedmontese was recognised as Piedmont's regional language by the regional parliament, and is now supposed to be taught in schools, but this is happening only to a limited extent. Other languages spoken in Piedmont include Occitan, spoken by a minority in the Occitan Valleys, and Franco-Provenal that is spoken by the minority in the alpine heights of the Province of Turin.

Piedmontese cadrega pij surt droch/ casch/ tomb ca/mison brass nmer pom travaj ratavolira scla bsch mons madama ist ancheuj dman jer lnes mrtes mrcol/merco gibia vnner saba dumnica

Italian sedia prendere uscire cadere casa braccio numero mela lavorare pipistrello scuola legno signore signora estate oggi domani ieri luned martedi mercoled gioved venerd sabato domenica

English chair to take to go/come out to fall home arm number apple to work bat school wood Mr Mrs summer today tomorrow yesterday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

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What to See and Do

What to See and Do in Piedmont


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Piedmont Local Guide What to See and Do

Lake Maggiore
Lake Maggiore is the second largest lake in Italy after Lake Garda. This extremely charming lake acts like a watery boundary between the regions of Lombardy and Piedmont. It is also located in two countries at once since its northern tip is in Switzerland. Although it is somewhat cooler than Lake Garda or Lake Como, it is adorned with palm trees and bathed with constant sunshine juxtaposed with the Alps. The lake has several islands and islets, all worth visiting since evry one of them is beautiful and special in its own way. Islands on the lake include: Borromean Islands (three islands and two islets located between Verbania and Stresa):
Lake Maggiore.

(Photo by: unknown)

Brissago Islands (close to Brissago): San Pancrazio (or Grande Isola) Isolino (or Isola Piccola or Isola di SantApollinare) Castelli di Cannero (three small islands off the shore from Cannero Riviera) Isolino Partegora (in the gulf of Angera)

Isola Bella Isola Madre Isola dei Pescatori (or Isola Superiore) Isolino di San Giovanni Scoglio della Malghera

Sacro Monte di Ghiffa (Sacred Mountain of Ghiffa) is one of the main attractions on the Lake Maggiore. This is a Roman Catholic devotional complex in the comune of Ghiffa included and one of the nine Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy, included in UNESCO World Heritage List.
Isola Bella.

Lake Orta

(Photo by: unknown)

Lago d'Orta is one of favourite spots in Piedmont for tourists who are attracted by the lake's stunningly beautiful landscape of steep wooded hills that rise from the shore, fascinating history and Romanesque and Baroque architecture. Lake Orta is located west of Lago Maggiore. The lake has had its present name since 16th century. Before that, Lake Orta was called the Lago di San Giulio, after Saint Julius, the 4th century patron saint of the region. The lake's other name, Cusio is a nothing but a poetical name. The scenery surrounding Lago d'Orta is characteristically Italian, whereas the island of San Giulio features some very picturesque buildings such as the 16th century Palazzo Communita. The island kept the name of San Giulio, taken from the local saint, Julius of Novara, who lived in the 4th century. Lake Orta's major landmark is Orta San Giulio, built on a peninsula projecting from the east shore of the lake, with Omegna at its northern extremity.
Sacro Monte di Ghiffa.
(Photo by: unknown)

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What to See and Do

The Turin Cathedral and the Holy Shroud


This cathedral is the major church in Turin and is dedicated to Saint John the Baptist (San Giovanni Battista). Duomo di San Giovanni was built between 1491 and 1498 and is an excellent example of Renaissance architecture. Today, however, it is chiefly known as the resting place of what is perhaps the most famous Christian relic - the Holy Shroud. The relic, sometimes referred to as the Shroud of Turin, is believed to be the cloth in which Jesus Christ was wrapped in upon his death on the cross. The shroud is now located in the Chapel of the Holy Shroud, which was added to the cathedral during the period between 1668 and 1694. The cathedral was built on the site of the ancient Roman theatre. The original Christian house had three churches, one dedicated to the Holy Saviour, the other to Saint Mary of Dopno, and the third one, the main of the three, dedicated to St. John the Baptist. These three churches were demolished between 1490 and 1492, whereas the construction of the new cathedral begun in 1491 and was designed by Amedeo de Francisco di Settignano, also known as Meo del Caprino. The bell tower, still visible today, was erected in 1469. When the need for a more luxurious seat for the Shroud arose, a project for an enlargement of the cathedral was launched in 1649. Bernardino Quadri designed an oval chapel behind the choir. Quadri's design was based upon a previous project by Carlo di Castellamonte. Guarino Guarini completed the chapel in 1667, and the dome was completed in 1694. The Shroud of Turin (or Turin Shroud) is a linen cloth bearing the image of a man. The injuries this man sustained are consistent with crucifixion. The shroud is in the royal chapel of the Duomo di San Giovanni (Cathedral of Saint John the Duomo di San Giovanni. (Photo by: unknown) Baptist). The shroud is one of the most famous (if not the most famous) relic of Christianity, but also one of the biggest mysteries in history. Researchers, historians, scientists and believers alike still intensely debate over how and when the shroud and the image on it were created. The image on the shroud is much clearer in black-and-white negative than in its original sepia colour. The negative image was created by amateur photographer Secondo Pia on 28 May 1898. Pia was allowed to photograph the relic while it was exhibited in the cathedral. Belivers claim that the cloth was placed on the body of Christ during his burial, and that the image is the imprint of his body and face, while detractors claim the cloth postdates Christ's crucifixion by more than a millennium and even that it may be the work of Leonardo da Vinci. Various and numerous tests have been conducted on the shroud such as the much disputed radiocarbon dating in 1988. Both sceptics and believers have both historical and scientific evidence and hold their position strongly, and there is no end in sight of the debate. The Catholic Church, however, remains neutral and neither formally endorses or rejects the shroud, but Pope Pius XII approved of the image in association with the Roman Catholic devotion to the

A view of the Lake Orta.


(Photo by: unknown)

The Royal Palace of Turin


The Royal Palace of Turin (Palazzo Reale) was the royal palace of the House of Savoy. Madama Reale Christine Marie of France (1606-1663) modernised the palace greatly in the seventeenth century, whereas Filippo Juvarra worked on the palace. The site of the palace was once part of an old Bishops palace during the reign of Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy (1528-1580). This palace enabled the Duke to monitor the Palatine and Pretoria gates - the two entrances of the city. The old palace in Turin, previously the residence of the French Viceroys of Savoy appointed by Francis I of France, was thus abandoned. The Bishops palace and the Palazzo Vecchio or the Palazzo di San Giovanni opposite it were later incorporated in the grander Ducal Palace. In that way the old Bishops Palace became the seat of power and was greatly expanded by Emmanuel Philibert because he needed some extra space for his collections of art, animals, marbles and furniture. Emmanuel Philibert died in Turin in August 1580 and the Savoyard throne was handed on to his son Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy (1562-1630). To celebrate the marriages of his daughters Princess Margaret and Princess Isabella in 1608, Charles Emmanuel I commissioned the construction of a ring of porches which was topped off by an open gallery. During the reign of Victor Amadeus II the construction of the famous Daniel gallery started. The gallery was named after Daniel Seiter who painted the lavish murals.

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What to See and Do

Victor Amadeus II also had a several summer apartments built overlooking the court and a winter apartment overlooking the gardens. The Neoclassical style was introduced to the palace during the reign of Charles Emmanuel III. The palace was overshadowed by the Palazzina di caccia di Stupinigi later on. However, Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia had some of the rooms redecorated. The Italian Republic took over the palace in 1946 and made a Museum of the life and works of the House of Savoy. The rooms of the palace are decorated with rich tapestries and a collection of Chinese and Japanese vases, whereas the Royal Armory holds an extensive array of arms. The Scala delle Forbici is a beautiful staircase by Filippo Juvarra.

Royal Palace of Turin.


(Photo by: unknown)

The negative image of the Holy Shroud.

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Local Guide

Local Guide to Sardinia


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Sardinia Local Guide

Italian region of Sardinia is an idyllic place with plenty of places off the beaten track for you to explore. This island has an elongated shape extending from north to south. The vegetation of Sardinia varies quite a bit from north to south of the island. Sardinias cultural traditions also vary throughout the island. Costa Smeralda with its sandy beaches, and cliffs that border the coasts numerous bays is the most famous part of Sardinia.

Geography and Climate


Sardinia is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It has a surface of 23,821 km. Sardinia's coast is 1,849 km long, and generally high and rocky, with ample and deep bays and inlets surrounded by smaller isles. The island has no high mountains because of its long erosion processes due to the old age of the rocks (dates back to the Palaeozoic Era). The island's territory is dominated by rocky highlands at a height of between 300 and 1,000 metres. The island's entire territory of is non-seismic. The Gennargentu is a large mountain massif occupying the center of the island. Punta La Marmora (1,834 m), Monte Limbara (1,362 m) in the north, and Mount Rasu (1,259 m) are its highest peaks. The island's main plains are the Campidano, in the southwest, and the Nurra, in the northwest. Sardinia's largest river is the Tirso at 151 km. It flows into the Sea of Sardinia. Among 54 artificial lakes, the main ones are the Lake Omodeo and Lake Coghinas. Baratz Lake is the only natural freshwater lake. Sardinia's climate is mediterranean with 300 sunny days and few rainy days throughout the year. Most rain falls in the winter and autumn, with some heavy showers in the spring. Snowfalls are possible on the highest massifs and highlands. The mistral is the dominant wind, blowing from the northwest throughout the year.

History
Sardinia is one of the oldest areas in Europe. During the Palaeolithic period, Sardinia was only visited. However, it was inhabited permanently by humans in the Neolithic age, around 6,000 BC. The first inhabitants settled in Gallura and northern Sardinia. They probably came from the Italian mainland and from Etruria. Those inhabiting the central region of the island may have arrived from the Iberian Peninsula, and those who settled around the Gulf of Cagliari were made up of several peoples. In the period 1600 BC onwards there is evidence of trade with other Aegean centres. During the course of time, the Sardinian peoples became united in language and customs. However, they remained divided politically into smaller tribal states. From about 1500 BC onwards, the villages at the foot of truncated cone fortresses called nuraghi were being built from 1500 BC. There are currently some 7,000 nuraghi that dot the Sardinian landscape. The Phoenicians began to land on the shores of Sardinia around 1000 BC, especially at Caralis, Nora, Bithia, Sulcis, Tharros, Bosa and Olbia. These ports soon became important markets and towns, inhabited by Phoenician families. In 509 BC, the Phoenician expansion inland became more menacing, so the native Sardinians attacked the coastal cities held by the enemy. The cities in return called upon Carthage for help. The Carthaginians overcame the Sardinians and conquered the mountainous parts. The Carthaginian or Punic civilization flourished for 271 years. In 238 BC the Carthaginians surrendered Sardinia, that then became a province of Rome. The Romans enlarged coastal cities and founded new cities. The Romans also reached the central mountains, bringing down the nuragic civilization. The Roman domination in Sardinia lasted 694 years. However, it was often opposed by the Sardinians who eventually adopted the Latin language and Roman civilization. In 456 A.D. the Vandals occupied Caralis along with the other coastal cities of Sardinia. In 534 they were defeated in the Battle of Tricamarum by the troops of Justinian, and Sardinia became Byzantine. The island was then divided into districts - merie. These were governed by a judge residing in Caralis (Cagliari) and garrisoned by an army stationed in Forum Traiani (Fordongianus) under the command of a dux. Christianity spread throughout the island, except in the Barbagia region. Berber raids on the Sardinian shores began in 710 and grew ever more devastating with time. In order to defend the island, the judge provincial assigned his civil and military powers to his four lieutenants in Cagliari, Torres or Logudoro, Arborea, and Gallura. Around 900, the lieutenants got their independence and became judices with their own states. Each one of these four states constituted a sovereign kingdom, at the same time, however, they were democratic. The kingdom of Cagliari was politically pro-Genoese. It met its end in 1258 when its capital, S. Igia, was destroyed by Sardinian-Pisan forces, becoming a colony of Pisa. The kingdom of Torres, too, was pro-Genoese and came to an end in 1259 on the death of the giudicessa Adelasia. The territory was divided up between the Doria family of Genoa and the Basserra family of Arborea. The city of Sassari became an autonomous city-republic. In 1288 the kingdom of Gallura ended, when Nino Visconti, the last giudice, was driven out by the Pisans. The Kingdom of Arborea lasted some 520 years with Oristano as its capital.

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In 1297, Pope Boniface VIII in order to settle the War of the Vespers, which broke out in 1282, established a hypothetical Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae ("Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica") offering the crown to James II, King of Aragon promising him support if he would ever wanted to conquer Pisan Sardinia in exchange for Sicily. The kings of Arborea formed an alliance with James II of Aragon against the Pisans in 1323 despite the Aragonese plans to take control of Sardinia. After a year-long military campaign, the Aragonese occupied Cagliari, Gallura, and Sassari, naming them "Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica". Barisone I was the first king of Arborea, and managed to be crowned King of Sardinia by the Holy Roman Empire emperor Fredrick I "Barbarossa" in 1164. However, in order to receive the title, Barisone I had taken a loan from the Republic of Genoa that he was unable to pay back. In return, he was taken as a prisoner by the Republic of Genoa and was detained for 7 years. When all the Giudicati fell under the rule of foreign powers, the kings of Arborea started to consider themselves as the defenders of Sardinia. They waged war against the Kings of Aragon, and started to develop the institutions at the basis of their rule, for example by promulgating the legal code of the kingdom in the Carta de Logu. The kings of Arborea stated very clearly that the Carta de Logu was intended as the law code that applied to the whole of Sardinia guaranteeing the well-being and development of the Sardinian state. In 1353 Peter IV of Aragon granted a parliament to the kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica, however with very limited powers. It had 3 branches, the military branch, the clerical branch, and the nobility branch. The kingdom of Aragon introduced feudalism in Sardinia. However, the Sardinian kingdoms, and the kingdom of Arborea never adopted it. The Kingdom of Arborea had its parliament called "Corona de Logu", where, besides the nobles and military commanders, also sat the representatives of each village. From 1365 to 1409 the Arborean giudici Mariano IV, Ugone III, Mariano V, and Guglielmo III occupied entire Sardinia except Castle of Cagliari, and Alghero. They received a great support from many Sardinians, who were strongly against the feudal system. In 1409 Martin I of Sicily defeated the Sardinians at the Battle of Sanluri, despite the Sardinian army was more numerous than the Aragonese army. Martin I of Sicily died of malaria that he had contracted during the military campaign against the Kingdom of Arborea. Subsequently the Crown of Aragon passed to the Trastmara house. Sardinia being conquered by the Kingdom of Aragon and the consequent loss of independence introduced the feudal system throughout Sardinia. Sardinia thus became the only European country where feudalism had been introduced in the transition between the Middle Age and Modern Age. As a result of the personal union of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabel of Castile, the Crown of Spain was created in 1479. Charles V of Spain, in order to defend his Mediterranean territories from pirate raids, fortified the Sardinian shores with coastal lookout towers. The kingdom of Sardinia remained Spanish from 1323 to 1720, assimilating Spanish traditions, customs, and linguistic expressions. In 1708 the kingdom of Sardinia came under the Austrians. Cardinal Giulio Alberoni, minister of Felipe V of Spain, reoccupied Sardinia in 1717. The following year, with the Treaty of London, Sardinia passed over to the House of Savoy. During an uprising in Cagliari, two Piedmontese officials were killed on 28 April 1794. This triggered a revolt all over the island. The revolt culminated in the expulsion of the tyrants. On 28 December 1795 in Sassari insurgents demonstrating against feudalism occupied the city. The viceroy Filippo Vivalda gave to the Sardinian magistrate Giovanni Maria Angioy the role of Alternos on 13 February 1796. In 1799 the Dukes of Savoy left Turin and took refuge in Cagliari. The Sardinians renounced their state autonomy and formed a union with Piedmont in 1847. In 1848 the Italian Wars of Independence broke out, led by the kings of Sardinia for thirteen years. In 1861 Sardinia joined the Kingdom of Italy. During WWI the soldiers of the Sardinian Brigata Sassari distinguished themselves, and was the first and only Italian military unit constituted exclusively from Sardinian soldiers. During the fascist period, agrarian communities were founded. The main communities were in the area of Oristano, and in the area adjacent the city of Alghero. The city of Carbonia was also established during the same period. After the war, many settlers and immigrants, Istrians and Dalmatians from territories lost to Yugoslavia, came to Sardinia. Italy became a republic by popular referendum in 1946, with Sardinia administered since 1948 by special statute of autonomy. By 1951, malaria was successfully eliminated with the support of the Rockefeller Foundation. During the 1950s and 1960s the greatest Sardinian migration took place. However, in the early 1960s there was an industrialization effort that included the construction of new dams and roads, reforestation, agricultural zones on reclaimed marshland, and large industrial complexes. The economic crisis, unemployment, and the forced militarization of the island territory increased thee crime rate, the flourishing of communist groups, which perpetrated several terrorist actions between the 1970s and the early 1980s. In 1983 the Sardinian Action Party was elected president of the regional parliament. During the 1980s several independentist movements were born. The first independentist militant was elected in the Province of Sassari in 2006. Today Sardinia is a rising EU region, with economy focused on tourism and the tertiary sector. A 2009 G8 summit was planned to be held in Sardinia. However, the Italian Prime Minister, Silvio Berlusconi decided to move the summit to L'Aquila.

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Economy and Politics


Sardinia's inland has experienced the greatest economic development, especially the provinces of Cagliari and Sassari. Sardinia has high costs of transportation of goods and electricity, which is double compared to the continental Italian regions. This is the only region in Italy that produces surplus of electricity. The unemployment rate in the region is higher than the national average, but lower than the South Italy regions.The primary sector is the basis of Sardinia's economy, especially goat and sheep rearing. Also, the granite extraction counts as one of the most flourishing industry in the region. The Gallura granite district is composed of 260 companies that work in 60 quarries, where 75% of the Italian granite is extracted, whereas the cork district, in the northern part of the Gallura region, has 130 companies. Fishing is also an important activity in Sardinia. Region's major industries are chemicals, petrochemicals, metalworking, cement, pharmaceutical, shipbuilding, oil rig construction, and food. Today the region's economy is today focused on the tertiary sector. Sardinia is the only of the five italian autonomous regions administered by special statute of autonomy. This statute gives the region the right to create its own laws and to carry out regional administrative functions. Until 2005, Sardinia had been divided into four provinces: Cagliari, Nuoro, Oristano and Sassari. In 2005 the Regional Council created four new provinces: Carbonia-Iglesias, Medio Campidano, Ogliastra, Olbia-Tempio.

Culture
Sardinia is one of two Italian regions (the other being the region of Veneto) whose inhabitants have been recognised as a popolo (a distinct people) by a local statute. Although the official language in Sardinia is Italian, Sardinian language is widely spoken all over the island. Sardinian is a Romance language of Latin origin. It was created under the influence of Catalan and Spanish, but with indigenous elements, and some roots from Phoenician, and Etruscan. In 2006 the regional administration has approved the use of Limba Sarda Comuna in official documents. The two most widely spoken forms of the Sardinian languages are Campidanese, and Logudorese. One of the oldest forms of vocal polyphony, generally known as cantu a tenore, originates from Sardinia. Several world famous musicians were interested in it, including Peter Gabriel who travelled to the town of Bitti and recorded the now world-famous Tenores di Bitti CD on his Real World label. The guttural sounds produced in this form are similar to Tuvan throat singing. Cantu a cuncordu is another polyphonic style of singing found in Sardinia.

Cuisine
Sardinian cuisine is famous for its use of fresh, in-season ingredients. Sardinias many outstanding culinary specialties include Buttariga, smoked mullet caviar, usually served as an appetizer, "Pane carasau" or carta di musica, a dry, light, hearty and thinly sliced shepherds bread, carne a carraxiu (buried meat), meat cured in the ground, delicately flavoured sheeps cheese Pecorino, and the smoked, spicy and sharp cheese Fiore Sardo.

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Local Guide

Local Guide to Sicily


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Sicily Local Guide

Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea as well as an autonomous region of Italy. Some minor islands surrounding it are considered to be part of Sicily. Sicily has had a crucial strategic location throughout history being important for Mediterranean trade routes. Sicily is like a world of its own. It has developed its own unique culture, especially conisdering the arts, cuisine, architecture and language. The rural countryside and natural beauty of Sicily attracts many tourists. Sicily is also noted for its archeological sites such as the Necropolis of Pantalica and the Valley of the Temples.

Geography and Climate


Sicily has a total surface area of 25.460 sq. km, and as such is the largest island in the Mediterranean basin. There is a a number of smaller islands surrounding it: to the north the Aeolian islands and Ustica, to the West the Egadi, and to the south the Pelagie islands and Pantelleria. Sicily has some 1.000 Km of coastline, which is mostly rocky in the north and sandy in the south. The Strait of Messina separates Sicily and the mainland Italy, namely the region of Calabria. Sicily's landscape is varied, but mountainous and hilly prevails. Plains are found surrounding Catania. Sicily's main mountain ranges are Madonie and Nebrodi in the north and Peloritani in the north-east. The third range, the Hyblaean in the south-east, are a geological continuation of the Italian Appennines. Mount Etna is probably one of the best known volcanoes in the world as well as one of the most active ones. It has the heighth of 3,320 m and as such is the tallest volcano in Europe. The active vulcanic complex Stromboli is located on the Aolian Islands. There are also three dormant volcanoes of Volcano, Vulanello, and Lipari. The underwater volcano Ferdinandea is located off the southern coast of Sicily and is part of a larger volcano, Empedocles. Sicily's largest forest is the Bosco di Caronia. There are several rivers on the island of Sicily. The most important are the Salso River, the Alcantara, the Simeto, the Belica, and the Platani. Sicily has Mediterranean climate, characterized with mild and wet winters and hot and dry summers.

Economy and Politics

Sicily is known for its fertile soil and pleasant climate. The main economic activity of Sicily is agriculture, although it is somewhat harmed by absentee ownership, primitive methods of cultivation, and inadequate irrigation. The 1950 establishment of the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno (Southern Italy Development Fund) led to reforms in land, an increase in the amount of land available for cultivation and the development of Sicicly's economy. However, the all-influential Mafia has hindered these efforts, and Sicily still has a low per capita income and high unemployment. Sicily produces more wine than New Zealand, Austria and Hungary combined. Sicily's wine industry has improved during the last few decades since new winemakers are experimenting with less-known native varietals, causing Sicilian wines to become widely known. Sicily also produces processed food, chemicals, refined petroleum, fertilizers, textiles, ships, leather goods, and forest products. Executive power in Sicily is exercised by the Regional Government, whereas legislative power is vested in both the government and the Sicilian Regional Assembly. The President of Regional Government is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. Administratively Sicily is divided into nine provinces. These are: Province of Agrigento, Province of Caltanissetta, Province of Catania, Province of Enna, Province of Messina, Province of Palermo, Province of Ragusa, Province of Syracuse, and Province of Trapani. The small islands surrounding Sicily are part of various provinces of Sicily: Aeolian Islands of Messina, isle of Ustica (Palermo), Aegadian Islands (Trapani), isle of Pantelleria (Trapani) and Pelagian Islands (Agrigento).

month January February March April May June July August September October November December

high (C) 15 15 16 18 22 35 35 38 29 23 19 16

low (C) 10 10 11 13 16 20 23 24 22 18 14 11

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Cuisine
The Sicilian cuisine contains touches of all the cultures that inhabited this island over the last two millennia, so Sicilian food has Spanish, Greek and Arab influences. Sicily was under Arab domination during the 10th and 11th centuries, and apricots, sugar, citrus, sweet melons, rice, saffron, raisins, nutmeg, clove, pepper, pine nuts, and cinnamon are much used in Sicilian cooking. Normans and Hohenstaufen influences reflect in meat dishes, such as Bruscialoni. The Spanish brought cocoa, maize, turkey, and tomatoes. Catania's east coast was settled by Greek colonists who used fish, olives, broad beans, and fresh vegetables in their cusine. A large part of Sicily's cuisine is based on the use of fresh vegetables such as eggplant, peppers, and tomatoes, and fish such as tuna, sea bream, sea bass, cuttlefish, and swordfish. North African influences such the use of couscous are quite common in Trapani. Some of the better known dishes from Sicily include arancini, Pasta alla Norma, caponata, pani ca meusa and couscous al pesce, and sweets such as frutta martorana, pignolata, buccellato, cannolo siciliano, granita, and cassata siciliana.

