DANotes: Pressure vessels: Compensation Page 1 of 5

Thin Shells of Revolution - Heads

The stresses in a pressurised thin axisymmetric shell of

revolution will now be considered so that the behaviour of
dished ends may be appreciated.

The shell is formed conceptually by rotating the

meridian, a curved line of selected shape lying in the r-z meridional plane, about
the z-axis. The resulting surface
of revolution is clothed by a
small, symmetrically disposed
thickness t, and the resulting
shell loaded by internal pressure
p. If the meridian were a
straight line for example, parallel
to the z-axis and distant D/2
from it, then the shell would be a
cylinder of diameter D.

These shells are similar to thin cylinders in that radial stresses are negligible and the
membrane stresses :

◦ the circumferential or hoop stress σθ (that is σt of cylinder theory) and

◦ the meridional stress σφ (analogous to σa of cylinder theory)
can both be found from equilibrium since they, and the loading, are axisymmetric.

Consider the element located at the point A in the r-z

plane as shown, and defined by φ, δφ and δθ. The local
surface normal cuts the z-axis at the point B, AB being
defined as the radius rθ. The centre of curvature lies at C
on the normal, AC being the instantaneous radius of
curvature of the meridian, rφ.
The components of the pressure and stress resultants
along the outward normal are :

pressure : p δA = p ( r δθ ) rφ.δφ
meridional stress : - 2 σφ ( t r δθ ) sin δφ/2
circumferential stress : - 2 σθ ( t rφ δφ ) sin δθ/2 . sin φ

http://www-mdp.eng.cam.ac.uk/web/library/enginfo/textbooks_dvd_only/DAN/pressVess... 12/14/2011
DANotes: Pressure vessels: Compensation Page 2 of 5

Taking limits and noting that r = rθ sin φ, then equilibrium of the element requires
that :-

( ii) σ&theta / r&theta + σφ / rφ = p / t the so-called membrane equation

Furthermore, for vertical equilibrium of the dish area above

the hoop :-

2
( iii) π r p = 2 π r t σφ sin φ

Solving equations ( ii) and ( iii) gives the stress components in terms of rθ and rφ ,
which are in turn functions solely of the meridional geometry - its shape and location
with respect to the rotation axis :

( 2) σφ = ( p /2t ) rθ ; σθ = σφ ( 2 - rθ /rφ )

Some typical specialisations of ( 2) are as follows :-

Cylinder
rθ = D/2 and rφ tends to infinity - therefore from ( 2)

( iv) σθ = 2σφ = pD/2t ie. the thin cylinder equations once again.

Sphere
rθ = rφ = D/2 and so from ( 2)

( v) σθ = σφ = pD/4t

The sphere is an ideal end closure since the stresses are less than those in other
shapes, however the degree of forming necessary renders it impractical except for
very high pressures when the manufacturing cost may be justified.

Ellipsoid
An elliptical meridian of semi -major and -minor axes a, b and eccentricity ε =
√[ 1 - (b/a)2 ], is rotated about the minor axis to form the head of the cylinder
whose diameter is D = 2a as sketched below.
The location of an element on the ellipse is defined most directly by the radius r
from the rotation axis, however it will be found more convenient to define the
alternative independent variable u = √[ 1 - ε2 ( r/a )2 ] where u = f (r) and
b/a ≤ u ≤ 1.
The geometry of the ellipse may be invoked to derive the radii of interest ( 2) in
terms of u (ie. in terms of r) :-

http://www-mdp.eng.cam.ac.uk/web/library/enginfo/textbooks_dvd_only/DAN/pressVess... 12/14/2011
DANotes: Pressure vessels: Compensation Page 3 of 5

rφ = (a2/b) u3 ; rθ = (a2/b) u
The stresses at the r-element follow immediately from ( 2) as :-

( vi) σφ = ( pa2/2bt) u ; σθ = σφ ( 2 - 1/u2 ) where u = f ( r ) as defined

above

These stresses are graphed for a = 2b, the most common proportions for practical
ellipsoidal ends. The prominent feature of this stress pattern is the tensile- to-
compressive transition of the hoop stress at about 80%D.