Language and Lifestyle


Many Sicilians are bilingual in Italian and Sicilian. Sicilian is a distinct Romance language with a vocabulary of at least 250,000 words. Some of these are loaned from Greek, Catalan, French, Arabic, Spanish, and other languages in addition to Italian. Today, although Italian is taught in schools and is the language of the media, Sicilian is now spoken amongst much of the youth in urban areas. The family has been at the heart of Sicilian culture throughout its history. Members of the same family often live close to each other, and children usually remain at home with their parents until they marry. Sicilian weddings are huge and traditional. They are held in church, since the Catholic church is a very important part of Sicilian life. Oral tradition constitutes a large part of Sicilian folklore. Many stories that are passed down from generation to generation are centered around a character named "Giuf" and convey moral messages. Outdoor festivals are favourite in Sicily. They are held in the local square or piazza. Live music and dancing are performed on stage, and food fair with various local specialties are set up in booths around the square.

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UNESCO World Heritage Sites

UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Sicily


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Sicily Local Guide UNESCO World Heritage Sites

Valle dei Templi


The Valle dei Templi (Valley of the Temples) is an archaeological site in Agrigento. It is an outstanding example of Greater Greece architecture. It is also one of the main attractions of Sicily and Italian national monument. The Valle dei Templi was included in the UNESCO Heritage Site list in 1997. The Valle dei Templi features remains of seven temples in Doric style. These are: Temple of Juno, built in the 5th century BC, used for the celebration of weddings; Temple of Concordia, also built in the 5th century BC, then turned into a church in the 6th century AD; Temple of Heracles, the most ancient in the Valley, now consists of only eight columns; Temple of Zeus Olympic, built in 480 BC to celebrate the city-state's victory over Carthage; Temple of Castor and Pollux, includes only four columns, but is now the symbol of Agrigento; Temple of Vulcan, dating from the 5th century BC, today one of the most damaged one; Temple of Asclepius, destination of pilgrims seeking healing. Tomb of Theron, a large tuff monument of pyramidal shape, is also located in the Valley.

Villa Romana del Casale


Villa Romana del Casale is a Roman villa built in the first quarter of the 4th century. It can be found outside the town of Piazza Armerina. The villa features the richest, largest and most complex collection of Roman mosaics in the world. It was built probably as the center of a huge latifundium (agricultural estate). The Vandals and the Visigoths damaged and perhaps destroyed the villa, whereas the outbuildings were partly in use during the Byzantine and Arab periods. The villa was abandoned in the 12th century AD when a landslide covered it. The villa fell into oblivion, until the early 19th century when pieces of mosaics and some columns were found with the first official archaeological excavations were being carried out some time later in the same century. Paolo Orsi made the first professional excavations in 1929. Orsi's work was followed by Giuseppe Cultrera between 1935 and 1939. The last major excavations took place in the period 1950-60, and were led by Gino Vinicio Gentili. Andrea Carandini carried out a few localized excavations at the site during the 1970s. The manorial portions of the complex have been excavated until today, whereas housing for slaves, workshops, stables, etc., have not been located. The villa was a single-story building. The peristyle was at the centre, and around it almost all the main public and private rooms were organized. Thermal baths are located to the northwest, service rooms and guest rooms to the north, private apartments and a huge basilica to the east, and some other rooms to the south. The separate area to the south containing the elliptical peristyle, service rooms, and a huge triclinium (formal dining room) is detached from the main building. Gentile excavated a mosaic on the floor of the room dubbed the "Chamber of the Ten Maidens", or informally "the bikini girls" during 1959 and 1960. The mosaic depicts young women weight-lifting, discus throwing, running and playing ball-games.

The Aeolian Islands


The Aeolian Islands or Lipari Islands are located in the Tyrrhenian Sea north of Sicily. They were named after the demigod of the winds Aeolus. These islands are a popular tourist destination attracting up to 200,000 visitors annually. Lipari is the largest island, whereas the other islands include Vulcano, Salina, Stromboli, Filicudi, Alicudi, Panarea and Basiluzzo. The Aeolian Islands were shaped by volcanic activity over a period of 260,000 years. The two active volcanoes are Stromboli and Vulcano. Urban development is being curbed in order to preserve the natural state of the Aeolian islands. The construction of new buildings is severely restricted. However, existing residences can be bought and restored to resemble the whitewashed houses of the islands. Traditional houses consist of modular cubes and are constructed from indigenous building materials such as stone, lava, pumice and tufo. The Aeolian Islands' position among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites is threatened by inaccuracy, the missing closure of a pumice quarry, and the oncoming building of some four harbours by the shore of the sole town of Lipari, according to the Italian UNESCO Commission.

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UNESCO World Heritage Sites

Val di Noto
Val di Noto is an area of south east Sicily. In 1693 the entire area was devastated by a huge earthquake. The towns in the area had to be rebuilt in what later became known as the Sicilian Baroque style. The most notable among them is the town of Noto itself, now a tourist attraction because of its exquisite Baroque architecture. The ancient town of Akrai (Palazzolo Acreide) was founded in 664 BCE. The town was the first colony of the Corinthian settlement at Syracuse. It was rediscovered by the historian Tommaso Fazello at the end of 16th century. The early 19th century excavations by Baron Gabriele Iudica, discovered some important facts concerning the early history of eastern Sicily. UNESCO inscribed eight old towns of the Val di Noto on the World Heritage List in 2002. These towns are Caltagirone, Militello in Val di Catania, Catania, Modica, Noto, Palazzolo Acreide, Ragusa, and Scicli.

Syracuse and the Rocky Necropolis of Pantalica


Syracuse is a historic city, the capital of the province of Syracuse. It is famous for its rich Greek history, culture, amphitheatres, architecture and association to Archimedes. During ancient times, Syracuse had an important role as one of the top powers of the Mediterranean world. Syracuse is over 2,700 years old. It was founded by Ancient Greek Corinthians. Syracuse became a very powerful city-state, allied with Sparta and Corinth. Syracuse later became part of the Roman Republic and Byzantine Empire. The city is mentioned in the Bible in the Acts of the Apostles book at 28:12 as Paul stayed there. Syracuse is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site along with the Necropolis of Pantalica as "Syracuse and the Rocky Necropolis of Pantalica". The Necropolis of Pantalica is a large necropolis containing over 5000 tombs dating from the 13th to the 7th centuries BC. The necropolis is situated in the valleys of the rivers Anapo and Calcinara, between the towns of Ferla and Sortino in south-eastern Sicily. During the first half of the 13th century BC, with the arrival of the Sicils and other Italian peoples, the indigenous population abandoned the coastal settlements and took refuge in the hills. According to ancient accounts, the king Hiblon Megara Hyblaea founded Megara Hyblaea in the year 728 BC. However, the expansion of Syracuse brought the kingdom to its end. The city of Acres was founded in 664 BC. The vestiges of that period are Palazzo del Principe or Anaktoron, and the necropolis with 5000 tombs in small artificial caves excavated in the rock.

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History

History of Sicily
World Europe Countries Italy Regions Sicily Local Guide History

The first inhabitants of Sicily were three groups of the ancient peoples of Italy, the most important of them being the Sicani, who supposedly arrived from the Iberian Peninsula. When the Elymians joined the Sicanians, and settled in the north-west corner of the island, the Sicanians moved across eastwards. The Sicels came from mainland Italy in 1200 BC urging the Sicanians to move back across Sicily and settle in the middle of the island. The Phoenicians also inhabited Sicily before the arrival of Greeks. The Greeks began to colonize Sicily from about from about 750 BC. They founded many important settlements, Syracuse being the most important. The Hellenic culture quickly assimilated the native peoples and the area became part of Magna Graecia. As religion, politics on Sicily was intertwined with that of Greece. Athens wanted Syracuse. However, Syracuse allied with Sparta and Corinth and defeated Athens. A large part of Sicily ended up under Greek Syracuse control, while a few Carthaginian colonies were located in the far west of the island. The two cultures clashed, and the Greek Punic Wars began. Rome intervened in the First Punic War, and defeated Carthage and Sicily had become the first Roman province outside of the Italian Peninsula by 242 BC. During the Second Punic War Carthage tried to take Sicily from the Roman Empire, but failed. Sicily was very important to the Romans since it was the empire's granary. The Romans divided Sicily into two quaestorships in the form of Syracuse to the east and Lilybaeum to the west. Although the Emperor Augustus tried to introduce the Latin language to the island, Sicily was allowed to keep the Greek culture. Christianity first appeared in Sicily after A.D. 200, and by A.D. 313 many Sicilians became martyrs such as Agatha, Christina, Lucy, and Euplius. Over the next two centuries, Christianity grew rapidly in Sicily. Sicily was a Roman province for around 700 years in total. During the fall of the Roman Empire, the Vandals took Sicily in A.D. 440. However,the Ostrogoths conquered Sicily and the whole of Italy. Their leader Theodoric the Great wanted to revive Roman culture and government and allowed freedom of religion. The Gothic War arose between the Ostrogoths and the Eastern Roman Empire, and Sicily was taken by Eastern Emperor Justinian I, and used as a base for the Byzantines to conquer the rest of Italy. However, a new Ostrogoth king Totila, retook Sicily in 550, but was killed in the Battle of Taginae by the Byzantine general Narses in 552. In 535, Emperor Justinian I made Sicily a Byzantine province. In 652, the Arab forces invaded Sicily. In 661, Byzantine Emperor Constans II launched an assault from Sicily against the Lombard Duchy of Benevento. The Emperor Constans was assassinated in 668. His son Constantine IV succeeded him. Euphemius the commander of the Byzantines killed his wife in Sicily and forced a nun to marry him in 826. However, Emperor Michael II ordered the general Constantine to end the marriage and cut off Euphemius' head. Euphemius rebelled, killed Constantine and then occupied Syracuse, but was defeated and driven out to North Africa. There he offered Sicily to Ziyadat Allah the Aghlabid Emir of Tunisia in return for safety. The Arab conquest was met with much resistance. It took them over a century, but Sicily was eventually conquered by Arabs in 965. Under Arab rule, productivity and the growth of smallholdings increased, and irrigation systems were improved. Throughout Arab reign, Byzantine Sicilians continuously revolted. The native Christians were allowed to practise their religion, but were forced to pay Jizya in lieu of Zakat, which Muslims paid, to their rulers. The Emirate of Sicily was shaken by intra-dynastic quarreling. By the 11th century, Roger I conquered Sicily from the Arabs. In 1091 Sicily came under Norman control. Roger II of Sicily founded the Kingdom of Sicily in 1130. The Kingdom of Sicily was prosperous and politically powerful, becoming one of the wealthiest states in all of Europe. After a century the Norman Hauteville dynasty died out, and the crown of Sicily passed on to the Hohenstaufen dynasty who were Germans from Swabia. Conflict between the Hohenstaufen house and the Papacy caused Pope Innocent IV crowning Angevin Dynasty duke Charles I as the king of both Sicily and Naples in 1266. The French mistreatment and taxation caused Sicilians to rise up, leading in 1282 to an insurrection known as the War of the Sicilian Vespers, during which almost the entire French population on the island was killed. During the war the Sicilians turned to Peter III of the Kingdom of Aragon for suppor, who gained control of Sicily. The wars continued until the peace of Caltabellotta in 1302. Sicily was an independent kingdom ruled by relatives of the kings of Aragon until 1409. Afterwards, it was part of the Crown of Aragon. In 1492, the Spanish Inquisition forced Ferdinand II to expel every single Jew from Sicily. In both 1542 and 1693, the island was hit by earthquakes. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 assigned Sicily to the House of Savoy. However, this lasted only seven years since it was exchanged with the island of Sardinia with Emperor Charles VI of the Austrian Habsburg Dynasty. The Bourbon prince Charles from Spain conquered Sicily and Naples. Sicily at first was an independent kingdom under personal union. However, the Naples was taken at the Battle of Campo Tenese, and Bonapartist Kings of Naples were instated. Ferdinand III the Bourbon was forced to retreat to Sicily. Sicily joined the Napoleonic Wars, after which Sicily and Naples formally merged as the Two Sicilies under the Bourbons. The 1848 revolution against Bourbon rule resulted in a period of independence for Sicily. In 1860 Sicily became part of the Kingdom of Italy as part of the risorgimento. Garibaldi's conquest started at Marsala and ended with the Siege of Gaeta where the final Bourbons were expelled and Garibaldi announced his dictatorship in the name of Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia. The Mafia's influence started to grow in the late 19th century. However, the Fascist regime supressed them in the 1920s with considerable success. In WWII, the Allies invaded Sicily starting on July 10, 1943. They revitalised the Mafia to aid them. Italy became a Republic in 1946 and Sicily was one of the five regions with special status as an autonomous region.
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Local Guide

Local Guide to Trentino-Alto Adige


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Trentino-Alto Adige/Sdtirol Local Guide

This is the northernmost region of Italy and comes the closest to the image of Alpine paradise - white glistening forests, frozen waterfalls, and ski slopes. Picturesque villages set in deep valleys hold the treasures of the Ladin culture that are displayed during Christmas markets. This region comprises of the two provinces of Trentino and Alto Adige (Sdtirol). Each of these two provinces is autonomous, and has its own taxes and takes care of its towns, infrastructure and wilderness. The provinces are formally trilingual in Italian, German, and Ladin. However, traditionally, Trentino has always been Italian-speaking, whereas two thirds of the population in Alto Adige speak German.

Geography
The region of Trentino-Alto Adige is bordered by Tyrol to the north, by Graubnden to the north-west and by the regions of Lombardy and Veneto to the west and south, respectively. It covers 13,607 km, and is very mountainous, since it covers a significant portion of the Dolomites and the southern Alps. The Autonomous Province of Bolzano covers 7,400 km2 of mountainous land with vast forests. It borders on Lombardy in the west, Trento in the south and Veneto in the east. The climate is of the continental type. In the city of Bolzano the average air temperature is 12.2 C. The Autonomous Province of Trento has an area of 6,207 km2, also most of it mountainous land and covered by forests. The climate varies throughout the province from an alpine climate to subcontinental one. The region has always been attractive to tourists, in winter for skiing and in summer for trekking the wide valleys and many lakes.

History
In 15BC the Romans conquered the area known today as the region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Sdtirol. When the Western Roman Empire fell, the region was divided between the German tribes in the Lombard Duchy of Tridentum, the Alamannic Vinschgau and the Bavarians. When Charlemagne created the Kingdom of Italy, the Marquisate of Verona included the areas south of Bolzano, while the remaining part was given to Duchy of Bavaria. Starting from the 11th century, the prince-bishops of Trento and Brixen governed over part of the region. The rest was part of the County of Tyrol and County of Grz, which controlled the Pustertal. The regions situated north of Salorno were mostly germanized during the early Middle Ages. The two Bishoprics were secularized by the Treaty of Luneville of 1803 and given to the Habsburgs, while two years later, the region was given to Bavaria. The area was split between Austria and the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy with the Treaty of Paris in February 1810. In 1815 the region returned to Austria. During WWI, some major battles between Austro-Hungarian and Italian Alpini were fought in the Alps and Dolomites. Italian troops occupied the area in 1918 and the post-war treaties awarded the region to Italy under the terms of the Treaty of Saint-Germain. Under Benito Mussolini Alto Adige/Sdtirol was subjected to Italianization which caused the region being referred to as Venezia Tridentina between 1919 and 1947. In 1938 Hitler and Mussolini agreed that the German-speaking population would be transferred to German-ruled territory or dispersed around Italy. Although WWII started, the relocation was carried out and only with great difficulties the relocated people returned home after the end of the war. In 1943 the region was occupied by Germany. It was actually annexed to the German Reich the Nazi regime ended and Italian rule was restored in 1945. In 1946 Italy and Austria negotiated an agreement. It was put into effect in 1947 when a new Italian constitution was promulgated. Both German and Italian were made official languages. Between 1947 and 1972 the region was called Trentino-Alto Adige/Tiroler Etschland. Neither the German-speaking population nor the Austrian government did not receive the implementation of the agreement well, which became the cause of significant friction between the two countries and was taken up by the United Nations in 1960. 1961 negotiations were unsuccessful. In 1971 a new Austro-Italian treaty was signed and ratified. This treaty stipulated that disputes in the province of Bolzano-Bozen would be submitted for settlement to the International Court of Justice in The Hague, that the province would receive greater autonomy within Italy, and that Austria would not interfere in Bolzano-Bozen's internal affairs.

Economy and Politcs


The valleys of Trentino-Alto Adige/Sdtirol are used for wine, fruit, dairy products and timber production. The region's industries include paper, chemical and metal production. Trentino-Alto Adige/Sdtirol is a major exporter of hydroelectric power. The strength of tourism and the special system of co-operation between agriculture and industry provide basis of the region's economy. Trento is the regional capital. The region is divided into two autonomous provinces: Province of Trento (or Trentino), and Province of Bolzano-Bozen (or Alto Adige/Sdtirol). As the result of the Gruber-De Gasperi Agreement, both provinces are autonomous. The special Status of autonomy was approved by the constitutional law in 1948. This Status gave the Region of Trentino Alto Adige the right of elaborating its own laws and to carry out relative administrative functions. In 1972, the introduction of the second Status of autonomy meant the transfer of the main competences from the Region to the two provinces of Bolzano and Trento.
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Local Guide

Local Guide to Tuscany


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Tuscany Local Guide

The Italian region of Tuscany is famous for its recognizable landscape of rolling hills, vast green plains, Chianti vineyards, gastronomy, and for its great historic and artistic heritage. The capital of the region is Florence, the historical centre of which is included among UNESCO protected sites in 1982. Other UNESCO protected sites in Tuscany include the historical center of Siena (1995), the square of the Cathedral of Pisa (1987), the historical center of San Gimignano (1990), the historical center of Pienza (1996) and the Val d'Orcia (2004).

A view of Tuscan town of San Gimignano.


(Photo by: unknown)

History
During late second millennium BC, the territory of Tuscany was inhabited by peoples of the so-called Apennine culture. These peoples had traded with the Minoan and Mycenaean civilisations in the Aegean Sea. The Villanovan culture later appeared in the area, which was, as the rest of Etruria, taken over by chiefdoms. City-states developed in the late Villanovan period before the rise of the Etruscan civilisation rose.

Etruscan sculpture.
(Photo by: unknown)

The Etruscans were the first major civilization in the area. They set up a transport infrastructure, implemented agriculture and mining, and produced vibrant art. They inhabited the area between the Arno River and Tiber River from the eighth century, and reached their peak during the seventh century BC and sixth century BC. The Etruscan civilization was finally taken over by the Romans by the first century. Throughout their existence, the Etruscans were not able to keep their entire territory which was lost to Magna Graecia, Carthage and Gaul. One of the reasons the Etruscan civilization fell was the significant increasing absorption by surrounding cultures, such as the adoption of the Etruscan upper class by the Romans. Not long after absorbing Etruria, Roman Empire established the cities of Lucca, Pisa, Siena, and Florence. Romans also introduced new technologies and development, and ensured peace. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the fifth century and the region was left to the likes of Goths, and other peoples. In the sixth century, the Longobards designated Lucca the capital of their Duchy of Tuscia. During the medieval period, pilgrims travelling between Rome and France brought wealth and development. Because they required food and shelter, new communities grew around churches and taverns. The conflict between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, factions supporting the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire during the 12th and 13th centuries, divided the Tuscan people. This caused several powerful and rich medieval communes to rise in Tuscany. These were Arezzo, Florence, Lucca, Pisa, and Siena. However, by the renaissance, Florence had become the cultural heart of the region. The region of Tuscany is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance movement, with an enormous artistic heritage that includes architecture, painting and sculpture. This is collected in museums in towns and cities across Tuscany. During the 1400s, the Medicis, the ruling family of the city of Florence, annexed surrounding land thus creating modern Tuscany. As a result of the War of Polish Succession in the 1730s, Tuscany was transferred from the Medicis to Francis, Duke of Lorraine and Holy Roman Emperor. However, when Napoleon dissoluted the Holy Roman Empire, the region was inherited by the Austrian Empire as successor to the Holy Roman Empire. During the 1850s and the Italian Wars of Independence, Tuscany was transferred from Austria to the newly unified nation of Italy. When Benito Mussolini arose to power, the region was dominated by the local National Fascist Party leader Dino Perrone Compagni. After Mussolini's fall and the re-establishment of the Kingdom of Italy, in the northern regions of Italy the Italian Social Republic was established. When the Social Republic met its end, and the dawn of the modern Italian Republic, Tuscany once more became the cultural center of Italy.

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Local Guide

Geography and Climate


The region of Tuscany has a roughly triangular shape and is situated between the Tyrrhenian Sea, its northern part, and the central Apennines. The region has an area of 22,993 square kilometres, and its terrain is hilly and surrounded with mountain chains and fertile plains. Mountains cover 25% of the total area, whereas plains cover a mere 8.4% of the total area. The rest, 66.5% of the total area, is covered with hills. Tuscan coastline measures more than 300 kilometres in length and features rocky coasts interchanging with long stretches of beaches decorated with pinewoods. The 300 sq.km of the archipelagos islands also make up part of the territory. The climate of the region is mild in the coastal area, while the interior has more harsh and rainy climate with significant fluctuations between summer and winter temperatures.

Government and Economy


The region is a stronghold of the center-left Democratic Party. Tuscany together Emilia-Romagna, Umbria and Marche forms the political "Red Quadrilateral". Administratively, the region of Tuscany is divided into ten provinces: Province of Arezzo, Province of Florence, Province of Grosseto, Province of Livorno, Province of Lucca, Province of Massa-Carrara, Province of Pisa, Province of Pistoia, Province of Prato, and Province of Siena.
Catherina de Medici, married Prince Henry of France.

The Tuscan subsoil is rich in iron ore, copper, mercury and lignite mines, soffioni (fumarole) at Larderello and marble mines in Versilia. Although its significance is decreasing, agriculture still contributes to the economy of Tuscany. Cereals, potatoes, olives and grapes are still grown in Tuscan inland, whereas the swamplands now produce vegetables, rice, tobacco, beets and sunflowers. Since every Tuscan town and city is significantly rich in architectural beauty, there is a constant influx of visitors throughout the year to Tuscany. As a result, the service sector became important to the region's economy.

Gastronomy
Tuscan gastronomy includes everything from fish, through soups, to meat. Some of the famous Tuscan dishes are the Finocchiona (aromatised pork), Livornos caciucco (fish soup), the Pisan ce (new-born eel), soppressata, prosciutto ham, ribollita soup, bean and lard soup or spelt soup, including the pasta dishes such as pappardelle pasta with hare rag, tomato pappa, black rice. There is also the tasty Florentine steak and the mixed roast, and the desserts like cenci, panforte and cantucci. Tuscany is well known for its wines, most notably the Chianti, Brunello di Montalcino and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano as well as the white Vernaccia di San Gimignano. Chianti can be inexpensive but drinkable wine, but at its best it is Chianti Classico, a world class wine. The wines of Montalcino and Montepulciano are of high quality, particularly Brunello, which regularly receives awards and is priced accordingly. Rosso di Montalcino and Rosso di Montepulciano are there for those who do not wish to pay a rather large amount of money for a bottle of wine.

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Local Guide

Local Guide to Umbria


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Umbria Local Guide

If you look for the traditonal spirit of Italy, come to Umbria. Known as "the green heart of Italy", this beautiful region conveys centuries-old traditons, countryside of vibrant colours and rolling hills, and medieval towns that have not changed since the time of their establishment. The region's capital Perugia offers everything that one expects from proper university town - bustling streets and a lively nightlife. Whereas Assissi, home to St. Francis, one of Christianity's most beloved saints, is perhaps the region's most beautiful mountain town. Umbria also seduces with its food and wine, enriched with the strong scents of the truffles.

Geography
Umbria is a region located in central Italy. It is bordered by Tuscany to the west, the Marche to the east and Lazio to the south. umbria's terrain is mostly hilly or mountainous. The highest point in the region is at Monte Vettore on the border of the Marche (2,476 m), while the lowest point is at Attigliano (96 m). Umbria is the only region in Italy which is both landlocked and has no common border with other countries. The Tiber's course has been changeable. For that reason few towns have been built on it, and the river has not been a major factor in the history of Umbria. However, that cannot be said of the Tiber's three principal tributaries. The Chiascio flows through relatively uninhabited areas until Bastia Umbra. The Topino makes a sharp turn at Foligno and joins the Chiascio below Bettona. The third river is the Nera that flows into the Tiber at Terni. Its valley, the Valnerina, is considered to be the most scenic area of Umbria. The Nera flows isolated in the mountains, whereas the lower course of the Chiascio-Topino basin is a fairly large floodplain, which used to be a pair of shallow lakes, the Lacus Clitorius and the Lacus Umber. They were drained by the Romans, but a 4th century earthquake and the fall of the Roman Empire resulted in the reflooding of the basin. The basin was again drained over five hundred years, starting from the 13th century by the Benedictines, and it was completed by an engineer from Foligno in the 18th century.

History
The region was named after the Umbri tribe, who inhabited the region in the 6th century BC. In 672 BC the town of Terni (Interamna) was founded. Archaeological evidence shows the Umbri probably created the Terramara, as well as the Villanovan culture in northern and central Italy. The Etruscans were the major enemies of the Umbri, invading from the western seaboard towards the north and east between from about 700 and 500 BC. In the end, they drove the Umbrians towards the Apenninic uplands and captured 300 Umbrian towns. When the Etruscans fell, Umbrians tried to help the Samnites in their fight against Rome. However, these attempts impeded by the Roman fortress of Narni, so at Sentinum (295 BC), the Umbrians did not actually help the Samnites. Following the victory at Sentium, the Roman rulers established some colonies and built the via Flaminia. In 40 BC, during the Roman civil war between Mark Antony and Octavian, Perugia supported Antony and Octavian almost completely destroyed it. Umbria during Roman times extended through most of what is now the northern Marche, to Ravenna, except the west bank of the Tiber. Ostrogoths and Byzantines struggled for the rule over Umbria. The Lombards founded the Duchy of Spoleto. After Charlemagne conquered most of the Lombard kingdoms, some Umbrian territories were given to the Pope. Some cities became the comuni, and often waged war with each other. The signorie arose in the 14th century, but were subsumed into the Papal States. After the French Revolution, the region became part of the ephemeral Roman Republic (17891799) and of the Napoleonic Empire (18091814). When Napoleon was defeated, the Pope regained Umbria until 1860. Umbria was incorporated in the Kingdom of Italy after the Risorgimento and the Piedmontese expansion. In 1927 the borders of Umbria were fixed when the province of Terni was created and the province of Rieti incoroporated in Lazio.

Economy and Politics


Umbria's current economic structure developed under the influence of a series of transformations which occurred during the 1970s and 1980s when small and medium-sized firms boomed. Umbrian agriculture is based upon tobacco, olive oil and vineyards. The food industry produces processed pork, confectionery, pasta and the traditional products such as truffles, lentils, and cheese. The other Umbrian industries are textiles, clothing, sportswear, iron and steel, chemicals and ornamental ceramics. Umbria is known as a stronghold of the center-left coalition The Union. Umbria with Tuscany, Emilia-Romagna and Marche forms the Italian political "Red Quadrilateral". The region of Umbria is divided in two provinces: Province of Perugia, and Province of Terni.

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Local Guide to Veneto

Local Guide to Veneto


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Veneto Local guide

Veneto is one of the wealthiest and most diverse regions of Italy, situated in the northeast of the country. The Veneto region comprises of contrasting landscapes of mountains and plains with marshy areas, combining their natural beauty with a number of historically significant sites. The area also includes Lake Garda, Italy's largest lake. The hills are known worldwide for their ski and spa resorts as well as for the production of fine wines, while the lowlands feature the famous historic cities of Verona, Padua, Treviso and Vicenza. Perhaps the most celebrated city of the Veneto region is its capital Venice. Veneto's variety of natural and cultural heritage makes it the most visited region of Italy. With around 60 million tourists anually, Veneto region is one of the most visited destinations in Europe. Despite becoming one of the poorest regions in Italy after being heavily destroyed during the World War II, Veneto recovered in the post-war period and developed into a region known world-wide for its vital economy and continuously growing Gross Domestic Product. In 2000 Veneto was ranked 5th Italian region in terms of per capita GDP. Veneto is a leading region in wealth and productivity, successful in keeping high employment levels. It also provides around 14% of national exports. The "Veneto model" has become an international example of economic development. It is export-oriented and characterized by small to medium-sized enterprises, internalization of markets, flexibility and adaptability, quick response to the demands of foreign markets, and a wide range of traditional products Veneto's Dolomites. combined with advanced technologies. Veneto has become one of (Photo by: ilviale) the most industrialized regions of Italy, especially during the last decade of the 20th century. Industrial complexes were built mostly in the plains, transforming the appearance of the surrounding landscape. The main production sector is manufacturing, which comprises a large number of specialized sectors. Some of the most important are textile, clothing and footwear, woodworking, metal-engineering and the building industry sectors. An interesting feature of Veneto economy are the "industrial clusters", areas of concentrated enterprises specialized in similar products. Examples of such clusters include enterprises specialized in marble processing, heating system technologies, Murano glass, jewellery, confectionery, sunglasses, shoes and artistic furniture. the region has a long tradition of fine craftsmanship, so a lot of attention is being paid to artisan production. The region's agriculture is almost equally important, and is among the most specialized in the country. It is characterized by small and medium-sized landholdings and led by the livestock sector. Veneto is Italy's leading producer of quality wines. Other important products include meat, dairy, fish and seafood, maize, sugar beet, fruit and vegetables. The agriculture is mixed and features the phenomenon of part-time farming: industrial workers cultivate their land after a working day. Agriculture of the Veneto region has progressed significantly during the past few decade, but still needs further modernization. Other significant economic sectors include tourism.

Position and Climate


Veneto lies between the Dolomites and the Adriatic Sea, bordering Austria and the Italian regions of Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Trentino-Alto Adige, Lombardy and Emilia-Romagna. It is situated on a strategic position between the Mediterranean and northern and eastern Europe. It covers 18 391 km2 and is divided into seven provinces: Venice, Belluno, Treviso, Padua, Verona, Rovigo and Vicenza. Veneto is the 8th largest region of Italy. Veneto's diverse topography includes mountainous areas of the Dolomites, river plains, and sandy beaches and lagoons along the coastline. These geographic differences are the cause for various climates distributed through the region, from the mild climate along the Adriatic coast to the especially harsh winters in the high Alps. The morphology of the region consists of seven zones: the upper and the lower plain; the Alpine, Prealpine and Subalpine zones, the Po delta and the lagoon systems. Veneto region is crossed by important rivers: Brenta, Piave, Livenza, Tagliamento, Po and Adige-the latter two being the longest rivers in Italy. Veneto's largest Lake is Lake Garda and its highest mountain is Monte Antelao.

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Local Guide to Veneto

The great differences between climates of the Veneto region vary from the very cold winters and fresh summers in the high Alps, where temperatures can be as low as -35C, to the wide range of temperatures in the lowlands. The climate is continental on the plains and mild along the coastline, with a constant high level of humidity . causing abundant rainfall and thick fog during the autumn and winter. In the mountains, snow is commonly abundant. The highest values of precipitation are recorded in the Bellunese Prealps and on the Asiago plateau.

Mountains of Veneto.
(Photo by: ilviale)

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Gastronomy and Drinks of Veneto

Gastronomy and Drinks of Veneto


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Veneto Local Guide Gastronomy and Drinks

Cuisine of the Veneto region is characterized by a variety of recipes based on simple ingredients such as seasonal vegetables, fish, fresh and cured meat and of course the essential olive oil. Rice is widely used in combination with all sorts of ingredients, especially peas, meat and seafood, for making the famous Veneto risottos. The most popular are risi e bisi - with fresh peas, and risi e figadini - with chicken livers. Polenta, gnocchi and thick vegetable soups are among the most common regional dishes. Veneto's most characteristic vegetables are radicchio, beans, spinach, pumpkin, zucchini and the famous white asparagus. Bigoli is a special sort of long, fresh pasta that resembles spaghetti but has a hole in the middle. It is often served with salsa. Chicken, veal and pork meat are also widely used in the region's cuisine. The fine quality prosciutto is a well known Veneto delicacy, as well as richly-flavoured cheeses such as Grana Padano, Monte Veronese, Asiago and Piave cheese. Dried and salted cod fish, Baccala, is also worth mentioning; it is a widely served Veneto specialty that can be prepared and consumed in a variety of manners. Fish-based dishes include many kinds of seafood, among which the most popular are shell-fish, eels, clams, shrimps and mussels. Veneto has specialized in producing excellent pastries and sweets. Some of the best known are the bussolai, baicoli and mandolato. The region is also the home of tiramisu, the famous Italian dessert originating from the city of Treviso. One of the most renowned products of Veneto are its fine wines. It is a leading wine-producing region of Italy and contains some of the country's most modernised wineries. The characteristic regional climate allows a great Tiramisu diversity of grape sorts to be grown here, featuring both original Italian and (Photo by: vata) foreign grape varieties. Authentic Veneto wines include Soave, Bardolino, Amarone, Valpolicella, Garganega and Prosecco, while French and German grape sorts are used for making some of the most famous foreign wines, such as Chardonnay, Pinot, Merlot, Cabernet and Riesling. The town of Bassano di Grappa is home to the famous fragrant brandy called Grappa, which is produced in significant quantities throughout the region. It is made by distilling grape husks left over after the winemaking process. Grappa is one of the best-loved local drinks, so it is both produced and consumed with special care. The skill and importance of local winemaking is presented along the Strada del Prosecco ("Prosecco Wine Route") which runs from Conegliano to Valdobbiadene, featuring numerous wineries, trattorias and wine cellars, while the city of Verona is home to Vinitaly, the most important Italian wine fair.

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Sights in Belluno

Sights in Belluno
World Europe Countries Italy Regions Veneto Local Guide Sights in Belluno

San Martino Cathedral


One of Belluno's most important attractions. The Cathedral was built in the beginning of the 16th century on the site of an earlier religious edifice, which is believed to be early-Christian and dating from 548. The design of the cathedral is attributed to the Venetian architect Tullio Lombardo. Although the facade was never finished, the structure was subsequently rebuilt; during the 17th and the 18th centuries it was adorned by the city's bishops, and today it incorporates architectural elements of Renaissance and Baroque style. Fragments of a pluteus and pillars dating from the 9th and the 10th centuries can be seen on the facade. A 66 metres high bell tower, or "campanile", was built between 1732 and 1743 by Filippo Juvarra. The cathedral was badly damaged after the 1873 earthquake, but the campanile remained preserved. Highlights of the cathedral include the 14th-century altars - the Azzoni altar is kept inside the bell tower and the Avoscano altar is situated in the crypt; works of Jacopo da Ponte, Andrea Meldolla, Cesare Vecellio, Gaspare Diziani and others are displayed inside the cathedral. Nearby is the baptistry featuring a font cover decorated with a carved figure of John the Baptist by Andrea Brustolon.

Palazzo dei Rettori


Belluno's cathedral.

The most elegant building in Belluno dates from 1491. This refined Renaissance structure incorporates some of the Baroque architectural elemets and is situated north of Piazza del Duomo. Its loggias, mullioned windows and arcades are typical for the Venetian Renaissance. It used to serve as the home of Belluno's Venetian rulers, and today it houses the Prefecture.

(Photo by: wikipedia)

Museo Civico
Belluno's Civic Museum was established in 1873 and opened to the public in 1876. It is housed in the 17th-century building of the College of Jurists. Founding of the museum was based on two important donations to the town - 32 paintings provided by a physician Antonio Gianpiccoli and a numismatic and bronze collection as well as books and manuscripts, donated by Carlo Miari, son of the count who previously owned the mentioned collections. Over the years, the museum has continuously expanded thanks to further donations by Belluno's residents. A variety of items was added to the museum's collection, including ancient finds from the Cavarzano Necropolis, remains of the frescoes found in the ruined building of the Council of Noblemen, various Roman relics, items found in churches and ancient buildings, as well as the heraldry of Belluno's prominent families and town rulers. The museum's archaeological collection was scientifically organized by Rodolfo Protti in 1909. After some of the items were lost following the First World War, the museum was twice subsequently rearranged and reopened - in 1960 and in 1980. Donations from the residents of Belluno continued and further enriched the museum's collection, together with the works purchased by the Municipality and the items excavated during archaeological research. Following the expansion of its collection, the museum saw the need for additional space. New rooms were opened, including the Sebastiano Ricci Gallery, the Zambelli Collection Room and the Prehistory Hall. The Museum's Archaeologic Section features artefacts of prehistoric cultures from the area of Belluno province, dating from the Middle Palaeolithic to the Bronze Age, remains of the area's ancient Venetic culture as well as Roman and early Mediaeval finds. The Picture Gallery contains important paintings by local artists, dating from the 15th to the 20th century. The most notable among them are the works of Bartolomeo Montagna, Sebastiano Ricci, Domenico Tintoretto and Alessandro Longhi. The sculpture collection features works by Andrea Brustolon, valentino Panciera Besarel and Augusto Murer. Other items include 17th to 20th-century drawings and engravings, jewelry, carpets and China pottery. A special feature of the museum is the "Chiaroscuro" program of using tactile reproductions of paintings in order to make art accessible to the blind.

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Sights in Belluno

Piazza del Mercato


A small square situated north of the Civic Museum, on the site of an ancient Roman forum. The Piazza del Mercato is considered Belluno's finest square and its most characteristic mediaeval and Renaissance section; this harmonious spot is bordered by beautiful porticoed palaces dating from the Renaissance period, decorated with arcades. The square also features a typical Belluno-style fountain dating from 1410. The "Porta Dojona" or the Dojona Gate can be seen nearby.

Piazza dei Martiri


The grand Martyrs' Square is the town's main square; it represents the center of the modern Belluno. The Piazza contains many of the town's most popular cafes and bars and is a popular meeting place of Belluno residents. It features a long pavement called "Liston", beautiful gardens and porticoed edifices built between the 16th and the 20th century, which reflect the typical Venetian architecture. The square is favoured by the locals as a place for socializing and relaxation.

Chiesa di Santo Stefano


St. Stephen's church of Belluno is one of the most important town monuments. The church was completed in 1486 and represents a beautiful example of Italian Gothic architecture. Its most notable features are the magnificent portal, Flavio Ostilio's Roman sarcophagus and several paintings by local artists dating from the 15th century, including Cesare Vecellio's masterpiece the Meeting Between Abraham and Melchisedech and the Adoration of the Magi from Titian's workshop.

Piazza dei Martiri.


(Photo by: wikipedia)

Castello di Zumelle
A medieval castle built atop a hill overlooking the historic city of Mel, surrounded by the beautiful scenery of the Dolomite Alps. The site was in use as a military fortification since the Roman times. In 46 AD Emperor Claudius built a sentinel tower there and later expanded it with a military camp for his troops. The castle was built in the 6th century, during the reign of Theodoric the Great; according to the legend, the builder of the castle, Genseric, had two sons and named the structure "Castrum Zumellarum" or Twins Castle, after them. The castle was damaged and reconstructed many times over the centuries, but has never been conquered. At the end of the 19th century it was abandoned and started to fall into disuse. Zumelle Castle is nevertheless the best preserved . fortress of the Belluno province, due to the quality of its structure and careful restorations. Today it is the property of the Comune of Mel which takes care of its preservation, and is open for visitors. The castle's rooms have been reconstructed in the mediaeval style; it also features a museum and an atmospheric inn.

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Sights in Padua

Sights in Padua
World Europe Countries Italy Regions Veneto Local Guide Sights in Padua

Here are the most interesting sites and monuments to see when visiting the city of Padua and its province.

Capella degli Scrovegni


A barrel-vaulted Gothic church built in 1303 by the wealthy banker Enrico Scrovegni. It is believed by some that he had the church constructed out of guilt for his dead father's sins, hoping that they would both be spared from the damnation in hell.Due to its position on the site of a Roman arena, it is often called the "Arena Chapel".The chapel contains Enrico's tomb and a magnificent fresco cycle painted between 1303 and 1305 by famous Italian painter and architect Giotto di Bondone. The fresco depicts scenes from the life of Christ and the life of Mary. It is regarded as one of the most important masterworks of Western art and even considered by many as one of the world's most important fresco cycles.

The famous Scrovegni Chapel, Padua's most notable landmark, containing an important fresco cycle by Giotto.
(Photo by: molarade)

The Duomo (Cathedral) and Baptistry

The first building on the site was constructed in 313 after the Edict of Milan. After being destroyed in an earthquake in 1117, the cathedral was rebuilt in the Romanesque style. The current structure, built on the foundations of the medieval cathedral, was partly designed by Michelangelo and built from 1552 to 1577. The cathedral contains works by Giorgio Schiavone, Nicolo Semitecolo and Francesco Bassano, but even more important is the brick-built domed Baptistry, situated at the north-east corner of the cathedral and dedicated to St. John the Baptist. The construction of the Baptistry started in 1075 and it was consecrated in 1281. It houses an extensive cycle of colorful frescoes painted by Giusto de' Menabuoi between 1375 and 1378. The magnificent frescoes depict biblical scenes from the Creation of the World to the Resurrection of Jesus.

Palazzo della Ragione


The "Palace of Reason", Padua's most important palace, is a medieval town hall building, located between the historic marketplaces of Piazza delle Erbe and Piazza della Frutta. The Palazzo was constructed from 1172 to 1219 as law court and council chamber of Padua to celebrate the city's independence as a republican city. Today it serves as an exhibition and conference hall.The building originally had three chambers and three roofs which were decorated with frescoes painted by Giotto. From 1306 to 1309 Fra Giovanni degli Eremitani made some changes to the original structure. He covered the building with one roof and added the Salone porticoes. The inner walls which divided the chambers were removed after the fire of 1420. Giotto's frescoes were destroyed in the fire and the Palazzo underwent extensive restoration work. The reconstructed walls were decorated with a cycle of 333 frescoes painted by Nicolo Miretto from 1420 to 1425. His intriguing panels, similar to those that had been painted by Giotto, depict the months of the year with zodiac signs and seasonal activities. Palazzo della Ragione now has the largest undivided medieval hall in Europe. The 80 m long, 27 m wide and 27 m high great hall is situated on the upper floor and covered by Europe's largest roof unsupported by columns.The palace also features a 14th-century loggia designed by Palladio, a 1466 wooden horse statue - copy of Donatello's Gattamelata and a 13th-century "Stone of Shame", where debtors who were unable to pay off their debts were forced to sit in their underwear and to renounce their possessions before being banished from Padua.

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Sights in Padua

Caffe Pedrocchi
A historic cafe designed by the famous architect Giuseppe Jappelli and built from 1826 to 1831. It is Padua's most famous coffee house and one of the biggest cafes in the world. The cafe is housed in a beautiful neoclassical building resembling a classical temple.The first floor, piano nobile, was designed for grand parties and balls of the high society. Its elaborately decorated rooms reflect various fashionable styles, such as Egyptian, Moorish, Greek and Roman. It also features the Museo del Risorgimento, a small museum documenting modern Italian history.Caffe Pedrocchi has always been popular as a place for literary and social meetings. It is widely renowned for having been the meeting place of scholars, intelectuals and artists since . its opening in 1831, but also as the centre of the 1848 Padua riots, when Daniele Manin plotted against the Austrians together with other Risorgimento leaders. Some of the famous artists who frequently visited the cafe were the French novelist Stendhal and the English poet Lord Byron.

Orto Botanico di Padova


Founded in 1545 on the land owned by the Benedictine monks of St. Justine. The garden was established for the Medical Faculty of the University of Padua to grow simple medicinal plants with an educational purpose but also for producing natural remedies. It is the world's oldest academic botanical garden that has never been relocated and that has retained its original layout. The garden has played a significant role in medical education by enabling the students to closely examine the plants and thus helping them to distinguish real medicinal plants from the wrong and potentially harmful ones. This was an important advantage, since at that time the identification of plants was uncertain, which caused frequent mistakes that damaged people's health. It has influenced the (Photo by: wikipedia) development of various scientific disciplines in Italy and Europe, such as medicine, chemistry, ecology and pharmacy. Also, it has encouraged the botanists throughout the world to create similar plant collections. Orto Botanico is a significant centre for study and research, and in 1997 it was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site for its importance. The garden contains collections of medicinal and poisonous plants, insectivorous plants, plants of the Euganean hills, rare plants and the plants which were introduced into Italy by the Garden, as well as some very old "historic trees", such as the southern magnolia, ginkgo, Mediterranean palm and a gigantic Oriental plane tree. Besides the plant collections, it features a herbarium, an ancient library, a number of laboratories and a visitor centre.

Basilica di Sant' Antonio


The largest church in Padua, an exotic structure also known as Il Santo, was built on the site of the small church of Santa Maria Mater Domini. The Basilica was constructed to house the remains of St. Anthony of Padua. The appearance of the current structure is the result of three periods of reconstruction which were performed from about 1232 to 1310. The church of Santa Maria, where St. Anthony was originally buried according to his will, was incorporated into the Basilica and is now the Capella della Madonna Mora (Chapel of the Black Madonna).The saint's tomb is now in the Cappella di Sant' Antonio in the north aisle of the church, together with nine 16th-century marble reliefs depicting scenes from his life, carved by various artists.St. Anthony's coffin was opened in 1981, on the occasion of the 750th anniversary of his death. After being scientifically examined, some of the remains were placed back into the tomb, while some of them are kept and can be seen in the ornate baroque Cappella del Tesoro, or the Treasury Chapel, built in 1691. Perhaps the most unusual relics of St. Anthony on display are his tongue and his lower jaw, both remarkably preserved for more than 770 years. The saint's remains have made the Basilica an important pilgrimage destination. Other highlights include Donatello's artworks around the high altar - reliefs depicting St. Anthony's miracles, the statues of the Virgin, the Crucifixion and Paduan saints, as well as his famous equestrian statue of the mercenary soldier Gattamelata in front of the Basilica. Gattamelata's tomb is housed in the Gothic Cappella del Santissimo Sacramento (Chapel of the Most Holy Sacrament), completed in 1458. Also notable is the fresco masterpiece of the Crucifixion by Altichiero da Zevio in the south transept and the magnificent 1515 bronze candelabrum by Andrea Briosco. The Basilica di Sant' Antonio incorporates elements of Byzantine, Gothic, Baroque and Romanesque architecture, and its spires resemble those of Turkish minarets.

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Sights in Padua

Chiesa degli Eremitani and Museo Civico Eremitani


The Church of the Eremitani is a former Augustinian church, built from 1276 to 1306 and dedicated to St. Philip and St. James. The original roof was built in 1306 by Fra Giovanni degli Eremitani. The church was nearly destroyed during the 1944 aerial bombing, when most of the valuable frescoes were lost, and what can be seen today are the remains of the original building that have been restored after the Second World War. It contains a beautiful wooden ceiling and a number of monumental tombs, among which especially notable are the tomb of Marco Benavides by the Florentine architect Ammannati, and those of Jacopo and Ubertinelo da Carrara, lords of Padua. The chapel of St. James and St. Christopher used to be illustrated by frescoes of Andrea Mantegna, famous Italian Renaissance artist. The surviving remains of Mantegna's celebrated frescoes, the Martyrdom of St. James and the Martyrdom of St. Christopher are kept in the Cappella Ovetari. Other remaining frescoes in the church are those of Guariento and Ansuino da Forli.

University of Padua
The University of Padua is Italy's second oldest university and one of the earliest in Europe. Together with the other famous world universities, It was among the first ones to demonstrate the Gymnasium Omnium Disciplinarum educational model. It was here that Elena Lucrezia Piscopia became the world's first woman graduate when she gained her degree in Philosophy in 1678. Also, the Padua University features the 1594 elliptical Anatomy Theatre, the oldest one of its kind in the world. During the lessons, professors would dissect corpses at the autopsy table in the center of the theatre. Among the important professors who taught in this theatre was the father of the modern anatomical pathology, Giovanni Battista Morgagni. It was founded in 1222 as a student-controlled university by a group of about a thousand students and professors that left the University of Bologna in search for a greater academic freedom. From 1539, the seat of the University has been housed in the large historic building complex called the Palazzo del Bo, which was fully restored from 1938 to 1945. The complex features the Atrio degli Eroi (Atrium of Heroes), where plaques commemorating students who have died in battle are on display; the mid 16th-century Cortile Antico (Old Courtyard) by Andrea Moroni; the Sala dei 40 (Room of the Forty) with Galilei's chair, and the Aula Magna (Main Assembly Hall), a large baroque room richly decorated with coats of arms, where Galileo's desk is kept. This is the room where he used to work and teach.