Consequences of compressive behaviour include :

◦ a propensity for local buckling.
◦ an increase in the equivalent stress - assuming the maximum shear stress
theory for example with the third principal stress (the radial) zero,
◦ a significant incompatibility between cylinder and head, due to different
senses of the hoop (ie. diametral) strain - under pressure the cylinder tends
to expand, and the ellipsoidal end to contract diametrically at the junction.
Bending moments in the walls of the cylinder and head are therefore set up
at the junction, with corresponding bending stresses. These relatively minor
secondary stresses cannot be explained by membrane theory, but other
work shows that they become insignificant at a distance of about five times
the wall thickness from the junction.
Tensile strains in the cylinder at the junction tend to relieve the compression in
the dished end and for this reason the stress concentration factors K cited in AS
1210 are less than might be inferred from the above graph - for example :-

( vii) S ≥ K pD/2tη where K = [ 2 + (a/b)2 ] / 6

ie. for a/b = 2, K = 1 and not the 1.5 graphed above.

Torisphere

http://www-mdp.eng.cam.ac.uk/web/library/enginfo/textbooks_dvd_only/DAN/pressVess... 12/14/2011
DANotes: Pressure vessels: Compensation Page 4 of 5

Another common shape for a dished end is torispherical.

This consists of a spherical central portion of radius R and
a toroidal knuckle of radius r, where R/r is often 12 or
thereabouts, and R is about 95 % of the cylinder diameter.
Junctions of the torus with both sphere and cylinder give rise to geometric
singularities and hence to secondary bending stresses as discussed above. The AS
1210 stress concentration factor, M, reflects this behaviour :-

( viii) S ≥ M pR/2tη ; M = [ 3 + ( R/r )1/2 ] / 4

- the greater the deviation from a sphere ( R/r = 1), the larger the factor.
Noticeably, the highly stressed region again extends outwards from about 80% D.
Torispherical ends are often preferred to ellipsoidal since the depth of drawing is
less and hence they are slightly cheaper - about 10% on average - but this is often
outweighed by their higher stress concentration and consequent lesser allowable
pressure for a given size.

Dimensions are taken to the wall mid-surface in ( vii), ( viii).

The great majority of heads are seamless, being manufactured from discs either
pressed, or spun in the larger sizes. Theoretically for a seamless head η = 1 in
( vii), ( viii) - however to allow for thinning which results from drawing, the pressure
ratings in one commercial brochure are based on η = 0.875 for thicknesses ≥ 25 mm
and 0.85 for thicknesses < 25 mm.
Heads are always provided with a short ' flat ' ie. the heads are manufactured with a
short integral cylinder, to avoid the junction weld coinciding with stress concentration
due to the head- to- cylinder incompatibility and the small head radii of curvature.

Flat plate end closures are not suitable in larger sizes, though often used for doors -
being flat, there are no membrane stresses and pressure is resisted solely by plate
bending. We have noted already that, for a given load, bending stresses are generally
much larger than direct (eg. membrane) stresses. Flat plates therefore have to be much
thicker than dished ends for similar duty.

Having formed the pressure vessel shell from a cylinder with two heads welded thereto,
holes must be bored and short pipes (or branches) attached through which fluids enter
and leave the vessel. A manhole also may be necessary to allow workers' access to the
interior for manufacture or inspection. Holes obviously remove stress- transmitting
material, and this removal must be made good somehow. This brings us to the concept
of compensation . . . .

| Notes contents | chapter index | previous | top of page | next |

http://www-mdp.eng.cam.ac.uk/web/library/enginfo/textbooks_dvd_only/DAN/pressVess... 12/14/2011
DANotes: Pressure vessels: Compensation Page 5 of 5

Copyright 1999-2005 Douglas Wright, doug@mech.uwa.edu.au

last updated May 2005

http://www-mdp.eng.cam.ac.uk/web/library/enginfo/textbooks_dvd_only/DAN/pressVess... 12/14/2011