Chiesa degli Eremitani.


(Photo by: wikipedia)

The protection of the Republic of Venice brought the University a certain amount of independence from the influence of the Church; this helped greatly in the development of the institution, and from the 15th to the 18th century, the Padua University became famous for its research in the areas of philosophy, astronomy, law and medicine. Since 1873, when it became one of the universities of the Kingdom of Italy, the University of Padua has been one of the leading in Italy for its scientific contributions. Besides Galileo Galilei, who taught here from 1592 until 1610, among its eminent professors and students were the poets Pietro Bembo and Torquato Tasso, and the anatomist Gabriele Fallopio, who described the Fallopian tube.

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Sights in Padua

Odeo e Loggia Cornaro


These magnificent examples of Renaissance architecture date from the early 16th century. They were designed by the famous architect Giovanni Maria Falconetto for Alvise Cornaro, a Paduan writer and a patron of arts. The buildings were built in the courtyard of Alvise Cornaro's Padua residence to serve as a place of entertainment for the Italian aristocrats. The Odeon was built with an octagonal room in the center which was used to host chamber music concerts, while theatrical performances took place in the Loggia. The buildings have recently been restored and are open for visitors.

Prato della Valle


A large oval square, one of the most famous landmarks of Padua. With its 90 000 m2 it is said to be the largest square in Italy and the second largest in Europe. It is composed of a green island with a wide garden, surrounded by a picturesque canal which is crossed by four bridges. The canal is decorated with two rows of statues representing 78 famous personalities of local art and culture. One of the statues represents Andrea Memmo, a Venetian aristocrat known as the provider of Padova, who reclaimed and reoganized the area in 1775. The square is traditionally used as a place for entertainment, and it hosts an open air market every month. Other interesting features of the square include the monumental 15th-century Palazzo Angeli where Andrea Memmo resided, which today houses a museum; a neoclassical Loggia Amulea and the benedictine Basilica of Santa Giustina. Also, excavations on the site have revealed remnants of an ancient Roman theatre.

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Sights in Rovigo

Sights in Rovigo
World Europe Countries Italy Regions Veneto Local Guide Sights in Rovigo

Chiesa della Beata Vergine del Soccorso is a late 16th-century church also known as "La Rotonda", and one of the most famous landmarks of Rovigo. The church was constructed from 1594 to 1606 by Palladio's pupil, Francesco Zamberlan of Bassano, to house an image of Madonna with Child, which is believed to be miraculous. It is an octagonal structure with a fine, 57m high bell tower designed by Baldassare Longhena. The original cupola of the church was later replaced with a simple ceiling. The interior is decorated with paintings of the 17th-century Venetian school, featuring works by prominent artists such as Andrea Celesti, Francesco Maffei, Giovanni Abriani, Pietro Vecchia and Alessandro Varotari. The church has undergone a series of restoration works and its current Baroque appearance is a result of the 1696 renovations according to the design by Frigimelica.

Chiesa della Beata Vergine del Soccorso.


(Photo by: wikipedia)

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Sights in Treviso

Sights in Treviso
World Europe Countries Italy Regions Veneto Local Guide Sights in Treviso

Here is a list of the most interesting sites located in the city and the province of Treviso in the region Veneto.

Chiesa di San Francesco


A simple high brick church built by the Franciscans from 1230 to 1270. It was built on a Latin-cross outline, and incorporates late-Romanesque architectural elements: the main entrance door and the arches of the transepts, as well as those early-Gothic, such as the windows. The interior features five chapels and a beautiful timber ceiling formed as a ship's keel and decorated as a vault of heaven. The highlights of the church include a 13th-century fresco depicting St. Christopher, a 14th-century fresco of Madonna with Child and Seven Saints by Tommaso da Modena and a painting of the Four Evangelists by his pupil. Especially interesting are the tombs of Dante Alighieri's son Pietro and Francesco Petrarca's daughter Francesca.The church was used by Napoleonic troops for some time as a stable. It was reopened in 1928.

The Duomo
A cathedral with seven domes, dedicated to St. Peter. Originally it was a small 12th-century Romanesque church, but was rebuilt many times over the centuries to its present Neoclassical appearance. The current building was constructed in the 15th and 16th centuries, and the only remaining part of the original edifice is the gate. The cathedral's most important part, the crypt dating from 1100, contains fragments of medieval frescoes. The interior features works of famous artists, such as Titian's Annunciation, the Adoration of the Magi by Il Pordenone, sculptures by Pietro and Tullio Lombardo and others. The porch of the cathedral was built in Next to the Duomo is the 11th-century Baptistery containing 13th-century Byzantine-style frescoes and a beautiful font.

Chiesa di San Nicolo


A large Dominican brick church with a vaulted timber roof and a simple interior. The church was built by the Dominicans in the late 13th and early 14th centuries and combines elements of Venetian Treviso's Piazza dei Signori. Romanesque and French Gothic architecture. Highlights of the (Photo by: wikipedia) church are the important fresco cycle by Tommaso da Modena in the Chapter Hall of the former Dominican monastery, Santo Peranda's Glorious Mysteries, the Madonna Enthroned by Fra Marco Pensaben, the tomb of Senator Agostino Oningo by Pietro and Tullio Lombardi, an organ by Gaetano Callido and a fresco of St. Cristopher.

Piazza dei Signori


A square with a street on one side and a row of cafes on the other. The square is regarded as a symbol of Treviso and is dominated by the Palazzo dei Trecento, a rebuilt 13-th century town hall, the former seat of the town's Great Council. The external stairway leads into the first floor hall which contains 15th and 16th-century sculptures that have been preserved after the 1944 bombings. The square also features the Palazzo del Podesta with the Torre del Comune.

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Sights in Verona

Sights in Verona
World Europe Countries Italy Regions Veneto Local Guide Sights in Verona

Verona is one of the most important historical and artistic cities in Italy, and there are several elements of figurative arts and architecture that are worth mentioning.

Arena
A Roman amphitheatre built in 30 AD, the third largest of its kind after the Colosseum in Rome and the amphitheatre in Santa Maria Capua Vetere. It is also one of the best preserved arenas in the world. At the time of Roman Verona, the Arena was used as an entertainment venue for hosting shows and gladiatorial combats, and it could hold around 25 000 spectators, who came to Verona from all over the region. The interior of the amphitheatre is well preserved, but the outer wall was destroyed during an earthquake in 1117 and today the only remaining portion of the outer ring is the Ala. During the Renaissance, first efforts were made to restore the Arena's functionality as a theatre. Due to its perfectly preserved acoustics, the Arena is now a famous venue for opera performances and concerts during the summer.

Verona's arena.
(Photo by: josecarli)

Basilica of San Zeno Maggiore


This three-naved basilica in the form of a Latin cross is considered a masterpiece of Romanesque architecture and one of the finest religious buildings of northern Italy. On its left side is a battlemented abbatial tower, and on the right a Romanesque bell tower built from 1045 to 1173. The original 4th-century small church was built by Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths after St. Zeno's death in 380, to house the saint's remains. The church was destroyed and rebuilt several times over the centuries, and the present structure was built between 1123 and 1138. In 1398 the Gothic apse was added. St. Zeno's body is now kept in the crypt, which is also well known as the alleged place of the marriage of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. A 14th-century marble figure of St. Zeno can be seen in the presbytery, but the most important artwork contained in the Basilica is the San Zeno Altarpiece-the "Madonna Enthroned with Saints" polyptych by the Renaissance painter Andrea Mantegna. Other notable works of art include the large rose window on the facade in the shape of a Wheel of Fortune, and the bronze doors decorated with 48 panels depicting Biblical scenes and the life of St. Zeno. The aisles contain frescoes from the 13th to the 15th centuries and the High Altar houses the remains of Veronese bishops.The portal of the church was built by Nicolo. Next to the Basilica is The Church of San Procolo, which houses the remains of St. Proculus, fourth bishop of Verona, as well as some valuable frescoes.

Museo Civico di Castelvecchio


A museum located in the eponymous castle built between 1354 and 1376 by order of Lord Cangrande II della Scala. The castle was built as a defence from invasions and rebellion, and was used only for military purposes until 1923, when it underwent extensive restoration work. The castle has served as a museum since 1925. The appearance of the castle was additionally improved in another series of restorations carried out between 1959 and 1973 by the architect Carlo Scarpa. Today Castelvecchio houses one of Veneto's finest art galleries outside Venice. Its collections include displays of paintings, statues, ancient weaponry, ceramics, jewellery and 14th century frescoes. Some of the most representative works of art displayed in the museum are the basrelief carved Sarcophagus of Saints Sergius and Bacchus dating from 1179, a collection of 15th-century Madonnas, a group of statues by the so-called Master of Sant'Anastasia, the equestrian statue of Cangrande I della Scala taken from his tomb in the Scaliger Tombs complex, and the Portrait of a Child with a Drawing by Francesco Caroto.

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Sights in Verona

Ponte Scaligero
A medieval fortified bridge over the Adige River, built of red bricks and white marble. It was constructed by Cangrande II between 1354 and 1356 as a part of Castelvecchio castle's defensive structure and a way for escaping from the castle in case of a rebellion. The original bridge was damaged by the French troops in the late 18th century and completely damaged by the Germans during the Second World War. Reconstruction of the Ponte Scaligero was performed between 1949 and 1951. At the time of its construction it had the world's largest bridge arch, with the span of 48.70 m.

Casa di Giulietta and Casa di Romeo


The house at number 27 of Via Capello, is the supposed home of Shakespeare's Juliet. It was once owned by the Del Capello family, who are believed to be the Capulets from Shakespeare's famous play because of the similarity of their names. The house has a simple brick facade and large trilobate windows. It was built in the 13th century of local rose-tinted stone, and an extensive restoration was carried out in the 1930s, when the windows and the gothic doors were added, as well as the famous balcony to which Romeo is said to have climbed. In the courtyard there is a bronze statue of Juliet, whose right breast is popularly touched by the visitors believing it would bring them good luck.

Juliet's balcony.
(Photo by: kit1578)

Although the popularity of the house is based on a fictional character, it remains one of the main tourist attractions of the area. It also houses a small museum with genuine 16th- and 17th-century antiques on display, including paintings, ceramics and frescoes. Several streets away, in Via delle Arche Scaligeri, is the alleged Casa di Romeo, much less distinguished than Casa di Giulietta. Also nearby, on Via del Pontiere, is the cloister of San Francesco, which houses a crypt where the so-called Tomba di Giulietta -Juliet's final resting place with a stone sarcophagus- can be seen. The Casa and the Tomba di Giulietta are open for visitors, while the Casa di Romeo is closed and has not been restored.

Arche Scaligere
A group of five elaborate Gothic tombs of the Scaliger family, located in the small Romanesque church of Santa Maria Antica. The Scaligers ruled in Verona from the 13th to the 14th century and were the city's most prominent family. The imposing tombs are located in the court beside the entrance to the church and separated from the street by an iron-grilled wall. Most of the tombs are shaped like a small temple and covered with baldachins. The wrought-iron enclosure is adorned with a recurring motif of ladder (scala), which was the emblem of the della Scala family. The tombs were constructed for the most notable members of the Scaliger family, while the other members were buried in a series of simpler tombs located near the church wall. The first tomb was built in the 14th century for the most famous Scaliger ruler, Cangrande I della Scala, who died in 1329. It was designed by the architect of the church of Santa Anastasia. Above the base of the sarchophagus is a Gothic canopy with Cangrande's statue on the top. This is the copy of Cangrande's original equestrian statue which is now kept at Castelvecchio. The tomb is decorated with reliefs depicting scenes with religious and military themes. Other tombs are those of Mastino II, Cansignorio, Alberto II and Giovanni della Scala, richly decorated as well. Because of their beautiful design and intricate stone carving, the Scaliger tombs are considered one of the most remarkable examples of Gothic art.

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Sights in Verona

Duomo di Verona
This Romanesque basilica was built in the 12th century on the site of two earlier Palaeochristian churches which had been destroyed by an earthquake in 1117. The construction of the cathedral begun in 1139. It was consecrated in 1187 and has been restored several times since then. The Gothic windows in the facade are a result of the 14th-century renovation, and on the upper part of the facade is a baroque addition dating from the 17th century. The cathedral's magnificent portal was carved by the sculptor Nicolo, who also worked on the facade of San Zeno Basilica. Carvings on the portal depict two of Charlemagne's celebrated knights, Oliver and Roland. There are also reliefs of Virgin holding the Christ, the Annunciation to the Shepherds and the Adoration of the Magi. Another portal on the south side of the church depicts the scene of Jonah and the whale and includes some grotesque caryatids. The main apse is a beautiful example of 12th-century architecture. The richly adorned interior reflects the changes which were made in the 15th century. It features beautiful red Verona marble pillasters and chapels containing artworks of Veronese Renaissance artists. The highlights of the cathedral include the Assumption by Titian on the first altar on the left, the Gothic tomb of St. Agatha in the south aisle and an 8th-century baptistry built from Roman masonry. Outside the cathedral, excavated remnants of the earlier churches can be seen in a Romanesque cloister.

Teatro Romano/Museo Archeologico


This semicircular Roman theatre was built in the 1st century BC, during the reign of Augustus. It is located on the hillside below the Castel San Pietro and offers excellent views over Verona. Through the ages a large portion of the structure had fallen into disrepair and as houses built upon the monument over time were contributing to its demolition, a wealthy Veronese Andrea Monga bought and destroyed them in the 18th century, thus saving the theatre. It was excavated between 1904 and 1939. Despite of its ruined state, the seating area has remained well-preserved. Today visitors can take a lift from the theatre to the above monastery which houses an archaeological museum. The museum displays collections of Roman mosaics, glass, pottery, tombstones and sculptures, also featuring a bronze bust of Augustus, the first Roman emperor.

Sant' Anastasia
An imposing brick church built by the Dominican Order from 1290 to 1481 on the site of an Arian convent. Sant' Anastasia is the largest church in Verona and incorporates elements of Gothic and Romanesque architecture. Outside, the beautiful Gothic portal is adorned with arches, red, black and white marble columns and 15th-century frescoes depicting various religious scenes. The highlights of Sant Anastasia's magnificent interior are the white and red Verona marble columns, the richly decorated altars and the holy water stoups standing on the wooden figures of gobbi (hunchbacks); also notable is the large funerary monument to Cortesia Serego by Nanni di Bertolo, dating from 1432, as well as the altar pieces with paintings by Francesco Caroto, the Pellegrini Chapel featuring terracotta statues by Michele di Firenze, and in the sacristy the "St. George and the Princess" fresco by Pisanello, dating from around 1436.

Piazza dei Signori - Piazza Dante


This historic square is located in the center of Verona's Old Town and surrounded by monuments of great historical and archaeological importance, built in various styles. The buildings are connected with elegant arches. The Piazza is dominated by grand palaces which served as administrative centres of medieval Verona. The name "Piazza dei Signori" refers to the name of the della Scala family, who ruled Verona in the past and rebuilt the square, making it their centre of political control. A 19th-century statue of the "divine poet" Dante Alighieri, which gave the square its other name - the "Piazza Dante", stands in the centre. Dante resided in Verona as a guest of Cangrande I and the Scaligeri family after being exiled from Florence. The monument was sculpted by Ugo Zannoni and uncovered in 1865, on the sixth centennial of Dante's birth. One of the most magnificent buildings is the council chamber - Loggia del Consiglio, situated behind Dante's statue. It was built by Fra Giocondo between 1476 and 1492 and is regarded as a masterpiece of Veronese Renaissance style. The building is decorated with beautiful frescoes and topped by statues of notable Roman citizens of Verona, including Pliny the Elder, Catullus, Cornelius Nepos, Emilio Marco and Vitruvius.

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Sights in Verona

Also notable is the 13th-century Palazzo degli Scaligeri, which served as the seat of the della Scala family before being transferred to Castelvecchio; its courtyard contains ornate tombs of the Scaligeri family. Other important structures on the square include the Palazzo dell Governo, Palazzo della Ragione and the Palazzo del Capitano, the former home of military commanders of Verona, featuring a courtyard with the famous 17th-century Porta Bombardiera, a nice Renaissance well and an open Gothic gallery. The Dante's cafe, with a preserved appearance of the traditional 19th-century style, is also well worth visiting.

Giardino Giusti
A famous example of Italian garden architecture, located a short walk away from the center of Verona. Giardino Giusti is considered one of the finest and best preserved Renaissance gardens in Italy. It was designed by Agostino Giusti in 1580 as an addition for his Palace. Despite being remodelled and restored, the garden has retained its 16th-century appearance up to the present day. It is divided into three sections - a lawn, a wooded hill and the terraces, and its design deliberately incorporates both natural and artificial decorative elements.
Verona. Giardino Giusti features all the characteristics of a typical (Photo by: tsevis) Renassance garden, such as sculpted hedges, fountains, acoustic grottos, geometrically distributed flowerbeds, rows of old cypresses, mythological statues and a small hedge maze. It has been one of the favourite gardens in the whole of the Veneto region, and was often visited by notable historic personalities such as Goethe, Mozart and Cosimo de Medici. The garden's hilltop belvedere offers excellent views of Verona.

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Sights in Vicenza

Sights in Vicenza
World Europe Countries Italy Regions Veneto Local Guide Sights in Vicenza

Here are the top sites and monuments to visit in the city and province of Vicenza, in the Italian region Veneto.

Teatro Olimpico
The world-renowned Olympic Theatre of Vicenza was designed by the famous Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio. It was his last work, as he died several months later, and is regarded as one of his greatest masterpieces. Teatro Olimpico is Europe's oldest surviving covered theatre and is considered the earliest example of indoor theatre of the Modern Age. The construction begun in 1580 on the request of the Olympic Academy of Vicenza. The Olympic Theatre was built on the site of an old medieval fortress according to Palladio's design based on layouts of classical theatres and nearby Roman ruins. After Palladio's death, the work was continued and completed by his pupil Vincenzo Scamozzi, who also added the Odeo and Antiodeo rooms as well as the famous Fixed Scenes. The theatre is largely built of wood and plaster, painted to look like marble, and its hallways were designed to resemble the streets of the Greek city of Thebes by using a trompe-l'oeil techinque. The whole structure is richly decorated: the interior of the Odeo contains (Photo by: wikipedia) frescoes depicting the gods of Mount Olympus, and the courtyard outside the theatre features ancient sculptures donated by members of the Olympic Academy. The theatre was opened in 1585 with a performance of Sophocles' drama Oedipus Rex, but was soon abandoned. Despite being damaged by bombings and an 1976 earthquake, the Teatro Olimpico has remained wonderfully preserved up to the present day. Today it is used as a venue for autumn and spring plays and occasionally for graduation ceremonies. The semi-oval auditorium contains 1000 seats. This majestic example of Palladian architecture has been proclaimed a World Heritage Site in 1994, together with other Palladian structures in Vicenza.
Teatro Olimpico.

Villa Almerico Capra - "La Rotonda"


Also called the Villa Capra Valmarana, it is a Renaissance villa inspired by the Pantheon in Rome, designed by Andrea Palladio in 1566 for the priest Paolo Almerico. It was built as a suburban residence atop a small hill. The Villa Capra is considered Palladio's most famous work, and one of the best known villas in the world. After Almerico's death, the house was ceded to the brothers Marco and Odorico Capra, who finished the construction according to the design of Palladio's successor Vinzenzo Scamozzi, who made some changes to Palladio's original plan. The villa is a perfectly symmetrical square structure featuring a dome - topped circular hall in the center, and the hall's name, "La Rotonda", is often used as the name of the villa itself. The building has four facades and its four porticos feature pediments decorated with statues of classical deities. The porticos offer excellent views of the surrounding countryside. The interior of the villa is adorned with wonderful frescoes painted by Alessandro and Giovanni Battista Maganza and Anselmo Canera. The second floor - piano nobile - contains four principal salons; the most striking are the West Salon, which features religious frescoes and decorated ceiling, and the East Salon with frescoes depicting the life of Paolo Almerico. The walls of the circular hall are decorated in the trompe l'oeil technique. For the past two centuries, Villa Capra has been the property of the di Valmarana family. It has inspired a number of copies throughout the Veneto region as well as many others all over the world.

Palazzo Chiericati - Museo Civico


A large Renaissance mansion designed by Palladio in 1550 for Count Girolamo Chiericati, built with elements of Roman architecture. It was constructed on an elevetad position in the area of piazza dell'isola ("island square") outside the city.

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Sights in Vicenza

The palace was not completed until around 1680. Its layout includes three bays, two of them featuring logge on the piano nobile floor. The facade of the building is decorated with Doric and Ionic columns and various statues on top of the roof. Palazzo Chiericati has been the home of Vinzenza's Museo Civico ("Town Museum") since 1855. The large entrance hall of the museum is adorned with a ceiling fresco by Domenico Brusazorzi. Archaeological collections are on display in the historic rooms on the ground floor, and the first floor houses an excellent picture gallery. Among the displayed artworks of the 14th century especially notable is a polyptych by Paolo Veneziano; highlights of the 16th-century collection include masterpieces by Tintoretto, Veronese, Lorenzo Lotto and Jacopo da Bassano; the 17th-century section includes works by Francesco Maffei, Van Dyck and Bruegel, while the 18th-century collection features paintings by Rosa da Tivoli and Giambattista and Giandomenico Tiepolo among others. The museum also features a collection of contemporary art and some other highlights such as Hans Memling's Gothic altarpiece Crucifixion from the 15th century.

Basilica Palladiana and Piazza dei Signori


"Basilica" is actually the alternative name of Palazzo della Ragione, situated in Vicenza's Piazza dei Signori, which was built at the site of an old Roman forum and market place. This majestic high Renaissance structure dominating its surroundings is a landmark of Vicenza. It was constructed in the 16th century around the 15th century Palazzo della Ragione as the meeting place for Vicenza's Grand Council. After a part of the old Palazzo had collapsed, the reconstruction of the facade was begun by Andrea Palladio in 1549. It represents his first public commission and his first work of great importance, making him one of the most reputable Palazzo Chiericati. architects among the local authorities. However, the (Photo by: wikipedia) building was not completed until 1614, thirty years after thirty years after his death. Palladio renovated the old Town Hall by creating a marble external supporting structure with a double row of loggias and adorned with arches, columns and statues of Greek and Roman gods. The current Palazzo is therefore composed of both the old Gothic buildings and the marble outer shell. The upper floor of the Basilica houses the Museo Palladiano, situated in the largest room of the building. The museum displays Palladio's designs, models and some of his other work. A marble statue of Palladio can be seen in front of the stairs leading to the upper floor. The loggia is Basilica's most notable feature and contains one of the earliest examples of the "Palladian window". The Basilica also features a large hall covered with a copper-clad roof, which is used to host exhibitions and other civic events. Palladio also built the two impressive colonnades on the Piazza dei Signori; one of them is topped by a statue of a lion and on top of the other is the statue of the Redeemer. The column featuring the winged lion was constructed in 1464 and its statue represents the Serene Republic of Venice, while the one with the statue of Christ the Redeemer dates from 1640. The lower section of the colonnades is built in the Doric and the upper in the Ionic style. Near the Basilica, the Piazza de Biade square serves as the site of open-air theatre performances during the summer. Also, the Basilica includes an impressive medieval bell tower, Torre di Piazza or Torre Bissara, which belonged to the original church. The 82-metre tower with a just 7 metres wide base was built in the 12th century for defensive purposes and is today connected to the Basilica with an arch. It is slightly leaned, like the famous tower of Pisa. The niche at the bottom is decorated with stone carvings of Saint Vincent, Saint Stephen and the enthroned Madonna. The top of the structure was added in 1444. In the 14th century Vicenza's first mechanical clock for public use was installed on this tower. The Piazza dei Signori also features the stately Loggia del Capitaniato, begun by Palladio in 1571 but never finished; the Loggia served as the residence of Vicenza's captain; today it houses the headquarters of the Town Council. Further notable attractions on the Piazza include the 16th-century Palazzo del Monte di Pieta and the Church of San Vincenzo.

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Local Guide to Venice

Local Guide to Venice


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Veneto Cities Venice Local Guide

The city of Venice is uniquely situated in a salty, marshy lagoon on the Adriatic Sea coast, lined by the river Piave (to the north) and Po (to the south).The historical centre (centro storico) has developed for centuries on end on the 118 islands and islets of the lagoon. Apart from them the modern city includes a more recent, mainland part, where the bulk of the population lives today. Due to its location on the Adriatic Sea coast, the climate of Venice is characterised by high humidity all year round, but thunderstorms and heavy showers, especially in spring and autumn may easily cause floods. While winter temperatures seldom drop below 0C, July and August, the hottest summer months often see temperatures well above 30C. It is always a good time to visit Venice - it is a lively place all year round and it has been years since the term tourist season has gone out of use here.

Murano from the sea.


(Photo by: vgm8383)

However, if you are interested in particular festivities, like the Venice Carnevale, the Film Festival, The Biennale, etc, you should check their time schedule. On the other hand, if you are looking for a more peaceful period, you should avoid the summer season, the New Year celebrations, Easter and any prolonged weekends that may trigger a major wave of tourists from both Italy and the nearby countries. The Acqua Alta - the high waters, is not a period in Venice but an occurance which may be related to numerous factors and usually last one to two hours, so you have nothing to worry about but ruining a pair of good shoes. Yet, spring is the period when acqua alta is most common. Venice is a city you will want to visit again and again once you set foot on it for the first time. You will never have enough of the view of the city from the sea or of its cosmopolitan spirit which manages to retain its historic feel. No matter what your interests, your age, social status or bank account condition, you are bound to find something for yourself in Venice - in fact, many things, which will make you come back again and again as you cannot get rid of the feeling that you have not yet discovered all there is to it.
View of Venice.
(Photo by: Aidas85)

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What to See and Do in Venice

What to See and Do in Venice


World Europe Countries Italy Regions Veneto Cities Venice Local Guide What to See and Do

When coming for the first time, a walk and probably a coffee at Piazza San Marco is an absolute starting point. The cosmopolitan spirit of the biggest city square and the all-present pigeons will welcome you. The Basilica San Marco, the Procuratorie offices, the Doges Palace, the Bridge of Sighs, the Piazzetta with its columns, the Bell tower, the Clock tower are all worth fighting through the tourist crowds to get a better picture. A vaporetto ride along the Grand Canal should be your second step by all means - and make sure you have enough memory on your camera as on a clear sunny day you wont be able to choose which of the marvellous palazzi to photograph - Palazzo Giustinian, Dogana da Mar, Santa Maria della Salute, Hotel Gritti, CaDario, Palazzo Corner dei Leoni... to name but a few. Art lovers should probably stop at the Gallerie dellAccademia Put a vaporetto ride along the Grand Canal as a top and see the rich collection of Venetian fine art, gathered inside. Back on priority to your list when visitting Venice. the vaporetto, CaGrassi, CaRezzonico (also a fine gallery), CaFoscari, (Photo by: unknown) Palazzo Contarini delle Figure, Palazzo Corner-Spinelli, Palazzo Pisani, reach the Rialto Bridge, you have a good reason to get on land for a short walk in the narrow streets surrounding the bridge, where the commercial and financial heart of the Serenissima used to be, to inhale the spirit of the old days, get some fresh fruit from the market stands, produced in the immediate vicinity of the city. In your leisure walk you will probably come across San Giacomo di Rialto, one of the oldest churches in the Lagoon. From the Rialto Bridge you will get magnifiscent views over the Canal and will probably take a good picture of the Fondaco dei Tedeschi. Back on the vaporetto, you will soon see the fine Pescheria on your left, the unmistakable facade of CadOro on your right, Palazzo Vendramin-Calergi, La Chiesa degli Scalzi and the opposite San Simeone Piccolo before you finally come to the train station.

With around 60 million tourists annually, Veneto region is one of the most visited destinations in Europe.
This should probably be enough for one day, and the evening is by all means best spent getting to know true Venetian spirit in the numerous bars and cosy restaurants, offering fine Veneto cuisine and local seafood specialties. Let us hope you are not visiting Venice for just one day, as there is a whole lot to be seen and visitted - if your interests lie with churches and convents, a day or two will hardly be enough to visit the most notable churches in the city as they contain a large volume of interior decoration, which takes time to be taken in. In addition, churches, scuolas and convents are scattered around the whole Lagoon, which means that, regardless of the efficient vaporetto and motoscafo public transport, you will need a strict itinerary and an up-to-date timetable of the public transport to make the most of your counted days in the City of the Lagoon.

A charming maze of history, culture, legend and grace - thats what Venice is, no matter the point of view.
(Photo by: Loppin)

Starting from the Basilica of San Marco, other church essentials include: Andrea Palladios Il Redentore on Giudecca, Baldassare Longhenas Santa Maria delle Salute, San Giorgio Maggiore, Santa Maria Assunta (Torcello), San Zanipolo, Scuola Grande di San Rocco, San Salvatore, Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, San Pantalon, Scuola Grande dei Carmini and the Carmelite church, Santa Maria del Rosario. Well, as somewhere there must be a full stop, let us put it here, but this list by no means covers what religious art lovers can treat themselves to when in Venice.

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What to See and Do in Venice

Artistic and Cultural Events in Venice


You will find art exhibitions in most of the palazzi in the city, ranging from 14th century artiststo modern and even contemporary art. Even if you are not so tempted in art, you will find the charming option of getting lost in the maze of canals and rios of Venice - by foot, bike, vaporetto or gondola - dont miss that - it is as much worth the while as any art exhibition or classical concert, held in the numerous scuolas and churches.

Outdoors
Having coffee and a cake Italian style, in a quiet Venetian campo is another unforgettable experience, giving you a chance to rewind in a peaceful, indescribably harmonious atmosphere. If you can spare a day to get to know the Lagoon, you wont regret it - the fishermens island of Burano (famous for its hand-made lace), the glass-blowing island of Murano (where you can watch the glass-blowers make fine objects using the Medieval technique Venice was famous for), the historic Torcello, the dignified San Michele, the touristic Lido, the beautiful Giudecca, all deserve to be experienced and photographed!

Santa Maria della Salute at dawn.


(Photo by: unknown)

Countryside
If you are in Venice for longer, do not miss the opportunity to spend a day in its countryside, or maybe two - the 16th century villas by one of Europes most prominent architects, Andrea Palladio are waiting for you in the quiet Veneto, with osterias serving hearty portions of delicious Italian food all the way. If you do not mind the crowds and the higher hotel rates, you should visit Venice for the time of the Carnival or the other venues, held in the city, such as the Biennale, the Film Festival, or some of the religious festivities, which are part of the Venetian heritage and many of them look almost the same now as they did in the 15th and 16th centuries, when the Republic was at its height.

Venice by Foot
Experiencing Venice is always personal, no matter how many people pace its cobbled, narrow streets with you, how crowded the vaporetto, on which you take your very first sail along the Grand Canal is, how expensive the coffee at the cafe at San Marco square or how long the queue to the entrance of the Doge`s Palace - it is worth it! A Catholic or not, churches such as the Basilica of San Marco, Il Redentore, Santa Maria del Rosario, La Pieta, Santa Maria della Salute, San Zanipolo, San Giorgio Maggiore, to name but a few, will not leave you indifferent - impressive exterior matches a fine interior, holding the works of Venices most prominent artists. If you are particularly into art, the numerous galleries CaRezzonico or the Gallerie dellAccademia among many others, will satisfy your thirst for fine art. On a romantic gondola under the Bridge of Sighs or taking in the breathtaking views from the Rialto bridge, taking pictures of the historic Torcello, watching the glass-blowers at Murano or imagining the life of the Medieval fishermen who lived in the small, brightly coloured houses on the island of Burano, you are sure to leave a piece of you in this city of eternal attraction power. However, the city will make it up to, enriching you with a unique experience you will want to repeat, but every time you return, you will get the sensation that you were blind to so much the previous time you saw Venice and that this time it is for real. And it is, every time, only different.

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Calendar of Events in Venice

Calendar of Events in Venice


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide What to See and Do Calendar of Events

If you are visiting Venice, make sure to check some of the main events that take place every year, because it would be a pitty to visit the Serenissima during the Carnival period and miss this unique festivity, and others.

Venice canival - Il Carnevale di Venezia


The first record of a carnival in the City of the Lagoon dates back to 1268. It is in fact the first prohibition, banning the game of eggs, which was obviously popular in the city at the time. It was the merriest time in the city for centuries and seemed to be perfectly suited to the free spirit of Venice. Soon wealthy aristocrats from all over Europe flocked to the city to take part in the lavish celebrations. Drawn by the endless possibilities for spending, the rich guests often engaged together with the locals in gambling, excessive wining and dining, shopping (extravagant buys, such as exotic animals were not uncommon). The brothels, theatres, and inns had the biggest annual turnover at the time of Carnival. Jugglers, rope-walkers, fire-swallowers, and exotic street entertainers from Europe and beyond filled the streets of the city. Bull-fights (in the case of Venice the part of the bulls was normally played by oxen) were organised in private courtyards of the Venetian aristocracy. The aristocrats (cavacani), who took part in the fights (cacce) usually dressed as Pantalone, Tartaglia, Zanni or Brighella. However, they had a limited role - to set a bunch of dogs on the oxen to bite their ears off. The fights were announced by commoners, dressed in red - Castellani or Harlequin is among the longest-living characters of the black - Nicolotti. Another favourite event at Carnival time was surely Venetian carnival. Svolo del Turco (the Flight of the Turk). It was first invented in the middle (Photo by: unknown) of the 16th century by a young Turkish rope-walker who climbed up a rope anchored boat off San Marco to the top of the belfry of the Cathedral, by means of a pole.The success and the numerous, increasingly spectacular variations of the flight brought the event such a popularity, that from one point on, the Doge awarded the "Turk" with money after he came to present him a bunch of flowers on the loggia of the Doge`s Palace, from where he watches the celebrations. On the last day of the Carnival the participants met at San Marco, wearing special costumes, to suit the mock-funeral procession which took place that day. The celebrations were brought to an end when the bells of San Francesco della Vigna signalled the beginning of Lent. At the same time, between the Columns on Piazzetta, a giant puppet, a representation of the mask of Pantalone would be ritually burnt under the chanting of the crowd: El va! El va! El carneval el va! (It's gone! It's gone! The carnival is gone!) To fight the frivolous spirit of the Carnival, the church authorities organised the so-called Controcarnevale - Anti-Carnival, which took place the last three days before Lent. These days were dedicated to spiritual cleansing via masses and processions by land and water, in which the participants of the Carnival had a chance to come clean in the eyes of God before Lent. However, after Venice came under Austrian rule in 1798, the tradition gradually went into oblivion and remained that way for almost two centuries. In fact, the Venetians and their guests owe the revival of the Carnival to a mask-maker, who opened a shop in Venice in the 1980s, although young gangs had already renewed the celebrations back in the 1970s. Even so, today the Carnival contains little of its original spirit and is more of a tourist than a true Venetian venue.

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Calendar of Events in Venice

The Mask-Makers and the Masks


The masks seem to have been part of the Venetian lifestyle and not only the Carnival for a long time. Apart from Carnival time (from St. Stephens day to midnight before Ash Wednesday), Venetians were allowed to wear masks from 5 October until Christmas as well as during Ascension. Thus Venetians could still spend a good part of the year under the comfortable camouflage of the mask, hiding their identity and social status. This was often used for illegal businesses and cross-class love encounters. Numerous prohibitions throughout the centuries aimed at regulating the order in the city, disturbed by mask-wearers. For example, one decree stated that men would be punished if caught in a convent, dressed as women. Another one prohibited socialising with the nuns at the special premises, designed for the purpose in the Venetian convents.

The masks today often keep the original form but are much more heavily jewelled than in the past.
(Photo by: Kira Okamoto)

Yet another decree prohibited mask-wearers the right to carry a weapons or any other objects which could harm somebody, while going out in the dark, wearing a mask was banned even earlier on. At one time, even entering a religious building with a mask on was punished, and the punishments were severe - apart from considerable fines, they ranged from two years of jail or gallery-rowing for men to whipping, public ridicule, and a five-year expulsion from the Republic for women. Regardless of the restrictions however, the masks were so popular, that mask-makers, mascherari, enjoyed a special privileges under a decree from 1436. They belonged to the guild of the painters and employed sign-painters in their ateliers, who drew the outlines of the mask on paper first. Traditionally, the papier-mch technique was applied to mask construction. Traditionally Venetians wore long-nosed (beak-like) masks and cloaks, and dressing allegorically was not uncommon. For instance, the Colombina represented a mischievous, frivolous, shrewd girl, often accompanied by Harlequin, her sometimes lonely, companion. The character of Facanapa was coined in the 18th century to represent the anti-pantalone (a middle or upper-class Venetian). It had a parrot-like nose, wide-brimmed hat, a bright red tie and a white coat with peculiar long tails. Gnaga was a transvestite mask, dressed as a housewife with a cat-faced mask. He carried a cat in a basket, joked obscenely with the passer-bys and was often in the company of friends, dressed as tati - babies.Today most of the masks are made using the gold-leaf and gesso techniques and are much more heavily decorated than the majority of masks at the time of the Republic. However, few artists have moved on from the traditional mask forms, used for centuries in Venice. The Bauta mask is the most popular mask today - it is lavishly decorated and covers the whole face and has no mouth opening. A much more wearable version is the Bauta, which disguises only the upper part of the face, making it possible for the wearer to conceal their identity, but still enabling them to talk, eat and drink. The Moretta mask, still seen today, originally came from France and was used in the old days by women, visitting convents. It black velvet base it covered by a veil. The Volto (Face) or Larva mask is originally Venetian, typically executed in white and paired with a black tricorn and a black cloak, which gave a sinister appearance to the wearer. However, it is regarded as the most comfortable to wear, being made of light, fine cloth, which eases social interaction. Scalete, small sweets in the shape of iron bars or ladders, were typically baked for Carnival time but have been replaced by other sweets today.

Little has changed in the technique the mask-makers apply today to create the masks for the carnival - one of the prinicpal features of the event.
(Photo by: celticseahorse)

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Calendar of Events in Venice

The Venue Today


Today the tradition is slowly returning to take its place in the hearts of the Venetian citizens, who often celebrate in their communities away from the tourist bustle. However, Piazza San Marco remains the focal point of the festivities, with numerous events taking place at any time of day or night. Still, many of the happenings are located to other parts of the city due to excessive crowds. Musical and theatre performances, art exhibitions and shows are now available virtually on every corner of the city, although present-day street performers are still essential part of the Carnival spirit. They can be found all over the city. Detailed information regarding the program for the festivities for each Carnival edition is essential and is available at the City Tourist offices and some local magazines and booklets. Frittelle, galani and crostoli is what tourists and entertainers commonly treat themselves to, available from the boothes around the city.

The Biennale - Il Biennale di Venezia


The Biennale is a significant exhibition of contemporary art, held on odd years in Venice. It includes the Venice Film Festival, which is an annual event and also the Venice Architectural Biennale, which takes place on even years. In 1999 a dance section was founded as well. The tradition of the Biennale was started in 1895 but as the international significance of the event soared in the first years of the 20th century, several countries strted building their pavillions at the exhibition grounds. Back in those early times decorative arts were mostly presented. However, the Fascists, who took control over the event in 1930 subsequently established a Music Festival, a Film Festival and a Theatre Festival. After a six-year stop during WWII, the Biennale resumed its activities in 1948, keeping its tendency to display avant-guard artists and their ideas, so early The Venice Biennale has become a true platform for conteporary artists from abstract expressionism and pop art works were all over the world. included in the exhibitions almost at the same time they (Photo by: Spring Globe) were born. In 1980 a section, which is reserved for young, emerging artists, called Aperto, was established. The works of the artists from this section are commonly exhibited at the Arsenal. 30 national pavilions function in the Parco dei Giardini. The concept and management of these entirely depend on the country they belong to. The exhibition hall, however, which is also located at the Giardini, is left to the choice of the artistic director of the edition of the Biennale. As the event is among the most important ones in the world of contemporary art, prominent curators from all over the world consider such an appointment a great honour and recognition of their work.

Venice International Film Festival (Mostra Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica di Venezia)


The Venice Film Festival is part of the Biennale of Contemporary Art in Venice. Unlike the Biennale, the film festival takes place every year at the end of August or the beginning of September on the island of Lido. Films are displayed at the Palazzo del Cinema on Lungomare Marconi. In addition to being among the most prestigious in the world, this festival is the very oldest one - it was founded by Count Giuseppe Volpi di Masurata back in 1932. Awards include: Leone dOro (Golden Lion) for the best film, while the runner-up is awarded the Silver Lion. The best actress and actor featured in the festival get a Volpi Cup (Coppa Volpi) whereas directors, composers, writers and technical staff may be awarded a Golden Osella.

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Calendar of Events in Venice

La Sensa
In May, on the Saturday after Ascension day (when the Doge traditionally performed the annual wedding of Venice to the sea). The tradition has recently come alive again but is not particularly spectacular as it lay in oblivion for centuries and it will take time for the Venetians and their guests to develop a taste for it. Nowadays the mayor of the city and his council get on a modern Bucintoro (a state-owned raft), and head for the Lido after leading a procession. The event which arouses much more excitement today in Venice is the Volalonga (long row) - a boat competition, revived from the past. Crews with boats of any class are admitted to take part in the 32km distance between the Bacino di San Marco and Burano and back.

Regata storica is one of the most authentic and colourful events in the Venetian calendar.
(Photo by: chicken tamer)

La Regata Storica
This picturesque event takes place on the first Sunday of September when expert rowers, especially gondoliers, show their skills in this competition, in which only historic crafts are allowed. Both the boats and their crews are richly decorated and the participants wear appropriate clothing to match the period of use of their craft. The watchers cheer the crews along the Grand Canal often wearing the colours of the crew they support.

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Religious Festivities
The Day of the Redeemer is dedicated to the gratitude to Jesus Christ, to whom the Venetians turned their prayers when the plague stroke the city for the first time in 1576. 50,000, which was probably about half the population of Venice died in the course of two years, which made the city authorities promise to build a wonderful church across San Marco, at the Giudecca island as soon as the plague was over. The magnificent church, among the finest examples of Andrea Palladios work, stands on Giudecca even today and the festivities in honour of the Redeemer every third weekend of July are among the merriest times in the city. Preparations start early in the morning on Saturday, when verandas and gondolas are lavishly decorated with flowers. Then in the evening the San Marco Basin, which separates Il Redentore from the main island is filled with decorated boats of all kind. Citizens and guests of the city picnic on them while waiting for the famous fireworks to begin. And they do, around 10 p.m., when the sky gets dark enough for the marvellous effect to be appreciated. After 45 minutes or an hour, when the fireworks are over, crowds of young people head for the Lido to spend the night on the beach, in anticipation of the first sun rays in the morning. Sunday is dedicated to religious celebration and the festive mass is particularly noteworthy. For the Venetians All Saints Day - 1 November, meant going over a pontoon bridge to the islet of San Michele, to put flowers on the graves of their holy or secular relatives. Today the procedure is pretty much the same, only they reach San Michele usually by vaporetto. Although it does not sound like much of a joyful time to be in the city, you may change your mind if you decide to follow another old tradition - centuries ago, to break the sadness of the day, dedicated to the dead, the City Council allegedly decreed that every man in love must bestow fave (small, colourful bean-like cookies) to his beloved. Got an idea?

The magnifiscent fireworks at the fiest of the Redeemer.


(Photo by: adolfo F.)

The 21st day of November, Festa di Santa Maria della Salute, has been celebrated by the Venetians for almost 180 years ever since in 1630 the second hard strike of plague hit the city. After the City Council pledged to build a church, dedicated to the Holy Virgin if the city survived the terrible epidemic, the decease was gone within weeks. As a token of gratitude, the City not only built the church, but has organised a lavish celebrations each year. The City Council and all the citizens (now also the tourists) set on a journey across the Grand Canal from Piazza San Marco on a pontoon bridge, holding candles. The procession takes part in a festive mass, following which the informal part of the celebration begins with the traditional frittelle veneziane (sweet fretters, stuffed with raisins) and mutton on the menu.

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Eating in Venice

Eating in Venice
World Europe Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide What to See and Do Eating

If you are travelling on a strict budget to Venice, it is best to read this section carefully and assign enough funds for trying out some of the Venetian specialties you will not miss anyway, as they are as much part of the city identity as the galleries and museums and cultural events. And they look and smell so good, you will hardly manage to restrain yourself! Budget travellers will find menu turistico for as little as 12 EUR in almost each restaurant in the city. However, as with everything else, the further you get from the Piazza, the better service, the bigger portions, the wider choice of set menus and the lower prices. Even if money is not an issue, you might want to dine in the Dorsoduro or Cannaregio area and submerge in a more authentic city spirit. However, to make sure you will not be wandering around with an empty stomach, it is worth phoning to book in advance as good places tend to be crowded while some, unbelievably as it may sound, close in August for their annual vacation! If visitting in January or February, booking in advance makes even more sense as many places are closed in the off-season. In addition, most of the restaurants do not work Sundays. Well, point made - to ensure a good time, pre-booking is more than advisable.

Ice cream.
(Photo by: bluegum)

Bars and restaurants in Venice are quite difficult to differentiate as more often than not restaurants have bar areas while bars serve delicious small meals. Venetian cafes have been part of Venetian identity and lifestyle for centuries and there is no better place to sample Italian coffee specialties. Again, steer clear of central areas and go as deeper in the maze as you can to get a higher value for your money. Ice-cream (gelato) is a must all around Italy and you must not miss the opportunity of getting refreshed regularly in the gelatterie. Pasticcerie offer mouth-watering cakes, tarts, creams and cookies in addition to ice-creams and should be the perfect place to rest your body and soul and fill up with energy in the midst of so much culture and history.

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Eating in Venice

Specialties
When in Venice, eat as the Venetians do! And you will not be dissatisfied, especially if you enjoy fish and seafood. While typical antipasti may include pickled vegetables, prosciutto crudo (sometimes served with fruit like figs or melons) or seafood salads, the primo corso may be more substantial, often featuring creamy seafood risotti, polenta or pasta. Try bigoli - a local pasta version in the form of short, thick spaghetti with nero di seppia (ink of a cuttlefish) if you have the chance. Polenta con fegato alla Veneziana will work for you if you do not mind eating calfs liver. If you prefer a strictly fish course and you are on a budget, sarde in saor, sardines in olive oil, garnished with pine nuts and garlic may be a delicious, inexpensive choice.
Tiramisu looks so good it must be healthy, too!
(Photo by: Bonnie BonBon)

Otherwise, bigger fish may be rather pricey, especially if sold by the etto (1 etto equals 100 grams). Tiramisu is a favourite dessert in Venice, as it is in many parts of Italy, but dont worry, it is highly unlikely that you will grow tired of it!

Local wines include pinot grigio and dry tocai, which are excellent to accompany a seafood or fish meal. White prosecco is an excellent option as well, if you like sparkling wines. Refosco, Raboso as well as rich Cabernet and matured Merlot are on offer for the red wine lovers.

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Shopping and Sightseeing in Venice

Shopping and Sightseeing in Venice


World Europe Sightseeing Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide What to See and Do Shopping and

Shopping in Venice can be a unique experience, regardless of the fact how deep your pocket is. The location of the shops inside the old palazzi gives even a common tobacco or gift shop the charm of a boutique. If high-end fashion stores are out of your reach, as are hand-made shoes and lamps and unique pieces of clothing and jewellery, do not despair, as Venice offers plenty to mid-range and low-budget travellers as well. Burano lace and Murano glass articles can be relatively inexpensive (well, in the case of the lace no one can guarantee it is hand-made any more). Venetian carnival masks make a great souvenir or a gift and often cost about 20 EUR. If money is an issue, steer clear from antique shops and couture shops in the area of San Marco and head for the San Polo district, where in the vicinity of the Rialto bridge there are bunches of shops with much more reasonable prices. Other notable shopping areas in the city include Le Mercerie, Campo San Bartolomeo, Calle del Teatro, Campo San Salvador, etc.
Shopping in Venice can be great fun.
(Photo by: unknown)

Sightseeing
However and whenever one arrives in Venice, one is bound to be taken aback by its beauty and dignity, no matter how much one has heard, read or looked at photos. Experiencing Venice is always personal, no matter how many people pace its cobbled, narrow streets with you, how crowded the vaporetto, on which you take your very first sail along the Grand Canal is, how expensive the coffee at the cafe at San Marco square or how long the queue to the entrance of the Doge`s Palace - it is worth it! A Catholic or not, churches such as the Basilica of San Marco, Il Redentore, Santa Maria del Rosario, La Pieta, Santa Maria della Salute, San Zanipolo, San Giorgio Maggiore, to name but a few, will not leave you indifferent impressive exterior matches a fine interior, holding the works of Venices most prominent artists.

Santa Maria della Salute at dawn.


(Photo by: unknown)

If you are particularly into art, the numerous galleries CaRezzonico or the Gallerie dellAccademia among many others, will satisfy your thirst for fine art.On a romantic gondola under the Bridge of Sighs or taking in the breathtaking views from the Rialto bridge, taking pictures of the historic Torcello, watching the glass-blowers at Murano or imagining the life of the Medieval fishermen who lived in the small, brightly coloured houses on the island of Burano, you are sure to leave a piece of you in this city of eternal attraction power. However, the city will make it up to, enriching you with a unique experience you will want to repeat, but every time you return, you will get the sensation that you were blind to so much the previous time you saw Venice and that this time it is for real. And it is, every time, only different.

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Outdoors - Palladian Villas in Veneto

Outdoors - Palladian Villas in Veneto


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide What to See and Do Outdoors

One would probably think that Venice offered enough as it is and that there would hardly be anything outside the city worth leaving the City of the Lagoon, even for a day. However, one cannot be more wrong, especially if in love with fine architecture and the Palladian style. Veneto is abundant in villas - country houses of the same rich families, who built town houses - palazzi, in cities like Venice, Verona, Vicenza and Padua. Many of these villas are of such a high quality, that they have been listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites and are definitely worth a visit. Full-day organised tours are widely available from Venice, but private visits are possible as well. If you are planning on visitting the villas on your own, here is a selection of the finest five ones (according to UNESCO specialists), you can build your trip around, but our advice is to visit La Malcontenta and La Rotonda in one day and leave the rest for a second day or vice versa.
The fine facade of La Malcontenta.
(Photo by: Metamuro)

La Malcontenta - Villa Foscari


Architect: Andrea Palladio Fresco work: Giambattista Zelotti, Giambattista Franco and Bernardino India Style: High-Renaissance, ancient-Greek influenced facade, the typical high Venetian chimneys still visible Details: Commissioned in the 1550s, recently returned to the Foscari family and underwent complete renovation. The name of the villa, La Malcontenta (the Dissatisfied) may be in connection with the nearby village or may well relate to the fresco of a sad woman inside.

Villa Cornaro
Architect: Andrea Palladio, considered a masterpiece of the architect Statues: Camillo Mariani, 1588, the Grand Salon, 6 full-length statues of prominent members of the family Stuccos: Bortolo Cabinca, 1716, an elaborate structure of putti and frames, in which the fresco work panels were installed Frescoes: Mattia Bortoloni, 1716,a series of 104 fresco panels, integrated the stucco work; the six rooms in the first piano nobile feature Old Testament scenes while the two rooms of the second piano nobile show scenes from the New Testament; the eastern walls are considered among the earliest examples of Masonic art in Italy. Style: Middle period of the architect, for the first time in Western architecture the two-storey portico-loggia appears, which would be an inspiration for later architects around the globe Details: Commissioned in 1552-1553 by Giorgio Cornaro of the powerful Venetian Cornaro family; the walls were initially white as an extensive art collection was on display. In 1716 Andrea Cornaro commissioned the interior decoration.
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Villa Cornaro.
(Photo by: Dario Ceschi)

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After 253 years in the Cornaro family, the villa changed ownership several times in the 20th century. Its renovation was started in 1969 by the Greenwich family of Connecticut, USA. The present owners are the Gable family from Georgia, USA.

Villa Emo
Architect: Andrea Palladio Frescoes: Giambattista Zelotti Stuccos: Alessandro Vittoria Style: 5-part profile, achieved through barchesse, starting from the main building and topped by dovecotes, copied by later architects in building such as the Capitol in the USA. Details: Constructed between 1559 and 1565 for the Venetian family of Greek descents, the Emos, and belonged to it until it was sold in 2004

Villa Emo is famous for its harmonious facade as well as for its gardens.
(Photo by: Guido Andolfato)

La Rotonda - Villa Almerico / Valmarana


Architect: Andrea Palladio Frescoes: Alessandro Maganza and Ludovico Dorigny Stuccos: Lorenzo Rubini, Domenico Fontana, Ruggero Bascape Statues: Lorenzo Rubini Fireplaces: Bartolomeo Ridolfi Style: The central dome was, just like Il Redentores, inspired by Romes Pantheon. Features four facades, and is situated on top of a picturesque hill in the surroundings of Vicenza. Details: Commissioned by Paolo Almerico in 1566. Palladio made the design but the building was completed by his pupil, Vincenzo Scamozzi, after the famous architect died in 1580. The Venetian family of Valmarana acquired the villa in the 20th century and restored it to its present state.

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Outdoors - Palladian Villas in Veneto

Villa Barbaro
Architect: Andrea Palladio Frescoes: Paolo Veronese Stuccos: Alessandro Vittoria Statues: Marc'Antonio Barbaro, Alessandro Vittoria Style: Probably the remains of an earlier castle or mansion were used for the construction of the principal part of the villa. Just like in the Villa Emo, here the 5-part profile features barchesse, coming from the central part and topped by dovecotes. The facade is finished off with fine Ionic columns, taken from the Temple of Fortuna Virilis in Rome. The interior fascinates with the frescos by Paolo Veronese. Part of the statues inside and outside the building were contributed by MarcAntonio Barbaro one of the commissioners of the villa.

Tempietto, a diminutive for Temple, is part of the complex of the villa and was also designed by Andrea Palladio.
(Photo by: Guido Andolfato)

Details: Built between 1549 and 1558 under the commission of Daniele and MarcAntonio Barbaro. The chapel of Tempietto was added about 20 years after the construction of the villa was finished. In 1934 Giuseppe Volpi di Misurata acquired the villa and restored it to its present state. His ancestors still occupy the villa.

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Popular Sports in Venice

Popular Sports in Venice


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide What to See and Do Popular Sports

The Lido features a long, narrow sandy strip, the vast majority of which is leased to hotels. So, if you reside at a hotel, which has beach admission included in the price, you can head for the area, assigned to your hotel. If that is not the case, you can either pay for admission or get on the bus to Alberoni or Malamocco, where beaches are free, but can get rather crowded and have no facilities. The Lido should be your first choice if you are planning to do more than lie around in the sun. There is a wide range of water sports, beach volley and aerobics (for organised games and sports activities, check the sign board at the reception of your hotel).
Jogging.
(Photo by: glumus)

Jogging
The Zattere region offers an excellent jogging route, combining city views with sea air. Nature lovers may prefer the Lido beach while it is still deserted in the early mornings, while if you want a historic jog, there is a 6-7km long jog through the heart of Venice, which is best tried very early in the morning while the streets are still not packed with tourists. Start at the Piazza San Marco and head to the Riva degli Schiavoni. The refreshing end of the jog is at the fine pine woods of SantElena.

Cycling

(Photo by: triffo)

Although it may sound hard to believe at first, but Venice is a very popular cycling destination. A waterbus service has been recently put into operation to meet the needs of cyclists on weekends and on public holidays. As the space on the waterbus is limited, it is advisable that you get a ticket for it in advance in Mestre (shopping centre Le Barche), or at the ticket offices at Punta Sabbioni, Santa Maria Elisabetta or Piazzale Roma. Currently, two routes are available: San Giuliano, Sant'Erasmo Capannone, Lido San Nicol, and return, Punta Sabbioni, Lido San Nicol, Sant'Erasmo Capannone and return. The individual price for an adult (each adult can seat one child on a childs seat) return ticket (valid for one day) is 9.50 EUR. Discounts are available for families and groups above ten people. Further information is available from: Prontovela/Events on tel. 899 909 090 (paid service) daily from 7:30 to 20:00.

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Useful Information about Venice

Useful Information about Venice


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide Useful Information

When to Come
It is always a good time to visit Venice - it is a lively place all year round and it has been years since the term tourist season has gone out of use here. However, if you are interested in particular festivities, like the Venice Carnevale, the Film Festival, The Biennale, etc, you should check their time schedule. On the other hand, if you are looking for a more peaceful period, you should avoid the summer season, the New Year celebrations, Easter and any prolonged weekends that may trigger a major wave of tourists from both Italy and the nearby countries. The Acqua Alta - the high waters, is not a period in Venice but an occurence which may be related to numerous factors and usually last one to two hours, so you have nothing to worry about but ruining a pair of good shoes. Yet, spring is the period when acqa alta is most common.

Getting Here
Marco Polo is the nearest airport, lying to the south of the city, busy all year round Check www.marcopoloairport.it for further information. Located just 12 km by road and 10km by sea from Venice, Marco Polo is directly connected with the railway station of the city, as well. Flight Information Desk can be reached daily between 07.00 a.m. and midnight on +39 041 260 9260 Automatic information on the incoming flights of the day is available at +39 041 260 9240 Automatic information on the outgoing flights of the day is given at +39 041 260 9250

Ferry boats are a popular and enjoyable way to reach Venice.


(Photo by: unknown)

Treviso Airport is roughly 30km away from Venice and there is an EuroBus service to Mestre (the railway station) and Venezia (Piazzale Roma).The service is tailored to the flights of BASIQ-AIR and RYANAIR. In addition to 35 international destinations, it is connected to Rome, Pisa and Torino. Detailed information is available on +39 0422 315 111 or at www.trevisoairport.it By train: A train will leave you at the Santa Lucia station on the Grand Canal, from where you have a choice of walking or getting on the water-bus to reach the part of city you need. By boat: Regular ferry boat lines from Greece (Patras and Igumenitsa) can bring you to the port of Venice. High-speed catamarans connect Pula (Croatia) to Venice during the summer season. By car: S11 from nearby Mestre is the only road leading to Venice. At Tronchetto and Piazzale Roma there are extensive car parks to leave your car as cars are not allowed in the city itself. Alternatively, you can go to Lido di Jesolo and leave your car there at the hotel or at the car park at the port (Punta Sabbioni) and arrive in the city by regular ferry boat (traghetto). By bus: Most Italian and many European cities maintain regular bus lines to Venice or Mestre.

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Useful Information about Venice

Safety Tips
Up-to-date information on pharmacies is available at local daily newspapers such as Il Gazzettino and La Nuova Venezia. Hotel receptions usually list them, too, look for A Guest in Venice (Un ospite di Venezia). If you have travel insurance, it is best to first call the emergency line of your insurer so they can direct you to the nearest institution they have a contract with. Otherwise go to Ospedale Civile - the principal hospital of the city and look for Pronto soccorso (Emergency). Street address: Campo dei Santi Giovanni e Paolo 6777. Tel: 041 529 4111. This is where you can get urgent dental care as well. Ospedale Umberto I is on the mainland, which makes it suitable for guests of Mestre. The street address is Via Circonvallazione 50 or you can call 041 260 7111.

Internet cafe.
(Photo by: vixs)

The main post office of Venice is located at the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, the former commercial centre of the German merchants near the Rialto Bridge. It is well worth a visit not only to get stamps, but also to try to imagine the atmosphere when the building served its original purpose. Poste restante is addressed to Fermo Posta, Fonaco dei Tedeschi, 80100 Venezia and receiver can get it between 8.15 a.m. and 6.45 p.m. from Monday to Saturday showing their passport. Stamps are available from Monday to Saturday from 8.15 a.m. to 7 p.m., while telegrams can be sent at any time of day or night. If no internet access is available at your hotel, check the numerous internet points around the city. Their normal rate is about 3-5 EUR per half an hour and the longer youre online the less you pay per minute.

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Getting around in Venice

Getting around in Venice


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide Useful Information Getting around

Coming in by Ship
Those coming by ship are left on the port of San Marco, from where Alilaguna water buses bring them to all major points in the city. The time-table and current itinerary of the waterbuses are available at www.alilaguna.it

Reaching Venice by Plane


The Marco Polo Airport maintains direct flights to 104 world destinations in 33 countries. In addition, flights from all over Italy makes it easy for you to reach Venice from numerous spots in the country. Check www.marcopoloairport.it for further information. Located just 12 km by road and 10km by sea from Venice, Marco Polo is directly connected with the railway station of the city, as well.
Approaching the City of the Lagoon by ship.
(Photo by: tygerlyl)

Flight Information Desk can be reached daily between 07.00 a.m. and midnight on +39 041 260 9260 Automatic information on the incoming flights of the day is available at +39 041 260 9240 Automatic information on the outgoing flights of the day is given at +39 041 260 9250 Treviso Airport is 3 km from the centre of Treviso on the SS 515 road in the direction of Padova. It is roughly 30km away from Venice and there is an EuroBus service to Mestre (the railway station) and Venezia (Piazzale Roma).The service is tailored to the flights of BASIQ-AIR and RYANAIR. In addition to 35 international destinations, it is connected to Rome, Pisa and Torino. Detailed information is available on +39 0422 315 111 or at www.trevisoairport.it

Railway Travellers
If you have picked railway as a means of travel around Italy, you are in luck, because the city busy railway station, Santa Lucia, is well-connected to the rest of Italy by Eurostar trains, Intercities and Interregional and local trains. The station offers luggage trolleys which can be used all the way to the water bus stop if you use the side exit, which shortens your journey to the water buses. If you prefer walking instead, 10 minutes of normal-pace walking should take you to the beginning of the historic parts of the city. Luggage can be left at the luggage department near platform 14, which operates daily from 6am to midnight. If you consider help with the luggage around the city, you may want to turn to the Cooperativa Trasbagagli on +39 041 520 3070. Railways website www.trenitalia.it is at your disposal for up-to-date itineraries, timetables and reduction opportunities.

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Getting around in Venice

Car Tourists
Reaching Venice by car is not difficult as the city is well connected with the rest of Italy. If you are driving from Trieste or Turin, get on A4, SS14 is a good choice if you start in Trieste, too. If you are coming from the side of Belluno, A27 is your best bet. If you start your trip from Bologna, the A13 is the obvious choice. Treviso is connected to Venice by SS 13. If your journey to Venice begins in Padua, get on the SS11. If you first wandered around the Adriatic coast, look for SS 309 on the map - the easiest way to reach the Lagoon. All roads are very well-signed and following the direction of Venice should present no problem. When in the vicinity of the city, look for signs for the Ponte della Libert - the city connection to the mainland and head further to Venice. The road will bring you to Piazzale Roma where you have to leave you car and go on to the city on foot or water bus.

Canal in Venice.
(Photo by: unknown)

Parking lots around Piazzale Roma include: Autorimessa Comunale, Garage S.Marco and the S.Andrea open-air parking lot. TheTronchetto island offers a large parking lot. After parking there you can get on the 82 water bus to reach Venice Mestre - before reaching Ponte della Libert there are several car parks. If you do not park here but still want to leave your car in Mestre, head for the parking areas opposite the railway station and then hop on the bus 2 or get on a train to Santa Lucia railway station. Paid parking lots with convenient connections to Venice include: ASM Venezia Piazzale Roma Garage: +39 041 272 7301 Parking Sant'Andrea: +39 041 272 7304 ASM Parking San Giuliano: +39 041 532 2632 ASM Mestre Piazzale Candiani: +39 041 976 844 or +39 041 985 616 Isola del Tronchetto: +39 041 520 7555 Venezia Garage San Marco: +39 041 523 2213 Fusina Park Terminal: +39 041 547 0160 Garage Europa (Mestre) +39 041 959 202 Garage Marco Polo (Marco Polo airport): +39 041 541 5913

By Bike

Although a city on water, Venice is easily seen on foot, both individually and on the countless guided tours around the city. Renting a bike is possible, too, and easily done at the hotels in the Lido area as well as at tourist agencies such as: BICICLETTE NOLEGGIO Street address: VIALE S. MARIA ELISABETTA Tel: +39 041 5268019 www.lidoonbike.it RENT BIKE Caorle Venezia Tel:+39 338 887 4240 +39 338 860 1794 +39 393 815 5341 www.caorlebike.com corrado@alfa.it NOLEGGIO CICLI Gardin Anna Valli Lido di Venezia 2/A Piazzala Santa Maria Elisabetta

Cycling is a good way to see Venice and not feel guilty while enjoying the delicious Italian cuisine.
(Photo by: (claude05)

www.veniceguideandboat.it/bike_tour.htm offers interesting opportunities for biking around the city. For more such opportunities check the organised tours section or just get on a bike, get an up-to-date map and make your own trip.

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Organised Tours in Venice

Organised Tours in Venice


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide Useful Information Organised Tours

Venice is abundant in tourist agencies and transport offices, offering an incredibly large range of organized tours, featuring the city and its surroundings. They vary in length (from 35 mins to full-day), topic, means of transportation, time of day, size of group... It is best to check your options before you go to Venice and if possible, even book a tour in advance (especially if you have special interests and are visitting during the high season). Here is a list of some of the options you might want to consider, but even if you already have a general idea of what you plan to see, it is best if you have not pre-booked your tours to get hold of the local tourist information magazines as soon as you arrive and scroll your best options.
The gondola rides are an indispensible and truly Venetian experience.
(Photo by: mambo1935)

Venice walk and Grand Canal tour - this is an essential Venice tour which takes you on a guided walk through the narrow streets of the city starting from Piazza San Marco and finishing at the Rialto bridge. In three hours it gives important information on significant monuments and historical events in the city and infuses the bug for further exploration later on your trip.

A Gondola ride with serenade - sounds more romantic than it actually is, but it is a pleasant half-an-hour ride on gondolas along the beginning of the Grand Canal and some of the smaller rios, connected to it. If a private gondola ride is beyond your means, this is what you should go for and if you are keen on experiencing the ride, you had better book before arrival as otherwise it is not very likely that you will be able to do so exactly on the day you planned. Some agencies offer the gondola ride in the evening, packaged with dinner at a Venetian restaurant, while yet others offer it as a complement to a half-day trip to the islands of Murano and Burano, taken from Punta Sabbioni. The Bragolla tour is on another kind of traditional Venetian boat, but unlike gondolas, this boat is perfectly suited for families with smaller children as well. People with special interests have endless possibilities for exploration in Venice: horticulture-lovers will enjoy the Venice garden tour http://www.tours-venice-italy.com/gardens-of-venice-tour.shtml http://www.runningtouritaly.com/ - health fanatics will find the perfect way of seeing Venice the healthy way - on a running tour, starting at the Piazzetta columns and featuring the most picturesque parts of Venice. If you feel like exploring the hinterland of the city, go on a bike tour to the Dolomites or the Treviso area, which you can book privately or be part of a group: http://www.tours-venice-italy.com/bikestoursvenice.shtml Wine tasting tours are widely available, in combination with a boat trip or a walk around the city. Explore Venetian legends at the Castello and Cannaregio districs: http://www.tours-venice-italy.com/venetian-legends-tour.shtml Art lovers can take specialised art and cultural tours like Venetian painting from the 14th to the 18th centuries, including a visit to the Accademia or concentrate on the 18th century and the CaRezzonico gallery. Church art and the history of the Venition Scuole are revealed in a tour, visitting San Rocco and the Frari church.

A colourful panorama of the Burano island - the fishermens island of lace.


(Photo by: martino.pizzol)

And all these are just a beginning, to make you dig deeper and pursue your interests and quench your thirst for knowledge, excitement and new experiences while in Venice.

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Communication in Venice

Communication in Venice
World Europe Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide Useful Information Communication

Telephone services are widely available in the resorts around the old city, but if you need to make a phone call from the very heart of Venice, you can do so right off the main post office (Fondaco dei Tedeschi), in Strada Nova in the Cannaregio district or in Calle San Luca in the San Marco area. The office at Piazzale Roma is open daily from 8.30 a.m. to 9 p.m. Otherwise buy a phone card at a tobacco shop (widely available) and make any distance phone call using it on any telephone in the city. However, if you plan a longer call, it might be worth getting to the post office as there you are charged after the call and rates tend to be lower. The main post office of Venice is located at the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, the former commercial centre of the German merchants near the Rialto Bridge. It is well worth a visit not only to get stamps, but also to try to imagine the atmosphere when the building served its original purpose. Poste restante is addressed to Fermo Posta, Fonaco dei Tedeschi, 80100 Venezia and receiver can get it between 8.15 a.m. and 6.45 p.m. from Monday to Saturday showing their passport. Stamps are available from Monday to Saturday from 8.15 a.m. to 7 p.m., while telegrams can be sent at any time of day or night.

Branch offices: Calle dellAscensione, west of San Marco, working hours: 8.10 a.m.-1.25 p.m. from Monday to Friday, while on Saturdays it closes at noon. Zattere 1406 has the same opening hours. Stamps are also available from the tobaccho shops and from most gift shops, selling postcards. If no internet access is available at your hotel, check the numerous internet points around the city. Their normal rate is about 3-5 EUR per half an hour and the longer youre online the less you pay per minute. Venetian navigator - Castello 5300, on Casselleria, between Piazza San Marco and Campo Santa Maria Formosa Venice connection - San Polo 2898a, Calle Campaniel Net house - San Marco, Campo San Stefano Planet Internet - Cannaregio, Rio Tera San Leonardo

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Environment - Will Venice Sink?

Environment - Will Venice Sink?


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide Useful Information Environment

The sinking of the City of the Lagoon probably started about six centuries ago, when its inhabitants, anxious to guard themselves from mainland attacks, reversed the flow of the rivers going into the Lagoon, to prevent them from connecting the Lagoon islands to the mainland by layering the materials they carry into the sea. The 20th century brought a new danger for the city - artesian wells, which protrude deep into the ground to get water for the developing industry. However, the city, built on solid wood trunks, could not bear the drills into its foundations. The damage is visible at many houses, whose owners have abandoned the ground floors, which several centuries ago were dry enough to be used as storage rooms. What is more, a large number of houses used to have a short flight of steps, leading to the entrance door, almost none of which is visible today. To help Venice, the 1960s saw the implementation of the ban of artesian wells and although according to some researchers this View of Venice. has stopped the sinking of the city, many still believe that much (Photo by: zabroda) more has to be done to save it from the water. Two good solutions have been found: the first one will allegedly save Venice for 100 years and includes the positioning of 79 inflatable pontoons on the sea bed, which would be inflated by means of a mechanism after each tide to prevent it from bothering the city in the form of the infamous acqua alta. This idea appealed to Italian Prime minister Silvio Berlusconi, who put it into action under the so-called MOSE project, the completion of which is expected in 2011 Others, however, claim that the other solution is better as it is permanent and, unlike the first one, has no negative ecological impact. It basically boils down to pumping water under the foundations of the sea, raising the level of the city, which will permanently solve its sinking problem.

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Specific Travelers in Venice

Specific Travelers in Venice


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide Useful Information Specific Travelers

Seeing Venice on a budget might be rather difficult without substantial planning and informing well ahead. To get to Venice get on a train (and check available reductions at the moment) or even better, check the Treviso airport for low-cost flights. If you book ahead, finding decent lodging should not be too expensive, especially if you are prepared to rent a room at the residential areas of Venice, a little off the beaten tourist track - look for such lodging in San Polo, Dorsoduro, Cannaregio and Castello. Even then, it will be wiser to avoid the summer months and travel in the early spring or late autumn as lodging then tends to be cheaper. Getting the Venice card will be a good idea, especially if you plan on visitting city-owned museums and galleries (which, by the way, are some of the best in town). If travelling on a budget you will have to avoid the common tourist routes in order to get a better value for your money. Tourist menus tend to be cheaper, larger, tastier and more varied the deeper you go into the Venetian maze (and the further away you get from the San Marco area).

Make sure you spare some money for buying food to feed the doves on San Marco - it is part of the Venetian tourist traditian.
(Photo by: Kieran Limam)

Traveling with Kids


Even when travelling with kids options for lodging in Venice and the area are countless. It depends on how much you are ready to spend on accommodation and what you would like to do, which places you are interested in. Staying in hotels near the airport or the train station is an option, but in summer you will be much better off at a hotel at the Lido, especially if you want to spend part of your time at the beach, equipped with all facilities and offering a wide range of water sports and other beach activities. There you would not have to worry about food for the kids as well as apart from beach bars, the main street of the Lido is just behind the beach, so you can hop for a quick pizza or pasta and come back. In addition, hotels at the Lido usually have entrance to their private area on the beach included in the price. If you stay at the Lido you have an opportunity for family cycling as well, as most of the hotels will rent you a bike so you can all look around the resort or probably head for its agricultural vicinities. If you have rented a car, or have come in your own car, there will be no problem leaving it in the parking lot at Punta Sabbioni and getting on a traghetto which will take you to San Marco in under half an hour. Staying in Venice is obviously the choice for those who want to inhale as much of the Venetian city spirit as possible. This may be expensive if you are looking for a decent lodging with good breakfast options. However, many of the B&B places, especially in the Dorsoruro and Cannaregio areas may offer the comfort of a hotel, true Venetian atmosphere and a hearty breakfast for a comparatively good price. If you opt for this kind of lodging, however, make sure you book well in advance, so you would not end up disappointed.

While this one-star hotel may have its charms, while travelling with kids you will probably want to avoid such atmospheric views of your courtyard.
(Photo by: unknown)

Camping is another option, but if with kids you might want to have a well-facilitated camps, such as San Niccolo on the Lido.

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Specific Travelers in Venice

Sights
Depending on the age and the interests of your children, you can visit a wide range of sights, which, together with the vaporetto and probably, the gondola ride, will be an unforgettable experience for your children. Organised tours may be a good option, especially those featuring some of the islands of the Lagoon, such as Murano (the Glass Island) and Burano (the Lace Island). Trips to the Venetian countriside can be both relaxing and enjoyable for the whole family, especially if you take an organised tour around some of the villas of the Venetian aristocracy.

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History and Culture of Venice

History and Culture of Venice


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide History and Culture

Venice is the capital of region Veneto situated in northern Italy. This small picturesque city with a 1400-year history is also known as the City of Bridges, City of Water, City of Light, Queen of the Adriatic, La Dominante and La Serenissima. It makes an ideal destination for tourists in search for extraordinary monuments. Even Venice's less known sights are well worth seeing. The city's busiest times are during the holidays and in the summer months. From the 2nd to the 6th century AD, Roman cities were destroyed by the invasions of Germanic and Asian tribes. These raids forced the people of the Veneto region to flee to the Venetian Lagoon. The communities on the islands began to establish a certain autonomy in the 6th century, appointing their representatives under the rule of Byzantine governors from Ravenna. In AD 726 the first duke was elected. By the 12th century A canal in Venice. the city developed into the Republic of Venice and became an important (Photo by: jade_3) commercial center thanks to its strategic position. Venice's growing power allowed it to produce a number of merchant- and warships, known as the Venetian Arsenal. Along with a strong navy, Venice also developed a powerful army. By AD 1200, the Republic had expanded to the eastern shores of the Adriatic coast. In 1204 Venice led the Fourth Crusade to Constantinople. Seizing the capital of the Byzantine Empire brought Venice a notable amount of treasures along with the territories won during the crusade. This event also consolidated Venice's status of an imperial power. By the end of the 13th century Venice became the dominating commercial center of the Mediterranean. Wealthy merchant families were able to build the famous Venetian palaces and to support the development of art, architecture and literature. Venice's culture flourished especially during the Settecento period of the 1700s, making it one of the most influential European cities. Venice remained the most prosperous European city until its decline in the 15th century, when the Turks began to gain control of Constantinople and the access to the Adriatic Sea. The city lost many of its territories in a 30-year war against the Turks. Events compromising Venice's power continued with Spain's discovery of the Americas in 1492 and opening of alternative commercial routes to India by Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498. After losing its trading route monopoly, Venice was devastated by two outbreaks of the Black Death. In 1669 it lost its last Mediterranean stronghold, Crete, but remained a major manufacturer and exporter until the mid-18th century. In 1797 Venice was conquered by Napoleon Bonaparte. Venice is built on 117 islands interconnected by 410 bridges. It is famous for its canals, which are used as roads and travelled by gondolas. Venice produced many famous artists and adventurers. Its best known explorer was Marco Polo, who travelled the Silk Road to China and whose journeys are known worldwide.

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Brief History - Rise and Fall of the City of the Lagoon

Brief History - Rise and Fall of the City of the Lagoon


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide History and Culture Brief History

When during the 2nd century AD successive Germanic attacks forced population of Roman cities such as Aquileia, Altino, Padua and others, to seek safety in the marshes of the lagoon, locked between Piave and Po, no one could have predicted that the spot would eventually house one of the greatest cities in the world, which would not lose, but increase its appeal as centuries would go by.

A Humble Beginning
The small settlement in the lagoon would increase its population after each major attack on the Roman Empire from the north. Especially turbulent A pretty accurate Medieval map of Venice. seem to have been the 5th and the 6th centuries, when Visigoths, Huns (Photo by: ToastyKen) and Lombards demolished numerous flourishing cities and left homeless survivors of the attacks, many of which settled in the lagoon. The newly built ports of Malamocco and Torcello became focal points in the lagoon, attracting people of all classes and skills. At the time the lagoon, as well as a large part of northeast Italy was under Byzantine domination. However, as centuries went by, especially after Aistulf conquered the Exarchate of Ravenna in 751, Byzant had little power and resources to maintain its position in the area. In those early years, the centre of power in the lagoon was Malamocco, where the Byzantine governor (duke, doux, later doge), and later the bishop were seated. Duke Agnello Particiaco (811-827) moved the seat of the doge to Rialto (Riva Alto - High Banks) for safety reasons. The place has remained the heart of Venice to this day. The first versions of the Doges Palace and the Basilica San Marco were soon constructed as well as the monastery of St. Zachary and defense walls to protect the new city centre were built. 825 was a year to remember in Venice - the relics of St. Mark the Evangelist were brought from Alexandria and deposited in the new church. This memorable event coincided with a period of decline in Byzantine power, which brought about the independence of the city from Byzant and the establishment of the Republica Marinara.

Rise to Power
The time between the 9th and the 12th centuries was used by Venice to lay the foundations for its future power, expansion and glory. It developed into a thalocracy (one of four at the time in Northern Italy), and called itself Republica Marinara. Until the 1170s it was governed by an autocratic doge. Those early centuries saw Venice expand in all directions - deep in the mainland of northeast Italy, to ensure wheat crops, on which the city depended, north to protect the Alpine roots, by which silver was carried from Germany to be further exported. The opposite coast of the Adriatic, lined with numerous islands, now in Croatia, was back then a convenient base for pirates, which threatened the flourishing trade Venice had developed between Central and Western Europe and Byzant and the Arab lands. Therefore Dalmatia and Istria were conquered, followed by the Ionian islands and islands as remote as The first version of Palazzo Ducale in the city was Crete and Cyprus, which were turned into marine bases. Aware of its constructed during this period. unique position, which allowed the city to develop into a rich trade focal (Photo by: unknown) point, Venice took care of its safety in various ways. Not only it built thick defense walls, but it used the power of diplomacy and bribe to ensure the loyalty of its immediate neighbours (Verona, Bergamo, Brescia, etc.), who benefited in more than one way from the power of Venice and who therefore promptly came to its rescue every time the city`s independence was at stake.

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Brief History - Rise and Fall of the City of the Lagoon

La Republica Serenissima
1204 marked a new era for Venice - already a major power in the Mediterranean. The city took part in the Fourth Crusade, during which Constantinople became a centre of the short-lived Latin Empire, established with the help of the Venetians. It was at that time that numerous pieces of art were stolen from churches and temples in and around Constantinople and taken to Venice. Although about 50 years later Byzantine powers recaptured Constantinople, the city and the Byzantine Empire would never fully recover from the stroke and would often turn to Venice for financial support until the city was finally taken over by the Turks in 1453. Given that Venice had aided Constantinople financially in times of crises for centuries before it was seized by the Turks, the city seemed a logical place for the city elite, artisans and scholars to flee to after the fall of their city. More pieces of art, saved by citizens of Constantinople ended up in Venice, where they would become part of the city decore. The most famous of them are probably the bronze gilt horses, from then on adorning the facade of the St. Mark`s Cathedral. The 13th century brought not only extra power to Venice, but also a new way of government. Instead of an autocratic Doge, the city was then managed by the Great Council, which included all wealthier citizens, which elected among themselves a Senate of 200-300 members. The Senate elected a Doge and he held that title all his life. This political system was similar to the one of the Roman Republic, leaving ordinary citizens little political impact. Just like in Rome, influential families rivalled over political power, which was a key to an even greater wealth. However, as the Doge had a lifetime mandate, forcing a Doge from a rival family into an early monastic retirement was not an uncommon scenario in Venice. The 13th century was notable for Venice in terms of its appearance as well - increasing power and wealth, as well as the influx of Byzantine artisans were reflected in the fine (Photo by: tc_tse) architecture of the the buildings (palazzi), lavishly commissioned by the rich Venetian families, many of which still stand today. The artists and scholars, who found refuge in the city, turned it into the cradle of Renaissance. The tolerant, cosmopolitan spirit of the city would continue to draw enlightened minds from all over Europe in the following centuries. In contrast to the rest of the continent, where the Dark Ages would deprive millions of their lives on accusations of heresy and witchcraft, Venice refused to abide by the church rules and not a single of its citizens lost its life on such pretences, although this attitude made the city less than favourite at the Papacy, and the city was even interdicted from the Roman Catholic Church on two occasions, the second time in 1509.
The horses of St.Mark, have been among the landmarks of the city since the day they were shipped from Constantinople.

The city had no knight tenure, and the only chivelry order ever to exist in the city was the Cavalieri of San Marco. While in its earlier days the city had produced mercenaries to fight under foreign flags, its development gradually imposed the need for foreign mercenaries to be engaged in the military expansion of the city.

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Brief History - Rise and Fall of the City of the Lagoon

The Beginning of the End


The scene for Venice`s fall as a major commercial, political and military power in Europe and the world was set in the 15th century when the city lost many of its Aegean conquests to the Turks. The series of unsuccessful campaigns began with a 7-year campaign to recapture Thessaloniki from the Turks, then its attempt to save Constantinople some 20 years later failed, but engaged the city in a 30-year conflict with the Ottomans, from which the city would emerge with considerable territorial and financial losses. However, la Serenissima would have probably bounced back, like it had done many times before, if it were not for the upcoming new age, the age of the great geographical discoveries, where the discoveries of new continents and lands and shorter routes to already known lands would mark the beginning of the end of Venetian domination. Portugal became the focal point of European trade, while Spain and France divided the Italian lands between themselves. England and Holland, too, entered the competition for conquering new lands and establishing colonies in remote spots of the earth. This new age somehow took Venice by surprise, it didn`t manage to foresee it and prepare for it - its ships were not fit for the long journeys they were supposed to make across the oceans and the city had no financial means to aid its fleet`s modernisation after three subsequent hard strikes of plague. However, although on a smaller scale, the city managed to keep commercial connections and maintain its independence until it was taken by Napoleon Bonaparte on 12 May, 1797.

The Death of the Republica Marinara


After Napoleon was defeated, Venice was given to the Austrian Empire. However, this coincided with the Risorgimento movement in Italy and after the Kingdom of Italy had helped Prussia defeat the Austrian forces, Venice was faced with a referendum which would decide its fate - with only 24 negative and over 600 000 positive votes, Venice joined the Kingdom of Italy in 1866 and has been the political, administrative, economic and above all, cultural centre of the region of Veneto ever since.

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Politicans and Military Leaders in Venice

Politicans and Military Leaders in Venice


World Europe Countries and Military Leaders Italy Cities Venice Local Guide History and Culture Brief History Politicans

Venice has played an important role in the history of Europe thanks to some great political and military leaders who managed to lead a small town to become one of the most powerful countries in the world for centuries.

Enrico Dandolo (1107 - 1205), Doge of Venice


Enrico Dandolo was born into a high-ranking Venetian family and served the Republic as an ambassador and probably a military person throughout his long political career. He played a significant role in the Fourth Crusade, developing a financial plan for Venice to be paid by the Crusaders for the ships they had commissioned but had difficulty paying. Due to his grown influence in the Crusadersheadquarters, he managed to convince them to help Venice recapture the port of Zara (modern Zadar in the Republic of Croatia) on the Eastern Adriatic. How much his word counted by the time the Fourth Crusade had reached Constantinople can be judged by the numerous benefits and strong political position he was able to negotiate for Venice after taking Constantinople. It is believed that a severe blow to the head somewhere between 1174 and 1176 left him blind for the rest of his life. This handicap, however, did not prevent him from becoming Doge of Venice in 1192 and holding the title to his death at 98. His most remarkable achievement as a Doge is the currency reform he undertook two years after taking office. Due to the success of the reform Venetian currency (Grosso) would become one of the most valued in Europe in the centuries to come, which would aid Venice on its way to prosperity and glory.

Enrico Dandolo.
(Photo by: wikipedia)

Francesco Foscari (1373 - 1457)


Francesco Foscaris influential background permitted him to climb high in the political hierarchy of the Republic from a very young age. Thus he served as an ambassador, an inquisitor, a member of the Council of Ten, a Procurator of San Marco, etc., before he was elected Doge in 1423. His rule was marked by the weary wars Venice and its alley, Florence, fought against Milan. Eventually, Francesco Sforza would prevail and Venice would face difficult times. In 1457 he had to resign from his office after his sons death as a prisoner in Crete. Under him the Doges Palace was enlarged and the outstanding Renaissance Porta della Carta was erected. The turbulent life of the father and the son Foscari would inspire Lord Byron for his play the Two Foscaries and Giuseppe Verdi for his opera - I Due Foscari, centuries after Venice had seen the last of the mighty Foscaries.

Porta della Carta of the Doges Palace, commissioned by Doge Francesco Foscari and executed by the Buon workshop.
(Photo by: Hugo Palma)

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Politicans and Military Leaders in Venice

Sebastiano Venier (1496 - 1578)


Sebastiano Venier(o) started his career as a lawyer, but his versatile abilities and knowledge lead him to important positions in the administration of the Republic. Yet another war against the Ottoman Turks would see him take the extremely high position of Chief Admiral, which in 1571, only a year after taking office, would distinguish him in the last great sea battle the Republic would win - the Battle of Lepanto. The great Christian victory boosted his popularity in the city and at the age of 81 he was elected Doge. However, the following year he died and many of his contemporaries claimed the reason was the terrible fire in the Doges Palace, which struck the building in 1578 and destroyed huge parts of it. His niece, Cecilia Venier-Baffo (Nur Banu), converted to Islam, married Sultan Selim II and became mother to Sultan Murad III.

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Defining Events in the History of Venice

Defining Events in the History of Venice


World Europe Events Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide History and Culture Brief History Defining

Year 452 466 526 568 697 810 828

Event Following the invasion of Atilas Huns sufficient mainland population seeks refuge on the islands of the largely unpopulated Lagoon of Venetia The first form of organisation of the settlements of the Lagoon emerged - the Council of the 12 Cities With the death of Ostrogoth King Theodoric, Venice came under the influence of the Roman Emperors A new wave of population finds shelter in the Lagoon following the attacks of the Lombards, settlements in the Lagoon are pushed further into the sea The first Doge (Dux - leader), Paoluccio Anafesto, was appointed Following the Frankish invasion, lead by Pipin, the first centralised settlement in the present-day location of Venice was founded on Rivo Alto The relics of St. Mark were shipped from Alexandria

c.1000 The Venetian Empire is established after the conquering of the Dalmatian coast 1177 1204 The Peace Treaty, signed in Venice between Pope Alexander III, Frederick Barbarossa and the Italian city-states laid the foundations of the upcoming Venetian liberalisation of nominal Byzantine rule The Forth Crusade, aided by Venice, captured Constantinopol, which for the City of the Lagoon brought wealth and an enviable territorial expansion - not only did it strengthen its postion in Dalmatia, but by military and diplomatic maneovres it managed to acquire the Cyclades and the Sporades, Crete and the Thessalian shore, which meant exclusive control over merchandise between Southern Europe and Asia Minor Venice and its long-term rival, Genoa, engaged in a series of wars, which although in the end the Venetians managed to fight the Genoese back, left the city deprived of a considerable part of its wealth With the election of Doge Francesco Foscari Venetian mainland territorial expansion was reinforced with the city occupying lands deep into the North Italian hinterland Venice acquired the island of Cyprus The League of Cambrai defeated Venice, marking the beginning of the citys decay The Ottoman Turks are pushed back in Venices last great sea victory at the Battle for Lepanto, where it was an alley to the Spanish King; the island of Cyprus was lost to the Ottoman Turks The first heavy plague blow stroke Venice, depriving it from half of its population The second plague epidemy took a third of the city population The Republic lost most of its Aegean and Marmorian sea lands Under the Passarowitz Peace Treaty the fate of the Republic was decided by the Austrian and the Turkish diplomats without Venice being able to interfere Venice lost its sovereignity to Napoleonic France A referendum was held in the city and the vast majority of citizens voted for the unification of Venice with the Kingdom of Italy

12551380 1423 1489 1509 1571 15751577 16301631 16691716 1717 1797 1866

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Arts in Venice

Arts in Venice
World Europe Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide History and Culture Arts

Teatro Malibran, behind San Giovanni Crisotomo is where you can enjoy classical music at its best, but sometimes jazz and rock-lovers have a reason to head there as well. Tickets are available at the Vela office in Piazzale Roma from Monday to Saturday from 8.30 a.m. to 6.30 p.m, Cassa di Risparmio di Venezia or at the La Fenice box office. The Malibran box office only sells what is left from the other ticket-selling places half an hour before the beginning of a performance. Three of the old Venetian Scuole Grande frequently stage classical concerts, particularly by 18-century composers: San Giovanni Evangelista, San Teodoro and San Rocco in Palazzo Stampalia or in the churches La Pieta(particularly associated with Vivaldis heritage), San Bartolomeo, Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, San Rocco, San Barnaba, Il Redentore, Santa Maria dei Miracoli, Ospedaletto. More information can be found at www.querinistampalia.it or by calling +39 041 271 14 11 Teatro Goldoni is worth checking for jazz performances. You can do that on +39 041 520 5422 or email a request for their programme at teatrogo@tin.it Sale Aplinee in La Fenice theatre stage chamber performances. Tickets are available from the La Fenice box office, while additional information can be found at www.teatrolafenice.it

La Sala at Teatro La Fenice.


(Photo by: Pavel Krok)

Musicians
Here are some names that have remained in the history of music as great Venetians.

Monteverdi, Claudio Giovanni Antonio (1567 - 1643)


Claudio Monteverdi was born in Cremona into the family of a doctor and pharmacist. At 15 he was already writing madrigals and other short musical forms, and only five years later his first (of nine) collection of madrigals was published. He spent more than 10 years in Mantua as a court gambista (viol player) and singer before he moved to Venice to perform and conduct at the San Marco Cathedral. Still in Mantua he wrote his first opera, LOrfeo, regarded as revolutionary at the time as it contained comedy and romantic scenes along with the traditional tragic ones. Among his best works from the Venetian period are two pieces, created in the last years of his life, based on the life of Roman Emperor Nero: the Coronation of Poppea and the Return from Ulysse, which are regularly performed to this day. On the whole Monteverdis heritage is valued as a brave step, leading from Renaissance to Baroque music in Italy and Europe. The composer died in Venice and was buried in the Chiesa dei Frari.

A portrait of Claudio Monteverdi by an unknown artist.


(Photo by: unknown)

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Arts in Venice

Vivaldi, Antonio Lucio (1678-1741)


Antonio Vivaldi was born in Venice as the son of a barber, who played the violin and who gave up his barber shop to engage professionally as a musician. He is known to be one of the founders of an organisation, which was like a trade union for the Venetian musicians at the time. His son, Antonio, although from an early age of poor health (probably suffering from an asthma condition) was not fit enough to play blow instruments, but turned out a gifted violinist, toured Italy with his father while still very young. The composing style of the father and some of his fellows from the union affected Antonios early works. Although an excellent performer, Antonio studied to become a priest and since the age of 25 was known as the Red Priest - Il Prete Rosso, probably because of his red hair, which ran as a family feature. However, (Photo by: Andreas Praefcke) from 1704 he no longer participated in mass due to his poor health and dedicated himself to music creation only. While working as a violin tutor at the Hospital of Mercy (Ospedale di Pieta) in Venice, he was actively composing. His first major breakthrough came in 1711 when LEstro Armonico, a cycle of 12 concerts for violins, was published in Amsterdam. In 1714 this success was repeated by the collection of concerts for solo violin, called Lestravaganza. In 1718 he started travelling around Europe as an established composer but his appointment with the Pietaremained. According to church documentation this institution alone commissioned 140 of Vivaldis concerts only between 1723 and 1733. His later years were spent in Europe while his last years he created in Vienna, where he died (he was buried where the Technical Museum now is). His cycle of concerts for violin, which his name is most associated with today, was published in 1725 but did not receive much attention at the time. Apart from that few people know that he also wrote more than 20 operas and virtually countles sacred pieces.
San Giovanni in Bragora is the institution which would come to be associated with the religion-inspired works of Antonio Vivaldi.

Film and Opera


La Fenice Theatre is the place for opera-lovers in Venice. It has been ranked in third place in Italy after Milans La Scala and Naples San Carlo. Tickets start from 20 EUR for regular shows while for premiers you will have to pay 40 EUR or more. The season starts in the last days of November and lasts until June. Cards are available at the theatre box office or at Hello Venezia office in Calle dei Fuseri in the San Marco area from 8.30 a.m. to 6.30 p.m. Updated information about the shows is available at www.teatrolafenice.it All-year-round the cinemas in Venice show mostly box-office Hollywood productions, dubbed in Italian, so most other places willprovide you with better memories. However, if youre in the city at the time of the Film Festival, stroll to Campo San Polo to enjoy a film in the open-air cinema (well, dubbed in Italian again, but the atmosphere is definitely worth the walk).

Scarlett Johanson and John Travolta at the Venice Film Festival.


(Photo by: vincent.pennel)

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Architecture of Venice

Architecture of Venice
World Europe Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide History and Culture Architecture

Venice is, undoubtedly, one of the most beautiful cities of the world and has been so for quite some time - its best years began in the 12th -13th centuries, when many of its rivals were mere villages or did not exist at all, and the city miraculously continues to shine even today, when its glorious history and specific architecture have long replaced commerce as principal breadwinners. Due to its location in a marshy lagoon, building in Venice has always been an issue - local architects and engineers, well acquainted with the peculiarities of the Venetian terrain, were preferred in the great majority of cases. Safety and durability here have always come before beauty and novelty, function - before glitter and innovation.

Venetian canal.
(Photo by: zabroda)

The canals

The about 150 canals in Venice wind around the 118 islands and islets of the Lagoon, forming a unique maze. Some of the canals are in fact natural . channels, while others, smaller ones, were dug by mendicant orders and wealthy citizens following the construction of a convent, church or palazzo as the Venetian law required each building to be accessible by water. Some of the natural channels, on the other hand, were covered (which happened for example to the narrow channel, separating the islets of San Michele and San Christoforo when the graveyard on San Christofor was broadened to San Michele). As even today the water does not allow a proper plumbing and clever, but labour-intensive ways have been found to get rid of the waste, for centuries all waste waters went straight into the canals, which must have rendered Venice less than a pleasant city to live in. The gondolas are invariably associated with the canals of Venice. Over centuries of navigating through the maze of the city canals, a unique form, which had proved best for the shallow waters of the Lagoon emerged and is implemented, almost unchanged even today. The long tradition of Venetian trade on water has been kept, although only partially in Venice. On any given day you will easily spot a boat, standing on a curve of a rio (small canal), with its proprietor selling fresh fruit and vegetables he has shipped the same morning from his small farm in the vicinity of the city, just as his predecessors had been doing for centuries.

The Palazzi
The Italian word palazzo, although commonly translated into palace in English, means in fact a larger building of several floors. Therefore the Venetian pallazzi were the homes of wealthier families, but most of them by no means fulfill the criteria for a palace in the general sense. This is best illustrated Canal Grande. by the local denomination these large homes were granted with (Photo by: dodo1976) in Venice - Casa (house) or just Ca.This said, while exploring the Venetian palazzi, we should bear in mind that Venetians were prohibited by law to overdecorate the exterior of their homes and only the facades were allowed decoration, and even that could not be overdone. Because of the water and the marshy ground the architects and engineers had to cope with, the majority of the houses were erected on massive oak foundations, the oak having been shipped even from parts of modern continental Croatia, such as Slavonia. The typical Venetian palazzo consists of a ground floor with an entrance at water level, plastered in stone and two piani nobili, the storeys, used for living.

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The ground level premises were used as storage rooms mostly. Both piani nobili had an identical layout - a big room, where parties were thrown, overlooking the biggest waterway (most commonly it was the Grand Canal), flanked by one or two smaller rooms on each side, where the family actually lived. This layout was kept for centuries on end and has become one of the major features of the Venetian palazzi. It can be easily descerned from the outside as the two or, more often, three, windows of the main hall are visible set apart from the windows of the other rooms. The mezzanine floor came later on and was deliberately constructed with a lower ceiling as for much of the year it housed the servants while the family only spent there the coldest days of winter as it was easier to warm. Another characteristic, typical of the Venetian palazzi is the uniformity of style. Although Venice is undoubtedly the cradle of the Renaissance, in architecture this style set in almost two centuries after it had already flourished in other Italian cities, such as Florence. Even then it continued to borrow much of the Gothic style it came to substitute, creating an unseen before fuse of stylistic elements, which the cityscape came to be associated with. The Venetian Renaissance in architecture bears little influence with that of Florence. Its first masters were inspired by Classical buildings in Rome and even in Greece, and preserved the clarity of form and the the general lightness and harmony of the construction and decoration. Once you see the upper floor of the Doges Palace, it seems the decoration of its windows comes back to haunt you at CaDario, CadOro and many more - by copying the decorative and structural elements the Venetian nobles displayed their closeness to the seat of power and this is probably another reason for the uniformity of the Venetian style.

The churches
The churches in Venice, the ones that have survived to modern times, were almost all built by Venetian-born masters or masters from the Veneto region, most of who had received part of their education in Venice. It is also common that in place of one dilapidated church comes a new church, some spots have housed churches since the 7th-9th centuries. In Venice, the spot for a church was selected with utmost care, which meant, was the most promising in terms of ground stability, so when after several centuries of use the building reached a state beyond repair, it was only logical that another temple should be erected in its exact place.

A Venetian palace.
(Photo by: Purjeet)

Over the centuries, Venetian masters accumulated a considerable amount of knowledge on how to build safe, stable constructions on marshy grounds. They employed a series of tricks, such as cupola-like, vaulted ceilings, which were much lighter than those, made elsewhere. Architects like Codussi were appreciated for their ability to create space, light and harmony, using unusually light elements, highlighting them with contrast colours - an innovation many would try to copy later. As the churches were constructed on the most secure pieces of land in the Lagoon, they were the traditional burial places for the Venetians. The high-ranking officials and the aristocratic families had their tombs either in the crypts of the churches or on the ground level, usually distinguished by a chapel. Both the tombs and the chapels feature some magnificent examples of ingenious construction and decoration. Often the best sculptors and architects were commissioned for them. However, the city folk had no choice but to be buried in the church yards and, as soil was scarce, you will probably count yourself lucky not to have been in the yard of a Venetian church after a rainy patch. Numerous medieval travelers reported on the horrible smell from the graves and as they were so shallow and the caskets were wooden, it was not uncommon that during acqua alta the remains of the dead contaminated the drinking water (the wells were often near the churches - in the yards or in the campo which the church overlooked). This function of the churches was only banned after Napoleon Bonaparte conquered the city, and, appalled by the smell, ordered a cemetery to be built on the islet of San Cristoforo.

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Architecture of Venice

The facades of some churches in Venice are so plain that you hardly notice them amongst the labyrinths of the city. What is less known is that this is how most churches in Venice looked initially. In fact, few received exterior decoration within a century after their construction. The reason why a good deal of them were ultimately granted with ornated facades, cupolas and entrances lies again in the Venetian law, which prohibited the overexhibition of wealth in the exterior of the rich homes. Soon, especially the newly-rich families, who were initially bourgeois and were later allowed to purchase a noble title, found a clever way to display their financial might to the public without breaking the law. Instead of decorating their homes, they became patrons to mendicant orders and churches, which allowed them to sponsor the exterior of the churches, among other expenses they had to make. Some of the facades look more like family chapel fronts than mendicant churchesones since the wealthy patrons had their own busts and the busts of Saint Mark's Basilica. famous predecessors mounted together with statues of the (Photo by: pope2000) saints, patrons of the church. In fact, these families reached a when appointing the most fashionable and capable architect and sculptor and paying for the most lavish decoration of a church (which sometimes was even called by their family name by the locals) became an obsession.

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Architects and Sculptors in Venice

Architects and Sculptors in Venice


World Europe Countries Architects and Sculptors Italy Cities Venice Local Guide History and Culture Architecture

Here are the most famous people who marked the history of Venice and the way it looks.

Brustolon, Andrea (1662-1732)


Born in the vicinity of Venice and educated by a Genoese wood carpenter in his home town, he continued his learnings in Rome. Although his early career brought him commissions from Rome (where the Pisani family treasured his art), he spent his most productive years in Venice, delivering Baroque style furniture and decores for churches and palaces. The Scuola Levantina at the Venetian Ghetto features beautiful examples of his woodwork on its first piano nobile. Pietro Venier and the Cornero family were his greatest patrons in Venice. For them he created movable furniture and decoration of walnut, ivory and boxwood - his preferred materials. He made numerous chairs, with typical, heavilly reliefed backs. Much of what he made for the Venier family is on display at Ca' Rezzonico in Sala di Brustolon.

Buon, Bartolomeo (around 1400 - 1468)


Bartolomeo Buon (Bon, Bono) was a talented apprentice at his father's masonry workshop in Bergamo. However, it was their work in Venice that would be remembered and celebrated. Young Bartolomeo was still learning the masonry The altarpiece at Santa Maria Gloriosa dei skills when his father was commissioned for the facade of Ca'd'Oro. The result of Frari in Venice is among the best examples this first work in Venice were so remarkable, that Doge Francesco Foscari trusted of Brostolon's work. (Photo by: rjhuttondfw) them to create the Porta della Carta, and what they achieved here was beyond the expectations of their contemporaries. Church authorities were quick to engage them for the entrance gate of Madonna dell'Orto and Santi Giovanni e Paolo. The facade of Ca' del Duca would remain unfinished. The workshop is distinctive for its tasteful blend of High Gothic and Early Renaissance elements, for the plasticity of form and rich ornamentation, which result in an elegant, noteworthy outcome.

Codussi, Mauro (1440-1504)


Mauro Codussi (Coducci) was born in Lombardy, but he moved to Venice at an early age and created most of his designs in and for the City of the Lagoon. Together with the Buon workshop, he made the amazing Torre dell'Orologio in Piazza San Marco. While he did work on some of the palazzi (Vendramin-Calergi, Zorzi), his name is mostly remembered as a creator of fine churches, such as San Giovanni Cristomo, San Zaccaria, San Michele in Isola, Santa Maria Formosa. His later works display a specific tendecy of outlining the structural elements by executing them in dark grey.

Lombardo Workshop
The founder of the workshop was Pietro Lombardo (1435-1515) who, although he did some fresco work in Venetian churches and was both an architect and a sculptor for Santa Maria dei Miracoli, was mostly appreciated as a fine sculptor. His best works include the ornamentation of the tombs of important Venetian citizens, such as Dante Alighieri, Pietro Mocenigo Doge Pasquale Malipiero, etc. His sons, Antonio and Tulio were his apprentices but while Antonio's later work is mainly found in Ferrara, Tulio remained in Venice, and worked on the facades of churches, palazzi and continued the family tradition of executing fine tombs for the aristocracy. The workshop had mastered the Renaissance style and their work was highly appreciated for the lightness and clarity of form, which exhibited unusual softness.

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Architects and Sculptors in Venice

Longhena, Baldassare (1598-1682)


Baldassare Longhena was born in Venice and polished his architectural skills under Vincenzo Scamozzi. He even finished the premises of the Procurators' Offices after the death of his teacher. The churches he designed are among the most elegant in Venice Santa Maria della Salute, Santa Maria degli Scalzi, Chiesa dell' Ospedaletto. He was commissioned for private palazzi of the rich Venetians as well, some of A glorious viwe of Santa Maria della Salute Porta della Carta at Palazzo Ducale. which, like Ca' Rezzonico Longhena's finest church. (Photo by: andrea_d) and Ca' Pesaro, which still (Photo by: Dominiq) stand on the Grand Canal. Although his name is most commonly associated with Venice, he did work outside the city as well - he supervised the construction of the cathedral at the nearby town of Chioggia, for example.

Massari, Giorgio (1687-1766)


Giorgio Massari was a late-Baroque architect whose work in Venice can still be seen in the Chiesa dei Gesuati, La Pieta, Palazzo Grassy-Stucky as well as the facades of Scuola della Carita, and L'Accademia. Ca'Rezzonico, started by Baldassare Longhena, was completed by him, too.

Palladio, Andrea (1508-1580)


Considered by many the father of Western architecture, Andrea di Pietro della Gondola was born in Padua, then part of the Republic of Venice, he started learning masonry at a local workshop at the age of 13. However, he soon fled his home town to continue his tuition at the workshop of Bartolomeo Cavazza in Vicenza. In his early thirties he got a commission by Count Gian Giorgio Trissino, who in recognition of his talent called him Palladio (from the name of the Greek goddess Atena Pallada to whom the Parthenon was dedicated -probably even Palladio's early work was reminiscent of Classical Greek temples). The real strike of fortune for the talented young men came with the patronship of the Barbaro family, who sent him to Rome to get an architectural education. Although the development of his harmonious style can be better seen in Vicenza and the region of Veneto, where he designed numerous villas for the aristocracy as well as some churches and monasteries, he deeply influenced Venetian architecture, leaving Il Renditore as a shining example of his genius to inspire generations of architects not only in the city, whose chief architect he became in 1570, but across Europe. His style has been copied by later generations of architects all over the world.

The exterior forms of Il Redintore - the facade, the dome and the whole construction have been an inspiration for numerous architects but rarely has another architect achieved the immaculate sleekness of the master.
(Photo by: netNichols)

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Architects and Sculptors in Venice

Rossi, Domenico (1657-1737)


He was sent to Venice at an early age to learn architecture at his uncle's workshop. However, Rossi was not making the progress he was supposed to, and soon ended up an apprentice in the masonworkeries of Alessandro Tremignon and Baldassare Longhena. Although his work was not highly appreciated by many of his contemporary colleagues in the city, due to his extensive connections in the high classes of the Venetian society, Rossi was quite a successful architect and sculptor, with most of his projects realised in the city of Venice. The church authorities seem to have had a fondness for his designs, as he worked on the reconstruction of several churches and made the initial plans for some more. His most prominent contributions are probably the facade for the church of San Stae, and later the Gesuit church of Santa Maria Assunta while among the numerous palazzi and villas, he was commissioned for by the aristocracy, the most attractive Venetian example is Ca' Cornaro della Regina.

The facade of the Gesuit church of Santa maria Assunta by Domenico Rossi.
(Photo by: unknown)

Sansovino, Jacopo (1486-1570)


Jacopo Tatti was born in Florence and adopted the name of his first tutor in sculpture there - Andrea Sansovino. Still young, he continued his studies in Rome, where he met Raphael and Bramante. Although he had commissions in his native Florence, when he decided to leave Rome for good he chose Venice. In 1529 he was appointed chief architect of the Republic with an enormous salary and privileges as was appropriate for one of the city's most prominent artists. He stayed in Venice to the end of his life and gave the city many of its landmarks, still admired today - Loggetta, Fabbriche Nuove del Rialto, Biblioteca Marciana. Church authorities engaged him on numerous projects such as San Marco (details), San Geminiano, San Francesco della Vigna, Santo Spirito in Isola, to name but a few. A prolific artist, he made time to construct beautiful homes for mighty Venetian families such as Palazzo Moro, Ca'de Dio, Palazzo Corner, Palazzo Dolphin, etc. In architecture his closest follower was Andrea Palladio, while Allessandro Vittoria learned a lot from his sculptures, which have been equally appreciated.

Scamozzi, Vincenzo (1548-1616)


Vincenzo Scamozzi was born in Vicenza into the family of a well-established architect. His father was his first tutor, although young Vicenzo would develop his architectural style on journey to Rome, France and in collaboration with other prominent architects of the period. The bulk of his commissions came from his native Vicenza and from nearby Padua. He came to be appreciated in Venice only gradually, where his first project was the design of the Procurators' Offices, after which came the commission for the San Marco Library, on which he only finished what Jacopo Sansovino had started and made the designs for the antesala. It wasn't until 1590 that he was entrusted with the construction of a whole building in Venice - the church of San Niccolo da Tolentino, after which came commissions for partial or complete projects for San Giacomo di Rialto, San Lazzaro dei Mendicanti, Santi Giovanni and Paolo, San Giorgio Maggiore. The aristocracy apparently appreciated his later works as he was employed for Villa Cornaro al Paradiso, Palazzo Contarini degli Scrigni and Ca'Vendramin-Calergi. He published several books on theory and practice in architecture, which brought him wealthy commissioners and fame. His most important theoretical work, L'idea della Architettura Universale, the last Renaissance book of the kind, came out too late (a year before his death) to boost his already established fame.
The reconstructed facade of San Giacomo di Rialto.
(Photo by: alain_sylvie_75)

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Architects and Sculptors in Venice

Scarpa, Carlo (1906-1978)


Born in Venice, Scarpa spent his childhood in Vicenza and returned to his home town at the age of 13. He studied at the Accademy of Fine Arts and soon chose Architecture for his major. Throughout his life he was appreciated as an architect and designer with deep understanding and extensive knowledge of architecture, which showed in his numerous works, scattered around Italy, Saudi Arabia, France, Switzerland, Canada, USA. However, he created a lot in his home Venice and in the Veneto region, as well. His first major project in Venice was the restoration of the buildings of the Accademia. For the Venice Biennale he designed the Central pavilion dei Giardini, and later the Venezuelan pavilion. He is renowed in the city for his contribution to the reconstruction of Ca'Foscari, after the completion of which Italian concern Olivetti appointed him to design their showroom at Piazza San Marco. His last notable Venetian project, executed between 1961 and 1963 was the interior decoration of the premices of Foundation Querini Stampalia. The prominent designer died in Japan following a fall down concrete stairs, but was buried in Veneto, in standing position, as he had requested.

Ca' Foscari on the Grand Canal.


(Photo by: unknown)

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Famous Citizens of Venice

Famous Citizens of Venice


World Europe Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide History and Culture Famous Citizens

Here are a few names of people who have become world known for their extraordinary life, and who happen to have been citizens of Venice.

Marco Polo - the Merchant-Explorer (1254-1324)


Marco Polo was born to a merchant family of Niccolo Polo and early in his life, as was the tradition, he accompanied his father and uncle Maffeo on voyages, which sometimes lasted several years. On one such journey, to the Holy Land, Persia and Tartary, which ended in the the Empire of China, then known as Cathay, the Polos travelled for three years. Kublai Khan then ruled Cathay from Beijing. As his father and uncle were already acquainted with the Emperor, they were immediately summoned as dear guests to the Khan. Young Markos father and uncle were entitled to high-ranking offices at the court of Cathay, while he spent his time perfecting his Chinese. When he turned 21, the Khan employed him as his envoy - a position, which required extensive travelling and got him acquainted with Asian tribes and peoples Europeans had never heard of before. He later became the governor of a large city in Cathay. However respected they were in the new country, the Polos, after several years of service to the Khan, all started A Catalan atlas of 1325 shows Marco Polos caravan on the road. dreaming of returning to their home Venice. Although the Emperor was at first unwilling to let them go, they finally arranged to leave China on a fleet, headed to Persia. After a long journey, which took them to places like Borneo, Sumatra and Ceylon among others, the fleet reached Persia and after some time at the Persian court, the Venetians finally left for the Black Sea, from where they sailed to Venice. Upon their return, however, their relatives and friends found it hard to believe that these strange people, who conversed to one another in Chinese and wore funny Tatar coats were the long-unheard-of Polos.To convince them of their identity, the Polos gave a splendid dinner party, after each course of which they changed into an ever more expensive Chinese attire. After the meal they cut open their Tatar coats to display the presents they had received in China and Persia -the finest collection of precious stones ever to be seen in Venice. Shortly after coming back to Venice Marco Polo took part in the war Venice was fighting against the Genoese. He was captured and taken to Genoese prison, where he filled his time dictating his adventures in Asia.The Travels of Marco Polo and Il Milione are only some of the names given to the incredible account of the life of the young merchant. It turned out a one of the most inspirational and important books, written in Europe in the Middle Ages.Some of its earliest copies are still kept in Berne and Paris and the fact that the manuscript had so many copies, translated into numerous European languages speaks of its tremendous impact on the Medieval public. Legend has it that Christopher Columbus, the Genoese who eventually discovered America, was a fan of marco polos biography himself and that the book served for more than a mere inspiration in his travels.

Giacomo Casanova - the Lover-Writer (1725-1798)


Born in Venice under the name of Giacomo Girolamo Casanova de Seingalt, he is the worlds most famous lover. An aristocrat and an adventurer, he travelled extensively and was acquainted with cardinals, popes as well as 18-century artists such as Goethe, Mozart, Voltaire, to name but a few. What is less known, but probably saved his name for the future generations, is that his principal work, the History of My Life, which he wrote out of sheer boredom while he worked as a librarian in Bohemia, is one of the most valuable sources for modern history to explore the life in Europe in the 18th century.

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Famous Citizens of Venice

Born into the family of professional actors, young Giacomo showed exceptional wit from a very early age. At 17 he was already a Law graduate from the University of Padua and in the following years he worked as a clergical lawyer, a military officer in Crete, a violin player, had a patron and developed his life-long passion for women, gambling and his infamous taste for practical jokes and trouble-making, which would drive him away from Venice on several occasions. His adventurous spirit took him to long travels across Europe, where, although he mixed with the strong of the day and the intelectuals, he was generally looked down upon. The greatest love of his life was a French woman, called Henriette, with who he had a 3-month affair, but who saw him for what he was and on leaving him put some money in his pocket. Although he had numerous conquests of the opposite sex, he did not leave many of them broken-hearted, as he had designed a clever plot: he got presented to a girl or woman who was experiencing some kind of trouble, he helped her, she thanked him letting him in her bedroom and after the short affair, when Casanova would invariably start being bored, he would claim he did not deserve his conquest and left her in the arms of a proper match for her. Casanova died in Bohemia at the Castle of the Dux, as a librarian, shortly after completing his memoires and after Venice was conquered by Napoleon. He has been the prototype for the characters and the genuine inspiration for numerous artists ever since.
Casanova was very careful regarding his appearance all his life he dressed like a dandy, wore the finest clothes and took care of his hairstyle on a daily basis. . Moving in the high society, he was known as an appreciator of good wine and gastronomic delicases.

Veronica Franco - the courtesan-poet (1546 - 1591)


Veronica Franco was the daughter of a Venetian cortigiana onesta (courtesan of good education, skills in art and capable of leading intelectual conversations). After an unsuccessful early marriage, she sought a career as a courtesan in her home city and became the most celebrated one of her time. She wrote and published poetry, published books of letters and gathered and published poetry, wrtten by other poets of her time. Her career as a courtesan made it possible for her to have some doors, shut to respectable women, open and she tried to establish a home for poor women, which she would overlook. The best years of her life ended when in 1575 the plague stroke Venice and she was exiled from the city with her children (she gave birth to six of them, of which three died in early childhood). Upon her return she found her possessions confiscated and however hard she tried, she never succeeded in bringing back the glorious career she had enjoyed before the plague. Little is known of her last years, but one thing is sure - for one reason or another, she never published books and her name was not mentioned in city books or other contemporary sources.

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Famous Citizens of Venice

Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia - the First Woman in the World to Receive a Doctorate Degree (1646 - 1684)
Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia was mathematician and the first woman to become doctor of philosophy. She was the third child of John Baptist Cornaro-Piscopia and his wife. Her father was a Procurator of St Mark's, a post, which gave the family the privilege of living in Piazza San Marco. Expenses on young Elenas education were not spared and she was fluent in Greek in Latin at an early age. Because of her knowledge of Spanish, French, Hebrew, and Arabic, they called her Oraculum Septilingue. She then turned her attention to philosophy, mathematics and theology. Upon graduation from the University of Padua she was given the honour of becoming the first doctor in philosophy in 1678 at a lavish ceremony with important officials from all of Northern Italy. Elena Cornaro was a respected member of numerous European academies. The last years of her life were dedicated to making translations and writing treatises, published in Parma in 1688. She was also actively engaged in charitable activities and when she died in Padua, she was buried in the local church of Santa Giustina. Several years after her death, nuns from the English Benedictine Order in Rome had her grave opened, her casket replaced, and a proper inscription put up to commemorate her deeds.

A portrait of Veronica Franco, painted by Jacopo Tintoretto in 1575, shortly before she was exiled from the city.

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Painters in Venice

Painters in Venice
World Europe Painters Countries Italy Cities Venice Local Guide History and Culture Famous Citizens

A significant number of Italian artists that have entered the history of art as masters of their time were from Venice.

Bellini, Giovanni (1430 - 1516)


Giovanni Bellini had an artistic background - his father, Jacopo Bellini was a painter himself, and he and his brother, Gentile, took early in his steps. Andrea Mategna became their brother-law. Giovanni Bellini is considered the most gifted of the Bellini family and regarded as a revolutioniser of Venetian Renaissance painting. His pupils, among whom were Giorgione and Titian, had a lot to learn from his rich palette and smooth lines. His style was evidently influenced by Antonio da Messina, who used elements, characteristic of Northern European Renaissance due to his stay in Flanders. His early works were executed in tempera while during his later years he switched to oil, which gave him the opportunity of envigouring the colour and softening the contours. Deeply religious, although he did paint some portraits of contemporaries Piet is among the best pieces of the artist. It exhibits the religious zeal. The artist was treasured for and the (including his first nude female at the age of 85!) he dedicated most of his works to maturity and softness characteristic for his later works. Christian themes. Unfortunately, his first significant works for the Scuola di San Marco, which he made in collaboration with his brother, have been destroyed and much of his heritage is on display outside his home Venice. However, the biggest collection of his works today is in Venice, in the Gallerie dell'Accademia, while other galleries and some churches in the city boast an occasional altarpiece ot painting:

1455 - Crucifixion - Museo Correr 1460 - Dead Christ Supported by Two Angels (originally for La Piet) - Museo Correr 1460 - Transfiguration - Museo Correr 1464 - Madonna with Child Blessing - Gallerie dell'Accademia 1464 - Madonna and Child - Museo Correr 1464 - Presentation at the Temple - Galleria Querini Stampalia 1464 - St. Sebastian Triptych - Gallerie dell'Accademia 1464 - Nativity Triptych - Gallerie dell'Accademia 1468 - Polyptych of S. Vincenzo Ferreri - Santi Giovanni e Paolo 1472 - Piet - Doge's Palace 1475 - Madonna Enthroned Adoring the Sleeping Child - Gallerie dell'Accademia 1475 - Madonna with Child - Santa Maria dell'Orto 1480 - Madonna with Blessing Child - Gallerie dell'Accademia 1490 - Madonna of Red Angels - Gallerie dell'Accademia 1487 - Madonna degli Alberetti - Gallerie dell'Accademia 1487 - San Giobbe Altarpiece (c. 1487) - Gallerie dell'Accademia 1488 - Frari Triptych - Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari 1488 - Barbarigo Altarpiece - San Pietro Martire, Murano 1490 - Allegories - Gallerie dell'Accademia 1490 - Sacred Conversation - Gallerie dell'Accademia 1500 - Angel Announcing and Virgin Announciated - Gallerie dell'Accademia 1502 - Head of the Redeemer - Gallerie dell'Accademia 1505 - San Zaccaria Altarpiece - San Zaccaria 1505 - Piet - Gallerie dell'Accademia 1507 - Madonna and Child with Four Saints and Donator - San Francesco della Vigna 1513 - Saints Christopher, Jerome and Louis of Toulouse - S. Giovanni Crisostomo

Originally made to fit in a wall lunette. The Annunciation shows Saint John the Evangelist, Saint Sebastian, Saint Anthony Abbot. It was executed in tempera on wood, a technique the artist would hold primary until c. 1475.

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